Class Book Copyright N°. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION FOR USE IN TEACHER TRAINING CLASSES WILLIAM H. DOOLEY H In charge of Navy Yard Continuation School for the New York Board of Education WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY CHARLES A. PROSSER Director of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY Cfre Rita rsfiOc prc?5 Cambridge COPYRIGHT, I919, BY WILLIAM H. DOOLEY ALL RIGHTS RESERVES J. Co OCT -7 !9I9 CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS U . S . A ©CI.A536086 CONTENTS Introduction. By Charles A. Prosser v I. The Value of Industrial Education .... 1 II. The Educational Needs of Trades and Industries 10 III. How Men have been Trained for Trades and Industries in the Past . . . . . . .18 IV. Different Types of Industrial Schools ... 28 V. Organization of Industrial Schools .... 41 VI. Organization of Evening Industrial Courses . 52 VII. An Industrial Survey 62 VIII. Principles of Psychology Underlying Learning . 71 IX. General Methods of Teaching 84 X. General Methods for Teaching in Industrial Education . . 96 XI. Methods of Teaching Shop -Work 115 XII. Methods of Teaching Interpretation of Blue- Prints and Shop Sketching 130 XIII. Methods of Teaching Shop Science . . . .143 XTV. Industrial or Shop Mathematics 155 XV. Methods of Teaching English 170 XVI. Manual Training versus Industrial Education . 181 Appendix. Courses of Study, etc. .... 201 Outline 249 Index ^ . 255 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION On page 243 the author of this book puts his finger upon one of the weaknesses in the present situation regarding industrial education, and at the same time points out one of the most fruitful fields of effort. He says, "One of the great problems connected with vocational education is the systematic training of a sufficient number of instructors for existing and proposed vocational schools." The lessons of our industrial unpreparedness as revealed by the war have not been lost; never in our history has there been such a keen realization of the dependence of production upon skill, and the part that wise methods of training can have in cul- tivating skill. A few years ago we were greatly concerned about supplying skilled workers; now we realize the equal necessity of training men and women to utilize the skill which the workers bring to their daily employment; hence the demand for training foremen and employment man- agers. In our ways and means for meeting these increasing demands we are at once fortunate and unfortunate; fortu- nate in adequate financial support for sound instructor training plans; unfortunate in a shortage of people to or- ganize and direct them, and doubly unfortunate in a lack of organized practical material for use in instructor (teacher) training classes. Teacher-training under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act occupies a unique position in that a considerable amount of money may be made available at the very outset of the work — a condition which has rarely existed in American educational history when hew types of education have been proposed. J The law itself makes an allotment of money to vi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION every State for teacher-training in the fields of agriculture, home economics, and trade and industry; it provides that not less than twenty per cent nor more than sixty per cent of the whole shall be expended in any one of the three fields, and further provides that every dollar of Federal money so expended shall be matched by a dollar from State or local sources. The small States of the Union are allotted at least 83000 for training teachers. If the State Board of Educa- tion of a small State should decide to spend only the mini- mum amount possible — twenty per cent — this State would have $1000 of Federal money to be matched by 81000 of State or local money, and would have, in all, not less than 8-2000 to be expended for the training of teachers for service in trade and industrial schools. Should the Board of Educa- tion of a small State decide to spend sixty per cent, the maxi- mum amount possible for this work, this State would have available 86000. From these sums the amounts vary until we have the possibility of an expenditure for this work of approximately 8170,000 in the most populous State. The problem of teacher-training is an imminent one for several reasons. (1) There will be a constantly growing de- mand for suitably qualified teachers as the States put into operation their plans for trade and industrial schools. (2) Each of the States accepting the benefits of the Federal Act for industrial education, must, by the terms of the act itself, not later than 19-20 begin its program of training industrial and trade-school teachers. (3) A wise expenditure of public money makes it incumbent upon all concerned with the administration of industrial education, that methods and content of teacher-training courses be formulated at the earliest possible moment. The content of a teacher-training course for teachers of trade and industrial subjects is determined by two consid- erations, what to teach and how to teach. The content of EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION vii what to teach is determined by the kind of knowledge and information needed by the workmen skilled in the field in which the teacher works. The problem of training a skilled man efficiently and expeditiously to teach others what he himself knows is the vital part of such a teacher-training course. Wherein does a training course for vocational teachers differ from a course designed for any other group of teachers? This question has been frequently discussed for several years, but it is doubtful if at the present time there is gen- eral agreement throughout the country as to the content of a course for vocational teachers and a clear definition of dif- ferences. The phrase "professional training " for any group of teachers is not well defined. A variety of courses have been developed at many institutions and every year the study of education brings new developments. In college and university catalogues to-day we see long lists of courses having to do with education, frequently worked out in great detail and minuteness. Such courses as are suggested by the following topics are frequent: History of Education. Principles of Elementary Education. Principles of Secondary Education. Organization and Administration of Elementary Education. Organization and Administration of Secondary Education. Educational Psychology. General Method of Teaching. Special Method of Teaching Particular Subjects. Observation of Schools. Practice Teaching. An examination of the catalogues of educational institu- viii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION tions throughout the country will show that every one of these topics has been applied to vocational education. One charged with organizing a course primarily intended to train teachers in vocational schools faces a bewildering mass of material if he attempts to make his course compar- able to those developed for elementary- and secondary- school teachers. It may not only be bewildering, it may be discouraging, and yet, somehow or other, those charged with the administration of vocational education have to solve, as well and as fully as possible under existing condi- tions, the problem of securing properly trained people to serve in trade and industrial schools. There is a belief that professional study will help in pre- paring those teachers, but the term "professional study" is very elastic, and, doubtless, several years of experimen- tation must elapse before there is general agreement re- garding the minimum amount of professional study accept- able either in terms of time devoted to such study or the content of the course. Whatever the course should include, it must be closely correlated with the kind of schools to be developed in a given locality. It should also be kept constantly in mind that the aim of the vocational school is specific and the school presents problems peculiar to that type of school. These problems are not those of an elementary or a high school. They are conducted for different purposes; their results are tested by different standards; they deal with dif- ferent groups of people, with different methods of teaching, different equipment; and further, the particular problems of the vocational school, taking the country at large, have not been made the subject of special consideration in estab- lished institutions; also, if the vocational school serves its purpose it must be kept in the most intimate contact with industrial resources and industrial conditions in its locality. EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION ix In other words, the vocational field of training is an ever- changing one. All these conditions make different demands upon teachers and upon those who would train teachers than are presented by the regular public schools. The plans for teacher-training, on analysis, show a recog- nition of four qualifications or sets of qualifications desired in a teacher: (1) He should be master of the subject he proposes to teach. (2) He must be able to deal sympathetically and intelli- gently with adolescents and adults. (3) He must know something of the relation of indus- trial education to other fields of human endeavor. (4) He must know how to teach. Every teacher-training course, or every subject proposed for study in such a course, may well be challenged on the ground of what it can contribute to producing or cultivating one or more of these four qualifications of a teacher. Any- thing that does not contribute to one of these four qualifica- tions is superfluous, because the time available for relevant matter is all too limited. The amount of time available in any proposed scheme of teacher-training is very limited and must be utilized in the most effective way. Every proposed course should, therefore, be challenged on the ground of its selection of field in which the student is to spend his time; that is to say, if we wish to produce a teacher of carpentry for a unit trade school or an evening trade extension school, what work should he take in order to make his teaching most effective? Obviously, if he is assumed to be a master of his trade — and no others are at present being discussed — we shall not give him further practice in his trade as a carpenter. But judging by the proposals that have been made, beyond this one thing there is little agreement on what he shall be x EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION given in order to become an effective teacher in a school. We note courses bearing such labels as these: Principles of Vocational Education. Current Practices in Vocational Education. The Psychology of Vocational Education. Industrial and Trade History. Numerous others might be cited. Running all through proposed teacher-training courses there seems to be assent to the proposition that the trades- man who is to become a teacher needs to be trained in how to teach, but what he is to do, or what he shall study to bring about this result, is, as yet, an unsolved problem. Such considerations as these have evidently been in Mr. Dooley's mind as he has brought together the material for this book, out of his years of experience as a director of trade and technical schools, as a trainer of teachers, as an or- ganizer of courses, and as a student of the many and varied phases of vocational education. Only in a secondary man- ner does this book deal with the art of teaching; its value lies in its compact summing-up of facts and principles, its "sampling" of methods and devices in organizing material for purposes of instruction, all of which, when handled by a live teacher of teachers, will be a constant stimulus to the members of the class to draw upon their own stores of knowledge and experience, to focus their thinking upon the problems at hand, and to justify their solutions by clear reasoning on adequate data, rather than by dogma- tism. The best book is one that compels thinking, the poor book offers ready-made solutions; this book happily avoids the latter. The real teacher will always want to know the relation of his part of the work to the whole field. This book presents a valuable combination of "high lights" and "background." EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION xi The unit of thought in each chapter is reinforced by a series of thought-provoking questions and a skillful selection from the literature of the subject, which should be of great value not only in the actual work of the teacher-training class, but also as the constant companion of the teacher in his efforts to make himself a better teacher. C. A. Prosseb Washington, D.C. June 1, 1919 - PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION CHAPTER I THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Education is one of the oldest, if not the oldest, institu- tion responding to human needs. The ideal system of edu- cation has always been that which in the highest degree prepares one for the duties of life. This means in a general sense the development of the whole man, the physical, the intellectual, and the moral. In the early ages education was given in the home, and was an intensely practical education. It was given in an informal manner, while the child was taught the usual methods of supplying the necessities of life, food, clothing, and shelter. Later when religion was organized, a special training for priesthood was introduced, consisting of a purely literary training on philosophy, literature, and science. This training was not provided in the home, but by special teachers, who taught this knowledge in a more or less or- ganized form, and in a very formal manner. Thus we see the early development of the two types of education; the intensely practical, taught in a natural, interesting manner, under the direction of the home, and the purely literary, taught in a very logical and abstract fashion. Later, special teachers gave formal education in law, medicine, etc., and the term "education" was applied to any form of organized knowledge taught by formaj. methods usually in a building called a school. In order to distinguish between the type of 2 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION education that trains the mind in general and that which trains for law, medicine, etc., the term "cultural" was ap- plied to the former and "technical" to the latter. These two terms were used for many years. As the educational system became more complicated, with the various kinds of schools, the term "technical" lost its original definition, training directly for a career, and was applied to instruction that dealt with industrial arts. On account of this confu- sion, the term "technical education" is seldom used to-day in its broader sense. ' The word "vocational" has taken its place. To-day we find four great divisions of education : physical, vocational, social, and cultural education. Physical educa- tion includes all forms of training and instruction, the con- trolling purpose of which is to conserve and promote useful development of the body and its capacity. Social education may include all forms of training and instruction designed to make better group living and activities; that is, all moral education, civic education, ethical training, and much of re- ligious instruction. Cultural education includes all forms of education; that is, training and instruction designed to de- velop valuable cultural interests in such fields as art, litera- ture, science, and history. Social education and cultural ed- ucation are often considered jointly as " general education " or "liberal education." Vocational education includes all forms of specialized education. General education aims to develop general intelligence, the power of appreciation in all common fields of utilization, and the ability to use languages, mathematics, scientific methods, etc., without reference to any specific calling: while vocational education has as its aim, to prepare for a specific calling, such as law, medicine, machinist trade, etc. The occupations that men and women follow, that are productive and lead to self-support, may be grouped into six THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 3 large classes, namely, the professions, the agricultural pur- suits, commercial pursuits, trades and industries, and home- making and nautical pursuits. The divisions of vocational corresponding to the above occupations may be divided into these divisions : professional education, vocational commer- cial education, vocational agricultural education, vocational industrial education, and vocational home-making and nautical education. Industrial education denotes the field of vocational educa- tion designed to meet the needs of the manual wage-earner in the trades and industries, and in the home. This educa- tion is given to persons over fourteen years of age. It is true that certain forms of hand-training, given to persons under fourteen years of age, may contribute to industrial efficiency; nevertheless it is not considered as specific trade training. 1 This volume will deal with the principles and methods of teaching involved in vocational industrial education; that is, the form of vocational education that prepares the in- dividual specifically for some industrial pursuit or trade, such as a machinist, millwright, etc. The different forms of hand-work given in the first six grades to boys and girls, paper-folding, picture-mounting, clay-modeling, whittling, weaving, needlework, and other constructive activities within the range of the experience of children under twelve years of age, are called "manual arts." The form of training and instruction, usually in wood and metal, sometimes printing and bookbinding, for boys between the ages of twelve and eighteen, is called " manual training." Corresponding to manual training for boys, a course called "household arts," "domestic economy," or "home economics," is provided, in some schools, for girls between the ages of twelve and eighteen. The course con- sists of a variety of practical exercises and experiences in 1 See page 181. 4 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION cooking and sewing, to give some practice and an insight into domestic operations. The above forms of education, manual and household arts training, are part of general education, and are provided to make pupils appreciate the value of industrial and domestic life. At the age of twelve, about the sixth grade, a program of instruction and training is offered, to children who are not profiting by the regular course of instruction and are not going to college, to participate in a series of practical experi- ences relating to many vocations. This is not vocational education, but prevocational education, and assists pupils to sample different trade experiences, so that it will be pos- sible for them to make an intelligent choice of occupation. Vocational guidance is a form of instruction and examination to present trade information and guidance to pupils over twelve years of age. The conclusions from a number of surveys show that the great bulk of boys and girls leave school as soon as the law allows, usually at the age of fourteen, before completing the elementary course. This army of children is four times as large as the group which at approximately the same age enters the high school. About one of every six of these chil- dren has reached the eighth grade, one in every four has attained the seventh grade, and one out of every two, the sixth grade. These pupils experience very little difficulty in obtaining work at a high initial wage in so-called "blind-alley" em- ployments; that is, a work that requires little training and involves little thinking. Another important point is, that these pupils are very restless, drift from one occupation to another, and are idle approximately one half of the time. The so-called "skilled trades," such as the higher branches of metal and machine trades, the building and printing trades, do not care to receive children under sixteen years of THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5 age, because they have not the physical development to do consecutive or accurate work and require considerable super- vision. Very few of the present elementary, and practically none of the evening schools, show any great assistance to this group of young people, in the training, discovery, guidance, and development of their capacities or preparation for the work they might or do enter. It is from this group that industry recruits its workers. A very high percentage of the skilled workmen, foremen, and superintendents of industries and trades of this country to-day have been educated across the water, while the Amer- ican boys occupy the ordinary clerical, mercantile, and a number of unskilled positions, at hardly a living wage. Whatever preparation the public school system is providing, for the training and development of young people for the work they are to enter, is given in the high school, where about three per cent of the pupils are found, and less than one per cent of those ever go into the industries as mechanics. The progressive development of all trades and industries demands the training of a group of skilled workers who may act later as foremen. The future skilled workers must be trained. Industrial conditions to-day differ very greatly from those of earlier times. For example, trade and indus- try are more ambitious, more successful, and more scientific, than ever before. They have content that is worthy of study for itself. Years ago they were too simple for intel- lectual study. Now they require the highest form of mental study and demand the best intellects. A glance through educational history will show us that the reason industry has not received a dignified place in the course of study of the public school system is due to the tra- dition from the Greek philosophers, who looked with con- tempt on manual work which was performed by slaves, workers, and tradesmen of the age, and purposely omitted 6 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION from the schools any training along the line of utilitarian subjects. During the Middle Ages the same feeling existed; industrial education was apart from culture; one was a mat- ter of apprenticeship and the other a matter of books. This state of affairs continued in England up to the nineteenth century, when the primary school provided the education for the industrial workers. Pupils were educated in the higher schools to be employers. People were expected to remain or continue in their station of life. Culture was the possession of the upper classes and had absolutely nothing to do with utility. During the last century the sentiment that the masses were expected to support the classes in their leisure, particularly in America, has passed away. The spirit of democracy has dominated our social system, so that to-day every man is expected to be a worker. Vocational industrial education or industrial education may be justified on the grounds that a democracy means equal opportunities for all, that every one should be engaged in a useful occupation within reasonable bounds of age, health, and strength; that is, all persons of both sexes, not incapacitated or in school, should be working. Practically eighty -five per cent of the present workers — those who work for pay — are engaged in producing concrete material; about five per cent are engaged in professional service; the other ten per cent are in various forms of personal service. Life and health, and to a large extent discipline and charac- ter, must be derived from employment in the industrial and commercial fields. Any large number of men and women without training for some definite occupation, and not able to be producers, are apt to become a heavy burden on society, and often form a discontented class that threatens the exis- tence of our Government. Society must provide means and training for the proper distribution of human talent, in order that every member may be assured of a living wage or salary. THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 7 Industrial education may be advocated because of the increased earning power it affords. The salary of a person may be determined by certain factors which may be divided into two groups, the individual and the organization. The individual group includes such factors as natural ability, proper development of the body, the development of honesty and morality, which are by-educational products of general education and industrial education. The factors that enter into the organization group are capital, up-to-date appli- ances, leadership, proper allowance for depreciation, etc. One of the chief factors that will increase the productivity of the individual is industrial education. Increased pro- ductivity means that the country as a whole will be able to increase the standards of living and the worker will be able to have some of the luxuries. To summarize: It is in the interest of society, labor, and capital to have the most effective system of industrial edu- cation. Properly trained workers (labor) increase the pro- duction. From the workers' point of view physical energy and knowledge represent the workers' capital, and the great- est return to the worker, in addition to personal satisfaction, comes only through an efficient system of industrial educa- tion. Society profits when every member has rendered his greatest contribution. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What was the principal aim of formal education in the early ages in (a) Rome; (b) Athens; (c) Middle Ages; (d) United States, to-day? 2. What caused the change of the aim of formal education during the different periods? 3. State the division of education that each one of the following subjects represents: (a) Manual training in the sixth grade. (6) Military drill in a high school. (c) Recreation in an evening high school. (d) Forging in a technical high school. 8 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION (e) First-year science. (/) French in a classical high school. (g) Civics in a community center. (h) Roof -framing for house carpenters in an evening trade school. 4. What is the distinct meaning to-day of "technical education"? 5. What is the meaning of the term "vocational education" to-day? 6. What is the distinct meaning of "industrial education" to-day? 7. Name the class of education to which each of the following occupa- tions belong: (a) Sea pilot. (e) Dentist. (b) Die-sinker. (/) A housewife. (c) Market-gardener. (g) A chemist. (d) Stenographer. (h) An expert accountant. 8. What is the meaning of "industrial efficiency "? 9. What is a "blind-alley" employment? Give a list of such employ- ments. 10. What is a "producer," "consumer," and "non-producer" in an eco- nomic sense? Give an example of each. 11. Trace the stages of development of a steel boiler plate from the time it leaves the ground to the time it is installed as a boiler. Explain in terms of economics. LIST OF REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING * References marked * are books of first importance. ** References marked ** are books of secondary importance. * Brief Course in the History of Education. Paul Munroe. (Description of the great educational movements.) * Education. Herbert Spencer. (Need of practical education. The utilitarian point of view.) * What Knowledge is Most Worth. N. M. Butler. (Need of pure academic education. The scholar's point of view.) * Census Reports on Trade and Industry. United States Census Bureau. Washington, D.C. (Statistics showing the number of people employed in trades and industries.) ** Report of the Douglas Commission on Industrial Education. Massa- chusetts, 1906. (A valuable report showing the need of education for children between 14 and 16.) ** Report on Industrial Education by the New York Board of Statistics. New York, 1908. (A description of the trades and industries in New York State showing the educational needs of each one.) THE VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 9 ** Laggards in Our Schools. Leonard P. Ayres. (Statistics showing the large percentage of pupils who repeat grade work and leave school as soon as the law allows them.) "Economic Reasons for Vocational Education." J. F. Scott. Ped- agogical Sem., June, 1913. (Reasons for vocational education based on economics.) CHAPTER II THE EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES Since industrial education is to train specifically for defi- nite positions in the trades and industries, it is clear that to be effective it must function with their needs. The modern organization of industries and trades tends toward the uses of labor-saving devices and power machinery. This means a tendency toward standardization and specialization of products, which involve a large organization under one roof and one manager for purposes of economy. Every organ- ization is divided into two departments : production (manu- facturing) and the distribution (selling) phases. The pro- duction is carried on by an organization varying from a large to a small scale, composed of a manager, agent, or superintendent, overseers or foremen, section or second hands, and workers. The large establishments have in addi- tion designers or draftsmen, testers or chemists, shop super- visors, and sometimes research engineers. The manager or superintendent may or may not come from the ranks. In the past it has been possible for men lacking technical training, but possessing good common sense and business capacity, to rise to this position. This is not true to-day in a great many engineering establishments and large factories. Oftentimes he is a technically trained man who entered the industry direct from school as an as- sistant to the manager or superintendent. A manager or superintendent must have a great deal of foresight and will power. He must have initiative, an analytical mind, and executive ability; that is, he must be able to see clearly a NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 11 problem, its solution, and have the ability to put the solu- tion into effect. The progress of industries in the past has been due to the efforts of scattered inventors and workmen all laboring un- der great disadvantages. Manufacturers and tradesmen are beginning to see that there are numerous possibilities of applying different scientific discoveries that have taken place. Competition compels us to realize that all indus- tries and trades have developed to a point where the work- ing-out of theory and practice has become a science, and that the application supersedes the old "rule-of -thumb " method and demands the continuous employment of scien- tifically trained leaders in a bureau of research. The results of this bureau will tend to lower the cost of production by eliminating manufactory weaknesses, improving tools, and applying the principles of science to raw materials, waste products, methods, etc. It is for this reason that large cor- porations such as the General Electric Company have a research staff with a group of specialists working on new industrial problems. The group may include chemists, biol- ogists, designers, metallurgists, mechanicians, etc., who have been trained in the scientific departments of the colleges. A foreman usually comes from the ranks of workers. He is the job master, and as such must be able to get good work out of men. This means he must have good judgment of human values, handling men. In addition his outlook on life will be very different from that of the worker. He must have a habitual reaction to human reaction. The skilled worker should have, in addition to a good physique, a clear mind capable of keen perception, and an inventive mind, which is often called ingenuity. The keen sense-perception should be such as to do very accurate work, dealing with measurements of a thousandth part of an inch. The skilled worker differs from the unskilled worker in the 12 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION degree of mental versatility. He has acquired by experience a fund of information and skill so that he is able to form new judgments. The experience of the skilled worker is such that only recent trade experiences are available for ready recall. This is the principal reason why a skilled workman cannot leave his trade for any length of time without suffer- ing a loss of skill. Semi-skilled workers or machine tenders, etc., should have a good physcial development and quick time-perception, which is really the ability of being dexterous. Oftentimes they are physically sluggish, in addition to the general char- acteristic of slow mentality which may be due to the lack of good nutritious food or dissipation, or both. Any reflective action on the part of the semi-skilled worker retards his rate of production. These workers are generally recruited from the ranks of those who leave school, follow a line of employ- ment with no prospects until they reach manhood, and then see a chance of getting an adult wage without going through the training necessary for the skilled positions. The worker is seldom called upon to meet a new situation, and his work never involves problems which cannot be solved from the limited range of his past experiences. This automatic and semi-automatic machinery develops a fatigue, which is a serious problem. Women are able to work in this way bet- ter than men, and do not show fatigue to as great an extent. The unskilled class of workers usually represents the least intelligent part of the community. Of course there are ex- ceptions, as in the case of bright young people who have be- come "blind-alley" workers or others who lack the sense of responsibility. In spite of the great increase in inventions, there are a great many processes performed by unskilled labor. The occupations found in trades and industries may be roughly divided into the following groups : NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 13 Occupations requiring skill and trade knowledge. Occupations requiring skill and no trade knowledge. Occupations requiring trade knowledge and no skill. Occupations requiring neither skill nor trade knowledge, except in a very low degree. There is a certain amount of industrial training that must be imparted to the group of men on the distributing phase of industry. The knowledge of the salesman of his product should be thorough, and at the same time should be very different from that of the mechanic. 1 A great many men and boys are injured and many die every year on account of injuries or the conditions under which they work. Experiments and careful questioning of injured people seem to indicate that most hand injuries are due to performing work on machines automatically, and be- cause, without the intellect, the hand has no sense of danger until just at the instant the injury takes place. The as- sumption is that the hand proceeds automatically to correct the machines when they become jammed or caught, and unless the intellect becomes active, the hand is endangered and caught. The inclination of the workman to perform his tasks automatically has caused nearly all industrial acci- dents. If employees worked with their intellects fully con- centrated upon their work, guards would not be necessary, for workmen would be awake to all dangers at all times. In many lines of work this concentration would cut down pro- duction more than fifty per cent. If the workman had to think of every move of his hand before acting he could not do more than half of his work. Therefore machinery must be both guarded and production decreased in order to obtain best results. A great many accidents and industrial diseases may be prevented by care, safety devices, and proper safe- 1 See page 207. 14 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION guards for the health of the worker. A specially trained ex- pert called a "safety engineer" is usually employed to look after the welfare of the men and boys, teaching them how to avoid accidents and to prevent disease. Every year many workers are released from the trades and industries on account of injuries received. These men and boys are often allowed to remain idle for the rest of then- lives. Very carefully prepared devices called "working arms" and "working legs" have been invented for injured men, to assist them in performing certain lines of work. In many cases the earning power of the injured worker has equaled that of the normal man. One of the most serious problems to-day that confronts the industrial world is the discontent and unrest of the work- ers of the trades and industries. This is due in a measure to the overgrowth of the present industrial conditions of highly specialized work that has made the worker a mere attach- ment of a machine. Modern engineering has developed the machine part of industry at the expense of the human factor. To illustrate: Modern shop systems in general have been organized so as to allow to each machine a definite earning capacity that is expressed in the form of a daily or hourly machine rate. Machines represent the investment of large sums of money, and therefore must be kept at work all of the time in order to justify the expenditure involved in their purchase. If a machine, for any reason, is allowed to stand idle, the charge against it mounts up, and it becomes a bur- den instead of being a useful and productive investment. In the attempt to develop the efficiency of the machines, many manufacturers and tradesmen have lost sight of the fact that the worker is human and demands consideration. The progressive manufacturers have seen this spirit of unrest growing among the employees and have attempted to assist them in various ways which are usually grouped NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 15 under a heading called "welfare work." A specially trained person called an employment manager is usually selected to employ workers and look after their welfare. This welfare work has failed in some cases because it conferred benefits upon a group of workmen, requiring and asking no service on their part. Experience shows that the average American workman is suspicious of an employer " bearing gifts." This same average American workman, however, is keen enough to engage cooperatively in any undertaking that is frankly advanced by the employer as of mutual advantage, as the establishment of an all-comprehensive employees' service department, such as locker-room service, physical examina- tions, dispensary dental service, sickness and death bene- fits, lunch-room service, banking and loan service, indus- trial education, and recreational facilities. This cooperation will tend to develop a strong sense of loyalty between the worker and the organization, an esprit de corps similar to that existing between the apprentice and master, and to remove discontent among the workers. The average manufacturer seldom knows or sees his men, and therefore is not able to have the sympathetic understanding that he should. Another great educational need is the training of the im- migrant. The United States is just beginning to realize the great educational task before it, the education of at least thirteen million foreign-born people in this country, many of whom do not speak our language, do not come in contact with Americanizing influences, and are in a measure out of sympathy with the country's institutions. Heretofore we have looked to the traditional school system, the influence of social contact, and city life to mould the recent immigrant and his children into American citizens. These different agencies performed this work when the numbers of immi- grants were not large, and were from Ireland, Scotland, 16 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION J England, Sweden, etc., people who were more or less familiar with the institutions of this country. Within the last decade or two the numbers of immigrants have greatly increased, and many are from the remote sections of Europe, making the problem of assimilation greater than ever before. The industries of this country are employing these immi- grants to perform highly specialized, semi-skilled, and un- skilled work. In iron and steel manufacturing east of the Mississippi River 57.7 per cent of the employees are foreign- born: in bituminous coal mining in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Alabama, Virginia, and West Virginia, 61.9 per cent of the employ- ees are foreign-born: in woolen and worsted manufactur- ing in the North Atlantic States, 61.9 are again foreign- born; in clothing manufacture in New York City, Rochester, Baltimore, and Chicago, 72.2 per cent are foreign-born; and so on. Probably two thirds of the construction and main- tenance work of the railroads and railways has been done by the foreign-born workman. In addition most of the general street and road construction has also been carried on by the recent immigrants. 1 An examination of the work performed by these people shows that it is not educational. They are in the employ- er's hands from eight to twelve hours a day, and when they get through with the day's work they are too tired to receive definite instruction for Americanization. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Draw a diagram showing the organization of (a) Cotton mill. (b) A large electrical plant. (c) General machine shop. 2. What are the qualities necessary to be a research chemist in a rubber factory? 1 Report on the Education of the Immigrant, U.S. Bureau of Education. NEEDS OF TRADES AND INDUSTRIES 17 3. What are the qualities necessary to be a high-grade die-sinker? 4. Why cannot young men between the ages of 14 and 20 be classified as to their future ability to serve as foremen? 5. What callings in industrial trades lie between the professional engineer and the skilled tradesman? 6. What are the qualities necessary for a man to be a foreman of a ma- chine shop? 7. What are the qualities that distinguish a lathe hand from one who sells lathes? 8. What are the qualities necessary for a man to be a general manager of a large electrical plant employing 6000 hands? 9. What are the necessary qualities to become a good draftsman in a shipyard? 10. Name the trades and industries that require a large number of un- skilled workers. 11. Should industrial education be given to the group mentioned in question 10? 12. WTiat are the economic advantages of a highly specialized trade? 13. Is there any tendency to limit the differentiation and specialization that is going on in the trades and industries? 14. Name some occupations that cannot be entered during youth. 15. Name occupations that depend upon juvenile help. 16. Is there any place in the trades and industries for a so-called "handy man with tools." ' LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * The Modern Factory. George M. Price. (The organization of a factory showing the different classes of workers.) * Education for Industrial Workers. Herman Schneider. (A very interesting study of the work performed by the different classes of workers.) * " Business Men in the Making." F. M. White. Outlook, Aug. 26, 1911. * Practical Safety Methods and Devices. George A. Cowee. (Need of practical safety methods to protect the workers.) ** Workers and the State. A. A. Dean. (A system of industrial education is as necessary as professional education.) * Betterment, Individual, Social and Industrial. E. Cook. (Methods to improve the working classes.) ** The Spirit of Youth and Industry. Jane Addams. (The relation between the habits of youth and the needs of industry.) CHAPTER in HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED FOR TRADES AND INDUSTRIES IN THE PAST The history of the training of young people for the trades and industries in the past will assist us materially in solving the same problem to-day. Of course we must bear in mind that we cannot transplant any of the institutions of the past and expect them to meet the problems of to-day, because conditions of the past and the present are very different. As far back as the time of the Roman Empire men were selected to build and destroy bridges, water-supplies, and fortifications. Every well-organized army had its group of bridge-builders, etc., called "engineers." Later they laid out campaigns, made plans to defend or attack forts. In order to do this work they invented implements of war, en- gines, etc. In time of peace they constructed waterworks. When the duty of constructing roads, waterworks, arches, etc., was left to the civil authorities, the expert was called a "civil engineer," to be distinguished from the "military en- gineer." Later experts on the steam engine were called "mechanical engineers." In like manner the term "electri- cal engineer," "sanitary engineer," "mining engineer," etc., arose. Engineers in England at first received their knowl- edge through the world of experience aided by advice from older men. As time went on opportunity was provided for the training of engineers by means of an apprenticeship of seven years to an old established engineer. The fee usually paid depended upon the reputation of the engineer. Most of the practical training was received through experience in the field, and the theoretical and scientific knowledge was HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 19 imparted by the engineer in the office two or three months of the year. The skilled mechanic requiring less theoretical instruction and more manipulative skill than the engineer has always, up to a generation ago, been trained in either the home or the shop, under the guidance of his father or a skilled me- chanic or master. In order to show how this training has been given at different times in the world's history, we may divide the history of the industrial work into four stages or periods: first, the family system; second, the guild system; third, the domestic system; and fourth, the factory. Under the family system the different forms of industrial work were carried on by members of the household for the purpose of meeting the needs of the family. There were no sales of the product. Each class in society, from the peasant to that of the nobleman, had its own devices for carrying on all phases of industrial work. Father taught son all forms of manual work, and mother taught daughter to perform the household duties. The manual and household work of the nobility were performed by slaves. As communities became larger and cities sprang up, all forms of trade became more than a family concern. There was a demand for a better grade of industrial products. This meant a larger supply of hand tools than was usually found in the home of the ordinary worker. Some workmen began to develop greater ability in commercializing their handicraft products than others, and became prosperous. The smaller mechanic who owned and constructed all his own tools found that he could not compete, so he started to work for the more prosperous mechanic in a shop rather than a cottage. As time went on each manufacturer developed a reputation, and usually employed several workmen and some young men to learn. The manufacturers became quite important, and soon grouped themselves together under an 20 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION organization, called a "guild," and applied to the city for cer- tain privileges. After a while each group of tradesmen, such as cloth workers, etc., organized under a distinct guild, car- ried on by a small group of men called "masters," employing three or four men (distinguished later as "journeymen"), and at least one beginner called an "apprentice." The guilds organized and dominated all conditions of the manufacturer. The masters, under the guild, had the advantage of com- bining together and obtaining the monopoly of the trade in the local market, instead of competing against one another. After developing the trade conditions of the craft, they natu- rally turned to the question of training workmen, that they might have a standard of workmanship. A young man was obliged to serve an apprenticeship of seven years before he was allowed to become a journeyman. These are the conditions we find existing in the trades of England during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. The guilds set up very definite standards for the training of apprentices. The youth was taught all branches of the trade. The shops were small, and masters and apprentices often worked at the same benches, side by side. The master worked at all processes of the trade and taught the appren- tice the complete trade. Since the number of apprentices was restricted to the number of journeymen, there was little division of labor. The apprentice assisted the master at every process of the trade. The seven-year apprenticeship gave the youth the training necessary to bring out the ar- tistic side. The desire of the apprentice to become a master some day was the incentive for him to acquire a knowledge of all the processes of his trade, dexterity of hand, and artis- tic skill. The efficiency of the apprenticeship was guarded by guild supervisors. Both master and apprentice were members of the same guild. Guilds regulated conduct and specified what should be taught. HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 21 In the beginning the training was merely one of develop- ment of skill, and consisted of theory of materials used (gained by working on them) and the acquisition of experi- ence and knowledge handed down and guarded zealously by older craftsmen. Scientific knowledge of the industry at this time was very limited. The careful, individual attention, on account of the small number of apprentices, given by the journeyman to each young man, prevented him from being superficial. The master's and journeyman's work furnished the model for the youth to imitate. Since the earnings of the apprentice went to his master, the young man found his reward, not in immediate gains, which tends to superficiality, but in his employer's praise and in the joy of artistic creation. The apprentice was taught by actual participation in trade work, by imitation, supplemented by suggestions, and the necessary information. Comenius, in the seventeenth century, reminds teachers that artisans do not detain their apprentices with theories, but set them to do actual work at an early stage; thus they learn to forge by forging, to paint by painting, to carve by carving, etc. Mechanics do not begin by drumming rules into their apprentices. They are taken into the workshop and shown the work that has been done. When the boy wishes to imitate this work, tools are placed in his hands, and he is shown how they should be held and how to use them. If mistakes are made, the me- chanic gives advice and corrects them more often by ex- ample than by mere words, and as facts show, the novices easily succeed by imitation. Obadiah Walker in his work, Of Education, says, " In manual arts the master first showeth his apprentice what he is to do, next works it himself, in his presence, next gives rules, and then sets him to work." The master craftsman taught and arranged his trade skill and information in a way different from the logical order of 9.1 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION the arts and sciences as presented to-day by the schoolmas- ter. As each journeyman was not allowed to have more than two apprentices, the instruction was individual to a certain extent. The master craftsman began his instruction by using the strong instinct, imitation, and proceeded to teach manipulative skill through it. The related trade knowledge included much practical information on the arts and sciences, and was imparted to him as necessary, in such a way that the apprentice first had the practice, and then the theory or the thinking about the practice. Under this system skill was acquired intelligently. The apprentice practiced commercial work. If he required any additional drill on certain details, he would repeat the operation (drill) on some waste stock. Note that the apprentice was not taught exercises, but his skill was acquired in the most eco- nomical way, by learning all the habits of skill in the com- plete project, so that each had its proper setting. A motive for doing the work was shown the apprentice the first day, when an actual model that had commercial value was shown. The young man was not asked to perform a series of opera- tions, given by the master, through unthinking imitation, without any regard to the purpose of the work. Apprentices lived with the masters, and in this way were imbued with the work, the industrial atmosphere and fea- tures of the trade which were handed down from father to son. In addition a distinct spirit of cooperation existed among the master workmen and apprentices that is lacking to-day between the employer and his employees. This close relation between master and workmen of the old-time trades prevented a great many of the disagreeable relations that exist to-day under our present industrial system. By the middle of the eighteenth century the trades began to break away from the guilds and to spread from cities to rural districts. The work was still carried on in the master's HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 23 house, although he had lost the economic independence he had under the old guild system, where he acted as merchant and manufacturer. He now received materials from the merchant and disposed of the finished goods to a middleman who looked after the demands of the factory. It was the family system that existed in the American colonies at the beginning of the settlement, followed by the domestic sys- tem. The guild system was not adopted in the United States, as it was going out of existence on the Continent during the settlement of the colonies. During the early colonial times boys and girls were trained by a well-defined apprenticeship in the shop and office, really handed down from the guilds, and by a training on the farm and in the household. The practical education of the child on the farm often began as early as six years of age, when he or she assisted in doing some of the little chores. The work was carried out in the spirit of play, and it was varied and in- teresting. Thus we see the old-fashioned mother training the child into habits of work and the enjoyment of the same, by bringing play and work together. The play furnished an adequate physical training for the child. It was better than the gymnastics of to-day because the body was best exer- cised in the accomplishment of some purpose. Young peo- ple, through the agencies of the home, shop, and community, were trained in the useful habits, thrift and temperance, to have respect for law and order and in the development of the higher types of citizenship. The characteristics of young people are the same to-day as when the old-fashioned apprenticeship system existed. The training on the farm, in the home, and the apprentice- ship in the shop held the strong young people, corresponding to the same type of to-day, during the long period of adoles- cence, and gave them the necessary training to become good tradesmen and housewives and successful men and women. 24 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Let us examine very closely the apprenticeship in the shop to-day, the training in the home, and the methods of teaching. If we examine the different industries to-day, we shall find that the training and skill necessary to perform the work vary. The greatest training is required in industries demanding a high .degree of skill and intel- ligence, and the least in those highly specialized occupa- tions performed by the newly arrived immigrants from the agricultural districts of Europe. In the machine, en- gine, and locomotive construction works, where the trades demand a high degree of skill and intelligence, there is need of broadly equipped workmen of high technical skill. On the other hand, in the case of those factories employing workers tending semi-automatic tools, where a low grade of skill and intelligence is required, very little industrial edu- cation is necessary. To illustrate : the rolling mills require a few skilled hands who direct the operations, and a great many unskilled hands who assist and tend machines. In the manufacture of sheet metal and electrical apparatus, where the work is performed by semi-automatic machines, the operators simply feed the machines which requires little mental effort after the first week. Jewelry and gas fixtures are made by piece workers, who perform highly specialized work and are trained for it. All-around skilled help is necessary for the finer class of work. The old-fashioned apprenticeship was a very satisfactory method as long as the master had time to teach the appren- tice and the apprentice had time to learn all about his trade. A scientific advance has revolutionized industrial and eco- nomic conditions of old times. The factory system, of a highly specialized character, and the modern application on a large scale of machines and capital to manufacture, have taken place. The master has become so busy trying to maintain himself against the competition of others, and to HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 25 keep up with the technical advancement of his trade, that time has failed him for the instruction of his apprentice, while on the other hand, the latter has found that the trade has developed to such an extent that he can no longer learn its fundamentals by mere activity in his master's shop. Thus the apprentice, no longer a pupil, has to-day become merely a hired boy, who, while making himself useful around the workshop, learns what he can by observation and prac- tice. If he sees the interior of his master's home, it is to do some work in no way connected with his trade. In olden times the master worked with his men; now he rarely works at his trade; his time is spent more profitably, in seeking for customers, purchasing material, or managing his finances. The workshop is put in charge of a foreman whose reputa- tion and wages depend on the amount of satisfactory work that he can produce at the least cost. He has no time to teach boys, and as there is little profit in the skilled trades for boys between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, they are not wanted. The unskilled trades thrive on juvenile labor. It is true that in Europe the seven-year apprenticeship still exists to some extent, and a more thorough training is pro- vided for apprentices than in this country. The old appren- ticeship is not likely to be revived. A new system of prac- tical education and training must take its place. The industrial operations of a factory are so highly spe- cialized that the operators are not obliged to exercise any of the academic training received in school. The result is that they rapidly lose the habit of thinking, the power of initia- tive, and when they reach the age of manhood are not so well educated as when they left school. Not only that, but when an opportunity presents itself, we find our American young people are not able to fill responsible positions, such as overseers or heads of departments, which are filled by skilled workmen from Europe who have received a complete 26 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION training, practice, and theory, in the mills or shops dur- ing the years from fourteen to eighteen — while they were working. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What objection may be raised to-day to the method of training a mechanical engineer by apprenticing the student to a practicing me- chanical engineer? 2. What is the difference between the pure arts and sciences and the applied arts and sciences? 3. Explain why the growth of technical schools in this country did not take place prior to the nineteenth century. 4. State the conditions under which the family system existed. 5. Why was the guild system a necessary economic condition? 6. Organizations bearing the name of cloth workers' guilds are found in certain parts of England. Explain the meaning of the name. 7. Explain the causes that led to the downfall of the guilds. 8. Explain why the domestic and not the guild system was introduced into this country. 9. What are the economic advantages and disadvantages of the old- fashioned apprenticeship in a small shop under a master and several journeymen. 10. Explain why the old-fashioned apprenticeship of seven years will never return. 11. What is the length of the apprenticeship in England to-day for an apprentice dyer? LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * A History of Commerce and Industry. Cheesman A. Herrick. (The essentials of history from the commercial and industrial point of view.) * Studies in the Evolution of Industrial Society. Richard T. Ely. (A general survey of industrial society and its evolution into present conditions.) ** Industrial America. J. L. Loughlin. (A discussion of the general industrial situation in America.) * Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry. C. A. Prosser. National Education Association. Proceedings, 1915. (A discussion of the training of the worker.) ** The Apprenticeship System in its Relation to Industrial Education. Bulletin United States Bureau of Education. 1908. HOW MEN HAVE BEEN TRAINED 27 * Apprenticeship in American Trades Unions. J. M. Motley. (A description of apprenticeship regulated by trade unions.) * Value of a Thorough Apprenticeship to the Wage-Earner. W. B. Prescott. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Pro- ceedings, January, 1908. (A description of the apprentice training to-day.) * Trade Instruction in Large Establishments. J. F. Deeme. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Proceedings, January, 1908. (A plan of trade instruction in a large railroad.) ** English Apprenticeship and Child Labor. O. J. Dunlop. Studies in Economics and Political Science issued by the London School of Economics, No. 29. (The difficulties between the English apprenticeship and child labor.) CHAPTER IV DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS There are many types of industrial schools to meet the varied needs of industries and trades: the college grade or school of technology, the secondary industrial, part-time industrial, continuation-day industrial, trade schools, and corporation schools. A close examination of educational history will show us that we usually begin at the top of the ladder and work downward. This is due to the fact that the old system of education believed in educating a few minds to act as leaders and leave the masses uneducated. It was for this reason that universities preceded the common schools, and schools of technology preceded trade schools. While science had been introduced into some of the col- leges long before the nineteenth century, it was not until then that a systematic study of the applications of scientific discoveries to the practical affairs of every-day life was car- ried out by the establishment of the Royal Institute in Lon- don by Count Rumford. The aim of this institution was "the general diffusion of the knowledge of all men and useful improvement s , and teaching the application ." It contained workshops for blacksmiths, with forge and bellows, all sorts of models of machinery, and a score of mechanics. It grew into a higher institution, and became a great laboratory for the research of pure science. The United States did not establish technical schools for the training of engineers until the early part of the nine- teenth century. About this time the States were beginning to become thickly settled, and it was necessary to build DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 29 rivers and canals and to employ foreign experts and engi- neers from France. There was a great demand for our young men to become engineers, and some were sent to France to be educated. In order to meet this educational need a school of theoretical and applied science was founded at Troy, New York, in 1824. About the middle of the nineteenth century chemistry, physics, and geology had become very important sciences, and the colleges established departments for the teaching of each. The influence of the old course of study was such that these new subjects had not the same dignity, and were set aside in a separate school, as, the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard, and the Chandler Scientific School at Dartmouth. At first these were schools of pure science, but later became engi- neering schools. In 1862 the United States, in spite of the fact that it was in the midst of the Civil War, realized the necessity for action. Congress in that year passed an act granting to each State thirty thousand acres of public lands or their equivalent, the income therefrom to be appropriated "to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college where the leading object shall be, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." Surely a noble object, and one which Congress has striven ever since to advance. About fifty years ago the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was founded "for the purpose of instituting and maintaining a school of industrial science, and aiding gen- erally, by suitable means, the advancement, development, and practical application of science in connection with arts, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce." From the be- 30 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ginning this institution has received aid from State and Nation. The Institute of Technology dealt and still deals with the most advanced workers, as is true of the Lawrence Scientific School, the Worcester Polytechnic, and other schools of the same type in the United States. England, while contributing more than any other country to scientific discoveries upon which technology is based, did not adopt technical education until 1884, when it was seen that the high place in engineering and manufacturing skill that England occupied was threatened by the Continental countries. The increased skill of the people on the Conti- nent was due in no small degree to the encouragement the Governments gave to schools of technology. The City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advance- ment of Technical Education is one of the institutions es- tablished by the English Government to develop technical skill in her engineering and manufacturing industries. It includes in its management the operation of three London colleges and a system of technological examination. The aim of the college grade school of technology is to provide a four-year course of study that will train men and women to become mechanical engineers, research chemists, designers, etc. The first two years comprise a general tech- nical training, with cultural studies, and the last two years specialization in one department. 1 The training provided at present in our engineering schools of college grade is a splendid training for the expert and chief engineer. Fully ninety per cent of the men em- ployed in responsible positions in engineering do not require as complete an education as these schools give. A great deal of work done in engineering offices is of a nature that requires a fair knowledge of the standards of construction. In manufacturing plants most of the work has been stand- 1 See page 201 for course of study. DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 31 ardized, and is repeated day after day, or year after year, so that much of the work of preparing boys for ninety per cent of the positions in the engineering works can be performed by a school with a two-year course. Pratt Institute of Brooklyn, New York, and the Wentworth Institute of Bos- ton, Massachusetts, give a two-year course in technology. Up to a few years ago, almost all of the institutions in this country that provided industrial education aimed to be of a collegiate rank. They provided a training for students over sixteen or seventeen years of age who had had a high-school education or its equivalent. Often the same courses were provided for evening instruction for those at work during the day. The education received in these schools was the high- est possible training in the useful arts. This education and training often exceeded the real educational needs of the responsible positions in commercial and industrial life. Lit- tle if any effort was made by those schools to supply techni- cal education of a secondary grade; that is, a simpler tech- nical education to the great mass of young people between fourteen and seventeen years of age who desire a practical education. This one-sided educational scheme was due to the tradi- tion that one must have a cultural before a technical educa- tion, and to the circumstance that at the time of the origin of the technical schools they were patterned after the exist- ing colleges. In 1876 the European Manual Training Exhibits at the Centennial Exhibition attracted the attention of a great many thoughtful people, manufacturers, etc. Committees were appointed to look into the advisability of having simi- lar work in our schools. They found that the industrial supremacy of European countries was due in no small de- gree to industrial or manual education. As the result of this investigation manual training high schools were estab- 32 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION lished in different cities of the country. The St. Louis Manual Training School was established June 6, 1879, for instruction in mathematics, drawing, and the English branches of a high-school course and instruction and prac- tice in the use of tools. For the first time in America the age of admission to school shops was reduced to fourteen years of age. The Baltimore Manual Training School was opened in 1883 on the same plane as the regular high school. In order to meet all the demands of the public, the high school grew to be a cosmopolitan or general high school which offered courses in industrial and commercial work, normal training, general and classical education. It was the intention of the founders of this type of high school not to have it exclusively technical or commercial in character, but with an equal emphasis upon each course of education. It was believed that such a cosmopolitan high school would tend toward democracy in education, whereas specialized high schools would tend toward aristocracy and false notions of the value of other lines of school work. It was said that pupils attending schools exclusively academic in character, not uncommonly looked down upon those who were prepar- ing for manual or commercial pursuits. On the other hand, the high school offering all courses exemplifies the complete life of the community in which it exists and prepares for re- sponsible participation in that life. It gives the pupil an opportunity to observe and compare before making choice of the work to prepare him for his future life. The second- ary high school, furnishing an effective system of industrial and cultural courses, is an ideal plan. The experience up to date has shown that to work out this plan has been one of the difficult problems in school administration. The principal of a school usually attempts to impose the stand- ards of the cultural courses as far as possible on the indus- trial courses. The result is that the efficiency of the indus- DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 83 trial courses suffer, as the standards usually exclude or drive out the type of boy who is best fitted for industrial work. 1 The tendency a few years ago in Massachusetts was to establish an independent industrial school with an inde- pendent principal and faculty in an independent building. It is true that not all communities can afford to support an independent industrial school; therefore the industrial de- partment in a high school is the type of industrial education that many small cities and towns must provide. The clearest thinkers on industrial education have re- peatedly stated that an industrial day school is an industrial school established to secure the following ends: A. Primarily to increase, through proper training of the worker before or after entrance, his efficiency in some trade or occupation. B. To train for better citizenship. C. To extend the general intelligence of the pupil. 2 Very nearly all industrial schools and industrial depart- ments of a high school provide, for boys over fourteen years of age, instruction in wood-working, metal-working, print- ing, electrical work, etc., regardless of whether the principal industry of the town or city is textiles, tanning, boot and shoe manufacture, paper-making, etc. The reason for this is that all communities have some workers in wood- working, as house carpenters; workers in metals, as machinists; prin- ters; and that all other industries are so highly specialized and organized that every worker performs a single operation of manufacture that can be acquired in a short time. Then again the idea prevails that the factory occupations have not sufficient content of matter to justify a course of study in the school. There are over two hundred and seventy trades and in- 1 See page 213. 2 See page 211 for course of study. 34 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION dustries in the State of Massachusetts, a typical industrial State. The average industrial school, when first started, taught practically the same trades. On account of the great expense involved, there may have been some justifi- cation on the part of the public school authorities for not supplying industrial education at the entire expense of the taxpayers. But at the present time, with aid from both the National and State authorities, there is no reason why this training should not be provided for all workers. Experience shows that in an industrial school where the work is not carried on under real trade conditions, it is al- most impossible for a pupil to attain a practical skill and efficiency equal to that of a good workman in the trade. Therefore the work in an industrial school should be car- ried on under actual shop conditions as far as it is possible with the school organization. Day industrial schools should provide, in addition to the regular courses, which are two, three, and four years in trade training, short unit courses, extending from a few days to a month, which may be given to young people over sixteen years of age, that they may have training to fit them for some highly specialized occupation. These short courses may be called "short unit day courses," and consist of a sufficient number of lessons plus a sufficient amount of practical work to meet the need of a definite occupation. Short unit day courses will appeal to a great many young people who have neither the interest nor the ability to pursue a long course. To the author's mind short unit day courses, for pupils over sixteen, will be the solution of industrial education for the masses. The economical methods of production, particularly the workman's time as a factor in the cost of production, are difficult to demonstrate to a student, in a school conducted under the best conditions, where his wages do not depend DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 35 upon his actual productive ability. The skill required for a commercial product can only be understood to best advan- tage by a student when his product is put to commercial use and when he sees an incentive in the form of wages for his judgment and skill in producing it. Wherever possible the factory or shop should cooperate with the industrial school, so that the shop practice may be given in a factory or shop and the related technical and academic work may be given in the school. This may be done by the manufacturers set- ting aside a certain portion of a factory for the training of apprentices. It is clear that the most effective and efficient method of training young people for a trade work is by combining in some way actual shop experience with theoretical knowledge in the school. In this way one obtains the actual skill by participating in a commercial shop on a commercial arti- cle under commercial conditions, and the theory or related knowledge may be obtained in a school. Such a scheme of education is called the "cooperative" or "part-time" plan; the pupil spends one week in the industry and the next week at school. This cooperative plan has been adapted to high- school pupils who attend alternate weeks at school. While this plan has some advantages, it has also some disadvan- tages, as the average young man working at his trade is so constituted that he cannot benefit from such a plan. He is not able to profit by more than eight hours a week schooling. A plan offering from four to eight hours a week schooling to young working people is called "part-time" or "contin- uation" school. Evening industrial courses of college grade, secondary grades, are also provided for those already engaged in the trades. In addition trade-preparation courses are offered for young men in unskilled lines who desire to receive suffi- cient training in skill and trade knowledge to enter a skilled trade. 36 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Outside of the industrial schools mentioned above, there are various systems of training beginners in the different in- dustries. Since the modern organization of industry is on the factory plan, where the manufacturer is concerned in turning out a product in the shortest time at minimum cost, there is a tendency to division of labor. Hand-power is being replaced to a great extent by machinery. The manu- facturer is no longer concerned with the training of workmen on a wholesale scale. He finds that on account of the sub- division of labor, the shifting of apprentices from one ma- chine to another in order to train them as all-around men, has a tendency to break up the efficient organization by les- sening the production per man. The journeyman working on piece work has not the time to teach the beginner, and in addition feels that the beginner may become a future rival by flooding the labor market and reducing the pay. The average American boy will not submit to a long ap- prenticeship of seven years of low wages in order to receive a thorough training. He inherits the spirit of the age, which is to receive the highest possible return for the least expenditure of labor. The result is that the American boy enters other fields, the distributing rather than the produc- tive branches of industry. Then again it is a question whether there is sufficient content in any trade as organized to-day to warrant a boy spending seven or even four years as an apprentice. Nevertheless, every manufacturer realizes that the progressive development of his line of manufacture demands the training of a certain number of skilled mechan- ics to be future foremen, etc. Apprentice schools are established by manufacturers to meet this need. They offer definite courses from two to five years in length. The work is both shop practice and theory. The shop practice is given in the shop under a foreman, and the theory or related trade and academic work is given in a DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 37 classroom not far from the shop, and on the employer's time. 1 The economical method of production, particularly the workman's time, is a factor in the cost of production. An analysis of industry will show that production depends upon three factors, speed, accuracy, and fitness of the in- dividual worker. Speed and accuracy can be attained by mechanical practice. Fitness is the ability of the operator for that particular occupation, and depends in a large degree on the mental attitude of the operator toward his work. The proper attitude of the worker toward his work determines the proper planning and guidance of the work, so that the greatest return may be obtained for the energy expended by the worker. This means that the greatest in- dustrial efficiency can be obtained only when every worker is trained so as to have an interest in his work, which means appreciation of time, effort, and material, and this can be done only by putting every one through a course of training that will give both practice and theory, as to the best method of performing the work, reason for each step, knowledge of materials used, and care of self while perform- ing the work. To illustrate : A cotton manufacturer desires to employ a number of pickers and carders. A number of men who have recently arrived in this country, with no mill experience, apply for the positions. The usual method of training these men consists of placing them at work im- mediately, with a few directions in the form of "don'ts" — "Don't place your hand here," etc. The operator soon becomes interested in his work and forgets the directions given to him, unintentionally places his hand on the wrong part of the machine and finds that he has lost a finger or two. He is sent to a hospital and the total cost to all con- cerned will average quite a sum. 1 See page 235 for course of study. 38 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION A more efficient plan of training would be to place him with others in a department or part of a mill set aside for a school, under the direction of an instructor, who will explain in simple language the purpose of the operation, how to op- erate the machine, the names of the different parts and the dangerous parts of the machine. In the course of a week under this form of instruction, the individual will become a more efficient worker, at less expense to the manufacturer and to himself. Well-trained labor will handle efficient tools and machines, so as to reduce the waste and increase the production. In order to meet this difficulty some manufacturers have instituted a shorter course of apprenticeship which trains for a narrow range of work and fits only for special lines. The worker may be called a helper, assisting the journey- man, performing unskilled work and watching the operations. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Is it possible for a young man to-day to become an efficient mechani- cal engineer by working under an experienced mechanical engineer without attending day or evening courses? If it is possible, why is it not carried out to-day. 2. Why was the development of college grade technical schools slower in England than on the Continent and in the United States? 3. Compare the training of a mechanical engineer in France with that of the training received in the United States. 4. England has very few students attending day technical classes com- pared to the number attending evening classes. Compare these con- ditions with those of America, and give the reasons for any differences. 5. What advantage might be gained over the program of studies for me- chanical engineering in a college grade industrial school if a certain amount of practical experience were given at the outset and at inter- vals during the course? 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages in giving technical in- struction in advance of practical experience? 7. It has been suggested that students should enter professional schools — that is, a college industrial school — only after some practical ex- perience in the trade or industry. What are the advantages and dis- advantages of such a plan? DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 39 8. What is the attitude of the general high-school instructor to pupils in the industrial course? Do the industrial pupils measure up to the traditional standards of high-school pupils? 9. Draw a diagram showing the different classes of men engaged in a large industry, and state the institution or type of school that is to give them the necessary training. 10. Compare the type of young man found in a shop with the type of young man found in the drafting-room of an industry. 11. Which type of boy in question 10 will conform to the standards of the regular high-school course? 12. Is there a place for an all-day industrial school for boys between the ages of fourteen and sixteen? 13. What are some of the difficulties to be overcome before a school system can cooperate with manufacturers in regard to training apprentices? 14. What is the difference between a cooperative scheme of education and a continuation school? LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * Manufacturers' Viewpoint of Industrial Education. C. R. Dooley. Na- tional Education Association. Proceedings, 1912. (A discussion of industrial education by an educator who has conducted schools for manufacturers.) * The Cooperative System of Industrial Training. A. D. Dean. National Education Association. Proceedings, 1910. (A discussion of the scheme of education between the shop and school.) ** Continuation Schools. Edwin G. Cooley. National Education Associ- ation. Proceedings, 1912. (A discussion of the type of schooling for pupils who leave school at an early age.) * Continuation Schools. Board of Education of Massachusetts. Bulletin, 1915. (Organization, courses of study and methods of instruction of continuation schools in Massachusetts.) ** Needs and Possibilities of Part-Time Education. Board of Education of Massachusetts. Bulletin, 1913. (Investigation of the need of part-time education in the indus- trial cities of Massachusetts.) * Technical High School. G. H. North. National Education Association. Proceedings, 1918. (The aim and value of a technical high school.) ** Trade Schools in Europe. F. L. Glynn. United States Bureau of Edu- cation. Bulletin issued in 1914. (A description of different types of technical and industrial schools as seen by Mr. Glynn.) 40 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ** Industrial, Technical, and Art Education. Ontario Education Depart- ment. Bulletin issued in 1912. (A complete description of different types of industrial schools.) ** Report of Committee on Place of Industries in Public Education. C. R. Richards. National Education Association. Proceedings, 1912. * (A general discussion on the aim and value of industrial education followed by a statement of the purpose of different industrial schools.) ** Intermediate Industrial School. W. H. Elson. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 1909. (A discussion on the need and value of a lower grade industrial school to take care of children who are dissatisfied with the regular school work.) * The Fitchburg Plan of Cooperative Industrial Education. M. R. Mc- Cann. United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 50, 1913. (A description of the first cooperative high-school course.) CHAPTER V ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS The usual plan of organization for the college-grade indus- trial school, which is usually a private institution, is to have a director or president who is the chief executive officer; a course or curriculum head who has charge of each separate course; a head of each department in the school and a group of academic and technical teachers. Since the aim of this type of school is not to prepare journeymen mechanics, very few ordinary trade (shop) teachers are employed. Industrial education of secondary or lower grade is usually a part of the regular public school system and is supported by public taxation, with aid from State and National Gov- ernments. The chief executive officer in charge of all voca- tional work should be the superintendent of schools, in a small community, in order to avoid any friction between the different types of education. If the community is a large city, the control should be centered in a director or an assistant superintendent of schools appointed to this work. The director or assistant superintendent should have a number of assistants. A principal should be appointed for each building set apart for industrial training. Under the principal a number of heads of departments should be se- lected, to develop the different departments of the school. Three distinct classes of instructors are employed in an in- dustrial school, shop instructors, technical instructors, and academic instructors. The principal of an industrial school should possess the following qualifications; (a) a thorough academic training; (b) executive ability; (c) experience in public school work; 42 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION (d) in sympathy with industrial education; (e) a distinct in- dustrial point of view; (/) sufficient technical and practical knowledge to administer industrial work. The head of a department in an industrial school should have executive ability, previous experience as an instructor in the department or trade in which he is to act as head, and sufficient technical and pedagogical knowledge to administer the work of the department and to assist teachers in plan- ning the subject-matter to be taught. A shop instructor should possess the following qualifica- tions: (a) knowledge of his trade as full as that of a skilled journeyman; (6) knowledge of the technical method in use in the trade, together with a command of its drawing, mathe- matics, and science; (c) general education not less than that represented by an elementary-school graduation or its equiv- alent; (d) technique of teaching and school administration; (e) application of the principles of teaching to industrial school problems; (/) personal appearance, that will appeal to boys; (g) not less than twenty-five nor more than forty- five years when he enters the work. The technical teacher, sometimes called the instructor of related subjects (applied mathematics, applied science, and drawing), should possess the following qualifications: (a) trade equipment, understand the processes of the trade, and the tools that are used; (b) some experience as a teacher; (c) a general education equal to a high-school education or its equivalent; (d) special training in the subject or subjects, two years beyond the highest grade of the industrial school; (e) ability to apply these subjects in a practical way to the trade problems; (/) personal appearance that will appeal to boys. The academic teacher, sometimes called teacher of non- industrial subjects, should possess the following qualifica- tions: (a) appreciative knowledge of trade and industrial ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 43 conditions, such as a knowledge of common tools, machines, and processes of the trade; (6) experience as a wage-earner in some trade; (c) natural mechanical ability; (d) general education equal to two years beyond the high school; (e) ability to use material drawn from the trades in teaching such subjects as civics, economics, industrial history, and English; (/) personality that wins the respect of boys. In addition to the above, teachers in trade classes should be familiar with the ordinary principles of teaching, how to prepare a lesson, a course of study, and to present a lesson to a group. They should know how to teach economically and effectively, when to use the group method, and when to use the individual method of instruction. The proper relation of the theory with practice, the uses of the blackboard, models, charts, pictures, displays, references to handbooks, journals, and the assignment of home lessons, are some of the essentials of the work that the teacher must handle. There are certain other personal qualifications that a successful teacher must have. He must be punctual and regular in attendance, have a pleasing personality, the abil- ity to bring the instruction to bear upon the work of the pupils, cooperation with the shops and factories, and the social qualities that will win the respect and confidence of the pupils so that they will attend school regularly. The average journeyman mechanic when placed in charge of a trade class usually lacks certain qualifications, such as the methods of presentation of the subject, knowledge of the theory, and an all-round knowledge of the trade. Experi- ence has shown that the foreman or overseer who has had a certain amount of executive or supervisory responsibility possessess the above qualifications better than the journey- man. Therefore trade teachers as a rule should be selected from the ranks of foremen rather than journeymen. The shop and technical teachers are the ones that give instruc- 44 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION tion which directly improves the efficiency of the student in his trade and are often spoken of as industrial or vocational teachers. The academic teacher is considered, on the other hand, a non-industrial or non- vocational teacher. Experience shows that the academic teacher has a definite place in full-time vocational schools and the general and commercial contin- uation schools, but fails to fit into the industrial continua- tion and evening trade classes. This may be due to the fact that pupils that attend the last two types of schools have very practical minds and are unwilling to study or pursue systematically the ordinary academic subjects. The in- struction in English and civics must be imparted in an inci- dental manner from time to time, while the students are studying the technical subjects underlying their trades. The building used for an industrial school may be either a factory or a schoolhouse renovated. If a new building is to be erected, it is advisable to have the academic department in the front, and in the rear the shops; the front of the build- ing will be of regular school construction, and the rear part of mill construction; that is, brick walls and the timbers exposed. An industrial school equipment should include equipment equal to that of commercial shops. This may appear to be a difficult task, but nevertheless an effort should be made to have a variety of tools and machines. Many technical schools have made a great mistake in providing a large num- ber of tools and machines of one kind, thus sacrificing the variety of machines. It is advisable to have an industrial school dominated by the needs of industry. Therefore every school should have advisory committees composed of members representing local trades, industries, and occupations. Experience teaches that these committees should be composed of repre- ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 45 sentative people with little knowledge of the details of edu- cational work. They may be organized by departments into committees of two or three members, a representative of or- ganized labor or employees, employers, and a representative citizen. These committees, as their name suggests, are advisory, and may render very effective service to the school. The school year of a day vocational school varies from forty weeks of instruction, thirty-five hours per week, five days of seven hours each, to fifty weeks, forty-four hours of instruction per week, of five and one half days of eight hours each. About eighty per cent of the total time should be de- voted to industrial instruction, and about fifty per cent of this time should be devoted to productive shop-work, under the direct control of the school. This leaves twenty per cent for general education. One of the most difficult problems in the administration of a day industrial school is the large mortality factor. The trade course of an existing industrial school is two, three, or four years in length, giving an all-round training in the prac- tice and theory of the trade plus a good general education. A large number of pupils enter the school in the fall, and after they have attended about six months or more, and have learned the names of the tools, and are able to perform one or two of the operations of the trade, they leave to se- cure a position. It is the opinion of the author that this is due to one or more of the following causes: lack of proper organization of courses, such as short unit courses preparing definitely for some occupation in the semi-skilled trades; lack of proper encouragement from the parents of the boy while he is attending the school; and the narrow view of the boy who cannot place deferred above immediate returns. Instead of the members of the family encouraging him to finish his course at school, they allow him to enter a posi- tion with a large initial wage but with very little future. 46 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION In order to increase the holding power of the industrial school without modifying the course of study, a number of industrial educators have set up a process of selection at registration, admitting pupils of high-school qualifications who will remain in school and finish the course. A large number of industrial departments of high schools have not been successful in training boys for the productive side of industry because they have set up the requirements, such as scholarship, etc., that exclude a group of young people who would make excellent workers. The graduates of these schools enter the productive side of industry, and remain for a few years, and then become draftsmen, salesmen, etc., in mechanical lines. They fail to remain in that phase of industry for which they have been trained. The training for the distributing side of industry can be given in the regu- lar technical high school or corporation course, supplemented by a proper shop observation and experience, as outlined on page 207, more efficiently than in an industrial course. The problem of holding pupils in a day industrial school can be solved if we study the type of the great mass of pro- ductive workers and adapt a short unit course to meet their needs. We find that usually they fail to meet the require- ments of the elementary school above the sixth grade, but nevertheless they possess certain physical and mental quali- ties, such as muscular strength and mechanical intelligence, that can be trained by imitation to meet the needs of the ordinary occupations of industry and trade. It is from this class that industry must recruit its permanent workers. The organization of part-time or continuation industrial classes will be very similar to the regular day industrial school, except that the instruction must be more intensely practical and closely allied to the shop. The practical work in the shop must be the basis of the related trade knowledge in the school. This requires the services of a teacher, called ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 47 a coordinator, to tabulate the shop materials, hand and power tools, shop processes, and other trade activities, that the classroom teacher may know the content to impart. The organization of an apprentice school consists of a supervisor of apprentices, assistant supervisor, shop fore- men, and instructors. The supervisor of apprentices is directly responsible for all general problems affecting the apprentices and supervises the school and shop training. The assistant supervisor is in direct charge of the school and is responsible to the supervisor for its successful operation. The shop foreman of apprentices is in charge of the in- struction in the different phases of shop-work, and the proper application of shop schedules. The shop instructor of apprentices acts as an assistant to the shop foreman and is responsible for the shop instruction of apprentices. The school instructors conduct the apprentice school in- struction as outlined by the supervisor of apprentices. The organization of an apprentice or corporation school is very similar to that of the regular industrial school, except in the names of the officials of the school as described above. The problems and difficulties are the same as those previ- ously discussed. Of course it must be borne in mind that when a corporation is conducting a school, it is primarily in the interest of the industry, and the corporation feels that it is only bound to give sufficient academic education, or, better still, the related trade knowledge, to make the appren- tice proficient in his trade. Little if any attention is given to civics, training of citizenship, and formal English. Application for apprenticeship is made on a form requiring answers to many questions. This application is looked over, and the apprentice is generally given an oral, written, and physical examination. Wherever possible, preference is given to sons of employees. The apprenticeship is usually three or four years in length. H W C/2 1 § 1 a 5 I p-i ^ Si 4 o u THE JOHN DOE COMPANY NEW YORK CITY, N.Y. Terms of Apprenticeship 1. Applicants for apprenticeship must not be less than 16 years of age. They must be physically sound, of good moral character, and have received an educa- tion equivalent to that required for graduation from the public grammar school or better. 2. Application must be made in person. If accepted the applicant's name will be registered and due notice will be given when he will be required to com- mence work. 3. The first 576 hours shall constitute a term of trial. If the apprentice shall during this period prove satisfactory and shall before the expiration thereof exe- cute together with some other responsible party an agreement in the form here- to annexed, then his apprenticeship shall date from the beginning of the term of trial and shall continue for the full term, unless sooner terminated, as here- inafter stated. 4. During the trial period the apprentice will be loaned the necessary shop tools and class-room materials. On completion of trial term the set of shop tools shall thereupon become the property of the Apprentice. 5. Apprentice will be required to serve for a term of three or four years, each to consist of 2400 hours, including about 200 hours in the school room. 6. Apprentices shall make up lost time at the expiration of each year, at the rate of wages paid during said year ; and no year of service shall commence un- til the apprentice shall have fully made up all the time lost in the preceding year. 7. The Company reserves the right whenever the state of business demands it, to shorten the hours of labor or whenever for any reason it shall stop the work- ing, or suspend wholly or in part; and the making up of lost time in this way shall be at the discretion of the Company. 8. The Apprentices will be required to perform their duties with punctuality, fidelity and diligence : and to conform to the rules and regulations which are, or may be, adopted from time to time for the good government of the shop ; and the Company reserves the right to itself, at its sole discretion to terminate an agreement, and discharge the apprentice from further service for any non-con- formity with rules and regulations, want of diligence to his business, or im- proper conduct in or out of the shop. 9. In case of discharge, or in the event that said apprentice shall abandon his apprenticeship before the expiration thereof, without the consent of said Com- pany, the apprentice shall forfeit all wages then earned and unpaid. APPRENTICE AGREEMENT THIS AGREEMENT is made this day of 19.... between the JOHN DOE COMPANY, Incorporated, doing business in NEW YORK, N.Y., hereinafter known as " Company " and of hereinafter known as " Apprentice," and of hereinafter known as " Guardian," whose relation- ship to the Apprentice is that of For the purpose of acquiring the Art or Trade of MACHINIST AND TOOL- MAKER said hereby becomes an Apprentice to the Company and the Company hereby accepts him subject to the terms herein stated. The Apprentice and his Guardian hereby promise that the Apprentice shall conform to and abide by all the provisions of this agreement, and shall faithfully serve the Company during the full period of time named in this agreement. The Apprentice agrees during the period of his apprenticeship to do all in his power to learn said art or trade and earnestly and loyally to promote the in- terests of the Company. He also agrees to pursue classroom studies when they are required and arranged for by the Company and in that case to do a reason- able amount of home-study in preparation thereof. It is agreed by the Apprentice and his Guardian that the Company shall have thejright at any time to discharge the Apprentice for lack of diligence, indifference to business, inability for the works, disobedience of rules and regulations of the Company, or improper conduct in or out of working hours and to suspend him if the state of business should demand it. In consideration of the agreements on the part of the company herein con- tained the said Apprentice agrees that he will pay the Company the sum of §25.00 — said sum to be paid by said Apprentice at the expiration of the term of trial re- ferred to in said «• Terms of Apprenticeship," this to be returned to the Appren- tice upon graduation. The Company agrees to train and instruct the Apprentice in said art or trade and to pay him compensation as specified in this agreement for his services as Apprentice. The Company also agrees that if the Apprentice shall remain in its service for the full period of his apprenticeship, including whatever period is required to make up lost time, and shall in every way comply with the terms of this agreement, to present to the Apprentice at the termination of his Appren- ticeship a bonus of ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS (§100.00) and a Certificate of Apprenticeship signed by an officer of this Company. This agreement shall cover a period of FOUR years including a trial period of 576 working hours. Each year shall consist of 2400 working hours. The apprentice shall receive from the Company during the period of appren- ticeship the following compensation, to wit : — 15 cents per hour for the first year. 18 M '* " " " second year. 22 •■ « « " " third year. 26 u ♦« " " " fourth year. John Doe C ompany, Inc. APPRENTICE PER GUARDIAN Signature must be written in full and with ink. 50 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION During the course the pupil receives a training in the practice and the theory of the trade. The practice is given in the shop and the theory is given in the school. The hours are the same as for the journeyman, except for four hours a week, when the apprentice attends school on company time at the regular rate of pay. At the end or expiration of ap- prenticeship, those who have satisfactorily completed the course receive a certificate, signed by the proper officials of the company. They are retained in the employ of the com- pany at the specified rate, or at a higher rate, if the ability and service justify same. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Explain why few shop teachers are employed in an industrial school of college grade. 2. Are instructors in schools of technology inclined to explain principles in terms of "shop" or technical language? 3. How would you proceed to select a teacher for applied science in a day industrial school? 4. Why is it necessary for the principal and instructors in a secondary school to have a sympathetic understanding of boys? 5. Is it possible to have the same rigid standard in a coSperative indus- trial class, and hold the pupils as in the regular high school? 6. Why is it desirable to defer industrial education until the end of the period of compulsory general education, fourteen years of age? 7. Some instructors in trade and industrial schools claim you cannot teach a trade to a boy until he reaches the age of sixteen. Why? 8. What objection may be made against teaching a child of ten to be a textile worker "piecer"? 9. Does a course in civics assist industrial training? If so, to what extent? 10. Should industrial and liberal education be combined? State the advantages and disadvantages of such a plan. 11. How should the time be divided between industrial and liberal education? 12. Should studies in an industrial course be alternated by hours, as in the regular high school, or shall the day be so divided that one half may be given to shop practice? ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 51 LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * Statement of Policies of Federal Board for Vocational Education. Bulle- tin no. 1. (A number of fundamental principles of vocational education.) * Emergency Training in Shipbuilding. Evening and Part-Time Classes for Shipyard Workers. Bulletin no. 3. (Unit courses in shipbuilding showing how short, intensive courses t- may be used in training workmen.) * Trade and Industrial Education. Bulletin no. 17. (A very concise statement of the organization and administration of industrial schools.) * Part-Time Trade and Industrial Schools. Bulletin no. 19. (A complete description of the organization and courses in part- time industrial schools.) * Buildings and Equipment for Schools and Classes in Trade and Industrial Subjects. Bulletin no. 20. (A description with illustrations of the growth of different indus- trial schools. Kinds of buildings and equipment.) All the above may be obtained from the Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington D.C. * Organization of the Pennsylvania Railroad Apprentice System. Circular published by the Pennsylvania Railroad. (A very elaborate organization of apprentice schools.) ** Problems of Industrial Education under Public Administration. Frank V. Thompson. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Proceedings, 1916. (Discussion of some administrative problems that have arisen in the administration of schools in Boston.) ** Requisites of the Efficient Teacher in Industrial Schools. G. M. Gering. National Educational Association. Proceedings, 1911. (A discussion of the qualifications of an efficient teacher in an industrial school.) CHAPTER VI ORGANIZATION OF EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES The history of trade and technical instruction shows that originally organized technical instruction consisted of engi- neering, mathematics, drawing, science (theoretical and laboratory practice), and was provided for young appren- tices during the evening. This was due to the tradition that all students were expected to be working under some form of apprenticeship in the trades and industries and received the practical training in the shops during the day. The first form of technical and trade instruction was naturally planned to supplement practical experience by giving the related trade knowledge in the evening. England to-day practically provides very nearly all the technical instruction in the evening classes on this basis. While it is necessary to provide well-trained workers, it is also necessary to provide employers, managers, and foremen having the proper appreciation of the value of the techni- cal training of workers. The higher degree of training necessary for the worker, the greater the need of raising the standards of the managers, foremen, etc. Therefore it is necessary to have different grades of evening technical or industrial schools or, as they are sometimes called, exten- sion courses, as well as day schools. Evening industrial extension courses or evening industrial courses may be of the same grades as the day industrial school, college grade and secondary. The college grade eve- ning industrial school aims to bring the systematic study of applied science within the reach of young men with a high- school education or its equivalent who are following indus- EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 53 trial pursuits, and who desire to fit themselves for higher positions, but are unable to attend courses during the day. The Lowell School of Foremanship represents an evening technical school of college grade. 1 Evening school instruction has been, and probably will be for a long time to come, the only feasible form of organized public instruction for working boys and men. In order to show the relation between general evening schools or evening schools of liberal instruction and vocational evening instruc- tion (including industrial classes, given under the public school system), it may be well to outline a plan showing the exact relation. Evening instruction under these two divisions may be outlined as follows: A. General or liberal education. I. Regular elementary grade schools for those wishing to complete the elementary school course. II. General course (ungraded) for a. Illiterates. b. Foreigners. HI. Regular high-school courses for those wishing to com- plete the high-school work along the following lines : a. College preparatory course. b. Commercial course. c. Classical course. d. Technical course: 1. Courses for boys who desire to be "handy." 2. General technical course (technical train- ing to enter a skilled line of work). IV. Recreational courses. B. Vocational courses. I. Trade preparatory courses : Desire of sufficient training to enter from a blind- alley to a skilled employment. II. Trade extension courses. See page 204 for course of study. ' 54 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION In addition to the college grade, secondary and inter- mediate industrial classes should be established. The sec- ondary class is for those who desire to learn more about the practice and theory of the trade. The intermediate class is for beginners who are in unskilled lines and who desire to learn sufficient practice about a skilled trade to obtain a position. The secondary evening industrial classes are sometimes called trade classes or trade extension classes, and represent one of the most important divisions of industrial education. The organization of evening industrial classes should be under a principal or director, with a corps of shop and tech- nical instructors. The qualifications of the principal and instructors should be at least those required of the principal and instructors in day industrial schools. Since evening school work is exacting, only those teachers should be selected who are physically strong and robust. As all forms of evening instruction are more or less of a social problem, it is very important that teachers should be imbued with a real desire to assist their pupils, as well as to know the subject of instruction. They should know all the members of the class, be able to assist them with advice and to arouse the tired pupils by enthusiasm. All this requires a great deal of energy (physical) on the part of the teacher. Evening trade instructors should possess a trade training plus a combination of personal qualifications to deal wisely, cheerfully, and sympathetically with tired apprentices. It is customary to select evening instructors from the day school force. While this is often advisable in order to pre- vent teachers from having conflicts over equipment, it does not always give the best results. The most efficient day school teachers often fail to give the best results in evening classes. This is due to several reasons : evening trade pupils are usually tired apprentices who attend school with very EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 55 definite ideas as to what they require. They desire instruc- tion which will lead to definite needs, usually some deficiency in their daily occupation or a desire to secure a promotion. Therefore evening trade teachers require, first, a large social democratic spirit; second, the ability to interpret the needs and desires of the pupils who attend the evening schools. Trade extension courses have usually been planned as two-, three-, or four-year courses. Students have been placed in either the first, second, third, or fourth year according to their ability. The records of evening trade classes under the above organization have not been satis- factory. The mortality of students has been very great. Investigations have disclosed a number of weaknesses in the evening school organization, such as incompetent teachers, poor organization, classes not adapted to needs of pupils, etc. Apprentices and tradesmen demand that the instruction shall lead directly to the specific things they want to know. If they are obliged to spend a month or more on preliminary work, the value of which they do not immediately discover, they will soon become discouraged and leave. Then again, mechanics and other tradesmen who may, perhaps, have some reputation in their trades, and who wish to perfect themselves in certain technical lines, do not wish to be grouped with younger persons, feeling that such persons, having come recently from the public schools, are able to answer questions, use better English, and appear to better advantage than they. In other words, adults are often sen- sitive about the comparisons which the younger members are apt to make at their expense. Therefore, all trade stu- dents should be classified into vocational classes, according to their trades. This idea carries out the plan of the old trade guild of a few centuries ago. Each guild was formed for the purpose of social intercourse and mental stimulus. Each trade had its own guild, and the daily trade experiences 56 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION of each member became the property of all members. Dis- cussions relating to the practices of their chosen trade occu- pied their attention. So to-day workmen have common trade interests, and should be grouped according to their occupations so that they may have an opportunity to talk over those interests. Since workers usually attend a technical class in order to satisfy a definite need, the instruction should be divided into a series of units, each unit representing a definite trade need. To illustrate : a machine-shop course may be divided into the following unit courses : 1. Lathe work, and the use of measuring • instruments. 2. Screw-cutting. 3. Planer and shaper operating. 4. Milling-machine operating. 5. Tool and die work. 6. Jigs, fixtures, and machine construction. 7. Machine-shop mathematics. 8. Blue-print reading and machine drawing for machinists. 9. Tool design. 10. Tool forging. Each unit course may consist of sixteen lessons of two hours each distributed over eight weeks. An applicant may enter any one of the above unit courses and meet his imme- diate need. He may desire to continue in other unit courses after he has seen the value of his first course. Of course it is possible to have full courses composed of multiple units. There are some students who desire to pur- sue a vocational course covering from two to four years. Therefore unit courses should be arranged in sequence so that it is possible for a student to obtain a complete knowledge of the trade by attending a number of years. . EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 57 Evening trade classes present so many new situations and new problems to be solved that it is necessary and very es- sential that the faculty should have frequent discussions: daily lesson outlines on mimeographed sheets, the problems prepared by the teachers and used as a guide and a summary by the pupils. Pupils in evening trade extension classes should not be graded or grouped as are the regular pupils in the evening schools. An effort should be made to determine whether a pupil can profit by the course. Regularity of attendance should be insisted upon, and absences excused only on account of sickness or work. If a pupil fails to attend regularly seventy-five per cent of the evenings, he should be dropped, and should not be reinstated until the opening of the next unit course. Trade classes should not be in session over two evenings a week, and those evenings should not be successive. An individual card should be kept for every member of the class. One side of the card should contain the history of the pupil, and on the reverse side the attendance, the amount of work done, and the time devoted to each project. At the end of the year these records should be transferred to a larger card, called a life card, which becomes a permanent record. In order to make short unit courses successful it is abso- lutely necessary to have the courses properly advertised. This brings up the very important question of the advertise- ment of trade extension courses. These courses should be widely advertised through circulars distributed to mechanics and tradesmen, through the daily newspaper, and by means of posters placed in conspicuous positions in the shops and factories. Large, attractive posters should be placed on the walls near the exits and entrances of shops and factories, railroad stations, ferry slips, clubs, unions, and schools. Notices should appear frequently in technical journals, in special bulletins, and in papers issued by large corporations. 58 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Slides showing the value of trade extension courses should appear in the moving-picture houses. Once a year the school should have a public day ; that is, the school should be open to the public with the equipment and plant running. The principal and instructors should be present to explain to the visitors the different departments in the school. An evening at the close of the term should be devoted to an ex- hibition of the work accomplished and a special invitation should be extended to journeymen and apprentices. In addition — the principal should address various civic bodies and labor unions on the value and need of trade extension classes, and make personal visits, regularly, to the local shops and industries, and meet the foremen and overseers and ask them to encourage the workers to attend the evening trade classes. It is very important that the wording of all circulars, posters, etc., should be expressed in a concise, at- tractive form. To illustrate; instead of shop mathematics, use arithmetic for machinists, arithmetic for carpenters, etc. A deposit should be required for admittance to trade ex- tension courses, It is a sign of good faith and is a guarantee against irregular attendance, breakage, stealing, and misuse of materials. This deposit should be returned at the end of the term if the pupil has attended regularly, has properly used materials, and returned books and instruments. A fee of one dollar for each course would be sufficient. In order to maintain a uniform attendance it is a good plan to have various employers visit the school and make their appearance on the platform before the assembled classes. An effort should be made to have employers address the students and show the value of this type of education, enu- merating if possible personal references. A list of employees who have attended the school, with a record of their prog- ress and attendance, should be sent to employers, so that they can reward in a substantial way the attendance at the EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 59 trade school, by promotion, some form of preference, or by increase in wages. When a student is absent a card should be sent to him, and if he does not respond, a letter should be sent to his em- ployer or a visit made to the shop. Since there are many occupations that are highly special- ized and which do not possess sufficient content to give a course of study over several years, it is necessary to provide, in addition to the evening trade courses, a form of recreation that will appeal to the working pupils. In order to carry on this work successfully, trained teachers should be pro- vided who are able to mingle easily with working people, and, above all, they should have the power of leadership for all forms of recreational work, from free play and folk-danc- ing to clubs and lectures. This work requires a strong leader, a person who leads but keeps himself as one of the crowd, thus putting the leadership as little in evidence as possible. These activities are of tremendous value in in- culcating the art of cooperation, civic and social responsi- bility, and social good feeling, and should have their share of attention in evening schools especially in industrial dis- tricts. Pupils should be taught as far as possible to use their own homes for amusements. The schools should have rooms, halls, gymnasiums, etc., with furniture and supplies for games, reading-rooms, recreation-rooms, and moving- pictures. Classes should be arranged so as to accommodate a group or groups that have corresponding interests. Ath- letic games should group together those best suited to play together. Table games and story-telling and folk-dancing all need grading, in a sense, so as to keep a relatively keen interest. 1 Intermediate evening trade classes are sometimes called evening trade preparatory classes, and are for those who 1 See page 302 for course of study. 60 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION desire to enter a skilled trade. Since the students in the trade preparatory classes have not had any trade experience, most of the instruction should be in the shop. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. A number of prominent English technical school educators claim that it is difficult to obtain a large enrollment of day students in technical schools. Give some of the reasons why this condition exists. 2. What are the reasons for the increased demand for evening schools during the last few years? S. Is an evening course in machine-shop theory more effective than a correspondence course in the same subject? Why? 4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of short unit courses cov- ering a number of evenings, and full courses covering two years or more. 5. Suggest evening courses for cotton-mill workers. 6. Suggest evening courses for electrical workers. 7. Explain why evening trade instruction for young people on the Con- tinent of Europe is not popular. Compare the length of the working day on the Continent of Europe with that of the United States. 8. How can evening school teachers of trade subjects be kept in inti- mate contact with the practical requirements of the trades they are teaching? 9. What is the most effective means of securing (a) evening shop teachers, (b) evening technical teachers? 10. What is the purpose of an advisory board for an evening industrial school? How may they be selected? 11. What is the most effective method of giving evening instructors trade experience? 12. What are the agencies available for industrial education in the average community? 13. What are the qualifications required for a director of (a) an evening preparatory trade school; (b) a continuation school; (c) an evening trade school? 14. What are the qualifications required for a head of a machine-shop department in (a) an evening trade school; (b) a continuation school? LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING ** Hot can the Evening School Bett Med the Xeeds of the Wage-Worker ? W. A. O'Leary. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Bulletin. EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES 61 ** Evening Schools, their Purpose and Limitations. John L. Shearer. Na- tional Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Bulletin. (A discussion of the purpose of evening schools and how far they are meeting the purpose.) ** Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere. M. Sadler. (A very complete description of continuation schools.) CHAPTER VII AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY It is necessary to experiment in industrial education, as in other lines, to make progress. In order to work intelli- gently, it is necessary to profit by the results of other com- munities, and to obtain data upon which to experiment. Therefore, before establishing any system of industrial edu- cation, it is desirable to make a number of investigations or surveys for the purpose of determining just what kinds of industrial training are required. The main questions to be answered by a survey are: 1. To what extent is there a need for industrial education in the community ? 2. To what extent are the public schools, private agencies, and apprenticeship systems meeting the need? 3. What kinds of industrial training are needed? 4. How can cooperation be arranged between the schools and the trades and industries? A thorough study should be made of all the industries in the community to determine the following questions: 1. Whether there is a content of technical knowledge or skill in any job that cannot be acquired through routine work for which special instruction is needed. 2. If so, what is it? 3. Whether it can best be imparted by provisions inside the industry. 4. If not, whether it is worth while to provide such instruction through outside agencies. 5. If this is true, whether such instruction shall take the form of — a. All day industrial schools. b. Trade schools. c. Part-time industrial classes. d. Evening classes. AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY ' 63 6. Whether there are any jobs for which it is not desirable either to direct the youth or to train him at public expense. , 7. What number of new workers could be prepared for any job, if it has a teachable content, without overstocking the market? 8. What kind of equipment as to age and physical and mental assets should the worker have for the job? 9. To what extent does the industry select its workers for any job so as to secure those best adapted to it? The answers to the above questions will show the types and extent of the schools needed, the courses of study to be followed, and the equipment and try-out necessary to carry through the aims and purposes. It is coming to be recognized that in some industries the training of the workers should be as much a matter of trade agreements as hours of labor, scale of wages, grievance boards, and other matters which ultimately and vitally con- cern both the employer and employee. These are dealt with by means of a joint agreement known as the "Pro- tocol." Trade agreements may be worked out covering the following: 1. The conditions under which new workers are to be trained and received into the trade or occupation. %. The credit toward the period of apprenticeship to be given any course of training in the school either before or after employment. 3 - The training in schools as well as shop to be required of the apprentices after employment. 4. The preference given to local and trained workers in hiring and promoting in the trade and occupations. ' 5. Possibilities and arrangements for instruction during the dull season periods of trades. As a matter of efficiency every school system should take account of the social, economic, industrial, and educational conditions in the community. Data should be at hand and kept up to date. The superintendent or assistant superin- tendent should be able to interpret the data collected and 64 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION use them to advantage in developing the school system. The following suggestive outline may be used by attendance officers, investigators, and social workers in obtaining the information : . 1. Facts about the people. (While this may be somewhat tob inclusive as a major division, it is used here in the restricted sense of a single locality.) a. Population extent. The whole program will depend much upon the size of the community. b. Migration. That is to say, whether or not the popula- tion of the city is stable or movable. c. Conditions as to type. 1. White or colored. 2. Native or foreign-born. - d. Illiteracy. 2. Economic factors. o. Tax-rate, local and State; the whole tax burden. 6. The indebtedness of the town or city. c. Conditions of waste in the expenditure of all public moneys. d. Possibilities for effecting economics by a reorganization of the present system of education. e. The amount of school funds, from whatever source, available for local use. 3. Industrial factors. o. Apprenticeship. (1) How extended. (2) Lack produced what result. (3) How to supply lack. (4) Not needed because of type of labor employed, mature workers only, etc. b. Whether there is a content of technical knowledge or skill in any job that cannot be acquired through routine work, and for which special instruction is needed. (1) If so, what is it? (2) Whether it can be best imparted by provision in- side the industry. (3) If not, whether it is worth while to provide for such instruction through outside agencies. AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY 65 (4) If this is true, whether such instruction shall take the form of (a) All day industrial schools. (b) Trade schools. (c) Part-time industrial classes. (d) Evening classes. (5) Whether there are any jobs for which it is not desirable either to direct the youth or to train him at public expense. (6) What number of new workers could be prepared for any job, if it has a teachable content, without overstocking the market. (7) What kind of equipment as to age and physical and mental assets the workers should have for the job. (8) To what extent does the industry select its workers for any job so as to secure those best adapted to it. (9) Whether their market is overcrowded. 4. School factors. a. The number of children leaving school each year. b. The nationality, age, and schooling condition of those withdrawing. c. The economic condition of those withdrawing. d. The wages, number of jobs, kinds of work, and advance- ment of those withdrawing. e. Causes of retardation. /. Causes of withdrawal. g. Education after leaving school. h. Means of getting a job. i. Comparative amount of idleness of non-graduate, grad- uate, and high-school group. j. The aim, character, and extent of prevocational training in the elementary schools. k. The aim, character, and extent of manual training in elementary and high schools. I. The aim, character, and extent of the evening schools. Since the public school system is expected to train pupils of high-school age for the vocations in the trades and indus- tries, it follows as a corollary that this industrial instruction 66 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION must be supplemented by industrial guidance. Otherwise the public schools may be flooding certain trades with young men, to an extent that there may be more applicants than positions to be filled. Such a condition would be harm- ful to society and to the student. Therefore the most effi- cient system of industrial education must include, as a preliminary course, industrial guidance, information and direction to young people, in order that they may be dis- tributed vocationally so as not to have an excess of human talent in any one field. In the early history of the race, it was the custom to place the growing boy at work with his father, so that he might be taught from the experiences of his father. During the Mid- dle Ages the training in the apprenticeship was a direct pre- liminary to his trade. To-day parents do not care to have the children follow the father's occupation, on account of the feeling that the children should do better than the father. This is a serious mistake because children sometimes do not do as well as their fathers, and if they followed their fathers, they would be imbued with the industrial atmosphere and features of the trade. Years ago, when each community was small, the indus- tries and trades were open books to each boy. It was not unusual, as we see from the life of Benjamin Franklin, for a father to take his son at the age of twelve to the different shops, to see the men at work and to talk to the master- workmen. Comenius speaks in a way of industrial guidance, when he says, in speaking of the true significance of man- ual occupations as a factor in education, that children should learn the most important principles of what goes on in the world around them, so that any special inclination toward things of this kind may assert itself with greater ease later on. The responsibility of preparing a young person for a voca- AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY 67 tion for which he is fitted physically and temperamentally will be one of the most serious duties imposed upon the pub- lic school system, because eventually it means that the prob- lem of supply and demand of labor and the problem of dis- tribution of human talent will be placed on, or correlated with, the public school system of this country. This is one of the reasons why this vital problem should be solved in a careful, scientific way, with due regard to each person's apti- tudes, abilities, resources, and limitations, and at the same time taking into account the relation of these elements to the opportunities and conditions of success in the different fields of labor. Children should be employed in positions for which their health, capacity, and intellect best adapt them. If this is done, it means well-rounded and efficient manhood and womanhood. On the other hand, an occupa- tion out of harmony with a young person's aptitudes and capacities means inefficiency and a loss to both the employer and employee. A large number of adults who prove to be failures in life can trace the cause to the lack of proper guid- ance in both school and juvenile employment. The vocational direction or guidance department of a public school system should be a part of the organization of the continuation school, and should be in charge of a director called a "vocational counselor." This director should have full power over the granting of working certificates and pro- viding employment for young people who desire to go to work. A vocational counselor should be a person with a sympa- thetic interest in young people. In addition, he should have information in regard to the opportunities for work for young people. In order to obtain this information, the counselor should have an appropriate personality to ap- proach employers, and the ability to do research work and to organize this information in proper form for use. This 68 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION may be carried out by dividing vocations into five large classes, the professional, the commercial, the agricultural, the industrial, and the household. Under each class we may have divisions and subdivisions of occupations. A record of qualifications and of the supply and demand of different positions should be on file. A chart may be made illustrat- ing the educational opportunities in the community. The survey will show the positions open to young people by using data given on page 62 in the form of a chart, which has been used successfully by the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. In order that the vocational counselor may properly look after the welfare of the individual child, it is necessary to know definitely the time the child should begin work and the kind of work he is able to do. Physicians tell us that the mental and physical condition should not be overshad- owed by being brought into use before the development adapted to such use is established; and on the other hand, that functions, both mental and physical, are weakened by not being brought into use when they are ready to be used. The mental development of the child should be carefully determined to see whether the child should be allowed to work. Before this is done, it is necessary to know the nature of the work the boy or girl is to perform. After it is deter- mined by tests that he or she has the mental equipment and the degree of knowledge necessary to do a certain form of work, the next question to be solved is whether his physical condition is such that this particular kind of work will not harm him. Since labor differs in character, occupations should be classified, and the boy or girl should be allowed to perform only the character of work that is best adapted to his or her physical condition. Since the knowledge and training imparted to a child are to prepare him for life, the school should follow up the boys AN INDUSTRIAL SURVEY 69 and girls who leave, and see how successfully these children have been prepared. The school is to judge by the success or failure of the children who are out in the school of life. A continuation school teacher should be assigned to look after a definite group in addition to the regular school work. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What are the objections usually raised in a community against an industrial survey? Are the objections well founded? 2. Explain some of the reasons why "Protocols " are not more commonly used in industrial education. 3. Are social workers alone competent to carry on an industrial school survey? 4. Are so-called general educators alone competent to carry on an indus- trial school survey? 5. What are the preliminary steps usually taken before an industrial school survey is made in a community? 6. How was vocational guidance provided a generation or two ago? 7. What objections are made to vocational guidance? 8. Give some reasons why the public school system should support a well-organized vocational bureau. What are some of the objections usually made against such a bureau? 9. Explain how the public school system may assist in solving the prob- lem of the unemployed. 10. Outline the organization of a vocational bureau for an industrial city of 500,000 inhabitants. 11. Give some of the reasons why every child should be under the guidance of the public school system until he or she reaches the age of eighteen. What are some of the objections to such a plan? LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * Report of the Minneapolis Survey. National Society for the Promo- tion of Industrial Education. Bulletin no. 21. (A very comprehensive study of the industrial educational needs of Minneapolis. Forms and questionnaire are very valuable.) ** Report of the Richmond Survey. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Bulletin no. 20. (A study of the different trades and industries of Richmond, Virginia, to determine educational needs.) ** The Vocational Survey of Cincinnati. Chamber of Commerce, Cincin- nati, Ohio. (A chamber of commerce investigation of the educational needs.) 70 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION "Vocational Information for Pupils in a Small City," M. A. Wheat- ley. School Review, March, 1915. (A study of vocational guidance in a small city.) * "Vocational Guidance in Boston." F. V. Thompson. School Review, February, 1915. (A description of the organization of the vocational guidance department of the school system of Boston.) ** Readings in Vocational Guidance. Meyer Bloomfield. (A collection of the best articles on vocational guidance.) Vocational Guidance and the Public Schools. Associated Academic Principals and Councils of Elementary School Principals and Teachers. Proceedings, Syracuse, New York, 1913. (A splendid discussion on how the public school may assist voca- tional guidance.) CHAPTER VIII PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY UNDERLYING LEARNING In order that one may have a clear understanding of the methods of teaching industrial education, it is necessary to have at least a working hypothesis of the action of the mind in acquiring knowledge and skill. The immediate organ of the mind is the nervous system which consists of the brain, spinal column, the cerebro-spinal nerves, and the sympathetic system of nerves which maintains the auto- matic action of the organs of respiration, circulation, and digestion. All of these parts form a complete system; the nerves and the spinal column are merely extensions of the brain tissue. The nerves, which extend to every part of the body, appear like white, silvery threads, branching and rami- fying from the roots which are sent from the spinal column through lateral holes in the spine, and to the brain from the organs of sense through the holes in the skull. Each nerve has two parts, the motor and sensory cords; these two cords run side by side, and form one thread bound by many twisted fibers that conduct the nervous energy and nutrition to and from the nerve centers. The two cords are distinct in each nerve, and serve a distinct purpose. The sensory cord carries sensations or sensory impressions that it re- ceives to the brain or spinal column, and the motor cord carries the reactions from the brain — that is, the intellect — to every part of the body. Each cord acts independently except as they meet in the brain. The brain is divided into two hemispheres or lobes, associated with each other by fibers which unite them. The center of the brain contains the section that regulates the activities of the special senses, smelly sight, hearing, tasting, and touch. 72 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Organs of sense do not at once act in their full measure in the child. They do not possess at the birth of the child their full power or precision, as in the case of animals, such as the power of smell of a dog. The first applications of sense-perception need to be corrected by experience. Each sense assists the other, and gives approximate perfection to sense-perception. Knowledge is best obtained by the com- bined exercise of all the organs of sense. Exercise strength- ens the organs and makes them accurate. The eye, the organ of seeing, is one of the most important organs. It at first perceives only surface and color, but it is trained by experience with the aid of the other senses to per- ceive texture, figure, size, number, and distance. By train- ing the eyes, the dyer is able to detect differences in shades of color, and other skilled workmen (tradesmen) are able by inspection to detect imperfections and strong points in material. The ear reveals sound. It is aroused by vibratory move- ments through the air to the ear. The ear, which at first is quite inactive, and very gradually discriminates sound, may be trained to perceive shades of tone. Experienced mechan- ics are able to detect weaknesses in engines and machine parts by the sound produced from the blow of the hammer which the ordinary person would be unable to discover. The tongue reveals taste. The organ of taste is the sur- face of the tongue and palate on which are distributed nerves. In order to excite the sensation of taste, it is necessary to have the substance in a state of solution. Continuous stimulation rapidly deadens its sensibility. It is hard to arouse this sense. It may be cultivated to a great extent by practice. Merchants and others are able to make the selection of certain commodities and to detect impurities by the sense of taste. The sense of touch: the nerves of touch extend to every PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 73 part of the body and receive impressions at their extremi- ties; in the fingers they terminate in a fold which is espe- cially sensitive to vibration. When we touch an object a flow of nerve energy or sensory impression is sent through the sensory fiber to the cerebrum forming a sense-perception. The nose reveals smell. The organ of smell is the mem- brane lining the inner surface of the nose. Odorous particles are emitted from the substance, pass over the membrane, and stimulate the nerve fibers. It resembles taste to a cer- tain degree, in that continuous action will render the organ useless. Certain tradesmen possess this sense to a marked degree. Of course we know that we can enlarge the scope of knowl- edge to be obtained by the eye and ear by artificial aids; the miscroscope and telescope assist the sight, and many other scientific inventions assist the hearing. We can improve and intensify the powers of sense by special practice; the surgeon trains the hearing, touch, and sight; the carpenter trains his eye and hand to work together in sawing wood. The expert finisher on cloth trains his touch so as to detect slight differences in the texture of fabrics that are not visible. The brain and nerves like all parts of the body develop very slowly. The child is born with certain tendencies that come by heredity. These tendencies are called " instincts/ ' The education of the child is a matter of inheritance and such habits and knowledge as are acquired by environment. The child's first education is received through the senses; that is, the child receives an impression first upon the organ of sense, which is transmitted by the sensory cord to the brain, where it makes an impression. As a result of a num- ber of these impressions called "sense-perception," the senses are exercised, and a certain movement of the mind takes place called a "reaction," which is transmitted from 74 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION the brain to the body by the motor cord. Certain actions that are repeated many times create such an impression on the part of the brain, the spinal column, that it puts forth motor actions that become automatic; that is, carried on without connection with the brain itself. This power is called "habit," or the reflex action of the spinal column, and is shown in walking, etc., which at first requires intellectual direction, but through repetition is performed uncon- sciously, through habit. To illustrate: the first time a boy saws a board he is obliged to make special nervous effort to do the work, and finds great difficulty in sawing according to the pencil mark. There is a tendency for him to saw at a slight angle. The second time it may be somewhat easier. After a number of trials he is able to saw straight to the line. After a while he is able to saw with very little mental effort. This is due to the fact that he has acquired the habit or skill of sawing a board to the line. Each time he performed this operation it required a certain coordination of the eye and the hand, and finally the response became automatic in its action; a tract (mental) has been produced which can be aroused very easily. In the case of academic work, pupils must perform exercises and problems to a great extent in order to obtain the power or habit to remember how to solve future problems quickly and easily. An educational device called "drill" is used to produce this habit. Sometimes it is desirable to break off certain habits. In order to do this, it is absolutely necessary that the pupil should have a real desire to break off the old habits and enter into the drill or practice for the new habits with con- siderable initiative, and never allow an exception to occur until the new habits are securely formed. A teacher should secure the interest of the apprentice or students from the beginning to the end of the lesson or drill, so as to utilize the energy of the interest or previous habit to the best advan- PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 75 tage. This requires close supervision in the early stages of the habit to form accuracy. Speed will be developed later. Every normal person is born with a healthy mind includ- ing the senses. In addition there are certain inherited ten- dencies or impulses called "instincts," like curiosity, emula- tion, love of outdoor sport, etc. Some of these instincts are born with us, others keep popping up from birth to adult life. A boy of fourteen years may be prompted by the in- stinct of curiosity to examine an electric bell, to see how it works. Instincts are very important in educating the child, for we build on the good and try to stifle the bad ones. It is of importance to consider the natural order and sequence of developing instincts, the normal age of the child for the first appearance of the different instincts, and the condition of their future growth. The development of many instincts is largely dependent upon that of others. Instincts may or may not appear at the same period in the abnormal child as in the natural child. Life may be divided into four parts; infancy, from birth to six years; childhood, from six to twelve years; adolescence, from twelve to manhood; and adult. The infancy period is the time of life of greatest activity, when the child appears to consist mostly of bundles of instincts, such as locomotion, curiosity, grasping, and imitation. It is through these in- stincts that the child is educated. At the age of five or six a child is able to walk with ease and grace, but his precision of movements of hands and fingers is about three fifths that of a boy of sixteen years of age. The second period, childhood, is marked by less violent or more directed self-activity. The greatest instinct is the play instinct. It is both expression and means of education. Education during this period may be assisted through play. It is during this period that memory, the mental power of 76 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION retaining sense-perceptions, is developed. It is the devel- oping of this power that gives us knowledge, for we must retain knowledge in order to possess it. The growth dur- ing the period of life from ten to twelve is slow, and a sur- plus of energy is available. It is the time when the play instinct is strongest, and a period for the development of facility and skill, when drill exercises for the formation of habits may be given with least harm. Adolescence is the period of change. It is a time when a great many children put aside childish things and begin to think of the serious side of life, self-support. The period may be divided into three stages, embracing respectively the ages from twelve to sixteen, from sixteen to eighteen, and from eighteen to twenty-four. Some authorities have classi- fied these periods as the physical, emotional, and the intel- lectual stages. The first period, from twelve to sixteen, from an educational point of view, is the most critical and difficult to deal with on account of the secretiveness of the pupil. He does not care to express his feelings, and on the other hand, he is very sensitive. Habits are fairly well formed. It is true there is time to grow, but very little time for the formation of new habits. At the beginning of this period, pupils begin to work in groups, team-work. It is the time when boys like to form groups and organize clubs. This leads to considerable phys- ical exercise in the form of baseball, football, etc. From fourteen to sixteen is known as the "clumsy age," when the bones grow faster than the muscles. Some children during this period develop an awkwardness, periodic lazi- ness with a tendency to self-assertion and dreams of great- ness. Above sixteen years of age, the bones are formed to a considerable degree, and the student is able to handle tools on a commercial basis. After the age of twelve the play period ends, and the PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 77 growing boy begins to live in an adult world. He is moved by motives similar to those of adults. It is during this period that the sense of achievement becomes very promi- nent in some boys' lives. From twelve to sixteen is a time of the most rapid body growth, a great increase in the devel- opment of the muscles of the hand and in the control of accessory muscles. The tendency to imitation is renewed, and a strong desire to follow adult ideals and examples is formed. It is a period among many boys of greatest incor- rigibility, misdemeanor, and crime, and of sensitiveness to ridicule. There is a keen sense of humor and a tendency to freakishness and pranks. Children at about the age of twelve begin to differ more or less in strength, health, intellectual ability, capacity for motor-development, and other mental and physical quali- ties, to such a degree that any wholesale classification is out of the question. Nevertheless, we can divide children, roughly speaking, at about twelve years of age — any earlier period would be unreliable — into two groups based upon the progress in the traditional school system. Since the work at school is largely memory work, committing informa- tion received from books to memory, and the promotion test is based on this, most pupils who fail to pass this memory test lack the interest and power to commit to memory ab- stract information from books. All pupils who have at- tended school regularly, and who can measure up to the promotion test, may be considered, for want of a better name, book-minded or abstract-minded. Those who fail are called retarded pupils. A great many of these are of a slug- gish mentality, strong physically, possessing the power of imitation and a mechanical ability, to a greater or less de- gree, and may be considered motor- or hand-minded. While this classification may be only approximate from a psycho- logical point of view, nevertheless every grade teacher rec- 78 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ognizes these two distinct groups — the abstract- and motor- minded. The interests of the hand-minded pupil are more motor than mental in character. It is from this class that industrial workers as a rule are recruited. Adults and children show a greater difference in the control of firm and precise movements of the fingers than in the movements of the limbs. It is in this respect that the feeble-minded differ from the normal, the efficiency of the finer movements corresponding to a higher degree of intelligence. All impressions received by the mind are recorded: we cannot always revive them. The easiest way to recall them is to arrange the knowledge in such a way as to be able to do this. Every exercise of the mind is dependent on attention, which is the concentration of nervous energy upon one group of brain cells. Upon the completeness of this concen- tration depends whether the mental exercise is more or less productive of knowledge and mental growth. Atten- tion to its fullest degree requires the following conditions: calmness of mind, healthy organs of sense and thought, nervous vigor, and a healthy body. There is a great differ- ence in the individual capacity for attention. Memory may be strengthened and trained by arranging ideas in such order as for one to excite the other, which means arranging accord- ing to one of the following: Known to unknown. Concrete to the abstract. Cause and effect. Means and ends. Part and whole. Like and unlike. Object and subject. Symbol and reality. Dependent ideas. Contiguous ideas. PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 79 Ideas in the mind are arranged in series; that is, one idea recalls another, etc. This arrangement is called the "asso- ciation of ideas." In order to add another idea to human knowledge, it is better to attach it to some idea already in the mind than to present it as an isolated form of knowledge. The human mind is constantly arranging and rearranging the ideas, and this mental process is called reflection or "thinking." In order to get knowledge we must be able to retain it. Memory is the power of retaining knowledge. We have the power of mental acquisition and the power of mental conservation, which together give us knowledge. Since all impressions leave a tract in the mind, they are indelible and can be recollected. Memory may be strength- ened and trained by habits of concentrated attention and of association of ideas. The power for memory and recollec- tion varies greatly in degrees, in different individuals, and at periods of life. Some men can easily commit facts to memory, but are able to retain them only for a short period, while others require more repetition and effort in retaining, but can more easily and for a longer period preserve the knowledge. Some minds have a stronger hold on facts, others upon thoughts and feelings; some have great difficulty in recalling names and dates and ease in recalling analogies. In early life the memory is very impressionable, but the im- pressions are easily effaced. Children seem very soon to forget knowledge obtained before the age of seven. Therefore, in developing the power of memory train the mind to a vivid and complete recognition of all associated ideas. Whatever a child does in school or elsewhere is actuated by a motive; that is, he does it for a purpose. The impulse — may be instinct or habit — pushes him forward. Any study that arouses the mind of the student so as to make him inquire about it, is said to be interesting to him. This 80 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION interest may be aroused by the teacher and is said to be ac- quired. When the interest has not been aroused by the teacher, it is said to be natural. It is safe to say that no child can acquire knowledge who has no interest in it. A teacher can no more give a child an interest that he does not have than he can add to his own height. Interest may be aroused and the teacher should take advantage of the suc- cessive waves of natural interest which underlie instincts. One of the foundation stones of industrial teaching is to arouse interest which gives the motive for the acquisition of knowledge. Of course, it should be understood that no teacher should allow an undesirable interest or tendency to develop. Every exercise of the mind is dependent on attention, which is simply a concentration of nervous energy upon one group of brain cells. Interests assist mental concentration. It is necessary in teaching a child to keep a sympathetic touch on his interests and previous experiences. There is a great difference in individual capacity for at- tention. The best minds have not only a great grasp of attention, but a great facility for transition from one subject to another. In minds of universal power the readiness of transition is so perfect as to enable them to attend to several subjects at once, keeping different groups of brain cells at work and accomplishing various kinds of mental operations simultaneously. If we examine our minds we shall see that the processes of accumulating knowledge consist in obtaining sense-percep- tions, retaining them (memory) and comparing them, and forming a conclusion called "judgment." You might say that every sense-perception has a judgment. To illustrate: a person interested in examining different metals, such as pieces of iron, brass, and lead, observes the qualities of each and naturally compares them. He classi- PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 81 fies the metals either consciously or unconsciously into groups according to their common properties, such as color, weight, etc. He will say lead is heavier than iron, brass is different in color, etc. This act of classification rests on sense-perception and memory, but includes the power of holding a property or quality — that is, an abstract idea — before the mind for analysis or comparison. This power is called "abstraction," or the power of mental conception. In complex operations there is a series of judgments founded on a comparison of qualities and following a natural se- quence of cause and effect, or evidence and conclusion. Judgment becomes more and more complicated as the in- tellect advances in development. As we grow in experience and education, facts accumulate in the mind and knowledge increases, so that the field for comparison becomes larger. A greater number of relations and associations enter into our act of judgment. Definite judgments accumulate and form a fund of experience that can be relied upon as decision for further judgments, and may also become unconscious judg- ments that are often called "intuition." Of course we must bear in mind that in all complex mental operations there are series of judgments or decisions following a natural sequence of cause and effect. A series of judgments constitutes reasoning. All who take part in every-day fife are expected to have a minimum amount of good judgment that we often call "com- mon sense." It is the result of common experiences which give intuitive judgment. Therefore, every one, particu- larly in this country, should have sufficient general educa- tion to have general intelligence and common sense. Life consists of a series of adjustments to new conditions. The power which enables one to make these new adjustments is called by the psychologist "apperception," and "gumption" by the experienced mechanic. One adjusts himself in terms 82 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION of his previous experiences; that is, he apperceives new things in terms of his previous experience. There are two methods of reasoning, inductive and deduc- tive. The inductive is the natural method of reasoning. It reasons by examining a number of individual cases to dis- cover a general resemblance or ground of classification and thus to reach the law or principle. The deductive reasoning begins with the rule or principle and draws conclusions re- specting the individual case. The process by which we ob- tain knowledge, by committing general abstract rules or laws to memory and then applying them to special cases, is called "deduction." It is the method used by experienced students and teachers who claim that it saves time and can be easily learned. The inductive reasoning begins with facts and deduces the theory, and the deductive reasoning begins with theory and deduces the facts. Modern industrial edu- cation should proceed in the beginning as far as possible by the methods of inductive reasoning. While the operations of simple judgment, or one- or two-step reasoning, are com- mon to all, the power of generalization is distributed in a larger degree over the abstract- rather than the motor- minded person. There are two theories with regard to the training of the mind: formal training and specific training. Formal train- ing theory, often called formal discipline or mental disci- pline, states that there are certain subjects, like mathemat- ics and foreign languages, that give a general mental training such as logical reasoning power. The specific training theory claims that general mental discipline does not exist: that each subject has a mental disciplinary value that ap- plies to that subject only, or one of similar content. Mathe- matics trains the mind for mathematical reasoning only. There is no question but that the theory of formal discipline is not true. On the other hand, there are some prominent PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING LEARNING 83 educators who claim that the problem of training the mind is a complex one, and that the doctrine of specific training is only approximately true. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Why is a mechanic usually stronger physically than a professional man? 2. Name the special senses utilized by the following mechanics: (a) cabi- net-maker; (6) steam engineer; (c) electrician; (d) worsted weaver; (e) jeweler; (/) structural-steel worker. Name some special devices used by the above mechanics to increase sense-perception. 3. What is the difference between an instinct and a habit? 4. What is the skill of a mechanic in terms of psychology? 5. Why is it more harmful to have acquired wrong manipulative skill than not to have acquired any? 6. What are the objections to allowing a child to receive industrial train- ing under fourteen years of age? 7. What are the psychological effects of highly specialized occupations? 8. What are the moral and physical effects of extremely specialized occupations? 9. Does personal growth in character, physical power, and mental ca- pacity depend upon the occupations followed? 10. Will early specialization on one who has not reached his growth have the same effect as specialization on one who has attained his growth later in life. LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * Educational Psychology. E. L. Thorndike. (A very reliable book on psychology.) ** Vocational Psychology. H. L. Hollings worth. (A very thorough and complete book on the application of prin- ciples of psychology to all vocational activities.) * " Abstract-Minded and Motor-Minded." W. H. Dooley. In The Edu- cation of the N e'er-Do-Well. (A distinction made between the normal boy and delinquent based upon ability to grasp academic subjects.) * Genetic Psychology. E. A. Kirkpatrick. (A study of the psychology of different periods of growth.) CHAPTER IX GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING The previous chapter shows us that the human mind ac- quires knowledge according to certain principles, the most important of which are interest and progression. Interest varies with the different types of persons and at different periods of life. Progression means that the subject-matter we expect to impart must be carefully analyzed and sepa- rated into ideas, each one of which must be presented in the form of a lesson. Each idea must be the outgrowth of the preceding one. Experience shows that there are two methods of analyzing the subject-matter: first, presenting the subject in complete units, and secondly, by considering parts of each unit sepa- rately. To illustrate: in teaching arithmetic the traditional arrangement was to present each unit completely, such as addition, before beginning the next unit, subtraction. The second was to present the addition of small numbers, then the subtraction, followed by the multiplication and division of small numbers. Then to return and consider the addi- tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division of more diffi- cult numbers. The first method is called the "unit" method and the second the "spiral" method. The unit method is part of the logical method of teaching, while the spiral method is based on the psychological method, that a learner can grasp the simple parts of a number of units of a subject more easily than the more difficult parts of any particular unit. In teaching we should select the most economical and effective methods of conveying the information and skill or GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 85 in presenting a subject. There are general methods and special methods of teaching. Experienced teachers usually divide the general method of teaching into five distinct steps : Preparation, Presentation, Application, Generalization, and Recitation or Inspection. Preparation is the skillful manner in which a teacher finds out from the pupils what they already know on the subject. This is usually done by asking questions and recalling to the minds of pupils past experiences on this subject. Then show the value of more information and ideas on the subject by offering incentives. The mind is then eager for the new ideas that are to be grafted on the old ones. Present the additional information in an interesting manner. This step is called "presentation." The pupils should then be obliged to apply the new ideas in the class so that the teacher may see that they understand each step, "application." This work includes constant repetition called "drill." "Gener- alization" is the next step and includes the assimilation of the new and the old ideas so that deductions may be made. After the pupil has been taught and drilled, it is the aim of the next step, "recitation" or "inspection," to see that the pupil really understands the new ideas. This is done by written or oral examination or test, or by examination of the finished product in the shop. The extent to which transfer of training or knowledge of one subject to another depends upon the organization of the course of study or the subject and upon the method of pre- senting the subject. A subject may be presented in such a way as to become an isolated group of principles, and arouse only a minimum of ideas in the pupil's mind. On the other hand, the same subject may be presented by other methods so as to arouse a great many ideas in the student's mind, and become part of his whole thinking. We may say then that the extent to which a pupil generalizes his training in a sub- 86 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ject is a measure of the degree to which he has secured from the subject the highest form of training. Instructors in teaching use different means of impart- ing information, such as lectures and demonstrations, use of textbooks, oral teaching, the laboratory, and objective methods. The lecture and demonstration method acts on the principle that the teacher should tell the pupil every- thing, and that he should not find out anything for himself. The disadvantages of this method are that the student may hear or see, but not understand; he does not learn how to think, discover, or develop the means of attacking a prob- lem, to know how to get facts and other facts out of them. Despite the many disadvantages of the lecture and demon- stration method, which applies mostly to technical subjects, a great deal of information, particularly of general educa- tion, may be and is imparted effectively through this method. Most of the teaching carried on in school is through the assistance of specially prepared books for pupils, called " textbooks." This method of teaching was first introduced to secure uniform methods of teaching and to assist poorly equipped instructors. Instruction through books has the advantage that each pupil can think at his own rate, get the facts over and over again as he needs, and then test himself point by point and make note of his difficulties, which are to be explained by the teacher. Book teaching is very valuable to students who have the ability to get ideas from print. Some pupils who have the mental equipment, particularly the abstract-minded or scholastic type, prefer to read rather than listen to a story or a lecture. The motor-minded or practical-minded pupil prefers to hear the description from the teacher. Textbooks are valuable as a means of econ- omy of time in teaching, as facts, principles, and applica- tions may be given by means of a book in one month of the GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 87 term of a course, and the rest of the term should be spent in study, experimenting, and problem-solving. Personal teaching is largely oral. The value of oral teach- ing lies in the added interest due to the intonation, facial expressions, gestures, and illustrations used by the teacher. Oral teaching requires less effort on the part of the pupil than reading. It is very necessary to a certain age, particularly to the younger children. Oral teaching is very important in general teaching, in the art of questioning to determine quickly whether a student does or does not know, and also assists the teacher to verify the results of previous teaching. Dictation of a lesson requires greater effort on the part of the pupil than listening, because the process of writing is artificial and the characters are abstract and remote from the experience of the pupil. There are certain elements of knowledge, particularly technical knowledge, that can be obtained only by direct experience of real things, qualities, events, and relations. The method of teaching through real things is called "ob- jective" teaching, and may be given in different degrees; the actual object or thing, a model of it, a photograph of it, or a rough sketch of it. The laboratory method of teaching is a combination of the objective teaching with the observation and verification of principles involved by the pupil's own experimentation. Efficiency in any subject or trade is only obtained by a continuous repetition called " drill. " There are two meth- ods of securing drill in school work: the logical order and the psychological order. The logical order consists of presenting first a series of exercises consisting of definitions and uses, composed of the elements of the subject formed by the anal- ysis of the complete subject. The elements are combined and arranged in a series according to a preconceived princi- ple of a teacher or an educator who has mastered the subject. 88 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION The advocates of the logical order believe that drills should be frequent and thorough, and should be continued until the pupil has acquired the habit. Without these frequent drills in the beginning, pupils may fall into bad habits and become discouraged. The psychological order consists of presenting concrete facts of the subject to the student when he is actually curious about the facts or has been made curious by the teacher, who has aroused his interest by presenting incentives for the study of the subject. The student makes his own analysis as far as possible. Skill is not aroused by this method of exercises so well as by the construction of some useful or beautiful object that the pupil desires to make. "When he finds that his skill is not adequate for this purpose, he may analyze the work and then strengthen by special exercises the weak elements, and finally apply himself again to the task. The logical method is based on a theory that learning naturally starts with the elements into which a subject may be divided or analyzed, and that these elements may be built up by the mind into a so-called "logical" arrangement. While this is the method of rearranging knowledge in a scholar's mind after he has mastered the subject, it is cer- tainly not the method by which a beginner or a learner arranges knowledge. A great many people, particularly some prominent educa- tors, object to the haphazard method of obtaining knowledge as practiced under the apprenticeship system and the home of old. The educator may say that it is not the economical method of learning. He fails to see that this natural method is not haphazard at all, but follows the mental growth of the pupil. Effort is obtained from the student as in the logical method, but it is obtained through a motive which a child must see in order to be interested. The experience of sue- GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 89 cessful men who have been trained by the old apprenticeship system shows that this method gives a discipline that is deeper and more permanent than that obtained by other methods which have no relation to the person's self-devel- opment. The attention paid to a subject — that is, the amount of mental activity involved — varies with the interest taken in a subject. The extent to which a person can be influenced by deferred or remote motives depends upon the period of growth of an individual and the type of the person. Motor- minded individuals are inclined to demand immediate re- turns : therefore, it is very important that this type of person should not be given considerable educational work (drills) of a drudgery nature in the beginning. Drill work should be provided just before it is necessary to have it. The interest or motivation of the present work is sufficient to carry the pupil over the preliminary drill. Every instructor should carefully determine by experi- ment the amount of drill necessary for the proper acquisi- tion of a habit. This amount is often called the "optimum " to distinguish from the least (minimum), or the greatest amount (maximum). Less than the optimum leaves the habit insecure and of little use. Greater than the optimum is a waste of time and effort. To illustrate: if you desire to teach a boy to make a wood joint, he should be drilled in making projects involving joints until he makes a satisfac- tory one to meet commercial conditions. After he has reached this stage it takes many hours of practice to add a very small degree of improvement. The traditional public school system may be compared to a ladder reaching from the primary school to the college. It has one direction, preparation for college. It is divided into sections called "grades" based upon the chronological age of the individual. Pupils are graded in schools in order, as 90 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION far as possible, to keep the mental and physical development in equilibrium. A great many children of the same chrono- logic age may safely be placed in the same grade in the school, up to the sixth grade, about the age of twelve. About this period individual children differ from each other in mental and physical development to a marked degree and a wholesale classification has proved to be inadequate. Any attempt to force the same course of study on all children above twelve years has caused a large percentage of retarda- tion. In the past, and in some cases to-day, the educational system has neglected the training of the motor-minded child who has certain mental and physical qualities that are re- quired in industry. The course of study was laid out to favor those of a scholastic turn of mind who would eventu- ally go to college. The test for promotion was a literary one and the intellectual type, with his quick memory, had no difficulty in passing the promotion tests, while the motor- minded child, without quick memory, fails of promotion and becomes what the teacher calls a "retarded pupil." He is asked to repeat the grade and he soon loses interest in school and feels as if he is a social outcast among the pupils. An earnest effort is being made to-day to make the ele- mentary- and the high-school curriculum broad enough to include every fundamental mode of utilizing mind which society employs in the conduct of its affairs; that is, at the completion of the sixth grade (about the age of twelve) a variety of courses, such as prevocational, commercial, and the regular school courses, should be offered to pupils. This will give to every variety of mind that interest and growth which are necessary to power and self-confidence in doing the day's work. The teaching in our schools must also be modified radi- cally in order to arouse the type of mind that will enter in- GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 91 dustry as a worker. In order to interest the student, prob- lems to be studied must be made to arise in vital and natural ways, so that the child may recognize the need for all the school work which the teacher requires. Schools should be so organized that ample opportunity may be given for studying and distributing the boys and girls into the particular courses of training and lines of occupation where each may do his best work. This has been desirable under vocational guidance. Opportunities should be provided for children who go to work to continue their education. Under a system of part-time schooling, as described on page 35, children will see the need of edu- cation of which they were previously unaware. Responsi- bility provokes thought and the need for more information and skill. A course of study in the elementary schools should be sufficiently liberal to give the teacher opportunities for ac- curate inferences as to the industrial activity of the pupil. There are five possible means of discovering the physical and mental qualities of a person for a suitable work: 1. General observation and recommendations. 2. Written examinations. 3. Trying-out process. 4. Controlled psychological tests. 5. Inference from school work. Most applicants are engaged for positions in the trades and business, often on interviews supplemented by letters of recommendation. A number of employers look for a letter from the teacher or principal of the last school at- tended. The teacher, without any knowledge of the re- quirements for the occupation, is liable to place the aca- demics above that of his mechanical ability, and recommend the type least suited for the work. This shows how impor- tant it is for the public school to know how to measure the 92 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ability of a pupil. To recommend a pupil for a position, we must know the pupil and the requirements of the position. When a young man leaves school to-day, he looks for a position and is usually governed by the following conditions in selecting his occupation; initial high wage, his father's occupation, easy working conditions, and the nearness of the place of business to his home. He desires immediate rather than deferred returns. His parents fail to call to his attention the fact that positions that provide steady work, with a gradual increase of salary, seldom give a high initial wage. The examination method is a tedious process and fails to give a true test of the person's ability. The trying-out process of testing the ability of a pupil is an expensive method both to the pupil and to the manu- facturer. The psychological tests are in the experimental stage and have not reached the point where the average employer can perform the tests. It usually requires the experience of an expert. The records of each pupil in school should give an index of the kind of work he is best adapted to pursue. To illus- trate : Pupils with some artistic ability will display this talent in the fine art work that is carried on in the industrial arts, hand-work and drawing. There are very few pupils gifted with this talent, and it is very necessary that pupils should know before they leave school whether they possess this talent or not, the occupations that require it, and the oppor- tunities provided for the development of the same. There are certain positions in the designing department of jewelery manufacturers, furniture manufacturers, cloth manufactur- ers, etc., that require this talent. Pupils may enter these trades and industries and work up to hold responsible positions. GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 93 There are certain characteristics that are necessary in every-day living for every mechanical occupation, and these are health, strength, and character. Boys of this type are usually found among the children of the families of the mechanical class. Boys of slight build should not be en- couraged to go into manual occupations. The craftsmen and skilled workmen should be recruited from the strong, healthy boys who show considerable ability in doing accurate work with the fingers and hands. This ability comes only after long experience and constant prac- tice. Vocational guidance may be imparted by the following means : Selected readings showing: Economic activities. Qualities demanded in various occupations. Systematic reading and study of prepared pamphlets. Individual or group conferences of pupils and teachers. Systematic study of young people: Physical make-up. Intellectual make-up. Prevocational training. Systematic study of various economic lines of employment. Maintenance of employment agencies. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. What effect has industrial education on general methods of instruc- tion? 2. Is the spiral system of presenting a subject used in high schools and colleges? 3. Some pupils would like to have the teacher do all the talking in class. Why? 4. How would you present the subject of decimals? 5. Give the outlines of a lesson plan on elementary science, properties of matter. 6. Has the lecture method of presenting a subject a place in the ele- mentary school? 7. A large corporation provides lectures on popular subjects for working 94 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION people. Is this education? If so under which class would you clas- sify this education? Why? 8. A college grade industrial school offers a course in English Literature for mechanical engineers. What type of education does this subject represent? 9. Children in the primary schools are taught hand-weaving. What type of education would you consider this subject under? 10. A boy of twelve (in a mill town) carries his father's dinner every day. While waiting for his father he sees the weavers at work and acquires a knowledge of weaving. Is this formal or informal education? Why? 1 1 . Learning to read a newspaper is what kind of education? 12. What are the two great principles of teaching that underlie industrial work? 13. Interest depends upon what factors? 14. Do the so-called "general studies" in liberal education constitute a training in mental development of sufficient importance to be given in an industrial school? 15. Does the close application to practice and theory required in the training of a general electrician develop general intellectual powers, as attention, concentration, order, etc.? 16. Are there any strong interests that may be aroused by industrial studies which are frequently left inactive in general education? 17. Explain why boys are not wanted in the highly skilled trades until they are at least sixteen years of age. 18. Is it more difficult to handle boys in the seventh and eighth grades than in the fifth and sixth grades? Why? 19. Which is more important, progression or interest? 20. Which is more efficient, individual or classroom instruction? Why? 21. Is it effective teaching to place a few illiterate non-English-speaking pupils of twelve years of age with the first and second grade pupils? Why? 22. Children in the lower grades are taught by objective teaching more than those in the middle and upper grades. Why? 23. Illustrate the difference between the spiral and unit method in teach- ing fractions. LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * The Learning Process. S. S. Colvin. (The psychological steps in acquiring knowledge.) * How to Think. J. Dewey. (The possibilities of developing scientific habits of thinking in children and adults.) ** Principles of Education. E. N. Henderson. (A very complete book on the principles underlying modern education.) GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING 95 ** How to Study. F. M. McMurry. (A discussion of the best methods of getting the child to study effectively.) * The Elements of General Method. C. A. McMurry. (A splendid book on general methods of teaching.) ** The Primer of Psychology. E. B. Tichever. (A very elementary discussion of psychology.) CHAPTER X GENERAL METHODS FOR TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION If we examine the successful engineer, mechanic, etc., we shall find that his knowledge consists roughly of three parts : the skill or manipulative phase, the related technical infor- mation that goes with the manipulative work, and a knowl- edge that promotes industrial ideals and general intelligence. To illustrate : the successful mechanical engineer has skill in running or operating mechanical plants and machines, a knowledge of parts of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and drawing which are the foundation stones of the practice, in addition to good intelligence and high ideals of his profes- sion. The same may be applied to a house carpenter who has a large amount of skill in house construction and repair- ing; sufficient practical knowledge of such parts of mathe- matics, drawing, and science as to do his work intelligently. A course of study or training in industrial education may be divided for purposes of instruction into three parts, the skill or manipulative phase, the related technical or theo- retical information that goes with manipulative work, and the group of studies that are designed to promote industrial ideals and general intelligence. To illustrate: to teach a student to be a house carpenter means that he will receive a large amount of practice in house construction and repairing, also a study of such parts of mathematics, drawing, and science as a well-trained carpenter should know. In addi- tion the student should be taught the history of the wood- working trades, distribution of occupations in this trade, and the special hygiene for wood-workers. A program for TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 97 general intelligence in English, history, and civics should be provided. The amount of time devoted to the group of studies for general education should not be over twenty per cent of the total time allotment. The manipulative skill in an industrial school must include training in the practical operations of that trade as carried on in a commercial shop. This may include, in the case of the general carpenter, manufacture of salable products, manufacture of school equipment and repairs on the build- ing, etc., called "productive" work. As far as possible the school should manufacture articles that can be sold or used — commercial value. In this way it is possible, in addition to the profit from the sales, for a pupil to get the habit of making a commercial product that can be compared in both quality and quantity to the regular commercial product, and thus to arouse an additional interest on the part of the pupil. Non-productive practical work includes all work that cannot be put to practical use. Every subject has two educational values, the practical and the theoretical. The practical value of a subject is ac- quired for a definite purpose. The ideal of the practical is personal efficiency, and the ideal of the theoretical is per- sonal accomplishment or culture. The learning of mathe- matics, science, and drawing, as separate theoretical or ab- stract subjects, does not contribute to industrial education. It is the practical side of these subjects — that is, the correlation with practical work — that gives industrial effi- ciency. On the other hand, industrial education contrib- utes some general education as a by-product. To illus- trate: industrial training for a machinist includes a knowl- edge of metals, which involves some principles of chemistry, and shop practice, such as lubrication, speeds, etc., which involves principles of physics. In this way an industrial course for machinists gives an insight into the applications 08 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION of principles of science. In addition, industrial education contributes to mental learning, on account of the close appli- cation to practice and theory, which tends to develop such intellectual powers as attention, concentration, order, etc. The college grade school originally taught by means of lectures, textbooks, and demonstrations. As time went on, it was found that it was difficult for students to grasp tech- nical knowledge from lectures and the printed page. De- spite the fact that the student was interested in technical subjects and saw the importance of them, it was impossible to grasp the principles clearly. The laboratory method was then introduced. The type of boy that is going to do the best work in a col- lege grade school of technology is one that has the power to deal with applied science, mathematics, mechanism in the abstract. Some boys must have experience in order to un- derstand the things, and cannot deal with the abstract problems in mathematics, science, etc., as easily as the purely abstract-minded boy. This type of boy is handi- capped and therefore is at a disadvantage in pursuing this theoretical course. The schools of technology desire prac- tically the same type of mind as the colleges, and the newer schools of technology follow the courses of study of the older institutions, with the approval of the alumni. The two Russian schools of technology, one at Mos- cow, the Imperial Technical School, and the Institute at Petrograd, made valuable contributions to methods of teaching. They combined textbooks, lectures, and labora- tory and shop practice. The work in laboratory and shop consisted of exercises in order to familiarize pupils with con- struction, use and nature of materials. Continental Euro- pean schools have hesitated about adopting the Russian plan, but the United States and England have adopted it with much success in the schools of technology. The Con- TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 99 tinental European engineer is a technically trained scientist, and finds positions as designer, draftsman, and computer; therefore the school provides theoretical instruction for five or six years before going out into practical work; although at present a certain amount of shop practice is required before graduation. While the instruction in the college and secondary evening technical schools follows somewhat the methods and con- tent of the day courses, this does not apply to the elementary evening industrial courses. The type of pupil that attends the higher grades of evening technical classes is of a highly selected group, and has the interest and mental equipment to study a subject systematically and continuously for three, four, or five years. This is not true of the ordinary worker, as for example one who attends an evening trade school, with a poor general education and an intensely practical aim. They are unwilling to study systematically an entire subject, such as might be expected from children in a day school. Both the inductive and deductive methods are used exten- sively in industrial schools. In the college grade or techni- cal high school the general method of teaching shop practice is the deductive method; that is, from general principle to definite practice, or, as it is sometimes expressed, from the "how" to "why." To illustrate: a student in electrical engineering in a school of technology would begin his train- ing by a theoretical discussion of the principles in science, mathematics, and drawing underlying the machine or job. Later in the course he would receive shop practice which would involve the principles he has studied in the abstract. While there may be some justification for the so-called "abstract" and "logical" methods, supplemented by ob- jective teaching, in higher technical schools, where the students are matured and possess considerable power of abstraction and linguistic ability, experience has shown that 100 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION it is a very inefficient method for the motor-minded pupils from whom tradesmen and industrial workers are recruited. The characteristics of the motor-minded boy are quite different from those of the abstract-minded boy who has profited to a large degree by general education. Motor- minded children usually have considerable physical activity, which shows itself in both " constructiveness " and "destruc- tiveness," real desire to build things and to pull objects apart, to see how they work. They cannot sit still, and desire to move and handle the objects for the love of action. The general mental activity of this type of boy leads him to "imitate"; the desire to do what older and experienced men do. Another instinct that is well developed is curiosity. The feeling to know what is "being done" and "how it is done" and "how it works" are valuable as a means of pro- ducing interest. While the interest may not always be sustained, it is of sufficient temporary character to be of value. It is surprising the amount of unorganized knowl- edge accumulated in every-day industrial life through curiosity. I The motor-minded boy is very easily discouraged if given a too difficult task. He immediately loses interest. Since confidence in one's ability to do a job is a very important factor in developing interest, it is very necessary to grade all work given to him in a progressive form of simple steps, so that one step is apperceived out of the preceding one, and that no step is too difficult. Then each success means greater confidence. In addition he has an intensely practical, selfish mind. He is not able to think in deferred values; he desires knowl- edge and information that has immediate value to himself alone, and is not willing to study a subject systematically in the hope that it may be of value at some future date. Therefore, in instructing this type of boy in industrial TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL" EDUCATION 101 subjects, it is absolutely necessary that the instruction be adapted to his needs. All instruction must center around his selfish aim. In order to secure his interest it is necessary to arouse a feeling on the part of the pupil that the subject he is about to study will assist him in some way in something he wishes to do. No task must be beyond the ability of the pupil, so as to develop his self-confidence. After the task has been completed, some means of praise should be provided. This may be done by word of praise from a superior officer, by mark, or a roll of honor, or a prize. Since the power of abstraction is not very great, it is im- portant that all instruction should be concrete and objective. Concrete teaching usually gives immediate and not deferred value. Another value of concrete instruction over abstract or book instruction is that the former may be made into units, as simple as desired. This is not true in the case of book knowledge. Concrete instruction leads to self-confi- dence. The inductive method is one of the most effective means of teaching the average mechanic apprentice. The apprentice has considerable shop practice and wonders why he performs certain work, and the next time he attends class he usually asks the shop instructor the reason. The average apprentice or pupil in an industrial school represents the same degree of intelligence as that of the mass of the population. A study of his characteristics will show that he is intensely selfish. You must study him in order to secure the best methods of teaching or presenting a subject to him. The first step is to secure his attention; second, to maintain his attention until you have developed interest; third, to develop the interest to a point where it results in action; and fourth, the teacher must guide this action into desired (efficient) results. The industrial school instructor succeeds in the same degree as he applies successfully the above methods to teaching. 102 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION The teaching lesson in industrial work may be divided into two methods: the information method for teaching shop-work and the development method for teaching trade technical work such as industrial science. The lesson may- be presented according to the following steps: preparation, presentation, application, testing, and generalization. In teaching shop-work the first step, preparation, should in- clude a direct review or statement of the aim by the teacher. The second step should include a demonstration, lecture, or illustration, or a continuation of the subject by the instruc- tor. The third step, application, should apply the method, and the pupil follows it in doing the thing taught. The next step, testing, should be a test of the pupil's ability, which is usually given in the shop by assigning him a piece of work, or a recitation or examination (written or oral). The last step, generalization, leads the pupil, under the direction of the teacher, to generalize and to apply the lesson to many situations which are not similar. This step may not always be required. It depends on the advancement of the pupil. It is usually omitted in elementary work. The first step in the development method includes brief questions or "key- words" to recall to the pupil's mind all information on the subject, that the new ideas may be "tacked" on to the old. Step two includes the experiment, demonstration, illustration, or combination. The applica- tion step allows the pupil to work out his own method and to follow it in doing the work taught. The next step is a direct test of the lesson on the job, or recitation or examination. Since this type of boy is not naturally interested in the academic work related to his trade, the problem of present- ing the academic subjects is a difficult one. The interest in academic work may be aroused by correlating these subjects with the practical work. To illustrate : every project, or in fact all shop-work, involves some principles of English, TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 103 mathematics, and science. After the boy has worked on a machine, there is a natural curiosity to know something about it. It is then time to explain the principles of science in terms of the daily experiences of the boy on the machine. The same is true in regard to mathematics. A written re- port on the work of the day would be the basis of the English lesson. In this manner an incentive is offered to the boy which creates an interest for the study of English, mathe- matics, science, and history. 1 This method of teaching, practice and thinking about the practice, is the way a great many young people, who have had difficulty in mastering abstract principles and themes as taught by the old book method of memorizing, have been able to grasp them: not only to grasp them, but to retain and comprehend them. The practice should always precede the theory, and the two should be intimately asso- ciated together so that both constitute an approach and a reinforcement. The old-fashioned schoolmaster has been teaching the motor-minded child during adolescence on the logical basis, on the assumption that he could grasp the principles of drawing, pure mathematics, and pure science before the ap- plication. This was due to the fact that the mechanical arts and scientific subjects were taught after the methods of the colleges and professional schools, where pupils were abstract- minded and could be taught on logical lines. There may be some justification for abstract teaching, particularly the theory before the application, in the college and professional school, but there is absolutely none in vocational and pre- vocational schools which are preparing the motor-minded child for some specific vocation. In fact technical schools of every type, including the col- leges, are beginning to recognize that practice and thinking 1 gee pages 104, 105 r 104 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION about the practice, in any given calling, must be closely related. Forty years ago the best medical schools provided courses in lectures supplemented by demonstrations by the teacher. The student performed little if any practical work in anatomy. To-day medical schools have laboratories, hospitals, and dispensary work to introduce the begin- nings of practical experience. The same holds true for training in engineering schools, nautical schools, agricultural colleges, etc. One of the most difficult problems in a vocational school is the question of discipline. The average teacher thinks his success depends upon a rigid organization with many rules. A successful industrial school is one that can train boys effi- ciently. In order to do this it is necessary to have an or- ganization and some rules. Discipline is a means to an end. The success of the organization depends upon every pupil conforming to the rules and customs of the school. The usual type of boy in an industrial school is inclined to do things in his own way and to question authority. There- fore the principal and teachers must have the ability to deal with this type of boy, to get along with him, and to win his confidence and respect. Then through kindness but firm- ness, the boy must be taught that habits of obedience must be formed. It may be mechanical at first, but it will become natural by experience and education. The pupil must be dealt with in such a way as to strengthen his character. Every case of discipline in a school is an individual problem, and must be settled as such through the cooperation of home, school, and the teacher, always remembering to strengthen the boy's character. A skilled workman is the result of not only shop skill, but trade intelligence. He must not only know what he is to do, and how he should do it, but why he should do it. Why he is to do it involves a knowledge of the principles of English, Used Hours on each tool 'o O h 1 List of parts of power tools Used Hours on each tool m s List of tools in trade -J 0) List of materials in stock-room Ph To become famil- iar with the tools of the ship -fitting trade. To note the condition of tools when issued new and their con- dition when re- turned, whether ill-used or abused, the best method of repairing tools for reissue; to de- cide when defec- tive tools should be discarded a.*"-* Tool-room Handling tools Receive, stow, and issue new tools; repair them ; all un- der the direc- tion of the experienced mechanic Total number of hours devoted to a job o a o ^ o 1 1 W H H 55 & £ I 09 L BO ^ lis 18 3 ta % 3 O thai — ' £ WD tf O •J3 a j* eg « pu^.s a. a 8 CO g 3 'O 2-i a £3 C3.2 O a > 8 &£.a o .a a ? g-gtS .a ft ■fi'fi s? a o 5 TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 107 mathematics, the science and drawing that are the founda- tion stones of the trade, and which are often called the re- lated knowledge of the trade. The aim of the course and the type of pupil both dominate to a large degree the course of study. The course for a skilled tradesman would be different from a course for a helper in the same trade. The same is true in regard to an industrial course in a college grade school of technology and in a trade school. The average type of pupil in a trade school may be described as follows: a. Limited general education (average seventh grade). b. Practical mind. c. Dislike of regular school methods. d. Must be aroused through greatest interest (his trade). e. Looks for immediate returns in education. /. Thinks only in one-step reasoning. The methods of teaching must appeal to the type of boy. 1. Objective teaching. a. An actual shop experience. b. The object itself; or, c. A model; or, d. Lantern slide; or, e. Picture; or, /. Diagram. 2. One-step reasoning. a. Series of questions, or problems in mathematics, sciences, etc., based on shop experience, etc. b. Discussion of questions and problems. c. Answers written in a book with sketches. / d. Individual teaching. Evening classes in industrial subjects represent one of the most effective systems of training those already at work. The most ambitious workers in every industry desire to ob- tain a practical education that will advance them in their vocations. The extraordinary success of the correspondence 108 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION school in large cities is another indication of the desire of many workmen to improve themselves in their general voca- tions. Over sixteen hundred students were enrolled in these schools from one city of one hundred thousand inhabitants. The disadvantages of instruction by correspondence are many, but such instruction is better than none at all. There are thousands of men in every community intellectually in- capable of benefiting by this course. Not more than three in one hundred complete their course; in fact the Interna- tional Correspondence School admitted, in an article pub- lished a few years ago in the American Machinist, that but 2.6 per cent of their students have been awarded a certificate or diploma. The vast majority of men enrolling are soon discouraged and frequently lose faith in their work. Evening industrial classes, in order to be most effective for the average worker, must be planned and organized on different lines from the day technical classes. The type of student attending evening trade classes, after a hard day's work, has an intensely practical aim in view, and is unwilling to study systematically an entire subject, as might be ex- pected from young people in a day school. They demand that the instruction shall lead directly to the specific things they want to know. If they are obliged to spend a month or more on preliminary work, the value of which they do not know, they will soon become discouraged and leave. Then again, mechanics and other tradesmen, who may, perhaps, have some reputation in their trades, and who wish to perfect themselves in certain technical lines, do not wish to be grouped with younger persons, feeling that such per- sons, having recently come from the public schools, are bet- ter able to answer questions, use better English, and appear to better advantage. In other words, adults are often sensi- tive about the comparisons which the younger members of the class are apt to make at their expense. TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 109 Every worker attends an evening technical class to satisfy a definite need. To illustrate: a young apprentice in a machine-shop finds difficulty in reading a blue-print. He enrolls in an evening drawing school to meet this need. The teacher is a mechanical draftsman, and he thinks the best way to know how to read a blue-print is to be able to make one. The young pupil is taught lettering, how to draw straight and curved lines, and to make simple drawings. The student's fingers are hardened from rough work and he finds it difficult to manipulate the fine drawing instruments. During all of this time he is receiving, in his daily work, the same reprimands, and is therefore debating in his own mind the value of the drawing course. It is undoubtedly true that the drawing course outlined by this teacher is a valuable one for teaching mechanical drawing to those who are to become draftsmen, but the average apprentice ma- chinist, such as this young man, does not see the direct appli- cation of this instruction to his daily need. He enrolled in the drawing class for a definite purpose. To be sure, it was a narrow one, but, nevertheless, it had economic value to him. The training in mechanical drawing which a ma- chinist needs is not the same as that of a draftsman. This young man shows that he needs a course in blue-print read- ing and in arithmetic for machinists. Evening school instruction in technical classes should be divided into small unit courses so as to satisfy a definite need. Just what unit courses should be offered in a school may be determined by allowing one whole week for prelim- inary registration, that every worker may attend and talk over the educational needs of the different industries. Instructors in evening industrial classes should be practi- cal men and women, with considerable trade experience. Considerable shop practice should be used in applying the principles underlying the trade. The actual blue-prints, 110 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION shop problems, and methods should be used in this course. Subjects that do not find continual application in the trade should be given in the advanced rather than in the elemen- tary course. The instruction in the various branches of mathematics should be adapted to meet the needs of the machinist, the plumber, and the carpenter. The terms used in the schoolroom should be expressed in the language of the shop and the mill. All technical students should be classified, as far as pos- sible, into classes according to their trades; for example, a class in arithmetic for engineers and a separate class in the same subject for boiler firemen. Again, the textile design- ers should have a class in arithmetic, called "cloth calcula- tions." This idea carries out the plan of the old trade guild of a few centuries ago. Each guild was formed for the pur- pose of social intercourse and mental stimulus. Each trade had its own guild. The daily trade experiences of each member became the property of all members. Discussions relating to the practices of their chosen trade occupied their attention. So to-day workmen have common interests. When evening students are grouped according to their occu- pations they have an opportunity to talk over their interests. The teacher should act as a leader, draw from the students discussions of their trade experiences, and through the ex- pression of these various opinions solve the problems. It may be difficult to get students to recite and express them- selves at the blackboard, but a free discussion of the point at issue makes the student lose his self-consciousness, and before he is aware of what he is doing, he is at the board illustrating his particular method of solution. Of course such discussions should be under the wise guidance of the teacher. Trade training for helpers and semi-skilled workmen is more intensive than that provided for the skilled mechanic. TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 111 There are two reasons why this is true; first, the training necessary for the helper and semi-skilled worker is very limited, and requires practice in one or two operations only, as chipping and calking; secondly, these workers have in- tensely practical aims and desire a type of simple instruction bearing directly on their work, and they are not willing to study systematically the related branches of their occupa- tions. Courses for helpers vary from a week to six weeks in length, and consist of seven hours' practical trade instruc- tion and a one hour talk, by the shop instructor, who is a skilled mechanic. In order to reduce the cost of instruction, the pupils usually practice together under the immediate direction of the shop instructor. For example, in teaching house carpenters to calk wooden boats a model frame with cracks is built. The carpenters practice, day after day, calk- ing the seams, until they are able to do the work satisfac- torily. The talk by the instructor consists of descriptions of tools, how to avoid the difficulties encountered, and the reading of a blue-print. The method of imparting instruction to these men is best given through the question-and-answer form. Sheets may be prepared with the questions and answers on them and each helper given a sheet to read over. While this method of teaching has not the approval of the general educator, for many reasons it is the time-tried successful method of all short-term trade courses. It is the most effective method for this type of worker, and should be encouraged among short unit courses for helpers and the semi-skilled workers. 112 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Lesson Sheets on Intensive Training in Steam Engineering for Engineers questions and answers Q. If you were called on to take charge of a plant, what would be your first duty? A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its attachments (safety-valve, steam-gauge, pump, injector), and the engine. Q. How often would you blow off and clean your boilers if you had ordinary water to use? A. Once a month. Q. What steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler fifty inches in diameter, three-eighths of an inch thick, 60,000 T.S., one-sixth of tensile strength factor of safety? A. One sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate, divided by one half of the diameter of the boiler, gives safe working pressure. Q. How much heating surface is allowed per horse-power by builders of boilers? A. Twelve to fifteen feet for tubular and flue boilers. Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler? A. By its diameter and thickness of metal. Q. Which is the better, single or double riveting? A. Double riveting is from sixteen to twenty per cent stronger than single. Q. How much grate surface do boiler-makers allow per horse- power? A. About two thirds of a square foot. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Some instructors in wood-working trade classes frequently begin with exercises intended to teach the boy the fundamental principles of con- struction. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of such a course. 2. Explain why some mechanics like the so-called "catechism method/ question and answer. Does each question involve much more than a single-step reasoning? 3. Which is the easier to learn, how to run a lathe, or the mechanical principles underlying its working ? TEACHING IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 113 4. A superintendent of apprentices in a machine-shop makes a practice of writing personal letters to apprentices if they do good work, and a letter to their parents if the work is poor. Is this a good practice? Why? 5. Is it possible to devise a program of industrial education that would train all-round practical tradesmen? 6. A number of prominent technical educators contend that to-day there are certain studies and practices that serve as a basis for general industrial training. What is the objection to such a plan? 7. What arguments may be offered for urging a systematic industrial education in some trade requiring various operations, over a form of training involving a series of special operations found in a highly spe- cialized occupation? 8. Visit an industrial school and note the difference in aim, method, and type of pupil from that of the regular high school. 9. To what extent and under what conditions do the results in practical experience in general — that is, skill, knowledge, appreciation, and ideals in one trade — constitute an advantage for entrance into another trade? 10. Does the experience of a well-trained machinist benefit him in any way when training to be a house carpenter? 11. To what extent does the general experience of a farmer's boy assist him when training to be a machinist? 12. Visit a number of different industries and trades, and notice the dif- ference in physical development, ability to explain, etc., between the clerks (office help) and mechanics, highly skilled mechanics, helpers, etc. Classify them as "motor-minded" or "book-minded." 13. Explain the psychological reason why (a) a pupil who has learned to run a speed lathe will learn how to run an engine lathe more quickly than a pupil without any knowledge of either machine; (b) a pattern- maker's apprentice who has made a visit to the foundry and observed the work will learn how to "draw" a pattern more quickly than a boy who drives a grocery wagon; (c) a boy who has done some printing at home on a hand-press will understand the operation of a power-press better than a boy who has worked at wood-working; (d) a boat-builder will learn house carpentry quicker than a coppersmith. 14. Is it necessary for a pupil to have developed an industrial aim, desire to learn a trade, before entering an industrial school? 15. Why is it important that an industrial school should imitate industry as far as possible? 16. Is the college grade industrial school student usually as interested in the theoretical discussion of a machine as he is in running the machine? Why? 114 I INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION LIST OF REFERENCES FOR FUTURE READING * The Instructor, the Man and the Job. Charles R. Allen. (A splendid discussion of methods that may be used in teaching tradesmen.) ** Principles of Secondary School Instruction. Charles De Garma. (Splendid discussion of methods adapted for the adolescent.) ** Methods of Teaching Industrial Subjects. Handbook of Vocational Education. Joseph S. Taylor. (Short discussion of methods.) * Organization and Methods of Teaching Vocational Classes. Massachu- setts Board of Education. Bulletin no. 3. (A very fine discussion on methods based on experience in Massa- chusetts.) * Outline of Lessons. Institute of Teachers. Bulletin published by Wis- consin State Board of Industrial Education. (Lessons worked out by industrial school instructors in Wis- consin.) CHAPTER XI 7 METHODS OF TEACHING SHOP-WORK There are four distinct ways in which one may be trained in shop practice: first, by a mastery of the tools and ma- chines of the trade; second, through developing a skill in the fundamental operations of the trade; third, through a knowl- edge or skill of working the materials of the trade; and fourth, developing skill in the application of the principles of metal- working. The first method is generally used in the mechanical en- gineering department of a college or a technical school of college grade. The instructor teaches the student the theo- retical principles on which each tool and machine is based. In the machine-shop trade, it would include the theory of cutting-speed, principles of each hand- and power-tool, sup- plemented by the mathematical problems underlying the work. After the student has received this instruction, sup- plemented by a diagram or blue-print, he is sent to the school shop to receive training in the practice. The purpose of this instruction is to give the student who has the capacity to deal with abstract technical knowledge a training in both the practice and theory of machine-shop work. He is to use this knowledge as an expert, designer, etc., not as a journeyman. The shop-work is usually a series of exercises to illustrate a principle. The method of imparting this in- struction is from general principles to definite practices in the shop, and gives very good results for the type of school. The second method has always been used effectively in training apprentices to be journeymen. The students are taught by coming in actual contact with shop conditions. 116 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION In the machine-shop they have experience on the different machines, doing actual commercial work; they see that cut- ting-speeds are used on certain metals, and learn how to use the various devices. They learn by practice the mechanical parts of the machine first without the theoretical principle involved. This method of teaching is from definite practice to abstract principle. The steps in teaching a lesson in shop-work may be di- vided into four parts: first, getting the young apprentice started thinking about the new trade which he is about to take up, trying the unfamiliar things, presently to be im- parted, with the things he knows, in general arousing his in- terest and winning his confidence. This step may be called the "preparation." The master or skilled mechanic does this in many ways; by asking the learner many questions which lead him to think about the new work, then demon- strating work with tools or showing him finished work and explaining its nature, or by relating interesting illustrations drawn from the experience of the master or skilled mechanic. After the way has been prepared by leading the appren- tice to think about his new work, and interesting him in it, a simple but definite operation of the trade practice is ex- plained to him, and he is expected to carry it out, which is step number two, presentation. The apprentice is next allowed to carry out the simple operation under actual commercial conditions, the instructor supervising the work. This step is called "application." The next step is testing the subject-matter of the lesson. During this step various errors in teaching crop out. For example, attempt to teach too much at one time, failure to make each teaching step plain before starting on the next, lack of patience, tact, or interest. The instructor should make an attempt to find out why the student fails, and should then try to improve upon his own teaching. TEACHING SHOP-WORK 117 Where an instructor is obliged to teach shop-work to a class of fifteen or more pupils, the steps in presenting a lesson are as follows : demonstration by the teachers, practice steps by the pupils, and the tests given by the teachers. The dem- onstration includes the preliminary talk to the pupils on such points as the common names of tools, uses of tools, blue-prints, or sets of patterns, measurements or steps in shop practice, etc. The industrial interest in the pupil is sufficient to hold the attention. The practice steps should follow the demonstration, and should consist of one pupil performing the work under the direction of the teacher, in the presence of the class. The teacher should correct all mistakes made by the pupil and offer suggestions at the same time. The mistakes made by the pupil represent the common mistakes, and should be listed on the blackboard as such. This step is an economical device to save the teacher repeating all corrections to every pupil. The last step should be a test given by the teacher to the pupils. The teacher should follow each pupil's work and give individual instruction. Scrap pieces of stock, etc., may be used for drill purposes on certain points that the pupil fails to grasp. Pupils should be taught as of old on projects that have com- mercial value, and the instruction should be carried out in a commercial way. This is very necessary, for the habits the pupils form are the ones they will use; therefore develop commercial habits. Develop the habits of skill in the way they are to be used. Thus we see the most effective means of producing skill is to secure interest (industrial); then explanation, example, and drill follow. Example is better than rule; imitation more effective than explanation. Many industrial teachers make a grave mistake by ex- plaining rather than showing to the motor-minded type of child. Imitation is one of the strongest instincts and should 118 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION be utilized to greatest advantage. The instructor should not insist too strongly on a particular method. Remember there are various ways of performing an operation; one method may be good for some, others may profit by a different method. To attempt to force students to use the same methods is a terrible waste of energy to some pupils. One of the first questions that come before a shop instruc- tor in an industrial school is, How shall I arrange my shop- work so as to give the pupils the most efficient and economi- cal course? As we saw on page 25 the average mechanic obtains his trade in an unorganized manner, often by steal- ing it. Under this last method there is no question but that there is a terrible waste going on in training mechanics. The most effective system of teaching a trade to those who are about to become journeymen is to assign to each pupil a series of jobs arranged in a progressive order. The simplest job is one that involves the fewest elements of mechanical control regardless of the number of operations. Since there are simple and difficult operations in each machine, it is clear that the spiral and not the unit method should be used. In the machine-shop trade drilling on an upright drill, with template, then with jigs and fixtures, may be considered as a good beginning. Rough work may be given to a beginner, in which the operator removes considerable amount of material with leeway with regard to dimensions, such as turning down square bar stock to rough round in a lathe. The finishing cuts may be given to the advanced students. Complex work that demands considerable judg- ment, setting-up work on milling machines, etc., are gen- erally given to the advanced students. In order to hold interest and retain a high standard of skill, it is absolutely necessary to have the pupils work on real jobs having commercialized value: otherwise the shop- work standard will be low and consist of a series of routine TEACHING SHOP-WORK 119 performances. The pupil does not have the interest and lacks initiative in his work under these conditions. The training of students for shop practice should be care- fully planned so that the apprentice may receive an all- round shop experience, and not be held on any one type of work at the expense of his training in other phases of work in his trade. This has been one of the most difficult peda- gogical problems in industrial schools, especially those laying great stress on productive work, as corporation apprentice schools. A shop for teaching apprentices is usually laid out to do commercial work and the foremen and other leading men are hired on their ability for shop production. There is a great temptation for both the officials and mechanics to keep apprentices on work that they can do to the advantage of the shop. Therefore it is absolutely necessary, in the in- terest of the proper training of the apprentice, to have a card made out showing time allotment in hours or months, in the different lines of work practiced in the trade. It is possible for the apprentice to record the time spent on each type of work, that he may see the progress he is making. In case the student is being used as a helper on highly specialized work, or kept too long on one class of work, he can appeal to the master of the trade. The officials are able to record the work of the boy to better advantage. The training of an apprentice in the shop practice of a trade should include, among other things, the following: At least one month in the tool-room handling tools under the direction of an experienced hand. The student should be taught shop and manufacturers' names of the tools, the difference between the condition of tools when issued and their condition when returned. In this way he will become familiar with the defects of tools, know how to repair them, and to decide when tools should be discarded. At least one month in the stock- or fitting-room under the 120 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION direction of a skilled mechanic, who will teach the boy the names of the different kinds of stock and fittings. At an early period of course the apprentice should perform the menial and disagreeable part of the trade requiring little training or skill. For at least one year the apprentice should be under the guidance of the trained men so as to prepare well for the time when he will be thrown on his own re- sources. He should be trained in work that will develop responsibility and accuracy, care in the operation of expen- sive or heavy machinery. One month during the last year of the apprenticeship should be spent in the estimating department to show the need of economical work, with regard to the cost of labor, time, and material. The most difficult part of the work should be completed during the last year. This work should be done entirely from plans and develops responsibility. The apprentice or student should pursue his course ac- cording to conditions advantageous both to the student and to the employer. He should first learn the names of the tools, then work with an experienced mechanic, and later be allowed to work alone under a foreman or supervisor. To illustrate: if it is desired to have a course for a machinist's apprentice, it is first necessary to determine the kind of work and the machines necessary to do the work efficiently. The following represents the different kinds of work; stock-room, tool-cribs, forge- work, bench- work (filing), lathe practice (speed and engine), drill-press work, plain milling- work, cylindrical grinding, surface grinding, screw machines, planer and shaper, small-tool manufacturing (reamers, cut- ters), hardening, tempering and heat treatment, tool manu- facturing (jigs, fixtures), punchers and dies, general repairs, general manufacturing, and assembling parts. The accompanying card shows a form that is sometimes used to keep a record of the apprentice's shop experience or < u a or U u I ■ 2 J - 3 2 c z u i.i a a J £1 =• or Si its 5 2 °I z i i < V- u. UJ U z u a to u l! 5x n lal d n ■* m •*> > a. V ! £ i 4 1 a) R S! *l ft ll Q. o a 1 -s: o m X 3 .5 00 V * <0 .5 Si i -5 a s: I 1 1 0.1 1 !' F 1 ? 2 z 21 A .f i i B it R E < 3 o E (D U 124 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION This record should be placed on the apprentice's life card, which is a permanent record of the school and should be kept by the supervisor of apprentices. The apprentice shop report should include, in addition to work done, a mark of either very good (A), average (B), or unsatisfactory (C), on the following characteristics, speed, reliability, workmanship, industry, initiative, tact, aptitude, analytical ability, knowledge, enthusiasm, personality, and decision. It would also be valuable to have a record show- ing in what "he excels " or "is deficient." A pupil or apprentice in a vocational or an apprentice school should be graded according to the standards of a successful mechanic. To illustrate: a successful all-round machinist should possess the following qualifications: adapt- ability, speed, be able to do good work (quality), be reliable (conduct), and punctual (regular in reporting for work). A pupil or apprentice should be rated monthly in these characteristics. The mark may be expressed in percentages : ExceUent 95-100 A Very good 90-95 B Good 85-90 C Fair 80-85 D Passable 70-80 E Failed Below 70 F Lesson sheets should be prepared on machines with the parts marked with numbers. The names corresponding to the numbers may be placed to the right. Pictures or illustrations on lesson sheets showing the operator tending the machine, may be given to the pupil. There may be questions on the illustration as follows: What is the name of this machine? How is the power furnished to run the machine? Name the parts of the machine that you can see, and tell the use of each part. r i S -5.3 CL=6 . Xp Is ^ ^ <* ? - ■** #* ^ J3 1* _ - •55 ll V) Id U -• ci n ^ io o- £i 2 i - - 1 * E ^ 2~ 41 w 2! ** -a «s H £-2 .2 "o Hi c a C -4* ■9 O - _ 1 "I 1 W i. 4> — n:::: ... |a.... 5 ^ 5 ..: si:::: tf 2 - - 2 6£_ s.« z • ... |v— - .. =c __ j i Ix < «* 3 v < H J °- •> h 2 I- K or x i- a £ _ _ 5 2 2 2 «" 8 3 X _ i M > V > 2._ 1 "2 ii- " t- B O x M _ _ * a. Hi o fl 2 2 i-s x S pu 2l~ 3 M Efl s 1 la.. --- w o 7 111 i o ; i — M ___ 5 : « I "J ___ j < 3 a: ~z " — * >L __. * 2* — «!.„. 1 "1* i gm kl u >- R r 0» 5 <*_„_ 5 • V) Of m # a < I .2 R •5 x S:l 5" 2 j{ z 3 *_ _ v5 C X ?l 5 • ft w kl I >- < -J O t I 5 e •j ii R or u 2 < J a c 2 J -i i X «] 4) d R or h r- 3 U < u a X R 2 P h k 12 X" J •0 R 3 v3 2 > < -J 12 X o (4 II 8 *s *4 o z TEACHING SHOP-WORK 127 What is the name of the operation? How is the stock held in the machine? Name the different attachments of the machine on the wall and floor? Illustrations showing the position of tools may be dis- played and questions asked about the use of the tools. For example: the following shows the position of a file and questions that may be asked. What is a file? For what purpose is a file used? How is a file made? Of what metals are files made? What is the tang of a file? Name the other parts of a file. Why is a file sometimes curved instead of being flat? How should a file be grasped? QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. If an instructor in wood-working gives exercises followed by an appli- cation of these exercises, in the form of production, does this method constitute good shop training? Why? 2. Give a unit of instruction for the following trades: house carpentry, machine-shop work, plumbing, printing, and electrical work. 3. Give a list of units in machine-shop work based on the unit progres- sion; on special progression. 4. The pupil as soon as he enters a trade school desires to wear overalls. Why? 5. Why will an apprentice house carpenter learn to read house plans and take off quantities of material from the plan, more so than would a dry-goods salesman. 6. Should an apprentice make solder before learning to wipe joints? Why? 128 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 7. A pupil between the ages of fourteen and sixteen desires to learn steam engineering; would you teach him to fire first or read the water glass? 8. A pattern-maker should know something about foundry work. One instructor suggested starting the pattern-maker in the foundry; an- other said let him go in after his first year of study. Which is right, and why? 9. Apprentices are often called upon to know about subjects they have not worked upon, but have seen. Is this just to the apprentice? 10. Apprentices are obliged to ask mechanics the names of tools. Is this a good plan? 11. Is it possible for a skilled mechanic who is teaching shop-work in the school every day, to lose the manipulative skill required in the shop practice? 12. A boy is kept a definite time on each machine in a machine-shop course. Is this good teaching? 13. A teamster and an apprentice machinist were both admitted to an evening machine-shop course. Which one will make the greater progress? Why? 14. If you were asked to teach a group of boys how to run a lathe, how would you proceed? 15. A survey of the existing methods of teaching shop practice in school and life would show the following: a. Under the old-fashioned apprenticeship system the skilled jour- neyman showed the apprentice how to do the work. 6. The evening trade school instructor tells his pupil, who has al- ready received some shop training, how to do a piece of work. c. In many mechanical establishments the apprentice helps the skilled mechanic, and is expected to observe how a job is done. d. In short-term private trade schools with limited facilities the pupil, with very little practical experience, simply observes how a job is done. e. In a first-class apprenticeship system, in a private corporation, the apprentice does the job under the direction of a shop instructor, who explains the reasons why. /. Many apprentices learn their trade by applying to a shop as a mechanic, and performing the work without any direction or assist- ance. g. Apprentices sometimes are obliged to read from a book of shop practice how a job is done. h. Some secondary industrial schools have the pupil perform the job in the school shop, and then make a drawing of it. i. Industrial schools of limited equipment teach pupils from a book on shop practice, reading from the book and then reciting. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each method. TEACHING SHOP-WORK * 129 LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * Organization and Methods of Teaching Vocational (shop) Subjects. Massachusetts State Board of Education. Bulletin no. 3. (A discussion of methods of teaching for shop-work as worked out in Massachusetts.) * The Instructor, the Man, and the Job. Charles R. Allen. (A discussion of methods that will apply to all forms of shop- work, especially the commercial shop.) * Part-Time Trade and Industrial Schools. Bulletin no. 19. ** Buildings and Equipment for Schools and Classes in Trade and Industrial Subjects. Bulletin no. 20. Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D.C. (These publications represent the latest thought on the subject of organization and methods of teaching.) CHAPTER XII METHODS OF TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE- PRINTS AND SHOP SKETCHING The language of shop practice is the blue-print. Direc- tions are given to a mechanic on a blue-print, which consists of drawings representing the work the mechanic is to per- form. Therefore every mechanic should be able to inter- pret a blue-print. In addition, he should be able to express his mechanical ideas on paper in the form of a sketch. The drawing that an apprentice will need for his trade is quite different from that required by the draftsman in the same industry. A journeyman primarily requires the knowl- edge to read a blue-print, to look for dimensions, lay-out of holes, and to be able to make rough drawings of the work. A draftsman requires the ability to design, which necessi- tates the power to think in the abstract. Some very suc- cessful teachers provide the same course in mechanical drawing for the apprentice machinist and the apprentice draftsman. They fail to consider the difference in purpose of the two courses, and the different types of mind, which require different methods and content. While there may be some justification in teaching exercises in drawing lines, for the abstract-minded pupils, who desire to learn mechanical drawing, and who take education on faith, it is not the method for the pupil of intensely practical mind, who de- sires to know how to make a drawing in order to assist him as a mechanic. What is gained in technique by the exer- cise method is overcome by the lack of interest and failure to make proper connections. The practical-minded pupil TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 131 is more interested in an object he is drawing than in the method of drawing. Courses in drawing for apprentices or trade students in a vocational school should begin with sketching pictorial views of simple tools, appliances, etc., drawn by means of an ordinary school rule and simple school compass. Then show that it is necessary to have more than one view to bring out all the details. These views may be obtained by drawing one side of the object at a time. Each side is called a view. Usually three views are required to bring out all details — the plan, elevation, and end view. The following sketches of a planer block for machinists will illustrate the views. CO/) PUAN VIEW i CO END VIEW A. The pictorial view represents the view as it appears to the eye. The views over B represent the three views of the planer block arranged in proper order for a working draw- ing. The view marked (a) is called the plan view, and shows the top of the block as seen by looking in the direction of the arrow marked (I). The view marked (6) is called the elevation view, and is the side of the block looking in the direction of the arrow marked (II). The end view, marked (c) is the side as seen by looking in the direction of the arrow marked (III). The parts which cannot be seen must be shown by dotted lines in the views. The first day an apprentice or a pupil is in a shop he sees that the teacher and mechanic talk through rough sketches or drawings. Therefore a boy or apprentice should work as soon as possible from a sketch or drawing. He soon learns to look to the drawing for information; that there are certain forms in which this information is put, dimensions, different views, kinds of materials, etc. 132 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Put information in form by simple shop sketches (free- hand or mechanical) that carry the data. Be sure the sketch contains all the points regardless of crudeness of form at finish. Lesson Sheet on Drawing Square Flatter for Blacksmiths without dimensions J ^ Draw end view here Draw plan view here Square Flatter Lesson Sheet on Drawing If inches Matched Flooring for House Carpenters Draw plan view here. Length 5 inches Draw side view here TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 133 Lesson Sheet on Drawing a Boiler Tube for Boilermakers Boiler Tube Draw one size of Boiler Tube from Dimensions of following Table A B C D E G lY 2 in. .393 1.767 .095 in. .109 in. .419 .480 13 12 1%'tn. .458 2.405 .095 in. .109 in. .494 .566 13 12 2 in. .524 3.142 .095 in. .109 in. .12 in. .589 .654 .709 13 12 11 2*4 in. .589 3.976 .095 in. .109 in. .12 in. .643 .739 .803 13 12 11 A = Outside diameter. B = Square feet of heating surface per foot of length. C = Area of section in square inches. D = Thickness of tube in inches, s E = Area of metal in square inches- \G = Birmingham wire gauge. 134 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION L-j3on Sheet on Drawing a Standard Weaker for Skipfitters D'Z-: t::r 5 -.-:■: :;' X~ :.:■-,:-:< ;-:~ i:.; ;':'.:.: ■.•■-.: !:':'.< ' • c Z) ^ in. - J - - - ; - .065 in. ; JL ■,, : :- :>.?- : - - -n in. I 1 ; - - 1 — '• - "--' — l 1 ; in. : - - -: — : : " -. ; , - .12 in. ^ - - ■_: :- ; — . ;-j LJ1 : .-. 1"-= in. i~. - .163 in. TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 1S5 Lesson Sheet on Draining a Hexagonal Wrench —CTT J YT S7b $ Hexagonal Wrench Z)raw ora Sis^ 0/ Wrench from Dimensions in Table Showing Wrench Proportions B=WX.8 D=WX.6o E=WX .4 F=WX.2o L=WX7 A = Size of nut A W B D E F L C %'w. Uiein. % in. Hie in. Tie in. %in. 7 vie in. %in. s i in. l L iin. 23 32 in. Vs in. 1 Vie in. 27 32 in. 1 in. 1% in. 1 ^i6 in. l 1 ^ in. I 13 i6in. 1 1 32 in. lHin. 2 in. 1 5 32 in. Complete this table 136 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Lesson Sheet on Drawing Conventional Threads; r 9 THDS PER IN. Square Head Bolt Note : Bolt is too long for sheet and is shown with piece broken out. Make the threads as shown above. This is not supposed to be a true representation of threads but is one of many short cuts to save time. These are called conventional methods. Lesson in Drawing Showing the Method of Sawing t 1 = Circles of Growth. 2 =r Medullary rays. A = Bastard sawing. B — Method of quarter sawing. C = Best method of quarter sawing. Draw the above figure about twice this size TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 137 Lesson Sheet on Drawing a Matched Joint Draw the above figure as shovm and make another view showing pieces assembled Problems in Drawing 1. Make a free-hand drawing of the following: (a) Knife switch (6) Globe valve (c) Faucet (d) Link trap (e) Lathe dog (/) Hexagonal head bolt (g) Soldering iron (h) Funnel (i) Micrometer (j) Screw driver , (k) Claw hammer (0 Cold chisel (m) Twist drill (n) Reamer 138 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION H One-Inch Ring Gauge — T. S.-Hard & Ground One-Inch Plug Gauge — T. S.-Hard & Ground From the above sketch draw 1-inch plug and ring gauges. Center hole .078" drill and if" counter-sink. Stamping Spot Questions 1. What objects are represented ? 2. Of what material is it made ? 3. What is the outside diameter of ring gauge ? 4. What is the inside diameter ? 5. Make a working drawing of the ring gauge and show all lines including hidden lines, with all dimensions required. 6. What is the length of the plug gauge ? 7. What is the largest diameter of the plug gauge? 8. Give other diameters if any. 9. Make a working drawing of the plug gauge showing end view and all necessary measurements. H* < K-*'-i TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 139 General Course of Study-Interpretation of Drawing First Year One month: Short, simple explanations of the purpose of the course and the value of it to an apprentice. Free-hand isometric (or perspective) sketch of a rectangular piece of stock or part used in the shop. Drawn from copy without dimensions. Sketch of any other rectangular parts drawn from copy without dimensions. Then unit dimensions. Free-hand sketch of parts containing curved lines. Use rule for measuring only. Blank stock, nuts, bolts, washers, rivets, screw threads may be used. Four months: Introduce lettering. Rough pencil sketches of files, chisels, wrenches, various kinds of hammers, appliances, heat- ing furnaces, shape of stock used. Mark names of parts of tools. Four months : Drawing of shapes of stock in two views to develop the idea of projection (plan and elevation). Also views of stock assembled in two parts. Three months : Sketches of parts of vessels, or boats, or stock, or engines, or motor, or dynamos, or wiring, etc. Second Year One month : Drawing of simple parts of the machines used in the shop as pulley, levers, spindles, gears, cutting heads, etc. Three months : Reading of simple blue-prints such as used in the shop: dimension of parts, distance between centers, etc. One month : Drawing of simple parts of machines used in shop involving two views. Three months : Applied geometrical construction to practical work in the shop such as inscribing hexagons or erecting perpen- dicular, bisecting angles, reproducing angles, division of fitch circle or other problems. One month : Practice in drawing assembled parts more difficult than before. Three months : Practice in drawing assembled parts introducing the idea of simple shapes expanding into irregular surfaces. Third Year Six months : Apprentice may begin to ink in drawings, trace and make a blue-print. Drawing of two views of parts of machines. Sectional views. 140 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Five months : Practice in making drawings from data or sketch of parts made in shop and show how installed. One month : Practice in making drawing of complete machines, or parts of ships or boats to show knowledge of mechanism working and construction. Course of Study in Interpretation of Blue-Prints for Shipfitters — Three- Year Course First Year One month : Practice in making rough pencil sketches of nuts, bolts, rivets, screws, washers, taps. Both isometric and plan and elevation views. Four months : Practice in making rough pencil drawings of tools such as files, chisels, wrenches, various hammers, appliances and metals; heating furnace; oxygen acetylene set, etc.; simple plates, rivets in section, angle bars, tee bars, Z bars, channel beams in two views to develop the idea of projection. To illustrate : rivet spac- ing, design in one view should be given to illustrate simple connec- tions, that is, a deck to a bulkhead, bounding bars, etc., in water- tight, non-watertight and oil tight bulkhead spacing. Various types of rivets in plates (in section). Four months : Pencil drawings of shapes of T's, I's, and channels. Two view drawings of bulkheads, bracket plates, hatches, manhole doors, (watertight and non-watertight) gun ports, hammock berth- ing, etc. Three months: Drawing of blower foundations, scuttle butt brackets, tank foundations, knee beam connections at decks and floors; hatches and door combings, ammunition stowage, sanitary partitions, companionways, access trunks, etc. Second Year One month : Drawing of simple parts of machines, such as pulleys, levers, spindles, gears, cutting heads of planing and scarfing ma- chines. This will give considerable practice in the use of drawing instruments. Three months : Practice in reading blue-prints : distance between centers of rivets, interpretation of riveting tables, the drawing of floors, intercostals and lines on shell slope of keel, drawings of keels (vertical, bilge and docking). One month : Drawing of steel forms of shear blades and parts of joggling machines (two views). TEACHING INTERPRETATION OF BLUE-PRINTS 141 Three months : Instruction in the location of parts on plans used in connection with the drawings of combings, stowage; applied geo- metrical construction — erecting perpendiculars, parallels : repro- ducing angles and division of pitch circles. Practice in the location of the sea openings of a ship — hatches, gratings, port holes, shell hoists, etc. One month : Practice in drawing assembled frames, engine founda- tion, and double bottom sections. Three months : Practice in drawing assembled parts of a ship : frames, lattice work for torpedo bulkheads, cage masts, etc. Loca- tion of longitudinals and lines of shell and decks from offsets. Practice in picking bars from book tables. Begin the study of the simple shapes of the expansion on irregular surfaces. Third Year Six months : Drawing of the bridge ammunition hoist, armored uptakes and views on turrets: work on compartment rearrange- ments. Locating deck scuppers, boat stowage supports, etc. Con- siderable practice should be given in "inking in." All drawings made in the third or last year should be inked, traced, and a blue- print made of at least one to illustrate the principle of blue-printing. Five months : Practice in making drawings from data or sketch of parts made in the shop. The apprentice should also be taught how to mark the drawings so as to show installation of parts. Transverse and longitudinal drawings from offsets of inner and outer bottoms, bulkheads, location of doors, trunks, etc.: through plating and bulkheads, gun port shutters, ship ladders, floors and deck frames, splinter bulkheads; foundations, tanks, boilers, en- gines, pumps, gun and turret, etc. Drawing of the intersection of objects by planes at angles, as for example, chain pipe on deck, shell hoist through turret levels, etc. Drawings involving triangu- lation to lead up to the drawing of developed shell plating. One month : A cross-section drawing through a given frame : a longitudinal section drawing of a ship. This is given to test the apprentice's knowledge of the ship and the use of related plans. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Explain why a group of apprentices appear more interested in a poorly prepared trade drawing lesson, simply copying, than in an effectively prepared lesson in shop English. 142 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 2. Is mechanical drawing fundamental to all trades? 3. Explain the difference between the drawing a draftsman performs and the drawing a mechanic needs. 4. If you were teaching drawing to a group of mechanics, would you begin by teaching the constructional problems in geometry? 5. What should a boy between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, in an industrial school, know about a drawing? 6. How would you present the first lesson in shop sketching to a group of machinist apprentices? 7. How would you present a lesson in blue-print reading to a group of shipfitters in an evening school? 8. Is it a good plan to insist in the beginning on finished drawings, in an industrial school? Why? 9. Is it possible for the average industrial school pupil to concentrate his attention on technique of drawing, and the principles of drawing involved, at the same time? Why? LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING Value of Art in the Industrial School. W. Largen. National Educa- tional Association. Proceedings, 1912. (Shows the need of art in all phases of industrial education.) * Shop Sketching. Frank E. Mathewson. (A discussion of the subject of shop sketching and the method of teaching it.) ** Problems in Mechanical Drauring. Charles A. Bennett. (Collection of plates from which suitable material may be selected.) CHAPTER XIII METHODS OF TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE Courses in science were introduced into the secondary schools of this country about a generation ago, on the ground that a training in science was a desirable part of a high-school education. The advocates stated that science was the foundation stone of modern industrial development, and that every pupil with a high-school education should have an interest in scientific discovery in order to improve and enlarge the methods of scientific reasoning. The course of science in a high school consists of biology, botany, geology or physical geography, physics and chemis- try. The subjects are presented to high-school students along the lines the teachers were taught at college, in order to develop the scientific attitude of mind. The work con- sists of textbook and laboratory practice of a very formal character; that is, exercises to study the laws of science for their own sake. The teacher assumes that if the pupil knows the principles of science, he will be able to discover these principles in operation in the ordinary affairs of life and shop or industrial processes. Experience has shown us that this assumption is not true for the average pupil. To illustrate: after the average boy has completed a course in physics in the high school, he will go out into the industrial world and pass over many practical applications in which the principles of physics that he has studied would apply; he fails utterly to recog- nize in these situations the physical laws he knows only in an abstract way. A large number of colleges and scientific schools have cor- 144 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION rected this false notion by establishing two departments of science, pure science and applied science. The department of pure science trains the student to study the laws of nature and see exactly what they are, regardless of the practical use of them. The theory underlying such a course is that the student can accomplish the best results when he concen- trates his attention on the laws of nature without the appli- cation. Such a training develops the research scientist, who, in order to work efficiently, must concentrate his atten- tion on a few facts at a time. The course in applied science is to train a student in the application of principles of science to industrial operations. The course in pure science has failed to do this because it has neglected to lay emphasis on the mental activity which we call "application." Psycholo- gists have shown that application is a most difficult mental process, and needs to be learned just as the original principle is learned. While the progressive colleges have differentiated between pure and applied science courses, the secondary and inter- mediate schools have failed to do so. Various attempts have been made to meet this deficiency, in part by the intro- duction of first-year general science in high schools; but even this course has not been sufficiently developed to say it is a success. The principal reason why applied science teaching has not been more effective is due to the false theory that the average student of high-school age can acquire the scien- tific attitude of mind, and that the high school should pre- pare for college. While the author believes there is a place for the traditional courses in biology, chemistry, physics, etc., for the boy between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, he is also convinced of the absolute necessity of an entirely dif- ferent course in the application of principles of science to shop and industrial practices for the majority of boys who are destined to enter industries. Such a course in science TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 145 will develop a type of mental attitude which will be valuable to the industries of this country. This course in shop or in- dustrial science will differ considerably from the applied sci- ence course in the college, as the types of mind differ, al- though it will bear somewhat the same relation to the regu- lar science course as the applied science 1 bears to the pure science in the college. The industrial workers and tradesmen are recruited from the ranks of the motor-minded children with strong phy- sique, who are mechanically inclined. The type of mind represented by these children is not able to grasp and under- stand abstract scientific principles efficiently, or to the ex- tent of the abstract-minded child, who has the power to grasp and understand abstract principles without a back- ground of experience or observation. The mechanically in- clined boy has a tendency to personify all chemical and physical changes. He is able to reason one step at a time only, and usually draws on his imagination in explaining the cause of an effect. The habit of personifying action is very common among all mechanics, who explain the effervescence of acid and a metal as "boiling," corrosion as "eating," etc. There is another great distinction between the practical me- chanic and the man of scientific mind. The practical me- chanic has the strong force of competition acting on him, and he develops the habit of performing practical tests, "short cuts," or quick methods; that is, he will cast aside a method if it does not "work," without studying the reasons or analyzing the situation. The man of scientific mind, on the other hand, will spend considerable time, without regard to expense, in order to test the coherency of the reasoning. Therefore a course in shop science should be adapted to the type of mind of the boy who is about to enter industry as 1 See Applied Science for Metal-Workers, and Applied Science for Wood- Workers, by W. H. Dooley. 146 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION a worker and to the needs of the different trades. The course should consist of the principles of science underly- ing the raw materials, tools, appliances, processes, hygiene, etc., of a trade. The method of teaching will consist of studying the prin- ciples involved in the manufacture of raw materials, action of tools and other appliances, the principles involved in the processes, etc., with not so much emphasis on the shop oper- ations. By discovering the common principles in a great variety of shop situations in a trade, a type of mental atti- tude is developed which is very different from that which is cultivated in merely contemplating a single fact, as in the case of pure science. The motor type of mind will find in the above course of shop science an opportunity for con- tinuous mental enjoyment and the development of indus- trial intelligence. The method of teaching shop science is to be inductive or the natural method, rather than the deduc- tive or regular school method. A suggestive plan for a three-year apprentice course is as follows: Discuss objectively the materials, tools, etc., with the tool or picture or diagram before the class. Then have the class write the description with sketches in a book. Most pupils lack the ability and knowledge of Eng- lish to write a description after the teacher's talk. There- fore it is better for the teacher to write the description on the board, and have the pupils copy it. This plan will develop a technical vocabulary. Teachers should correct the books at least once a month. The work in science should be covered in three years as follows: . I. First year: a. Properties and uses of materials, etc. b. Description and manufacture of hand tools. c. General notion of transmission of power. TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 147 d. General notion of power tools and appliances. e. Simple rules for safety. II. Second year: a. More detailed description of the manufacture of materials used. b. More detailed description of the parts, uses and manu- facture of power tools. c. More detailed description of safety devices. d. More detailed description of transmission of power. HI. Third year: a. Review of principles of sciences underlying trade as previously described in an unorganized manner. b. Study of the principles of testing apparatus. c. Study of the strength of materials. To illustrate: the shop electrician should receive a training in the principles of science underlying the manufacture and the operation of the following tools: Electrical Department : Machines, Tools, and Materials, used in the Trade Machines Materials Lathes, large and small Sheet brass — i^ to f in thickness Drill presses, large and small Sheet copper & to f in thickness Shaper Sheet iron ^ to | in _thickness Milling machine Rod brass Punch press Rod copper Motors (shunt) . Rod iron Copper wire of various sizes and with different types of insula- tion Motors (series) Motors (compound) Generators (G.E. type) Pipe bending machines All types of storage batteries 148 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Hand Tools for Electricians Torch, gasoline Wrench, Stillson, 6" Wrench, Stillson, 8" Wrench, monkey, 6" Wrench, monkey, 12" Brace racket, 12" sweep Bit (wood), |" Bit (wood), \" Bit (wood), f" Bit (wood), f" Bit (wood),!" Bit (wood), 1" Screw drivers, standard, 6" Screw drivers, standard, 8" Screw drivers, standard, 12" Pair pliers, long nose, 6" Pair pliers, side cutting, 8" Pair pliers, diamond cutting, 6" Chisel, wood, \\" socket firmer Chisel, cold, \" X 6" Chisel, cold, |" X 8" Pair pliers, gas, 10" Gauge, f" Pair scissors (elect), 5" Center punch Nail set Hammer, ball peen, 16 oz. Hammer, claw, 20 oz. Drill, small hand, with bit Hack saw frame Hack saw, 14" frame Bit, wood expansion, \" to 1$" Reamer burring, \" to \\" Saw compass, 12" Copper soldering, 3 oz. Drill-bit, wood bell-hangers, f" X 12" Drill, |" X 24" Pair calipers, inside joint 6" Pair calipers, outside joint 6" firm Pair dividers, 6" spring Ruler, 6 ft. folding (wood) Ruler, 2 ft. folding (wood) Square combination, 12" pro- tractor with head Pair pliers, round nose, 6" Breast drill Torch, alcohol Gauge wire — B X S Gauge wire, micrometer Hammer (tack) Tape measure liner, 50 ft. Transmission of Power A. Power and its application in the Shops. a. Sources of power as applied to machines. b. Transmission of power from sources to various shops. c. Pulleys. d. Belting and shafting. e. Electric drive. /. Gears and gearing. g. Rim velocity. h. Cutting-speed. TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 149 Problems on the principles of science should be expressed in terms of actual parts of a machine that the student or apprentice has worked on in the shop. For example, the belt shifter of an engine lathe would illustrate the principles of levers. Specimen Lesson Sheet in Science for Machinists, illustrating the Law of the Lever (1) The resistance of the belt on line W is 30 pounds. If dimen- sion A is 24 inches and B 16 feet, how many pounds must a machin- ist apply on the end of the arm at P in order to shift the belt? (2) If the resistance of a belt is 45 pounds, the shifter arm 20 feet long, and the shifter rod fastened 3 feet from the upper end of the handle, how much pull must be given the end of the arm? (3) If dimension A is 18 inches and B 12 feet, how many pounds can a man exert on the belt-shifter rod at W if he pulls 60 pounds on the end of the arm P? (4) If on a belt shifter arranged like the figure, it becomes necessary to move the belt-shifter rod 5 inches, and A is 2 feet and B 14 feet, how far must the end of the arm P move? (5) When the end of the arm P moves 14 inches, how far from the fulcrum should the belt-shifter rod be located in order to impart a motion of 3| inches at W, dimension B being 20 feet? (6) Make a sketch of a shifter in which the shifter rod is attached to the upper end of the arm, and in which the arm swings about a point nearer its center. This sketch will be similar to figure, except that the fulcrum will be located lower down the handle and the shifter rod will be above the fulcrum. Examine a belt shifter as shown in the figure 150 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION (7) Suppose that in a shifter arranged like your sketch, the belt is to move 4 inches, and the distance from the upper end of the lever to the bolt about which it swings is 18 inches. How far is it from the fulcrum bolt to the lower end of the handle, if the end of the handle is restricted to a movement of 18 inches? (8) In a shifter as shown by your sketch, does the handle have to be moved in the same or in the opposite direction from that in which the belt is to move? (9) If in problem 8, a force of 80 pounds is necessary at the shifter in order to move the belt, what force must the machinist use on the lower end of the handle? The meaning of "horse-power," "kilowatt," "mechanical efficiency," and other mechanical terms of common use should be made clear to all. Miscellaneous Tools used in Steam Plant Riveting hammers Pumps Electrical pyrometer for anneal- Condensers ing furnaces Coal-handling equipment Cranes overhead — traveling Ash-handling plant Elevators, hydraulic Feed water heaters Annealing furnace Sun printing frame Heating systems Calculating machine Dynamos Adding machine Air compressors Blue-print machine Boilers and stokers Instrument Room, Testing Supplies, etc. Oil-testing outfit Oil-hydrometer set Gauge test pump Specific gravity hydrometer set Vacuum pump and mercurial Traction dynamometer scales Hydraulic gauge tester Sensitive balance and cabinet Tensile testing machine Angle viscometer Oil-testing friction Measuring Instruments in use in the Shops 1. The watch 2. The yard stick — 2 foot rule, steel tape 3. Calipers (ordinary and micrometer) TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 151 4. Protractors 5. Scales 6. Thermometers < 7. Gas meters 8. Water meters 9. Electric meters 10. Machines for testing materials Specific gravity should receive considerable attention; so should the mechanism of the more common types of meters. Practice in reading micrometers, calipers, and gas, water, and electric meters. Safety in industry (1) Necessity for guarding against industrial accidents. (2) Safety devices and their uses. (3) The human element in accidents. (a) Ignorance of danger. (b) A preoccupied mind. (c) Thoughtlessness. (d) Carelessness. (e) Recklessness. (J) Showing off. (g) Lowered vitality, as in sickness. (k) Excitement. (i) Fooling and playing pranks. 1. The safety movement. A statement of the industrial accident problem giving sta- tistics of accidents in the United States as a whole, for groups of industries and in particular plants. Include, if possible, statistics of accidents in shop, with specific classification. Indicate from data that the majority of accidents are not due to machinery, or lack of safeguards, but rather to carelessness, or indifference on the part of the workmen. Use of slides. 2. How plants have organized for safety. Give typical organizations for safety in industrial plants and cite the reduction in accidents resulting through their op- eration. Cover the proposed organization for the shop. The duties of Workmen's Committees should be covered in detail. 3. Safe and unsafe practices. Select from the files of the medical department, cases of 152 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION accidents resulting clearly from carelessness on the part of the workmen. Unsafe practices. Indicate how the accident might have been avoided. 4. Good housekeeping and the tripping hazard. Indicate the relation of good housekeeping to the accident hazard, i.e., keeping the shop well cleaned up and orderly ar- ranged, safe piling of material, racks and receptacles for tools, stock, etc., the tripping hazard, clear aisles and passageways, etc. 5. The construction of safeguards. Exhibit the racks showing construction of common guards for belts, gears, etc. Use slides of typical installations, indi- cating the materials used, etc., etc. 6. Stairways, floor openings, platforms, scaffolds and ladders. Standard hand rails for stairs, floor openings, etc.; proper angle for stairs, ladders, etc. ; slides of unsafe ladders found in use; standards for construction of scaffolds. 7. Power transmission equipment. Indicate in detail the standard requirements for guarding all main shafting, jack shafting and counter shafting. Guards for vertical and horizontal belts, shafting, etc.; safety cou- plings, collars and set screws; remote controls. 8. Wood-working safeguards. Slides on guards for circular, swing and band saws; jointers; planers; shapers. Emphasize the need for using such guards as are provided. 9. Machine-shop hazards. Slides on guards for drill presses, lathes, punch presses, boring mills, etc. 10. Safety in foundries. Slides on safe foundry ladles, guards for sand mixers, tum- blers; foundrymen's shoes, leggings, goggles, hand leathers, etc. 11. Crane practice. Walks, railing and platforms; trolley guards, safety limit stops, limit switches, etc. 12. Grinding-wheel safeguards. Slides on proper mounting of wheels; adjustment of rest; design of guard for wheel; eye shield, etc. 13. Eye protection. TEACHING SHOP SCIENCE 153 Slides and exhibit of goggles for chippers and grinders and colored glasses for electric welders, etc. Indicate the dangers of picking things out of each other's eyes ; show the reduction in eye injuries where men have used goggles. 14. Electrical hazards. Is low tension apparatus dangerous? Slides on safety switches, use of rubber gloves, sleeves, etc. 15. First aid to the injured. Demonstrate the prone pressure method of artificial respi- ration for electric shock, drowning, etc. Have members of class try it on each other. If possible, have physician from medical department present. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Pattern-makers frequently determine the weight of a casting from a pattern. This depends upon the principle of specific gravity. When would you teach the pattern-maker the theory of specific gravity? Why ? 2. Explain why an apprentice steam engineer would in the beginning rather wheel coal than calculate the B.T.U. power of the coal. 3. When should a plumbing apprentice receive the chemical composition of "raw acid," "killed acid"? 4. When should wood-workers receive the knowledge of the growth of trees so as to be able to tell the defects in the wood? 5. When would you teach the machinist the theory of the micrometer? 6. An instructor who was explaining the use of a speedometer for the first time also included a detailed description of the construction of the instrument. Was this good teaching in an industrial school? 7. If you were an instructor of applied physics in an industrial school and desired to teach the subject of levers to a group of machinists, how would you start? Why? 8. During the first few months of a course in shop science, would you place more emphasis on the recent experiences of the pupil or the sub- ject in the book or laboratory? Why? 9. What is the principle of science involved in getting horse-power of a given engine from an indicator card? 10. How would you present the subject of horse-power to a group of fire- men in an evening trade class? 11. What principle of science is involved in teaching the cutting-speed for different metals? 12. Give the outline of a lesson showing how you would present to a class of pattern-makers in an evening school the subject of getting weights of casting from pattern by table of trade numbers? 154 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 13. Should a pupil in a plumbing department wipe joints or learn the composition of solder first? Why? 14. Ask a number of mechanics, what they first acquired, the practice or the theory. 15. Explain why it is not difficult to hold the attention of all boys for at least a while on a working model of an automobile. 16. Explain why most mechanics find it difficult to discuss problems in mechanics in the abstract. 17. What objection is there to a teacher of related trade knowledge teach- ing shop practice? 18. Why is it difficult for the teacher to receive real concentration on the theoretical principles of the mechanics of a tool from the average industrial school pupil? LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * Applied Science. A. H. Morrison, National Education Association. Proceedings, 1914. (Emphasizes the importance of the applications of the principles of science.) ** Industrial Hygiene and Vocational Education. National Education Association. Proceedings, 1914. ** The Natural Sciences. George R. Twiss. Principles of Secondary Edu- cation. Edited by Paul Munroe. (The aim and value of the natural sciences.) * The Teaching of Physics. C. R. Mann. (Methods of teaching science in secondary schools.) Science Teaching as seen from the Outside. E. L. Thorndike. Bulletin 34. New York State Department of Education. (Need of more practical science teaching.) * How It Works. Archibald Williams. (A description of the industrial application of steam, electricity, optics, hydraulics, light, etc., in very simple language.) ** The Romance of Modern Manufacture. Charles R. Gibson. (A popular account of various mechanical and chemical in- dustries.) CHAPTER XIV INDUSTRIAL OR SHOP MATHEMATICS One of the most difficult subjects to teach effectively to boys is vocational mathematics. This may be due to the fact that many principles of mathematics are very abstract, and have never come within the experience or observation of the child. The laws of mental development state that a child must be led gradually into an abstract subject. There- fore the principles of mathematics should be vitally and per- sistently connected with the pupil's experience in a shop. When this idea is instilled into the mind of the pupil, he will go about his work with greater interest and less coaxing. The first part of each lesson should be devoted to a discus- sion of the part of the trade that requires the principle of mathematics. This offers an incentive for the pupil to study the subject. As far as possible have the pupil give practical proofs. For example, in teaching the relation between the diameter of a pulley, and the distance around it, ask the pupil to draw a chalk line on the floor and mark the rim of the pulley with a chalk mark, then roll the pulley along the chalk line until the pulley has made one complete revolu- tion as indicated by the chalk mark on the rim. The di- ameter of the pulley is obtained by measuring across the pulley. Divide the distance around the pulley by the diameter and show the relation. In all parts of vocational mathematics emphasis should be laid on the objective teaching. Models should be con- structed if necessary. To illustrate; in teaching the relation between the number of teeth and the speeds of gears, a rack may be constructed to hold a number of gears. Begin with 156 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION two gears, 24 teeth and 48 teeth. Mark a check line on a tooth of the small gear, and notice the number of teeth or part of revolution the large gear turns, while the small one makes one complete revolution. The pupil will see that the small gear makes more revolutions than the large one. When another gear is placed in the rack between them acting as an idler, similar reasoning will show that the middle gear causes the third gear to have the same direction as the first. The Necessity of Individual Instruction in Apprentice and Vocational Classes Students in higher vocational classes are obliged to meet certain minimum requirements before they are allowed to pursue a vocational course. As a result it is possible to work with a class as a whole in teaching related trade tech- nical knowledge. A study of the record cards of the apprentices in the differ- ent trades will show that the apprentices vary greatly in their previous educational training: some have been in the country a few years and have a very scant knowledge of the English language; that is, they speak and write English im- perfectly. Most of the apprentices come from the sixth and seventh grade, some from the eighth grade, and a few from the high school. It is clear that with such a wide range of grading it is impossible to do much class teaching. Any attempt to grade apprentices into classes according to their educational attainments would interfere with the shop or- ganization and develop adininistrative difficulties. There- fore the most effective method of teaching is by groups and individuals. Graded lesson sheets must be prepared each day and given to the apprentices according to their ability. The apprentices from the upper grades and the high school will not require as much individual instruction as the appren- tices from the lower grades. TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 157 One of the most effective methods of carrying on indi- vidual work is to have an envelope for each pupil. As fast as he finishes a lesson sheet he should hand it to the teacher for correction. The instructor goes over the sheet in detail with the pupil, explaining the incorrect problems. Correc- tions may be written on the papers and then filed away if satisfactory to the teacher. In this way the pupils retain their own corrected papers, and can refer to them at any time. Marks may be recorded on the back of the envelope that is used to hold the corrected papers as shown below. >> 9 a o g Name Trade Class JO 'J? 3 1 m 1 •-9 Method of Teaching The most effective system of teaching shop mathematics to apprentices is the individual plan; that is, having a series of sheets each one containing a type of problem used in that trade. The first problem should be solved on the paper in 158 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION vay simple language followed by four or five drill prob- lems. In this way it is possible to give each apprentice graded lessons. Sample of a graded lesson in board measure for joiners A foot in board measure, or a " board foot," means a piece of lumber having an area of 1 square foot on its flat surface and a thickness of 1 inch or less. The word " foot " is generally used instead of " board foot," as it is shorter. For example : " Four feet of lumber " means four board feet of lumber. Fig. 1 shows a board containing four board feet. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 The rule for finding the number of board feet in a piece of lumber is as follows: Multiply the number of square feet in its flat surface by the number of inches in thickness, counting any thickness less than i inch as an inch. Suppose we wish to find the number of board feet in a piece of lumber 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 15 feet long, then we will have: 8X15X1 M . — = 10 feet Ans. Lumber. The term " lumber " is generally applied to pieces not more than 4 inches thick. Timber. The term " timber " is applied to pieces more than 4 inches thick. Board and Plank. Any piece of lumber under 1| inches thick is usually called a " board "; and a piece from 1| inches to 4 inches thick is called a " plank." Rough Stock. The term " rough stock " means lumber having its dimensions a little larger than is actually required, to allow for planing, truing up, etc. Dressed. The term " dressed " has much the same meaning as "planed." TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 159 Surfaced. The term "surfaced" is usually applied to boards or planks that are planed on one or both sides. Jointed. The term " jointed " has reference to lumber planed on its edges. It is also used to designate pieces that are made straight on the edges. Allowance for dressing. If lumber is dressed it loses in size the amount taken off in shavings. Usually for stock 1| inches or more in thickness the loss is about | inch on each surface planed. Hence a piece 8 inches wide and 2 inches thick when rough, becomes 7f inches wide and If inches thick when dressed, if planed on all four surfaces. Li estimating board feet all lumber one inch in thickness or less should be considered 1 inch thick. Rough lumber or timber is esti- mated in \ and \ inch thickness over the even inch. Examples : If" at 1£", 2|" at 2§", 2f" at 3" and 3f" at 4". Intermediate thicknesses would be estimated at the next larger thickness. For example: \\" would be estimated at II", If" at \\" > and If" at If", and If" at 2. The above rules also apply to all dressed lumber. Fig. 2 shows the end of a piece of timber which is 65 inches thick, 8 inches wide, and 18 feet long. How many board feet does it con- tain? Applying the rule we will have: 8 X 18 X 6| „ Q . ' ' = 78 feet. Ans. 12 Standard lengths of lumber in most sections are 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 feet, etc. If cut to a special length it always costs more. The following simple table is very useful for calculating board measure (feet long), for lumber 1 inch or less in thickness: Pieces 3" wide contain f as many feet as they are feet long. tt Ait tt a 1 tt «« tt a tt ft . ft tt tt ftfr tt tt 1 tt tt tt a tt tt tt tt tt s\ff tt tt 3 tt tt tt «< ft ft tt ft " 12" " " as many feet as they are feet long. Examples for Drill 1. How many board feet in a piece of lumber I inch thick, 8 inches wide and 12 feet long? 2. How many feet in a piece of timber 65 inches thick by 10^ inches wide by 16 feet long? 160 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 3. Find the number of board feet in the following 8 pieces. 1" X 3" X 16 ft. 2" X 9" X 16 ft. §" X 4" X 12 ft. 6" X 9" X 14 ft. If" X 3" X 16 ft. 7" X 12" X 20 ft. If X 4" X 12 ft. 9" X 12" X 20 ft. 4. How many board feet in 8 pieces of timber each 6" X 6" X 13 • feet? 5. Six boards have the following dimensions : 1" X 8" X 16 ft. I" X i\ n X 16 ft. if" X 6" X 16 ft. f " X i gearing. We can now write the ratios between the speeds and the number of teeth in the form of a proportion, thus : 96 : 48 : : 2 : 1 or in words, the number of teeth on gear A is to the number oi teeth on gear B as the speed of B is to the speed of A. 1. A 48-tooth gear drives a 120-tooth gear. What is the ratio of their speeds? Ans. 2. Two shafts are connected by gears, one turns 55 times a minute and the other makes 1 1 turns a minute. If the smaller gear has 32 teeth how many teeth has the larger gear? Ans. Lesson Sheet on Angular Measurements One of the most difficult subjects to teach a practical mechanic is the relation of the chord and the angle. This subject may be presented in a very practical way as follows : 1. Lay off the following angle with a two-foot rule by measuring the chord: Sketch Angle in Chord in Angle in Chord in degrees inches degrees inches % 3 "" ' ~ 5 10 17 /32 1V32 50 55 5146 5 17 /32 \\ ttill 15 1%6 60 6 %f\ so* jfejy 20 2%2 65 6 7 /l6 \S~ §J 25 2 19 /32 70 6% \\ FJy 30 3%2 75 7%B V?j| /^Jf 35 3 19 /32 80 723/ 32 vl^W 40 4%2 85 8%2 %0# 45 4 19 /32 90 8V 2 TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 2. Lay off the following angles with a steel square: 165 Sketch Angle in Distance in Angle in Distance in degrees inches degrees inches n ~^x/ 5 1^6 33° 42' 8 10 2%2 (% Pitch) . . Y' 15 18° 25' (Yq Pitch- 3 7 /32 4 35 40 8*%s U - i i 34 s i 7 a 9 loli ah^sArTkabako] 10He : / roof) . . 45 12 20 4% (% Pitch) t>\ 22V 2 4% 50 14 5 /i 6 2 t 25 5 19 /32 53° 7' 16 : b ■s 26° 33' 6 (% Pitch) . . Layoff— aB = 12" Lay off — ac= distance 04 Pitch) 30 6i%e 55 60 17% 20 25 / 3 2 Lesson Sheet on Cost In connection with mathematics, it is possible to teach the mean- ing of a great many industrial terms, such as "day rate," " pre- mium rate," "earned rate," "overtime rate," etc. These terms may be aroused by such questions as : What is meant by hourly or day rate? What is meant by earned rate? When are you paid overtime? Do you get premium when working overtime? How does coming in late in the morning affect your overtime? Does the company pay overtime for work done during the noon hour? Does overtime increase the cost of a job? Of what advantage is overtime to the company? What is piece work? What is meant by paid on account? What do you mean by time and one-half? What is a time slip? What information should a workman put on his time slip, before turning slip in to the time clerk? What is done with the time slip after the workman turns it in? ^c lb ^ ^ »S 1 OD 9 c ■ -5 Is -aS I' 2 a ii S3 a ■ = ■ - r. - Z - "3 - ■ 1 ■ 9 J" B ■ - ■ i- ■ ■ s b S c •*» E O i D "5 l o 5 ■ ■ a I S ,2 h B s d i Q '. '. "~ : : : -~ TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 167 What is done with the time slip after the pay roll is made up? Is the time slip ever destroyed? Is there harm in putting more time on the time slip than the actual hours worked on the job? What effect will this have on the cost of the job? What are the things that enter into the cost of a job? A cost sheet should be given to the pupil, and practice given in working out costs. The overhead charge may be considered as a certain per cent of the labor, as 30 per cent for sheet-metal trades. Related Tkade Knowledge of a Scale Give each student or apprentice a scale, and ask him to examine it very carefully. Then lead the pupil by asking the following simple one-step questions: What markings do you find on the scale? Into how many parts is the inch divided on your scale? What is the smallest division of an inch that you have seen on any scale? How many of these divisions does it take to make an inch? How many quarter inches in one inch? Write a quarter of an inch fractionally. Write a quarter of an inch, using decimals. How many quarters in two inches? Draw four lines with the scale. Divide the first line into inches. Divide the second line into one half inches. Divide the third line into one fourth inches. Divide the fourth line into one eighth inches. Write in decimals |", 1", §", A", &", f", &", &", ft". QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. Is the study of mathematics industrially fundamental to all trades? 2. Explain why the average teacher in the college section in mathematics is able to hold interest better than the same teacher in an industrial school. S. Explain why a group of machinists are anxious to know how to change a common fraction to a decimal fraction. 4. Why will an apprentice machinist, who is anxious (ambitious) to be- come a foreman, acquire shop mathematics faster than a skilled me- chanic, who is satisfied with his present rating? 108 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5. A boy enters a trade school from the grammar school. He has left school because he r-annot understand fractions. How would you undertake to teach him fractions? 6. A grammar school teacher asked every pupil who failed in a simple pie in fractions to do ten additional ones. Would this be a good practice in an industrial school? Why? 7. Give five practical mathematical problems in the following trades; Machinist, plumbing, steam engineering, electrical trades, pattern making, and sheet metal work. 8. A boiler-maker determines the inside circumference of a boiler by multiplying the inside diameter by 3 and allowing one additional inch in every- seven inches in the diameter. Why is this method more simple than multiplying the diameter by 3* ? 9. An instructor in shop mathematics asked an apprentice to multiply 84 by 15j by 3. The pupil in the pattern making shop took very little interest in this problem. Could the interest be aroused by making the problem concrete? 10. When would you teach the slide rule to an electrical apprentice? 11. How would you teach trigonometry to a group of mechanics in an evening class? 12. If you were teaching a group of motor-minded boys, 14 to 16 years of age, how would you make your instruction concrete? 13. (jive the principles of mathematics involved in teaching how to figure - on a screw cutting lathe. 14. What principle of mathematics is involved in teaching how to obtain an offset for taper turning? 1 .3 Bow would you explain the principle of shrink rule to a group of pat- tern making apprentices? 10. Give the outline of a lesson in teaching the principle involved in locating six equidistant holes on a circle, to a group of pupils in a ma- chine shop course in a day industrial school. 17. Give the outline of a lesson for teaching the principle of cutting rafter angles by use of a square to a group of house carpenters in an evening school. 18. Give the outline of a lesson for teaching the slide rule to a group of draftsmen in an evening class. 19. I low would you explain the use of logarithms to a class of advanced pupils in a machinist's course in a day industrial school? 20. Give a lesson plan showing how to present the use of a formula to a group of young electrical apprentices. 21. Pupils in an all day industrial school are often obliged to keep a time card, calculate the cost of material and labor, and the price that should be charged for output. What principles of mathematics may be taught in this way? TEACHING SHOP MATHEMATICS 169 LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. D. E. Smith. (Methods of teaching elementary mathematics. One of the best books.) ** A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. M. R. Ball. (A concise account of the development of mathematics.) * "Practical Mathematics." W. H. Dooley. Mathematics Teacher, June, 1918. (A discussion of some of the best methods used in trade classes.) ** An Elementary Treatise on Graphs. George A. Gibson. (Presents the subject in a connected form simple enough in the early stages for the beginner.) CHAPTER XV METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH Every one has two duties to perform outside of his work — the duties he owes to society : one is to act as head of a family, and the other is to perform the duties of citizenship. As head of a family he should have a training that will give him the intelligence to be a good provider and to know how to enjoy the companionship of his family and his friends, and also to secure honest enjoyment out of life. Every person in this country has more or less to do with the government. This is the only country in the world that has given to every male citizen of ordinary intelligence the right to vote and to decide how our government shall be conducted. Therefore it is important that general intelli- gence of the working classes should remain fairly high. In order to have this general intelligence, it is necessary to continue general education in English, civics, and social sciences until the pupil reaches the threshold of manhood. This will conserve what he already knows and will increase his general knowledge. English is the most important academic subject in the course of study in the day industrial school. Every one must be able to speak and write about the things he is doing, and to be able to make his desires and appreciations known. The teacher should begin by showing the value of English. The necessary English includes ordinary letter-writing, pen- manship, spelling of common words, and oral English about his work and every-day life. The desirable English — how to write — includes reports of work done in the school shops, condition of worker and work, the human phase of various TEACHING ENGLISH 171 occupations, enlarged vocational vocabulary, that one may read technical and trade literature. Cultural English de- velops a love of reading, an appreciation of good books, re- porting, descriptions, etc. The intellectual and emotional side of the student is brought out; also any literary ability. An effective course in English in an industrial school should tend to develop the following: 1. Ability to express easily and freely oral and written English. 2. A knowledge of the structure and form of the language. 8. A real desire to read. 4. An appreciation of good literature. 5. A knowledge of the best authors. In teaching English, begin with reports of the shop-work, followed by correspondence, ordering supplies, and then specifications of the projects that the pupils are working on. Then show the need of being able to write about the condi- tion of the workers, followed by a study of good books. In order to develop a special fondness for books, we must show the pupil an incentive, that the world depends on books for knowledge and happiness. Assign to the pupils readings in books to bring out the good points, after you have read selections to them. Lesson Sheet on Spelling List of Machine-Shop Words Machines Machines Emery wheels Valve reseating machine Emery grinders Screw jacks Tool grinders Hydraulic jacks Traveling cranes Jib cranes Testing plant Blanking dies Standard plug and ring gauges Erecting plates and blocks Dies and taps machine Jigs Surface plates Pneumatic hoists Taper reamers Electric grinders 172 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Machines Pneumatic drills Pneumatic corner drills Die-sinker mill Saw blade, grinder Milling planer Universal milling machine Milling machine Plain milling machine Vertical milling machine Reamer and cutter grinder Turbine blade cutting machine Saw table Circular saw Radial drill press Drill press Sensitive drill press Multiple drill press Drilling and boring machine Twist drill grinder Power punch press Planer Crank slotter Electric hand drills Torches Vertical boring mill Horizontal boring mill Engine lathe Fox lathe Gap lathe Universal grinder (lathe type) Speed lathe Universal tool grinder Machines Turret lathe Triple-headed bolt machine Double-headed bolt machine Bolt cutting machine Fox monitor lathe Automatic screw machine Semi-automatic screw machine Monitor lathe Cutting-off machine Screw slotter Tube cutter Pipe threading machine Shaper Double-headed shaper Draw shaper Universal key seater Surface grinder Spur gear cutter Gear and worm wheel cutter Bevel-gear cutter Open-side planner Turret rack cutting Band saw Gorton disc grinders Buffing machine Power hack saw Magnetic metal separator Belt-lacing machine Hydraulic press Belt-scraping machine Arbor press Hand tools Peen hammer Chisels Calipers Micrometer Gauges Materials Emery cloth, etc. Tool steel Soft steel Wrought iron High speed steel TEACHING ENGLISH 173 Hand Tools Materials Scales Cast-iron Files Bronze Scraper Babbitt metal Lead hammer Lubricating oils Drills and reamers Belting (leather) Surface gauge Waste (cotton) Surface plate Center punch Scribe The desirable English should include practice in the use of four or five types of letters : letters to a parent or other rela- tive, letter applying for a position, an order or requisition for supplies, letter to a superior official, letter to a public official, letter to a newspaper official, correspondence be- tween two departments of the same corporation, etc. The pupil should also make a study of the use of short stories, and the technical literature of his trade. Teachers should have the pupils acquire the "library habit." An effort should be made by the instructor to find the list of technical books on each trade. A list may with profit be placed on a bulletin. Later an interest in general reading may be acquired by the pupil. A boy is least fitted to choose the books which are desir- able for him to read. His interests at various ages decidedly influence his reading. A boy's library should supplement his early life. As the boy grows, his interests change from those of boyhood to those of manhood. That is the reason why travel, adventure, invention, biography, love-stories, and outdoor books appeal to the interests and needs of boys at various ages. They should read carefully and slowly so as to absorb what they read. Story-telling, with suggestions where more can be read, is helpful. Not all magazines are interesting to boys. They are interested in magazines of 174 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION outdoor life, invention, handicraft, etc. Practical talks ap- peal to working boys. The talk should be informal, provid- ing definite information, new incentives for effort, and defi- nite character-building. A talk should suggest a subject on which the pupil will do further reading. Many of the pupils in vocational and apprentice classes are foreigners or of for- eign descent, and the work must be adapted to their needs. Rules for oral composition. Insist upon correct expres- sion at all times. The pupil should give complete sentences four or five times in reciting. Frequent oral composition on the work being done should be given by the pupil to the class. He should stand in front of the class, in a free and easy position, and state what he is doing. Careful enunciation of syllables, particularly the final syllable, should be required. Do not allow the pupil to use long sentences. Cultivate a habit of using short, concise sentences. Do not permit the use of slang. Teach the pupils to be accurate in their statements, and try to cultivate the use of discriminating words used in the trades. As far as possible have all written work preceded by oral drill. To illustrate : if a pupil is asked to write a letter to his brother telling of his work, he should tell the class what he is going to write. The following rules should be required to develop proper writing habits: 1. Write on only one side of the sheet of paper. 2. Have a balanced margin at the top and bottom, and at the sides of paper, on which compositions are written. 3. All sentences should begin with a capital letter. 4. Sentences should end with a period. 5. Sentences involving a question should end with an interroga- tion point (?) 6. A liberal space should intervene between consecutive lines and consecutive words. TEACHING ENGLISH 175 7. The use of commas in series should be used. 8. The use of long compound and complex sentences should be discouraged. 9. Slang should not be used. Shop or technical expressions should be in quotation marks (" "), and the meaning in parentheses. The following detached outline will illustrate the above principles: Three- Year Course in English for Shipfitters* Apprentices First Year [ Time: One month — one hour a week: Practice in spelling and de- scription of the various tools, appliances, materials, and fittings used in the tool-room. Four months: Short oral and written composition work based on the work of the apprentices, such as drilling, reaming, chipping, and calking on various parts of the ship (deck platforms, compart- ments, divisions, etc.). Description of such terms as section, stern, port, starboard, forward, aft, and after ends of the ships: bulkheads, shell waterline, tanks (oil, and fresh water), drainage, etc.; armor plate, cage masts, and turrets. This practice will develop in the pupil the power to express what he is doing in simple and direct English. Four months: Review principles of grammar relating to the use of nouns and pronouns so that the apprentice will know when and how to use capital letters and simple punctuation. Composition on bulkheads, hatches, doors, etc. Three months: Practice in giving explanations and directions. Develop the power to express in short, concise sentences such as directions marked on templates. Describe length, breadth, thick- ness, scroll, curve forms, etc. Composition on trunks, ammunition hoist, bits, etc. Second Year One month: Simple description (both oral and written) on drill- ing, planing, scarfing machines, on searchlight platforms and cage mast. Three months: Review of the section of grammar relating to sub- ject and predicate to show the pupil that the predicate agrees with the subject. Composition on uptakes, bridges, and conning tower. 176 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION One month: Letter writing and shop-order slips. Teach four types of letters: letter to a parent; letter to a friend; letter to a public official; letter to a superior official, etc. Bring out the four essential parts of every letter. Three months: Practice in writing — description of shop-work with special emphasis on the division of the composition into par- agraphs. Engine- and boiler-room foundations, ammunition stor- age and boat cranes. One month: Discussion and practice in writing according to the following outline: Planning, manufacture, and installation. Three months: Composition on the turrets and bulkheads, hatches and armored decks. Third Year Six months: Considerable practice during this period should be devoted at this time to both oral and written descriptions. Effort should be made to correct every-day mistakes and develop the power to write lengthy descriptions in simple, direct, and concise language. Compositions based on method of propulsion, steering, procedure in building shell of ship, launching, etc. Five months: During this period the apprentice should write re- ports and descriptions of what he is doing. Emphasis should be laid on accuracy and details in describing the building of a ship — designing, planning, manufacturing, and assembling. One month: Written and oral composition on the economical and efficient methods of production. The process of Americanization must follow along the lines of interest to the immigrant. He will learn English if he sees it is to his advantage. Therefore incentives must be offered. The greatest incentive to the recently arrived im- migrant is an advancement in his work, increase in his earn- ings. The academic work must center around his daily occupation. The English should consist of a series of graded lessons on the conservation, commands, names of parts of machines, tools, etc., that he uses in his work. This is the necessary English. As far as possible the work should be carried on through the activities of the shop or mill. 1 1 See page 177 for course of study for mill-workers,. TEACHING ENGLISH 177 Foreigners usually live in communities by themselves and seldom have occasion to use English. The club, the coffee- houses, the stores, and friends all use the mother tongue in conversation. Any attempt to teach English along general educational lines will fail at this period. The desirable English is the English necessary to become a citizen. The foreigner should know the value of citizen- ship. This can be done by developing among the workmen social and industrial justice. 1 Illustrative Lessons in Industrial English for Non-English-Speaking Workers Class in Cotton-Mill English English on the Picker Machine: Picture or model of machine before the class is : This is a picker is called : This cover is called a " beater cover." turns : The beater turns around rapidly. be seen : The beater turns so fast that it cannot be seen. breaks : It breaks the cotton into small parts. loosens : The beater also loosens the dirt from the cotton. be lifted : The beater cover must never be lifted until the stops : belt stops. did : The man in the picture did this. lost : He lost his arm. Good Rules clean : Do not clean the beater when the machine is in motion, clean : Clean the beater once or twice every day. pick out : Do not pick out the picker droppings with the machine in motion, stands : The man stands at the machine, is : The machine is a picker. is running : The picker is running, has : The man's hand has four fingers and one thumb. 1 See page 179 for course of study. 178 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION has : The man has his hand on the lap. will be drawn : The man's hand will be drawn in. be broken : His fingers will be broken. run : Do you run a picker? must be : If you do you must be careful. put : Never put your hand on the lap or roll. lose : You will lose your fingers. Picture or model of a loom before the class am : I am a weaver, have learned : I have just learned to weave, run : I run six looms, shows : This picture shows a man at a loom. is : The warp is in its place, are filled : The bobbins are filled with yarn, holds : The magazine holds the bobbins, feeds : The magazine feeds bobbins to the shuttles, is : Everything is ready, pull : I pull the lever with my hand, weaves : The loom weaves cloth, winds : The roll winds the cloth as fast as woven. ■ breaks : A thread breaks and the loom stops, is fixed : The thread is fixed, start : I start the loom again. Most of the factory operations require semi-skilled and unskilled workers; each operation requiring only a short training. The only education that can be provided for un- skilled workers is recreational education, and this is often provided by the manufacturers, under the head of "welfare work." l Information relating to vocational life may be taught under the head of "civics." There is a very intimate con- nection between vocational success and good citizenship. Every successful citizen should be an efficient producer and should render service to the community. Included in the 1 See page 233. TEACHING ENGLISH 179 course should be material relating to the economic activities of the community, the history and opportunities, etc.; and all of the positions in the industries. In this way children may be taught their industrial obligations and opportuni- ties. In fact, every subject in the course of study is suscep- tible of an industrial or vocational interpretation. Teachers have numbers of opportunities to speak to the children in terms of industrialism and citizenship. Frequent excur- sions should be made to industries to obtain first-hand information. History should be centered around the growth of the industries as successfully as it has covered literature, politics, and the careers of successful generals, statesmen, etc. The content of information to be imparted to the appren- tice or pupil, under the head of related trade knowledge, must consist of the underlying principles of English, mathe- matics, the sciences, drawing, materials, hand tools, power tools, transmission of power, etc. Each different shop pro- ject or practice should be analyzed into the hand tools, power tools, materials, processes, etc., the English, mathe- matics, sciences, etc., and the information desired placed under each column. The arrangement of content of information to be imparted to a pupil in a vocational or apprentice school should be dif- ferent from that of the regular school. The course in the regular school was founded on logical development, and a certain type of pupil accepted this development on faith. The pupil in the vocational school with his practical mind will not accept the arrangement on faith. He must see the value of knowledge and must have his interest aroused. The strongest interest is the desire to learn a trade; there- fore the point of attack for all work, especially the aca- demic work, should be around the vocational interest. The knowledge may be presented in the following order: 180 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 1. The knowledge absolutely necessary. 2. Show the value of more knowedge, then present the desirable knowledge. 3. The accomplishment or culture of the subject. QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. An instructor in shop English in an industrial school found that the pupils lacked interest in the Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, after reading the first twenty pages. They desire to read trade maga- zines. Is the instructor justified in dropping the Autobiography for the trade magazine? Why? 2. Have the average pupils or apprentices in a secondary trade school much interest in general education? Why? 3. Why is it difficult to hold the attention of a group of apprentices in shop English for any length of time? 4. A pupil in an industrial continuation school objected to the study of grammar from a textbook. Explain why. 5. Why does a practical man appeal to the average pupil in a trade school more than the technical or academic teacher? 6. In many cooperative high-school courses pupils are obliged to spend the first year on high-school subjects. Is this a good plan? Why? 7. Investigations show that pupils in coSperative industrial courses fre- quently leave after learning the trade and become salesmen for me- chanical lines. Explain this change. 8. Should technical journals be accessible to apprentices, tradesmen, and pupils? Where is a convenient place for these journals to be kept? 9. Explain some of the ways in which the element of citizenship may be taught to apprentices in the shop. LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING ' * "Teaching English." M. D. Lewis. Outlook, vol. 94, p. 631. (A very effective method of teaching English.) * " Oral Composition." E. M. Bolenius. Education, vol. 31, p. 119. (The importance of training pupils in oral composition.) * "On the Teaching of Written Composition." L. Cooper. Education, vol. 30, p. 421. * "The Differentiation of High School Course in English." Education, vol. 31, p. 639. (Need of different courses in English to meet varied needs of pupils.) * The Teaching of History and Civics. Henry E. Bourne. (A discussion of the most effective methods.) CHAPTER XVI MANUAL TRAINING VERSUS INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Manual training owes its existence primarily to the feel- ing among manufacturers and educators, after the Centen- nial Exhibition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876 that the various exhibits of industrial and trade products showed that the workmen of some European countries were superior to the American workmen. It was said that this superiority was due to the system of technical and industrial education in vogue in those countries. As a result of this opinion, school systems were asked to adopt a form of technical and industrial education that would meet this industrial defi- ciency among the American workmen. The school authorities adopted a form of education called "manual training," based upon the schoolmaster's theory of industrial education; that is, to train the eye and hand so as to develop manual dexterity. The operation of wood- working was analyzed, and from this analysis a series of ex- ercises in planing, marking, sawing, chiseling, etc., on wood, was developed. To illustrate : the child was taught to make a half-dozen different kinds of saw cuts on wood, and then to throw the cuts of wood away. In the same way joints of various kinds were made purely for practice. A similar course was constructed in metal-working. As time went on the public began to criticize this method of teaching — as not being "practical." Then method No. 9, was adopted to meet this objection; it consisted of exercises that made useful articles. These two methods rested on the belief that the mind was composed of faculties and that training (coor- dinating) the hand and eye was general, and that it would 182 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION give a general handiness (manual dexterity) that would apply to all trades and industries. A boy who could use his hands to advantage in wood-working would be equally successful in other trades, such as tailoring. After a number of years this theory was proven to be false. It was shown that hand training is not general, but is valuable only for the specific occupation in which the training is related. Method No. 3 (industrial method) was next introduced into the schools, and consisted in making simplified and primitive forms (objects) that would repre- sent typical industries and trades, such as weaving raffia, to represent the textile industries, cobbling, the shoe indus- try, etc. Method No. 4 (aesthetic method) was introduced to cor- relate the drawing and the manual work based upon the theory that the child is interested in constructing both beautiful and useful objects. Here was a method by which the child could express his ideas in beautiful and useful forms. The correlation idea in method No. 4 was improved upon in method No. 5 (social method), when all forms of manual work were made the center of instruction for other subjects. The sixth and present method of manual training is called "industrial arts," and consists in illustrating the actual industries of to-day. The history of manual training represents a very inter- esting development in methods of teaching. The first method held the interest of the child because he wanted to do something with his hands. Method No. 2 held his interest better because he is still interested in making some- thing practical. Method No. 3 held his interest because his hand-work was more varied than before. Method No. 4 was a better method because it correlated the theory of drawing with the boy's greatest interest — hand-work. MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 183 Method No. 5 was an improvement because it increased the degree of correlation. Method No. 6 is a still greater im- provement because the child is learning, by doing, about the industries of to-day that he will enter to-morrow. Industrial arts should be introduced into every grade of the school system. Before the age of twelve or up to the sixth grade the work should consist of a variety of hand- work, to give the child a variety of experiences in doing and learning many things, and not strive for a high degree of skill in any one form of the activities. The early life of the child consists of motor rather than reflective activities. The objects and materials used by the children up to this period should be large, as the physical development of the child will not allow him to work with small materials or fine instruments. After the age of twelve opportunities should be provided for two classes of pupils : those who desire to continue their industrial arts (manual training) education, and those who desire to obtain a prevocational education. The present method of teaching manual arts or, better, industrial arts, may be improved and made a very important part of the general education of the child, by giving him a training in the study of the industries of to-day by making projects of present industrial value, and combining with it a discussion of the industry or trade showing the value of mathematics, drawing, science, etc. The work will have considerable educational value, depending much upon the way the sub- ject is presented and the amount of interest shown by the teachers. For we must remember that mere motor activi- ties may assist in mental development during the first few years of a child's life, and in the early period of the educa- tion of the feeble-minded, no evidence has ever been offered or presented showing that motor activities, pure and simple, without any other related thinking process, have any influ- 184 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ence upon the development of the mind. It is possible to organize a course of study based upon either practice or observation, or both, of samples of various trades and indus- tries; these can be selected, graded, and adapted to public school work, so as to stimulate the thinking process of the pupil, and in this manner promote both his physical and mental development. It is clear that this cannot be done with the limited amount of time assigned to industrial arts at the present time. It is proposed that two hours a week be taken from the regular program, making in all five hours a week to be devoted to the subject of industries. This can be done without working a hardship to the present program, for it will mean simply a readjustment of some of the studies. How to arrange such a course of study in industrial arts so as to have the proper development of motor and intel- lectual activities has raised some difficult pedagogical problems. It has been shown above that during the early stages of the elementary-school program very little reflec- tive work should be provided with the hand- work. But as soon as the child enters the sixth grade he should begin to think about the hand- work and develop the habit of reading about the industries. To show that a great deal of time is wasted in our elementary-school program, as far as returns are concerned, consider the time devoted to geography, and how little knowledge of this subject is retained by the average adult. This is due primarily to the fact that geo- graphical knowledge as often presented is a mere abstrac- tion that is neither interesting nor clear to the average child. A course in a study of industries presented in an interest- ing manner will arouse the vocational interests of the child. The excursion, observation, or hand-work may be the basis of instruction. The writer suggests four readers, with MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 185 attractive titles to supply the related industrial information: 1. The Farmer and His Friend. 2. Diggers of the Earth (Miners). 3. Makers of Many Things (Manufacturers). 4. Travelers and Traveling (Commerce). Each reader should contain information about the raw materials, the manufacture, trades, machines, etc., of an ob- ject that is familiar to the child, and that he uses at school or home. The greatest educational value of industrial arts is ob- tained when the pupil is taught in the school shops, so that he works out his own plan as independently and completely as possible. The plan in the shops would be along this line : First, a general discussion of the purpose of the work: a study of the material to be used. Pupils should examine and compare various samples and models. Second, pupils with the aid of the teacher will work out plans. This can be done economically by the teacher working with the class as a whole. Pupils should be encouraged to look up all information on the subject. Third, each pupil should work out his own plans in writing, with drawings and calculations, and submit them to the teacher for approval. Fourth, the pupil should be allowed to proceed with the work. However important manual training and prevocational education are, they must not be confused with industrial education — which aims to prepare a pupil definitely for a trade. It is a fact that industrial arts work or manual training was instituted to prepare pupils for the trades and industries, but the experience of twenty-five years shows us that it has failed to do so. What applies to industrial arts, applies equally well to household arts. In making this statement I know that there are isolated teachers doing splendid work in cabinet-making, printing, etc., under the head of manual training, and have sent boys directly to the 186 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION trades, and there are some teachers doing manual training under the name of industrial work. Nevertheless I feel that this distinction applies to the general case. The purpose of a course determines to a large degree the method of teaching and the kind of information imparted. An industrial course is to prepare specifically for a definite occupation, and it is necessary to train the pupil in the shortest time in skill and knowledge for that trade. The tools, equipment, and conditions in an industrial school shop must be similar to a commercial shop, the instructor a skilled mechanic of that trade, and the class must do com- mercial work under commercial conditions as nearly as possible. The work in an industrial school is largely indi- vidual and each member should be allowed to progress at a rate which is in accordance with his development. Since emphasis is on speed and skill, which means concentration on the part of the pupil to his work, it allows very little time to study procedure. His science, drawing, and mathematics are the science, drawing, and mathematics of his trade, so that specialization is carried on in all the school work. Emphasis is laid on the ability to do work, and not the talk about doing it. Classes are small — not over fifteen pupils at one time. Industrial arts work or manual training, on the other hand, is a part of general education, and as such is governed by the existing general educational methods. Emphasis is laid on the complete comprehension of the scientific side of each subject. Larger classes, usually twenty-four, are allowed in industrial arts work, and the class usually works on the same project or exercise together. Prevocational work is usually provided during the years from twelve to fourteen, and as the average child has not the physical development sufficiently to use his fingers for purposes of precision in some trades until he is at least MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 187 fourteen years of age, and in most cases sixteen, the aver- age pupil cannot do vocational work in a prevocational class. Since the great majority of pupils must leave school, for economic and other reasons, when they reach the age of fourteen years, it is clear that whatever training a pupil receives for the work he is to do he must receive in the industrial arts, prevocational classes, and short unit indus- trial courses. That is the reason why those classes should be well developed, so that a course of study will be presented that will include every fundamental mode of utilizing the mind which the industries employ in the conduct of their affairs. This will give to the motor-minded boy interest and growth — which are necessary to power and self-con- fidence in doing the day's work. The problems that are to be studied should arise in a vital and natural way so that the motor-minded boy will see the need of study and memo- rizing in his school work. 1 Prevocational Course The course of study for a prevocational school must be a varied one if it is to help boys and girls to find themselves. It should consist of an organized training in practical arts, which will include a variety of experiences fundamental to the life of the community. This includes wood-working, metal-working, printing, plumbing and sheet-metal work, and electrical construction, as they are all found in all com- munities, and possess content that can be easily adapted to school in the form of projects. This is different from a vocational course in wood- working, metal-work, or printing. Like the vocational work it will consist of a series of jobs, projects, or enterprises which in their accomplishment will give the boy an insight and appreciative understanding of 1 See page 194 for course of study. 188 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION fundamental processes in the more important industries of every community. 1 One half of the time in school should be given to related work in English, social studies, mathematics, science, for an intelligent understanding of civic and social responsibilities. The projects should be real commercial work, as is usually necessary in a school plant, in order to test the interests and capacities of the pupils. The shop-work in a prevocational or industrial class should be arranged in a series of projects, each involving a new principle. A project card (see pp. 190, 191) should be used with each project. The card should contain the pupil's name, the pupil in charge of the project, senior pupil, and the helper's name, junior pupil. A space for the following marks should be left at the top of the card, related trade knowledge, and effort. These marks may be given by the teacher when the project or job is completed. The cards are kept on file as a matter of record; the date the job is started and the time it is finished, that the number of hours (total hours) may be calculated; the materials and tools ordered from the stock-room should be listed by the pupil after he has determined the proper equipment. The pieces should be obtained from the catalogue on file, at the tool- room window. The difference between stock and tools ordered and those used at the list prices (catalogue) repre- sents the charge of the job outside of the labor. At the bot- tom of the card the cost of the job should be calculated according to the form of the standard wage. On the rear side of the card the drawing or sketch of the completed work should be made, and below, a description of the job or project. Thus it is possible to mark on one card the related shop knowledge with complete data. The marks from the pro- 1 See page 193 for course of study. MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 189 ject card may be transferred at the teacher's leisure to a permanent record card called a "project marking card." Prevocational instructors. If the interest and capacity of a boy is to be successfully tested, the experiences given to him must be as near like the actual shop as possible, otherwise it lacks reality. In order to carry out this idea successfully, it is absolutely necessary to have instructors who possess not only a general acquaintanceship with, and knowledge of, the industries presented in the course of study, but they should give evidence of ability to make an intelligent study of the progress in methods and processes of work in industry, so that the school may be able to keep abreast of the times. This can be accomplished by the instructors working in industrial establishments during vacation periods. The uninterested teacher may be able to hold on in the regular school system, but the success of the prevocational work is dependent in such a large degree upon the teacher's power to hold and interest the pupils, and upon his qualities of adaptability, originality, initiative, and keen interest, that only the exceptional teacher should be employed. The plan of the prevocational training in New York City is as follows : Pupils in the seventh and eighth grade classes are allowed to select a prevocational course which includes two groups of studies — the academic and the shop-work. The first includes the essentials of English, arithmetic, sci- ence, history, and geography. The second includes the theory and practice of mechanical drawing, free-hand drawing, electric wiring, garment design, joinery, sheet- metal work, machine-shop practice, printing, plumbing, and sign-painting. The time allotment during the week is as follows : Total time 35 hours Shop time 15 hours LsrrcsTRiAL Arts or Prevocattonal Work Student or Apprentice in charge of job Helper's name Mark of workmanship Mark for related trade knowledge Mark of diagram Effort Job or project started Finished Total hours Materials ordered Catalogue Price issue Returned tools Charge Tools ordered REAR SIDE OF CARD Diagram of work Description of job or project Cost of Job Er. Rate Mechanic's time Er. Rate Helper's time Rate Material, lb. or ft. Total Industrial Arts or Prevocational Work Name Class , Born Entered shop , Rating Job or project Layout Job Effort 192 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Academic time 20 hours English 5 hours Arithmetic 3 hours History, geography 2 hours Science 2 hours Physical training, hygiene 5 hours Related drawing 3 hours The academic material is correlated with the shop sub- jects and shop instruction. In order to do this effectively the academic instructors spend one hour daily in the shops consulting the shop teacher and pupils so that he is able to talk intelligently in the class work about the shop instruc- tion. Pupils receive samples of different kinds of industrial work during the two years. The afternoons during the first nine weeks are devoted to machine work. Pupils showing unusually marked ability in the trade may continue in this branch, while those who show that they are not proficient change to electric wiring the second term of nine weeks. This scheme is continued every nine weeks in woodworking, sheet-metal work, commercial subjects, etc., until the pupil has found the trade that he is best adapted to follow. The course provides for the presentation of instruction from the most elementary exercises to the finished job. The correlated work of the academic department has been planned with a view to giving it at a period when the work will be most timely. It is a significant fact that most cor- related work of the printing class, particularly the formal English, possesses the double value of being cultural as well as technical. In like manner the mathematics of printing, whether it be to find the number of ems in a given piece of work or determining the number of pieces that can be cut from a full sheet of paper, is of a kind that has a value other than its application to this trade. Experience has shown that MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 193 this course, supplemented by a certain amount of individual instruction, will enable pupils possessing an aptitude to gain in one term a range of experience equivalent to that gained during two years in the average printing office. Specimens show that the pupils have done considerable printing for their schools as well as for other schools in the vicinity. However, in no sense are schools in competition with the trade. If the schools did not have the printing equipment, the work would not have been done at all, because there would have been no funds available. The following outline illustrates how the shop-work may be correlated with the academic work: Practical work Learning arrangement of alphabet in type case Making diagrams of type cases (a) California job case (b) News cases Learning case Memory tests in location Printing Shop-work Origin of printing Spread of printing Printing in education and commerce; in newspapers and periodicals Knowledge of grammar and spelling essential of alphabet in type case Font of type Posture at case Holding stick properly Exercises "in picking up properly and placing into stick Exercises to develop speed and uniformity of motion in setting Spacing (a) Even spacing (b) Determining amount of space between words (c) Space after "points" Care of equipment (d) Solid matter (a) Composing-room Body type Job faces Name of type faces Origin of names Technical terms (a) Used in press- room (b) Used in compos- ing-room Uses of equipment (a) Composing-room (b) Press-room Correlation Mathematics Leads to pica Leads to inch Points to lead Points to pica Points to inch Picas to inch English Spelling Punctuation Proof-reading Syllabication History First movable type Science Type-making History First Bible and other books Science Type-making Mathematics Point system 194 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Practical work (e) Leaded matter Justifying type in stick Shop-work (b) Press-room Furniture (a) Wood (b) Metal Size of type and spac- ing material Correlation English Spelling Proof-reading Punctuation Syllabication Mathematics Point system Points to em quad Points to en quad Points to 3 em space Points to 4 em space Points to 5 em space English Spelling Plan foe Prevocational Education Tentative Courses of Study A. Academic work. Approximately half time. 1. English. Language work based on reading, much of the reading to bear on the industries. Composition, dealing with the occupational work of the school, business corre- spondence, business forms, spelling, and penmanship. Aim to cultivate a love for reading. 2. Arithmetic. To be of a very practical nature, including fundamental processes, short methods used in business, business and trade arithmetic, with emphasis on immedi- ate application to the industrial work of the school. 3. Geography. history. Chiefly industrial, and closely related to 4. Hi-story. Closely related to geography, and dealing with the industrial and commercial development of the city, state, and country. 5. Chic and social duties. Relation of the individual to the community, state, and country; relation of the worker to his work, to his employer, and to his fellow workmen; duties and responsibilities, both civic and social, with special reference to sanitation, personal hygiene, etc. MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 195 B. Industrial work. Approximately half time. 1. Wood-working. To consist principally of carpentry, in- cluding such other forms of work as may be called for by the projects undertaken. Study of tools; machines and structures, such as garages, poultry-houses; problems in framing, truss construction, and repair work, with empha- sis on the latter. 2. Metal-working. To consist of work in hot and cold bar metal and sheet metal. Practical problems in repairs and construction which develop in the equipping of the school, will supply work for some time. This will include such work as the making of brace and angle irons, bolts, machine and bolt guards, simple tools, pipe cutting and threading, metal parts of electrical and other apparatus. In addition to this, the students should take apart and assemble the old machines, endeavoring to find out how they work and why they work. Study carefully the prin- ciples of the automatic machine and the method of con- veying power through machines to the point of doing the work, the intention of this work being to familiarize the students with the general principles of machine construc- tion. S.^Printing and binding. To consist of the simpler forms, mainly the printing of forms, cards, announcements, etc., required for the school; this work to be supplemented by special work in English, proof-reading, design, and color harmony. 4. Electrical construction. To consist of elementary work in battery construction, magnetism, induction, small motor and dynamo construction, wiring, electrical measurements, and testing. Experiments with batteries, induction coils, and the wiring of bell, telegraph, telephone, and other circuits, will be worked out on specially constructed frames. 5. Drawing. To be elementary in character, but practical and related directly to the projects undertaken by the pupils in the various shops. To consist of both free-hand sketching and mechanical drawing of the common parts of machines such as nuts, bolts, screws, etc. 196 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION Program of Classes First year Second year Section 1 Section 2 Section 1 Section 2 Mondays, Wednes- days, Fridays Mornings Afternoons . . Tuesdays and Thursdays Mornings. . . . Afternoons . . Shop-work Book-work Book-work Shop-work Book-work Shop-work Shop-work Book-work Shop-work Book-work Book-work Shop-work Book-work Shop-work Shop-work Book- work While section 1 of the first class is receiving instruction in the wood-working shop during the first half-year, section 2 is in the printing shop. During the second half-year the two sections are reversed. Similarly, the two sections of the second-year class alternate between the metal shop and the electrical shop. In all cases one half of each day is spent in the shop and the other half in book-work, as already noted. A program for manual training usually includes a double period or one half the morning or afternoon. The academic work is not usually correlated with the shop activities. Instructors in manual training are usually graduates in the manual training courses of colleges and normal schools. Many have received both their professional and shop training in the nor- mal and college classrooms and shops. Naturally they bring into the school shop the general educational methods and not the com- mercial methods of the industrial world, which latter are so neces- sary in training a boy to be a mechanic. It is seldom that the man- ual training instructor is willing to go into the commercial shop after he has begun to teach in order to get the commercial shop training. This lack in manual training instructors of commercial shop experience is the principal reason why they are not usually employed in vocational and prevocational schools. Experience shows that it is possible to take an experienced mechanic from the industrial world and supplement his experience with sufficient knowledge on principles and methods to make an effective shop instructor and that it is not a satisfactory plan to train industrial teachers by giving them all their shop experience in a school shop. o bO a 4) ? a » . ■sJS-g III ^ <-> a u, Nog &§ns « co . CO o <» "O 4d a «n r (3 B PH w 03 T3 3 O o w & a p A bo 31 bo . O CO •R.S !> CO fl.a os bJD 53 a 9 Ifi-i ,XJ co 03 o» *• 8 &■§ k. ft 23 '^3ft3 a .2 a ft bo o _ a +j CO p- CO a g 81 ga° •15 5 a a ©•a o a -*j3 ago >.2 a -0 +3 £ s|g O co O I S a ft.2 be a .as is 23 a h •H o «-8 a-d n3 o CP . ^ § "<3 3 1 X 2-^ co 198 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1. The city officials of a large community recently decided to do away with manual training in the school system, on the ground that it was expensive and the schools were not obliged to teach it. Were the school officials justified? 2. Explain why the manual training in the general high school of a tex- tile community usually teaches wood-working and metal-working, and ignores the most important industrial activity of the city? 3. Should cobbling be taught in the grades? 4. Industrial arts are often used instead of manual training to-dav. Why? 5. A principal of a large elementary school desires printing taught in order to have plenty of forms for the office. Is this good pedagogy? 6. An instructor in wood-working in a prevocational school has made out a definite course of study, but is unable to follow same, on account of the demand for flower-pot stands, and other improvements for the school. The principal of the school approves of these demands. WTiat are the advantages and disadvantages of such a plan? 7. In the poorer sections of a large cosmopolitan city a number of prevo- cational classes were established, while none were formed in the wealthier parts of the city. Is this fair to the citizens? 8. Is it possible to teach trades in a prevocational school? 9. A principal of a large school finds a number of boys who are about to leave school. He places them in a prevocational class in machine- shop work, and insists that they be taught how to run a lathe in order that they may secure a position later. Is he justified in doing this? 10. How will manual training or industrial arts assist in vocational guid- ance? 11. An instructor in wood- working in a high school makes a few chairs for the school, and he states he is doing trade work and should secure state aid. Should the class receive state approval? 12. Explain why boys like to work in wood- working. 13. Should an industrial arts course in a school system include all forms of industrial activities open to the boy of that community? 14. Should girls be allowed to take metal-working in a high school? 15. A teacher of pattern-making claims that a course in pattern-making "teaches pupils to be accurate and careful." Does psychology justify this statement? 16. A community cannot afford to support both an industrial and a pre- vocational school. WTiich one should be omitted? Why? 17. State the educational values of the following: (a) forging in the tech- nical course in a high school; (b) sign painting in a prevocational course; (c) plumbing in an evening trade school; (d) hand weaving in the third grade; (e) refinishing a piece of furniture in the eighth grade. MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 199 LIST OF REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR FUTURE READING * What can the Grade School do for Industrial Education? A. Garlin Spen- cer. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Proceedings, 1908. (Need of reorganization of grade work so as to contribute to industrial education.) ** "Three Stages in Industrial Education." Manual Training and Voca- tional Education Magazine, January, 1916. * * The Place of Industries in Elementary Education. Katherine Dopp. (Shows the relationship between industries and the social develop- ment of the workers.) * * Hand and Eye Training. Waldemar Goetz. * The Educational Value of Manual Training. C. M. Woodward. * "Relation of Manual to Industrial Education." C. R. Richards. Manual Training and Vocational Magazine, October, 1907. (Distinction between manual and industrial training.) * Report on the Organization and Extension of Prevocational Training in Elementary Schools. W. L. Ettinger. Department of Education, New York City. (A valuable contribution. Methods and courses of study are given.) APPENDIX TYPE AND SUGGESTIVE COURSES OF STUDY COURSE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN COLLEGE GRADE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL (To supplement page 30) The course in mechanical engineering aims, first, to give the student a thorough training in such fundamentals as physics, mathematics, and applied mechanics; then, by means of lectures, laboratory work, and drawing-room work, to make him familiar with the various problems with which a mechanical engineer has to deal. He is also given a training in the mechanic arts sufficient to make him familiar with the use of shop tools, foundry practice, forging and pattern work, such knowledge being essential to the successful designer of machinery. The work in mechanism includes the study of linkages, cams, gear teeth, valve gears of steam engines, and, in the advanced courses, given in the third year, the application of mechanisms to machine tools and to automatic machinery. The course in heat engineering covers thermodynamics, steam engines, boilers, gas engines, gas producers, and power station accessories. Courses are given in Applied Dynamics, Foundations, Factory Construc- tion, Heating and Ventilation, Refrigeration, Industrial Manage- ment, and on Physical Metallurgy. The student is given suffi- cient work in electrical engineering subjects to enable him to handle the ordinary problems which may confront him. A thorough course in Theoretical Hydraulics is followed by Hy- draulic Engineering, a course in which both the estimation and the utilization of hydraulic power are discussed. Instruction in drawing extends to the end of the third year, the work finishing with the complete design and calculation of a boiler. The course in machine design, extending through both terms of the senior year, and the course in power plant design, afford the student an opportunity of applying many of the facts learned in preceding years. In the fourth year the student is offered the option of 202 APPENDIX courses in Engine Design, Locomotive Construction, Mill Engi- neering, and Steam Turbine Engineering. The laboratory work in steam, hydraulics, and strength of materials is planned to follow the classroom work, and thereby assist the student in getting a better grasp of these subjects. (The whole question of industrial education for college grade has been investigated during the last few years by Professor Charles R. Mann, of the Carnegie Foundation of Learning, New York City.) COURSE OF STUDY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FOR A COLLEGE GRADE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL First Year First Term Second Term Mathematics Mathematics Plane Trigonometry Inorganic Chemistry; Laboratory, Inorganic Chemistry; Laboratory, Lectures and Recitations Lectures and Recitations Mechanical Drawing and Mechanical Drawing and Descriptive Geometry Descriptive Geometry Free-hand Drawing Free-hand Drawing Foreign Language Foreign Language English Rhetoric and English Composition History Military Science Military Science Physical Training Physical Training Second Year First Term Second Term Mechanism Mechanism and Valve Gears Mechanical Engineering, Drawing Mechanical Engineering, Drawing Descriptive Geometry Applied Mechanics Forging Foundry Mathematics Forging Physics Mathematics Physical Laboratory Physics Foreign Language Physical Laboratory English Precision of Measurements English APPENDIX 203 Third Year First Term Heat Engineering Applied Mechanics Machine Drawing Wood-work and Pattern-Making Mathematics Surveying History Political Economy General Studies Second Term Heat Engineering Applied Mechanics Mechanism of Machines Mechanical Engineering, Drawing Boiler Design Engineering Laboratory Electrical Engineering Physical Metallurgy Vise and Bench Work Business Law General Studies Fourth Year First Term Machine Design Applied Mechanics Testing Materials, Laboratory Dynamics of Machines Engineering, Laboratory Theoretical Hydraulics Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering, Laboratory Factory Construction Foundations Machine Tool Work Second Term Machine Design Power Plant Design General Engineering, Lectures on Aeronautics Engineering, Laboratory Hydraulic Engineering Refrigeration Heating and Ventilation Industrial Management Machine Tool Work Thesis Options Engine Design Locomotive Engineering Mill Engineering Steam Turbine Engineering COOPERATIVE ENGINEERING EDUCATION (To supplement page 30) One of the most successful engineering schools of college grade, the University of Cincinnati, has developed a cooperative plan of education by which the student alternates between practical work and laboratory and classroom work. As the name implies the cooperative scheme of education consists in cooperation between xA APPENDIX tit university iz.i : :ruu:-.::i:.i :nzYee:iiz :?zi7.':z:.-.':--z. T1-: srzir-zs are i.'.ii ~t: -_— : 5 -.-:-.:: us. Wi^ t -_l r - :5: 5.e-:ii:i 5 attending the university for two weeks, the aypnd section is --".z-z-. 1 ■_; :n zutiiie "uru. E::i stuien: 115 11 L'.:i::r. aid ::e "::--. eu_y :i;'"r;: ii : iitii i-rd uitii :'_:- 5:. rent: zie-:-e :: ~:rk on which both are engaged is completed. The freshmen in the case of civil engineers are placed as laborers, with railroads or track-work, with construction companies, work- iuz :.5 i^rtoenters. m :. : —— :e ".5 . eto. Tie ~- : - — - — Ftuditf :r:::v : is "eel zeiti y: 1: ur. 11: :le usizi ; 2.7 ii : twenty to thirty :enti r-e: l:ur. Tlii luni :•: - ■.:'_■; :> : ;nti inte tleir s-e-imi year. 11 :i rreuuentiy Lire nil: ut tleir >r: in :r£e: t: yz-e lie siuieuti a variety :: exr-erience I: tley —-,'•-- _ : : : tley are ZTiniitel in tie t'uiri ant :: urui v:-ar= te rositlis :: tuueke^rs." ruateria: :ie:ls. :ti 5 ibfireuien. In tie rlurtu : .:". . irtl "ears tie" are u.vei nr eater test insi : ilru : . . are ria ie a :e~ exeeiti:n- COLLEGE GRADE EVENING INDUSTRIAL COURSES T: rattle-eat ;a.re 5-5 Tezz ::1:~ utz evenuiz nurses :: ::leze z~aue are iztez.irt t: brizzz tie syszenzati: rruzv :•: size — itliu tie reali :: ~:~z mei t-1; are ::l:~ini inzuszriai pursuits aiz desire z: It tlezi- s-eivrs ::: lizler to:siti:zs. but z:e uzzabie t: attend : rurses iuriiz :iie iav. Tie subjects zz:iuze-z ut tie :: -arses ire ii ::ii:~s r-'-rr- F-u -_V:U 'i-.-.'.-i.' :-.l zT.V .—.':.:.: i: - u Mutlezzatizs. Plvsizs. 111 Eiene1t.1i" Eieitziut". Eieznents :: Ml lizauzszz Dui-nr. 5:-;; ■--:•":-' _Y-;-' - " i -5f Eiezzez:s 1 Tlerzz:t"uizu:5. APPENDIX 205 Second-Year Electrical Course. Elements of Thermodynamics, the Steam Engine and Boilers, Valve Gears, Steam Laboratory, Direct Current Machinery, Alternating Currents, Electric Distri- bution, Electrical Testing Laboratory, and Laboratory of Dynamo Electric Machinery. Building Course. First Year. Mathematics, Physics, Elemen- tary Electricity, Elements of Mechanism and Drawing, Applied Mechanics and Graphic Statics, Steam and Hydraulic Machinery, and Heating and Ventilation. Second Year. Materials and Testing Materials, Structural Design, Foundations, Electrical Machinery, and Electrical Laboratory, Electrical Wiring, Steam Laboratory, and Building Laws, Contracts, Sanitation, etc. It is the aim to adapt the course to the men for whom the instruc- tion is intended, and to include the study of those principles with which they are not likely to become familiar in practice, and which will give them a fundamental training in those matters that will be of the greatest value to them in the work in which they are engaged. The instruction embraces recitations, lectures, drawing-room practice, and laboratory exercises; and is given by members of the instructing staff of the day school. Many lectures are fully illus- trated by apparatus and experiments. Written tests are given from time to time, and problems are assigned for home work at nearly every exercise. Textbooks are used in many subjects, but in some of the work, where the instruction differs widely from available books, printed notes are supplied to the students at cost. Students are expected to purchase such textbooks, notebooks, instruments, and other material as may be recommended through- out the course. The scholarship of the students and their ability to continue the courses are determined in part by examinations, but considerable weight is given to the work of the pupil in the term. Those students who fail to keep well up with the work or to profit suffi- ciently by the instruction are informed that they are not qualified to pursue the course advantageously. Those who complete satis- factorily the required courses of the two years and pass the exami- nations are given graduate certificates. The school year begins the last week of September and continues into May. There is a recess of one week at Christmas, and on legal holidays the exercises of the school are suspended. Attend- 206 APPENDIX ance from 7.30 to 9.30 for three or four evenings a week is required, in addition to outside study. To be admitted to the first-year class the applicant must be at least eighteen years of age and must pass satisfactorily the entrance examinations. These examinations may be, in a measure, of a competitive nature, as it is likely that the number of applications for admittance will be larger than the capacity of the school. Considerable weight will be attached to the applicant's occupation and practical experience. The courses are open to those only who are ambitious and willing to study and who purpose to complete the full course of two years. A briefer college course in industrial subjects is offered by the School of Science and Technology of Pratt Institute along different lines, as follows: (To supplement page 30.) First. Day Industrial Courses in Mechanics, Electricity, and Chemistry, affording a thorough practical and technical training for young men who are ambitious to prepare themselves for leader- ship in positions of importance and responsibility in this country's expanding industries. Second. Day Trade Courses in Machine Work, Carpentry and Building, and Tanning, for those who wish practical and theo- retical instruction in these trades. Third. Evening Technical Courses for those employed during the day in mechanical, electrical, and chemical industries and related occupations. Fourth. Evening Trade Courses for apprentices and journeymen. Fifth. Courses for the training of mechanic teachers of trades in industrial schools. The courses offered are as follows : Day Industrial Courses Mechanical Industries A two-year course Applied Electricity A two-year course ' Applied Chemistry A two-year course Applied Leather Chemistry A one-year course Day Trade Courses Machine Construction A one-year course Carpentry and Building A one-year course Tanning A one-year course APPENDIX 207 The time of students in the day courses is fully occupied with required work from 9.10 a.m. to 4.40 p.m. on all week days except Saturday, and students as a rule find it necessary to spend several hours each evening in preparation for the work of the following day. Evening Technical Courses Practical Mathematics, first year Strength of Materials Practical Mathematics, second year Technical Chemistry Practical Electricity first year General Chemistry Industrial Physics second year Machine Design Industrial Electricity third year Quantitative Analysis first year Direct Current Machin- Mechanical Drawing and Machine ery and Electrical Design Design second year Alternating Current first year Mechanical Drawing Machinery and Electrical Design second year Machine Design Steam and the Steam Engine third year Mechanism Internal Combustion Engine Evening Trade Courses Carpentry and Building Sheet-Metal Work Pattern-Making Sheet-Metal Pattern-Drafting Plumbing Machine Work and Tool-Making Foundry Practice Forging and Heat Treatment Training Course for Mechanic Teachers Trade Teaching Elementary Course Trade Teaching Advanced Course All evening classes are held from 7.30 to 9.30 on Mondays, Wednesday s* and Fridays, from September through March. TRAINING FOR THE DISTRIBUTING PHASE OF INDUSTRY (To supplement page 13) The training for the productive phase of industry as described in the previous pages is in production and skill. This means that the emphasis should be on shop training in commercial work rather than theory. The training for the distributive phase of industry should be somewhat different. In the first place, there are cer- tain personal qualifications for a salesman that do not apply to the workman. Second, while the salesman knowledge of his 208 APPENDIX product should be thorough, it should be very different from that of the mechanic. Large corporations usually send their young men, who have at least an appreciative knowledge of the trades from a school point of view, to the factory for a varying period of time. There is no standard method of training in use among the different firms. Some require 1 the shop training before the men enter the sales offices; others prescribe a short term of office work before the men enter the shops. The latter method seems preferable because the apprentice salesman learns the methods of doing business, and at the end of his office practice knows just what he needs to learn while in the shop. Any shop training for salesmen should be intensive and not too long. The following represents a method of training salesmen adopted by one firm: The first few days are spent in becoming acquainted with the various officials and the layout of the plant. A study is then made of the machines. One principle common to all machine tools should be made plain to the student, the power applied to the machine is divided into two main branches, the driving of the tool or table, as the case may be, and the feeds. The apprentice should see that it consists of a revolving table and a stationary tool; the rest of the machine consists of a series of levers and covered boxes containing numerous gears, clutches, etc. Show that the power is traced from the belt or motor through the various speed gears and back gears to the pinion which drives the table. It is very desirable for the student to sketch these gear trains on a pad; the very act of putting a construction on paper helps to fix it in one's mind. In the same manner, the feed gearing is traced through from where it leaves the drive gearing to the final tool movement. If any part of the machine is inaccessible, the assembling benches should be visited and the desired part inspected in detail. In this way a fairly good understanding of the function of each lever and clutch is obtained. Then each machine is taken in order. The next step is to hold an informal consultation with the designer of the tool. With his assistance a number of assembly drawings of the machine in question should be selected from the files; ordinarily about four or five will be sufficient to show the general construction. It is advisable to choose only such drawings 1 Niles Bement Machine Shop. APPENDIX 209 as will show the various parts of the machine assembled; too many detailed drawings are likely to cause confusion. These drawings should he gone over carefully with the designer and anything not thoroughly understood should be discussed. Blue-prints should then be made and kept in the salesman's files for reference. It is better to examine the machine before the blue-print, for it is easier to see a thing in reality than on paper. After the drawings have been studied, it is a good plan for the salesman to make a brief tour through the shop with the designer. By this means every point discussed in the conference is brought home by actual inspection, and the design of the machine is firmly fixed in mind. The concentrated study of that machine may now be considered as ended, though, from time to time, inspections will be made of various types in different stages of erection. Further- more, it is an excellent plan for the salesman to have frequent chats with the men who operate these machines in different parts of the plant. Much valuable information regarding the output, mode of operation, and special advantages may be obtained from them. This is of service if the salesman's prospect is a " me- chanical' ' man, one who is appealed to from the operator's view- point. The apprentice salesman should cultivate the acquaintance of the workmen, foremen, and designers, as well as other officials. The ability to get along with workmen is a very important quality. Salesmen come in contact with them, and they should know how to correct a false idea instead of displaying any superior knowledge. After a machine has been studied in the foregoing manner, it is a good plan for the salesman to accompany the inspector on his final tests. Much can be learned from him. He usually has had extensive experience and possesses a veritable storehouse of anec- dote and history concerning various machines and their develop- ment. The same plan is followed with each machine, although as the apprentice salesman becomes more experienced he can carry on the study of two or even three machines simultaneously. Along with his practical training the salesman should keep up an extensive technical reading in all lines. A knowledge of present conditions and the trend of improvement and development in his field are of great importance. A further aid is the inspection of any outside plants within convenient distance. On these visits the salesman 210 APPENDIX becomes acquainted with the conditions which his machines have to meet, the methods of manufacture, and the requirements upon the machine-tool builder. He also learns the demands of the users of machine tools. He should transmit this information to his shops, and if he suggests any improvement of value, it should be carried out. Frequently, though, a salesman will offer a ma- chine with certain attachments which are of little service to the user, but are a source of trouble to build. Therefore the sales- man should know his machines thoroughly, and also his own factory conditions so that he can guide the purchaser in his demands. One of the largest concerns in the iron and steel trade believes that high-salaried executive officers may be as much benefited by a course of industrial training as the ordinary 7 employee who is tending a machine, or a salesman, and has established a school for training executives. The students in this school are from forty to sixty years of age, and the average age is fifty -two. The course of instruction includes shop practice, administration, and theory. The course of instruction extends over six weeks, during which time the students give their entire time to the school work. Their sala- ries continue as usual during this time, and their traveling expenses in visiting different works of the company during the course are paid. The cost of the school apart from these items is about $35,000 per annum. The usual routine is to spend a forenoon in the shop and the afternoon in attending lectures, while the evening is devoted to the study of textbooks. The students are given examinations at stated intervals, and their markings in the exami- nations are sent to the head office of the company. INDUSTRIAL COURSES OF SECONDARY GRADE IN A GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY (To supplement page 32) r The aim of the Industrial Course is to prepare students as fully as possible for definite industrial occupations. In the course of instruction for boys practical shop-work and mechanical drawing are emphasized and much time is devoted to them. Adequate attention is also given to necessary academic subjects, including English, mathematics, and science. In the first two years the shop-work is general and fundamental, and in- APPENDIX 211 eludes wood-working, pattern-making, foundry practice, forging, machine work, the use and care of tools and machines, qualities of materials and their production, and a study of the fundamental principles of construction. All the work is educative as well as practical. At the end of the second year, if the pupil exhibits special ability in any direction, he may be permitted to specialize along this line, in order that he may be the better fitted for the industrial career which he desires. In these courses the required academic work is closely related to the industrial work. The courses in the day school will include six hours, divided into seven periods. Industrial Course for Boys * Periods Grade 9A (1st Year) Required : Applied Mathematics . 4 English 5 Elementary Science 4 Wood-work 8 Forging 4 Mechanical Drawing. . . 6 Points Periods Points Grade 10B (2d Year) Required: 4 Applied Mathematics. 4 4 5 English 4 4 4 Industrial History 4 4 4 Pattern-Making 6 3 2 Foundry Practice .... 6 3 3 Mechanical Drawing. . 6 3 Grade 9B (1st Year) Required: Applied Mathematics . 4 4 English 5 5 Elementary Service. ... 4 4 Wood-work 6 3 Machine Shop Practice. 6 3 Mechanical Drawing. . . 6 3 Grade 10A (2d Year) Required: Applied Mathematics . 4 4 English 4 4 Industrial History 4 4 Pattern-Making 6 3 Foundry Practice 6 3 Mechanical Drawing. . . 6 3 Grade 11 A (3d Year) Required: English 4 Physics 5 Mechanical Drawing. . 6 Carpentry or 12 Cabinet-Making, or . . 12 Pattern-Making, or. . . 12 Foundry Practice, or. . 12 Machine-Shop Prac- tice, or 12 6 Printing 12 6 Grade 11B (3d Year) Required : English 4 4 Industrial History 4 4 1 From Course of Study, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J. 21: APPENDIX r—siTS f. -.:,:: =. ■_-.' Ar .16 :':.:: :: I: "--■ :::e. :: li Printing, or. 12 E>:rr::a'. C:zszri:~j.jZ Yt Gr: Lit :rs l.\ 4:n Year Pr. ra— . r.: En, IS 6 NJ. APPENDIX 213 Periods Periods Grade 10A (2d Year) Grade 10B (2d Year) Required: Required: Carpentry, or 10 Carpentry, or 18 Cabinet-Making, or 18 Cabinet-Making, or 18 Pattern-Making and Foun- Pattern-Making and Foun- dry Practice, or 18 dry Practice, or 18 Machine-Shop Practice, or.. 18 Machine-Shop Practice, or.. 18 Printing 18 Printing 18 Mechanical Drawing 6 Mechanical Drawing 6 Shop Problems 4 Shop Problems 4 English, including Selected English, including Selected Readings, relating to In- Readings, relating to In- dustries and Civics 4 dustries and Civics 4 COOPERATIVE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE (To supplement page 35) An excellent part-time system of education of high-school grade is seen in the Fitchburg Cooperative High-School Course. Fitch- burg is a manufacturing city of about 40,000 inhabitants, with various types of industries. These manufacturers have felt the need for a long time of technically trained boys of high-school training. One of the successful manufacturers in the city heard Professor Schneider describe his part-time engineering school one evening and he was impressed with the simplicity and practi- cability of the plan, and judged that such a scheme could be adapted to high-school students who wished to learn a trade and continue their education at the same time. A committee was appointed from the different manufacturers to consider the advisability of such a plan in the local high school. The committee reported a plan for a combination shop and school course, offering the use of their shops for the practical instruction of apprentices if the school would provide the necessary academic instruction. The school committee agreed to this plan and many manufacturers entered into the agreement. The course outlined is of four years' duration, the same as the regular high-school course. The first year is spent wholly in the school and the next three years in the shop and school — one week in the shop and one week in the school. In order to carry out this scheme the manufacturers take boys in pairs so that by alternating they have one of the pair always at work, and likewise the school is provided with one of the pair. 214 APPENDIX The Fitchburg scheme of industrial education was put into operation August 1, 1908, with twenty-two people, eleven in the shop and eleven in the school. The parents agree that the boy will stay at this work for three years, and the manufacturer on his part agrees to teach him the various branches of the trade designated in the agreement. In order to make this binding the parents must file a bond of fifty dollars. Each Saturday morning the boy who has been at school that week goes to the shop in order to get hold of the job his mate is working on, and be ready to take it up Monday morning when the shop-boy goes to school for a week. When there is a vacation week in school, work is provided in the shop, so that the boy does not loaf around the streets. The shop-work consists in instruction in the operation of lathes, planes, drilling machines, bench and floor work, and other machine work. The school-work is twenty weeks a year. Since it is such a short course only such subjects are taught as are of practical value to the student in the pursuit of a livelihood. The regular courses of high-school study were discarded, precedent ignored, and a new course of study made out. One great objection to cooperative part-time work in high school is the fact that the vast majority of pupils enter the distributing, rather than the productive, branch of trade life. One of the best examples of the successful operation of a part- time system of education of intermediate school type is the Beverly Industrial School. Beverly is a small manufacturing city with one very large indus- try, the manufacture of shoe machinery by the United Shoe Machinery Company. The school authorities and this large cor- poration have entered into an agreement to furnish industrial education to young men between the ages of fourteen and twenty- five. Briefly, the plan of cooperation is the following : A separate department is organized in the factory of the United Shoe Machinery Company and equipped with all necessary machine tools for the accommodation of twenty-five boys at one time. Two groups of twenty-five alternate between the factory and the schoolhouse. The company furnishes all materials and keeps the accounts and purchases the product at established prices. The company makes up the deficit between the earnings of the practice shop as shown by the accounts and the cost of mainte- nance of the practice shop including the salary of the instructors APPENDIX ' 215 "while in the shop. The hiring of the shop instructor or foreman and the management of the shop are in the hands of the School Committee on Industrial Education. This committee provides in the school instruction in shop mathematics, including the use of micrometers and other instruments of precision, mechanics, chemistry of the different kinds of materials used in the factory, free-hand sketches with dimension blue-print reading, mechanical drawing, English, civics, industrial economics, business forms and practice. The excellent laboratories and other equipment of the high school are available for the use of the industrial school after- noons and evenings and a portion of another school is used in the forenoons, as required. In this way excellent buildings and equip- ment are used at no additional cost to the city of Beverly and the cost of maintenance is reduced to a minimum. No pupil, how- ever, is bound by any agreement or indenture to continue to the end of any course. The only entrance requirements for a boy are that he shall have attained the age of fourteen years and shall have completed satisfactorily the sixth grade, at least, in the public elementary schools or an equivalent. The requirements of a pupil remaining in the school are satisfactory conduct and a reason- able degree of proficiency in his work. The greater stress is laid on the shop-work in case of doubt. DAY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL (To supplement page 33) The following trades are usually taught in a day industrial school: Carpentry Mechanical draftsman Architectural draftsman Electrician Cabinet-maker Engineer Machinist Automobile repairing Carpentry. The course providing training for the trade of car- penter consists of shop practice and science, study of building materials, architectural drawing, mathematics, English, and civics. Architectural draftsman. This course differs from the carpenter's course in having much of the shop-work replaced by work in the drafting-room, on building construction. Cabinet-making. This course differs from the carpenter's course 216 APPENDIX in having more time devoted to office furniture, etc., than to the building trade work. Machinist. This course, in addition to English and civics, in- cludes machine-shop work, the mathematics underlying machine- shop work, study of materials, drawing, and some work in steam and electricity. The shop-work consists of practice in the usual operations common to machine-shop work. Mechanical draftsman. The mechanical draftsman's course is similar to the machinist's course with much less shop-work, and more practice in the drawing-room on machine-shop work. Electrician. This course deals with practical and theoretical electricity, and includes electric wiring, building motors, winding armatures, testing and repairing circuits, and practical experience in the electric power station, etc. In addition there is special mathematics applied to electrical work, and English and civics is also taught. Engineer. This course deals with the theory and practice of steam work. It includes in addition English and civics, some machine-shop practice, and mathematics. Automobile repairing. The automobile repairing course usually consists of work similar to that of the machinist's course, with special shop-work on the automobile and the study of its operation. MILLWRIGHTING In every manufacturing community there is a demand in the factories for a type of millwright, or "handy man," who is able to do rough carpentry and pattern-making, general repair machine work, take care of belts and gears, motors and dynamos, do paint- ing and glazing, and electrical wiring of a rough character. This work does not demand the skill of a tool-maker or cabinet-maker, and will appeal to the boy of ordinary mechanical ability. Course of Study (Two years) Time Allotment English, history, civics, etc.; shop mathematics, sketching and blue-print working 20 per cent Laboratory practice and observation of the following subjects: Concrete and masonry, applied chemistry and physics, hydraulics and plumbing; general knowledge, rather than specific ability is required in these subjects 30 per cent APPENDIX 217 Shop practice in the following subjects: Rough carpentry and pattern-making, general repair machine work, care of belts and gears, care of motors and dynamos, and electrical wiring of a rough character, painting, glazing, and plumbing 50 per cent Method of teaching. The method of teaching must be based upon the existence of a maintenance problem in a factory. Some work of this kind can, no doubt, be found in every school, and in order to make the work efficient it is probable that some outside sources of supply can be found. Arrangements should be made to let the boys work on a part-time basis in a factory, or have them, one at a time, spend some time in a factory or mill. In order to secure the highest degree of correlation it is desirable that the first-year shop-work should be based upon the project method; that during the second year, so far as practicable, the technical work be separated from the shop-work and handled upon a labo- ratory basis. Correlation should be carried out as far as possible. Machine-shop work. Repair machine work differs from the regular production work chiefly in the lack of special machines in equipment, and in the fact that the machinists usually go with their jobs from machine to machine. In many cases' the equip- ment is either inadequate or antiquated, and the machinists have to exercise considerable ingenuity in doing their work with the means at their disposal. These conditions should be duplicated as nearly as possible in the shop-work of this course. The course should include such work as ordinary operations on the sensitive and heavy duty drill press, milling, plain and simple index milling, including the cutting of plain gears, plain shaper work and con- siderable lathe work, including work on the cutting lathe. Blacksmithing. This work could be adequately carried through with one or two small portable forges placed in the machine shop. Work of this kind should include brazing and some hardening and tempering. Electrical work. The electrical work should include a study of the gross anatomy of the dynamo and motor. The pupils should learn the names and functions of parts, assemble and disassemble motors, and should become familiar with method of control, revers- ing, starting, etc., low tension work with number 18 wire; the usual series of board problems can be worked out with bells, annuncia- tors, etc. Practice should be given in wiring, exposed wiring of the mill type, including drilling in concrete and masonry, and some 218 APPENDIX work with conduits, connecting up dynamos and motors according to the instructions furnished with these machines. House-wiring, as distinguished from mill-wiring, should not be attempted to any extent. Maintenance work on interior circuits, including mainte- nance and simple repairs on dynamos and motors, should also be included. Considerable practical work can be found in the school itself. This can be supplemented by outside work through cooper- ation of the mills or from the school department. Carpentry work. Carpentry work should be of the character required of the mill machinist. The boy should carry the job through, both at the bench and, so far as safety permits, at the machines. Work should be entirely in the cheaper woods and should not call for a high degree of accuracy or finish. The follow- ing subjects should be covered in the course : butt, lap, and half -lap joint (no dovetailing); putting up rough partitions and floors; building stagings and scaffoldings, boxes and trucks. The aim is to turn out a comparatively rough, handy carpenter, and not a cabinet-maker; hence furniture-making should not be included. Steam piping. The object of this work should be to turn out a mechanic who can cut the ordinary iron piping and who knows how to cut threads so as to make a tight joint, working from a sketch plan. It should include the use of the hack saw, the cold chisel, hand dies for threading, and the operations of making up a threaded and union joint with different types of valves, elbows, tees, etc. This work cannot very well be done on an exercise basis and therefore should be included in the shop-work, because the only way to test the job is by putting steam into it. Pattern-making. The mill machinist is often called upon to make simple patterns, mainly where a piece of repair work is needed. For example, a gear breaks and a simple pattern is made from the broken gear, sent to a local foundry, and the casting is made in the machine shop. Usually the important factor here is time, rather than extreme care in the waste of iron. Solid patterns and simple core patterns cover all the demands of this course. These patterns should be made in the cheap wood, without extreme regard to accuracy. Instruction should include the use of the shrink rule for iron and brass, and provision should be made for the boy who has made the pattern to visit the factory so that he will understand the process of making the mold. Painting and glazing. The aim of this work is merely to turn APPENDIX 219 out a worker who can set an ordinary pane o! glass. Instruction would therefore include removing broken glass, cleaning out the putty and old tacks, putting in the new glass, tacking and putty- ing the work. Concrete and masonry. Concrete: Mixing, control of properties of concrete by changing the ingredients, good and bad mixtures for different purposes, pouring, setting, forming, dressing, etc., making paths, concrete forms of different kinds, as opportunity offers. Masonry: Brick, hollow, tile, etc., laying, binding, arching, taking down old brick-work, the laying to line of masonry, mortar, the ingredients of mortar, control, conditions affecting settling, etc. This work should be largely laboratory in character, follow- ing the lines of the New York Trade School, where work of this kind is first set up and then torn down. This should be supple- mented by some construction work. Engines and boilers. The aim of this course is to acquaint the pupil, in a general way, with the construction, operation, and function of steam units. This should include a general knowl- edge of names and functions of parts, and of the slide-valve en- gine, the cross-compound engine, functions of accessories, such as feed pumps, injectors, gauge-glasses, steam gauges, ash-pits, differ- ent types of boilers, etc. Laboratory study along these lines can be carried on with a large number of materials secured from the junk heap and fitted for this purpose through the melting out of certain parts, so as to include the insides. In addition, a study of the gas engine should be included. Drawing. The aim of this course is to give some degree of familiarity with reading all sorts of plans — piping plans, electrical wiring plans, machine-shop blue-prints, carpentry plans, plumbing plans, etc.; (1) exercises in reading simple plans of all the above; (2) exercises in sketching layouts, especially where the pupil is required to trace out a circuit, electrical, steam, or plumbing, etc.; (3) elements of mechanical drawing, simple work in the use of instruments and projections. Trade mathematics. This course should include elementary instruction in rough trade methods of computing material, such as lumber, brick, concrete, time, cost, etc., as given in Vocational Mathematics. J Applied science. Applied science may be taught on a labo- 1 See Vocational Mathematics, by W. H. Dooley. 220 APPENDIX ratory basis, with practical demonstrations. It should include a rather general knowledge of a number of the simpler facts of physics and chemistry as applied to trades, such as the effect of temperature upon material, expansion, contraction, melting, boil- ing, distillation; a little study of light, based upon the taking of photographs, properties of metals, etc., and a notion of the terms used in hydraulics, such as "head of water," "water flow," etc., which should be based upon a study of the local water supply sys- tem. Pupils should be taught to explain practical questions, such as why concrete sets; how a furnace is built to give good combus- tion; what makes steam pressure; how it is controlled; what makes a dry boiler burst; how a fusible plug works, why a saw-tooth roof is used on a weave shed to get good light; how electric lights are laid out in order to give proper illumination, etc. 1 SECONDARY DAY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS The following are the departments and courses of study in the day work of the Holyoke Vocational School: Department of Carpentry and Building First Year Shop Practice Trade English ' Trade Mathematics Trade Drawing (About 80 per cent on shop floor) Applied English Hygiene Applied Mathematics Physical Training (About 20 per cent classroom) Second Year Shop Practice Trade English Trade Mathematics Trade Drawing Trade Science Shop Management Trade Hygiene (From 50 to 60 per cent shop-work) English Mathematics Civics Industrial History Hygiene Physical Training (From 40 to 50 per cent classroom) 1 See Applied Science for Metal-Workers and Wood-Workers, by W. H. Dooley. APPENDIX 221 Third Year Shop Practice Shop Drawing Shop Mathematics Shop Management (From 50 to 60 per cent shop-work) English Literature Mathematics Citizenship Industrial History Hygiene Physical Training (From 40 to 50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year {first half) Shop Practice Shop Mathematics (50 per cent shop- work) English Drawing Mathematics Hygiene Mechanics Physical Training (50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year {second half) The apprentice enters the trade. A record of his work is kept. This record becomes a part of the complete trade record of the boy. Department of Machine-shop Practice First Year Shop Practice Trade Mathematics Trade English Trade Drawing Shop Management Trade Hygiene (80 per cent shop-work) Applied Mathematics Hygiene Applied English Physical Training (20 per cent classroom) Second Year Shop Practice Trade English Trade Mathematics Trade Hygiene Trade Science Shop Management (50 to 60 per cent shop-work) Applied English Industrial History Applied Mathematics Citizenship Hygiene Physical Training General Mechanical Drawing (40 to 50 per cent classroom) 222 APPENDIX Third Year Shop Practice Trade English Trade Mathematics Trade Science Shop Management Trade Hygiene (50 to 60 per cent shop-work) English Literature Mathematics Citizenship Industrial History Hygiene Physical Training General Mechanical Drawing (40 to 50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year (first half) Shop Practice Related Trade Subjects (50 per cent shop-work) English Mathematics Science Drawing Hygiene Physical Training (50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year (second half) The apprentice enters the trade and the record is kept of his work. Department of Pattern-Making First Year Shop Practice Trade English Moulding Trade Drawing Core-Making Shop Management Trade Mathematics (80 per cent shop-work) Applied English Hygiene Applied Mathematics Physical Training (20 per cent classroom) Second Year Shop Practice Trade English Trade Mathematics Trade Hygiene Shop Management Materials (50 to 60 per cent shop-work) Applied English Industrial History Applied Mathematics Citizenship Hygiene Physical Training General Mechanical Drawing (40 to 50 per cent classroom) APPENDIX 223 Third Year Shop Practice Trade English Trade Mathematics Trade Science Shop Management Trade Hygiene (50 to 60 per cent shop-work ) English Mathematics Citizenship Industrial History Hygiene Physical Training General Mechanical Drawing v (40 to 50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year (first half) Shop Practice Related Trade Subjects • (50 per cent shop-work) English Mathematics Science Drawing Hygiene Physical Training (50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year (second half) The apprentice enters the trade. A record is kept of his work which becomes a part of the completed trade record of the boy. Printing First Year Shop- Work Trade English (1) Composition Trade Drawing (2) Press-Work Trade Hygiene Trade Mathematics (80 per cent shop-work) Applied English Civics Applied Mathematics Hygiene and Physical Training (20 per cent classroom) Second Year Shop Practice Trade English Trade Mathematics Trade Hygiene Materials of Trade Trade Design (50 to 60 per cent shop-work) Applied English Applied Mathematics Citizenship Industrial History Hygiene Physical Training (40 to 50 per cent classroom) 224 APPENDIX Third Year Shop Practice Trade English Trade Mathematics Trade Science Materials of Trade Trade Hygiene (50 to 60 per cent shop-work) English (Literature) Mathematics Citizenship Industrial History Hygiene Physical Training English Composition (40 to 50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year {first half) Shop Practice Related Trade Subjects (50 per cent shop-work) English Mathematics Printing Design Hygiene Physical Training (50 per cent classroom) Fourth Year (second half) The apprentice enters the trade. A record of his work is kept. This record becomes a part of the complete trade record of the boy. SHORT UNIT COURSES (To supplement page 56) Unit courses should be very specific. To illustrate: A course in any branch of cotton manufacture should not be simply cotton manufacture, but divided into units as follows: Carding and Spinning Department 1 Picking and Carding — one year, two evenings a week. Combing — one year, two evenings a week. Drawing and Roving Frames — one year, two evenings a week. Ring Spinning and Twisting — one year, two evenings a week. Mule Spinning — one year, two evenings a week. Cotton sampling — one term, two evenings a week. Advanced Calculations in Carding and Spinning — one year, one evening a week. 1 From Course of Study, Bradford Durfee Textile School, Fall River, Mass. APPENDIX 225 Weaving and Warp Preparation Departments Spooling, Warping and Slashing — one term, two evenings a week. Plain Weaving and Fixing — one year, two evenings a week. Fancy Weaving and Fixing — one year, two evenings a week. Weaving and Fixing (French Class) — one year, two evenings a week. Weaving and Fixing (Portuguese Class) — one year, two evenings a week. Advanced Calculations in Weaving — one year, one evening a week. i Designing Department Elementary Designing and Cloth Construction — one year, three eve- nings a week. Advanced Designing and Cloth Construction — one year, three evenings a week. Jacquard Designing — one year, two evenings a week. Knitting Department Special Knitting — one year, two evenings a week. , Smaller units may be formed as follows: Unit Course on Motors and Generators in the Electrical Trade with Dates Jan. 5th. Lesson I. Organization of class. General ex- Jan - 26 th. Lesson VII. planationoftopicsin the course. Alternating current motors (continued). Jan. 10th. Lesson II. ¥ Q1 T T7TTT , , .. „ j , Jan. 31st. Lesson VIII. Magnetism. Permanent and elec- M t t hi tro-magnets. _ -.. 1. Direct current. Jan. 12th. Lesson III. (a) Location. Principles of solenoid. (b) Remedies. Rules of thumb. Feb 2d Lesson IX> Jan. 17th. Lesson IV. Motor troubles. Electrical units. 2. Alternating current. 1. Volt, ampere, watt, ohm. ( a ) Location. 2. Ohms law. (b) Remedies. Jan. 19th. Lesson V. Feb. 7th. Lesson X. Direct current motors. Motor application. Jan. 24th. Lesson VI. Feb. 0th. If son XI , Alternating current motors. Motor application (continued). 1. Single phase. Feb. 14th. Lesson XII. 2. Polyphase. Motor wiring. 226 APPENDIX Group of Unit Courses for Carpenters ' Course I. House framing a. Based or balloon frame construction b. Framing joists around chimney stair and other openings Course II. Roof construction a. Figuring length of 1. Hips 3. Common 2. Valleys .^ 4. Jacks b. Steel square or graphic method c. Roofs over bays Course III. Stair-building a. How to lay out story rod f . Winding stairs " b. Pitch board - g. Open and closed stairs c. Proportioning treads and risers h. Newelled stairs d. Rough stair stringer i. Hand-railing e. Platform stairs j. Spandrel Course IV. Inside finish a. Door and window construction d. Construction of mantels b. Wainscotting e. Construction of china closets c. Hanging doors Group of Unit Courses in Drawing for Carpenters ] Course I. Blue-print reading a. Detail sketching b. Billing of material Course II. Making full-size detail layout for mill work Note. — This work f will be confined to inside finish. The following points will be covered: a. Beamed ceilings * c. China closets b. Mantels d. Stair work Course III. Drawing and tracing for carpenters Note. — This course is intended to teach carpenters how to make draw- ings for their own use in the trade. It will cover the following points: a. Small structures b. Alterations 1. Garages ' 1. Additions 2. Storehouses, etc. 2. Store and office work APPENDIX 227 Short Unit Courses in Fine Cabinet-Making 1. Drafting. How to make working drawings. Use of scale drawings. Geometry applied to wood-work. 2. Laying out rods. Their object. Preparation of cutting lists. 3. Mouldings and their application. 4. Mitering and halving of angles. Mitering of curved and straight moulding. Principles to be observed around unusual angles. 5. Veneering. Preparation of grounds. Veneering with cauls; hammer method. Treatment of veneers. Veneering shaped surfaces. To apply tortoise shell treatment of celluloid and metal inlay. Making of fancy banding lines in circular work. 6. General construction of fine cabinet work, including: sideboards, dining-tables, gate-leg tables, center tables, sectional bookcases, bureaus, rolltop desks, writing-tables, china cabinets, corner cabinets, card- tables, bedsteads. 7. Showcases. Air-tight construction. 8. Orders of architecture. Dimensions of the classic orders of architec- ture applied to cabinet-work. 9. Paneling. Construction and fixing of paneling. 10. Styles. Characteristics of English and French styles. Suitable details for each period. Unit Courses in Machine-Shop Practice Course I. Making fits a. Straight-bore fit c. Tight and running fit b. Straight-turn fit d. Shrink and force fit Course II. Screw-cutting a. V-thread d. Grinding tools b. Square thread e. Setting tools c. Acme thread f . Change gears and manipulation of machine Course III. Lathe-work a. Lathe-work on tool-making b. Making of taps, reamers, and cutters c. Use of the taper, backing off and relieving attachment Course IV. Milling Machine a. Spiral work on cutters b. Bevel gearing Course V. General milling machine work a. Taps c. Cutters b. Reamers d. Use of dividing head APPENDIX c. F'i li i ml grinding - ~ .:. . .-. _: l_ : . - . Lil ill; Ilr-LlI-li i_''i - _i r trade extension course in ilzcitJCity Z hri led into onita — Each unit is conducted twice a week for eight weeks. 1. Electricity and magnetism. I Batteries." 3 Blue-print reading and drawing for electricians. 1 Electrical circuits. 5 . Direct current generators. 6. Direct current motors. 7. Inside wiring for light and power. S Mr'r7E 77 1 77i7r: tcST.™* 9. Power plant operation. 10. Alternating current generators. 11. Transformers. 1£L Alternating current motors. Four courses can be carried on at one time. TRADE EXTENSION COURSES U-77 1 ; 77 >ZS 7 ■ 7 177 TT777 DeSSGW Eld " :^t " xatinml School) a. Cotton b. Sk c. Wool APPENDIX 229 Course II. Weave formation a. Use of design b. Construction of c. Foundation weaves paper weaves Course III. Twill weaves a. Regular twill weaves b. Effect of color on plain and twill weaves Course IV. Calculations for yam a. Cotton b. Spun silk c. Wool and worsted Course V. Fancy twill weaves — Reduction and drafting of weaves a. Reducing weaves b. Drawing in drafts c. Harness chain drafts Course VI. Fabric analysis a. Cloth calculations Warp preparation and weaving will be taken up with work in textile design as a means of demonstrating and developing instruction in weave forma- tion. Loom-fixing 1. Setting-up of looms 2. Leveling of looms 3. Timing of loom parts 4. Setting-up of plain and fancy weaves 5. Remedying defects in weaving 6. Instructions on automatic looms 7. Loom-fixing in general Unit Courses in Printing (Holyoke Vocational School) Composition Course I. Book composition 1. Justification 5. Tabular work 2. Division of words a. Two or more columns justified 3. Proof-reader's marks . in one measure 4. Paragraphs and indention b. With rules and box heads Course II. Special composition A. Newspaper advertising B. Book and job advertising Business cards, tickets, programs, booklets, title-pages, letter- heads, billheads, statements, etc. 230 APPENDIX Course EH. Imposition a. For job press b. For cylinder press Margins, register Hand and machine folds Paper and cardboard in printing Finish Weight Adaptability Trade Customs Course IT. Estimating a. The individual job Casting up copy Cost of composition Cost of press-work Cost of binding Cost of shipping Cost of stock Profit Costs in detail b. Composition and press-work Labor Productive and non-productive time Supervision Interest in investment Depreciation General overhead : Telephone, supplies, rent, etc. Press-work Course I. Press-feeding 1. Handling paper 2. Laying printed sheets Course II. Elementary press- work 1. Patching up 2. Marking out Course EH. Advanced press-work 1. Making plates type-high 2. Cutting overlays 3. Keeping color on job 3. Putting on overlay 4. Putting on underlay 3. How to place a cut overlay Course IV. Printing-inks 1. Mixin g colors 2. What inks are best suited to different stocks 3. When and how to use varnishes, dryers, and reducers Course V. Embossing 1. How to make ready 3. Kalsomine method 2. Wax method 4. Glass method Steam E>"GixEEBrN~G Courses (Holyoke Vocational School) Course I. Boilers and Accessories Heads Dry sheet Settings APPENDIX 231 2. Closing in line Grates i Bridge walls Combination chamber Back connections Fire bricks and their use Damper Regulators 6. Connecting boilers in batteries Thickness of fires Steam gauges 3. Furnace mouths Blow-off pipes Nozzles Hand-holes Man-holes Braces 7. Steam traps and their uses How to take care of them 8. Reducing valves Foaming in boilers Sediment and its effect Check-valves Feed-pipes Fusible plugs Safety-valves Water column 5. Bagging and blisters Injectors Inspirators Course II. 1. Heating system , a. Direct b. Indirect c. Combined system, 2. Feed water heaters a. Open heaters b. Closed heaters c. Economizers 3. Stock, the proper size for dif- ferent capacity 4. Circulation of steam a. Return traps b. Ahvvalves ? Course IIL 1. Steam engines a. Slide valve b. Construction of c. Eccentric d. Setting valve 9. Pumps — care and operation of same Boiler compound Scale and its effects 10. Upright boilers Water tubes Construction of different types 5. Pitting in boilers, its cause and how to remedy To lay up for summer 6. Inspection of boiler and systems Priming in boilers — How to pre- vent n 7. Return pumps s Receivers 8. Draft a. Natural b. Forced c. Induction 9. Hot-water system Double and single pipe system 2. Green engine a. Construction of b. Setting valves 3. Putnam engine a. Construction of b. Setting valves 23-2 APPENDIX -* F.::i"::: -:r:= b. Cenhifn gaM gww i mnn a. C o ns tru c ti on of I;--;: b. Valve setting 5. Corliss enrine 9. Turbines a. Construction of a. Vertical b. Setting valves b. E:r^i:i: 6. Er^e r^cns c Misei i - us:: .:;.:z ::' 2-iuerent d v~^= e. Incpcuse and reaction 7. Dizceren: tyres ::' xnnecting tyoes rod ends 10. Indicators S Eir_zr reamers a. Construction of i Tb_r:::if rz-em:rs b. How to use Course IV 1. M;:if~::::5 25 scclies t: steam eurmeerin.; F.222-222: mi :: 222c 2:2 mc n:rse-co~er ::' mcczatcr 2. Czmcczm; evazzcratzzn :: ~z-.2er rrzm muzazcr 5. Ea:i: in 2 ezrcazzszzn :: steam in cylinder 5. Ecuzieuzy :: imerent emii :: cozier yinzs 6 X2Z2::5 :: z-~ic-z:iZ2zn T Speed :: enriue z-:-rem:rs S. B2zrscmu 2nd safe -zrV-f pressure :: boilers 9. Range :: cut-on c: dineren: zruzes :: i; Tdeuse :: slide rule in 11. Unit Cctt.sis ?:?. S~.lv E>-gis"zz3s a>~d Iiezmes (Hoiyofae Vocational School) Course I. Boilers a. Ccnstrurtizn c: din-ren: tyres 2 - ■: "-- — '- r C22T522UC 2n 2 ~-2_ e ""*" " 7 •" *" C CreSSiire Cc-sell. B-ziler az-zesscries 2 Feed 2222225 d. Boiler compounds b. Feed c icing e. Scale and its erects c Fee: ~ize: beaters *) APPENDIX 233 Course III A. Air compressors a. Construction and working of ] B. Plain slide-valve engine a. Construction and working of t c. Governing b. Valve setting d. Indicating Course IV. Corliss and automatic engines g a. Construction and working of c. Indicating and computing different types d. Horse-power ? b. Valve setting — governing Course V A. Steam piping a. How located c. Covering of b. Figuring size for certain work d. Loss from radiation B. Steam traps a. Where located b. Construction of EVENING RECREATIONAL WORK FOR BOYS \ (To supplement page 59) Recreation and physical education a. Personal hygiene 1. Shower baths b. Athletic games 1. Ringtoss 4. Volley-ball 6. Basket-ball 2. Tag 5. Hand-ball 7. Dramatic games 3. Pass-ball c. Table games 1. Checkers 2. Chess, etc. MANUAL TRAINING (New York State Department of Education) (To supplement page 181) Seventh Year Suggestive outline for bench work in wood Projects 1. Necktie rack 4. Towel roller 2. T square 5. Broom holder 3. Drawing board 6. Hatrack 234 APPENDIX 7. Bookrack 14. Magazine rack S. Shoe box 15. Negative rack 9. Loom 16. Printing frame 10. Stationery holder 17. Jardiniere stand 11. v.\ IS. Taboret 12. Flower box 19. Footstool 13. Bookshelves 20. Sled Woods Pine Mahogany Oak Whitewood Ash Butternut Chestnut Beech Gumwood Sycamore Operations :s 1. Measuring 11. Gluing & Lima 2 12. Nailing 3. Placing 13. Screwing 4. Squaring 14. ^ arnisainr 5. Gaging 15. She_a ~ •" : ~ r 6. Sawing 16. Scraping 7. Chiseling 17. San aaaaering 8. Bering IS. S*air.:~* 9. Gouging 19. Sharpening tools 10. Chamfer planing 20. Grinding Eighth Y EAE Prcj<: J i 1. Serving tray 11. Telephone stand & Medicine cabinet 12. Telephone chair or stool 3. Taboret 13. Revolving bookrack 4. Umbrella rack 14. L.i - — settee 0. Clothes rack 1.5. ^.";rh:e- :h 6. Picture :::ze 16. Wheelbarrow s. Clair Desk 17. IS. Hal ; sea: ~ s_ ; es o. Boo base 19. Skis 0. Table 20. Yar ions articles used in science APPENDIX 235 Also work which involves repairing and "fixing" about the home: 1. Setting glass 6. Making window screens 2. Mending furniture joints 7. Making piazza gate 3. Mending chair backs and seats 8. Making keys from blanks 4. Repairing pans, etc. 9. Making chicken coop 5. Wiring electric bells 10. Making brooder 11. Making incubator Woods Pine Mahogany Oak White wood (poplar) Ash Beech Gumwood Sycamore Chestnut Black walnut Butternut Operations Processes will be similar to those of the seventh grade with the following additional: 1. Rabbeting 7. Glass setting 2. Clamping 8. Wiring 3. Doweling 9. Painting 4. Beveling 10. Polishing 5. Jointing 11. Caning 6. Soldering HOW TO START TRAINING IN A FACTORY (As developed in the Curtiss Aeroplane Company, Buffalo, New York, but applicable to any industry, by Frank L. Glynn) Establishment Survey of plant by Conference General manager Plant manager Assistant plant manager Breakdown from pay-roll showing relative importance of departments Organization Director of training Reports to General manager as to policies Plant manager and assistant as to operation • 236 APPENDIX Location 1. Separate floor space in factory about 60 X 200 feet. For the location of such activities as could well be brought together as a separate training unit. 2. Separate floor space in departments, the training for which had best be kept in department. 3. "Tagging" of machine or other shop units for training identification when it is necessary to distribute school throughout department and have instructor circulate. Note: This latter method requires even a more definite control by the training director than the other two, as the train in g identification is likely to be lost and importance become insignificant. This method is least satisfactory and should be resorted to only in exceptional Equipment The equipment was transferred from the regular production departments to the training department. Xote: At first there is likely to be objection to this on the part of super- intendents and foremen, but it can readily be seen that machines and appli- ances must be furnished by them anyway under the usual method of breaking in help. No diffi culty, however, of this sort was experienced, as those in the Curtiss Company fostered and helped the establishment of the work in every way. Departments of training Xote: These fluctuated from week to week according to the needs of the production manager based on development or changes in production. Each month, however, the employment office furnished the training department with an estimate of the help which would probably be required for the two ensuing months. This formed a basis for the training department to work on, as to the numbers and kind of training to be emphasized during that period, and resolved itself into the employment office giving the training department an order for help, and the employment ma n ager was only too pleased to cooperate in every way. The departments which have been operative thus far are: 1. Machine work Drilling Screw rnachine Single spindle MiEing Double spindle Eni iz~z Shaper Power feed Punch press Lathe APPENDIX 2. Filing Copper Hand Linen Machine 8. Acetylene and other 3. Drill grinding Welding 4. Tool crib Brazing 5. Cable work Soldering Wrapping 9. Wood-working Splicing Strut work Dipping Beam work Soldering Panel work 6. Sheet metal Wing float Riveting 10. Doping Soldering 11. Final wing assembly 7. Propeller work 12. Sewing Shaping Panel covering Tipping Power machine Brass 237 Departmental relations 1. Employment office Kept the training department filled to its capacity, drew the trained people from the training department, placed them on production in the factory for which they were trained, and maintained close daily contact with the training department through exchange of daily reports. It is necessary for the employment office to keep the training depart- ment moving. 2. Time-keeping The record of attendance, punctuality, and time of all persons in training was reported daily to plant manager and training director by the regular time clerk. 3. Accounting Rendered to the training director a weekly report as to cost of sal- vage, expense, wages of learners, instruction, supervision and admin- istration. Note: A sample sheet of weekly report may be found herewith, page 242. 4. Management The training director rendered a daily and weekly report to the management summarizing operation of training department, embody- ing number received, rejected, promoted, returned, and entire oper- ating cost of department. Operation 1. Instructors The instructors were preferably those taken from the actual pro- 238 APPENDIX duction floor. Experiments were made with persons having had teacher's training and experience in teaching activities closely related to the Curtiss work. They were employed by the training depart- ment and first put on production until they were thoroughly familiar with the work, when they were taken over for actual instruction. It was found that their sense of production was low and that they approached training largely from an academic point of view — that they taught more of the construction of fiber than of parts, and ap- proached the problem as "getting training and education out of produc- tion," rather than getting "production out of training." It is strongly recommended that the most practical type of person be employed, with factory experience as a background — providing, of course,, that he or she is amenable to suggestion, has the proper point of view, personality and ability to not only "do the job" but also "to impart the information" and eliminate all mystery. We found no difficulty in finding an abundance of highly qualified instructors employed in the various shops on an hourly basis. They were the exceptional persons and occasionally we were mistaken in judgment. For instance, we found that a graduate of a foremost technical college, who was an excellent producer, lacked teaching ability, apparently endeavoring to do the work of ten people instead of having the ten persons do it under instruction. Likewise, another operative was employed as instructor upon the high recommendation of a foreman who wanted to get rid of him and disliked to take him back even as a workman. These were exceptional cases and were quickly remedied by the selection of other operatives who more than made good. The difficulty lies not with instructors but with obtaining directors for original layout of plan and organization which can be done in from one to three days, with the later general direction left to the pro- duction manager of the factory and the operation of the training de- partment to the instructors selected from the regular factory force. 2. The learner The learner is taken in from the employment office, taught the activity for which he is best fitted, and promoted to the production floor by the employment office. It is highly advisable to refer persons of doubtful physique or health to the First Aid department for physical examination to be sure that the person is physically adapted to the work for which he would like to be trained. 3. Length of day The length of day is the same as that of the factory itself. 4. Tools and equipment The tools and equipment are identical with those used in the factory itself. APPENDIX : 239 5. Methods of construction The methods of construction and operation are the same as in the factory production. 6. Product Instruction is obtained from the regular production of the factory for which the operative is being trained. There should be no prelim- inary "initiation" or "symbolic" work, although salvage parts may be used to advantage as a minimum in extreme cases for the instruc- tion which is introductory to the training room as in acetylene welding. Rates There is a difference between the beginning or "learning period" wage rate, in training department, and the "production" wage rate after promotion. So long as the learner knows that the wage rate will be increased automatically upon promotion, and that promotion depends upon "coming up to production," then just so much will the learning period be shortened and the "production gait" acquired. This eliminates all need of discipline. Here again is the importance of the instructor's "production sense" intensified Every instructor should also be a pacemaker. Personal relations This caused many adjustments and is of supreme significance to those who contemplate the induction of women into manufacturing. These relations may be summed up as follows: 1. Personal supervision This required a woman supervisor with a factory and production point of view. 2. Clothing Uniform: It was found that a "two-piece" garment with complete waist was most satisfactory. It can be made in any factory so that trousers button to waist. Trousers should be full and have small elas- tic bands to fit at top of shoes or ankle, thereby securing a good " hang " instead of turning them up and having them slopping down continu- ally. The waist should have close-fitting neck, which can be turned under and left open or buttoned, and half sleeves. Special sleeves should be provided for welders, brazers, and others engaged in similar operations involving hazard, which may button on short sleeves. By having a two-piece suit it is unnecessary for a woman to furnish her shirt-waist. Immediately this involves sex suggestion which should be eliminated. The two-piece suit also enables the uniform department to fit each half of the suit to the girl instead of the girl to the suit. The first uniform, costing about $3.50, is provided by the company 240 APPENDIX lout charge and a replacement made when necessary, but if the employee wants two uniforms at once, then the second one is provided at wholesale cost. When the employee leaves the service of the company, then a rxi- mnst be returned before the employee rece iv es her employment 5 -7 Caps with rubber band (doth for cooler weather and net for summer) ;ji:_i :e :'"~~ : - - i ~~:h e;.:_ - : ~ • -' ~ - — This is a very important dement, especially for safety, as a woman's hair is likely to catch in moving machinery, even a small motor hand drill. Besides, tills e ' : -~ : --. --; much -" ■ — - -'--.- is tie hiir r~ ' '•' ::!ier- wise become loosened and constantly in the way of the individual. Aprons are provided for such activities as may soQ the mmhmm rapidly or permanently — a rubberoid apron in the machine shop, for Gkh Eke to wear silk stockings and high-heel shoes or slippers. Hie stocking should be of cotton and the shoes have low heels. Others-lie :he e— ;!:;■- ee ~ ill ': e: :~e ;:-■; :h:iruei. .s :he high iieel places the body in an unnatural [ M wiliiw nd one cunai work to advantage standing. Urn was Ike cause :: wBmwg - :—~z ■aatBg to change over to a "sitting job/ 7 VT earing of jewelry is not permitted. large department has its rest-room for its employees, with a in charge. Admission is by special pass from the f orelady, for proper regulation. It is best to have several such rooms in a large factory rather than one, as more convenient in an emergency and also preventing a great deal of wandering around the plant which otherwise would develop and cause a waste of time and confusion. : 1 £,-_:- ::-:',- :"•■ Each female employee is allowed a rest-period of not less than fifteen minutes each morning and each afternoon. 5. Drinking-water This -j provided by dri nk i rt g fountains. In the warmer months the water is iced by having the feed pipe coiled in the bottom of ordinary wooden, metal lined boxes in which ice is placed. 6. L '.. "■■' ' ■ '■'-"■ It is the practice of the factories obtaining the best results to serve at least hot soups, tea, coffee, or milk at the lunch hour. In some cases large restaurants are provided and the ranch hour of the men "staggered" with that of the women so that they eat sepa- rately or "staggered" by departments. In other cases "canteen" stands are found in various sections of the factory where ssvi : e _ ; given in selling various kinds of food, etc APPENDIX 241 It is always best to have one of these for men and another for women. 7. Safety and sanitation A very great percentage of women now entering industry are doing so with little previous factory experience, if any. Constant attention as to safety and sanitation must be given so as to have the newcomer feel that the medical department or nearby hospital or company physician is a First Aid rather than a Last Aid. A scratch from fine wire may cause blood poison equally with a more serious injury. Every effort must be made to acquaint the girls and women of the large service the First Aid can render. 8. Sex relations In many factories sex difficulties have arisen and tended to decrease production. If the women are properly inducted into industry through training, properly supervised by a matron on the production floors, properly dressed in a uniform garb, all difficulties automatically disappear. Capacity The operating capacity of the entire training department is two hundred and fifty persons at one time. The training will turn over about once a week on an average thus providing trained workers at the rate of 10,000 a year or less as the factory needs. Contrast this with a condition found in one of our largest plants where the factory needed two thousand trained workers a month and the training department was producing only at the rate of 100 a month. The Curtiss accomplishment shows that a large comprehensive plan and service is readily feasible if only the factory management insists upon it. Flexibility The usual custom and tradition of operation schools as a whole is on an annual basis with all instructors contracted for on an annual These conditions must be entirely forgotten in intensive training of factory workers. The basis element in a training department is Its flexibility. A sec- tion for training may operate for one week or two weeks or months. It must be conditioned upon factory needs. This means that the instructor can best be taken from the depart- ment for which the training is required and when the quota of trained people is filled, the instructor goes back on the regular production floor and assists not only in production, but also in following up the people trained. ■g ©.§» c r.^~ $. i i 5 ^ i P £ •; = £ 3& >J -* — I 3 3 3< sss § o s Total remain- ing 3C 3* 3i 3 5* Total returned after promo- tion -.- = 3 Total pro- moted 3 »■= 3 BQ ■v Total re- jected. 3 BQ r» *C Weekly total in training X 3 3< 3* t? r- o 3 lit £ 5 •- ! ■SI* ?^:-, SiSSi Fio h t.^^^ « r" ^s w I APPENDIX 243 TRAINING COURSES FOR VOCATIONAL TEACHERS One of the great problems connected with vocational education is the systematic training of a sufficient number of instructors for existing and proposed vocational schools. A. Types of teachers required in day industrial school. 1. Shop teacher — to give shop practice. 2. Technical teacher — to give related trade knowledge for industrial intelligence. 3. Academic teacher — to give general education. B. Part-time or continuation school. 1. Technical teacher. 2. Shop teacher (sometimes). C. Evening trade or industrial school. 1. Shop teacher. 2. Technical teacher. (The shop and technical instructors are the teachers that give instruction which directly improves the efficiency of the student in his trade, and are spoken of as vocational teachers. The academic teachers are considered as non-vocational teachers.) Experience shows that the academic or non- vocational teacher has a definite place in the organization of a full-time day industrial school, but not in the part-time or continuation or evening indus- trial classes. Pupils in a continuation and evening school have intensely practical aims in attending school, and are not willing to study systematically the ordinary academic subjects. This in- struction must be imparted in an incidental way, as the need of it appears, in teaching applied mathematics, applied science, etc. An analysis of vocational schools shows that any system for the training of teachers must provide for three distinct types: shop teacher, technical teacher, and academic teacher. A. Qualifications of the shop teacher. 1. Age, 25-40. 2. Personality — win the respect of boys. 3. Trade knowledge — know his trade as fully as a journey- man. 4. Technical knowledge of his trade — command of draw- ing, mathematics, and science of his trade. 5. General education — equivalent to at least an elemen- tary-school graduation. 244 APPENDIX 6. Principles and methods of teaching vocational educa- tion — that is, to understand the aim and purpose of his work, and to know how to handle a class in the shop, etc. 7. Ability to train boys to be skilled workers. B. Qualifications of a technical teacher or teacher of related subjects. 1. Age, 25-40. 2. Personality — win the respect of boys. 3. Trade knowledge — experience and familiarity with the processes of the trade, such as will equip to teach the mathematics, science, or drawing underlying the trade. 4. Technical knowledge — ability to teach the technical subjects by preparation of not less than two years be- yond the highest grade he is to teach. 5. General education — equivalent to a high school. 6. Principles and methods of teaching vocational education, so as to understand the aim and purpose of his work and to know how to prepare and conduct classroom work. 7. Ability to apply, in a practical way, technical subjects to trade problems. C. Qualifications of the academic or non-vocational teacher. 1. Age, 25-40. 2. Personality — win the respect of boys. 3. Trade knowledge: a. Appreciation of conditions and problems of modern industry. b. Knowledge of the more common tools and ma- chines. c. Knowledge of the common trade processes carried on in the school. d. Natural mechanical ability. e. Experience as a wage-earner. 4. Technical knowledge. a. Applied science. 5. General education. a. Normal school or college. 6. Principles and methods of teaching. a. Vocational education (technical subjects). APPENDIX 245 b. General education. (1) English. (2) Civics. (3) Economics. 7. Ability to organize material and teach the same so as to interest the pupil and as far as possible have it func- tion in ths life of the pupil. Any scheme for the training of teachers should provide facilities for the training before entering the service and for the training of teachers in the service. This means at least an evening course and a day course if possible. The advantages of the day course are: 1. Efficient training, because the pupil's full time is given. 2. Possible to have considerable practice in all types of vocational schools. Disadvantages : 1. Only able to reach a few students — mechanics are not willing to give up positions. The advantages of evening courses: 1. Possible to reach a large number of mechanics without loss of pa> to them. 2. Reach teachers already in the service. Disadvantages: 1. Unable to have practice teaching in the day school. Therefore the most promising plan for the shop teachers is the evening course. A day course may be provided for the training of technical and academic instructors. A training course of two years should be provided for shop instructors, evenings; an evening course (two years) for technical and academic teachers, and a day course should also be provided for technical and academic teachers. Two Years' Evening Training Course for Teachers Course for shop instructors. Principles and methods of teaching vocational sub- jects 60 hours Industrial science and mathematics 60 hours Special methods and practice teaching (shop) : Methods in shop instruction are to be given for each separate trade by a practical journeyman of the trade, who is an experienced trade teacher 120 hours APPENDIX C:::?e ::: :e:ii::al iiitnitirs. Principles and methods of teaching vocational sub- - 60hours Industrial science and mathematics 60 hours Special methods and practice teaching: Scieiie si:t aii applied Maiienatiii *i:t and app! Dra— iii si :p aid applied . 1-2': 'z Coarse far academic (non-vocational subjects) instructors: Principles and methods of fp^ehmg vocational sub- '. '-'-'■-■ 6 ) z yirs Industry science 30 hours Si:p visiii iizereit trade- :: tenne raniiar — :ih ^ :e:ls and appliaic-es 30 hours Spurial m etlods and practice teaching: "En-::- Civ::, Eatery e: i:irs E>-t=a>-cz RzQTTznci^rrs r: Etz>t>-g Tz^lzs-in-:- C:— .=zs T be adui: bed to the training course a person must p issess die '- A aai Air — :: a. Trad, ieire N : t _ :- E-d a : __. Perse - — G: : : i ... T 5. Age — ' ti: X:t less ti: t-e ivf n:: n::e tiiai :idrt7-ive years in trade exp-erieice :: eizi: *"ei:5. :iivaleit :: app:ei:::e.5iip erpe::- ■ Gra-diatizi rrin ai eleneiiarv ::il.:::i aid persiial :iara:te:- ive i:: n::e iiai iiirtv-ive Trade experience — A minimum trade experience of eight rears, three of which must be equivalent to apprenticeship experi- ei:e ii tie :: lie trades, under tie trade erte::ei:e :: tie APPENDIX 247 shop instructor, or a training in a trade, in a technical school, or engineering department of a school that will give the indus- trial and trade experience which will enable him to teach the related trade subjects in such a way as to meet the needs of (vocational) the worker in the trades taught in the schools, of the state or local community. Educational qualifications — Graduation from a high school, and a technical training in applied mathematics through cal- culus; applied science through applied mechanics; applied electricity, applied chemistry, and drawing to the extent of two years above the vocational school. Personality — Good physical condition, and personal character- istics. Academic instructor: Age — Not less than twenty-five nor more than thirty-five years. Technical knowledge — A knowledge of industry and trade as a wage-earner or amateur mechanic. Educational qualifications — Graduation from a high school, and an academic training which might be represented by two years above the high school. Teaching experience — Three years' successful experience in teaching above the sixth grade, and special ability in handling retarded pupils. It is absolutely necessary for a teacher to have a genuine interest in mechanical subjects and appren- tices. Personality — Good physical condition and personal character- istics. OUTLINE Chapter I * The Value of Industrial Education 1. The Original Distinction between Cultural and Technical Edu- cation 1 2. Divisions of Education 2 S. Industrial Education 3 4. The Social Value of Industrial Education 4 5. The Economic Value of Industrial Education 5 6. Questions for Discussion 7 7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading 8 Chapter II The Educational Needs of Trades and Industries 1. The Organization of Modern Industry 10 2. Training necessary for Supervisors and Workers 11 3. Training for Injured Workers 13 4. Need of Cooperation between Employees and Employers 14 5. Education for the Non-English-Speaking Illiterate Worker 15 6. Questions for Discussion 16 7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 17 Chapter III How Men have been Trained for Trades and Industries in the Past 1. The Old Time Training of Engineers 18 2. The Training of the Craftsman under a. The Family System 19 b. The Guild System 20 c. The Domestic System 23 d. The Factory 24 3. Questions for Discussion 26 4. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading 2?? Chapter IV Different Types of Industrial Schools 1. The Development of the College Grade Industrial School a. Four- Year Course 28 b. Two- Year Course . 31 250 OUTLINE * 2. Secondary Industrial Schools a. Manual Training High School 31 b. Technical High School 31 c. Independent Industrial School 33 (1) Disadvantages 34 3. Need of Cooperative Forms of Industrial Schools a. Short Unit Courses (intensive) 34 b. Part-Time Education 35 c. Continuation Schools 35 d. Apprentice Courses 36 4. Questions for Discussion 38 5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future. Heading 39 Chapter V Organization of Industrial Schools 1. Organization of the College Grade Industrial School 41 2. Organization of Industrial Education under Public School Sys- tems 41 a. Qualifications of Principal or Director 42 b. Qualifications of Academic Instructors 42 c. Qualifications of Technical Instructors 42 d. Qualifications of Shop Instructors 42 3. Organization of Apprentice Schools 47 4. Questions for Discussion 50 5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 51 Chapter VI Organization of Evening Industrial Courses 1. Difference between Day and Evening Industrial Instruction 52 2. Organization of Evening Industrial Schools 53 a. Need of Specially Qualified Instructors 54 b. Unit Courses 55 c. Multiple Unit Courses 56 d. Recreation for Unskilled Workers 59 3. Questions for Discussion 60 4. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading .... 60 Chapter VII An Industrial Survey 1. How to Select Courses and Subject-Matter for Industrial Schools 62 2. Need of Knowledge about Social, Economic, Industrial and Edu- cational Institutions 64 3. Industrial Guidance must Supplement Industrial Education .... 66 a. Organization of a Vocational Guidance Bureau 67 OUTLINE 251 4. Questions for Discussion 69 5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 69 Chapter VIII Principles of Psychology Underlying Learning 1. Working Knowledge of the Action of the Mind in Acquiring Knowledge 71 2. The Senses 72 a. The Importance of Training of the Senses 73 3. The Development of a Habit 74 4. Instincts 75 5. The Four Periods of Life 75 a. Infancy 75 b. Childhood 76 c. Adolescence 76 d. Manhood 77 6. The Abstract Minded and Motor Minded' 77 7. Attention, Memory and Law of Association 78 8. How Knowledge is Accumulated 79 a. Reasoning 81 (1) Inductive 82 (2) Deductive 82 9. The Theories of Formal Training and Specific Training 82 10. Questions for Discussion 83 11. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 83 Chapter IX General Methods of Teaching 1. Fundamental Principles a. Interest 84 b. Progression 84 2. Methods of Analyzing Subject-Matter a. Unit Method 84 b. Spiral Method 84 3. Five Steps in Teaching a Lesson. 85 4. Different Means of Imparting Information 86 a. Lectures and Demonstrations 86 b. Use of Textbooks 86 c. Oral Teaching 87 d. Laboratory and Objective Method 87 5. Drill 87 a. The Logical 88 b. The Psychological 88 232 OUTLINE 6. Weaknesses in Traditional School Teaching 90 7. Sonne ^ujgestive Reforms 91 S. Questions ::r Diacoaaon 93 9. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 94 Chapteb X General Methods for Teaching in Industrial Education 1. Industrial Worker's Knowledge Consists of a. Skill Manipulative 96 b. Related Technical Knowledge 96 c. General Intelligence 96 2. Subject-Matter a. Theoretical 97 b. Practical 97 3. Methods used in College Grade Industrial Schools 98 4. Methods used in Technical High Schools 99 5. Methods used in a Day Industrial School or Apprentice School 100 a. Skin 101 b. Related Technical Knowledge MM c. General Intelligence 103 6. Methods used in Trade Extension Classes 107 7. Questions for Discussion 112 3. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. . . . 114 Chapter XI Methods of Teaching Shop-Work 1. Different Methods of Teaching Shop Practice 115 2. The Most Effective Method for Training Mechanics 116 a. Based upon Old Apprenticeship 116 3. Application of Teaching Steps to Shop- Work 116 4. Application of Teaching Steps to a Class 117 5. Arrangement of Shop- Work 118 a. Time Allotment 119 b. Grades 1S1 c. Record Cards U3 6. Questions for Discussion 127 7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 129 Chapteb XTT if : - J '..:i> :;' I\\:.:r.'~: I-.::-z-r.z:\:*\ :;'£'.: ;-P -:-.:,■ z-.z c; :r . c: .:-:: ; : v : 1. Difference between Drawing for Draftsmen and Mechanics 130 2. Types of Lesson Sheets on Shop Drawing 131 3. Courses of Study in Blue-Print Reading and Shop Sketching. . . 139 OUTLINE 253 4. Questions for Discussion 141 5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. ... 142 Chapter XIII Methods of Teaching Shop Science 1. Development of Science Teaching 143 2. Industrial Science 145 a. Content of Information 146 b. Method of Teaching 146 3. Questions for Discussion 153 4. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading .... 154 c Chapter XIV Industrial or Shop Mathematics 1. Some Reasons why Mathematics is a Difficult Subject 155 2. Necessity of Individual Instruction 156 3. Lesson Plans 158 4. Questions for Discussion 167 5. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading .... 169 Chapter XV Methods of Teaching English 1. Need of Academic Subjects in an Industrial School 170 2. Methods of Teaching 171 3. Lesson Sheets 171 4. Methods of Teaching Non-English-Speaking Workers 174 5. Lesson Sheets 177 6. Questions for Discussion 180 7. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. . . . 180 Chapter XVI Manual Training versus Industrial Education 1. Original Aim of Manual Training 181 2. Six Stages in the Development 182 3. Difference between Industrial Training and Manual Training . . 185 4. Prevocational Training 187 5. Qualifications for Prevocational Instructors , 189 6. Suggestive Outlines , 194 7. Questions for Discussion 198 8. List of Sources and Reference Material for Future Reading. . . . 199 254 OUTLINE Appendix 1. Course of Study in Mechanical Engineering in College Grade Industrial School 201 2. Course of Study of Cooperative Engineering Education 203 3. Course of Study of a College Grade Evening Industrial School. . 204 4. A Two- Year Course of Study in a College Grade Industrial School 206 5. t Training for the Distributing Phase of Industry 207 6. Industrial Course of Secondary Grade 210 7. Cooperative High-School Course of Study 213 8. Course of Study in Millwrighting, etc 216 9. Course of Study for a Day Industrial School 220 10. Unit Courses — Trade Extension 224 11. Outline for Bench Work in Wood in Manual Training 233 12. Outline of Training Course for Factory 235 13. Training Course for Industrial Teachers 243 INDEX Abstract-minded pupils, 77, 100. Accidents, 13. Adolescence, 75, 76. Adult, 75, 77. Appendix, 200. Application, 85, 102. Apprentice agreement, 48, 49. Apprentice school, 36, 46. Apprenticeship system, 18, 23, 36. Blind-alley positions, 4, 12. Blue-prints, 130, 140. Childhood, 75. College grade evening industrial courses, 204. College grade industrial schools, 41, 98. College grade school of technology, SO. Common sense, 81. Concrete instruction, 101. Continuation industrial classes, 46. Cooperative engineering education, 203. Cooperative high-school course, 213. Courses in English for ship-fitters, 175. Courses in shop science, 146. Cultural education, 2. Day industrial courses, 206. Day industrial schools, 34, 215. Day trade courses, 206. Deductive reasoning, 82, 99. Development method, 102. Different types of industrial schools, 28. Discipline in a vocational school, 104. Domestic arts, 3. Domestic system, 19. Education, cultural, 1; formal, 1; general, 2; industrial, 3, 6; infor- mal, 1; liberal, 2; physical, 2; pre- vocationaI,4; social, 2; technical, 2, 80; vocational, 2, 6. Educational needs of trades and in- dustries, 10. Engineering schools, 29, 30. Evening industrial schools, 35, 51, 107. Evening recreational work for boys, 233. Evening trade schools, 57, 207. Evening training courses for teachers, 316. Factory system, 19, 24. . Factory training, 235. Family system, 19. Formal reports, 122. Formal training, 82. Generalization, 85, 102. General course of study, interpreta- tion of drawing, 139. General education, 2. General methods of teaching, 84. Genera! methods of teaching in an industrial school, 96. Graded lesson in board measure for joiners, 158. Guild system, 19, 20. Hand training, 3. Hand work, 3. History of the training for the trades and industries in the past, 18. Home economics, 3. Household arts, 3. Ideas, 79. Independent industrial schools, 33. Individual instruction in vocational classes, 156. Inductive reasoning, 82, 99. Industrial arts, 183. Industrial courses for boys, 211. 256 INDEX Industrial courses of secondary grade, 210. Industrial diseases, 13. Industrial education, 6. Industrial English for non-English- speaking workers, 177. Industrial guidance, 66. Industrial mathematics, 155. Industrial schools, 28, 33, 44. Industrial survey, 62. Industrial training, 183. Infancy, 75. Information method, 102. Instincts, 73, 75. Institutes of technology, 30. Instructors in evening industrial classes, 109. Interest, 84. Intermediate evening trade classes, 59. Judgments, 80. Lesson sheets on angular measure- ments, 164. Lesson sheets on cost of manufacture, 165, 166. Lesson sheets on gearing, 161. _ Lesson sheets on intensive training of steam engineers, 112. Lesson sheets on letter-writing, 173. Lesson sheets on mathematics for house carpenters, 160. Lesson sheets on science, 154. Lesson sheets on science for machin- ists, 149. Lesson sheets on shop mathematics, 163. Lesson sheets on spelling, 171. Liberal education, 2. Lists of reference for future reading, 8, 17, 26, 39, 51, 60, 69, 83, 94, 114, 129, 142, 154, 169, 180, 199. Logical method of teaching, 87, 88. Manual arts, 3. Manual training, 3, 181, 233. Manual training outline, 197. Mechanical engineering in college grade industrial schools, 201. j Memory, 78. J Methods of teaching English, 170. Methods of teaching shop- work, 117. Millwrighting, 216. Modern shop systems, 14. Motor-minded pupils, 77, 90, 100, 103. Occupations, 3; agricultural, 3; blind-alley, 3, 4; commercial, 3; home-making, 3; nautical, 3; pro- fessional, 3; trades and indus- tries, 3. Organization of evening schools, 52. Organization of industrial schools, 41. Organization of trades and indus- tries, 10. Organs of sense, 72. Outline, 241. Part-time classes, 46, 91. Physical education, 2. * Practical value, 97. Preparation, 85, 102. Presentation, 85, 102. Prevocational course, 187. Prevocational education, 4, 191. Prevocational instructors, 1S9. Prevocational training in N.Y. City, 189. Progression, 84. Psychological method of teaching, 88. Questions for discussion, 7, 16, 26, 38, 50, 60, 69, 83, 93, 114, 127, 138, 141, 153, 167, 180, 198. Reasoning, 82. Recitation, 85. Record cards, 121, 123. Related trade knowledge, 106. Related trade knowledge of a scale, 167. Retarded pupils, 77. Safety in industry, 151. Secondary day industrial schools. HO. Secondary grade technical education, 31, 98. Secondary industrial education, 41, 98. Semi-skilled workers, 12, 16. INDEX 257 Sense perception, 73. Shop mathematics, 155. *. Shop practice, 105. Shop science, 143. Shop sketching, 130. % Short unit courses, 224. Skilled trades, 4. | } Skilled workers, 11, 16. I Social education, 2. Specific training, 82. ^ . ^ Spiral method of teaching, 84. Steam engineering courses, 230. Surveys, 4. Technical education, 2, 30. Theoretical values, 97. Trade extension courses in electric- ity, 228. Trade training for helpers, 110. Training course for mechanical en- gineering, 207. Training course for the distributing phase of industry, 207. Training course for vocational teach- ers, 243. Training in the factory, 235. Training of the immigrant, 15. Unit courses on drawing for carpen- ters, 226; on motors and genera- tors for electricians, 225; in print- ing, 229; in steam engineering, 232; in textile design, 226. Unit method of teaching, 84. Unskilled worker, 12, 16. Vocational counselor, 67. Vocational education, 2, 6, 7. Vocational guidance, 4, 66. ./ Welfare work, 15. \ HOW TO STUDY AND TEACHING HOW TO STUDY By F. M. McMURRY Professor of Elementary Education^Teachers College, Columbia University. Every teacher, student, and parent should read this book, — perhaps the most fundamentally important educational book that has recently appeared. 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