^5 aux, Professor of Political Economy, University of Chile. THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Hon. Ernesto Quesada, Attorney-General of the Argentine Re- public; Professor in the Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata. COMMERCIAL RELATIONS OF CHILE. Hon. Henry L. Janes, Division of Latin-American Affairs, De- partment of State, Washington. CLOSER COMMERCIAL RELATIONS WITH LATIN-AMERICA. Bernard N. Baker, Baltimore, Md. IMMIGRATION— A CENTRAL AMERICAN PROBLEM. Ernst B. Filsinger, Consul of Costa Rica and Ecuador, St Louis, Mo. Price $1.50 bound in cloth; $1.00 bound in paper. Postage free. Lf\5 c i<0 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PERU By Albert A. Giesecke, Ph.D., Rector of the University of Cuzco, Cuzco, Peru. There can be little doubt that the greatest problem confronting Peru to-day is the organization and extension of public instruc- tion. 1 The country is in a fair way towards settling its boundary controversies, with the possible exception of the Tacna and Arica question pending with Chile. Hence the boundaries need no longer be the central theme of discussion and agitation by the large majority of Peruvian citizens. As a background for the discussion of the educational problem in Peru, it seems expedient to state briefly some of the obstacles which impede rapid progress to the best interests of education. In the first place, the physiography of the country merits consideration. With an area approximately one and a half million square kilometers, and a country practically divided into three, more or less, inde- pendent sections, Peru is severely handicapped in carrying on the functions of government. The coastal region extends along the western part of the Republic, in a strip averaging less than a hun- dred miles in width. It is generally devoid of rainfall the year round. It occupies about ten per cent of the area of the republic. The "Sierra" or mountainous region lies to the eastward, and is the seat of the plateaus and high peaks of the Andes. Roughly speak- ing, it occupies about twenty-five per cent of the area of the repub- lic. The mountains are largely responsible for the climatic condi- tions of the country. Still farther to the east is an immense tract of land, exceedingly rich in flora and fauna. It occupies almost two- thirds of the area of the country, and, with the exception of two or three small districts, is practically unknown. Located in the upper regions of the Amazon basin, it is a land of present surprises and of great promise for the future. At present it is sparsely set- tled, and, indeed, inhabited in part by an uncivilized race. »I hereby desire to acknowledge the courtesy of several persons who have so kindly supplied me with the necessary data, all of which is of an official character. I refer to Dr. Matias Leon, Ex-Minister of Instruction ; Dr. H. E. Bard, Adviser to t'e Minister of Instruction ; Dr. Justus Perez Figuerola, Director-General of Instruc- tion : Mr. Aurelio Gamarra y Hernandez, Chief of the Bureau of Secondary and Higher Education, and Dr. Vincente Delagado, Chief Statistician of the Department of Instruction. (66 3 ) 86 The Annals of the American Academy The second obstacle to the rapid development of a rational educational system may be considered under the social organization of the country. As in the United States, there is a great mixture of races. The main distinction in a comparison between the two countries, however, lies in the fact that in the former country the white element predominates, numerically considered, whereas in the latter, the Indian, or Cholo, element, i. e., the descendants of the Incas, comes first. Most of the white, and mestizo, or mixed white and red blood, is found along the coast. It is the center of influence of the Spaniard. The other two regions are settled chiefly by the mestizo element. The negro element is also present, and is concentrated chiefly in the coastal region. Allowing for exceptions, there is naturally a difference in the intellectual capacities of these race mixtures. This difference comes out more clearly in an in- vestigation of the location and work of secondary and higher insti- tutions of learning, which are concentrated chiefly in the coastal region. Yet this region has only about twenty-five per cent of the three and a half million inhabitants of the country. More might be added with reference to the influence of climate, racial assimilation and the effects of Spanish colonization upon the social organization, but none of these presents insurmountable obstacles to the advance- ment of public instruction. Political drawbacks also exist, and they are most in evidence in affecting the administration of the public schools of the country. Peru has a cabinet or ministerial form of government, — as in France. The Minister of Justice, Instruction and Religion, who is one of the six Ministers of State, has charge of public instruction. Under the minister is a director-general of public instruction — a position which was created last January. 2 The Director-General therefore has all the administrative work of public instruction in his hands. Under him are the following chiefs at the head of their respective bureaus. These include the chief of secondary and higher education ; of the personnel and general administration, an import- ant post under the present organization ; of equipment and sup- plies ; of statistics ; and archives. Aside from these bureaus under "Previously there was a Director-General of Justice, Public Instruction and Religion, but by decree that of Public Instruction has been established separately. Legally the work of secondary and higher education was left in the hands of thia Director, and primary education in the hands of another Director. (66 4 ) Public Instruction in Per'u 87 the director-general, the minister has an expert adviser in matters appertaining to educational administration. Concerning the present organization it would seem highly desirable to make the work of all of these officials free from political influence, except that of the minister. There is also a Superior Council of Education, but it has had a rather checkered career. It has been suggested that there be a separate minister for education, but there are two sides to this question. 3 The constitution of Peru guarantees the existence and diffu- sion of primary instruction, which shall be free and obligatory. 4 The present law of public instruction, primary, second and higher instruction, was passed by Congress in 1901 ; the portion dealing with primary instruction was remodeled in December, 1905. Upon these two laws are based numerous executive decrees, amplifying the system of public instruction. Primary Instruction Elementary education is obligatory for boys between the ages of six and fourteen, and for girls between the ages of six and twelve. Primary schools are of two classes: (1) elementary; (2) "centros s It will be noted that Teru has been securing (for some years) from time to time from Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and other European countries, teachers for the national colegios. The ciuties of these teachers have been confined entirely to teaching in these schools, or in a few instances to directing them. It was only a year ago that it was realized there was need of well-trained and experienced men in the administrative branch of education. Dr. Manuel V Villaran, who had made a thorough study of the educational situation (Revista Universitaria, Ano III, Vol. II, No. 23, pp. 1-21, and No. 24, pp. 105-130, Sept. and Oct., 1908), upon being called to the Cabinet with the portfolio of Justice, Instruction, and Religion, decided to engage from the States, a director general and four departmental instructors of primary instruction, and a director and number of special teachers for the national colegios and for normal instruction. Dr. Villaran's plans were only partially carried out when a change of Cabinet brought to the department of instruction a new Minister, who did not find himself entirely in sympathy with the plans of his predecessor. Before this time, however, four of these men were on their way to rvru. They were men especially pre- pared, by practical experience as well as by large academic and professional training, for the work they were to do. They are now rendering important service of an administrative character, the full value of which will receive recognition only in time. Dr IT. E. Bard, who is adviser to the Minister of Instruction, bad for some years before coming to Tern given special attention to the administrative sciences., and particularly to the science of educational administration. He had had valuable practical experience also in this field in the Philippine Islands. Some far-reaching reforms have already been effected through his initiative. It Is expected that the work of these men will demonstrate the need of others like them, and in this way will one of Tern's greatest educational needs be met. 'Article 24. See Constitution of Latin-American Republics published by the International Union of American Republics. (665) 88 The Annals of the American Academy escolares," or literary school centers. Kindergarten schools are also provided in two or three instances. The elementary schools take up the studies of the first two years' work of primary educa- tion. From the following curriculum it will be seen that in these two years reading, writing, arithmetic, the metric system, notions of geography and history of Peru, the Christian doctrine and physical exercises are provided. The executive decree of June 20, 1906, makes a conscious effort to provide primary education in a com- prehensive way, but in practice the results have not been perfectly satisfactory. The curriculum for the five years of primary instruction follows : First Year Second Y ear Third Year Fourth Year Fifth Year 1. Reading Heading and Reading and Reading and Reading and and writing writing writing writing writing 2. Arithmetic Arithmetic Composition Composi t i o n, Composition and and gram- grammar grammar mar 8. Object les- Notions of Arithmetic Arithmetic, In- Arithmetic son (plants, geog ra p h y cluding met- human body, with special ric system colors, sea- reference to sons, with Peru drawings of objects where possible) 4. Christian History of Geography, Geography of Geography o f doctrine Peru with special Peru and the eastern hemi- reference to rest of Amer- sphere Peru ica 5. Games and Object lessons History of History of History of Peru singing (as in year) first Peru Peru 6. Principal dut- Notions of Physics Physics ies of man Physics (labor, sav- inc. electoral obligations. military ser- vice, truth, cleanlin e s-s, etc.) 7 Games singing and Notions of chemistry Chemistry Chemistry 8. Natural his- tory Natural his- tory Natural history 0. Notions of Notions of Notions of agri- agriculture agriculture culture 10. Notions of Notions of Notions of arbori- arbor 1 c u 1 - arbor 1 c u 1 - culture ture ture and horticulture 11. Manual labor. Manual train- Manual training, geometry ing, geome- geometry and and draw- t r y and drawing ing drawing 12. Music Music Carpentry (In boys' schools) 13. Christian doc- trine Ethics Music 14. Physical train- ing and no- tions of hy- giene Physical train- ing Notions of hygiene Ethics Physical training and hygiene (666) Public Instruction in Pen 89 Selecting at random one or two of the subjects provided for, we may get an idea of the breadth of the course of studies, which is not however carried out in practice under present conditions. In the fourth year, the course in chemistry presumably includes a study of the air, combustion, hydrogen and oxygen, water, chlorine, sul- phur, phosphorus, carbon, notions of chemical nomenclature, acids, bases, salts. The fifth-year course in arithmetic includes mental operations, the decimal system, prime numbers, maximum and minimum divisor, proportion, metric system, weights, measures and money systems, bookkeeping, commercial documents. Executive decrees provide for the division of the country into sixty school districts, for the purpose of primary education, although previously there were over one hundred school districts. In each of these districts is an inspector who sees that the school regulations of the central government are carried into effect. There is an exception in the case of Lima and Callao, where two inspectors are provided, one for boys' schools, the other for girls' and mixed schools. 5 In the past the inspectors have not always proved efficient, visiting the schools infrequently, and knowing or caring little about the requirements of their position. Consequently, there has been a recent decree providing qualifications which may result in a better system of inspection. The new decree, however, has one serious defect in that it requires the inspector to telegraph the fact of his intended visit to the director-general in Lima and to the sub-prefect of the province which he expects to visit. By this means the school authorities may secure advance notice, and be prepared. An in- spector will now be required to have (1) a degree (bachelor, or diplomas from the normal school), (2) the inspectors now in office must take an examination within ninety days to prove their compe- tence, otherwise new inspectors are to be appointed. 6 Furthermore, the Minister of Public Instruction has another check on the work of the schools in the special inspectors (visitadores) who may be The latest decree is dated January 22, 1910. •Executive decree of January 22, 1010. The previous decree provided for departmental, provincial and district inspectors. The present plan, therefore, according to the claims of its advocates, effects an economy in the number of in- spectors, increases their efficiency, reduces the amount of official routine, and saves money. (66 7 ) 90 The Annals of the American Academy appointed from time to time by the minister in order to make special investigations. In general, at least one elementary school, giving the work of the first two years of primary instruction, must be established for every two hundred inhabitants. The departmental capital must have at least two primary schools — one for boys, the other for girls ; the provincial capital must have at least one primary school even if the population should not be large enough. Public schools are estab- lished by decree. The last annual report of the Minister of Instruction shows that the number of schools in actual operation, school year 1907, was 2,262, or about one hundred less than there should have been. Of these over ninety per cent gave instruction for the first two years of primary education only — 840 were for boys, 677 were for girls, and 745 were mixed schools for boys and girls. Instruction was given to 161,660 pupils during the year, two-thirds of whom were boys, and only 5,450 of these received instruction in the upper classes of the primary school. The average daily attendance was about sixty per cent. With the pupils in private schools, less than one-fifth of a million of children were receiving primary education throughout the Republic. 7 This appears to be a small proportion for a population estimated at more than 3,500,000 inhabitants. 8 The following table will furnish the details : — Receive Do not receive Could instruction instruction read Boys ... 65,536 164,794 73,778 Girls . . 34,478 151,736 41,273 Could Could Could not read write not write 156,609 50,615 179,726 144,884 28,285 157,918 Total 100,814 316,530 115,051 301,493 78,900 337,644 A census of school children within the age limits 9 for the purpose of primary education was made in 1902. 10 According to racial distribution there were 67,928 white chil- dren, 198,674 indigenous or native children, 144,298 mestizos and 'Annual Report of the Minister of Instruction for 1908, Vol. II, pp. 333-337. s The last general census was taken in 1876, but doubts have been enter- tained about its accuracy. At that time there were 2,700,000 inhabitants. Par- tial censuses, etc., led to the estimate given above. The coastal region has about one-fourth of this total, the Andean region about five-eighths, and the eastern region the rest. — A. Garland, Peru in 1906 (2d edition), pp. 100-101. "Including 75,000 from the ages of 4 to 6, i. e., children who could attend a kindergarten school. 10 Censo Escolar de la Republica Peruana correspondiente al afio 1902. (668) Public Instruction in Peru pi 5,644 blacks. Unfortunately it is impossible to make comparison of this data by the three physiographic divisions, since it is given only for the twenty-one departments of the Republic. For the de- partment of Lima, which includes the capital and a few small towns and plantations, there were 11,038 whites, 26,664 indigenous or native, 12,468 mestizos, and 2,432 blacks. In a way, therefore, Peru has its racial problem to settle, from the educational point of view, just as we have in the United States. It would seem plausible that the introduction of American teachers and American methods, from sections where the education of mixed races is prominent, should be carefully considered by the government of Peru. 11 The teachers in the primary schools are women in the majority of cases. Although supposed to have a diploma, the majority of teachers are not so provided. 12 Thus, out of 2,944 teachers, 1,225 men, 1,719 women, two-thirds did not possess a diploma. At present there are three normal schools — one for men and two for women. Two are located in Lima, and a comparatively smaller one for women in Arequipa. Previously there were more, but financial and other difficulties have caused the closing of the others. The act of Congress (March, 1901) provided at least three normal schools for men, and three for women. In the normal school for men the curriculum provides three years of study, which differs somewhat from that provided for the women's normal school. In the normal school for women in Lima the course of studies is as follows: First year: Spanish grammar and literature, penmanship arithmetic, geography, history, religion, object lessons, domestic economy and hygiene, manual training, French or English, vocal music, physical exercises, attendance upon model classes in the School of Practice. Second year : general notions and anthropology and infant psychology, pedagogy, history, general hygiene, domes- tic economy, religion, elocution and composition, manual training. French or English, music, physical exercises, attendance upon model classes in the School of Practice. Third year : Methodology, notions of the history of education, school hygiene, domestic economy, civic education and school legislation, manual training, French or English, "q. v. La Educacion Nacional (6rgano de la Direcci6n de Primera Ensefianzn). May, 1904, pp. 199. 205. Last year the government of Tern sent for some Ameri- can teachers and superintendents of schools. This policy should doubtless be carried out on a larger scale to attain the best results. "Report of the Minister of Instruction (1908), Vol. II p 334 (669) 92 The Annals of the American Academy music, physical exercises, daily teaching in the School of Practice, pedagogical conferences. The courses at the normal school for women in Arequipa are most limited. The government pays all expenses of most of the pupils in the normal schools in Lima, and in exchange requires them to teach in the primary schools of the respective departments from which the students come for a certain number of years. They are guaranteed a minimum salary per month for this work. 13 During the school year 1907 the men's normal school had fifty-three students, the women's normal school in Lima forty-four and in Arequipa, sixty- three. 14 A total of about $100,000 was expended during 1906 for salaries, equipment and other expenses, and twenty-five students were graduated. These figures fairly represent the work of preced- ing years. Revenue and Expenditure for Primary Education The Minister of Instruction has the portfolios of Justice and Religion in addition to that of Education. Consequently, the con- gressional appropriations for the Department of Education form only a part of the revenues and expenditures which he controls. Nevertheless, to insure at least a certain amount of revenue which would not depend entirely upon the action of Congress, a law was passed providing special sources of income. All told, the revenues for primary instruction are derived from the following sources: (a) A special tax, or mojonazgo, on alcoholic drinks and mineral water, insofar as money from this source does not furnish more than fifty per cent of the total revenue of any municipality; (b) local taxes created by special acts of Congress; (c) special funds and revenues from property; (d) thirty per cent of the departmental revenues, deducting from this the subventions assigned to secondary instruc- tion, on the basis of the departmental appropriation of 1905 ; (e) five per cent of the national revenues ; (/) fines imposed for infractions of the law and decrees relating to primary instruction. In 1906 these revenues amounted to $1,150,775; in 1907 they were slightly higher; in 1908 they amounted to $1,309,090. Owing to the eco- nomic crisis, the sum voted by Congress for 1910 has been reduced "Decrees of April 4, 1907, and January, 1910. "Report of the Minister of Instruction (1908), Vol. II, p. 338. (6 7 0) Public Instruction in Peru 93 considerably, so that less than a million dollars were available this year. Some Defects in the System of Primary Education As late as i860, Dr. Francisco Calderon, in his excellent Diccionario de la Legislacion Peruana, stated that the country still felt the lamentable consequences of the repressive system of educa- tion which had been provided by the Spanish government during the colonial period. 15 Although most of these consequences have disappeared to-day, some still remain. A temporary decree bearing on public instruction had been promulgated in 1855— the first gene- ral decree up to that time. It remained in force until 1876, although attempts had been made in the meanwhile to change it. By the latter decree, issued March 19, the system of public instruc- tion was decentralized, especially as regards primary instruction. The departmental authorities were intrusted with secondary, the municipal councils with primary education, i. e., so far as the finan- cial powers were concerned. The directive body was a Superior Council of Public Instruction. It soon became evident that the local authorities did not, or would not, provide suitable funds, and mat- ters went from bad to worse. Under these circumstances Congress enacted a law in 1901 centralizing the administration to a large ex- tent — a work which has been carried out more thoroughly by the act of 1905, for the central government was given full control of public instruction. 16 The majority of the reports of the Ministers of Instruction throughout this period, aside from the question of administrative centralization, emphasize the importance of primary education. Yet almost invariably these same reports state that primary educa- tion was in a condition far from satisfactory. The complaints usually take the form of lack of money, lack of schools and equip- ment, dearth of suitable teachers, and the need of better salaries, and more punctual payment of teachers. Thus, in his report for 1893, the Minister of Instruction pleads for a broader basis of prim- ary education in accordance with the Constitution, and complains of the comparatively large sum spent for secondary and higher "Vol. II, p. 324. "Exposiclon sobre el Estado de la Instrucci6n Pfiblica en el Pert envlado al Congreso Pan-Americano de Chile, pp. 4-6. (671) 94 The Annals of the American Academy education, when the majority of the children of the country did not even know how to read or write ; when many of the provinces did not have teachers, nor school buildings, nor any income for the most indispensable equipment. He blamed these conditions largely upon the decentralized system of administration. 17 Unfortunately, the defects which existed under the decentralized system of administra- tion have by no means disappeared. With several exceptions, they are just as glaring as before. The main defects lie in the administra- tion itself, and the lack of sufficient funds to carry out a progressive program of reforms. The administrative machinery needs remodel- ing, but should undoubtedly remain centralized. The financial prob- lem is considered very serious at present, but even here there is room for improvement in the expenditure of the money voted by Congress for schools. The State could really spend profitably five times the sum voted for this year. It would then be in a much bet- ter position to carry out the provision of the Constitution providing obligatory primary education. This applies with added force to the education of girls by public authority. As one prominent Peruvian writer puts it : "So long as the intellectual and social level of the family is not raised, by the education of the mother, our people will forge ahead very slowly. That task, the realization of which is of national import- ance, belongs to man, who should make it a reality. Women cannot at one and the same time attempt the problem, propose the remedy, and bring to pass the miracle. The task belongs to man. The surest way is to multiply the centers of instruction and provide for the better education of woman." 18 Secondary Education: Administration and Curriculum Secondary education is under the direction of the Minister of Instruction. Outside of Lima the prefect of the department acts for the Minister. The act of 1901 forms the ground work upon which is based the present decree relating to secondary education. Until this school year (March 1, 1910, to February 28, 191 1), the "Page xxv. Cf. also report for 1891, page xli ; 1892, pp. 23, 26, 30 ; 1S94, p. xxxv, etc. "Elvira Garefa y Garcia. Tendencias de la Edueacfon Feminina, p. 37 This report was presented to the Pan-American Congress of 1908. Cf. also article by L. S. Rowe In report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1909, pp. 326, 327. (6 7 2) Public Instruction in Peru 95 decree of March, 1904, was in force. It regulated the curriculum and gave in general outlines the subject matter to be taught in each course. Beginning with this year the following curriculum has been introduced by the decree of January 29, 19 10: First Tear Hrs. Second Year Hrs. Third Tear ITrs. Fourth Tear Hrt Spanish 4 Spanish 4 Spanish 3 Spanish literature.. 3 Modern languages . 3 Modern languages . 3 Modern languages . 3 Modern languages . . 2 1 istory 3 General history ... 3 General history 2 General history ... 3 General geography Geography of Europe Geography of Amer- History of Peru ... 2 and geography of and Africa 2 ica and Oceanica. 2 Asia 2 A rithmetic 5 Arithmetic 1 Algebra 2 Philosophy 5 Zoology 3 Algebra 2 Geometry 2 Civics 1 Religion 1 Geometry 2 Geology and mineral- Trigonometry 1 ogy 2 Penmanship 1 Botany 3 Physics 3 Thysiology and anat- omy 1 Drawing 2 Religion 1 Chemistry 3 Physics 3 Music 1 Penmanship 1 Drawing 2 Chemistry 2 Physical exercise ...2. Drawing 2 Music 1 Drawing 2 Music 1 Physical exercise . . 2 Physical exercise . . 2 Physical exercise . . 2 Total hours 27 27 27 27 The principal changes over the previous curriculum, and some of them are undesirable changes, include fewer hours devoted to the study of modern languages, and more hours to philosophy, which was added to the studies of the fourth year, physical exer- cise, and the exact sciences. Prior to 1904, secondary education was given in a six-year course. The change to four years was based in large part upon the French reforms of I902. 19 Although the de- crees have provided the full course of studies in secondary education, it has not always followed that each year's work has been given in full in each colegio. Last year the government had also approved a plan of com- mercial education for Guadalupe Colegio, which I had the honor to formulate. It gives the student a chance to get secondary education which will put him more in harmony with his economic environment. There is great need for such education owing to the unusually large proportion of those who enter upon professional careers — law, medi- cine, engineering. Commercial education must occupy an exceed- ingly important position in the educational problem of all Latin- American countries during the next two decades. Commercial sections have already been established in several other colegios since "Exposicion sobre el estado de la Instruccion Publica en el Peru, p. 19. (673) 96 The Annals of the American Academy then. The plan of studies for the commercial department at Guada- lupe Colegio includes the following: 20 First Tear Hrs. Spanish and com- mercial correspon- dence 4 English 5 Outlines of general history 4 Arithmetic 5 Geography (physical and general) .... 4 Natural history .... 4 Penmanship 1 Physical exercise . . 2 Total hours 29 Second Tear Hrs Spanish and com- mercial correspon- dence 4 English 4 French (or German or Quechua) ... 2 Commercial arith- metic and algebra 4 Bookkeeping 3 Commercial products with chemical ex- periments 3 Penmanship 1 Shorthand and type- writing 7 Physical exercise . . 1 29 Third Year Hrs Spanish literature. . 3 English 3 French (or other languages) con- tinued., 3 History of Peru and neighboring coun- tries 3 Geometry 3 Bookkeeping 3 Com'l geography . . 4 Physics 3 Shorthand and type- writing 4 29 Fourth Tear Era. Spanish literature.. 2 English 3 Other languages (continued) .... 3 History of commerce and modern in- dustrial history. . 3 Commercial arith- metic 2 Chemistry 5 Civil government and notions of commercial law.. 3 Political economy... 3 Shorthand and type- writing 3 27 The present law on secondary education (1901) provides two types of schools — the colegio and the liceo. The work of the for- mer can be determined by referring to the curriculum already given. The colegio was intended to be a stepping-stone to higher education. The liceo was intended to provide instruction adapted to agriculture, commercial education and mining and mechanical arts, "in order that pupils might acquire the knowledge indispensable for dedicating themselves to industries dependent on those branches of instruction." Colegios were to be established in places where universities were located, and in departmental capitals at the discretion of the Supe- rior Council of Public Instruction. Liceos, according to the law, were to be established in provincial capitals (101 provinces in Peru) by the same Council. As yet liceos have not been established, nor is there any likelihood of such action taking place. The course of studies was to be formulated by the Council as the basis for an executive decree, and instruction in the colegio or the liceo was to last six years. No plan of studies could be modified during a period of five years. Yet by decree of 1904, the course of studies was cut down to four years in the colegio, the only institutions of secondary instruction in existence, and the amount of work per year in- creased. Whatever advantages may have been produced by cutting down the course to four years, this action illustrates one of the defects from which the educational work suffers. I refer to the •"Decree of January 29, 1910. (674) Public Instruction in Peru 97 plethora of decrees introduced by rapidly changing ministers. Some of the decrees, moreover, are evidently a violation of the spirit, if not the letter, of the laws of Congress. The Director and the Professors In each colegio and liceo the law of 1901 made provision for a director, a sub-director, a secretary, the professors, inspectors, and the office personnel. The director is supposed to have received a university degree, but this provision is not always enforced. He is expected to reside in the colegio. He is responsible for the carrying out of laws and other regulations ; for the discipline of the school ; for the work of the employees ; for the proper accounting of the revenues of the school ; for the calling of faculty meetings ; and for the annual report showing certain details with reference to matriculation and examination of students, equipment, etc. The sub-director has to do more directly with discipline, and aids the director. He is also expected to live in the school building if there are any students boarding at the institution. The professors are classed as full professors and assistant {ad junto) professors. The former may hold their position for ten years as a result of a competitive examination — a position which may be made permanent if the professor has written a meritorious scientific work within this limit. The Superior Council of Pub- lic Instruction decides on the merits of the case. Less than a dozen positions of this type exist to-day, in a total teaching staff for all national colegios of more than 400. The appointment of professors is by the Director, or by the government directly — depending on the subjects to be taught. Salaries are by no means uniform in the colegio. Moreover, many professors simply teach part of the time in a national colegio and devote the rest of their time in private colegios or engage in other work. Complaints have been made on this score, as well as regards the salary, which may be said to aver- age about five dollars per month for one hour of instruction per week. The ad junto professors simply replace the regular profes- sors in case of absence of the latter. Quite a number of foreign teachers, chiefly German, Belgium and Swiss, have been teaching in the national colegios during the last three or four decades. It must be added, however, that they are (675) 98 The Annals of the American Academy by no means looked upon with favor by the native teachers. The professor is aided by inspectors in maintaining discipline in the class-room. This system of discipline has its counterpart in few educational codes of other countries ; it certainly does not offer any real advantages. Students in Secondary Institutions The school age of pupils attending the colegios is presumably from thirteen to seventeen. The former decree rquired the pupils to have completed the twelfth year, but in practice this has not always been insisted upon. The new decree requires pupils of the first year to be between the ages of twelve and fifteen. Admission to the colegio may be by examination, or upon satisfactory comple- tion of primary instruction. The latter method prevails almost entirely. There were twenty-eight national colegios in Peru in 1908 with a total of 3,289 pupils. The largest and most important by far is Guadalupe Colegio, in Lima, with over five hundred pupils. In fact this colegio serves as the model for the others, and has a building costing all told about half a million dollars. In 1904 there were twenty-three colegios with a total of 2,041 pupils. Only three of the national colegios are for girls, with a total of about 200 pupils. These three colegios are located in Cuzco, Ayacucho and Trujillo. Supplementing the national colegios are the private cole- gios, located chiefly in Cuzco and Lima, and directed by the church, or as business ventures. These private colegios numbered thirty- four in 1908, of which twenty were for boys, and fourteen for girls. The number of boys who attended totaled 1,016, of girls, 275. The law provides that pupils may board in the colegio. The maximum number of such pupils is determined by the Superior Council of Public Instruction, according to the law, but not in prac- tice. Many pupils, both in national and private colegios, take advantage of this provision of the law. The expense of a pupil in Guadalupe Colegio may be taken as representative. The charges here include the following: Matricula- tion fee, $1 ; for annual examinations, $2 ; tuition, $20 per year, for pupils in the primary grades which happen to be given in this colegio, and for the first two years of secondary instruction, and $30 for the (676) ' Public Instruction in Peru 99 last two years of secondary instruction; board and lodging for the year, $105 ; fees for the use of equipment, $3 ; although third- and fourth-year students pay $2.50 additional for the use of the labora- tories. Laundry charges, for those who care to avail themselves of the opportunity amount to $1.50 per month. In 1909 Guadalupe Colegio provided board and lodging for 175 pupils, and in addition board for over 200 additional pupils. This year the number was almost doubled, owing to extensions and improvement to the building still under way. Practically each department gives scholarships to a limited number of pupils, many of whom are sent to Guadalupe Colegio. Such a scholarship provides all tuition and living expenses. The students are not accustomed, as a general rule, to do much, if any, school work at home. School hours are from 8 to n in the morning, and 1 to 5 in the afternoon, six days per week. As the curriculum provides less than thirty hours of class-room work, the other hours are utilized for study, physical training and military drill. Irregularity of attendance on the part of pupils, and even of professors, is one of the marked defects of administration which merits rigorous corrective measures. Examinations and Prices Mention must be made of the system of prizes existing in all branches of education — public as well as private. Medals, books and other useful objects are distributed for the meritorious at the close of the school year. The annual exercises correspond to our high school commencement, only here the exercises come at the close of the year. The prefect of the department, or in Lima, the Minister of Instruction, and perhaps even the President, and other school authorities, attend the exercises at the national colegio. The system of examinations is worthy of special attention. At the close of each of the four years there is an examination in each subject in the official program of studies. The term work counts one-third of the general average. The written examination, usually lasting less than one hour, counts, one-third ; and the oral exami- nation, usually five to ten minutes for each pupil, the other third. For national colegios, special examining boards of three members each are appointed by the Director. The professor of the class (677) ioo The Annals of the American Academy acts as president of the board. For private colegios whose pupils desire to present themselves for the examination in accordance with the official program, three special examining boards are appointed by the government. For Lima, they are appointed by the Minister ; for the departments by the prefects. These boards examine in let- ters, sciences, and languages respectively. It was my privilege to act as president of the last mentioned board for Lima during 1909. The examining boards for private colegios receive a fee for every student who is examined, regardless of whether he presents himself, or whether he passes the examination. For national col- egios one copy of the marks is sent to the Minister of Instruction ; for private colegios one is sent to the Minister, one is left in the colegio itself, and the third is sent to the national colegio of the department in which the private colegio is located. The examining boards for private colegios are also required to prepare a report for the Minister relative to the pedagogical conditions existing in each colegio which has been visited. This board can only examine in the colegios which have previously sent to the Minister a request for such examination, including in this request the list of students who are to be examined. Practically all private colegios do this. A method of examination somewhat similar prevails in the universi- ties. The system is not only cumbersome and time-consuming but in the public schools at least it is subject to log-rolling methods. Moreover, the actual examinations — oral and written — need modi- fication. Even more serious defects might be noted as regards the examinations for private colegios. A competent national exam- ining board, or perhaps even several departmental boards, should provide uniform examinations based on the official curriculum. Income and Expenditures The income of national colegios consists ( 1 ) of the sum voted by Congress; (2) any sum voted by the department; (3) special in- come assigned to a colegio; (4) fees of students; (5) rent from property owned by the school — usually insignificant. The budget of each colegio is made up toward the close of the school year by an Economic Council. This council consists of the Director, the treas- urer, a professor of the colegio and two fathers whose sons are attending the school. The council meets several times during the (678) Public Instruction in Peru ioi year to consider financial matters of the colegio, and towards this end it is generally convened by the Director. For the twenty-eight colegios in 1908, the total income amounted to $310,000, about twenty-five per cent of which came from tuition fees. It was spent in large part for salaries. A smaller sum was spent for maintenance of the school buildings, equipment, and supplies. On the whole there should be more money appro- priated for secondary education, although it should at the same time constitute a smaller proportion of the total spent on public instruc- tion than is the case at present. The objects towards which this increase could be devoted advantageously include: (1) adequate buildings and equipment; (2) pay of professors; (3) extension of commercial education in various national colegios. There is need for greater elasticity in the courses open to stu- dents in the colegio. The law of 1901, in providing the liceos, sought to attain this end. The financial condition of the country, however, does not justify separate schools. Separate departments within the colegio should be provided along the lines of the organi- zation in our high schools. The establishment of a commercial department in the leading colegio of the country is a step in the right direction. After the adoption of a well-considered plan providing separate departments for the colegio, the government should make an earnest effort to encourage a larger proportion of the students to attend the national colegios than is the case at present. As it is, the national colegio is superior to the private colegio from almost every point of view and yet for one reason or another about forty per cent of the total num- ber of students are attending private colegios. It is a fact of some significance that there is no national colegio for girls in Lima, and that there are only three in the country. Higher Education The universities of Peru include the University of St. Mark in Lima, founded 1571 by Pius X and royal decree of Philip II, and the "minor" universities of Cuzco, Arequipa and Trujillo. These were established in 1692, 1835 and 1824 respectively. The univer- sity of Cuzco was closed temporarily last year owing to certain irregularities. The occasion gave rise to a sharp discussion at the (6/9) 102 The Annals of the American Academy recent regular session of Congress, and the executive was given power to provide for the reorganization of the university. It will probably be a matter of two or three years when Congress will re- vise the law affecting higher education. The University of St. Mark has six faculties — theology, juris- prudence, medicine, natural and mathematical sciences, letters, and political and administrative sciences. The University of Cuzco has faculties of jurisprudence, letters, political and administrative sciences, and a "section" or partial faculty of natural science. The other two have these same faculties with the exception of the last mentioned. University instruction is controlled by the state, but there is more autonomy in higher education than in secondary or primary in- struction. The administration of each university is under the im- mediate jurisdiction of a University Council. Its duties are similar in nature to those of the board of trustees in our large private uni- versities. For Lima, it consists of the rector, the vice-rector, the secretary, the deans of the various faculties and another delegate from each faculty. The delegates are elected by the professors of the respective faculties. In the other universities the Council in- cludes all of the professors. The Council administers the property of the university, approves the annual budget, authorizes special expenditure, provides for auditing of accounts, acts upon the propo- sals of the rector for the better administration of the institution ; formulates the by-laws, creates or changes courses and professor- ships, proposes to the Superior Council of Public Instruction changes deemed essential in granting university degrees — bachelor or doctor. The rector of the university must have a doctor's degree, and although appointed as a rule for four years, may succeed himself. He and the vice-rector are normally elected by the University Coun- cil, except the University of St. Mark, where only the deans of the faculties make the selection. The rector is responsible for the administration and progress of the university, and acts as the inter- mediary in communication with the Minister of Education. Each faculty elects its own dean and sub-dean, formulates its budget which it submits later to the University Council, examines candidates for degrees, approves the outline of studies for each course, author- izes payment by the dean of sums exceeding $50, and makes sug- gestions with reference to the curriculum. There are two grades of (680) Public Instruction in Peru 103 professors, viz., principal or active professors, and adjunct profes- sors who replace the former in case of leave of absence. The lat- ter receive a salary only during the time that they teach. The active professors are of two classes, and include those who are named ad interim and those who secure the position through competitive exam- ination. They must have the doctor's degree. As a rule they have less than ten hours of actual teaching per week ; moreover, they are almost invariably engaged in other lines of activity outside of uni- versity circles. The courses within a given faculty are usually ar- ranged in groups, and the professor must teach all the subjects within a given group. No professor is permitted to give courses in more than two of these groups. At the University of Arequipa, for example, one group includes courses on diplomacy, private in- ternational law, and history of the treaties of Peru. The law of 1901 provides the courses which are to be given ; the arrangement in groups is left to administrative authority. Students can matriculate in the University upon graduating from the colegio. To secure a degree in the faculty of theology requires six years of study; in jurisprudence, five years; medicine, seven years; sciences, letters, or political and administrative sciences, three years. These are required for both degrees, viz., bachelor and doctor. A student is permitted to register in several faculties, under certain restrictions. In order to matriculate in the faculties of jurispru- dence and political sciences a student must have completed two years in the faculty of letters. For example, he may matriculate in the faculty of political and administrative sciences, as a regular student, and also in the faculty of letters to pursue special or regular advanced courses. 21 With the exception of the University of St. Mark, the univer- sities have little property of their own from which they may secure revenue. Hence most of their income comes from the state sub- ventions. In 1908 the income for all four universties amounted only to a third of a million dollars. Of this total, matriculation fees furnished sixteen per cent of the total income of the University of St. Mark ; fifteen per cent in the University of Arequipa ; twenty-five per cent in the University of Cuzco ; and thirty per cent in the Uni- M Annual Report, Minister of Education, 1908. (681) 104 The Annals of the American Academy versity of Trujillo. In other words, about one-fifth of the total in- come comes from tuition fees. Besides the four universities, there are three other national in- stitutions of superior instruction, viz., the Engineering School, the Agricultural College, and the School of Industrial Arts — all located in Lima. The first of these institutions has the following depart- ments : (a) preparatory section requiring two years, with emphasis on natural and mathematical sciences; (b) department of civil engineering, 3 years; (c) of mining engineering, 3 years; (d) of mechanical engineering, 3 years; (e) of electrical engineering, 1 year. The Agricultural and Veterinary College also has a preparatory section of one year, with special emphasis on natural sciences. The regular work of the Agricultural College requires three more years of study. In addition to these studies, there is a special Grange School giving a two-years' course along specialized lines. The School of Industrial Arts, as in the case of the former two institutions, also has a preparatory section, with the view to review- ing the work of the primary education. Hence, in reality, this school cannot properly be classed as an institution of superior education. After the preparatory work, specialized work is given along lines of manual training and industrial arts. Space will not permit a review of the various problems which need attention in a revision of the educational system of the country. Some of the defects have been mentioned in the article, but what is especially needed is a change in the administrative machinery under a new law of Congress which shall re-organize the work of public instruction on a permanent basis. The country is ready for this change, and a special commission established by supreme decree last April will present a project to Congress. It is certain that it will contain radical changes, but it is not so certain that Congress will accept these. (682) SPECIAL VOLUMES The United States as a World Power The United States and Latin America The Government in its Relation to Industry American Colonial Policy and Administration Foreign Policy of the United States — Political and Commercial Federal Regulation of Corporations Federal Regulation of Industry Administration of Justice in the United States Corporations and Public Welfare Tariff Problems — American and British Tariffs, Reciprocity and Foreign Trade Tariff Revision Railway and Traffic Problems Electric Railway Transportation Child Labor, Vols. I, II, in, IV and V Race Improvement in the United States The Public Health Movement Social Legislation and Activity Problems in Charities and Corrections Philanthropy and Penology Woman's Work and Organizations Social Work of the Church Political Problems Municipal Ownership and Municipal Fran- chises Municipal Problems, Vols. I and II Control of Municipal Public Service Corpor tions City Life and Progress Insurance Insurance and Commercial Organization Business Management, Vols. I and II Business Professions American Business Conditions Industrial Education Bonds as Investment Securities Stocks and the Stock Market Lessons of the Financial Crisis Banking Problems Labor Problems, Vols. I and II The Improvement of Labor Conditions is the United States Labor and Wages The Settlement of Labor Disputes American Waterways Regulation of the Liquor Traffic Conservation of Natural Resources Chinese and Japanese in America The New South Public Recreation Facilities Price, $1.50 each, bound in cloth; $1.00 bound in paper MONOGRAPHS By Gustav Cohn, translated by J. A. Hill. Pp. 142. Paper By Emory R. Johnson. Pp. 164* Edited by History of Political Economy. $1.00. Inland Waterways: Their Relation to Transportation. Paper, $1.00. Theory of Sociology. By Franklin H Giddings. Pp. 80. Paper, 50 cents. Selected Official Documents of the South African Republic and Great Britain. H. Williams and F. C. Hicks. Pp. 72. Paper, 75 cents. Massachusetts Labor Legislation. By Sarah S. Whittelset. Pp. 157. Paper, $1.00. Housing Conditions in Jersey City. By Mart B. Satles. Pp. 72. Paper, 75 cents The Pan-American Conferences and their Significance. Pp. 22. Price, 50 cents. Child Labor Legislation, Vols. I and H. Compiled by Josephine C. Goldmark. Pp. 64 and 68. Paper, 50 cents each. Child Labor and Social Progress. Pp. 177. Paper, $1.00. The Consumer's Control of Production. Pp. 83. Paper, 75 cents. The Work of the National Consumers' League. Pp. 75. Paper, 75 cents. The Child Workers of the Nation. Pp. 244. Paper, $1.00. Cloth, $1.50. Child Employing Industries. Pp. 274. Paper, $1.00. Cloth, $1.50. Our State Constitutions. By James Q. Dealet. Pp. 98. Paper, 75 cents. Impersonal Taxation. By Charles H. Swan. Pp. 149. Paper, $1.00. Descriptive Catalogue of Publications mailed upon application LIBRARY OF CONGRESS I II I II II II II 022 118 764 7 "The American Academy of Political and Social Science. The American Academy of Political and Social Science was formed in Philadelphia, December 14, 1889, for the purpose of pro- moting the study of political and social problems of the present day. Besides the general fields of sociology, political science and eco- nomics, a special effort is made to collect and publish material deal- ing with the more important practical questions of the time, such as taxation, banking and finance, colonial policy, municipal govern- ment, public administration, education, charities and correction, na- tional and international commerce, corporations, and the various phases of the labor problem. 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