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FARMING FOR PROFIT 
 
 FARM CROPS 
 
 THEIR CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT 
 
 A NON-TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR THE CULTIVATION, 
 MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK D. GARDNER 
 
 PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 
 AND EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 ASSISTED BY 
 
 C. F. NOLL ALVA AGEE 
 
 Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania Director, Agricultural Extension, 
 
 Stale College Rutgers College 
 
 W. H. DARST PROF. E. F. CAUTHEN 
 
 Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania Associate in Agriculture, Alabama Agricultural 
 
 State College Experiment Station 
 
 GEORGE T. McNESS 
 
 Tobacco Expert, Texas Experiment Station 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY 
 PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO 
 

 Copyright, 1918, by 
 The John C. Winston Company 
 
 Copyright, 1916, by 
 L. T. Myers 
 
 APR 19 Ibis 
 
 e)CI.A5l52h5 
 
PREFACE 
 
 ^ This book makes a popular appeal to all men engaged in farming, 
 
 whether amateurs or professionals. It is designed to be a handy reference 
 work on the cultivation and management of farm crops. Technical terms 
 and lengthy discussions have been avoided. 
 
 Ages of farm experience and a few generations of agricultural research 
 have given us a vast store of practical knowledge on tilling the soil and 
 raising crops. This knowledge is scattered through many different volumes 
 on different phases of the subject, in experunent station bulletins, agri- 
 cultural journals and encyclopedias. The important facts on which the 
 most successful farming is based are here brought together in readable 
 form. 
 
 The subject-matter is arranged in three parts, the first dealing with 
 the various farm crops, their selection and cultivation; the second with 
 the diseases of farm crops and their remedies, insect pests and their control, 
 and insecticides and fungicides; and the third includes valuable tables 
 of agricultural statistics showing the cost per acre of producing farm crops, 
 the fertility of farm produce, percentage composition of agricultural 
 products and so forth. 
 
 Each department has been prepared by a specialist in the subject 
 presented, and his name appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those 
 unacknowledged have been prepai'ed by myself. References are given 
 here and there to books and pamphlets that may be helpful to the farmer 
 who mshes to have more exhaustive information on specific subjects. 
 
 The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit 
 has been given these. 
 
 Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and 
 the other volumes in the series for their conception and for many helpful 
 suggestions in the presentation of the subject-matter. 
 
 Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor 
 R. S. Smith, both of the Pennsylvania State College, for helpful sugges- 
 tions and criticisms on crop rotations. I wish also to especially acknowl- 
 edge the valuable editorial assistance of my wife in the preparation of 
 the manuscript. 
 
 Frank D. Gardner. 
 
 (5) 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I. FARM CROPS 
 
 Chapter 1. CROP IMPROVEMENT 19 
 
 Plant selection — Kinds of variation — Hybridization — Choice of varieties. 
 
 Com. 
 The ear-row method — Ideals in selection of corn. 
 
 Wheat, Oats and Barley. 
 First year — Second year — Third year — Fourth year — Fifth and succeeding years 
 — Crossing of varieties in small grain breeding. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 Production of seedlings — Hill and tuber selection — Opportunities in crop improve- 
 ment. 
 
 Chapter 2. THE ROTATION OF CROPS 28 
 
 Rotations defined — Purpose of rotations — ^Maintain good physical condition of 
 soil — Conserve organic matter and nitrogen — Provide for extermination of weeds 
 —Lessen insect depredations — Reduce plant diseases — Improve environment of 
 crops — Rotations insure returns — Prevent reduced crop yields — Rotations 
 systematize farming — Rotations distribute labor — Essentials of a good rotation 
 — Sequence of crops — Length of rotations — What crops to grow — When to apply 
 manure and fertilizers — Some suggested rotations — Methods of planning and 
 recording rotations. 
 
 Chapter 3. CORN (ZEA MAIZE) 39 
 
 Classification of corn — Varieties of corn — The chief corn-growing states — Soil 
 and climatic adaptation — Crop rotation for corn — Plowing for corn — Manures 
 and fertilizers for corn — Time and method of planting — Rate of planting — Depth 
 of planting — Preparation of seed for planting — Cultivation of corn — Methods 
 of harvesting — Storing corn — Shrinkage of corn — Market grades of corn — 
 Composition and feeding value of corn. 
 
 Com Improvement. 
 Securing seed — Selecting seed — Care of seed — Germination test — Germinating 
 box — Improvement by selection and breeding. 
 
 Chapter 4. WHEAT (WINTER AND SPRING). 59 
 
 Wheat production in the United States — Climatic and soil adaptation — Rotations 
 — Preparation of the seed-bed — Fertilizers for wheat — Time of seeding — Rate 
 of seeding — Grain drills — Winter killing — Wheat districts — District No. 1 — Dis- 
 trict No. 2 — District No. 3 — District No. 4 — District No. 5 — Wheat improvement 
 — Harvesting — Cost of producing wheat — Enemies of wheat: Weeds — Insects 
 — Fungous diseases — Treatment. 
 
 Chapter 5. OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 72 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Soil and climatic adaptation — Classes and varieties — Seed oats and their prepara- 
 tion for seeding — Preparation of the seed-bed — Fertihzers and manures for oats 
 — Time, rate and manner of seeding — Oats as a nurse crop — Harvesting, shock- 
 ing and threshing — Storing and marketing — Composition and feeding value — 
 Value of oats for hay and soiling purposes — Oat straw and its utilization — Cost of 
 producing oats — Oat improvement. 
 
 (7) 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Barley. 
 Soil and climatic adaptation — Classes and varieties — Preparation of land and 
 seeding — Harvesting and use — Use of by-products. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Adaptation and culture — Uses of rye. 
 
 Chapter 6. BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, EMMER, KAFFIR CORN AND 
 
 SUNFLOWER 82 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 Soil and climatic adaptation — Varieties — Preparation of soil and seeding — 
 Fertilizers and rotations — Harvesting and threshing — Uses of buckwheat. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Soil and climatic adaptation — Preparation of land and seeding — Flooding or 
 irrigation — Harvesting and threshing — Yields and value. 
 
 Flax. ^ 
 
 Soil and climatic adaptation — Preparation of land and seeding — Harvesting and 
 threshing — Yield and value of crop — Utilization — Diseases of flax. 
 
 Kaffir Corn. 
 Regions of production — Value and uses — Varieties — Production and harvesting, 
 
 Emmer. 
 Sunflowers. 
 
 Chapter 7. MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 92 
 
 Importance and value of grasses — Regions of production — Principal grasses of 
 North America — Valuable characteristics — Choice of grasses — Seed and seeding 
 — Harvesting. 
 
 Timothy. 
 Soil and 'climatic adaptation — Advantages of timothy — Seed and seeding — 
 Fertilizers and manures — Mixing timothy with other grasses and clovers — 
 Harvesting — Pasturing — Seed production — Composition and feeding value — 
 Improvement of timothy — Marketing the hay. 
 
 Blue Grass. 
 
 Soil and climatic adaptation — Importance of blue grass — Methods of establishing 
 — Pasture and maintenance. 
 
 Redtop. 
 Importance of redtop — Culture — Yields and uses. 
 
 Orchard Grass. 
 
 Importance — Culture — Yields and uses. 
 
 Brome grass— Tall oat grass — The fescues — Rye grasses — Sudan grass — Bermuda 
 
 grass — Johnson grass— Para grass — Guinea grass. 
 
 Chapter 8. THE CLOVERS 109 
 
 Characteristics of clovers — Uses of clovers — Inoculation — Composition and feed- 
 ing value — Harvesting methods. 
 
 Red Clover. 
 
 Soil and climatic adaptation — Endurance of red clover — Securing clover seed — 
 Preparation of seed-bed — Time, manner, rate and depth of seeding — Nurse crops 
 for clover — Fertilizers for clover — After treatment of clover — rlarvesting of 
 clover — Clover seed production — Red clover troubles. 
 
 Alsike clover — White clover — Ladino clover — Crimson clover — Sweet clover — 
 Lespedeza or Japan clover — Bur clover — Hop clover. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter 9. ALFALFA 121 
 
 Distribution of alfaKa — Soil and climatic adaptation — Essentials for success — 
 Varieties of alfalfa — Sources of seed — Need for fertilizers and lime — Preparation 
 of seed-bed — Time, rate, depth and manner of seeding — ^Inoculation — After treat- 
 ment — Making alfalfa hay — Number of cuttings and yield — Other uses of alfalfa — 
 Composition and feeding value — Irrigation of alfaKa — Seed production. 
 
 Chapter 10. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 132 
 
 Extent, value and importance — Essential qualities of meadows and pastures — 
 Advantages of meadows and pastures — Soil and climatic requirements — Forma- 
 tion of meadows and pastures — Preparation of soil — Meadow and pasture seed 
 mixtiu-es — Seeding grasses and clovers — Treatment of meadows and pastures — 
 Care of meadows and pastures — Improvement of meadows and pastures — Manur- 
 ing, fertilizing and liming — Utilizing aftermath — Capacity of pastures — Compo- 
 sition and palatability of pasture grass and hay — Temporary pastures. 
 
 Chapter 11. MISCELLANEOUS ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS.... 144 
 
 Cowpeas. 
 Varieties — Time, manner, rate and depth of seeding — Seeding with other crops 
 - — Fertilizers, tillage and rotations — Time and method of harvesting — Feeding 
 value and utihzation. 
 
 Soy Beans. 
 Varieties — Time, method, rate and depth of seeding — Inoculation, tillage and 
 fertilizers — Time and method of harvesting — Composition, feeding value and 
 utihzation. 
 
 Vetches — Canada field peas — Harvesting — Other annual legumes — Sorghiuns — 
 Millet— Rape — ^Catch crops for pasture and hay. 
 
 Chapter 12. ANNUAL LEGUMES, GROWN PRINCIPALLY FOR SEEDS., 156 
 
 Field bean — Time, rate, manner and depth of seeding — Harvesting — Threshing 
 and cleaning — Yield — Field peas — Cowpeas — Soy beans — Castor bean — Vetch 
 — Crimson clover. 
 
 Peanuts. 
 Soil and climatic conditions — Fertilizers and hme required — Time, rate, depth 
 and manner of planting — Seed selection and preparation — Varieties — Cultivation, 
 harvesting and curing — Preparing for market — Yields. 
 
 Chapter 13. ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE 167 
 
 Relation to other crops — Utilization and feeding value — Sugar beets — Mangels — 
 Turnips and rutabagas — Carrots — Parsnip — Cabbage — Kale — Artichokes — Cas- 
 sava — Chuf a — Tar o — Yout ia . 
 
 Chapter 14. THE POTATO 173 
 
 The soil — Crop rotation — Soil preparation — The seed — Fertihzation — The plant- 
 ing — Cultivation — Diseases — Insect pests — Harvesting the crop. 
 
 Chapter 15. SUGAR CROPS (CANE, BEET AND MAPLE SUGAR, AND 
 
 SORGHUM) 180 
 
 Sugar Beets. 
 Adaptation — Preparation of land — Fertihzation — Seeding and cultivation — 
 Harvesting — Seed production — Manufacture of beet sugar — By-products of beet 
 farming. 
 
 Cane Sugar. 
 Description and mode of reproduction — Soils — Varieties of cane — Rotation and 
 preparation of the land — Fertilizers — Cultivation — Harvesting — Cane sugar 
 manufacture. 
 Maple Sugar — Sugar making — Sorghum. 
 
10 CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter 16. COTTON PRODUCTION 191 
 
 Species — Characteristics of the plant — ^Seed — Varieties of upland cotton grouped 
 — Cluster group— Semi-cluster group — Peterkin group — King group — Big-boll 
 group — Long-staple upland group — Desired qualities of a variety — Selection — 
 Soils adapted to cotton — Special types of soils. 
 
 Fertilizer and Cultivation. 
 Plant food removed by cotton — Need of humus — Need of nitrogen — Need of 
 phosphoric acid — Need of potash — Commercial fertilizers profitable — Three-year 
 rotation suggested — Preparation of land — Time of plowing — Seed-bed — Planting 
 —Tillage. 
 
 Harvesting and Marketing. 
 Picking — Ginning — Cotton seed — Storing — Grades of cotton. 
 
 Chapter 17. TOBACCO 203 
 
 Types and their commercial uses — Principal tobacco districts — Soils — Prepara- 
 tion and care of seed-beds — Preparation of the soil — Fertilizers — Transplanting 
 and cultivation — Methods of harvesting — Barn curing— Preparation for market — 
 Methods of selling. 
 
 Chapter 18. WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 215 
 
 Damage done by weeds^Weeds reduce crop yields — How introduced and spread 
 — Classification of weeds — Weed habitats — l^inciples governing control — Canada 
 thistle — Quack grass — Foxtail — Dodders — Buckhorn — Plantain — Pigweed — 
 Lamb's-Quarters — ^WUd mustard or charlock— Shepherd's-purse — Peppergrass — 
 Cocklebur — Field bindweed or wild morninjj glory — Hedge bindweed — Fifty 
 worst weeds. 
 
 PART II. DISEASES OF FARM CROPS 
 
 Chapter 19. DISEASES OF FARM CROPS AND THEIR REMEDIES.... 239 
 Bean. Antliracnose — Rust — Blight — Downy mildew — Leaf spot. 
 Pea. Spot. 
 
 Beets. Leaf spot — Root rot. 
 
 Cabbage, Cauliflower, Turnips, etc. Black rot — Club root or finger and toe disease. 
 Carrot. Soft rot. 
 
 Potato. Late blight or downy mildew — Early blight — Wilt, stem rot and dry rot 
 — Black leg — Scab — ^Little potato, rosette, stem rot, scurf — Bacterial wilt — 
 Tipburn. 
 
 Peanut. Foliage and root diseases. 
 
 Tobacco. Granville tobacco wilt — Mosaic, calico or mottle top — Leaf spots — 
 Root rots. 
 Com. Smut. 
 
 Wheat. Rusts — Loose smut — Stinking smut or bunt. 
 Oats. Rust — Smut. 
 
 Sugar Cane. Red rot— Rind disease — The pineapple disease — Other diseases. 
 Cotton. Anthracnose — Damping off — Sore shin — Seeding rot. 
 Flax. Wilt. 
 
 Chapter 20. INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 250 
 
 General Crop Insects. 
 Caterpillars (leaf-eating) — Cutworms — Grasshoppers or locusts — Leaf beetles 
 Plant lice — White grubs — -Wire worms. 
 
 Field Crop Insects. 
 The army worm — The alfalfa leaf weevil — The chinch bug — Clover mite — Clover 
 root borer — Corn ear worm — The corn root aphis — Cotton boll worm — Cotton 
 worm — The cotton red spider — The fall army worm — The green bug or spring 
 grain aphis — The Hessian fly — Mexican cotton boll weevil — Spring grain aphis — 
 Southern (-orn root worm or bud worm— Toba(!co flea beetle — Tobacco worms or 
 horn worms — Western corn root worm — Wheat joint worm — Wheat straw worm. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 11 
 
 Chapter 21. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 264 
 
 Insecticides. 
 Paris green — Arsenate of lead — Arsenite of zinc — London purple — White arsenic — 
 Sulphur — Lime-sulphur wash — Tobacco extracts — Pyrethrum — White hellebore — 
 Coal oU — Crude oils — Soaps — Coal tar — Borax — Other insecticides — Bisulphide of 
 carbon — Carbon tetrachlorid — Para-dichlorobenzene — Hydrocyanic acid gas. 
 
 Fungicides. 
 Copper sulphate — Bordeaux mixture — Copperas or iron sulphate- 
 formaldehyde — Bichloride of mercury — Lime-sulphur wash. 
 
 Combined Insecticides and Fungicides. 
 
 -Formalin or 
 
 PART III. TABLES OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS AND 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Table I. Percentage composition of agricultural products 279 
 
 Table II. Fertility in farm produce 283 
 
 Table III. Weight per bushel, seeding rate per acre, number of seeds per pound 
 
 and depth to cover farm seed 284 
 
 Table IV. Water requirements of various standard crops 286 
 
 Table V. Cost per acre producing crops 287 
 
 Table VI. Cost of farm horse power 287 
 
 Table VII. Weights and measures 288 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Types and Varieties of Corn {Color Plate) Frontispiece 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Variations in Timothy 20 
 
 Note the Variation in the Second Generation Hybrids (Wheat) 21 
 
 The Ear-to-Row Test Plat with Corn Husked 28 
 
 Variations in Yield of Potatoes from Selected Tubers 26 
 
 Dangers of Continuous Cropping 29 
 
 The Height of Stalks and Positions of Ears {Corn) 38 
 
 Corn Acreage by States 41 
 
 Corn Yield Follows the Amount of Rainfall {Chart) 42 
 
 Time and Method of Planting Corn 45, 46, 47 
 
 Right and Wrong Way of Cultivating Corn 49 
 
 Several Forms of Husking Pegs 50 
 
 High and Low Ears 55 
 
 Good and Poor Types of Kernels 56 
 
 A Good Germination Box Seven Days after Planting 57 
 
 Effect of Time of Preparing Seed Bed 61 
 
 Approximate Date of Seeding Winter Wheat {Map) 63 
 
 Wheat Districts of the United States (Map) 66 
 
 A Profitable Yield of Wheat 67 
 
 Map of the United States Showing Approximately the Areas to which 
 
 Certain Types of Oats are Adapted 73 
 
 Two Types of Oat Heads 74 
 
 A Field of Good Oats being Harvested with a Modern Self-Binder .... 77 
 
 A Field of Winter Barley Seeded after Corn 80 
 
 A Field of Flax in Bloom 86 
 
 Heads of Four Varieties of Kaffir 88 
 
 Emmer 89 
 
 Map Showing Region of Grass Production in the United States {Map) ... 93 
 
 Side Delivery Rake 95 
 
 Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker 96 
 
 A Field of Good Grass {Timothy) 97 
 
 The Hay Loader in Operation 98 
 
 Rows of Timothy 99 
 
 Field of Timothy Plants for Selection 101 
 
 Variations in Timothy 102 
 
 Sudan Grass, a New Acquisition . -. 107 
 
 A Clover Field in Blossom 110 
 
 Map Showing the Acreage of Red Clover in the United States and Canada . 112 
 
 A Clover Buncher Attached to a Mowing Machine 116 
 
 Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land 117 
 
 (13) 
 
14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Pasturing Sweet Clover in Kansas 119 
 
 Map of the United States and Canada, Showing Acreage of Alfalfa. . . 121 
 
 Alfalfa Out-yields Other Hay Crops 124 
 
 A Standing Field of Alfalfa 126 
 
 Curing Alfalfa Hay in Shocks 128 
 
 Comparison of Hogs Fed on Corn and on Alfalfa 129 
 
 A Well-Set Cluster of Alfalfa Pods 131 
 
 Sheep Pasturing on Hilly Land {Color Plate) 132 
 
 Live Stock on Pasture 133 
 
 Hay Making Scene (Millet) 138 
 
 Good Pasture Land 141 
 
 Field of Iron Cowpeas Planted in One-fifth Rows and Cultivated Three 
 
 Times 145 
 
 Hairy Vetch and Rye Growing Together 150 
 
 Millet Makes an Excellent Catch Crop 152 
 
 Making Hogs of Themselves 154 
 
 Harvesting Field Beans with a Harvester 157 
 
 Soy Beans 159 
 
 Crimson Clover 160 
 
 A Peanut Plant 162 
 
 Harvesting and Curing Peanuts 165 
 
 Root Crops (Map) 167 
 
 A Load of Mangels 168 
 
 Cross Section of an Easily Constructed Pit for Roots 170 
 
 The Potato Crop 173 
 
 The Condition of Seed Potatoes Depends on Character of Storage 176 
 
 A Potato Planter 177 
 
 Agricultural Progress in the United States and Germany (Chart) 181 
 
 Sugar Beet 182 
 
 A Good Stand and Vigorous Growth of Sugar Beets 184 
 
 A Field of Sugar Cane 188 
 
 A Good Cotton Plant, Showing Good Base Limbs 192 
 
 Cotton Grown by Single Stalk Method 195 
 
 Turning Under Crimson Clover for Cotton 198 
 
 A Field of Cotton 200 
 
 Field of Virginia Heavy Tobacco 204 
 
 Field of Cigar Leaf Tobacco 205 
 
 Tobacco Plant-bed 206 
 
 A Plant Ready to Set in Field 210 
 
 Fire-curing Barn 212 
 
 Flue-curing Barn 213 
 
 The Manner in which Canada Thistles Spread by Underground Root- 
 stocks 218 
 
 The Canada Thistle 220 
 
 Green Foxtail 221 
 
 Quack Grass 221 
 
 Field Dodder 222 
 
 Flax Dodder 222 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 15 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alfalfa Dodder 222 
 
 BucKHORN OR Nakrow-leaved Plantain 223 
 
 Common or Broad-leaved Plantain 224 
 
 Pigweed 225 
 
 Lamb's Quarters or Smooth Pigweed 226 
 
 Wild Mustard 227 
 
 Shepherd's Purse 228 
 
 cocklebur 230 
 
 Field Bindweed 231 
 
 Anthracnose of Bean 240 
 
 Enlarged Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes 242 
 
 Smut op Corn 245 
 
 Loose Smut of Wheat 246 
 
 Smut of Oats 247 
 
 Young Cotton Plant Affected by Cotton Wilt 248 
 
 Chinch Bug 253 
 
 The Clover Mite 254 
 
 Clover Root Borer 255 
 
 The Cotton Worm 256 
 
 Fall Army Worm 257 
 
 Hessian Fly 257 
 
 Green Bug or Spring Grain Aphis 258 
 
 Southern Corn Root Worm 259 
 
 Cotton Boll Weevil 259 
 
 Tobacco Flea Beetle 259 
 
 Southern Tobacco Horn Worm 260 
 
 Western Corn Root Worm 261 
 
 Wheat Joint Worm 261 
 
 Larva of Isosoma Grande in Wheat Straw 262 
 
 A Lime Sulphur Cooking Outfit 267 
 
 Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas 271 
 
 Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas 272 
 
 Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes 274 
 
 Treating Grain with Formalin for Smut 275 
 
PART I 
 FARM CROPS 
 
 (17) 
 
CHAPTER 9 
 
 Crop Improvement 
 
 By C. F. Noll 
 Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania State College 
 
 The development of varieties and strains of our farm crops which 
 have great productiveness or superior merit in other respects is a matter 
 of great interest to all agriculturists. Increase in yield due to natural 
 productiveness of a variety results in a gain which is maintained year 
 after year without additional cost of fertilizer or expense in culture. 
 Such gains are of much economic importance, as shown by the differences 
 secured in many variety tests. At the Pennsylvania State College Experi- 
 ment Station, where varieties of various crops are tested under the same 
 conditions, there are some which outyield others by as much as fifty per 
 cent. Here the good yielding varieties are grown with just the same 
 expense as the poor ones, except for the slight additional cost of handling 
 the increase in crop. Similar results have been secured at experiment 
 stations in nearly every state. 
 
 Plant Selection. — Crop improvement or plant breeding is often 
 looked upon as a new thing, but ever since man has been growing plants, 
 they have gradually been modified by seed selection. All of our culti- 
 vated plants come from wild forms, but some of them have been so changed 
 that they could not now perpetuate their race if left to shift for them- 
 selves. Within the memory of men now living, the fruits of tomatoes 
 have been developed from the size of a walnut to several times as large, 
 and other changes have been effected which have made them more desir- 
 able for table use. Though plant improvement has been thus going on 
 for ages, only within the past few decades has there been great general 
 interest in this work, and only of late have some of the fundamental 
 principles been understood. 
 
 Man originates to a very limited extent desirable changes in the 
 plants with which he works. He is dependent chiefly upon changes 
 which occur naturally, and all that he does is to take advantage of these 
 changes and perpetuate the forms which are the most suitable for his 
 purpose. He cannot, for example, make the pole lima beans over into 
 the dwarf form, but when dwarf plants are found in a field of lima beans, 
 he can save seed of these plants -and perpetuate and multiply a race of 
 dwarf lima beans. 
 
 Kinds of Variation. — No two plants are exactly alike, but most of 
 the variations are of no significance to the plant breeder. They may be 
 
 19 
 
20 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 due to differences of environment, and in this case will not be inherited. 
 If a hill of corn is heavily manured, the stalks and ears will be larger 
 than where manure is withheld, but seed from these favored hills is not 
 necessarily any better than seed from plants not so well fertilized. How- 
 ever, variations may arise which are hereditary and which may be the 
 beginning of new varieties. When the variations are in the yield or size 
 of plant, usually one cannot distinguish the difference between the varia- 
 tions which are hereditary and those which are not, except by a study of 
 the progeny of the plants. When the variations are in color or form. 
 
 Variations in Timothy.^ 
 
 one may have less difficulty in picking out those which could be used to 
 develop new strains or varieties. 
 
 Hybridization. — Hybridization means the crossing of plants of dif- 
 ferent species or different varieties. It is accomplished by taking the 
 pollen from a flower of one of the plants to be crossed and placing it on 
 the pistil of a flower of the other. Care must always be exercised to pre- 
 vent the plant-producing seed from being fertilized with its own pollen 
 or with foreign pollen carried by the wind or by insects. 
 
 While there has been a good deal of mystery to many in regard to 
 the crossing of plants and a disposition to regard hybrids as of superior 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From," Plant Breeding," by Bailey. 
 
CROP IMPROVEMENT 
 
 21 
 
 merit, the cross-fertilization is usually easily accomplished, and, on the 
 other hand, the varieties produced by crossing are not necessarily of supe- 
 rior merit. Crossing of plants for the most part results in new com- 
 binations of parental characters. By crossing a yellow pear tomato and a 
 large red one, one could produce a red pear tomato and a large yellow one. 
 If a variety of wheat with bearded heads and white grains is crossed with a 
 variety with smooth heads and red grains, there could be produced a bearded 
 wheat with red grains and a smooth wheat with white grains. By selection 
 and propagation the characters become fixed and give new varieties. 
 
 Note the Variation in the Second Generation Hybrids. ^ 
 
 Choice of Varieties. — In attempting to improve a crop one should 
 first endeavor to secure a first-class variety. Because of the great dif- 
 ference in varieties, if the poorer yielding ones were chosen and an 
 attempt were made to improve them in productiveness, it is not likely 
 that they could be made better than varieties already in existence. 
 
 Variety testing is a rather simple matter, but some precautions must 
 be observed if the results are to be dependable. The main considerations 
 are as follows: 
 
 1. The varieties should be tested on as uniform soil as possible of 
 the kind on which the field crops are to be grown. 
 
 1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
22 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 2. The plats should be long and narrow rather than short and broad, 
 
 and should extend across inequalities in the land rather than 
 parallel with them. 
 
 3. A known standard variety should be planted in every third or 
 
 fourth plat for comparison. 
 
 4. Trials should be conducted for a number of years and the choice 
 
 of a variety based upon the average performance rather than 
 
 upon the results of only one year. 
 Suggestions are given in this chapter for the improvement of a few 
 crops. The methods of procedure with others would be similar, depend- 
 ing chiefly upon how the blossoms are fertilized and upon methods of 
 propagation. 
 
 CORN 
 
 Special care must be exercised in the purchase of seed-corn. This 
 crop tends to become adapted to local conditions and may not do well 
 when removed to different localities. Especially is there likely to be a 
 failure to mature when seed from a locality having a longer season is 
 bought. On the other hand, a wise selection of seed should enable a 
 farmer to adapt his corn better to his own conditions. 
 
 Most of our best known varieties have thus been developed by con- 
 sistent selection of seed for a number of years on the same farm. The 
 well-known Learning variety was developed by J. S, Learning in Clinton 
 County, Ohio, by continuous selection, from a variety bought in Hamilton 
 County, Ohio, in 1855. By selection along the same line, this variety 
 was made very uniform. Reid's Yellow Dent, a very popular variety of 
 a well-defined type, originated with a cross between two varieties planted 
 in the same iSeld by Robert Reid in 1846. The type was fixed in this 
 case also by continuous selection. Most farmers could not do better than 
 test a number of varieties to find a good one and then by careful selection 
 of seed try to make it better. 
 
 The Ear-Row Method. — The most rapid improvement of corn is 
 accomplished by some ear-row (or ear-to-row) method of breeding. There 
 are a number of methods in use which vary in detail. By ear-row plant- 
 ing is meant the planting of each ear to be tested in a row by itself to 
 determine its productiveness and other desirable qualities. The rows 
 should be of such a length that not over half of the seed on an ear need 
 be planted. If the rows are three and one-half feet apart and the hills 
 three feet apart, forty-two hills will comprise approximately one one- 
 hundredth of an acre. Five or six grains should be planted in a hill and 
 when the corn is up, it should be thinned to three stalks per hill. Mixed 
 seed of the variety should be planted for a check every sixth row. During 
 the growing season the rows should be observed and desirable or undesir- 
 able characteristics noted. 
 
 Each row should be harvested separately. Since the yield of stover 
 
CROP IMPROVEMENT 
 
 23 
 
 is of only minor importance, it does not matter whether the plants are 
 cut or not, but they must be husked separately and the corn ears weighed. 
 After the yields of the ear-rows have been obtained, any one of a number 
 of methods for continuing the work may be followed. The simplest way 
 is to take the remnants of the best ears as shown by the ear-row test, 
 shell these together and plant in an isolated seed plat the next year. 
 From this plat the diseased and weak stalks should be removed before the 
 pollen is shed. Seed should be saved from the best rows in the ear-row 
 plat for field planting the next year. The third year there should be an 
 ear-row plat like that of the first year and the ears for this should come 
 from the multiplying plat grown the second year. The seed of the main 
 crop the third year should come from the multiplying plat and from the 
 part of the field in which the seed from the ear-rows was planted. This 
 
 The Ear-to-Row Test Plat with Corn Husked, Showing a Method Used in 
 Ascertaining Which Seed Ears Have Yielded Best.^ 
 
 method provides for an ear-row plat and a multiplying plat on alternate 
 years. 
 
 Ideals in Selection of Corn. — Besides attempting to secure greater 
 productiveness in a variety of corn, one who would improve the crop 
 should seek to adapt the variety in length of growing season to the local- 
 ity in which it is grown. In a general way the best varieties are those 
 which require about all of the season for development and yet can be 
 depended upon to mature before frost. 
 
 The stalks should be of medium size and able to stand up well. 
 The ears should be of medium height from the ground, with a rather short 
 shank, and should droop somewhat rather than stand erect. By con- 
 tinuous selection for high and low ears for five years at the Ohio Experi- 
 ment Station, two strains were developed from one variety with a 
 
 » From Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 11 
 
24 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 difference in height of ear of over two feet. Here the low-eared strain 
 was the earher and gave the greatest average yield.* 
 
 The ears should be of good size, should have medium size cobs, 
 should be fairly uniform in color and type of kernel and should be attrac- 
 tive in appearance. The so-called show points of the ears are of less 
 economic importance than was at one time thought, but corn that looks 
 good finds the best market when sold for seed. 
 
 In the above discussion it has been assumed that the corn is grown 
 primarily for grain. Ensilage varieties should have a rather large, leafy 
 stalk besides a good ear, and may be somewhat later in maturing than 
 varieties for grain. 
 
 WHEAT, OATS AND BARLEY 
 
 In the case of wheat, oats and barley, variations frequently occur 
 within a variety which make it worth while to search for those which are 
 better than the parent variety and to multiply them as new strains. 
 
 First Year. — Go through the field and select choice heads, taking 
 as many as can be planted separately, remembering that really good 
 strains are more likely to be found in a large number than in a small 
 number. 
 
 Second Year. — Plant the seed of these heads each in a separate row. 
 Make the rows a foot apart and plant the grains four inches apart in the 
 row. The same number of grains should be planted from each head, 
 which may be twenty-five or thirty. 
 
 When ripe, the number of plants in each row should be determined, 
 the rows should be cut separately and the yield of each gotten. 
 
 Third Year. — A number of ounces of seed of each strain should now 
 be available. If 100 head-rows has been planted the year before, about 
 twenty of the best should be sown this year. These should be sown 
 under field conditions and the parent variety should be sown for a check 
 and put into every third plat. A good size of plat is sixteen feet long 
 and two rows wide, the rows being eight inches apart and the plats ten 
 inches apart. These grains can be planted thus side by side, for they do 
 not readily cross-fertilize. 
 
 Fourth Year. — By the fourth year there Avill be enough seed for a 
 larger plat which may be sown with a grain drill. A good plan is to 
 shut off the middle hoe, put in a partition and sow at one time two plats 
 of four or five drill rows each, depending upon whether the drill used has 
 nine hoes or eleven. As before, the parent variety should be sown in 
 every third plat. Only the most promising strains should be continued. 
 
 Fifth and Succeeding Years. — If desired, the plats may be made 
 larger than the fourth year, but the arrangement of plats should be the 
 same. Only those which are a decided improvement on the parent variety 
 should be retained. 
 
 * Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin No, 282, Corn Experiments, by C. G. Williams and F. A. Wclton. 
 
CROP IMPROVEMENT 25 
 
 Crossing of Varieties in Small Grain Breeding.- — Different varieties 
 may be crossed for new combinations of characters as discussed before. 
 The first generation from the cross will look like one parent in respect 
 to some characters and like the other parent in others. The seed of each 
 plant should be kept separate and planted like the head-rows in selection 
 work. Usually it will be found that the progeny of these parent plants 
 are not uniform. In that case the grain from each plant must be kept 
 separate and planted again in separate rows as before and this must be 
 kept up until all the plants from a parent are alike in all of their visible 
 characters. Those that are uniform should be considered pure strains, 
 and after this the testing may proceed as with selections from the third 
 year on. 
 
 Varieties of these crops should be improved in production first of 
 all, but also in resistance to disease and stiffness of straw. In the case 
 of wheat, the milling quality of the grain is important, and in oats, from 
 the market point of view, the color of grain, white being the preferred 
 color. 
 
 Many of the older varieties of these crops owe their origin to selec- 
 tions made by farmers and some to crosses. Of the varieties of wheat, 
 Fultz was originated by Abraham Fultz in 1862 from a selection from 
 Lancaster; Gold Coin, which was an accidental seedling variation, was 
 selected from Deihl Mediterranean; Fulcaster, the well-known red- 
 bearded variety, resulted from a cross between Fultz and Lancaster, made 
 by S. M. Schindel, Hagerstown, Md. 
 
 POTATOES 
 
 Production of Seedlings. — New varieties of potatoes originate from 
 seedlings. The seeds are produced in the true fruits, which come after 
 the blossoms and look like little green tomatoes. These fruits or balls, 
 as they are commonly called, are produced very sparingly and in some 
 seasons none are seen. The seed should be sown indoors early in the spring 
 and the young potato plants handled like tomatoes until they are set out 
 in the field. Transplanting to pots increases their vigor. The first year 
 few reach full development and most do not for two or more years. The 
 seedlings, as a rule, are quite variable and few if any look just like the 
 parents. Each should be regarded as a new variety and given a number 
 and kept separate as long as grown. 
 
 The work is very interesting and may give varieties better than those 
 already on the market, but most seedlings are of inferior merit. 
 
 Hill and Tuber Selection. — Potatoes vary in the hill and it is possible 
 to improve a variety by selection of the best hills or the best tubers. It 
 is a good practice to dig by hand a great many hills and save seed of some 
 of the best for a seed plat the next year. This seed plat should be gone 
 over and weak and diseased hills removed and the remainder saved for 
 
26 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 the field planting. Greater progress will be made by keeping the tubers 
 from selected hills separate and testing these as new strains. Each should 
 have a number by which it will always be known. The first year ten 
 hills of each might be planted in rows side by side with the parent variety 
 every third place. The best only should be saved and the next and suc- 
 ceeding years the plats may be made larger. 
 
 Tul^er unit selection should start with selected tubers of the same 
 size which are desirable in appearance and free from disease. These are 
 each cut into four pieces, which are planted in succession, one tuber after 
 
 Variation in Yield of Potatoes from Selected Tubers. i 
 
 the other, with some space between the hills from the different tubers. 
 When mature, the four hills from a tuber are dug together and the future 
 selection based upon the yield of tubers and their appearance. These 
 must be designated by numbers as in other selection work. The next 
 year single row plats of ten or more hills each of the most promising may 
 be planted, with the parent variety in every third plat as before. 
 
 Potatoes may be improved in productiveness, disease resistance and 
 quality of tubers. There is a difference in susceptibility, especially to 
 
 1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
CROP IMPROVEMENT 
 
 early and late blight, and perhaps to other serious diseases. Only strains 
 of high market quality should be perpetuated. The tubers should be of 
 medium size, smooth in outline, flat oval or flat oblong in shape and have 
 shallow eyes. 
 
 Where carefully conducted, these methods of selection have resulted 
 in the improvement of the variety. 
 
 Opportunities in Crop Improvement. — There is need in every com- 
 munity that at least one farmer make a specialty of producing and sell- 
 ing improved farm seeds. Such work is usually very remunerative, besides 
 being of value to the whole neighborhood. 
 
 Testing of varieties and the improvement of certain crops may be 
 made a matter of community interest, especially where there is some 
 farmers' organization. There is also the opportunity of forming clubs or 
 associations for crop improvement, which may be quite local or state- 
 wide, as in the case of many state crop improvement associations now 
 in existence. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 "Genetics." Walter. 
 "Cereals in America." Hunt. 
 "Plant Breeding." Bailey and Gilbert. 
 "Fundamentals of Plant Breeding." Coulter. 
 Ontario Agricultural College Bulletin 228. "Farm Crops." 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin 382, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Adulteration of Forage Plant 
 Seeds." 
 
CHAPTER 2 
 
 The Rotation of Crops 
 
 In all of the older agricultural districts the rotation of crops is recog- 
 nized as an essential to successful farming. With the prevailing price of 
 corn, farmers on the best lands in the corn-growing belt have found it 
 profitable to grow corn after corn for a number of years. In like manner, 
 on the best wheat land in Minnesota, the Dakotas and Canada, wheat 
 grown continuously has proven a profitable enterprise. In that region 
 farmers find no good argument in favor of fencing their farms, construct- 
 ing farm buildings, feeding cattle and milking cows, when they can make 
 as much money or more by a system of farming that occupies their time 
 for a little more than one-half the year and allows them leisure during 
 the remainder of the year. A single crop system, while successful for a 
 time, however, will not prove successful in the long run. 
 
 Successful farming calls not only for the best possible utilization of 
 the soil and the maintenance of its fertility, but also demands the fullest 
 possible utilization of the labor that is to be employed. The efficiency 
 of the labor of men and teams on farms is measured largely by the pro- 
 portion of time for which they are profitably employed. In nearly all 
 other enterprises labor is fully and continuously employed. In order 
 that farming may compete with other enterprises for labor, it must be 
 likewise employed on the farm. 
 
 Rotations Defined. — A crop rotation is a succession of crops grown 
 on the same land. A good crop rotation is a systematic succession of the 
 three general classes of farm crops, namely, cultivated crops, grain crops 
 and grass crops, in such a way as to give large yields and provide pasture 
 and forage on the farm at the least expense of labor and soil fertility. 
 
 The rotation is definite when the crops recur in a fixed order, and it 
 is a fixed rotation when they not only recur in a fixed order, but also at 
 regular intervals. A rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat and clover 
 and timothy is a definite one, regardless of whether the clover and timothy 
 remain for one, two or three years, but it becomes a fixed rotation when 
 not only the order of the crops is named, but the length of time of each 
 crop is also specified. 
 
 Purpose of Rotations. — A rotation of croj^s (1) provides for maintain- 
 ing the soil in good tilth; (2) supplies organic matter and nitrogen; (3) 
 prevents destructive outbreaks of insect pests; (4) reduces plant diseases; 
 (5) provides for the economical destruction of weeds; (6) maintains crop 
 yields; (7) distributes the labor of men and horses; (8) saves labor in 
 cultivation of land; (9) keeps the soil occupied; (10) provides for a 
 
 (28) 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS 29 
 
 balanced removal of plant food; (11) systematizes farming; and (12) may 
 control toxic substance?<. 
 
 Maintain Good Physical Condition of Soil. — Deep-rooted plants, 
 such as alfalfa and the clovers, improve the physical condition of the 
 subsoil as a result of root penetration. The cultivation given to inter- 
 tilled crops, such as corn, potatoes, beets and the truck crops, improves 
 the phj'sical condition of the surface soil. Such frequent cultivation may 
 tend to reduce the organic matter of the soil, but this will be largely over- 
 come by the stubble and roots of the grasses and clovers that follow the 
 grain crops. 
 
 Conserve Organic Matter and Nitrogen. — Extensive rotation experi- 
 ments at the Minnesota Experiment Station show that standard rotations, 
 
 On the left is corn growing on land that has grown com continuously for 
 19 years. On the right is corn in a five-year rotation. Both fields were 
 planted on the same day to the same kind of corn. The yield on the field 
 to the left is 27.5 bushels to the acre. The field on the right gives 61.3 
 bushels an acre. These are the average yields for ten years. 
 
 which include an inter-tilled crop, small grains and grasses with clover, 
 all gave net profits. A four-years' rotation of millet, barley, corn and oats 
 was no better than four years of continuous growing of wheat. All of 
 these are classified as exhaustive crops. They cause a reduction in both 
 the organic matter and nitrogen supply of the soil. Land cropped 
 continuously to wheat, corn, potatoes or mangels for a period of ten years, 
 showed a loss of 1100 pounds of nitrogen and 20,000 pounds of carbon 
 per acre. In twelve standard rotations covering the same period of time, 
 there was a gain of 300 pounds of nitrogen per acre, while the carbon and 
 humus in the soil was maintained and in some cases increased. In the 
 standard rotations eight tons of manure per acre were applied once during 
 the rotation. 
 
 Provide for Extermination of Weeds. — Noxious weeds often cause 
 a serious loss in farming. Weeds not only rob the crops of plant food and 
 
 1 From "Farm Management" by Boss. Courtesy of Lyons and Carnahan, Chicago. 
 
30 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 moisture, thus reducing the yield and sometimes causing absolute failure, 
 but thej'^ entail additional labor in the process of cultivation. Many 
 weeds grow best in certain kinds of crops. For example, mustard is a 
 common weed in the small grain crops in the prairie states. The seeds 
 ripen a little earlier than the grain, and in the process of harvesting are 
 freely shattered and seed the land for the succeeding year. Where small 
 grain is groAvn continuously this weed becomes a serious pest. Its 
 extermination calls for an inter-tilled crop following the small grain. 
 Pigweed, bindweed, foxtail and crab-grass are common in corn and 
 potato fields, but they seldom become serious in small grain fields or in 
 grass land; consequently, cultivated crops followed by grasses and small 
 grains make for extermination of these weeds. Daisies, wild carrot and 
 buckhorn are common weeds in hay fields, and generally grow worse the 
 longer the land remains in hay. Such weeds, however, give no trouble 
 in cultivated fields devoted to corn, potatoes, etc., and the cultivation 
 helps to exterminate them. 
 
 Lessen Insect Depredations. — Most insect pests live upon some 
 particular crop or a few closely related crops. A crop or related crops, 
 grown continuously on the same land, affords an opportunity for the 
 associated insects to multiply and become very numerous. The remedy 
 is to plant the infested fields with a crop which will not be injured by the 
 pest in question. Unless these insects have the power of migration they 
 will perish for the want of suitable food or for lack of conditions suitable 
 for multiplication. 
 
 However efficient the rotation of crops may be in the extermination 
 of insects, some rotations may prove not only ineffective but actually 
 disastrous. For example, land that has been long in grass sometimes 
 becomes so infested with wire-worms as to cause a practical failure when 
 devoted to corn. Grass affords conditions favorable to the multiplication 
 of wire-worms, and they may live in the soil sufficiently long after the 
 grass is; plowed up to destroy a crop of corn which follows. Under such 
 conditions fall plowing or bare fallow should precede the planting of the 
 corn. The bill bug breeds freely in the bulbous roots of timothy, and 
 when timothy sod is plowed late in the spring and planted to corn, this 
 insect transfers its attention to the corn with disastrous results. Such 
 trouble may be avoided by destroying the existing vegetation some time 
 in advance of planting the corn. The insect under such conditions will 
 either be starved or forced to leave the field before it is planted to corn. 
 
 Cutworms are a great menace to newly planted tobacco and many 
 other crops, but their presence depends largely on the preceding crop. 
 Cutworms multiply extensively only in grass land where the eggs are laid 
 by the moths. Many similar examples could be cited, and success in 
 preventing insect depredation by crop rotation calls for a knowledge of 
 the life history and habits of the insect pest concerned. (See Chapter 
 76: ''Insect Pests and Their Control.") 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS 31 
 
 Reduce Plant Diseases. — Plant diseases, like insect pests, are gen- 
 erally restricted to a particular crop or small group of closely related 
 crops. The potato scab, so far as is known, is confined solely to potatoes. 
 Its presence in the soil prevents the continuous growing of potatoes, and 
 calls for a rotation in which the interval between successive potato crops 
 is sufficiently long to provide for the disappearance of the disease. In a 
 similar manner flax wilt or cotton wilt demands a rotation of crops in 
 order to prevent the disease becoming disastrous. Bacterial diseases of 
 tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, cabbage and numerous other vegetables, 
 the rusts and smuts of small grains, and many other diseases accumulate 
 in the soil under the one-crop system. These troubles can be largely 
 avoided and the crop-producing power of the soil maintained by intelli- 
 gent systems of rotation. The most profitable system for any locality or 
 type of farming can generally be ascertained from the state experiment 
 station. 
 
 Improve Environment of Crop. — Aside from insect pest, plant diseases 
 and weeds which flourish under the one-crop system to the disadvantage 
 of the crop, there is another factor inimical to best plant growth. This 
 consists of excreta given off by the roots of plants that accumulate in the 
 soil to their detriment. As a rule, such excreta are not equally injurious 
 to a different class of crops, and a rotation, therefore, lessens the injury. 
 The excreted substances are organic in nature and are either changed in 
 character or entirely disappear with time, so that the crop giving rise to 
 them may be returned to the land after a year or more without injury. 
 
 Rotations Insure Returns. — The old adage, "Don't place all your 
 eggs in one basket," applies with equal force in the production of crops. 
 Unfavorable conditions in any locality are seldom such as to cause a failure 
 of all kinds of crops, although a complete failure of a particular crop in 
 a certain locality is not uncommon. A rotation of crops which includes 
 a variety of crops, therefore, avoids complete failure. 
 
 Prevent Reduced Crop Yields. — The tillage given to a cultivated 
 crop, such as corn or potatoes, increases the yield of the crop that follows 
 by providing a better physical condition of the soil. In like manner 
 legumes leave organic matter and nitrogen in the soil which is utilized to 
 the advantage of corn or potatoes which may follow. The cultivation 
 given crops destroys weeds to the advantage of crops which follow, and 
 which do not receive cultivation. 
 
 Rotations Systematize Farming. — A well-planned rotation of crops 
 enables the farmer to know definitely what is to be done each year, and 
 makes possible an estimation of the general expenses and returns that 
 may be expected. It also enables him to plan his work and secure his 
 materials, such as seed, fertilizers, etc., in advance of the time they are 
 needed. 
 
 Rotations Distribute Labor. — A good rotation of crops will enable 
 the farmer to do a larger proportion of his own work than would be possible 
 
32 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 if the land were devoted to one crop. This enables him to utilize his 
 own labor to the fullest possible advantage, and to reduce the expense 
 necessary for hired labor. It is important, therefore, in selecting crops 
 for a rotation, to select those that will compete with each other for the 
 labor of men and teams as little as possible. The common rotation of 
 corn, oats, wheat and hay fulfils these requirements fairly well. To 
 illustrate, the preparation of land and seeding of oats take place in the 
 early spring. Between the seeding time of oats and the time for planting 
 corn there is sufficient time to prepare the land for the latter crop. The 
 cultivation of corn will precede the harvest of hay and oats. The prep- 
 aration of land for winter wheat will take place after the harvest period 
 and prior to the harvest of corn. This fully occupies the time of the 
 farmer during the growing season. There will sometimes be conflict 
 between the harvest of wheat and hay, and the cultivation of corn, necessi- 
 tating a little extra labor at that time. 
 
 Essentials of a Good Rotation. — A good crop rotation should contain 
 (1) an inter-tilled crop, (2) a cash crop, (3) crops to feed, and (4) a crop 
 to supply humus and nitrogen. All crops may be roughly classified 
 under three heads, namely: exhaustive, intermediate and restorative. 
 All crops, when harvested, remove from the land more or less plant food, 
 and in this sense they are exhaustive. No crop restores to the soil any 
 considerable amount of plant food unless it is plowed under or allowed 
 to decay on the surface of the soil. Notwithstanding these facts, certain 
 crops leave land in poorer condition for subsequent crops than it was 
 before. These are designated as exhaustive crops, and include wheat, 
 oats, rye, barley and millet. Their ill effect upon subsequent crops may 
 be due to any one or a coml^ination of a number of factors, among which 
 are physical condition of the soil, injurious insects, plant diseases, reduc- 
 tion of soil moisture and a failure to supply either organic matter or nitro- 
 gen in any appreciable quantity. 
 
 It is wise, therefore, to select as many restorative crops as possible 
 and so arrange the crops that these will be followed by the exhaustive 
 crops. These two classes of crops should alternate as far as possible. 
 In conjunction with this, one should select crops that will yield well 
 and for which there is a demand, either for feeding on the farm or as a 
 cash crop. The best varieties of the crops entering into the rotation 
 should always be used. These will be determined largely by local con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Sequence of Crops. — It is a good plan to follow a crop with a long 
 growing season by one having a short growing season. This is typified 
 when corn is followed by oats. In turn oats or barley is removed from 
 the land in ample time for seeding winter wheat, which occupies the land 
 for a rather long period. In this connection it is wise to provide in the 
 rotation a place where manure may be hauled directly from stables and 
 barnyards and applied to the fields. Where there is an abundance of 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS 33 
 
 manure and corn is extensively and advantageously used as feed for live- 
 stock, corn may be grown two years in succession, especially when the 
 soil is fertile and manure is available for both the first and second crops. 
 It is desirable that crops be arranged in such a way that the improving 
 effects of each crop shall be regularly received and the ill effects of the 
 exhaustive crops be systematically neutralized by the crop that follows. 
 
 Length of Rotations. — The length of crop rotations will be deter- 
 mined by local conditions and the character of crops grown, together 
 with the value of land and cost of labor. Crops that are costly to estab- 
 lish, such as alfalfa, should occupy the land for two or more years in order 
 to minimize the annual cost of production. The length of time that a 
 crop remains productive is also a factor. The annual cost of seed and 
 the preparation of the land for the crop is one-half or one-third as much 
 if the crop is continued for two or three years respectively, as it is if 
 allowed to remain only one year. So long as the yield is satisfactory, 
 it generally pays to continue the crop. This tends toward a longer crop 
 rotation. 
 
 In many localities where general farm crops prevail, a seven-year 
 rotation is common, such for example as corn, oats, wheat and mixed 
 clover and timothy for four years. Such long rotations with only one 
 legume in them do not make for increased soil fertility, unless all the 
 crops produced are fed upon the farm and the manure returned to the 
 fields. Where cash crops dominate the type of farming, short rotations 
 may be better. A rotation of corn, wheat and clover or of potatoes, 
 wheat and clover affords the maximum of cash crops, while the frequency 
 of clover in the rotation tends to maintain the nitrogen supply of the soil. 
 Such short rotations also maintain the soil in good tilth as a result of the 
 frequent plowing and abundant tillage. 
 
 What Crops to Grow.— The crops to be grown in a rotation will be 
 determined by a number of factors, as soil adaptation, length of growing 
 season, market demands, transportation facilities, and the system of 
 farming that prevails. Aside from these facts there is another considera- 
 tion that must not be overlooked. Usually it is unwise to follow a crop 
 like tobacco, which is considered a gross feeder, with another crop such 
 as corn having similar feeding habits. Such a practice is permissible 
 only on very fertile soil or where the quality of the following crops is to be 
 influenced through reduction in organic matter or available plant food. 
 For example, coarseness in tobacco might be reduced by having it pre- 
 ceded by corn. 
 
 When to Apply Manure and Fertilizers. — It is generally advisable 
 to apply barnyard manure to those crops in the rotation that have a long 
 growing season or a high money -value, or to those that are considered 
 gross feeders, such as corn. In the absence of manure, the same rule 
 will apply in the applications of commercial fertilizers. When manure is 
 supplemented with fertilizers, the fertilizers are best adapted to crops of 
 
34 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 short growing season or to those influenced in quality by the character 
 or form of a particular fertilizer ingredient. In this connection it should 
 be borne in mind that the leg"umes require only mineral fertilizers and that 
 crops that demand much nitrogen should follow the legumes. 
 
 Some Suggested Rotations. — Crops should naturally follow each 
 other in such a way that each crop paves the way for the one that is to 
 follow. Best results will be secured when plants are not compelled to do 
 their part at a disadvantage. Wherever feasible, a large proportion of the 
 product of a rotation should be food for livestock. This provides for the 
 maintenance of soil fertility. 
 
 In the northeastern part of the United States a rotation of com, 
 oats, wheat and hay with various modifications dominates most of the 
 general and livestock types of farming. By omitting oats a three-crop 
 rotation results, which, if restricted to three years in length, makes for 
 soil fertility, provides a cash crop and at the same time furnished an abun- 
 dance of livestock food and bedding. This may be supplemented with 
 alfalfa, thus increasing the protein supply. On soils poorly adapted to 
 wheat this crop may be omitted and oats will take its place. In the north- 
 ernmost latitudes and at higher elevations the acreage of corn will be 
 reduced and that of oats and hay increased. Where markets are favor- 
 able and the soil is adapted to potatoes, this crop may be substituted for a 
 portion of the corn, thus increasing the cash crops at the expense of forage. 
 
 Wheat generally proves a better crop in which to seed clover and the 
 grasses than does oats. In most parts of this section of the country the 
 grasses are seeded in the autumn and the clover seeded early in the spring. 
 Further south, both clover and the grasses may be seeded in the autumn. 
 The four staple crops above mentioned may be arranged into several 
 rotations with manure and fertilizers applied as suggested in the following 
 tabulation. 
 
 Method of Fertilizing Crop Rotations.* 
 
 3 Years. 
 
 4 Years. 
 
 5 Years. 
 
 7 Years. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Corn: 6 to 10 loads of manure and 25 lbs. of phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Corn: 6 to 10 loads of manure and 25 lbs. of phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Oats: no fertilizer. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Wheat: 50 lbs. each of phosphoric acid and pot- 
 ash. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Clover and timothy: no fertiUzer. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 Timothy: 25 lbs. each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid 
 
 and potash. 
 Timothy: 25 lbs. each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid 
 
 and potash. 
 
 * Roiighly speaking, 25 pounds each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash may be obtained by 
 buying 150 pounds nitrate of soda, 175 pounds of acid phosphate and 50 pounds of muriate of potash. 
 The cost of the ingredients may be estimated from the following prices per pound, which will vary accord- 
 ing to circumstances: nitrogen, 18 cents; phosphoric acid, 4 cents; and potash, 5 cents. 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS 35 
 
 In the trucking regions of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and 
 Virginia, two crops may frequently be secured in one season. Over much 
 of this region tomatoes may be set as late as June 1st. This gives oppor- 
 tunity to grow a quick-maturing crop before the land is needed for tomatoes. 
 If hay is needed crimson clover may be seeded in the fall and cut for hay 
 the next spring, before the land is needed for tomatoes. Where canneries 
 are available, early peas may be harvested before time to set tomatoes. 
 This gives two crops in one season, both of which provide for the opera- 
 tion of the cannery and prolong its season of activity. Crimson clover 
 may be seeded in the tomatoes at the last cultivation, and growth turned 
 under the following spring for the benefit of a succeeding crop. 
 
 In this district a two-year rotation in which four crops are grown is 
 found to be quite successful. Two of these are cash crops and two are 
 renovating crops. The cash crops are corn and either potatoes or toma- 
 toes. The renovating crops are crimson clover or soy beans or winter 
 rye mixed with winter vetch. This makes the purchase of nitrogen in 
 fertilizers unnecessary. Acid phosphate and potash are applied in moder- 
 ate quantities and generally to the cash crops only. This system, without 
 any manure and Avith the occasional use of lime, maintains the fertility 
 of the soil. 
 
 In portions of Ohio and Indiana a three-year rotation of corn, wheat 
 and clover is common. One strong point in this rotation is that one plow- 
 ing answers for three crops. When the clover sod is plowed for corn in 
 the spring the ground breaks up easily and makes an ideal seed-bed for 
 corn. The cultivation given the corn provides a good seed-bed for 
 wheat with no other preparation than thorough disking and harrowing 
 of the corn stubble. This, of course, necessitates a removal of the corn 
 stalks sufficiently early to seed wheat. It is not applicable where the 
 growing season is too short. This rotation not only economizes in labor 
 as above suggested, but makes a good distribution of labor. Further- 
 more, it provides for rather continuous occupation of the soil. If the sod 
 devoted to corn is not plowed until spring and corn is followed by fall 
 seeding of wheat in which gi-ass and clover is seeded, the soil will be subject 
 to erosion only during the time it is in corn. Erosion in this case may 
 take place in times of heavy rains and on rolling land, by the water run- 
 ning down the furrows between the corn rows. This may generally be 
 overcome by having the rows and cultivation at right angles to the 
 slope. 
 
 This is a fairly good rotation for the stockman and dairy farmer. 
 Corn furnishes the material for the silo, while clover hay supplies the 
 protein in which corn is deficient, thus giving a well-balanced ration. 
 The wheat straw makes good bedding, while the wheat may be either sold 
 or exchanged for concentrates. On farms having no permanent pasture 
 the clover and timothy may be left for another year, cut once and pastured 
 afterwards^ or, if necessary, it may be pastured throughout the fourth 
 
36 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 year. If used for this purpose, both timothy and alsike clover should 
 be seeded with the red clover. 
 
 The following five- and six-year rotations have been found successful 
 
 I 19J4 Timothy 
 
 1915 Corn 
 
 1916 Oafs 
 
 1917 Wheal 
 191S Clover 
 
 1914 Clover 
 
 1915 Timothy 
 
 1916 Corn 
 
 1917 Oats 
 
 1918 Wheat 
 
 1914 Wheat 
 
 1915 Clover 
 
 1916 Timothy 
 
 1917 Corn 
 
 1918 Oats 
 
 1914 Oats 
 
 1915 Wheat 
 
 1916 Clover 
 
 1917 Timothy 
 
 1918 Corn 
 
 1914 Corn 
 
 1915 Oats 
 
 1916 Wheat 
 
 1917 Clover 
 
 1918 Timothy 
 
 A Five- Year Rotation. 
 
 Field. 
 
 1914. 
 
 1915. 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1—25 A 
 
 2— " 
 
 3— " 
 
 4— " 
 
 5— " 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Corn 
 
 Corn 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oats 
 
 Corn 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Corn 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Clover 
 
 Clover 
 
 ^^'heat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Corn 
 
 Timothy 
 
 in the Great Plains area: (1) corn; wheat; brome-grass; brome-grass; 
 oats, barley or emmer; (2) corn; wheat; brome-grass; brome-grass; 
 brome-grass; oats, barley or emmer. In these rotations the wheat may 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS 37 
 
 be either winter or spring, and, furthermore, wheat may be substituted 
 for any of the last-mentioned crops in either of the rotations. 
 
 Space will not permit the enumeration of all the rotations that are 
 possible. With a clear understanding of the underlying principles and a 
 knowledge concerning the utilization and market value of the crops to be 
 grown, any farmer may plan crop rotations best suited to his farm. 
 
 Methods of Planning and Recording Rotations. — It is a principle 
 that there should be as many fields as there are years and crops in the 
 rotation, unless two crops can be harvested from the land in one year. 
 It is also advisable that the fields be as nearly of equal size and produc- 
 tivity as possible. This provides for uniformity in distribution of work 
 from year to year, as well as in the utilization of the products. Where 
 livestock dominates the type of farming, it will often be found advisable 
 to adopt two rotations, one known as the major and the other as the 
 minor rotation. The former will include the staple crops grown both 
 for feed and market, while the latter provide soiling and annual pasture 
 crops. In such a scheme the minor rotation should be located near the 
 farmstead where the small fields will be easily accessible. The tabulation 
 on preceding page shows how a five-field rotation may be planned, and 
 serves as a record of what has been and what will be in every field in any 
 particular year. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "Field Crops." Wilson and Warbiirton. 
 
 "Soils and Fertilizers." Snyder, pap;es 131-159. 
 
 Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 109. "Rotation of Crops." 
 
 Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 182. "Maintenance of Fertility." 
 
 Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 135. "Crop Rotations." 
 
38 
 
 The Height of Stalks and Positions of Ears May be Greailv l hanged 
 BY Selection of Seed for these Ch.aracters.i 
 
 'i"c^;^i^i^f Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 282. "Cora Experiments." 
 
CHAPTER 11 
 
 Corn (Zea Maize) 
 
 The average acre of corn produces more food value than an equal 
 area of any other staple crop except potatoes. Corn has a longer season 
 of growth than most other staple crops, and, consequently, it more fully 
 utilizes the plant food that is made available by processes going on in 
 the soil when reasonably warm and moist. It is adapted to a wide range 
 of soil conditions. It fits well into the crop rotations without seriously 
 competing with other crops for labor. It has a wide range of uses. The 
 tillage which the crop receives leaves the soil in excellent condition for 
 the crops which follow. 
 
 Classification of Corn. — There are six types of corn: dent, flint, 
 sweet, pop, soft and pod. The first four only are of importance in 
 America. Fully 90 per cent of the corn grown in North America is of the 
 dent type. There are several hundred varieties of. dent corn and a score 
 or more varieties of flint corn. The types are classified according to color 
 and size. Dent corn is divided into three classes wath reference to size 
 and time of maturity, namely: early, medium and late maturing varieties. 
 It is also divided according to color into yellow dent, white dent, white 
 cap yellow dent and mixed dent varieties. 
 
 Varieties of Corn, — Of the several hundred varieties of dent corn, 
 comparatively few are worthy of cultivation in any particular locality; 
 and yet one often finds many varieties within a restricted area. Where 
 soil conditions are uniform over several counties, one or two varieties 
 may be found best suited to the whole of the area. 
 
 Corn is a very minor crop in Canada, the most of it being grown in 
 the Province of Ontario. Flint is the prevailing type. In the north- 
 eastern part of the United States, including New England, New York, 
 Pennsylvania and New Jersey, varieties of flint corn are extensively grown 
 on the higher elevations and in the northernmost latitudes. Among the 
 best known varieties of this class may be mentioned Longfellow, King 
 Phillip, Smut Nose, Stickney's Yellow, Taylor's Improved Flint and 
 Davis' Eight Rowed Flint. The prevailing varieties of dent corn in this 
 section are Pride of the North, Early Huron Dent, Funk's 90 Day, 
 Leaming and numerous strains of white cap dent, seldom having local 
 names. 
 
 In the typical corn belt of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri 
 
 and eastern Kansas and Nebraska, the leading varieties are Reed's Yellow 
 
 Dent, Funk's Yellow Dent, Leaming, Reilley's Favorite, Clarage, Hogue's 
 
 Yellow Dent, Hildreth's Yellow Dent, Hiawatha Yellow Dent, Boone 
 
 12 39, 
 
40 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 County White, Johnson County White, Silver Mine, St. Charles White 
 and Kansas Sunflower. 
 
 In the Southern states we have among the large-eared varieties: 
 Huffman, Excelsior, Chisholm, McMacnin's Gourdseed, St. Charles 
 White, Boone County White, Rockdale, Singleton and Ferguson's Yellow 
 Dent. Among the two-eared varieties may be mentioned Lewis' Prolific, 
 Hickory King and Neal's Paymaster. Prolific varieties, producing two 
 or more ears to a stalk, are Cocke's, Albemarle, Whatley's, Mosby's, 
 Hasting's, Marlborough and Batts'. 
 
 In the northern portion of the corn belt, including the states of 
 Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas and the northern portions 
 of Illinois and Iowa, the most common varieties are Silver King, Pride of 
 the North, Wisconsin No. 7, Murdock, Wimple's Yellow Dent, Pickett's 
 Yellow Dent and Golden Eagle. 
 
 The best variety for any locahty can be determined only by local 
 variety tests. Such tests have been conducted in many counties through 
 the effort of the local organizations in co-operation with the state experi- 
 ment stations. The results for such tests for sixteen counties in Iowa for 
 the year 1911 are given in the following table: 
 
 Variety Test, 1911. 
 Average of Sixteen Counties in Iowa. 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Samples. 
 
 Yield 
 per Acre, 
 
 bushels. 
 
 Standing, 
 October, 
 per cent. 
 
 Strong, 
 per cent. 
 
 Weak, 
 per cent. 
 
 Dead, 
 per cent. 
 
 Barren, 
 per cent. 
 
 Farmer's variety test 
 
 One-tenth highest yielding 
 One-tenth lowest yielding . 
 Imported seed 
 
 966 
 
 97 
 
 97 
 
 128 
 
 190 
 
 54.3 
 62.0 
 44.5 
 53.0 
 49.5 
 
 78.0 
 81.5 
 71.0 
 81.5 
 72.0 
 
 78.1 
 80.5 
 73.5 
 67.0 
 61.5 
 
 14.6 
 14.5 
 15.0 
 27.0 
 26.5 
 
 7.3 
 5.0 
 
 11.5 
 6.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 5.2 
 4.4 
 6.1 
 5 9 
 
 Seed-house seed 
 
 4 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Individual Ear Test, 1911. 
 Average of Sixteen Counties in Iowa. 
 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 Samples. 
 
 Yield 
 per Acre, 
 bushels. 
 
 standing, 
 October, 
 per cent. 
 
 Strong, 
 per cent. 
 
 Weak, 
 per cent. 
 
 Dead, 
 per cent. 
 
 Barren, 
 per cent. 
 
 Individual ears 
 
 One-fourth highe.st yielding 
 One-fourth lowest yielding 
 
 1,440 
 360 
 360 
 
 53.5 
 62.0 
 43.5 
 
 78.5 
 83.0 
 71.5 
 
 83.5 
 
 85.5 
 77.5 
 
 11.5 
 11.5 
 11.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 5.7 
 4.5 
 7.6 
 
 The large number of samples tested and the average results secured 
 make conclusions relative to the differences found in yield and other 
 qualities rather definite. It will be noted that one-tenth of the samples 
 giving highest yields averaged 62 bushels per acre, while one-tenth of 
 
CORN 
 
 41 
 
 the samples giving lowest yields average 44.5 bushels per acre, or only 
 about two-thirds as much as the best yielding samples. Note also that 
 over 100 samples of imported seed averaged less per acre than did nearly 
 1000 samples of home-grown seed. Likewise, the 360 ear-to-row tests 
 giving the highest yields were no better than the best one-tenth of the 
 larger samples tested. One-fourth of the ear-to-row samples giving the 
 lowest yield averaged a little more than two-thirds as much as the one- 
 fourth giving the highest yields. The results show wide differences and 
 emphasize the importance of the farmer selecting for his soil and locality 
 the variety that will do best. Such selection will evidently make a great 
 difference in the total yield of corn on a given acreage. 
 
 Corn Acreage by States, 1915. 
 (Three ciphers omitted.) 
 
 The Chief Corn-Growing States. — In order of their respective pro- 
 duction, they are Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Indiana, Kansas, 
 Ohio, Texas, Oklahoma and Kentucky. These ten states produce a httle 
 more than 70 per cent of all the corn produced in the United States. 
 More than 80 per cent of the corn produced in the United States is con- 
 sumed within the counties in which it is grown. The great use of corn 
 is as a feed for livestock. There are a few counties, especially in the 
 State of Illinois, where a considerable portion of the corn is marketed and 
 goes outside of the counties in which it is produced. 
 
 North America produces three-quarters of the world's corn, nearly 
 all of which is produced within the borders of the United States. Of the 
 
42 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 remaining one-quarter of the world's production, Europe produces about 
 two-thirds and South America and Australia the remainder. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Corn is best adapted to well-drained 
 soils that are deep, loamy and warm. Large yields demand a high-water 
 capacity of the soil and this is materially increased by deep drainage, 
 deep plowing and organic matter. Corn requires a growing season rang- 
 ing from 100 to 170 days, through which period the temperature should 
 be high and accompanied by warm rains. An abundance of rainfall 
 properly distributed is essential. In the typical corn belt the rainfall 
 during July and August is most important, and the yield of corn is deter- 
 mined to a considerable extent by the rain during these two months. 
 
 ipitipt^tt||iPp[taif^ !!^!!!!|ap i#!pW[T[i||^ 
 
 36 
 32 
 28 
 
 ZO 
 
 m 
 
 P|:A\ 
 
 
 ill 
 
 ii 
 
 
 HIH- 
 
 tfiMiJ 
 
 '-TW£/iAC£ Y/£LO OtF CORN PER ACRi'''^-\ \M\ 1 
 
 WM.^ 
 
 Chart Showing How Closely Corn Yield Follows Amount op Rainfall. 
 
 The accompanying chart shows the average yield of corn for a period of 
 fifteen years, together with the July precipitation for the same years. 
 There is a fairly close correlation between July rainfall and the average 
 yield of corn. 
 
 It is not profitable to grow corn on very poor land. The nature 
 of the corn plant is such that it will not produce grain unless the soil is 
 sufficiently rich to afford considerable growth of stalk. In general, the 
 richer the soil the heavier will be the yield of grain. Some other crops 
 will produce fair yields on soil too poor to produce corn. 
 
 Crop Rotation for Com. — Corn cannot be grown continuously on the 
 same soil without diminished yields. A rotation of crops is, therefore, 
 essential. In this rotation should occur at least one leguminous crop. 
 
CORN 
 
 43 
 
 East of the Mississippi River and north of Mason and Dixon's Line, 
 common red clover is best suited for this purpose. Alfalfa, crimson clover 
 and alsike clover may be substituted for it under certain conditions. Over 
 a considerable portion of this region the most usual rotation is corn, oats, 
 wheat, and clover and timothy. This provides for a rotation ranging 
 from four to seven years, depending on the length of time the land is 
 left in grass and whether or not corn is grown more than one year in the 
 rotation. In this rotation the corn should follow the sod on which may 
 be scattered the manure prior to plowing. No other crop is better adapted 
 to utilize the available nitrogen and mineral constituents that are slowly 
 brought into a state of availability through decomposition of the roots, 
 stubble and manure. 
 
 On fertile soils in a high state of cultivation corn may be grown two 
 years in succession. This will require sufficient manure to apply on the 
 corn land two years in succession, or wall demand an application of com- 
 mercial fertilizers for the second year's crop. 
 
 In the South the crops associated with corn in the rotation are quite 
 different. In most cases cotton is the chief money crop; cowpeas and 
 soy beans are the chief legumes; and winter oats is the principal snftall 
 grain. The rotation frequently consists of cotton followed by cotton, 
 with cowpeas planted between the cotton rows. The third year the land 
 is planted in corn and seeded to winter oats after the corn has been removed. 
 After the oats are harvested in the fourth year the land is broadcasted with 
 cowpeas, and these harvested for hay. This rotation has proven successful 
 in many parts of the cotton belt. 
 
 Many of the experiment stations have tested different rotations. 
 The following tabulation gives the average results with corn in two rota- 
 tions covering a period of more than twenty years at the Ohio Experiment 
 Station : 
 
 Continuous vs. Rotation Corn. Twenty Years' Work. 
 
 System. 
 
 Continuous 
 Rotation* . 
 
 Continuous 
 Rotation*. 
 
 Continuous 
 Rotation* . 
 
 Rotation f. 
 Rotation! . 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 None. 
 None. 
 
 Manure . 
 
 Manure . 
 
 Com. fert. . 
 Com. fert. . 
 
 Manure . 
 None. . . 
 
 Application 
 per Acre. 
 
 Per Crop. Per 5 Years. 
 
 5 tons 
 8 tons 
 
 250 lbs. 
 320 lbs-. 
 
 25 tons 
 16 tons 
 
 1250 lbs. 
 985 lbs. 
 
 Average Yield per Acre, 
 bushels. 
 
 1st 
 Period. 
 
 26.26 
 31.89 
 
 43.13 
 40.73 
 
 38.86 
 35.78 
 
 2d 
 
 Period. 
 
 16.76 
 30.82 
 
 40.11 
 49.52 
 
 39.09 
 49.54 
 
 3d 
 
 Period. 
 
 10.43 
 31.04 
 
 34.62 
 59.75 
 
 4th 
 Period 
 
 8.44 
 20.31 
 
 30.22 
 55.83 
 
 28.00 26.83 
 53.91 44.10 
 
 8 tons once in 3 years on corn. 
 Average of 8 unfertilized plots. 
 
 Aver- 
 age 
 Yield 
 
 for 
 
 20 
 Years. 
 
 15.47 
 28.95 
 
 37.02 
 51.81 
 
 33.19 
 46.49 
 
 60.20t 
 35.19f 
 
 * Five-year rotation. f Three-year rotation. J Average for 17 years. 
 
44 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 It will be noted that where corn was grown continuously the yields 
 have declined regardless of the character of the manure or fertilizer 
 appHed, whereas corn grown in a rotation has increased decidedly in yield 
 when either manure or fertilizers have been used. 
 
 Plowing for Com. — Plowing for corn may be done either in the fall, 
 winter or spring. In many sections of the country fall plowing gives better 
 results than spring plowing. The difference, however, is not sufficient to 
 justify the advice that fall plowdng should be universal. Every acre that 
 is plowed in the fall or winter facilitates getting crops in the ground at 
 the proper season in the spring. Deep plowing for corn deposits the 
 trash and manure to a greater depth and induces the roots to go deeper 
 into the soil, thus coming into contact with more plant food and soil 
 moisture from which to draw nourishment. Deep plowing enables the 
 soil to absorb a larger proportion of the rainfall, thus increasing its capacity 
 for water. The further preparation of the seed-bed by disking and har- 
 rowing should leave it in a loose, friable condition to a considerable depth. 
 Such a seed-bed is in marked contrast to the compact and finely pulver- 
 ized one that is essential to wheat. 
 
 Manures and Fertilizers for Corn. — The amount and character of 
 fertilizer for corn varies greatly in different localities, depending on the 
 character of soil, length of time it has been in cultivation, and the rota- 
 tion of crops. No definite formula is applicable to any very large terri- 
 tory. As a rule, no crop makes better use of barnyard manure than corn. 
 Six to ten tons of stable manure to an acre of grass sod is generally suf- 
 ficient. In growing corn, all of the nitrogen needed should be secured 
 from the manure and leguminous crops that enter into the rotation. On 
 soils not in a high state of fertility, the manure may be supplemented by 
 about 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate. In portions of Indiana, 
 Illinois and Iowa, rock phosphate may be advantageously substituted for 
 acid phosphate. On sandy soils and on swampy soils some potash may be 
 advantageously used. 
 
 In the absence of barnyard manure good corn crops may be secured 
 by the liberal use of a complete fertilizer in which phosphoric acid is the 
 dominant ingredient. The amount of such fertilizer and its exact com- 
 position will depend on the character and condition of the soil in question. 
 The average composition of such a fertilizer would be from 2 to 3 per 
 cent of nitrogen, 7 to 10 per cent of phosphoric acid and 3 to 6 per cent 
 of potash. The amount to use will range from 100 to 500 pounds per 
 acre, depending on location. The character of fertilizer and the amount 
 required can best be ascertained by actual test. In general, applications 
 of less than 200 pounds may be applied through the fertilizer attachment 
 to the corn planter. Where large amounts are used, it is best to distribute 
 it throughout the soil before planting the corn. 
 
 Experiments that have been in progress for twenty years at the Ohio 
 Experiment Station emphasize the importance of phosphorus in corn 
 
CORN 
 
 45 
 
 Time of Planting, April 29th.* 
 
 production. A series of plats which received nothing save 320 pounds of 
 acid phosphate per acre during each five-year rotation showed an increase 
 in the yield of the several crops valued at $16.52 per acre. The acid 
 phosphate cost $2.24, thus leaving a net gain of $14.28. 
 
 The addition of phosphorus to manure also increased the yield very 
 materially. 
 
 Time and Method of Planting. — The time of planting corn varies 
 with the location and character of season. It is never advisable to plant 
 until the soil is sufficiently warm to cause a prompt germination of the 
 
 Time of Planting, Mat 7th.* 
 
 1 Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments." 
 
46 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Time op Planting, May 16th.^ 
 
 seed. The best of seed will often rot in a cold, wet seed-bed. In the 
 United States the corn planting season from the Gulf northward ranges 
 from the 15th of February until June 1st, a period of three and one-half 
 months. In the heart of the typical corn belt corn is generally planted 
 between the 1st and 10th of May, while in the northernmost limit of suc- 
 cessful corn production, the planting season ranges from the 15th to 31st 
 of May. In any locality the best time to plant will not be far from the 
 time when the leaves of the oak trees are the size of a squirrel's ear. If 
 seasonal conditions retard the work and necessitate j^lanting two weeks 
 
 Time of Planting, May 26th.* 
 
 1 Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments. 
 
CORN 
 
 47 
 
 later than the best time, it will be wise throughout most of the typical 
 corn belt, and especially in the northernmost districts, to resort to 
 varieties of corn of earlier maturity than those generally grown in the 
 locality. In the Southern states the season is so long that there is a 
 much wider range in the planting period. A uniform stand of vigorous 
 plants is most easily secured by deferring planting until the soil is in the 
 proper moisture and temperature condition. 
 
 Several of the state experiment stations have conducted tests extend- 
 ing over a number of years relative to the best time to plant corn. As 
 an average of six years' work at the Ohio Experiment Station there was 
 little difference in yield in planting any time between the 1st and 20th 
 of May. For dates much later than the 20th there was a marked reduc- 
 tion in yield. Planting in the last week in April was nearly as good as 
 
 Time of Planting, June 6th. ^ 
 
 planting between the 1st and 20th of May, It is better to plant too early 
 than to plant too late. Failure in case of early planting may be corrected 
 by replanting, but there is no remedial measure for a planting that is 
 made too late. 
 
 Rate of Planting. — A full stand of corn is essential. The number of 
 plants per acre will vary with the fertility of the soil, the kind of corn 
 and the purpose for which it is grown. Fertile soils will support more 
 plants per acre than poor ones. Small varieties may be more thickly 
 planted than large ones, and an abundant moisture supply in the soil 
 will mature more plants than when dry. When planted for grain, 10,000 
 to 12,000 plants per acre are probably best throughout the greater portion 
 of the corn belt. In the South, on thinner soils, fewer plants are often 
 desirable. If grown largely for fodder or ensilage, corn may be planted 
 one-quarter thicker than when grown for grain. 
 
 I Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station , Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments." 
 
48 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Numerous experiments indicate that there is Httle difference within 
 a reasonable range whether corn is planted in hills or drills. When 
 planted in checks three kernels per hill, 3 feet 8 inches apart, an acre will 
 contain 9720 plants. When planted in drills with the rows 3 feet 8 inches 
 apart and one plant every 14 inches in the rows, an acre will contain 10,180 
 plants. Drilling is somewhat easier and safer on small, irregular fields 
 and on land that is of uneven topography, and is preferable on most lands 
 that are reasonably free of weeds. On badly weed-infested land checking 
 the corn is recommended, because of the better facilities offered for culti- 
 vation and weed extermination. 
 
 On the better lands in the corn belt there has been a tendency in 
 recent years to lessen the distance between hills, and in many districts 
 40 inches is now the common planting distance. 
 
 At the Ohio Experiment Station the average annual yield per acre 
 for a period of ten years when corn was planted at the rate of 1, 2, 3, 4 
 and 5 kernels per hill, with hills 42 inches apart, the largest yield was 
 secured from 4 kernels. The yields were as follows: 1 kernel, 31.7 bushels; 
 2 kernels, 50.8 bushels; 3 kernels, 60.8 bushels; 4 kernels, 64.9 bushels, 
 and 5 kernels, 63 bushels per acre. The yield of stover was largest in 
 case of 5 kernels per hill. The reduced size of ears and the increased 
 labor in husking are such as to indicate 3 kernels per hill as the best rate 
 of planting when grown for grain. 
 
 In regions of abundant rainfall corn is planted on the level, but in 
 regions of low rainfall it is frequently planted in furrows by what is 
 known as listing. This encourages a deeper rooting of the plants, which 
 protects them from severe droughts. 
 
 Depth of Planting.— The depth at which to plant corn will vary 
 with the character and condition of the soil and the nature of the season. 
 In loose, loamy soils the depth may safely be 3 inches, and in the absence 
 of sufficient moisture near the surface 4 inches in depth may be justified. 
 On wet, heavy soils 1| inches to 2 inches will be better than to plant 
 deeper. No matter at what depth corn is planted, the permanent roots 
 start at a point about one inch beneath the surface of the soil. The depth 
 of rooting is not influenced by the depth of planting, unless the depth is 
 less than one inch. 
 
 Preparation of Seed for Planting. — Before shelling corn for planting 
 it is important to remove all irregular kernels from the butts and tips of 
 ears. Such kernels will not pass through the corn-planter with uniformity. 
 Before being shelled the ears should be assorted into two or three lots, 
 according to the size of kernels, and the shelled corn from each lot kept 
 separate so that the planter plates may be adjusted to each size. The 
 same results may be secured by the use of a seed-corn grader, of which 
 there are several kinds on the market. 
 
 The planter should be carefully adjusted to each lot of seed. A 
 poorly adjusted machine may offset the advantages derived from the 
 
CORN 
 
 49 
 
 THE LAST CULTIVATION 
 SHOULD BE SHALLOW 
 
 DEEP CULTIVATION 
 EARLY IN THE SEASON 
 SAVES THE MOISTURE 
 
 SHALLOW CULTIVATION 
 LATE IN THE SEASON 
 SAVES THE CORN ROOTS 
 
 carefully selected and graded seed. An actual count of the number of 
 missing hills or plants on an acre would prove to the grower his loss 
 through imperfect planting. Extensive investigations over large areas 
 have shown that in certain years farmers secured not more than three- 
 quarters of the full stand. If 75 per cent of a full stand produces 40 
 bushels to the acre, what will 95 per cent of a full stand produce? 
 
 Cultivation of Com. — It is a trite saying that the cultivation of corn 
 should begin before it is planted. This means that the final preparation 
 of the seed-bed should take place just before planting, in order that all 
 weeds that have just 
 begun to grow will be 
 destroyed. In the ab- 
 sence of such prepara- 
 tion weeds that have 
 started will make so 
 much growth before 
 the corn comes up that 
 it will make the first 
 cultivation difficult. 
 Small corn may be 
 harrowed with a slant- 
 toothed smoothing 
 harrow without inj ury. 
 A thorough harrowing 
 at such a time will 
 destroy many weeds 
 that are beginning to 
 grow, and is equally 
 as effective as one good 
 cultivation, and much 
 more quickly done. 
 
 The chief objects 
 of cultivation are : (1) 
 to destroy weeds, (2) 
 
 conserve moisture, (3) aerate the soil, and (4) increase the absorption of 
 rainfall by keeping the surface loose. Under most conditions level and shal- 
 low cultivation is superior to deep cultivation and the ridging of the soil. 
 Deep cultivation cuts many of the corn roots, thus reducing the ability 
 of the plants to secure both plant food and moisture. In general, the 
 first cultivation may be fairly deep, thus inducing a deeper rooting of 
 the corn plants, after which shallower cultivation should take place which 
 will interfere but little with the roots. One hundred and sixteen tests 
 at thirteen experiment stations relative to the depth of cultivation for 
 
 
 The Right and Wrong Way op Cultivating Corn.^ 
 
 ' Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Agricultural Extension Department, 
 pamphlet "Corn is King." 
 
 From 
 
50 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 corn show a difference of more than 15 per cent in yield in favor of shallow 
 cultivation. Sixty-one tests of deep cultivation gave an average yield of 
 64.9 bushels per acre, while 55 tests of shallow cultivation gave an aver- 
 age yield of 74.7 bushels, a difference of nearly 10 bushels per acre. One 
 to two inches is considered shallow cultivation and four to five inches 
 deep cultivation. 
 
 The frequency of cultivation will depend chiefly on the surface con- 
 dition of the soil and the presence of weeds. In the absence of weeds 
 and with the surface soil in a loose condition, little is to be gained by 
 cultivation. 
 
 Methods of Harvesting. — Throughout the typical corn belt a large 
 proportion of the corn is harvested from the standing stalks in the field, 
 and the stalks are pastured or allowed to go to waste. This method 
 fails to fully utilize the by-products of corn production, and is wasteful in 
 
 Several Forms of Husking Pegs.^ 
 
 the extreme. In the eastern part of the United States the whole plant 
 is generally harvested and utilized. When corn is grown for feeding 
 dairy cows or steers the fullest utilization of the entire product is attained 
 by storing in the silo. For this purpose it should be cut when the kernels 
 have begun to glaze and the husks and lower leaves are turning broAvn. 
 When not to be used for silage, corn should be put in shocks at a some- 
 what more advanced stage of maturity. Three to four hundred stalks 
 make a shock sufficiently large to stand well and cure properly. The corn 
 should be husked in three to six weeks after shocking, the ears stored in 
 a well-ventilated crib, and the stover reshocked. Care should be exercised 
 to so stand and slant the stover that the shocks will stand. They should 
 be securely tied about two feet from the tops with strong binder twine. 
 It is a waste of good material to allow the shocks to stand in the field 
 until March or April. 
 
 » From Farmers' Bulletin 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
CORN 
 
 51 
 
 It is wise to feed stover during the winter period. Its feeding value 
 may be increased by shredding. This encourages livestock to consume 
 a larger proportion of the stalks. Fifty per cent of the feeding value of 
 the corn stover lies in the portion of the stalk below the ear. When this 
 is neither cut nor shredded very little of it is eaten by livestock. Shred- 
 ding or cutting better fits the refuse for bedding purposes and facilitates 
 the handling of the manure in which the refuse is finally deposited. 
 
 In storing cut or shredded fodder one should be certain that it does 
 not contain too much moisture. It should be reasonably dry when stored 
 in large bulk in order to prevent heating and spoiling. It is well, there- 
 fore, to shred when weather conditions are fairly dry, and not until the 
 corn stover has become thoroughly cured. 
 
 Shrinkage of Corn in Crib by Months. Average 8 Years, 
 Iowa Experiment Station. 
 
 Month. 
 
 November 
 December . 
 January . . 
 February . 
 March . . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . . 
 September 
 October . . . 
 
 Total Shrinkage 
 to Date, 
 per cent. 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.8 
 
 9.7 
 
 12.8 
 
 14.7 
 
 16.3 
 
 17.3 
 
 17.8 
 
 18.2 
 
 18.2 
 
 Average for 
 
 the Month, 
 
 per cent. 
 
 5.2 
 
 1.7 
 
 .6 
 
 .3 
 
 1.9 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 .5 
 
 .4 
 
 .0 
 
 The cheapest method of harvesting corn is to pasture with hogs. 
 This is known as hogging down corn. The results of a four years' test 
 at the Missouri Experiment Station showed that hogging down corn gave 
 a return of 324.5 pounds of pork per acre, which, at 6 cents per pound, was 
 valued at $19.48. The average number of hogs per acre was 14, and the 
 number of days kept in the field was 35. This was on poor land and with 
 corn yielding 25 to 30 bushels per acre. 
 
 Storing Com. — The grain of corn is best stored for a time on the ear 
 in a well-ventilated crib or building. Corn cribs of slatted sides with 
 openings just small enough to prevent ears passing through are almost 
 universally used for this purpose. They should be covered with roofs 
 projecting some distance beyond the sides, and turn water without leaking. 
 Cribs should be on elevated foundations, preferably of masonry or con- 
 crete. The concrete floors are the best. All precaution must be taken to 
 prevent serious loss by rats and mice. Corn should not be put in the 
 
52 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 crib until reasonably well cured. If very wet when cribbed it is likely 
 to mould and decay. Ear corn at husking time will contain 15 to 40 per 
 cent of moisture, depending on conditions. After standing for six months 
 or more in the crib, the moisture, under normal conditions, will range 
 from 10 to 12 per cent. After this time shrinkage from loss of moisture 
 will be slight. 
 
 Shrinkage of Corn. — A knowledge of the average shrinkage of corn 
 is important in connection with future prices, and should be taken into 
 consideration by the farmer in connection with the holding of corn for a 
 future market. The table on preceding page shows the average shrink- 
 age of corn at the Iowa Experiment Station as determined for eight 
 successive years. 
 
 Market Grades of Com. — According to the act of Congress of 
 June 30, 1906, and March 4, 1913, the Secretary of Agriculture has 
 fixed the following definite grades of grain, which went into effect on 
 July 1, 1914: 
 
 Standard Grades or Corn and Specifications for Same. 
 
 Grade and 
 
 Classification: 
 
 White, Yellow 
 
 and Mixed Corn. 
 
 Moisture. 
 
 Maximum 
 Percentage 
 
 of 
 
 Damaged 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Maximum Percentage 
 of Foreign Material, 
 Including Dirt, Cob, 
 Other Grains, Finely 
 Broken Corn, etc. 
 
 Maximum Percentage 
 of "Cracked" Corn, 
 not Including Finely 
 Broken Corn. (.See 
 General Rule 9.) 
 
 No. 1 
 
 No. 2 
 
 14.0 
 1.5.5 
 17.5 
 19.5 
 21.5 
 23.0 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 to^s 
 
 tl. 
 
 13. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 No. 3 
 
 4 
 
 No. 4 
 
 4 
 
 No. 5 
 
 5 
 
 No. 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 * Exclusive of heat-damaged or mahogany kernels. 
 
 t May include heat-damaged or mahogany kernels not to exceed the percentage indicated. 
 
 "Sample" — See General liule No. 6 for sample grade. 
 
 GENERAL RULES 
 
 1. The corn in grades No. 1 to No. 5, inclusive, must be'sweet. 
 
 2. White corn, all grades, shall be at least 98 per cent white. 
 
 3. Yellow corn, all gi-ades, .shall be at least 95 per cent yellow. 
 
 4. Mixed corn, all grades, shall include corn of various colors not coming within the 
 
 limits for color as provided for under white or yellow corn. 
 
 5. In addition to the various limits indicated, No. 6 corn may be musty, sour, and 
 
 may also mclude corn of inferior quahty, such as immature and badly blistered. 
 
 6. All corn that does not meet the requirements of either of the six numerical grades, 
 
 by reason of an excessive percentage of moisture, damaged kernels, foreign 
 matter, or "cracked corn," corn that is hot, heat-damaged, fire-burnt, infested 
 with hve weevil, or otherwise of distinctly low quahty, shall be classed as 
 sample grade. 
 
 7. In No. 6 and sample grade, reasons for so grading shall be stated on the inspector's 
 
 certificate. 
 
 8. Finely broken corn shall include all broken particles of corn that will pass through 
 
 a perforated metal sieve with round holes ^ of an inch in diameter. 
 
CORN 
 
 53 
 
 9. "Cracked" corn shall include all coarsely broken pieces of kernels that wiU pass 
 through a perforated metal sieve with round holes I of an inch in diameter, except 
 that the finely broken corn as provided under Rule No. 8 shall not be considered 
 as "cracked" corn. 
 
 10. It is understood that the damaged corn, the foreign material, including pieces 
 
 of cob, dirt, finely broken corn, other grains, etc., and the coarsely broken or 
 "cracked" corn, as provided for under the various grades shall be such as occur 
 naturally in corn when handled under good commercial conditions. 
 
 11. Moisture percentages, as provided for in these grade specifications, shall conform 
 
 to results obtained by the standard method and tester as described in Circular 
 No. 72, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Composition and Feeding Value of Com. — The following is a com- 
 pilation of American analyses of the grain of the three principal types 
 of corn and the stalks of dent corn, under three conditions: 
 
 Composition of Corn (Maize). 
 
 Number of analyses 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash. . 
 
 Protein (Nitrogen x 6.25) . 
 
 Crude fiber 
 
 Nitrogen-free extract .... 
 Fat 
 
 
 Grain. 
 
 
 Silage. 
 
 Fodder. 
 
 All 
 
 Varieties. 
 
 Dent. 
 
 Flint. 
 
 Sweet. 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 Field 
 Cured. 
 
 208. 
 10.9 
 
 1.5 
 10.5 
 
 2.1 
 69.6 
 
 5.4 
 
 86. 
 
 10.6 
 1.5 
 
 10.3 
 2.2 
 
 70.4 
 5.0 
 
 68. 
 11.3 
 
 1.4 
 10.5 
 
 1.7 
 70.1 
 
 5.0 
 
 26. 
 8.8 
 1.9 
 
 11.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 66.8 
 
 8.1 
 
 99. 
 
 79.1 
 1.4 
 1.7 
 6.0 
 
 11.1 
 0.8 
 
 35. 
 
 42.2 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 34.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 Stover. 
 
 Field 
 Cured. 
 
 60. 
 
 40.1 
 3.4 
 3.8 
 
 19.7 
 
 31.9 
 1.1 
 
 The following tabulation gives the farm value and feeding value of 
 corn per acre as compared with oats, wheat and hay, when grown in a 
 four years' rotation on the limestone soil at the Pennsylvania Experiment 
 Station-; 
 
 The Average Annual Yield During 25 Years of 24 Treatments on 36 
 Plats on Each of 4 Tiers at the Pennsylvania Station. 
 
 Corn, ears 
 
 Corn, stover 
 
 Oats, grain 
 
 Oats, straw 
 
 Wheat, gi-ain 
 
 Wheat, straw 
 
 Timothy and clover hay 
 
 Average Yield 
 
 
 
 Digest- 
 ible 
 Protein, 
 pounds. 
 
 per Acre. 
 
 Price 
 per 100 
 pounds. 
 
 Farm 
 
 Value 
 
 per Acre. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 3,534 
 
 50.5 
 
 $0.75 
 
 $26.51 
 
 160 
 
 2,528 
 
 
 .125 
 
 3.16 
 
 40 
 
 1,227 
 
 38. i 
 
 1.00 
 
 12.27 
 
 102 
 
 1,772 
 
 
 .125 
 
 2.22 
 
 19 
 
 1,192 
 
 19.9 
 
 1.33 
 
 15.85 
 
 106 
 
 2,099 
 
 .125 
 
 2.62 
 
 8 
 
 3,609 
 
 
 .50 
 
 18.05 
 
 135 
 
 Energy 
 
 Value, 
 
 therms 
 
 per Acre. 
 
 3,198 
 671 
 813 
 370 
 985 
 348 
 
 1,232 
 
54 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 These figures may be condensed into a table that will bring out the 
 comparison in a more striking manner, as shown below: 
 
 Comparison op Digestible Protein, Energy Value and Farm Value per 
 
 Acre of 4 Crops when Grown in Rotation During 25 
 
 Years (1882-1906).* 
 
 
 Digestible Protein, 
 pounds. 
 
 Energy Value, 
 therms. 
 
 Farm Value. 
 
 Corn 
 
 206 
 121 
 114 
 135 
 
 3,869 
 1,189 
 1,333 
 1,232 
 
 $29 . 67 
 
 Oats 
 
 14 49 
 
 Wheat 
 
 18.47 
 
 Hay 
 
 18.50 
 
 CORN IMPROVEMENT 
 
 No crop is more easily and rapidly improved by selection and breeding 
 than corn. No work on the farm will come so near producing something 
 for nothing as time intelligently spent in improving this crop. It is just 
 as important to use well-bred seed-corn as it is to breed from an animal 
 of good pedigree. The same principles apply in the breeding of both 
 plants and animals. Well-bred seed-corn has often produced from five to 
 twenty bushels per acre more than seed which has received no special 
 attention when grown under identical conditions. A bushel of seed-corn 
 will plant six acres; 10 bushels increase on each of six acres equals 60 
 bushels; 60 bushels at 60 cents per bushel equals $36 the value, of a 
 bushel of good seed. 
 
 Securing Seed. — Seed-corn should be purchased in the ear so the 
 buyer can see if it is as represented in regard to type, size and uniformity. 
 It should have been grown on soil and under climatic conditions very 
 similar to those surrounding the purchaser. Do not send far away for 
 seed-corn. Many farmers have done so and have generally been dis- 
 appointed. 
 
 Selecting Seed. — Selection should be made in the field where both 
 plant and ear can be seen. Seed plants should be under normal conditions 
 relative to soil and stand. Good plants should be of moderate height. 
 Short nodes or joints are preferable to long ones, for each node bears a 
 leaf. The more the leaf surface, the greater the power of the plant to 
 manufacture the elements of the air and soil into corn. The leaves are 
 the most palatable, digestible and nutritious part of the forage. The 
 plants should be free from smut, rust and any other fungous diseases. 
 
 The ears for a medium maturing variety of dent corn should be 
 attached to the stalk at a convenient height of about four feet, and by a 
 shank of moderate length and thickness. For very early varieties the 
 ears may be a little lower and for large late maturing ones, there will be no 
 objection to having the ears five feet above the ground. When the shank 
 
 * Refer to Bulletin No. 116, Agricultural Experiment Station, The Pennsylvania State College. 
 
CORN 
 
 55 
 
 is too long it allows the ear to pull the stalk over, and when too short the 
 ear is too erect and may be damaged at the tip by allowing water to enter 
 the husks. The husks should be moderate in amount and sufficiently 
 long to cover the tip of the ear and protect the kernels from insects, birds 
 and damage by rain. 
 
 The size of the ear will vary in different districts, but for a medium 
 maturing variety a good seed ear should be 8 to 10 inches long. The 
 circumference two-fifths the distance from the butt should equal three- 
 fourths but not exceed four-fifths of the length. The form should be 
 cyUndrical or but slightly tapering from butt to tip. The tip and butt 
 should be well filled with kernels and the rows, 16 to 20 in number, should 
 
 High and Low Ears.* 
 
 be straight and carry out well to the butt and tip with kernels of regular 
 and uniform shape. 
 
 The depth of kernels should equal one-half the diameter of the cob. 
 Kernels five-eighth inch long, three-eighth inch wide and one-sixth inch 
 thick are a good size. The tips should be strong and full, for such 
 indicates good vitahty. The embryo or germ should be large and ex- 
 tend well up toward the crown. Large embryos produce vigorous plants 
 and indicate high fat and protein content and consequently high feeding 
 value. 
 
 Care of Seed. — Seed-corn should be well cared for by storing in a 
 dry and well-ventilated room and out of reach of rats and mice. Corn, 
 thoroughly dried, will stand a very low temperature without injury, but 
 
 1 Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments." 
 
56 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 if not well dried, a temperature not far below freezing will injure it 
 and destroy its vitality or germinating power and make it worthless 
 for seed. 
 
 Germination Test. — The importance of securing a perfect stand of 
 strong plants in the cornfield cannot be overestimated. Aside from field 
 conditions favorable to germination and the proper placing of the corn in 
 its seed-bed, there are two dominant factors on which perfection of stand 
 depends: first, the vitality of the seed; second, requisite number of 
 kernels in each hill or regular and uniform spacing if planted in drills. 
 
 A vitality or germination test of seed-corn should always be made. 
 It should be made several weeks before corn is required for planting, 
 so that there may be time to secure a new supply in case the seed 
 
 has been injured. There are several 
 simj^le methods of making such tests, 
 but in all cases every ear should be 
 tested. 
 
 Germinating Box. — A box about 
 18 inches square and 3 inches deep, 
 two-thirds full of clean sawdust or 
 sand, is most convenient for germi- 
 nating corn. The material should be 
 thoroughly moistened and smoothed 
 to a level in the box. Lay the ears of 
 corn on the barn floor, tips to tips in 
 double rows. Number every tenth 
 ear with a small paper tag stuck 
 between the rows. Remove from 
 various parts around the ear, and from 
 butt to tip, five grains from each ear. 
 Now cover the sawdust in the box 
 with a piece of white cloth marked off into squares 1| inches on a side 
 Avith a lead pencil, preferably an indelible pencil, and numbered consecu- 
 tively. In the squares, place the five grains from each ear separately, 
 exercising care that the grains from each ear are placed in the square 
 with the number corresponding. Cover the grains thus placed with 
 another cloth of close weave or a fold of the one under the corn, to pre- 
 vent the sprouts from coming through, and spread over all a piece of 
 burlap or a gunny sack well soaked in water. The requisites for germina- 
 tion are air, warmth and moisture. The temperature of the living room or 
 kitchen is about right, providing it does not fall below 55 degrees at night. 
 If the temperature is favorable germination will have taken place in four 
 to six days. Any ear failing to give five kernels vigorously germinated 
 should be rejected. A handy man, working systematically, can test five 
 or six bushels of corn in a day. It is work that should never be neglected 
 
 1 Courtesy of International Harvester Company, Agricultural Extension Department. 
 
 Good and Poor Types of Kernels. ^ 
 
 The top kernels came from an ear 
 with too much space at cob, indicating 
 low yield, poor feeding vakie, immatur- 
 ity. Compare them with the kernels 
 in the bottom row. 
 
CORN 
 
 57 
 
 and will pay for the labor involved many times over in a better stand and 
 resulting larger yields of corn. 
 
 Improvement by Selection and Breeding.^ — The ear row method is 
 the most satisfactory way of improving corn along any line. This method 
 is based on the principle that like begets like, but fortunately this prin- 
 ciple is not rigid. It is the variation in the progeny of any parent plant that 
 enables us, through selection, to improve the variety, and it is the tendency 
 for like to produce a larger percentage of progeny, differing but slightly 
 from the parent that enables us to make progress in plant improvement. 
 
 Corn improvement by selection is easy, because the plant is large 
 and its characteristics plainly visible; because the variations are suffi- 
 ciently marked and frequent to enable man to select individuals with 
 
 A Good Germination Box Seven Days After Planting.* 
 
 The box is filled with wet sand and marked into checks by means of cord stretched 
 across the top at even intervals. 
 
 desirable characteristics, and also because of the large number of plants 
 that can be secured from the individual and the consequent rapidity of 
 multiplication. 
 
 Corn breeding is somewhat difficult because of the natural cross- 
 fertilization and the impracticability of keeping the breed pure, and also 
 because close and self-fertilization are difficulties that must be guarded 
 against. None but the choicest ears selected for desirable qualities of 
 both ear and plant should be used in the breeding plat, and any ears that 
 do not show a high standard in the germination test should be rejected. 
 
 The selected ears should next be tested for yield and prepotency. 
 The ears should be numbered and a portion of each planted in a separate 
 row of a test-plat having uniform fertility. The rows should be sufficiently 
 long to contain about 200 plants. This will require about one-fourth of 
 the kernels of each ear. The rows should bear the same numbers as ears 
 
 ' From Farmers' Bulletin 409, U S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 from which planted. The remaining portion of ears, with numbers 
 securely fastened, should be saved for next year's multiplying plat. When 
 corn is up, it should be thinned to a uniform stand for all rows. It should 
 be frequently observed during growing season for rows that develop 
 desirable characters. At harvest time each row should be husked sepa- 
 rately and the corn weighed. The remnants of seed ears, from which a 
 limited number of the highest yielding rows of best type were planted, 
 should be shelled together and planted the following year in a multiplying 
 plat which should supply seed for the general crop. From the multiply- 
 ing plat should be selected choice ears for another test as above described. 
 This method repeated each year makes progress in corn improvement. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 "Corn Crops." Montgomery. 
 " Book of Corn." Myrick. 
 "Manual of Corn Judging."_ Shamel. 
 "Study of Corn." Shoesmith. 
 
 Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 205. "Growing Corn in Kansas." 
 North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 8. "Home Grown Seed Corn." 
 Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 116. "Corn Growing in the East." 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 307. "Tests of Corn Varieties on the Great Plains." 
 U. S. Dept. of Agi-iculture Bulletin 168. "Grades for Commercial Corn." 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 313. "Corn — Harvesting and Storing." 
 
 317. "Increasing Productivene.ss;" "Shrinkage of Corn in Cribs." 
 
 400. "A More Profitable Corn Planting Method." 
 
 415. "Seed Corn." 
 
 414. "Corn Cultivation." 
 
 537. "How to Grow an Acre of Corn." 
 
 546. "How to Manage a Corn Crop in Kentucky and West Virginia." 
 
 553. "Pop Corn for the Home." 
 
 554. "Pop Corn for the Market." 
 
CHAPTER 4 
 
 Wheat (Winter and Spring) 
 
 By W. H. Darst 
 
 Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania State College 
 
 The crop that furnishes the bread material of a country comes a 
 little closer to the Uves of the people than any other. In nearly all coun- 
 tries of the world wheat holds the first place as a bread crop, and for that 
 reason deserves most careful attention. 
 
 The United States, with its rapidly increasing population, especially 
 in the cities, and its constantly increasing demand for breadstuffs, may 
 very soon find it necessary to import wheat. Under existing conditions 
 the price of wheat must increase rather than decrease, and there will be 
 more and more inducement for the farmer to increase his production. 
 
 The world's annual production of wheat for the three pre-war years 
 1912-14 was approximately 3,882,255,000 bushels. The six leading 
 countries in production and in average acre yield were as follows: 
 
 Average Annual Production, 1912-1914. 
 
 Average Acre Yield, 1904-1913. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 United States 
 
 794,889,000 
 686,512,000 
 349,273,000 
 325,650,000 
 226,732,000 
 205,718,000 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 32 8 
 
 Eiuropean Russia 
 
 Germany 
 
 30 7 
 
 British India 
 
 France 
 
 20 1 
 
 France 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 19.1 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 United States 
 
 14.3 
 
 Canada 
 
 European Russia 
 
 10.0 
 
 It is an interesting fact that the two largest producing countries 
 have the lowest acre yields. At one time these European countries had 
 average yields very similar to our own. By years of systematic applica- 
 tion of best known methods of production, the yields of these countries 
 have increased enormously. 
 
 The climatic and soil conditions of some European countries are 
 more favorable to the production of wheat than those in the United 
 States. In European countries, also, the labor proposition is not so serious 
 as it is in this country; consequently, they can afford to spend more time 
 on their wheat crop. 
 
 Wheat Production in United States. — About one-half the wheat 
 crop of the United States is produced in the North Central states west of 
 
 (59) 
 
60 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 the Mississippi River. This section includes the states of Kansas, Ne- 
 braska, North and South Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa. Hard winter 
 wheat andjiard spring wheat (including Durham) are grown in this section. 
 
 About one-sixth of the crop is produced in the North Central states 
 east of the Mississippi River. The wheat in this section is known as the 
 soft or red winter wheat. 
 
 About one-sixth of the wheat crop of the United States is grown in 
 the far West. This includes the irrigated districts of the Rockies and the 
 Pacific Coast wheat districts. White and red spring, and some winter 
 wheat, are grown in this section. 
 
 All other states not in the general districts mentioned produce 
 approximately 100,000,000 bushels annually. 
 
 Climatic and Soil Adaptation. — Wheat has a very wide climatic 
 adaptation, which makes it a staple crop in many countries of the world. 
 Wheat is best adapted, however, to regions having cold winters, especially 
 cool weather during the first of the growing season. Cool weather during 
 early growth causes wheat to stool more abundantly, which generally 
 results in a larger yield. This applies to spring wheat as well as to winter 
 wheat. 
 
 Climatic conditions, viz: rainfall, temperature, sunshine and 
 humidity, influence the milling quality of wheat to a greater degree than 
 does the type or fertihty of the soil. The map, roughly dividing the 
 United States into wheat districts, shows that climatic conditions existing 
 in any section determine to a large extent the milling quality of the wheat. 
 
 In the hard spring and hard winter wheat districts, the season is 
 comparatively hot and dry during the fruiting period, forcing early ripen- 
 ing of the wheat. This results in a hard, flinty kernel, high in protein 
 and of good milling quality. The fruiting period being shortened, the 
 wheat does not have the opportunity to store as large amounts of starch 
 in the grain as it would under more favorable climatic conditions. 
 
 Where the fruiting season is longer and more favorable, as in the 
 red winter wheat district and along the Pacific Coast, more starch is 
 stored in the grain, which results in a starchy, light-colored wheat having 
 lower milling quality. 
 
 A proper soil for wheat is important in that it determines the yield 
 rather than milling quality. A large portion of the wheat in the United 
 States is grown on the so-called "glacial drift" soils. These soils vary 
 greatly in texture and structure, humus and ])lant food. The clay or 
 clay loam uplands are usually better adapted to wheat than the low- 
 lying dark-colored loamy soils. Dark-colored soils, rich in humus, are 
 better adapted to corn. Wheat grcv^m on such soil is apt to winter-kill 
 and heave badly. The wheat grows tall and rank and may not fill out 
 properly. 
 
 Rotations. — In parts of the Great Plains region, wheat is grown 
 in continuous culture with fair returns, because the farming operations 
 
WHEAT 
 
 61 
 
 are so extensive. Rotations, therefore, are not profitable as yet. Even- 
 tually these large farms will be made into smaller ones, and it will be neces- 
 sary to properly rotate the crops for profitable yields. 
 
 Continuous culture of wheat not only reduces the fertility of the 
 soil, but multiplies the insects and fungous diseases injurious to wheat. 
 Rotations are greatly modified in different localities by the crop-pro- 
 ducing power of the soil and by the crops produced. Wheat is frequently 
 grown in a rotation in order to obtain a stand of grass. The value of 
 
 Effect op Time op Preparing Seed Bed. Yield op Bagged Wheat. ^ 
 
 rotations from the economic standpoint has been discussed in a previous 
 chapter. 
 
 Preparation of the Seed-Bed. — The method used in preparing a seed- 
 bed for wheat is determined by the rotation and kind of wheat grown. 
 In winter wheat sections wheat may follow corn, oats, potatoes or tobacco. 
 Wheat requires a firm, fine and moist, seed-bed, whether it be sown in the 
 fall or spring. When wheat follows corn, potatoes or tobacco, the ground 
 should be thoroughly plowed for these crops in the spring of the year, 
 and the crop grown should receive thorough and regular cultivation as 
 long as possible. After the crop is harvested double disking should put 
 the ground in ideal shape for the seeding of wheat. 
 
 When winter wheat follows* oats the stubble should be plowed as 
 early as possible. The early breaking of oat stubble gives more time 
 
 ' Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
62 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 for the preparation of the seed-bed, the firming of the soil and the conserv- 
 ing of moisture. 
 
 If plowing is done late in the season, each day's work should be 
 harrowed as soon as finished. Plowed ground that is allowed to remain 
 a few days before working is likely to become very dry and cloddy, A 
 well prepared seed-bed insures quick germination, a good root system 
 and results in less pulling and winter killing. 
 
 The following table taken from Bulletin No. 185 of the Kansas 
 Experiment Station, shows that yield of wheat is greatly influenced by 
 both the time and method of preparing the seed-bed: 
 
 Methods of Preparing Land for Wheat. Cropped to Wheat Contintjously. 
 
 Method of Preparation. 
 
 Disked, not plowed 
 
 Plowed Sept. 15, 3 inches deep 
 
 Plowed Sept. 15, 7 inches deep 
 
 Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches deep 
 
 Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches deep. Not worked 
 
 until Sept. 15 
 
 Plowed July 15, 3 inches deep 
 
 Plowed July 15, 7 inches deep 
 
 Double disked July 15. Plowed Sept. 15 
 
 Double disked July 15. Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches 
 
 deep 
 
 Listed July 15, 5 inches deep. Ridges split Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 Listed July 15, 5 inches deep. Worked down 
 
 Average 3 Years, 1911-1913. 
 
 Yield per 
 
 Acre, 
 bushels. 
 
 6.63 
 13.24 
 14.15 
 22.19 
 
 20.48 
 20.77 
 27.11 
 19.71 
 
 23.40 
 
 22.90 
 
 22.77 
 
 Cost per 
 
 Acre for 
 
 Preparation. 
 
 $2.07 
 
 83 
 33 
 00 
 
 33 
 
 85 
 35 
 93 
 
 4.93 
 
 3.92 
 4.05 
 
 Value of Crop, 
 Less Cost of 
 Preparation. 
 
 $3.64 
 8.35 
 8.60 
 
 16.34 
 
 13.65 
 12.25 
 16.87 
 12.37 
 
 14.30 
 
 14.73 
 14.53 
 
 Early preparation of the seed-bed gave a profitable increase in yields. 
 Early disking of the stubble, and plowing later, also gave very good 
 returns. The possible objection to early plowing (July 15th to August 
 15th) is the lack of labor and teams at this time. In this case the stubble 
 may be disked early and plowed later when work is less pressing. Disking 
 a stubble before plowing tends: (1) to conserve moisture, (2) to kill weeds, 
 (3) to lessen the draft and cost of plowing the land, (4) to pulverize that 
 portion of the seed-bed that eventually will be turned under, and (5) 
 to aid in destroying the Hessian fly. 
 
 In the semi-arid districts of the United States the lister is often used 
 in preparing the seed-bed for wheat. The lister leaves the bottom of the 
 furrow in ridges, however, and should not be used year after year in the 
 preparation of the soil. 
 
 Fertilizers for Wheat. — A detailed discussion of fertilizers has been 
 given in a previous chapter. Two methods of supplying plant food to 
 
WHEAT 
 
 63 
 
 the wheat crop are: (1) by the appHcation of barnyard manure, and (2) 
 by the use of commercial fertihzers. 
 
 Where clover or grass is followed by corn in a rotation, better returns 
 are obtained from manure when placed on the sod and plowed under 
 for corn. For soils low in plant-food and humus, manure may be applied 
 profitably to the wheat crop. Unless the ground is too rolling the manure 
 
 
 Approximate Date of Seeding Winter Wheat. ^ 
 
 should be applied to the wheat as a top dressing before seeding rather 
 than plowed under, or it may be applied after seeding. Soluble plant- 
 food from the manure will leach down into the soil and the strawy remains 
 will act as a mulch during the winter. 
 
 The needs of the soil upon which the wheat crop is to be grown will 
 determine the proportion of different plant-food elements to be used. 
 The intelligent use of fertilizers for wheat calls for a knowledge of the 
 
 I Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
64 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 needs of the soil. This may be ascertained partly by knowing the previous 
 treatment of the soil and by studying the appearance of the crops now 
 growing upon it. More definite information may be secured by the use 
 of different fertilizing elements on small plats conducted as a test during 
 one or more years for the purpose of ascertaining the needs of the soil. 
 
 Phosphorus is the element most often needed on ordinary wheat 
 soils of most northern states, and is the one that usually gives the greatest 
 increase in yields. In many localities the yield may be further increased 
 by the addition of small to moderate amounts of potash. In many cases, 
 some nitrogen will produce still further increase. However, it is poor 
 policy to pay 18 cents a pound for nitrogen tliat can be produced more 
 cheaply on the farm by the use of various leguminous crops in the rotation. 
 
 Time of Seeding. — The time to seed wheat in a given section will be 
 determined largely by previous experience. The latitude, season, soil 
 conditions and insect enemies all help determine the proper time for 
 seeding. 
 
 The chart on preceding page prepared by the United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture gives the approximate date of seeding winter wheat, 
 where the Hessian fly must be considered as a factor. 
 
 Spring wheat should be sown as early as the ground can be prepared 
 properly. Early seeding insures cool weather during the early growth 
 and permits the crop to ripen before the severe storms of late summer. 
 Wheat is generally seeded with a grain drill, although broadcasting is 
 still practiced is some parts of the far West. 
 
 Rate of Seeding. — The rate of seeding varies greatly in different 
 wheat districts of the United States. East of the Mississippi River two 
 bushels of well-cleaned seed will generally give the best results. Results 
 by the Ohio Experiment Station, located near the center of the humid 
 region, teach a valuable lesson on this point. 
 
 Thick and Thin Seeding of Wheat. Ten Different Varieties Used. 
 Sixteen- Year Average.* 
 
 3 pecks per acre 20 . 26 bushels per acre 
 
 4 " 21.64 
 
 5 " 22.97 
 
 6 " 24.11 
 
 7 " 24.36 
 
 8 " 25.01 
 
 9 " 25.46 " 
 
 10 " 25.43 
 
 In the dry farming area of the West the amount of seed required ranges 
 from two to three pecks in the driest sections to six or eight pecks in the 
 more humid sections. The rate of seeding for any section should be 
 determined by actual tests. 
 
 Wheat should not be covered too deeply. The depth of seeding will 
 depend on the type of soil and the preparation of the seed-bed. The 
 
 * Taken from records of the Ohio Experiment Station. 
 
WHEAT 65 
 
 usual depth of drilling is from two to three inches. To secure ideal con- 
 dition for germination the seed should be placed in the drill furrow on 
 firm, damp soil, which will supply moisture for rapid germination and the 
 development of roots. 
 
 Grain Drills. — For general use a good single-disk drill does very good 
 work. On stony, trashy land it does better work than double-disk or shoe 
 drills. In the absence of trash and on a well-prepared seed-bed, the shoe 
 drill is more readily regulated to a uniform depth of seeding. The press 
 drills are preferred for use in light, droughty soils and drier climates. 
 
 Winter Killing. — Winter killing of wheat is a source of great loss 
 throughout the winter wheat districts of the United States, Winter 
 killing may be due to: (1) alternate freezing and thawing of wet soils, 
 which gradually lifts the plants, exposing and breaking the roots; (2) 
 weak plants, resulting from late sowing, lack of moisture or freezing in a 
 dry, open winter; (3) smothering of the plants under a heavy covering 
 of ice and sleet. A heavy growth of early seeded wheat is more apt to 
 smother than that sown later. When unfavorable weather conditions 
 exist, very little can be done to prevent winter killing. However, pre- 
 ventive measures such as the following are advised: (1) Grow a hardy 
 variety of wheat; (2) drain wet spots in the wheat field; (3) thoroughly 
 prepare the seed-bed ; (4) sow seed early enough to secure strong, vigorous 
 plants; (5) roll wheat that is pulled by freezing and thawing. Rolling 
 early in the spring firms the soil about the roots and benefits the wheat 
 if the pulling has not progressed too far. 
 
 Wheat Districts. — The United States may be divided into five wheat 
 districts according to the color and composition of the grain. These dis- 
 tricts are not sharply defined, but a brief outline of them should give the 
 reader a better idea of the kind of wheat grown, the leading varieties and 
 the milling qualities of the wheat in the different parts of the United States. 
 
 District No. 1. — All wheat east of the Mississippi River is known as 
 Red Winter, or soft winter wheat. It varies in color from white to red 
 and amber. The quality of this wheat varies from medium in the northern 
 part to poor in the southern part of the district. The leading varieties 
 in the northern portion are Fulcaster, Pool, Dawson's Golden Chaff, 
 Gypsy, Harvest King, Fultz, Rudy and Michigan Amber. In the southern 
 portion the leading varieties are Fulcaster, Pool, Purple Straw, Bluestone 
 and Mediterranean. 
 
 District No. 2. — The hard spring wheat, including Durham, is located 
 in the Dakotas, Minnesota and parts of Nebraska, Iowa and Wisconsin. 
 The wheat in this district is small and shriveled in kernel, hard and dark 
 in color. The milling quality of hard spring wheat is excellent. The 
 principal varieties are Bluestem, -Velvet Chaff, Fife and Durham (Kur- 
 banka and Arnautha). 
 
 District No. 3. — The hard winter district includes Kansas, Nebraska, 
 Oklahoma, Iowa and Missouri. The wheat in this district is red to amber 
 
6Q 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 in color. The grain is hard and flinty, but larger and plumper than the 
 hard spring. The milling quality of the wheat is excellent, although 
 the quality of the gluten is not as high as in the hard spring wheat. The 
 principal varieties grown are the Turkey and Kharkof. 
 
 District No. 4. — White soft or Pacific Coast wheat, grown mostly 
 in California, is soft and starchy, and yellow to red in color. The milling 
 quality varies from fair to poor. For bread purposes this wheat must be 
 blended with the hard wheats. The wheat in this district is classed as soft 
 winter on the market. The leading varieties are White Australian, 
 Sonora, Club, King's Early and Early Baart. 
 
 
 Wheat Districts of the United States. 
 
 District No. 5. — The medium hard spring and winter wheat is grown 
 in the extreme Northwest, Washington, Oregon and Idaho. The wheat 
 in this section is medium in quality, much of it having a bleached, dull 
 appearance. The principal varieties of winter wheat are Forty Fold, 
 Red Russian and Jones' Winter Fife. Bluestem is the leading spring 
 variety. 
 
 Wheat Improvement. — Every wheat grower should ascertain, by 
 test or otherwise, the variety best suited to his conditions. The variety 
 tests at the nearest experiment station will generally indicate the best 
 varieties for similar conditions. For a community located on soil different 
 from that of the nearest experiment station, an ideal plan is to organize 
 a community seed association. A variety test of wheat should be con- 
 
WHEAT 
 
 67 
 
 ducted on some central farm. After the best variety is determined, the 
 farmers of that commmiity will find it advantageous if all grow the same 
 variety of wheat. The advantages of such a plan will be: (1) larger 
 yields for all; (2) better and more imiform quality, resulting in higher 
 prices; (3) the production of pure seed, true to name; and (4) the pro- 
 viding of a better opportunity to improve the variety. When farmers 
 of a community are all interested in one variety of wheat, they will naturally 
 be interested in its improvement. 
 
 The so-called ''mass selection" will be found both practical and profit- 
 
 A Profitable Yield of Wheat.^ 
 
 able in improving a variety of wheat. The procedure is as follows: A 
 field of good wheat is examined at harvest time and enough of the choicest 
 heads are selected to make a bushel or more of seed. This is threshed by 
 hand and carefully stored until seeding time. This selected seed should 
 be sown in a marked portion of the general wheat field. At harvest time 
 choice heads are again hand selected from this special plat. The remain- 
 ing wheat is harvested for seed to be multiplied for the general field wheat. 
 By continuing this process of selection each year there will be a tendency 
 to improve the variety continually, or at least to eliminate all danger of 
 the wheat running out. 
 
 ' Courtesy of Penn State Farmer, State College, Pa. 
 
68 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Harvesting. — Wheat is generally harvested as soon as ripe. The 
 straw should be yellow in color and the grain in hard dough, before the 
 wheat may be safely harvested. In the wheat-growing section along 
 the Pacific Coast the wheat is allowed to stand a week or two after it is 
 ripe, and is then harvested with a combined harvester and thresher. 
 
 Wheat should be shocked the same day it is cut. Considerable 
 starch is transferred from the leaves and stems to the grain after the wheat 
 is harvested. Immediate shocking of the grain prevents rapid drying 
 and aids this action. 
 
 When not to be threshed from the shock, wheat should be hauled 
 in and stacked or stored in the barn as soon as possible (a week or ten 
 days). Hot sun bleaches wheat rapidly; rainy weather often damages 
 and sometimes destroys the crop in the shock. In the eastern United 
 States threshing generally takes place in the barn in the late fall. In the 
 corn belt section and Great Plains region most of the wheat is threshed 
 out of the shock or in the field by a combine. 
 
 Threshed wheat should be stored in tight, clean granaries. When 
 it is to remain in storage for some time the granary should be cleaned 
 thoroughly to make sure of the removal of grain moths, weevils and fungous 
 diseases. If the granary is constructed so as to keep out vermin and 
 insects, there is practically no loss of weight in storage. 
 
 Cost of Producing Wheat. — The fixed charges of growing an acre of 
 wheat are about the same, whether the yield is 15 bushels or 30 bushels 
 per acre. A rough estimate of the cost of growing wheat in the United 
 States is between $10 and $12 per acre. The United States Department 
 of Agriculture has secured from many farmers itemized estimates of the 
 cost of producing wheat in all of the states. Those for a few of the widely 
 separated states are as follows: 
 
 Plowing 
 
 Seed 
 
 Plant ing 
 
 Harvesting 
 
 Threshing 
 
 Rent 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 Cost per bushel . . . 
 Net profit per acre 
 Number of reports 
 
 Pennsyl- 
 
 South 
 
 North 
 
 
 vania. 
 
 Carolina. 
 
 Dakota. 
 
 
 $3.80 
 
 $1.46 
 
 $1.95 
 
 $2.01 
 
 1.94 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.50 
 
 .60 
 
 .89 
 
 .44 
 
 .35 
 
 1.79 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.19 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.46 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.03 
 
 2.22 
 
 5.33 
 
 2.83 
 
 2 . 66 
 
 .06 
 
 .27 
 
 .62 
 
 .35 
 
 .38 
 
 .43 
 
 $16.68 
 
 $12.31 
 
 $8.99 
 
 $12.54 
 
 .84 
 
 .96 
 
 .62 
 
 .64 
 
 3.42 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.87 
 
 6.41 
 
 131 
 
 40 
 
 177 
 
 256 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 $1.81 
 
 1.22 
 
 .41 
 
 1.49 
 
 1.44 
 
 3.41 
 
 .06 
 
 .45 
 
 $10.29 
 
 .63 
 
 5.66 
 309 
 
 The estimated cost in Kansas was based on the reports of 309 farmers 
 who, during the year 1909, secured an average yield. of 16.3 bushels per 
 
WHEAT 69 
 
 acre. This is representative of Districts 2 and 3 that produce one-half of 
 the wheat grown in the United States. The average acre yield in the 
 United States is 14.8 bushels. It will be seen that there is little profit 
 in raising less than 15 bushels to the acre. 
 
 Enemies of Wheat: Weeds, Insects and Fungous Diseases. — Weeds, 
 common in wheat fields, are not, as a rule, difficult to eradicate. Weeds 
 damage wheat by reducing the yield and by injuring the milling quality 
 of the grain. The weeds most objectionable in wheat are garlic, cockle, 
 cheat or chess, wild oats and wild mustard. These are usually controlled 
 by proper cleaning of the seed wheat, by carefully preparing the seed-bed 
 and by a suitable rotation of crojjs. 
 
 Insects. — The Hessian fly and chinch bug are probably the most 
 destructive of wheat insects. The methods of control are preventive for 
 the most part. The burning over of stubble land any time from harvest 
 to the middle of August will destroy many of the Hessian flies and chinch 
 })ugs. The planting of trap crops also will aid in reducing Hessian fly 
 trouble. A strip of wheat sown early in August will induce the fly to lay 
 eggs. This wheat should be carefully plowed down after the first frost, 
 so as to destroy the fly. Often an early strip of wheat may be plowed 
 down in time for i^roper preparation and reseeding. 
 
 A stinging frost will kill the adult Hessian fly. If the season is not 
 too backward it is well to delay seeding of wheat until this time. How- 
 ever, wheat should be seeded early enough to become rooted before winter 
 sets in. 
 
 A patch of millet sown early in the spring will attract many of the 
 chinch bugs, thus keeping them out of the wheat and corn. 
 
 The common insects of the granary are the granary weevil (Colandra 
 granaria) and the Angoumois moth (Sitotroga cerealella). Both these 
 insects multiply rapidly and should be attended to at once. 
 
 Used granaries should always be cleaned thoroughly before the new 
 wheat is stored. Granaries should be repaired when needed so as to make 
 the sides and floor as tight as possible. 
 
 Fumigation should be resorted to when insects first appear. Carbon 
 bisulphide is a very effective chemical to use in a good tight granary. 
 One and one-half pints to one ton of grain, or 1000 cu. ft. of space, is the 
 recommended amount to use. The liquid should be poured into shallow 
 pans and placed over the wheat. For the best results fumigation should 
 be repeated in two weeks' time. Hydrocyanic acid gas is used in elevators 
 and mills, but would be very dangerous in the ordinary barn where live- 
 stock is housed. 
 
 Fungous Diseases. — Rust and smut are perhaps the most destructive 
 among wheat diseases. There is no known remedy for rust other than 
 the growing and breeding of rust-resistant varieties of wheat. Stinking 
 smut may destroy as much as 10 per cent of the total wheat crop of the 
 United States. It does not change the general appearance of the wheat 
 
70 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 head while in the field, but develops within the kernel as the wheat ripens. 
 At threshing time the infected kernels may be broken, exposing a 
 black, stinking, greasy mass of smut spores. The handling of smutty 
 wheat aids in the infecting of all sound wheat that comes in contact with 
 it. The smut spores adhere to the outside of the kernel until it is planted. 
 The fungus grows within the wheat plant and finally takes possession of 
 the newly formed berry. Stinking smut can be controlled by the formalde- 
 hyde treatment. 
 
 Treatment. — One pint of 40 per cent formaldehyde is added to 40 
 gallons of water. This is sufficient to treat 40 bushels of wheat. The 
 wheat should be spread on a good tight floor and sprinkled with the 
 solution. The wheat should then be shoveled over until the grain is well 
 moistened, after which it should be shoveled into a pile or ridge and covered 
 with canvas for several hours. The wheat should then be spread out on 
 the floor to dry. / The kernels will absorb water and become larger. If 
 seeding takes place before the wheat is thoroughly dry, one-fifth to one- 
 fourth more seed to the acre is sown than when untreated seed is used. 
 
 Loose smut is less injurious to wheat then the hidden or stinking 
 smut, but is more difficult to treat and control. It destroys the head in 
 the field, leaving the bare rachis as evidence of its presence. The mature 
 spores are scattered by the wind. If they gain entrance to the growing 
 berry in the head, they germinate and send mycelium into its tissues to 
 await the time when the wheat is sown in the ground. The formalin 
 treatment, which simply acts on the outside of the berry, is ineffective. 
 
 The hot-water treatment is recommended for the loose smut of wheat. 
 This treatment requires careful and painstaking work, and is not practical 
 for large quantities of seed. A small quantity of seed should be treated 
 and sown in a separate plot to be used for seed purposes the following 
 year, thus eliminating the smut. 
 
 Treatment. — The equipment required for the hot-water treatment is 
 as follows: 3 large kettles, 1 tub, several wire baskets holding about 1 
 peck of gTain, and 1 good thermometer. The seed wheat should be soaked 
 several hours in cold water placed in tub. The water in kettle No. 1 is 
 heated to 127° F., and in kettle No. 2 to 130° F. This can be done by 
 heating water in the extra kettle and regulating to the required tempera- 
 ture the water in kettles No. 1 and 2. A wire basket should be filled 
 with wheat from the tub of cold water, allowed to drain, and immersed 
 in kettle No. 1 for two minutes. It should then be taken out and 
 immersed in kettle No. 2 for ten minutes, after which the wheat should be 
 spread out to dry. This treatment frequently kills a small percentage 
 of the kernels, the amount of which should be determined so as to regulate 
 the proper rate of seeding. A germination test is therefore advised before 
 seeding. 
 
WHEAT 71 
 
 REFEKENCES 
 
 "Book of Wheat." Donalinger. 
 
 "Wheat." Ten Eyck. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 320. "QuaUty in Wheat." 
 534. "Durum Wheat." 
 
 596. "Winter Wheat Culture in Eastern States." 
 616. "Winter Wheat Varieties for Eastern States." 
 678. "Growing Hard Spring Wheat." 
 680. "Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat." 
 
 %% 
 
CHAPTER 5 
 OATS, Barley and Rye 
 
 OATS 
 
 As a farm crop in North America, oats rank fifth in value. It has 
 a short season of growth, is easily raised by extensive methods and brings 
 quick returns. It is, therefore, a popular crop, especially with the tenant 
 farmer. The yield and cash value per acre is low compared with the best 
 oat-producing countries of Europe, and some question the advisability 
 of continuing its cultivation so extensively in this country. 
 
 Oats fit into the general crojj rotation and follow corn better than 
 most other crops. In the North Central states it is extensively used as 
 a crop in which to seed the clovers and grasses. It makes a desirable 
 feed for all classes of livestock except swine, and is highly prized for 
 horses. The straw is valuable as roughage and as an absorbent in stables 
 and has considerable fertilizing value. 
 
 The average acreage, yield, production and value of oats in the United 
 States for ten years ending 1914 is given in the following table: 
 
 Average Annual Acreage, Production and Farm Value and Mean Acre 
 
 Yield of Oats in the Ten States of Largest Production for 
 
 the Ten Years from 1905 to 1914. 
 
 
 Area, 
 acres. 
 
 Mean Yield 
 per Acre, 
 bushels. 
 
 Production, 
 bushels. 
 
 Farm Value, 
 December 1. 
 
 Iowa 
 
 4,581,000 
 4,160,000 
 2,697,000 
 2,337,000 
 2,373,000 
 1,636,000 
 1,719,000 
 1,737,000 
 1,424,000 
 1,268,000 
 
 31.9 
 31.2 
 30.8 
 32.5 
 25.3 
 32.4 
 29.0 
 27.7 
 30.8 
 31.5 
 
 146,618,000 
 130,096,000 
 84,739,000 
 73,386,000 
 59,384,000 
 53,581,000 
 49,887,000 
 48,233,000 
 43,704,000 
 39,973,000 
 
 $48 182 000 
 
 Illinois . 
 
 46,920,000 
 27,526,000 
 29,202,000 
 19,938,000 
 20,881,000 
 18,018,000 
 15,233,000 
 17,327,000 
 18,701,000 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana . 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Michigan 
 
 New York 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — In the production of oats, favorable 
 climate and cultural conditions are more important tlian the character 
 and fertility of the soil. They do best in a cool, moist climate. In North 
 America oats succeed best in Canada and those states of the Union Ijing 
 next to the Canadian border. The acreage of spring oats below 38 degrees 
 north latitude is very small. Oats require an abundance of water and 
 loam, and clay loam soils are generally best adapted to them. 
 
 (72) 
 
OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 
 
 73 
 
 Classes and Varieties. — Oats are divided into spring and winter oats. 
 By far the larger proportion in North America belongs to the former class. 
 Spring oats are divided into two classes, namely, those having open pan- 
 icles and those with closed panicles. By far the larger number of varieties 
 falls into the first class. Thej^ are further classified by color into white, 
 yellow, black, red and shades of black and red. They are also divided 
 according to time of maturity into early, medium and late varieties. The 
 time for maturity ranges from 90 days to 140 days. In the Central states 
 in favorable seasons early oats should ripen in 90 days from time of seeding. 
 
 The accompanying map shows the three oat districts of the United 
 States. 
 
 Map of the United States, Showing Approximately the Areas to which 
 Certain Types of Oats are Adapted. ^ 
 
 In the unshaded portion rather late maturing, large-grained white oats are 
 usually best; in the lightly shaded portion early, small-grained, yellow varieties are 
 most important; while in the heavily shaded portion brownish-red or gray varieties, 
 which in the warmer sections are sown in the fall, are most certain to succeed. 
 
 In the northern district the medium-maturing and late-maturing 
 varieties generally give best results. The leading varieties in this district 
 are American Banner, Big 4, Clydesdale, Lincoln, Probstier, Siberian, 
 Silver Mine, Swedish Select, Tartarian, Wide Awake and White Russian. 
 
 In the central region the principal varieties are Big 4, Burt, Clydes- 
 dale, Kherson, Lincoln, Red Rust Proof, 60-Day, Silver Mine, Siberian 
 and Swedish Select. In the southern district the chief varieties are Burt 
 
 ^Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' BuUetm 42'i, 
 
74 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 and Red Rust Proof, together with Winter Turf, which is a strictly- 
 winter variety. Burt and Red Rust Proof may be seeded either in the 
 winter or spring. 
 
 Seed Oats and Their Preparation for Seeding. — It is important to 
 
 seed only varieties 
 that are adapted 
 to the conditions 
 that prevail, giv- 
 ing particular at- 
 tention to time of 
 maturity as re- 
 lated to the pre- 
 vaihng climatic 
 conditions during 
 the oat -growing 
 period. Seed oats 
 should be thor- 
 oughly cleaned by 
 the use of a good 
 fanning mill be- 
 fore seeding. The 
 screens of the mill 
 and the blast of 
 air should be such 
 as to remove all 
 foreign seed, hulls, 
 trash and light 
 and small oats. 
 Frequently one- 
 quarter or one- 
 third of the oats 
 may be removed 
 in this way. Such 
 thorough cleaning 
 makes for a uni- 
 form stand of vig- 
 orous plant in the 
 field. 
 
 If there is 
 any trouble from 
 smut, seed should be treated with formaldehyde; one pound of 40 per 
 cent formaldehyde to 45 gallons of water. This is sufficient for treating 
 about 45 bushels of oats. The solution must be brought in contact 
 with every berry in order to be thoroughly effective. The oats may be 
 
 I From Farmers' Bulletin 424, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
 
 Two Types of Oat Heads. ^ 
 
 Spreading, or panicled, oats (on the left) ; side, or horse- 
 manc, oats (on the right). 
 
OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 75 
 
 spread out in a thin layer on a clean floor and the solution applied with 
 a sprinkling can. Several thin layers of oats may be placed one on top 
 of another, and each sprinkled in this way, after which the whole pile 
 should be thoroughly stirred, shoveled into a compact heap, covered with 
 a wet blanket and allowed to remain for twelve hours. The blanket 
 should then be removed and the oats spread out and occasionally stirred 
 until thoroughly dry. 
 
 Preparation of the Seed-Bed. — A large portion of the oats growTi in 
 the corn belt are seeded on corn ground without any preparation. The 
 ground is disked and harrowed, or sometimes cultivated once or t\\dce 
 after seeding the oats. It is much better to double disk and harrow once 
 before seeding. The better preparation in this way will usually more 
 than pay for the increased expense. In some localities shallow plowing 
 for oats may prove to be the best method of preparing the seed-bed. When 
 seeded on corn land the stalks should be broken dowai. This is most 
 easily accomplished by dragging a heavy pole or iron rail broadside across 
 the field on a frosty morning when the groimd is frozen. A mellow, 
 loose surface soil with a firm subsoil is best for oats. This character of 
 seed-bed is secured on corn land by the methods above described. 
 
 Fertilizers and Manures for Oats. — Over most of the spring oat 
 region oats are grown without the direct application of either manure 
 or fertilizers. When soils call for manure or fertilizers it is best to apply 
 them to the crop preceding oats. In this way the oats receive only the 
 residual effect, but this generally meets the needs of the crop. This avoids 
 the danger of too rank a growth of straw that is likely to cause oats to 
 lodge. Oats that lodge badly are not only difficult to harvest, but generally 
 cause a failure of grass and clover seeded with them and give rise to a 
 reduced yield of grain. On soil that is in a low state of fertility, or which 
 receives no manure or fertilizer for the preceding crop, rather light 
 applications of either manure or a complete fertilizer may be applied for 
 oats with profit. Experiments show that phosphorus is the most impor- 
 tant ingredient to be applied. Some nitrogen, preferably in an immedi- 
 ately available form, is generally advisable. Nitrate of soda at the rate 
 of 75 to 100 pounds per acre will generally fully meet the needs for nitrogen. 
 The fertility removed by oats is given in Table II, Part III. 
 Time, Rate and Manner of Seeding. — The time of seeding will vary 
 with the season and locality, but generally should be as early in the 
 spring as soil conditions will permit the preparation of the seed-bed. 
 Throughout a considerable part of the oat region, oats are seeded during 
 April. Those seeded during the first half of this month are found to give 
 larger yields than those seeded during the last half. In the southern part 
 of the district, seeding in March usually gives good results, and in the 
 Southern states seeding may take place much earlier. Oats do best if 
 they can make the major portion of their growth during the cool part of 
 the season. They are often injured by a short hot spell as they near 
 
76 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 maturity. Frosts or even hard freezes after they are seeded seldom do 
 injury, although prolonged wet weather immediately following seeding 
 may cause the seed to rot in the soil and reduce the stand. A few farmers 
 in the Northern states are now seeding ordinary spring oats in the late fall 
 or early winter, so timing the seeding that the oats will not germinate 
 until spring. This method is still in the experimental stage, and farmers 
 should try it only on a limited scale and in an experimental way until it is 
 demonstrated to be satisfactory. 
 
 The rate of seeding depends on the character and condition of the 
 soil, the fertility of the soil, the quality of the seed, the size of the grains 
 and the manner of seeding. Fertile soils require less seed than poor 
 ones, because the plants tiller more. Abundance of seed should be used 
 on weedy land, and seed broadcasted should be used more freely than 
 when it is drilled. It will require more seed of the large-grained than of 
 the small-grained oats. 
 
 In general, the rate of seeding ranges from 8 to 12 pecks per acre, 
 the smaller amount being used when drilled and the larger amount when 
 broadcasted. At several state experiment stations drilled oats have 
 yielded three to five bushels per acre more than oats broadcasted under 
 identical conditions. Where satisfactory results have not been secured 
 by drilling oats, it has usually been attributable to covering the seed too 
 deeply. Under average conditions oats should be covered from 1 to 1| 
 inches in depth, although in very loose soils or in a dry seed-bed, deeper 
 covering will be satisfactory. 
 
 Oats as a Nurse Crop. — Oats are frequently used as a nurse crop for 
 clovers and grasses. When used in this way early varieties and rather 
 thin seeding is advisable. This encourages a good catch and stand of 
 the clovers and grasses. 
 
 Harvesting, Shocking and Threshing. — Oats should be harvested 
 when the grain is in the hard dough stage. If allowed to become fully 
 ripe, the grain shatters badly in the process of harvesting, thus causing 
 considerable loss. When cut early the straw will have a higher feeding 
 value than when allowed to fully mature. Any shrinkage in grain that may 
 take iDlace as a result of cutting early will be more than offset by the in- 
 creased value of straw. In regions where the straw is not utilized (and 
 there should be no such regions) the harvesting should be carefully timed 
 in order to secure the largest possible yield and yet avoid loss of grain. 
 
 Wlien cut rather green or when the straw is damp, or when the oats 
 are foul with weeds and grass, the harvester should be set for small 
 bundles. When harvested in a thoroughly ripe condition the bundles 
 may be placed into shocks immediately. When damp or green it is gen- 
 erally best to allow the bundles to lie several hours before shocking. 
 When the oats are in a good, dry condition round shocks with a cap sheaf 
 are to be preferred. Twelve bundles to each shock, exclusive of the cap 
 sheaf, is the best number. The cap sheaf should be broken near the 
 
OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 
 
 77 
 
 band and the heads placed toward the direction of the prevaiHng wind. 
 Where wind storms are very prevalent at this time of the year it is best 
 not to use cap sheaves. When oats are green or damp, long shocks, made 
 by standing the sheaves in pairs and extending north and south, are to 
 be i^referred. It pays to have the grain properly shocked, even though 
 it is to be threshed in a short time and directly from the field. 
 
 If the grain is to be stacked, stacks should be w^ell built. Rails or 
 old straw should be used for the foundation to prevent damage to the first 
 layer of sheaves. Stacks may be either round or long. The butts should 
 
 A Field op Good Oats being Harvested with a Modern Self-Binder. 
 
 always be laid toward the outside of the stack, and the outside layer 
 should alwa3^s slope downward so that the stack will turn rain. The 
 greatest diameter of the stack at the time of construction should be five 
 or six feet above the ground. This form in settling accentuates the slop- 
 ing of the outside sheaves in the upper portion of the stack. Whether 
 oats are to be threshed from the field or stack will be determined largely 
 by the threshing custom of the locality. Where the custom of threshing 
 from the field prevails, it will be difficult to get stacked oats threshed 
 until field threshing is completed. Stacking entails some additional work, 
 but generally improves the quality of the oats. Oats in the shock are 
 
SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 often badly damaged and suffer great loss from rains. This is largely- 
 obviated by stacking as soon as in proper condition. 
 
 In threshing, the concaves of the machine should be so adjusted 
 that all grain will be separated from the straw, but the adjustment should 
 be such as not to cause serious hulling of the berries or undue cutting of 
 the straw. Oats are easily threshed when in a dry condition. The straw 
 at threshing time should be either carefully stacked or run directly into 
 a hay-loft or storage-shed, depending on facilities. 
 
 Storing and Marketing. — The threshed grain should be dry when 
 put in bins and should be kept dry by adequate protection from rains or 
 absorption of moisture from any source. Mustiness lowers the feeding 
 value and endangers the health of animals. It also lowers the market 
 value of the grain. Where grain weevils and other insects seriously affect 
 stored grain, tight bins which can be fumigated are advisable. Under 
 favorable conditions oats may be stored for a considerable time with 
 very little shrinkage and loss. The highest market price generally pre- 
 vails during the early part of the year and just prior to the oat harvest. 
 
 Composition and Feeding Value. — A large portion of the oats grown 
 in America are fed to livestock. Limited quantities are used for the 
 manufacture of prepared cereals. Oats are high in protein and are well 
 adapted for work horses and growing animals. They are especially 
 desirable because of the hulls which they contain, and which dilute the 
 concentrate to about the right extent for healthy digestion. They are 
 generally fed whole, although not infrequently are they chopped and 
 mixed with other grains. An average of thirty analyses of oats gives 
 13.3 per cent protein, 5.6 per cent fat and 67.1 per cent carbohydrates, as 
 compared with 11.8, 6.1 and 78.1 per cent for those respective items in 
 corn. 
 
 Value of Oats for Hay and Soiling Purposes. — If cut when the grain 
 is in the milk, oats make a palatable and nutritious hay, especially well 
 suited for horses. Oats seeded with Canada peas make a good hay for 
 milch cows and other cattle. This mixture is also well suited for soiling 
 purposes and provides an early soiling crop. By seeding at different 
 times the season of available soiling crops from this source may be con- 
 siderably prolonged. A common rate of seeding this mixture is 1 bushel 
 of peas to Ih bushels of oats. This mixture also makes good pasture for 
 stock of all kinds. 
 
 Oat Straw and its Utilization. — Oat straw has a higher feeding value 
 and is more palatable than straw from the other grains. It is quite gen- 
 erally used for feeding horses during the winter, and as a maintenance 
 roughage for cattle and sheep. Its feeding value and palatability are 
 best when the grain is harvested fairly early and the straw is secured 
 without damage by rains. It pays to store it carefully and utilize it for 
 feed as fully as possible. The refuse portion makes a valuable bedding 
 and the straw has a fertilizer value of about $3 per ton. 
 
OATS, BARLEY AND RYE ,79 
 
 Cost of Producing Oats. — The Bureau of Statistics of the United 
 States Department of Agriculture secured estimates from about 5000 
 farmers in all parts of the country on the cost of producing oats in 1909. 
 The estimates show an average cost of $10.91 an acre, or 31 cents a bushel. 
 On the same farms for that year the average value of the oat crop was 
 $14.08 an acre, or 40 cents a bushel. The average net return from grain 
 was estimated at $3.17 an acre, to which was added the value of by- 
 product to the amount of $1.42, making an average total profit of $4.59 
 per acre. 
 
 Oat Improvement. — The improvement of this crop has received 
 much less attention from plant breeders and farmers than has corn and 
 wheat. There are, however, many varieties of oats, most of which have 
 originated through selection and breeding. It is important for the farmer 
 to secure a variety well suited to his local conditions, and to improve that 
 variety by thorough cleaning and grading of seed. There are oppor- 
 tunities, however, for improvement by selecting exceptional stools of 
 oats and threshing these by hand and planting each in a separate row. 
 These should be harvested separately and the best ones retained, threshed 
 and used for seeding longer rows the following year. In this way new 
 strains are frequently secured that are superior to the general crop. 
 
 BARLEY 
 
 The world's production of barley is about 1,500,000,000 bushels, of 
 which North America produces one-seventh. Of this the United States 
 produces 166,000,000 and Canada 48,000,000 bushels. In the United 
 States, California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, North and South Dakota lead 
 in barley production. These five states produce 73 per cent of all the 
 barley grown in the United States. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Barley is adapted to a wide range of 
 climatic conditions, but it does best in the North Temperate Zone. It is 
 somewhat more exacting in its soil requirements than either wheat or 
 oats. It does best on a well-drained loam that is well supplied with 
 organic matter. It is quite resistant on alkali soils, and is, therefore, 
 adapted to such soils in the irrigated districts. 
 
 Classes and Varieties. — Barley is divided into two-rowed and six- 
 rowed forms, depending on the character of the spike or head. In the 
 United States the six-rowed form predominates. Manchuria and Oder- 
 brucken are the leading varieties of this type. It is also divided into 
 spring and winter, and bearded and beardless types. The bearded spring 
 varieties prevail. 
 
 Preparation of Land and Seeding. — Barley demands a well-prepared 
 seed-bed, and should be seeded in the spring as soon as all danger of 
 freezing is past. Best results are secured by drilling at the rate of six 
 to eight pecks per acre. Broadcasting the seed usually gives much 
 lower yields than drilling. 
 
80 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Harvesting and Use. — Barley is harvested in the same manner as 
 oats. It should be shocked in round shocks with cap sheaves, and in 
 threshing the cap sheaves are usually threshed separately in order to secure 
 as large a proportion as possible of unstained grain. Barley that is dis- 
 colored by rains commands a much lower price than bright, unstained grain. 
 
 More than half of the barley produced in North America finds its 
 way into the market, and much of it is used in the manufacture of malt. 
 Malt is largely used in the production of beer and other malt liquors. 
 Barley for this purpose should be clean and bright in color, and should 
 
 A Field op Winter Barley Seeded after Corn, Anne ArundeIi County, Md.* 
 
 be free from foreign seeds and broken grains, and possess a high germi- 
 nating power. 
 
 Use of By-Products. — Straw from barley is less palatable than that 
 of oats or beardless wheat, and is also somewhat less nutritious. It 
 makes excellent bedding, although the beards are more or less irritating 
 to both man and beast. 
 
 RYE 
 
 Rye is of minor importance both in the United States and Canada. 
 Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota and New York produce 
 64 per cent of that grown in the United States, while Ontario produces 
 the most in Canada. 
 
 iProm Farmers' Bulletin 518, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 81 
 
 Adaptation and Culture.- — Rjt will grow on rather poor soil, and is 
 most extensively grown in districts in the temperate zone where the 
 soils are low in fertihty. It is more hardy than wheat, and this is one of 
 the principal reasons for growing it. The time of seeding and cultural 
 methods are the same as those for wheat, although there is a somewhat 
 wider range in the time of seeding. It may be seeded late in the summer 
 and pastured so as to prevent heading during the autumn. It is quite 
 extensively used as a cover crop and for green manure. Its hardiness 
 and adaptation on poor soils make it especially valuable for these purposes 
 in the temperate zone. 
 
 Rye is frequently broadcasted, although it gives better results when 
 seeded with a drill. ( A Avell-prepared seed-bed is essential to a good stand 
 of plants. Five to six pecks of seed per acre are required. 
 
 Uses of Rye. — Rye is frequently used as a soiling crop and occa- 
 sionally cut for hay. When used for hay, it should be cut just before the 
 heads are out. If not cut early, the straw hardens and makes a tough, 
 unpalatable hay. A large part of the grain of rye in America is used in 
 the manufacture of alcohol and alcoholic beverages. The grain is excel- 
 lent for feeding stock, but it gives best results when used in small quan- 
 tities and combined with other grains. It is best suited for hogs, horses 
 and poultry. The grain, being very hard, generally gives best results 
 when coarsely ground. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "Small Grains." Carleton. 
 
 "Field Crops." Livingston. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 395. "Sixty-day and Kherson Oats." 
 
 420. "Oats: Distribution and Uses." 
 
 424. "Oats: Growing the Crop." 
 
 427. "Barley Culture in the Southern States." 
 
 436. "Winter Oats for the South." 
 
 443. "Barley: Growing the Crop." 
 
 518. "Winter Barley." 
 
CHAPTER 6 
 
 Buckwheat, Rice, Flax, Emmer, Kaffir Corn and Sunflower 
 
 buckwheat 
 
 Buckwheat is a minor crop in most parts of America. It can be 
 considered a staple crop only in New York and Pennsylvania. For 
 a number of years its acreage has remained about stationary. The 
 entire area devoted to it in the United States is about 800,000 acres. 
 New York and Pennsylvania produce about 77 per cent of the total 
 production. 
 
 It is often spoken of as the **lazy man's crop." It lends itself well to 
 the farmer who lacks capital. It brings quick returns and finds a ready 
 market at fair prices. It is the only grain for which a farmer can buy 
 fertilizer on a ninety-day note and pay for it out of the crop. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Buckwheat does best in a moist, 
 cool climate and at high altitudes. High temperatures during the period 
 of seed formation, accompanied by hot sunshine followed by showers, is 
 generally disastrous to the crop. Buckwheat will mature a crop of grain 
 in eight to ten weeks under favorable conditions. 
 
 Buckwheat is adapted to a wide range of soils, but does best on well- 
 drained soils that are rather light in texture. It succeecfe on poor soils and is 
 most extensively growai in those regions where the soils are of rather low 
 fertility. 
 
 Varieties. — The varieties common to the United States are Japanese, 
 Silver Hull and Common Grey. The Silver Hull is slightly smaller 
 than the Common Grey. The seed is also smaller, plumper and lighter 
 in color than the Japanese. If there is no objection to mixing varieties 
 it is thought larger yields can be secured by mixing the large and small 
 growing varieties, which affords a better distribution of the seed heads in 
 the field. 
 
 Preparation of Soil and Seeding. — Early plowing of the land in order 
 to permit harrowing at intervals of two weeks and a thorough settling of 
 the soil before seeding time, is advised. If early jilowing is not possible, 
 greater attention should be given to a thorough fitting of the seed-bed 
 immediately following plowing. 
 
 The amount of seed per acre varies from three to five pecks, depending 
 on manner of seeding, character of seed and condition of seed-bed. It may 
 be seeded either with the grain drill or broadcasted and harrowed in. When 
 drilled a smaller amount of seed will prove satisfactory, but the distribution 
 of plants secured by broadcasting is preferable to that secured by drilling, 
 
 (82) 
 
BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 83 
 
 unless the drill hoes are close together. The later buckM^heat is sown so as 
 to get ripe before frost, the better the yield will be. It is seldom advisable 
 to seed earlier than the last week in June, and in some localities it may be 
 seeded as late as the second week in July. 
 
 Fertilizers and Rotations. — Buckwheat seeded on poor land responds 
 well to a moderate dressing of low-grade fertilizer. On heavy soils where it 
 is desired to grow potatoes, buckwheat is recommended as a good crop 
 to precede potatoes. The following rotation is recommended for such soils : 
 clover, buckwheat, potatoes, oats or wheat seeded with clover. With 
 this arrangement the first crop of clover is harvested early and the land 
 immediately plowed and seeded to buckwheat. This gives two crops 
 during the season preceding potatoes, and leaves the land in excellent 
 condition for potatoes. 
 
 Harvesting and Threshing. — The harvesting of buckwheat should be 
 delayed until the aiDproach of cold weather, because the plants continue 
 to bloom and produce seed until killed by frost. The self-rake reaper is 
 well adapted to cutting buckwheat. The machine used should leave the 
 buckwheat in compact gavels with as little shattering as possible. The 
 self-binder is sometimes used, being set to deliver small bundles loosely 
 bound. However it may be harvested, it should be set upright in the field 
 so as to prevent the grain lying on the ground. It is customary to haul the 
 grain directly from the field to the threshing machine, as it is likely to mould 
 when placed in stacks. 
 
 In threshing by machinery, neither the crop nor the day need be 
 especially dry. The spiked concave of the thresher is generally replaced 
 with a smooth one or a suitable plank. This avoids serious cracking of the 
 grain and unnecessary breaking of the straw. 
 
 Buckwheat weighs 48 pounds to the bushel, and 35 bushels per acre is 
 considered a good yield, while 25 bushels is satisfactory. / The average yield 
 of buckwheat in the United States is 18 to 19 bushels per acre. 
 
 Uses of Buckwheat. — Buckwheat is used chiefly in the manufacture 
 of pancake flour. In some sections, and especially when the market price 
 is low, it is used quite extensively for feeding livestock. It is an excellent 
 poultry feed. The straw, being coarse and stiff, is of little value except for 
 bedding or to make manure. 
 
 In some localities buckwheat is used as a green manuring crop. It 
 serves well for this purpose because it grows quickly, may occupy the land 
 after an early crop is removed, and leaves the soil in a loose condition. 
 The seed being comparatively inexpensive and requiring only a moderate 
 amount, makes it inexpensive from the standpoint of seeding. It is fre- 
 quently used as a catch crop, being seeded in fields where other crops fail 
 from whatever cause. 
 
 Buckwheat is an excellent bee feed. It blossoms for a considerable 
 period of time and affords an abundance of nectar which makes honey of 
 good quality. 
 
84 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 RICE 
 
 Rice is unique in its culture, because it depends upon irrigation. It is 
 one of the oldest cereals, and is also one of the greatest food crops, being a 
 staple article of diet for millions of people in India, China and Japan. The 
 world's annual production is approximately 175,000,000,000 pounds of 
 cleaned rice, the greater portion of which is grown in India, China and 
 Japan. As an article of food in the United States it is of minor importance, 
 and yet the production in this country falls short of the consumption b}'" 
 about 200,000,000 pounds annually. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Rice is adapted to a moist, warm 
 climate, and its production in the United States is confined to the South 
 Atlantic and Gulf Coast states. The bulk of the crop is now produced in 
 Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas. Prior to 1890 it was produced mostly 
 in the Carolinas and Georgia. 
 
 Since the lowland forms which constitute the principal source of the 
 crop require irrigation, it demands a level soil with a compact subsoil that 
 will prevent rapid downward movement of water. Such soils are found 
 along the bottom lands of the rivers and on the level prairies of Texas and 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Preparation of Land and Seeding. — The land is usually plowed in the 
 spring and disked and harrowed to provide a good seed-bed. The rice is 
 seeded at the rate of one or two bushels per acre with a seed drill, usually 
 from April 15th to May 15th. Unless water is needed to germinate the 
 seed the land is not flooded until the plants are six to eight inches high. If 
 the soil is too dry the land may be flooded immediately' after seeding for 
 a few days to sprout the seed, after which the water is removed until the 
 jjlants are six to eight inches high. 
 
 Weeds are often a serious menace to rice culture. Such weeds may be 
 brought on rice fields in the irrigation water or may find their way there in 
 the seed rice. Red rice is a serious pest, and seed should not be used in which 
 it occurs. The presence of red rice in milled rice lowers its grade and 
 reduces its price. Red rice, being stronger, hardier and more persistent 
 than white rice, soon gets a foothold in the fields unless precautions are 
 taken to prevent it. 
 
 Fertilizers are seldom used in the production of rice, because the prac- 
 tice of irrigation brings to the land some fertility in the water. This is 
 especially true when the water is not clear. Furthermore, rice lands, being 
 either river bottom land or prairie land, are generally very fertile. In the 
 course of time, however, if rice is grown continuously, fertilizers will be 
 needed. 
 
 Flooding or Irrigation. — Water is let into the rice field to a depth of 
 three to six inches, and is maintained at this depth until the crop is nearly 
 mature. Water of ^a rather high and uniform temperature is preferred. 
 Cold water from mountain streams is undesirable. The water is constantly 
 renewed to prevent it from becoming stagnant. This necessitates a slow 
 
BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 85 
 
 movement of water across the rice field, and for this reason it is not advis- 
 able to have the fields too large. Irrigation necessitates the land being 
 practically level and surrounded by dikes. 
 
 There should be good facilities for draining, since land must be in 
 good condition when prepared for seeding and should be fairly dry at the 
 time of harvesting. 
 
 Harvesting and Threshing. — It requires from four to six months to 
 mature a crop of rice and the date of harvesting in the United States 
 varies from August to October, depending on time of seeding, character of 
 season and variety of rice. The crop should be harvested when the grain 
 is in the stiff dough stage and the straw somewhat green. The ordinary 
 grain binder is used for harvesting the crop, and the methods of shocking, 
 stacking and threshing are very similar to those used in wheat production. 
 
 Yields and Value. — Rough rice weighs 45 pounds to the bushel. It 
 is generally put into barrels of 162 pounds each, and the yield is spoken of 
 in barrels, and ranges from 8 to 30 barrels per acre; 12 barrels is considered 
 a good yield. The hulls or chaff constitute 12 to 25 per cent of the weight 
 of the rice, depending on variety and condition. In 1910 the total crop in 
 the United States was valued at $16,000,000, or about $20 per acre. The 
 rice is prepared in mills which remove the husk and cuticle and polish the 
 surface of the grain. In this condition it is placed upon the market. 
 
 FLAX 
 
 Flax is grown in Canada and in a few of the Northern states. Nearly 
 nine-tenths of the flax of the United States is grown in North and South 
 Dakota and in Minnesota. 
 
 Soil and Climate Adaptation. — Flax grows best in a cool climate and 
 on soils that are not too heavy. Sandy loams are better adapted to the 
 crop than clay loams or heavy clays. It is extensively grown on virgin 
 prairie soil, and is well adapted for seeding on the rather tough prairie sod 
 when plowed for the first time. The roots of flax develop extensively near 
 the surface of the soil. It is often considered an exhaustive crop, but the 
 actual removal of plant-food constitutents is less than in most other farm 
 crops Its shallow, sparse root system and the small amount of stubble 
 usually left in the field probably explain why it is considered exhaustive. 
 
 Preparation of Land and Seeding. — Where gro^^^l on virgin prairie land, 
 the sod should be broken about four inches deep and completely inverted 
 in order to make a smooth surface for seeding the flax. On newly plowed 
 land flax is seeded broadcast at the rate of one-half bushel per acre, and 
 covered by harroAving. It is thought better to fall-break sod, and to provide 
 a better prepared seed-bed the following spring by thorough disking and 
 harrowing. In this process the sod should not be loosened from its place, 
 and the roller is frequently used to compact the seed-bed and keep it smooth 
 and also level to facilitate the covering of the seed at a uniform depth. 
 
 Where flax is grown on old land it follows corn to good advantage, and 
 
8() 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 the seed-bed may be prepared by disking and harrowing in a manner 
 similar to preparing the land for oats. In recent years a seed drill has 
 been used for seeding flax with good results. The seed should be covered 
 from one-half inch to an inch deep. 
 
 Thin seeding encourages the branching of the plants and within 
 reasonable limits encourages large yields of seed. On land foul with weeds 
 it is better, however, to seed somewhat thicker to prevent weed develop- 
 
 A'FiELD OP Flax in Bloom.' 
 
 ment. When flax is grown chiefly for the fiber one and a half to two 
 bushels of seed per acre are used. 
 
 Harvesting and Threshing. — Flax may be harvested either with the 
 self-rake reaper or self-binder. When harvested with the reaper the gavels 
 should be rolled and set upright. The heads become entangled in such a 
 way as to hold the rolled gavels together. The straw is frequentlj^ so short 
 that it is necessary to cut as close to the ground as possible, and this calls 
 for a level seed-bed that will facilitate close cutting with machinery. 
 When cut with the binder the bundles should be set in small, loose shocks 
 to facilitate drying. The highest quality of seed for market demands 
 threshing from the shock as soon as it can be safely done. 
 
 Threshing is done with the ordinary threshing machine and necessi- 
 
 1 Courtesy of Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minn. From "Field Crops," by Wilson and 
 Warburton. 
 
BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 87 
 
 tates having the concaves set fairly close in order to separate all the seed 
 from the straw. The seed is small and flat and is but little broken in the 
 process of threshing. 
 
 The thresh-ed seed is generally placed in strong, closely woven bags 
 and securely tied. The seed, being small, flat and exceedingly smooth, will 
 run almost like water, and requires exceedingly tight bins for its storage 
 and very tight wagon boxes in case it is to be hauled unbagged. 
 
 Yield and Value of Crop. — The yield of flax seed ranges from 8 to 20 
 bushels per acre. Since most of the flax is produced by extensive methods 
 and on new land, the average yield for the United States is about 9 bushels. 
 The price generally ranges from $1 to $1.50 per bushel. During the last 
 few years a scarcity of flax has caused a somewhat higher price. A bushel 
 of flax will produce about twenty pounds of crude linseed oil, and the 
 oil cake after the removal of the oil is worth from 1 to 13^ cents per 
 pound. The average annual production in the United States for ten 
 years ending 1911 was about 24,000,000 bushels, valued at approximately 
 $28,000,000. 
 
 Utilization. — Flax is grown chiefly for its seed, from which is made 
 linseed oil, extensively used in the manufacture of paints. The meal, after 
 the extraction of the oil, finds a ready sale as a nitrogenous stock food, and 
 is extensively used as a concentrate for dairy cows. 
 
 The straw is utilized in only a limited way. It makes fair roughage 
 for stock, although not as valuable as oat straw. In some localities the 
 straw is used in the manufacture of tow, which is used in making rough 
 cordage and twine. 
 
 In the old world the plant is extensively used for the manufacture of 
 fiber. This necessitates pulling the plants by hand and requires special 
 facilities for treating the straw and separating the fiber. Labor is too 
 expensive in this country to enable American flax to compete with that of 
 the old world in this respect. Ground flax seed in small amounts is a 
 splendid feed for all kinds of stock. It acts as a tonic andhas a good 
 effect upon the digestive system. 
 
 Diseases of Flax. — Flax is so seriously troubled with a disease 
 known as flax wilt that it necessitates the use of treated seed selected 
 from wilt-resistant plants. The formalin treatment described for wheat 
 serves equally well for the treatment of flax seed. Flax seed will 
 require only about one-half gallon of the solution to each bushel of seed. 
 It should be thoroughly stirred after sprinkling, covered with canvas 
 treated with formalin, and allowed to remain two or three hours and 
 then stirred and dried. After thoroughly dry it may be placed in bags 
 which have been treated with formalin to prevent the presence of wilt 
 spores. 
 
 Since this disease ma}^ live in the soil for several years in the absence 
 of flax, it is necessary to practice long rotations in which flax will not be 
 grown more frequently than once in five to seven years, 
 
 15 
 
88 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 KAFFIR CORN 
 
 Kaffir corn is a non-saccharine sorghum. The sorghums are generally 
 divided into three classes: (1) those cultivated chiefly for grain, of which 
 Kaffir, milo and dura are the best types; (2) those cultivated for the manu- 
 facture of brooms; and (3) those grown chiefly for the production of syrup. 
 Regions of Production. — Kaffir corn, milo and dura are grown chiefly 
 between the 98ih meridian and the Rocky Mountains, and south of 
 
 40 degrees north latitude. 
 This crop is drought 
 resistant and adapted 
 especially to the dry 
 conditions of the Great 
 Plains region. 
 
 Value and Uses. — - 
 Kaffir corn is used chiefly 
 as a source of stock food. 
 The grain is similar in 
 composition to ordinary 
 corn, and has about the 
 same feeding value. In 
 composition there is very 
 little difference between 
 the stover of corn and 
 Kaffir corn. Any surplus 
 of the grain finds a ready 
 market, and is in much 
 demand for poultry feed. 
 The grain may be fed 
 either whole or crushed. 
 It is somewhat softer 
 than the grain of corn 
 and the kernels, being 
 smaller, can be used for 
 poultry without crush- 
 ing. It makes excellent 
 feed for horses, cattle 
 and swine. 
 
 Varieties. — There 
 are many varieties in each of the three classes of non-saccharine sorghums. 
 The Kaffir corn proper has erect, compact seed heads and the foliage is 
 more leafy than that of milo. The seed heads of the latter are usually 
 pendant, the stalks are less leafy and the plant is generally earlier in 
 maturity. It is, therefore, adapted to the northern portion of the Kaffir corn 
 region, and to those locafities where seed production is most important. 
 
 iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 686, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 He.\ds of Four Varieties of Kaffir.^ 
 
 A — White Kaffir; B — Guinea Kaffir (Guinea corn 
 of the West Indies); C—BlackhuU Kaffir; D— Red 
 Kaffir. (About one-fifth natural size.) 
 
BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 
 
 89 
 
 Production and Harvesting. — The preparation of the land, the planting 
 and the cultivation of Kaffir corn are similar to those required for corn under 
 the same conditions. The seed should be drilled in rows sufficiently far 
 apart to facilitate cultivation with two-horse cultivators, usually 3^ feet 
 apart. The seed is drilled at such a rate that the plants in the row will 
 stand from 4 to 6 inches apart. For small growing varieties plants may be 
 closer than in case of the larger varieties. Planting should not take place 
 until the soil is quite warm. It is usually best to plant about ten days 
 later than the best time for planting field corn. It is advisable to have a 
 well-prepared seed-bed free from weeds. The plants as they first appear 
 are small and make slow 
 
 growth. 
 
 The crop may be har- 
 vested by cutting the whole 
 plant and placing in small 
 shocks, or the seed heads may 
 be removed and stored in nar- 
 row, well-ventilated cribs. 
 After removing the seed heads 
 the stalks may be cut and 
 shocked or they may be pas- 
 tured as they stand in the 
 field. In some localities the 
 whole plant is cut and put in 
 the silo in the same manner as 
 making ensilage of field corn. 
 The yield of grain is fully as 
 large as that of field corn grain 
 under similar conditions, and 
 the drought-resistance of the 
 crop makes it more certain than corn. Fifty bushels per acre is con- 
 sidered a good yield. The seed is separated from the head by means of a 
 threshing machine. The weight of threshed grain per bushel is 56 pounds. 
 
 Emmek.^ 
 A good substitute for oata and barley. 
 
 EMMER 
 
 Emmer, also known as spelt, is closely related to wheat, but is distin- 
 guished from it by the grain, which remains enclosed in the glumes when 
 threshed. There are both spring and winter varieties. The spring varie- 
 ties are most extensively grown in the northern portion of the Great Plains 
 region. The crop is characterized by its ability to make a satisfactory 
 growth on almost any kind of soil. All of the varieties are drought resistant, 
 and the winter varieties are fairly hardy. It is not attacked by rusts and 
 smuts to the same extent as wheat and oats. 
 
 'From Farmers* Bulletin 466, U. S. Dept. of Agricult\ire. 
 
^0 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 It stands up well in the field and is little damaged by wet weather at 
 harvest time. 
 
 The methods used in the seeding of other spring grains will apply to 
 emmer. The seed should be drilled at the rate of about two bushels per 
 acre. It is important to sow early. The grain will stand a great deal of 
 spring frosts. 
 
 Emmer is well adapted to the feeding of stock, and will easily take the 
 place of oats, barley or rye. 
 
 A comparative test of emmer as compared with other spring grains 
 covering a period of eight years at the North Dakota Experiment Station 
 shows comparatively little difference in the yield of grain from the several 
 crops. Oats led with 1969 pounds jier acre, while emmer was second with 
 1945 pounds to the acre. The lowest yield, 1711 pounds per acre, was from 
 wheat. 
 
 While this crop is especially adapted to the semi-arid conditions of the 
 Northwest, it is suggested that it might prove a profitable substitute for 
 oats in those portions of the Central, Southern and Eastern states where 
 oats prove unsatisfactory. 
 
 SUNFLOWERS 
 
 Sunflowers are a native of America, and are widely but not extensively 
 grown. The leaves and heads of the plant make good fodder for horses and 
 cattle. The seeds are used for bird and poultry food and also for the manu- 
 facture of oil. Sunflowers succeed best on rather fertile soil and with warm 
 climatic conditions. The requirements are similar to those for corn. The 
 seed should be planted in drills sufficiently far apart for cultivation, and 
 should be thinned to one plant every 12 to 14 inches in the row. 
 
 When the heads form, it is advisable to remove all but two or three on 
 each plant. 
 
 The heads should be harvested before the seed is fully ripe. This 
 prevents loss of seed by shattering and damage by birds. The heads 
 should be spread out on a barn floor or other suitable place until dry. They 
 may then be stored in bulk. Where used on the farm for poultry, there is 
 no need for threshing the seed. The cost of growing sunflowers is much the 
 same as for corn. The harvesting, how^ever, is much more expensive, 
 and until suitable methods for harvesting and threshing and storing are 
 devised, the crop is not likely to be extensively grown. 
 
 Yields ranging from 1000 to 2250 pounds of seed per acre are reported. 
 The seed weighs 30 pounds per bushel. 
 
BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 91 
 
 REFERENCES 
 "Manual of Flax Culture." 
 North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 6. "Flax.'' 
 North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 7. "Plax for Seed and Oil." 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : 
 
 274. " Flax Culture." 
 
 322. "Milo as a Dry Land Grain Crop." 
 
 417. "Rice Culture." 
 
 448. "Better Grain. Sorghum Crops." 
 
 466. "Winter Emmer." 
 
 552. "Kaffir Corn as a Grain Crop." 
 
 669. "Fiber Flax." 
 
 SS8. "The Culture of Rice in California. 
 
CHAPTER 7 
 
 Meadow and pasture Grasses 
 
 Meadow and pasture grasses constitute an important and desirable 
 part of the roughage for most classes of livestock. Livestock is indis- 
 pensable as a part of good agriculture. An old Flemish proverb says, 
 "No grass, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops." The 
 history of agriculture of many countries shows that where the production 
 of grasses has been neglected, agriculture has declined. England neglected 
 the grass crops and her yield of wheat fell to less than fifteen bushels per 
 acre. She then turned her attention to grasses and the yield increased to 
 over thirty bushels per acre. Of her 28,000,000 acres of tilled land, over 
 one-half are now in permanent pastures. For the past forty-five years 
 permanent pastures of England have increased at about one per cent 
 annually. This should convince the American farmer that in order to 
 grow grain profitably crojDs must be rotated, and in this rotation grass 
 should find a prominent place. Some far-sighted farmers in North 
 America saw this many years ago, and in the corn belt those who have 
 grown grass are today husldng sixty bushels of corn per acre, while those 
 who did not must be content with about thirty bushels. 
 
 Importance and Value of Grasses. — According to the last census the 
 hay crop of the United States was 61,000,000 tons, valued at $750,000,000. 
 This does not include the annual hay and forage crops and various kinds 
 of by-products, such as straw and corn stover. This amount of hay will 
 sustain the livestock of the United States about one-fourth of the year, 
 and must be supplemented by about 200,000,000 tons of other forms of 
 feed. Considerable of this comes from the pastures, for which we have 
 no definite statistics. The combined value of hay and pasture grasses 
 far exceeds that of any other crop excepting corn. 
 
 Regions of Production. — The perennial hay and pasture grasses 
 succeed best in the northeastern one-fourth of the United States and in 
 southeastern Canada. This grass region extends south to the Potomac 
 and Ohio rivers and to the southern border of Missouri and Kansas, 
 and is limited on the west by about the 96th meridian. The region is 
 characterized by a cool, moist climate and moderate to abundant rainfall. 
 
 Principal Grasses of North America. — There are several hundred 
 species of grasses, but of these there are less than one dozen that are of 
 economic importance in North America. Those of greatest importance 
 in the order mentioned are timothy, blue grass, redtop, Bermuda grass, 
 orchard grass, smooth brome grass and Johnson grass. There are a 
 number of others that are grown on a very limited scale, among which 
 
 (92) 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 
 
 93 
 
 may be mentioned tall oat grass, meadow fescue, tall fescue, English rye 
 grass, Italian rye grass, sheep's fescue, red fescue, Sudan grass and sweet 
 vernal grass. 
 
 Valuable Characteristics. — To be valuable under cultivation grasses 
 should give satisfactory yields, possess good feeding value, be capable 
 of easy reproduction and be reasonably aggressive. To these might be 
 added, habit of seeding freely so that seed can be cheaply harvested, 
 together with hardiness or ability to withstand adverse climatic conditions. 
 
 Choice of Grasses. — The kind of grass to grow will depend on what 
 one wishes to do with it. For pastures a mixture or variety of grasses is 
 
 Map Showing Region op Grass Production in the United States.^ 
 
 desirable for a number of reasons. In the first place, a variety of grasses 
 lends variety to the forage for the pastured animals, and induces them 
 to partake of more food and consequently make more growth. A variety 
 often prolongs the season of pasturage, some grasses making their growth 
 in the early and late portions of the growing season when weather con- 
 ditions are cool, and others growing more freely in the warmer portion of 
 the season. Variety also increases the total yield because of the variation 
 in habits of groAvth of both roots and foliage. 
 
 When grown chiefly for hay, the yield, quality and palatability of 
 the crop secured are important. The cost of establishing, both in direct 
 outlay for seed and in the prei^aration of the seed-bed, should be considered, 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y, From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by Piper. 
 
94 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 as should also the duration of the grasses and the length of time required 
 to come to perfection. Consideration should also be given to time of 
 matui-ity as related to favorable or unfavorable weather. Abundant 
 sunshine and freedom from rains facilitate making hay of good quality. 
 Where two or more grasses are grown, those should be selected that will 
 mature at approximately the same date. 
 
 Seed and Seeding. — There is no crop in which more seed is wasted 
 than the grasses. Of the seed sown, a relatively small percentage develops 
 plants, and probably there is no crop in which failure to secure a satis- 
 factory stand of plants is more common. This is due to a number of 
 factors, among which may be mentioned the poor preparation of the 
 seed-bed, the faulty covering of the seed and the adverse conditions that 
 frequently follow seeding, thus causing a large percentage of the small 
 plants to perish. The poor quahty of the seed used is also a factor and 
 one that can be largely avoided by the purchase of only first-class seed. 
 As a rule, first-class seeds, although costing more than poor ones, are the 
 cheapest. The following table gives the rate of seeding, the cost of seed 
 per pound and the calculated cost per acre : 
 
 Cost of Seed per Acre, Using Average Amount.* 
 
 PLint. 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Orchard grass 
 
 Redtop 
 
 Brome grass 
 
 Kentucky bkie grass 
 
 Italian rye gi-ass 
 
 Perennial rye gi-ass. . 
 
 Tall oat grass 
 
 Tall fescue 
 
 Meadow fescue 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Sweet clover 
 
 Rate of 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Seeding, 
 
 Seed per 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Pound. 
 
 15 
 
 $0.06i 
 
 20 
 
 .15 
 
 10 
 
 .10 
 
 20 
 
 .10 
 
 25 
 
 .14 
 
 30 
 
 .05 
 
 30 
 
 .05 
 
 30 
 
 .14 
 
 20 
 
 .18 
 
 20 
 
 .11 
 
 12 
 
 .17 
 
 8 
 
 .20 
 
 20 
 
 .15 
 
 20 
 
 .20 
 
 Cost of 
 
 Seed per 
 
 Acre. 
 
 $0,975 
 3.00 
 1.00 
 2.00 
 3.50 
 1.50 
 1.50 
 4.20 
 3.60 
 2.20 
 2.04 
 1.60 
 3.00 
 4.00 
 
 Since failure to secure a satisfactory stand of grass is so common, 
 farmers are advised not only to use every precaution in the preparation 
 of seed-bed and time and manner of seeding, but also to use an abundance 
 of good seed. As land values increase and the price of product becomes 
 higher, the necessity for these precautions becomes greater. The extra 
 expense for liberal seeding will pay abundantly in the vast majority of 
 cases. The ideal seed-bed is moist and finely pulverized. The slant- 
 toothed harrow is the best implement for making the final preparation. 
 
 * The prices piven were New York wholesnle priees in .Ian>iar>-. 1014. as given in "Forage Plants 
 and Tlieir Culture." by Piper. Rate of seeding for red. alsike and eweet clover changed. 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 
 
 95 
 
 Harvesting. — The time of harvesting grasses for hay will be deter- 
 mined: (1) by the weather conditions that prevail at the period of 
 maturity, (2) the injury to the succeeding crop as determined by time of 
 cutting, (3) the total yield as determined by stage of maturity, (4) the 
 amount of digestible nutrients secured, and (5) the digestibility and 
 palatability of the product. These factors will vary somewhat with 
 different species of grasses and with the character of animals to which 
 they are to be fed. In general, hay cutting should take place from the 
 period of bloom until seeds are in the dough stage. The total pounds of 
 dry matter will generally increase up to fair maturity. Palatability will 
 be lessened and digestibility diminished if harvesting is too long delayed. 
 If a large acreage is to be handled and weather conditions are uncertain, 
 the harvest period is likely to be prolonged. It is, therefore, well to begin 
 
 -xw • 
 
 
 
 <it* 
 
 •.^ ' «*' ^ 
 
 ■ •- TiitiiitMni liiyiMMiMff* 
 
 HMfel 
 
 
 
 
 HHHhp(»*v' j'- 'jjisi^' 
 
 .-. A .-r. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3lfi 
 
 B 
 
 B^bHkCPk^ 
 
 
 B 
 
 The Side Delivert Rake.^ 
 
 harvesting rather early in order that the harvest may be completed before 
 the grass becomes too mature. 
 
 The market demands a product of timothy hay that is fairly mature 
 when harvested. Such hay is more easily cured and less likely to contain 
 dust and moulds. The large part of timothy that is placed upon the market 
 is used for feeding horses, and feeders object to dusty and mouldy hay. 
 
 The quality of hay is determined to a large extent by the manner in 
 which it is handled and cured. This in turn depends to no small degree 
 upon weather conditions. Warm weather, accompanied by plenty of 
 sunshine and a fairly dry atmosphere, is favorable to hay making. If 
 the grass is fairly mature it may be cut late in the afternoon or early in 
 the morning, and placed in the windrow or shock during the evening. 
 Where hay is produced extensively, it is advisable to use up-to-date 
 
 ^ Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago. 
 
96 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 mowing machines, side-delivery hayrakes, tedders and convenient and 
 automatic forks for conveying the hay from wagons to mows or stacks. 
 With such an equipment the hay is secured with the minimum of labor 
 and the least possible handling and consequent loss of the leaves and 
 finer portions. 
 
 It is maintained, however, that hay of better quality is obtained by 
 curing it in the field in the shock. Cocking hay so that it will not be 
 unduly exposed to rain entails additional labor. Canvas covers are 
 advised if weather conditions are uncertain. 
 
 Hay placed in the mow or stack before thoroughly dry goes through 
 a sweating process. A certain degree of sweating is deemed desirable, 
 but should not proceed sufficiently far to develop moulds or cause dis- 
 coloration. The amount of sweating is dependent on the moisture in 
 the hay. The amount of moisture in hay as it is hauled from the field 
 varies greatly, but ordinarily will not exceed more than 25 to 28 per cent; 
 
 20 to 25 per cent of 
 moisture is favorable 
 to a good quality of 
 hay, and is better than 
 to have it too dry or 
 too moist when stored. 
 Numerous determi- 
 nations of the shrink- 
 age of hay in stack or 
 mow show a loss in a 
 period of six months 
 ranging from as low as 
 3 per cent to over 30 
 per cent. This loss is 
 due chiefly to the loss 
 of moisture from the 
 hay. Where the sweating is intense and the temperature runs high, 
 there will also be some loss of organic matter. 
 
 In stacking hay great care should be exercised in the construction 
 of the stacks in order that they shed water. The stacks should be built 
 of good form, and the central portion should be more thoroughly compacted 
 than the outsides. Where hay is valuable, it pays to cover the stacks 
 with good canvas covers or to provide a roof of boards. The stack 
 should be protected from the earth by a foundation of rails or by a thick 
 layer of straw. 
 
 Hay is marketed both baled and unbaled. It is graded according 
 to its quality and freedom from weeds and grasses other than that of the 
 name under which sold. Market grades can be secured from grain 
 dealers' associations, and are generally given in market quotations. 
 
 1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago. 
 
 Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker. ^ 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 97 
 
 TIMOTHY 
 
 Timothy is the most important and the most extensively grown of 
 any of the meadow grasses in North America. It is the standard grass 
 for hay purposes and finds a ready sale in all of the hay markets. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Timothy is a northern grass and 
 seldom does well in North America south of latitude 36 degrees, excepting 
 in high elevations. Cool, moist weather during the early part of the 
 growing season is favorable to good yields of hay. It is best adapted to 
 loam and clay loam soils. It is not adapted to swampy soil conditions, 
 neither does it succ'?ed on sandy or gravelly soils. It is not drought 
 
 A Field of Good Grass (Timothy), College Farm, Pa. 
 Yield, five tons per acre field-cured hay. 
 
 resistant, and does best on moist, well-drained soils. It calls for a fair 
 degTee of soil fertility and does not do well on acid soils. 
 
 Advantages of Timothy. — The importance of timothy hes chiefly in 
 its ability to produce good yields of hay that find a ready market at a 
 fair price. The plants seldom lodge and are easily cut and cured, and the 
 period during which it may be cut is longer than that for most grasses. 
 It seeds abundantly, and seed of a high degree of purity and of good 
 germination can be secured at a low cost. It fits well into the crop rota- 
 tions, and is adapted to seeding with small grains, such as wheat, oats, 
 rye and barley, either in the autumn or in the spring. 
 
 Seed and Seeding. — The low price of timothy seed and its appearance 
 make it difficult of adulteration. No grass seed on the market so nearly 
 
08 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 approaches absolute purity as timothy seed; consequently, the standard 
 of purity is placed at 99 per cent, and that of germination at 98 per cent. 
 Timothy seed contains about 1,200,000 seeds to the pound, and weighs 
 42 to 48 pounds per bushel. The legal weight is 45 pounds. Four pounds 
 of timothy seed furnish 100 seeds to the square foot on an acre. If 
 every seed produced a plant there would be a great many more plants 
 than are required to make a satisfactory hay crop. The seeds, however, 
 are so small, and the conditions for germination and early growth often 
 so unfavorable, that 12 pounds per acre are usually required. Tests at 
 several of the experiment stations with different rates of seeding show 
 that the largest yield of hay has been secured by using amounts somewhat 
 in excess of 15 pounds per acre. 
 
 The Hay Loader in Operation.^ 
 
 Under favorable temperature and moisture conditions the seed 
 germinates in five to six days. Although a large percentage of seed three 
 or four years old will grow, it is safest to use seed that is not more than 
 one year old. New seed is sometimes adulterated with old seed. Old 
 seed can generally be detected by its lack of luster, but a germination 
 test to determine the quality of the seed is advised. 
 
 The seed is sown broadcast and where seeded with a nurse crop is 
 generally applied by means of the grass seed attachment to the grain 
 drill. There are two methods of distributing the seed by this attachment. 
 In some cases the grass seed distributors are turned in front of the drill 
 hoes. This provides for considerable covering of the timothy seed, and 
 
 ' Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago. 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 
 
 09 
 
 is applicable only when the soil is of a sandy nature, or in excellent physical 
 condition. Otherwise, it is generally best to distribute the seed behind 
 the drill hoes, and allow it to become covered by the action of rain. 
 
 The wheelbarrow seeder is also used, and where the seeding by the 
 above-mentioned method cannot be entrusted to thoroughly competent 
 labor, it is better to use the wheelbarrow seeder. In this way the operator 
 has only the seeding of grass to look after and will do a better job than is 
 likely to be done when the seeding is combined with the distribution of 
 grain and fertilizers all in one operation. 
 
 Rows OF Timothy, Each Propagated by Slips from the Original Seedlings.^ 
 Each row represents a distinct tj'pe. Note the variation in size and vigor. 
 
 When winter grains are grown, most of the timothy is seeded with 
 them in the fall. When seeded in this way it makes but little growth the 
 succeeding year, and no hay crop is secured. The second year a full 
 crop of hay is secured. In some localities timothy is seeded alone in the 
 fall. This method is applicable in the southern portion of the timothy 
 region. It involves more labor, but results in a full crop of hay during 
 the folloAving season. 
 
 Wliere spring-sown grains prevail, timothy is more frequently seeded 
 with them in the spring. With this method, no crop is secured the first 
 
 1 Farmers' Bulletin, 514, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture. 
 
100 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 season. In the southern portion of the timothy belt spring seeding with- 
 out a nurse crop is practiced to a Hmited extent. Such seeding is success- 
 ful only on land that is free from weeds and annual grasses. Under such 
 conditions a light cutting of hay is secured during the first year. 
 
 Timothy may be seeded on wheat that has been severely winter 
 killed. If seeded early and the wheat is not harvested too early, both 
 wheat and timothy may be cut for seed at one and the same operation. 
 By using a fanning mill with proper sieves the wheat and timothy seed 
 are easily separated after threshing. 
 
 Fertilizers and Manures. — Timothy responds abundantly to hght 
 top dressings of manure. The manure should be applied with a manure 
 spreader, and best results will be secured when used at the rate of six 
 to ten loads per acre. It may be applied any time during the autumn or 
 winter. In the absence of manure, a top dressing with a complete fertil- 
 izer early in the spring just as the grass begins to start is very beneficial. 
 In several of the states 350 pounds per acre containing about seven per 
 cent of each of the three constituents have given excellent results. 
 
 Tests at several of the experiment stations relative to the position of 
 the roots of timothy in the soil show that 85 to 90 per cent of the roots are 
 found in the first six inches of soil. In one case 63 per cent occurred in 
 the upper two inches of soil. This is important in connection with the 
 top dressing of timothy and shows that such top dressing is very close 
 to the great bulk of the active roots of the crop. 
 
 Mixing Timothy with Other Grasses and Clovers. — If the hay 
 product is to be fed on the farm, it is advisal)le to seed clover with timothy. 
 In this practice the amount of timothy seed is reduced to eight or ten 
 pounds per acre, and may be seeded either in the fall or spring, depending 
 on local practice. In the northern part of the timothy region the clover 
 can be safely seeded only in the spring. - Six to ten pounds of clover seed 
 per acre will be required, depending on soil conditions and the kind of 
 clover. The first crop of hay will be largely clover, the second chiefly 
 timothy. 
 
 Where meadow land is to be used for hay during the first year or 
 two and afterwards devoted to pasture, it is well to include redtop, blue 
 grass and some other grasses and clovers with it. It is also thought wise 
 on very wet lands or on sour soil to include some redtojD with the timothy 
 for hay pin-poses. 
 
 Harvesting. — Many experiments relative to the time of harvesting 
 show that the best results are secured only when cut between the time 
 of full bloom and the soft dough stage of the seed. Since timothy is 
 shallow rooted and much of its vitality depends on the thickened bulb- 
 like base of the stem, it is desirable not to cut too closely. Close cutting, 
 or pasturing closely with stock after cutting, injures the subsequent 
 crops by exposure of the bulbs and by injury from tramping. Only when 
 the aftermath is abundant should pasturing be allowed. In no case is it 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 
 
 101 
 
 deemed desirable to pasture with sheep, since they are apt to nip off the 
 crown of tlie plant and thus destroy it. 
 
 Pasturing. — Timothy is distinctly a grass for hay rather than for 
 pasturing. It may be used in pasture mixtures to give early grazing, 
 and will give way to the more permanent grasses which are slower in 
 becoming established. It is a common practice to cut timothy for hay 
 purposes for one or more years and then pasture during the year just 
 preceding the devotion of the land to another crop. 
 
 ,-i^^S'flll, 10^*' 
 
 Field of Timothy Plants Grown for Selection, Showing Variation in Size 
 AND Form of Individual Plants. ^ 
 
 Slips and seeds from choice plants are used for propagating new strains. 
 
 Seed Production. — Timothy generally produces between five and 
 twelve bushels of seed per acre. It is most conveniently cut with the 
 self-binder, and is threshed with the ordinary threshing machine, using 
 special sieves to clean and separate the seed. Loss from shattering will 
 be severe if allowed to become over-ripe. If cut promptly the straw has 
 considerable feeding value. The principal seed-producing states are 
 Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas and Ohio. 
 
 Composition and Feeding Value. — Timothy hay contains about 6 
 per cent of protein, 45 per cent of carbohydrates, 2.5 per cent of fat and 29 
 per cent of crude fiber. About one-half of this is digestible. 
 
 »Farmer3' Bulletin. 514, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
102 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Improvement of Timothy. — Although timothy has been an important 
 crop and large quantities of seed are bought and sold, as yet no varieties 
 have been developed. Timothy plants show marked variation in size, 
 vigor, character of foliage and resistance to drought. Improvement of 
 the crop for special purposes can be made by the selection and propagation 
 of desirable plants. Several of the experiment stations have made progress 
 along this line and have already developed strains of timothy that have 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 ;/ ^1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /•; 
 
 
 If 
 
 
 ih ,' 
 
 i ; ■ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 k ■ 
 
 t 
 
 
 f' • 
 
 
 
 .i 
 
 111 
 
 fc ' 
 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 
 HbIjP^'. 
 
 
 
 pj 
 
 
 mmgi 
 
 & 
 
 i^i^i^M^fflHi 
 
 ■■ 
 
 Variations in Timothy. ^ 
 
 outyielded that secured from commercial seed by as much as one ton 
 per acre. 
 
 Marketing the Hay. — The bulk of timothy hay is placed upon the 
 market in bales of about 100 pounds each. The market calls for bright, 
 clean timothy hay, free from weeds and various grasses. When mixed with 
 clover, redtop or other grasses, quotations will be somewhat lower than for 
 pure timothy. 
 
 BLUE GRASS 
 
 There ara two chief species of blue grass in North America, namely, 
 Kentucky blue grass and Canada blue grass. These grasses spread by 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Plant Breeding," by Bailey. 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 103 
 
 means of seed and also by underground root stocks. They give rise to an 
 even and continuous turf, and are especially adapted for pasture purposes. 
 They are aggressive grasses and tend to take possession of the land and 
 crowd out weeds and other grasses. The Kentucky blue grass is superior 
 in both quality and yield. Its chmatic adaptation is essentially the same 
 as that for Canada blue grass, and ranges from Virginia northward into 
 Canada, and westward to the central part of Kansas and Nebraska. It 
 reaches its highest development in the region of limestone soils. Parts of 
 Kentucky, Missouri, Virginia and Tennessee are noted for their blue grass 
 regions. It also succeeds well on both the timber and prairie soils of Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois and Iowa. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — These two prominent pasture grasses 
 are adapted to a cool, moist climate having thirty inches of rainfall and 
 upward. They are exceedingly resistant to cold, never freezing out in 
 even the most severe winters. These grasses prefer well-drained loams 
 or clay loams. They are not adapted to loose, sandy soils. The Kentucky 
 blue grass calls for a fair to good degree of fertility, and where these two 
 grasses are seeded together on such soil, the Kentucky blue grass will 
 soon take full possession. The Canada blue grass has the ability to grow 
 on poor soils, although it will produce only small crops and poor pasturage 
 under such conditions. On poor soils the Canada blue grass will take pos- 
 session finally to the exclusion of Kentucky blue grass. 
 
 Although these two grasses will make hay of fair quality, the yield 
 is so low that they are not adapted to hay purposes. 
 
 Importance of Blue Grass. — As pasture grasses these are unexcelled 
 for the temperate portions of North America where the rainfall is fairly 
 abundant. They are not only valuable as summer pasture, but as winter 
 pasture for horses and sheep, have no equal. When desired for winter 
 pasture they should not be closely pastured during the summer. Winter 
 pasture from these grasses can often be provided by turning the stock into 
 the fields from which the spring crops have been harvested and on to meadow 
 land during the late summer and autumn. This permits the blue grass to 
 make good growth for winter pasture. Even when covered with snow, 
 horses and sheep will paw off the snow and pasture on the grass. 
 
 Severe drought during the summer may completely suspend the growth 
 of blue grass and cause it to appear dead. No matter how long the period 
 of drought, rains will quickly revive the grass and it will resume its normal 
 growth and condition. It will stand a great abundance of tramping without 
 serious injury. The writer has seen calves retained in hurdle pens during 
 wet weather on blue grass until the surface would be thoroughly puddled 
 and no grass visible. A few weeks after removing the pens the grass would 
 be in as thrifty a condition as ever. 
 
 Methods of Establishing. — Blue grass seed weighs from fourteen to 
 twenty-eight pounds per bushel, the legal weight being fourteen pounds. 
 The weight is determined chiefly by the presence or absence of the glumes 
 
 16 
 
104 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 or hulls that enclose the seed proper. Blue grass seed is frequently of low 
 vitality, due to faulty methods of harvesting and curing. It is always well 
 to test the seed before seeding as a guide to the amount of seed desirable 
 to use. Blue grass is very slow in becoming thoroughly established, and 
 good pastures can seldom be secured in less than two years from time of 
 seeding, and in some cases more time is required. It is generally advisable 
 to seed with a mixture of grasses and clovers, some of which will give prompt 
 pasture. Timothy, orchard grass, and red and alsike clover are, therefore, 
 frequently used. These ultimately give way to the blue grass. Virgin 
 grass land and meadow land are frequently converted into blue grass 
 pastures by seeding l)lue grass, which gradually spreads and takes posses- 
 sion. When used for lawn purposes, the rate of seeding should be three to 
 four bushels per acre. As little as eight to ten pounds per acre may be 
 used when seeded with other grasses and when plenty of time is allowed 
 for becoming well established. Ordinarilj^, twenty to twenty-five pounds 
 of blue grass should be used when it is the chief grass for the pasture. 
 
 It is difficult to distinguish between seed of Kentucky blue grass and 
 Canada blue grass. The latter is sometimes used to adulterate the former, 
 since it generally is less costly. 
 
 Pasture Maintenance. — Blue grass, because of its numerous under- 
 ground root stocks, tends to form a sod-bound turf. This condition may be 
 obviated by seeding blue grass pastures with red or alsike clover every 
 three or four years. This can be done by using a disk drill early in the 
 spring. The use cf the disk will also help to overcome sod-l^inding. The 
 presence of the clover will enhance the pasture for the time being, and 
 especially during the dry period when the blue grass will remain dormant. 
 The clover roots tend to loosen up the ground and supply nitrogen to the 
 ])lue grass. White clover is advantageous when seeded with blue grass. 
 It re-seeds itself and becomes permanent so long as soil conditions are 
 favorable. Under favorable conditions and with proper treatment, blue 
 grass pastures improve with age, at least for several years. There are 
 many instances of such pastures having been undisturbed for thirty 
 or forty years. 
 
 REDTOP 
 
 Redtop is a native grass of North America, and grows naturally in cold, 
 wet soils. It is a perennial provided with long, creeping underground root 
 stems, and spreads both by means of these and seeds. It forms a contin- 
 uous and fairly even turf, and is, therefore, well adapted for pasture pur- 
 poses. It has a wider range of adaptation, both from the soil and climatic 
 standpoint, than any other cultivated grass. It is resistant to cold and 
 withstands summer heat much better than timothy. It does not show much 
 preference for type of soil, but does best on loams and clay loams. It is 
 exceedingly tolerant of soil acidity. It is also fairly drought resistant and 
 succeeds better than most grasses on poor, sandy soils. 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 105 
 
 Importance of Redtop. — Redtop is the third or fourth most important 
 perennial grass in America. It is adapted to both pasture and hay pur- 
 poses, although it is not equal to timothy as a hay producer nor to Kentucky 
 blue grass for pasture purposes. As a pasture grass it is not so palatable 
 as Kentucky blue grass. 
 
 Culture. — Like Kentucky blue grass, redtop is aggressive and fre- 
 quently takes full possession of the land. It is seldom seeded alone, usually 
 being included in mixtures. The rate of seeding depends on the quality 
 of the seed and the nature of the mixture in which seeded. With re-cleaned 
 seed, twelve to fifteen pounds per acre are sufficient when seeded alone. 
 Much smaller amounts will meet the requirements in mixtures. The time 
 and manner of seeding are similar to those for timothy. 
 
 Yields and Uses. — Redtop has been tested at a number of state experi- 
 ment stations and yields of hay ranging from 3000 to 5600 pounds per acre 
 are reported. In order to be of good quality redtop should be cut early. 
 If allowed to become fairly mature it makes hay that is fibrous and unpala- 
 table. Numerous analyses show that redtop hay contains more nutrients 
 than timothy hay. 
 
 ORCHARD GRASS 
 
 Orchard grass, a native of Europe, is gTown quite generally throughout 
 the United States, except in the semi-arid sections and the extreme south. 
 It is a rather deep-rooted, coarse grass which grows in tufts or bunches and 
 is without creeping root stocks. It does best in a temperate climate, but 
 will stand more heat than timothy, and is less resistant to cold. In the 
 United States it is cultivated more abundantly southward than northward. 
 It begins growth earlier than most grasses, and often produces a second 
 cutting of hay. 
 
 Importance. — Orchard grass ranks fouith or fifth in importance among 
 the perennial cultivated hay grasses in North America. It is most exten- 
 sively grown in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Ken- 
 tucky, southern Indiana, Iowa and Oregon. 
 
 Culture. — The seed of orchard grass weighs from fourteen to twenty- 
 two pounds per bushel, and when seeded alone requires about thirty-five 
 pounds per acre. Germination of the seed is complete in about fourteen 
 days. It may be seeded either in the fall or very early spring. When 
 seeded in the fall, early seeding is desirable to prevent winter killing. The 
 seed, being of an exceedingly chaffy character, does not feed well through 
 a seed drill, and is generally sown by hand or with the wheelbarrow or other 
 types of seeders. 
 
 Ordinarily, the grass does not form seed the first season. It is long- 
 lived, and individual plants are known to live eight years, and will probably 
 Uve longer. 
 
 Yields and Uses. — Whether seeded in fall or spring, the first year's 
 growth rarely gives a hay crop, but it may be utilized for pasture. When 
 
lOG SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 used for hay it should be cut as soon as in full bloom. The stems become 
 woody if it stands longer. It is usually about three weeks earlier than 
 timothy and is advantageous on lands infested with ox-eye daisy, flea-bane 
 .and other weeds that do not ripen seed before time of harvesting it. It 
 yields about as well as timothy, and yields reported from several experi- 
 ment stations range from three-quarters of a ton to two and one-half tons 
 per acre, the average being 1.4 tons. 
 
 It is considered valuable as a soil binder and serves to prevent soil 
 erosin on land subject to washing. 
 
 It is recommended as a constituent of mixed pastures. It is valuable 
 in this respect because of it* early growth and its ability to grow during cool 
 weather. It succeeds best under heavy grazing, and is admirably adapted 
 for shady pastures and in orchards that are to be grazed. 
 
 Brome grass. — Brome grass is of comparatively recent introduction. 
 It is a long-lived perennial, spreading both by seeds and root stocks. It 
 forms heavy clumps, frequently twelve inches in diameter, but when seeded 
 abundantly these join and form a compact sod. It is quite deep rooted and 
 is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, both from the standpoint 
 of temperature and rainfall. It is especially important, both as a hay and 
 pasture grass, for the Great Plains region and the Pacific Northwest. 
 
 The method of seeding is similar to that for timothy. It is especially 
 valued for hay during the first two years after seeding. There is then a 
 tendency to become sodbound, after which it serves better for pasture. It 
 is both palatable and nutritious, whether used as hay or for pasture. 
 
 Tall Oat Grass. — This grass has a climatic adaptation very similar 
 to orchard grass. It is fairly drought resistant and does poorly on wet 
 land. It does best on rather loose, deep loams, and succeeds well on calca- 
 reous soils; also does well on sandy and gravelly soil, but is not adapted 
 to poor land. It is a perennial and is strictly a bunch grass. 
 
 When used for hay it should be cut promptly while in bloom. After 
 this period the stems rapidly become woody. It fields well, but is of low 
 quality, the hay being somewhat bitter in taste. For this reason it is 
 generally best grown in mixtures. 
 
 The Fescues, — There are a number of fescues, among which may be 
 mentioned meadow fescue, tall fescue, reed fescue, sheep's fescue and red 
 fescue. None of these are of much importance in American agriculture. 
 They have about the same range of adaptation as timothy. 
 
 Sheep's fescue is a fine-textured, small-growing species adapted for 
 lawn grass mixtures. Sheep eat it quite freely, but cattle avoid it if other 
 grasses are available. 
 
 Red fescue makes a dense growth under favorable conditions and may 
 attain a height of two feet or more. It makes fair yields of hay, but is not 
 equal to many of the better species for this purpose. 
 
 Rye Grasses. — Perennial rye grass is a short-lived, rapid-growing 
 perennial, living usually only two years on poor land, but somewhat longer 
 
MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 
 
 107 
 
 under favorable conditions. It is seldom employed except in lawn 
 mixtures. 
 
 Italian rye grass is adapted to moist regions Tvath mild winters. It 
 succeeds best on loam and sandy loam soils. It is adapted for hay purposes 
 and may be cut several times during the season. 
 
 Sudan Grass. — ^A tall annual grass resembling Johnson grass, but 
 spreads only by seeds. It has been recently introduced and seems to be 
 best adapted to the semi-arid belt. It has been tried in an experimental 
 way in many of the states and has generally made a good growth. 
 
 
 \.^-:\ 
 
 >\" -r" . ] 
 
 
 
 j^W 
 
 ,h' \ • .^ 
 
 Sudan Grass, a New Acquisition. ^ 
 
 Bermuda Grass. — Bermuda grass is a perennial with numerous 
 branched leafy stems, which, under favorable conditions, attain a height of 
 twelve to eighteen inches. Ordinarily, it is not so tall. This grass occurs 
 chiefly in the southern part of the United States, but extends as far north as 
 Pennsylvania and Kansas. It is especially adapted to the cotton belt, and 
 is to the South what blue grass is to the North. While it is more particu- 
 larly adapted as a pasture grass, it is also quite extensively used as hay. 
 It will grow on all types of soil, but does best on rich, moist bottom lands 
 that are well drained. It is also used as a lawn grass. Bermuda grass does 
 not seed at all freely and most of the seed is imported. It is most easily 
 propagated by cutting the culms into short pieces, scattering them on the 
 
 1 Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company, N. Y. From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by Piper, 
 
108 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 field to be seeded and covering them with disk, harrow or other suitable 
 implements. These fragments of grass take root and spread rapidly by 
 means of numerous root stocks or creeping stems. 
 
 Bermuda grass meadows and pastures frequently become sod-bound 
 and fall off in yield. This condition may be alleviated by disking or by 
 plowing and harrowing. After such treatment the growth will become much 
 more vigorous. 
 
 Johnson Grass. — It is a coarse, large-growing species adapted to the 
 whole of the cotton belt. It grows well in the summer as far north as 37 
 degrees north latitude, but usually will not withstand winters in such lati- 
 tude. It spreads both by seeds and rhizomes, and when once established 
 it is difficult to eradicate. It is utilized for both hay and pasture. Two 
 or three crops per season are frequently harvested. 
 
 Para Grass. — This is a rank-growing tropical species adapted to moist 
 loams or clay loams. In the United States it is adapted only to Florida, 
 and the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. This grass is easily projiagated by 
 cuttings of the long, prostrate runners in much the same way that Bermuda 
 grass is propagated. It is of value both for pasture and for feeding in the 
 fresh state. It is seldom used for making hay. 
 
 Guinea Grass. — This is a long-lived perennial with short, creeping, 
 root stocks. It generally gi'ows in immense tufts, sometimes as much as 
 four feet in diameter. The culms are large, erect, tall and numerous. 
 It is adapted to tropical conditions, but may be grown in Florida and along 
 the Gulf Coast of North America. Both this and the preceding grass may 
 be cut several times each year. Under strictly tropical conditions, cuttings 
 are frequently made every six or seven weeks. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "A Textbook on Grasses." Hitchcock. 
 "Forage Plants and Their Culture." Piper. 
 "Forage and Fiber Crops in America." Hunt. 
 "Grasses and How to Grow Them." Shaw. 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 361. "Meadow Fescue (Its Culture and Uses)." 
 
 362. "Conditions Affecting Value of Market Hay." 
 402. "Canada Blue Grass (Its Culture and Use)." 
 502. "Timothy Production on Irrigated Land." 
 
 508. "Market Hay." 
 
 509. "Forage Crops for the Cotton Region." 
 
CHAPTER 8 
 
 The Clovers 
 
 Clovers are important on account of their high protein content and 
 nutritive ratio. They are especially valuable as forage for all classes of 
 livestock. Clovers enrich the soil in nitrogen and organic matter, and 
 improve its physical condition through the deep penetration of roots. For 
 years farmers have paid out large sums in the purchase of nitrogen for the 
 soil and protein for livestock. This can be largely avoided by growing an 
 abundance of leguminous crops on the farm. 
 
 Characteristics of Clovers. — The true clovers are herbaceous leafy 
 plants having three palmately arranged leaves. The larger growing 
 species have deep roots on which occur nodules containing certain species 
 of bacteria. These bacteria enable the plants to secure nitrogen from the 
 air and use it in their development. For this reason legumes are richer in 
 protein than other classes of plants. Of the total nitrogen in the plants 
 about two-thirds are in the tops and one-third in the roots. 
 
 Uses of Clovers. — As a rule from one-half to two-thirds of the roughage 
 in the ration for milk cows and young stock should consist of legumes, 
 among which the clovers as hay are most convenient to use and most 
 economical. The larger growing clovers are also quite extensively used for 
 soiling purposes, and in some cases have been used for ensilage. The 
 clovers are also among the most important crops for green manuring and 
 as cover crops. 
 
 Inoculation. — Since all of the legumes contain bacteria in the nodules 
 on their roots, it is best to inoculate many of the legumes when grown for 
 the first time in any locality. In most of the clover region soils are already 
 inoculated for the clovers. If inoculation is advisable, it may be effected 
 either by soil transferred or by the use of artificial cultures. In this connec- 
 tion it should be borne in mind that as a rule each legume has a particular 
 species of bacteria. Three to four hundred pounds of soil transferred from 
 a well-established field of any species of clover to a new field will effect 
 satisfactory inoculation of the latter. The soil should be taken from the 
 zone of most abundant root activity, thoroughly distributed on the new 
 field and at once mixed with the soil by disking or harrowing. 
 
 Artificial cultures have now been perfected and can be purchased at 
 reasonable prices from many manufacturing firms. The culture is generally 
 applied directly to the seed just before it is sown. 
 
 Composition and Feeding Value. — The composition of several species 
 of clovers in the green state and in forms of preservation will be found in 
 Table I, in Part III. Clovers, whether used for ensilage, soiling, hay 
 
 (109) 
 
no SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 or pasture, all possess high feeding value, and are especially desirable for 
 the production of milk, butter and the growth of young animals. They are 
 among the most highly nutritious forage j^Iants, and should supplant as 
 far as possible the expensive concentrates such as bran, oil meal, cotton- 
 seed meal, etc. 
 
 Harvesting Methods. — The purpose for which the product is used 
 will determine the method of harvesting. When used for soiling, it is 
 advisable to cut clover each day in quantities sufficient to meet the day's 
 ration. If used for silage it should be cut when fairly mature, and go 
 directly to the silo with but little loss of moisture. 
 
 Wlien clovers are cut for hay, both the quality and quantity of feed 
 should be considered. If the acreage to be harvested is large it will be 
 
 A Clover Field in Blossom. i 
 
 advisable to commence early in order to complete the work l)efore the crop 
 becomes too mature. The more uncertain the weather, the earlier the 
 process should begin. 
 
 The best quality of hay is secured by a comparatively slow process of 
 curing. In this process the moisture should leave the plants almost entirely 
 through the leaves. Clover cut in the middle of a hot, dry day when the 
 ground is dry and the sunshine bright, will dry so rapidly that the leaves soon 
 lose their structure, become brittle and cease to give off moisture. Although 
 there may still be much moisture in the stems of the clover, the leaves 
 will break and be largely lost in the handling of the hay. These leaves are 
 high in feeding value. It is wise, therefore, to cut in the evening and to 
 place the hay in the windrow before the leaves become sufficiently dry to 
 break and shatter. The best quality of hay is secured by placing in shocks 
 before thoroughly cured and allowing curing to be completed slowly within 
 
 ' Courtesy of Hoard's Dairyman. 
 
THE CLOVERS m 
 
 the shock. This entails much additional work, and if weather conditions 
 are favorable a good quality of hay may be secured without resorting to 
 shocking. 
 
 Clover hay may go into the mow or stack with 25 to 30 per cent of 
 moisture without injury. Good judgment and prompt and systematic 
 work on the part of the haymaker are necessary to secure the best results. 
 
 The hay tedder and side-delivery rake are important adjuncts to 
 securing a good quality of clover hay, and may be considered necessities 
 where the acreage is sufficiently large to justify their purchase. 
 
 RED CLOVER 
 
 Red clover is a native of western Europe, and has long been cultivated 
 in North America. It is now the most important leguminous crop in the 
 Northern and North Central states and eastern Canada. While red clover 
 is grown to some extent in every state and province of the United States 
 and Canada, it is most extensively grown in those states lying north of the 
 Ohio River and east of the Missouri River. Kansas and Nebraska, how- 
 ever, produce a large acreage. The accompanying map shows the distribu- 
 tion of red clover, grown alone and with timothy, by states and provinces 
 for the United States and Canada. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Red clover is quite resistant to cold 
 and endures winters well in Nova Scotia, Maine and Minnesota. Northern 
 grown seed is, therefore, generally preferable for seeding in cold latitudes. 
 It does not do well in an extremely warm climate, and in the South succeeds 
 only when planted in the fall, and usually survives only one year. A 
 moderate to abundant rainfall is desirable. 
 
 It is adapted to quite a wide range of soils, but makes its best growth 
 on fertile, well-drained soil well supplied with lime and organic matter and 
 reasonably free from weeds. Any soil that will grow corn successfully 
 is well adapted to red clover. It does not do well on poorly drained land. 
 On such soil alsike clover succeeds better. 
 
 Endurance of Red Clover. — Red clover is generally considered a 
 biennial, the plants dying at the end of their second year. Some plants, 
 however, will live over for a third year and a few frequently die at the close 
 of their first year. The time of seeding and the treatment during the first 
 year doubtless influence the life of clover plants. It is a common belief 
 that if clover blooms abundantly toward the close of the first year many of 
 the plants will fail to continue their growth the following year. For this 
 reason clipping or light pasturing is advised. 
 
 Clover on wet soil may be killed in severe winters by repeated freezing 
 and thawing. The plants will be so nearly pulled out of the soil that they 
 perish in the spring for want of moisture and plant food. If the ground is 
 deeply frozen and the surface only thaws and freezes the taproots are 
 broken. This difficulty is best overcome by a thorough drainage of the 
 soil and by providing a surface mulch. 
 
112 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Securing Clover Seed. — The intelligent selection of clover seed calls 
 for knowledge relative to the characteristics of both good and poor seed. 
 Good seed is plump and has a bright luster, and is generally violet to bright 
 yellow in color. The proportion of violet to yellow varies considerably 
 in different lots of seed. Good seed should be free from noxious weed- 
 seeds and adulterants of any kind. The standard of purity should not 
 be below 98 per cent and the germination should be about 98 per cent. 
 Frequently some of the clover seeds will be so hard that they will not 
 germinate promptly. The hardness of the coat prevents absorption of 
 moisture. The percentage of hard seeds is largest in new seed. 
 
 Home-grown seed possesses several advantages: (1) it is likely to be 
 adapted to local climatic and soil conditions; (2) its use avoids the intro- 
 
 Map Showing the Acreage of Red Clover in the United 
 States, 1909, and Canada, 1910. 
 
 duction of obnoxious weeds foreign to the neighborhood. Among the 
 most obnoxious weeds are clover dodder, buckhorn, Canada thistle and 
 dock. Most weed-seeds may be removed by the use of suitable screens. 
 The longevity of clover seed is three years. The deterioration in vitality 
 depends largely upon the conditions of storage. Continuous warm, moist 
 conditions cause deterioration and make it inadvisable to use seed more 
 than two years old. A considerable percentage of the seed as determined 
 by numerous tests will retain its vitality for quite a number of years, and 
 the hard seeds have been known to germinate after fifteen or twenty years. 
 
 Seed of mammoth clover is so much like that of red clover that it is 
 difficult to distinguish between them. Ordinarily, mammoth clover seed 
 is a little larger than that of red. 
 
 Preparation of Seed-Bed. — Red clover is usually seeded in the winter 
 
THE CLOVERS 113 
 
 or spring, in which case no special preparation of the seed-bed is necessary. 
 When seeded in this way natural covering results from the freezing and 
 thawing of the ground and the beating of rains. If conditions for spring 
 seeding with wheat necessitate seeding rather late, it is best to harrow 
 the wheat, thus covering the clover seed. 
 
 When seeded with spring grain the preparation for the grain is generally 
 sufficient for the clover. It will pay, however, to provide a well-prepared 
 seed-bed that will fully meet the needs of clover seed, even though equally 
 thorough preparation is not necessary for the spring grain. A fair degree 
 of compactness and a thorough covering of the seed are desirable. 
 
 Time, Manner, Rate and Depth of Seeding. — In all regions of moderate 
 to severe winters, winter or spring seeding is advisable, except when 
 clover may be seeded in midsummer without a nurse crop. Further south, 
 fall seeding may be practiced without winter injury to the young clover 
 plants. 
 
 While clover seed is generally broadcasted, recent tests show that better 
 results can be secured with less seed by using a grass seed drill. Such 
 implements are now available and are so constructed as to drill the rows 
 at intervals of four inches. Their adjustment permits of a shallow cover- 
 ing of the seed. The rate of seeding when clover is grown alone should be 
 ten to twelve pounds of good seed per acre if broadcasted and a somewhat 
 smaller amount when drilled. When seeded in mixtures the amount may 
 be reduced, depending on the character of the grass seed mixture. Clover 
 seed should be covered from one-half to two inches in depth. On very 
 loose, dry soils it may be covered as much as three inches deep with fairly 
 good results. 
 
 Failure to secure a satisfactory stand of clover frequently results 
 from various causes. The condition of newly seeded clover fields immedi- 
 ately after the nurse crop is harvested should be observed. If there are 
 indications of insufficient plants for a satisfactory stand, it is generally 
 advisable to re-seed at once. This re-seeding may take place over those 
 portions of the field where the stand is poor, or may cover the entire field 
 as conditions require. A disk should be used to loosen the soil before 
 seeding, and after seeding it should be harrowed. Disking may injure 
 some of the clover present, but not seriously. 
 
 Good results are also secured by seeding in August without a nurse 
 crop. Such seeding takes place after the wheat or oat harvest and provides 
 for a full clover crop the following year. The chief objection to this method 
 is the extra labor of preparing the seed-bed and seeding. 
 
 Nurse Crops for Clover. — Where clover grows without difficulty, it is 
 common practice to seed with some nurse crop. In sections where winter 
 wheat is grown, this crop is a favored nurse crop for clover. Winter wheat 
 is seldom seeded before the latter part of September and this does not give 
 sufficient time for clover to make enough growth to protect itself during 
 the winter. As a result the clovers north of latitude 36 should be seeded in 
 
114 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 the late winter or early spring in the growing wheat. Of the spring-seeded 
 grains, barley and oats are the best nurse crops for clover. These should 
 not be seeded very thick, otherwise the clover may be smothered. The 
 nurse crop should be cut sufficiently high to leave a stubble that will protect 
 the young clover as much as possible. 
 
 Fertilizers for Clover. — As a rule, no fertilizers or manures are applied 
 directly for the benefit of the clover. The residual effect of that applied 
 to the crop preceding the clover is generally sufficient. This is especially 
 true when seeded with winter wheat. On soils of low fertility, especially 
 when there is little organic matter present, top dressing with manure pre- 
 vious to the time of seeding is very beneficial to the clover. No nitrogen 
 is needed when commercial fertilizer is used. Moderate amounts of phos- 
 phorus and potash applied broadcast will meet the needs. 
 
 After-Treatment of Clover. — Clover seeded with a grain crop seldom 
 requires any special treatment during the first year. Under favorable 
 conditions it may make sufficient growth after the harvest of the grain to 
 produce a cutting of hay. This is thought by some to be injurious to the 
 following year's clover crop. It is, therefore, advised to clip the clover 
 before it comes extensively into bloom, and allow the clipping to lie on the 
 field. If so abundant as to smother the plants, it may be removed. 
 Clipping is also advisable to prevent the ripening of the seeds of obnoxious 
 weeds and grasses that are always present to some extent. The clipping 
 should be so timed as to prevent the seeding of the largest possible number 
 of such plants. If too early, seeds may develop after the clipping, and if 
 too late some of the seeds may have already matured. The ordinary 
 mowing machine with the bar set rather high is well suited for this purpose. 
 
 Light pasturing may be practiced instead of clipping. Pasturing with 
 sheep is best, since sheep are fond of many of the weeds and grasses, and 
 will eat the seeds in great abundance. 
 
 Since red clover lives only two years, the first crop during the second 
 year is generally cut for hay and the aftermath is either used for a seed crop, 
 is pastured or plowed under for the benefit of the soil. If the second crop 
 is to be used for seed it is wise to cut the first crop early. This encourages 
 a better development of the second crop and increases seed production. 
 The first crop should be cut just as it is coming into bloom. If the clover 
 is to remain for the third year, seed must be allowed to mature during the 
 late summer of the second season, with a view of having the clover re-seed 
 itself naturally. This is not a very satisfactory method, however, because 
 the seed heads generally fall to the ground and give rise to an uneven distri- 
 bution of the seed. This, however, may be obviated by thoroughly 
 harrowing the field after the seed heads are mostly on the ground. The 
 harrowing breaks up the heads and distributes the seed. It should be so 
 timed as to avoid destruction of clover plants when just starting. 
 
 Harvesting Clover. — Red clover, harvested for hay, should be cut 
 when one-third of the blossoms have begun to turn brown. At this time 
 
THE CLOVERS 115 
 
 the plants will contain about all the nutrients they ever will have, and the 
 product will cure readjly and make a palatable, digestible hay. After this 
 period the lower leaves begin to fall rather rapidly and the clover is apt to 
 lodge so that loss takes place. 
 
 When used for soiling purposes, cutting may begin as soon as the first 
 blossoms appear, and continue until the crop is fairly mature. When used 
 for silage, the plants should be fully as mature as when cut for hay. If 
 cut too green it makes a sloppy, sour silage of poor quality. When used 
 for silage, clover gives best results when mixed with non-leguminous crops. 
 The second cutting of clover can frequently be used to mix with corn in the 
 making of silage. 
 
 The least expensive way of harvesting is to pasture. While red clover 
 is not especially well adapted to pasture purposes, it makes a good quality 
 of pasture, and especially when mixed with grasses. It is especially suited 
 to cattle, sheep and swine. Sheep and cattle are sometimes subject to 
 bloating when allowed to feed on red clover when it is especially succulent 
 or when wet with dew or rain. Such trouble occurs only when the animals 
 are unaccustomed to it and when they feed too heavily. 
 
 Clover Seed Production. — Red clover seed may be successfully pro- 
 duced in practically all areas adapted to the production of clover hay. It 
 differs in this respect from alfalfa. 
 
 Seed production is encouraged by retarding somewhat the vegetative 
 growth. Conditions that will produce a medium growth of plant usually 
 induce the best setting of seed. Good seed crops are seldom secured from 
 a rank growth of clover. Under such conditions the heads are few and are 
 not well filled. The probable yield of seed and advisability of saving the 
 crop for that purpose can be determined by a careful examination of a 
 number of seed heads. If the seed heads are fairly abundant and contain 
 an average of twenty-five to thirty seeds er.ch, it indicates a yield of one to 
 two bushels per acre, and justifies saving for seed purposes. If the average 
 number of seeds is not more than twenty it will generally not pay to cut 
 for seed. This determination must be made fairly early in order to cut the 
 crop for hay before it becomes too mature in case it will not pay to save 
 for seed. 
 
 It is a common behef that seed production calls for a pollination of the 
 flowers by insects. The ordinary honey bee cannot reach the nectar of 
 the average clover blossom, and is, therefore, not instrumental in the fertili- 
 zation of the flowers. Bumble bees, however, are supposed to be the most 
 effective agents in this process. There are probably numerous very small 
 insects that also produce pollination. However this may be, the second 
 crop is the one that gives best results for seed purposes. At that time 
 insects are more numerous, weather conditions are drier and the plants 
 tend to produce seed more abundantly than earlier in the year. Occasion- 
 ally the first crop will produce plenty of seed. The seed crop should be cut 
 when the largest number of heads can be secured, If cut too early, the 
 
116 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 late blossoms will have no seeds or will have poorly developed seeds. If 
 cut too late, the early blossoms will have shattered off. 
 
 The old-fashioned self-rake reaper is best adapted to cutting the seed 
 crop. It leaves the cut clover in bunches of convenient size, sufficiently 
 far from the standing clover for the team and machine to pass for the next 
 swath. These bunches of cut clover do not need to be disturbed until they 
 are ready to be hauled to the threshing machine. In the absence of the 
 self-rake reaper, a mowing machine with a buncher may be substituted. 
 If the buncher leaves the clover in the path of the team and machine, a 
 man should follow the machine with a barley fork and move the bunches. 
 Serious shattering in the cutting process may be avoided by harvesting the 
 crop in the evening or early in the morning, or on damp days. 
 
 The clover is generally threshed with a clover huller. This machine 
 should contain two cylinders. Concaves must be set rather close in order 
 
 to remove all of the 
 clover seed from the 
 hulls. The seed being 
 valuable, it is advised 
 to spread canvas be- 
 neath the machine to 
 save the clover seed 
 Avhich shatters out in 
 the threshing process. 
 Where threshing is 
 done on a barn floor 
 canvas will not be 
 required. 
 
 The seed should 
 be thoroughly cleaned before being placed upon the market or used for 
 seed purposes. Nearly all foreign matter and weed seeds can be 
 removed by use of a suitable fanning mill. Occasionally there are seeds 
 present of about the same size and weight as clover seeds, and these 
 will be difficult to remove. Buckhorn seed is difficult to remove in this 
 way. It is a very troublesome weed in meadows and the following process 
 of removing it from clover seed is recommended. Thoroughly wet the 
 clover seed with water at about room temperature, and allow to stand in 
 the water for five minutes, or as much as eight minutes if the temperature 
 of the water is low. The water is then drained off and the moist seed 
 thoroughly mixed with sawdust; about four parts of sawdust to one part 
 of seed by measure will be required. Two or three minutes of thorough 
 mixing will cause the sawdust to absorb the free surface moisture from the 
 seed. The buckhorn seeds become mucilaginous and the sawdust adheres 
 to them. The mixture is now run through two screens, preferably in a 
 fanning mill. The upper one should be perforated with round holes 
 
 'Courtesy of U. S. Dept. ©f Agriculture. From Farmers' Bulletin 495. 
 
 A Clover Buncher Attached to a Mowing Machine. ^ 
 
THE CLOVERS 
 
 117 
 
 one-fifteenth of an inch in diameter. The lower should be a No. 22 mesh 
 wire screen. The buckhorn seeds with sawdust adhering will pass over the 
 surface of the upper screen and be removed. The clover seed will pass 
 through the openings and be retained by the lower screen, passing off at 
 the edge, where it may be collected. The sawdust should be fine and will 
 pass through the lower screen. Through this process the separation is 
 made complete. 
 
 Red Clover Troubles. — The principal enemies of red clover are insects, 
 fungous diseases and weeds. Much is heard concerning clover sickness, 
 
 Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land.* 
 
 but little is known relative to the nature of the malady. Failure to grow 
 continuous crops of clover may be due to any one of several causes. Soil 
 acidity is probably the most common cause of clover failm-e. This, as 
 previously stated, is overcome by the use of lime. One of the most common 
 diseases of clover is anthracnose. In some sections nematodes have also 
 been resi^onsible for clover failure. 
 
 Alsike Clover. — Is a perennial plant intermediate between red and 
 white clover in size and appearance. It is adapted to ground that is too 
 wet for red clover and is also more tolerant of acidity. 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Crops and Methods for Soil Improve- 
 ment," by Agee. 
 
118 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 As a hay crop it will not yield as much as red clover, although it makes 
 hay of finer textures and retains the leaves better. It is hardier than red 
 clover, but lodges worse. The foliage is slightly bitter and not relished as 
 well by cattle. For this reason it is better to mix it with red clover or with 
 grasses. It matures about two weeks earlier than red clover; consequently, 
 does not fit into mixtures as well as the red. It may be grown with early- 
 maturing grasses such as orchard grass and redtop. Alsike clover and red- 
 top make an admirable mixture for wet, sour soil, and may be used both 
 for hay and pasture purposes. 
 
 It seeds abundantly and the seed, though much smaller than that of 
 red clover, commands about the same price. Six to eight pounds per acre 
 when seeded alone are suflficient. Smaller amounts may be used in mix- 
 tures. 
 
 White Clover. — White clover is a low-growing perennial, having 
 abundant solid, creeping stems. It is well adapted to moist soils in nearly 
 all of the temperate zone. It is especially well adapted for pasture purposes 
 and is frequently used wdth blue grass both in pastures and lawns. It 
 seeds abundantly, often producing from two to six bushels per acre, the 
 price ranging a little above that for common red clover. It has long been 
 valued as a honey plant. The blossoms when excluded from insects 
 usually set no seeds. 
 
 Ladino Clover. — This clover is similar to white clover, but much larger. 
 It has but recently been introduced into North America. It furnishes good 
 yields of excellent pasturage and under favorable weather conditions attains 
 sufficient size to be harvested for hay. 
 
 Crimson Clover. — This is a winter annual adapted only to regions of 
 mild winters. It is extensively used as a green manuring and cover crop. 
 It may be seeded from May to August, either alone or in other crops such 
 as standing corn. It makes hay of a good quality if cut just as it comes in 
 flower. The plant is somewhat hairy and the seed heads "are abundantly 
 supplied with long hairs. If the heads become rather mature, the hairs 
 harden and cause serious trouble when fed to livestock. It is never 
 advisable to feed straw from crimson clover to horses. Either the mature 
 hay or straw causes hair balls in the stomach and intestines that frequently 
 result in the death of the animals. Both the hay and seed crops are 
 handled in about the same way as red clover. 
 
 Sweet Clover. — This plant has come into prominence in recent years, 
 and has been extensively discussed in the agricultural press. Recent 
 careful inquiries and investigations indicate that it is destined to become 
 an important legume, both as a forage crop and for soil improvement. 
 
 There are several species of sweet clover, but the white sweet clover 
 (Melilotus alba) is the most valuable under most conditions. It is adapted 
 to a wide range of both soil and climatic conditions. It is exceedingly 
 hardy and makes fair growth under adverse conditions. It is a biennial. 
 It is often spoken of as a roadside weed, and occurs along roadways in many 
 
THE CLOVERS 119 
 
 parts of nearly every state in the Union and the provinces of Canada. It 
 seeds abundantly, the seed being similar to that of alfalfa. The plant 
 also closely resembles alfalfa in its early stages of growth, although the 
 blossoms and seed heads are quite different. 
 
 It is deep rooted and the tops often attain a height of four to five feet. 
 The composition of sweet clover is nearly the same as that of alfalfa. It 
 is high in digestible protein and very nutritious as feed. Because of a 
 peculiar odor and taste, animals seldom eat it at first. They soon acquire 
 a taste for it and eat it with avidity and thrive on it. 
 
 Sweet clover is especially valuable for soil improvement. Its greatest 
 benefit will result by plowing it under the second season before it blooms. 
 The seed should be sown at the rate of fifteen to twenty pounds of hulled 
 seed, or at the rate of twenty-five to thirty pounds when hulls are present. 
 
 Pasturing 8weet Clover in Kansas.' 
 
 It may be seeded either in August or early in the spring. The methods of 
 seeding are similar to those for red clover. 
 
 Lespedeza or Japan Clover, — This is a small-growing summer annual, 
 attaining a height of six to eighteen inches, depending on soil conditions. 
 It is adapted especially to the cotton belt. It is to the South what white 
 clover is in the North. It is especially adapted for grazing purposes, and a 
 mixture of Bermuda grass and Lespedeza makes a good pasture for many 
 parts of the South. It begins growth in the middle spring and reaches 
 maturity in September or October. It may be distinguished from the 
 yellow-flowered hop clovers which it closely resembles by its purple blos- 
 soms, which do not appear until August or later, while the hop clovers bloom 
 early. It seeds freely and perpetuates itself from year to year by self- 
 seeding. 
 
 Bur Clover. — This is a rather small-growing clover indigenous to 
 Texas and California, and is closely related to alfalfa. It is of very little 
 value for hay, and will give only one cutting. It serves best for winter 
 and early spring grazing. It is especially valuable because it affords 
 
 1 Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 17 
 
120 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 grazing in the South for about two months before Bermuda grass and 
 other summer grasses are available for this purpose. It makes a good 
 combination with Bermuda grass for an all-year-round pasture. 
 
 Hop Clover. — Common in the Southern and Eastern states on sandy 
 soils and along roadsides. Periodically this plant comes into notice, due 
 probably to favorable seasonal conditions inducing an abundant growth of 
 unusual size. It often attracts the attention of farmers to such an extent 
 that they become interested in its economic possibilities and send samples 
 to their experiment station for information and advice. 
 
 There are several species of hop clover and the taller one doubtless is 
 worthy of cultivation for pasture purposes and for soil improvement, 
 especially on run-down soils that are best suited for pasture purposes. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "Clovers and How to Grow Them." Shaw. 
 
 Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 8. "Clover Sickness." 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 323. "Clover Farming on Northern Jack-Pine Lands." 
 
 441. "Lespedeza or Japan Clover." 
 
 455. "Red Clover." 
 
 550. "Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop." 
 
 676. "Hard Clover Seed and Its Treatment in Hulling." 
 
 693. "Bur Clover." 
 
CHAPTER 9 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Alfalfa is one of the oldest forage crops. Its history has been closely 
 related to that of man throughout past ages. It was highly esteemed by 
 the ancient Persians as the most important of forage crops, and followed 
 their invasion by Xerxes into Greece, 490 B. C. During the early centu- 
 ries of the Christian era it spread throughout the countries of Europe, and it 
 was brought to North America by the early colonists. It was introduced 
 into the Eastern colonies under the name of Luzerne. It found its way into 
 
 Map of the United States and Canada Showing Acreage of 
 Alfalfa. Figures = Acres.^ 
 
 California and other Western states probably by way of South America, 
 and brought with it the Spanish name of alfalfa. 
 
 Alfalfa is characterized by its deep root system, on which are found 
 nodules similar to those described under the clovers. The bacteria in 
 these nodules enable the alfalfa to secure nitrogen directly from the air. 
 Alfalfa plants are propagated only by seeds. They do not spread, as do 
 some of the clovers and many of the grasses, by creeping stems and under- 
 ground root stocks. Alfalfa is a perennial and under favorable conditions 
 lives many years and attains a large size. The crowns of the plant become 
 
 Piper. 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Macmillaa Company, N. Y. From "Forage Planta and Their Culture," by 
 
 (121) 
 
122 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 much branched and old phi,nts frequently give rise to as many as 200 
 stems. 
 
 Distribution of Alfalfa. — This plant is grown as a crop in every state 
 in the Union and most of the provinces of Canada. The map on the 
 preceding page gives the acres by states and provinces. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Alfalfa is best adapted to a warm, dry 
 climate. In North America it is most extensively and successfully grown 
 under the semi-arid conditions that prevail in the western half of the United 
 States. More than two-thirds of the hay grown in New Mexico is alfalfa. 
 Over one-half of that grown in Colorado is alfalfa. Kansas produces more 
 than Nebraska, and Nebraska more than the Dakotas. The relative 
 production of alfalfa as compared with other forms of hay and forage 
 decreases as we proceed northward and eastward. Alfalfa has been culti- 
 vated so long that strains and varieties have been developed that are 
 adapted to a wide range of climate. For this reason it is extensively grown 
 in North America. It will -wdthstand great heat and extreme cold in the 
 arid regions, but is more sensitive to such extremes in the humid regions, 
 and rarely succeeds in tropical or sub-tropical regions w^here the hmnidity 
 is high and rainfall abundant. 
 
 It is adapted to a vnde range of soils, growing well on loose, sandy 
 soils as well as upon heavy clays. It succeeds best on soils of medium 
 texture that are capable of deep penetration by roots and well supplied 
 with mineral plant foods. It will not succeed on soils closely underlaid 
 with hardpan, impervious rock or standing water. Neither will it tln-ive 
 on sour soils. 
 
 Essentials for Success. — In the western half of the United States there 
 are probably few localities where alfalfa will not succeed with the most 
 ordinary treatment. Its growth would be curtailed or possibly prevented 
 by the presence of too much alkali or by over-irrigation. In the eastern 
 half of the United States where conditions are less favorable, there are 
 certain essentials necessary to the success of this crop that must be carefully 
 considered. These are good drainage, freedom from weeds, absence of 
 acidity or presence of plenty of lime, a fair degree of organic matter in the 
 soil, thorough preparation of seed-bed, most favorable time of seeding, 
 inoculation of seed or seed-bed and the use of plenty of good seed. Added 
 to this will be the after treatment, such as time of cutting, care in pasturing, 
 cultivation and mulching. 
 
 The treatment essential to success being so diverse and exacting, 
 farmers contemplating growing alfalfa are advised to first undertake it on 
 a small scale. There are a number of advantages in doing this, such as the 
 practical experience gained and the providing of inoculated soil. 
 
 Varieties of Alfalfa. — Thus far varieties and regional strains of alfalfa 
 have been relatively unimportant. At least 95 per cent of the alfalfa in 
 North America may be called ordinary alfalfa. A number of strains have 
 been introduced from time to time, some of which are superior for hardi- 
 
ALFALFA 123 
 
 ness. Aside from the common or ordinary alfalfa, Turkestan, Arabian, 
 Peruvian and Grimm are of some importance. The common or ordinary 
 alfalfa is that generally grown in North America, Europe, Argentine and 
 Australia. 
 
 Turkestan alfalfa closely resembles ordinary alfalfa, and neither plant 
 nor seed can be easily distinguished from it. It is thought to be a little 
 more drought and cold resistant than ordinary alfalfa, but is inferior to the 
 ordinary alfalfa for the eastern half of the United States. 
 
 Arabian alfalfa may be recognized by its hairiness, large leaflets, rapid 
 growth and short life. It begins growth and continues to grow at a some- 
 what lower temperature than common alfalfa. 
 
 Peruvian alfalfa may be recognized by its somewhat bluish appearance, 
 coarse, erect stems and large leaflets. 
 
 Grimm alfalfa, brought to this country from Germany, has been culti- 
 vated here for a long time, and through elimination of the less hardy plants 
 has become adapted to severe climatic conditions. It is, therefore, recom- 
 mended for the Northern states. It is claimed to resist severe pasturing 
 better than ordinary alfalfa, and is thought to be somewhat more drought 
 resistant. The seed is higher priced than that of the ordinary alfalfa. 
 
 Sources of Seed. — Best results are usually secured by the use of locally 
 grown seed. In the eastern half of the country, very little seed is produced, 
 and imported seed must be relied upon. It is, therefore, advisable to secure 
 seed from approximately the same latitude or preferably somewhat north 
 of the latitude in which it is to be used. Nebraska-grown seed is good for 
 Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. Kansas-grown seed is generally a little cheaper 
 and will be good for Missouri and southern Illinois. Dakota seed will be 
 higher priced, but should be used in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan. 
 
 Alfalfa seed varies in purity, germination and price. It is, therefore, 
 wise to secure samples from several sources before purchasing. These 
 should be examined for impurities and tested for germination as a basis 
 for calculating which will be the cheapest. None but first-class seed, 
 free from noxious weed seeds and showing good germination, should 
 be used. 
 
 A pound of alfalfa contains about 220,000 seeds. If evenly sown on 
 an acre these would average over five seeds to the square foot. Alfalfa 
 fields one year old rarely contain more than twenty plants to the square 
 foot, and older fields usually have less than ten. It is evident from this 
 that a large percentage of the seeds sown fail to produce plants. It is very 
 important that a full stand be secured on all parts of the field. Vacant 
 spots give an opportunity for grass and weeds to start, and these encroach 
 upon the alfalfa. 
 
 The percentage of hard seeds in some lots runs very high and necessi- 
 tates treating the seed to increase its germination. Hard seeds are treated 
 \vith a mechanical device through which they are passed with much force, 
 and the hard coats are weakened by striking against a hard, rough surface. 
 
124 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Alfalfa seed two years old may generally be used with safety. Old seed can 
 be detected by its having a much darker color and less luster than fresh 
 seed. Good seed will usually germinate in less than ten days. One 
 hundred seeds placed between blotters or in a flannel cloth between two 
 dinner plates will make a satisfactory test. 
 
 Need for Fertilizers and Lime. — In the western half of North America 
 commercial fertilizers and lime are seldom needed for alfalfa, but in the 
 eastern half these are frequently of great importance. Large crops of 
 
 alfalfa remove from the soil consider- 
 able quantities of lime and the essen- 
 tial mineral plant foods. For this 
 reason, large crops cannot be main- 
 tained except on fertile soils or soils 
 that are well supplied with plant food 
 and lime ; 400 or 500 pounds of a fer- 
 tilizer containing about 10 per cent of 
 phosphoric acid and 6 to 8 per cent of 
 potash should be applied at the time 
 of seeding. If the field is continued 
 in alfalfa for several years it should be 
 top dressed with manure or commer- 
 cial fertilizer every year or two. 
 There is no danger of getting the soil 
 too rich for alfalfa. Manure should 
 be used that is as free from weed and 
 grass seeds as possible. Their intro- 
 duction into the alfalfa should be guarded against, and the alfalfa culti- 
 vated for weed destruction if necessary. 
 
 Alfalfa has but little tolerance for soil acidity. It removes much lime 
 from the soil and grows best on soils well supplied with lime. Soils should 
 be tested for acidity before seeding to alfalfa, and a liberal supply of lime 
 provided wherever there is any indication of its need. It is inunaterial in 
 what form this is applied. The finely pulverized raw limestone is fully 
 as effective as equivalent amounts in any other forms. 
 
 Preparation of Seed-Bed. — Alfalfa demands a finely pulverized, moist, 
 fairly compact seed-bed, free of weeds. This can generally l)e best provided 
 by devoting the land during the preceding year to an inter-tilled crop, 
 such as corn, potatoes or tomatoes. The preceding crop, if liberally 
 manured, will obviate the necessity of applying manure directly for the 
 benefit of alfalfa. This has the advantage of permitting weed and grass 
 seeds in the manure to germinate and be destroyed. The residual effect 
 of the manure will be sufficient to start the alfalfa. The best seed-bed 
 can be secured by plowing late in the spring and disking or harrowing 
 at intervals of ten days or two weeks until the first half of August. 
 Such treatment pulverizes the soil, compacts it, conserves soil moisture 
 
 ALFALFA OUTYIELDS 
 OTHER HAY CROPS 
 
 ALFALFA 
 
 5.4 TONS PER ACRE 
 
 2.5 »• ♦> " 
 
 ■■■■2^ •* ti 
 HH 13 t 
 
 RED CLOVER 
 
 TIMOTHY 
 
 BROME 
 GRASS 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa Out- yields other Hay Crops. 
 
ALFALFA 125 
 
 and destroys weeds. It provides an ideal seed-bed on which alfalfa may- 
 be seeded. 
 
 Time, Rate, Depth and Manner of Seeding. — Alfalfa may be seeded 
 either in the spring or late summer. In the western half of the United 
 States spring seeding predominates. In the eastern half, summer seeding 
 is more certain. Seeding either very early in the spring or too late in the 
 season should be avoided. A satisfactory stand is more certain when the 
 seeding is made on soil that is sufficiently warm to produce prompt germi- 
 nation of the seed and rapid growth of the young plants. At 40 degrees 
 north latitude spring seeding may be made during the last part of April 
 or early May. Northward or at considerable elevations the date should be 
 a little later, while southward or at low elevations it may be a little earlier. 
 For latitude 40 degrees north, late summer seeding should generally be 
 during the first half of August, northward it may be a little earlier, and 
 southward considerably later depending on latitude. In any event there 
 should be sufficient time for the alfalfa to become well established and 
 make considerable growth before winter sets in. 
 
 The rate of seeding varies greatly, but in the eastern half of the United 
 States and Canada twenty to thirty pounds of seed per acre is advised. 
 In the western half of the United States seeding generally ranges from ten 
 to twenty pounds per acre. Where grown under the dry land system of 
 farming, five to ten pounds of seed per acre often gives satisfactory results. 
 
 The seed should be covered anywhere from one-half inch to two 
 inches in depth, depending on character of soil and presence of moisture. 
 The manner of seeding must be determined by local conditions and avail- 
 able machinery. Alfalfa drills are advised when they are available. The 
 most of the seed, however, is sown broadcast and covered with the harrow. 
 Summer seeding is made without a nurse crop and spring seeding generally 
 with a nurse crop. The principal nurse crops are winter wheat, rye, spring 
 oats and barley. Barley is considered preferable to oats, and winter rye 
 seeded in the spring is considered best of all. The nurse crops should be 
 seeded rather thinly in order to encourage the growth of the alfalfa. 
 
 Inoculation. — ^West of the Missouri River the soil seldom needs 
 inoculation for the successful growth of alfalfa. East of that, however, 
 inoculation is generally necessary. Wherever sweet clover is not a common 
 weed and wherever alfalfa has never been grown, it is always advisable to 
 inoculate this crop. 
 
 There are two general methods of inoculation: (1) by soil transfer, 
 (2) by artificial cultures. Inoculation by soil transfer is simple, easy and, 
 with reasonable precautions, generally successful. It consists in securing 
 from a well-established field or from a field where sweet clover grows, soil 
 from that portion of the root zone where nodules are most abundant. 
 This is transferred to the new field and spread broadcast at the rate of 300 
 to 500 pounds per acre, and thoroughly mixed with the soil by disking or 
 harrowing. The inoculated soil should be spread on a cloudy day, or in 
 
126 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 the morning or evening, and the field thoroughly disked and harrowed 
 at once. 
 
 When soil must be secured from a long distance the freight charges, 
 cartage, bags, etc., may make it costly, in which case smaller amounts may 
 be used and more time allowed for the inoculation to develop. Certain 
 precautions are advised relative to the introduction of noxious weeds in this 
 way. If alfalfa is to be grown rather extensively, it is economical to first 
 seed a narrow strip of alfalfa through the center of the field and thoroughly 
 
 
 A Standing Field of Alfalfa.* 
 
 inoculate it. At the end of one year this will serve as a source of inoculation 
 for the entire field, and a suitable drill or fertilizer distributor may be 
 used going back and forth across the field at right angles to this strip, and 
 filling the distributor from the soil of the strip each time the machine passes. 
 Artificial cultures have recently been developed and may be secured 
 from a number of sources. By carefully following directions, they are 
 generally successful. The artificial cultures are applied, according to 
 instructions, directly to the seed so that the bacteria are introduced into the 
 soil on the seed and immediately where the young plants start growth. In 
 this way the minimum number of bacteria accomplish the maximum result. 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
ALFALFA 127 
 
 After-Treatment. — The after-treatment of alfalfa is more important 
 than in case of the clovers and grasses. Clipping the alfalfa at the close 
 of its first season has been quite generally recommended, but is a doubtful 
 practice so far as direct benefit to the alfalfa is concerned. If, however, 
 weeds and grasses are abundant, or if the alfalfa was seeded early and is 
 blooming rather freely, clipping in the fall is advised. The clipping should 
 be so timed as to prevent maturing of weed seeds. The alfalfa should be 
 chpped rather high and the clippings left on the field for winter protection. 
 
 Winter killing of alfalfa is most severe during the first winter and in 
 severe climates or on soils subject to heaving. Winter protection by 
 mulching or otherwise is advised. The more hardy varieties of alfalfa will 
 stand a temperature twenty to thirty degrees below zero if the soil is rea- 
 sonably dry. The chief trouble occurs as a result of the plants being heaved 
 out of the soil by repeated freezing and thawing, generally toward the close 
 of the winter. 
 
 Disking and harrowing alfalfa fields have been frequently recom- 
 mended for the purpose of killing weeds and grass, for loosening the soil and 
 for splitting the crowns of the alfalfa plants. The improvement of soil and 
 destruction of weeds is justifiable, but injury to the alfalfa plants should 
 always be avoided. Under favorable conditions considerable injury may 
 not prove serious, but in the eastern part of the country, injury to the 
 crowns of the plants results in decay of the roots and shortens their fife. 
 The ordinary disk is, therefore, not recommended. Suitable harrows and 
 the spike-toothed alfalfa disk harrow may be used to good advantage. 
 The spring-toothed harrow with the teeth brought to a sharp point is 
 recommended. There is enough spring in the teeth so that they will pass 
 around the crowns of the alfalfa plants without serious injury, and at the 
 same time will uproot small weeds and grasses. 
 
 Cultivation should take place just after cutting, and is generally not 
 necessary during the first year of the alfalfa. 
 
 Making Alfalfa Hay. — The time of cutting alfalfa should be carefully 
 regulated in order not to injure it. If cut too early the second crop is slow 
 in starting and the exposed crowns of the plants may be injured by hot, dry 
 weather. Neither is it advisable to delay the cutting, for this will result 
 in clipping off the new shoots that produce the new crop. Alfalfa should be 
 cut for hay when the small shoots starting from the crown and which 
 produce the next crop are one-half inch to one and one-half inches in length. 
 At this time about one-tenth of the blossoms will usually be out. In the 
 eastern part of North America leaf spot is quite common and spreads 
 rapidly through the field as the plants approach the hay-making stage. If 
 this trouble is very prevalent the leaves fall rapidly and harvesting should 
 be hastened somewhat to prevent loss. A fair degree of maturity of the 
 alfalfa makes the curing of hay easier than if cut when too succulent. In 
 the western half of the United States there is very little difficulty in this 
 respect. Weather conditions are more favorable and hay of good quality 
 
128 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 can be made with the minimum amount of labor. In the eastern half of 
 the country rains are prevalent, especially at the time of the first cutting. 
 This calls for special precautions and often necessitates extra labor and the 
 use of canvas covers to secure hay without serious injury. 
 
 It is advised to cut in the evening and early morning, and follow the 
 mower with the tedder before any of the leaves become dry. The second 
 teddering at right angles to the first is advised if the alfalfa is heavy. 
 With favorable weather it may be possible to put the alfalfa in the windrow 
 toward evening of the first day. One more day's exposure in the windrow 
 under favorable conditions will generally cure it sufficiently to go directly 
 
 to stack or mow. 
 This reduces handling 
 to the minimum and 
 prevents loss by 
 shattering. 
 
 If weather condi- 
 tions are threatening, 
 it will be best to put 
 into moderate-sized 
 shocks at the close of 
 the first day, and 
 cover with canvas to 
 protect from rains. 
 It requires from three 
 to seven days to cure 
 in the shock, depend- 
 ing on weather condi- 
 tions. 
 
 A little more than 
 two-fifths of alfalfa hay is leaves and about three-fifths stems. The 
 leaves, however, contain fully three-fifths of the jDrotein. It is, therefore, 
 advisable to save the leaves as fully as possible. Do not rake or tedder 
 alfalfa in the middle of the day if dry. This is sure to shatter the leaves 
 and cause serious loss. 
 
 Number of Cuttings and Yield. — Alfalfa is a remarkable hay and forage 
 plant because of its long life and the frequency with which it may be cut 
 every year. The number of cuttings varies with the locality and ranges 
 from two or three cuttings in the provinces of Canada and the northern tier 
 of states to as many as ten or eleven cuttings annually in the Imperial Valley 
 in California. In the warmer portions of Texas seven or eight cuttings 
 are not uncommon. In most parts of the country, a second crop may be 
 harvested within from thirty to forty days after the first cutting. In warm 
 regions where the growing season is long, cuttings durmg this season may 
 be made about every five weeks. 
 
 ' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
 Curing Alfalfa Hay in Shocks.^ 
 
ALFALFA 
 
 129 
 
 ALFALFA 
 
 BALANCES 
 THE CORN 
 
 RATION 
 
 KANS. EXP.-I4 PIGS- ISO DAYS 
 
 The yield is generally largest for the first cutting of the season and 
 declines slightly for subsequent cuttings. Much, however, will depend 
 upon rainfall and available moisture which influences the growth. 
 
 Alfalfa yields about twice as much as red clover and, being richer in 
 protein, produces about three times as much protein per acre. 
 
 Other Uses of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa makes an excellent soiling crop and 
 produces a succulent nitrogenous roughage, especially desirable for dairy 
 cows. Since it may be cut three or more times each season it may be quite 
 extensively used for this purpose. It, therefore, takes a very important 
 place in a soiling sys- 
 tem wherever it can 
 be satisfactorily 
 grown. 
 
 The last cutting 
 of alfalfa comes at 
 about the right time 
 to combine with corn 
 for the making of en- 
 silage. One load of 
 alfalfa to every three 
 or four loads of corn 
 makes an excellent 
 combination. Alfalfa 
 is sometimes made 
 int'O silage by itself, 
 but makes a rather 
 sour, slimy product. 
 
 While alfalfa is 
 not a pasture plant 
 and is easily injured 
 by pasturing, it may 
 be used especially for 
 young stock and for swine. It makes a most excellent pasture for the 
 latter, and where it is to be used for this purpose will carry about forty 
 pigs and their dams per acre without being injured. It is generally 
 thought advisable to divide the field into two or three parts, pasturing one 
 part for a period, and then turning into another part. Frequently some 
 hay may be harvested in addition to pasturing. 
 
 Alfalfa makes a range for poultry and may also be fed to poultry and 
 swine in the form of hay. 
 
 Composition and Feeding Value. — The composition of alfalfa is given 
 in Table I in Part III. The nutritive ratio of alfalfa hay is about 
 1 to 4. Extensive experiments at a number of experiment stations 
 
 CORN & WATER 
 
 IN DRY LOT 
 
 180 DAYS 
 
 KANS. BUL. 192 
 
 CORN S 
 
 ALFALFA PASTURE 
 
 80 DAYS 
 
 CORN & 
 
 ALFALFA HAY 
 
 100 DAYS 
 
 Comparison op Hogs Fed on Corn and on Alfalfa.^ 
 
 * Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Agricultural Extension Department, 
 pamphlet "Livestock on Every Farm." 
 
 From 
 
130 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 have clearly demonstrated the high feeding value of alfalfa. Experiments 
 with forty cows covering a period of two years at the New Jersey Experi- 
 ment Station clearly demonstrated that eleven pounds of alfalfa hay were 
 equal in feeding value to eight pounds of wheat bran. Plenty of alfalfa 
 as roughage materially reduces the bills for the purchase of protein in 
 costly concentrates. 
 
 The hay is exceedingly palatable and highly digestible and is eaten 
 with avidity by all classes of livestock. When fed to horses the ration 
 should be limited. Horses, if allowed to eat their fill, generally consume 
 nearly twice as much as is necessary to provide the required protein of their 
 ration. This results in unnecessary waste of feed. Alfalfa hay and corn 
 make a good combination, since the corn tends to properly balance the 
 ration. 
 
 Considerable alfalfa hay is made into alfalfa meal for shipment to the 
 eastern markets and is quite extensively used in rations for dairy cattle 
 and also for poultry. 
 
 Irrigation of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is exceptionally well adapted to irriga- 
 tion and a large portion of that grown in North America is irrigated. The 
 amount of water to use will be determined chiefly by the character of the 
 soil and rainfall of the region. It is a good practice to irrigate rather hber- 
 ally and at rather remote intervals. Alfalfa is so deep-rooted that the soil 
 should be thoroughly wet to the depth of three feet or more. Ordinarily, 
 one good irrigation should produce a full cutting of alfalfa. It is, therefore, 
 customary to irrigate the fields immediately after the hay is removed and 
 this irrigation should be sufficient to last until the next cutting. With 
 this system certain precautions are called for such as to prevent the scalding 
 of the young and tender shoots that are just starting to grow at this time. 
 Where fields are deeply and rapidly flooded with water carrying much sedi- 
 ment, a deposition on the young shoots frequently causes injury. It is 
 advisable to irrigate carefully, providing for slow movement of the water 
 across the fields without attaining any considerable depth at any point. 
 Over-irrigation is to be avoided, since it not only wastes water, but often 
 causes a rise in the ground-water table and brings alkali salts to the surface 
 of the soil. 
 
 Winter irrigation is practiced in some localities where the winters are 
 mild and where water is abundant at this time of the year. The principal 
 object is to conserve water which would otherwise go to waste. This is 
 especially desirable where water is scarce in summer. Such winter irriga- 
 tion will often result in one good crop that could otherwise not be secured. 
 
 Seed Production. — The production of alfalfa seed in North America 
 is confined chiefly to the semi-arid regions. East of the Missouri River 
 the production of seed is small, except when drought prevails. It is 
 estimated that about one-half of the seed used in North America is produced 
 on irrigated lands in regions of dry summers. There is also a considerable 
 amount produced on unirrigated semi-arid lands, and such seed is con- 
 
ALFALFA 
 
 131 
 
 sidered preferable for dry farming purposes. When produced on unirri- 
 gated lands alfalfa is seeded very thinly. In some cases it is seeded in rows 
 sufficiently far apart to permit of cultivation. Isolated plants that can 
 branch abundantly and receive plenty of sunlight, seed more abundantly 
 than when they are close together. When grown under irrigation, irriga- 
 tion water is withheld during the period of seed formation. The presence 
 of rains or the application of water stimulates the 
 vegetative growth and reduces seed production. 
 Usually the second crop is utilized for seed pro- 
 duction, although in the extreme Northern states the 
 first crop is necessarily used. There are various 
 conditions that influence the yield of seed, such as 
 thickness of stand, moisture supply, conditions favor- 
 able to pollination, etc. Yields of as much as twenty 
 bushels per acre have been reported, but eight bush- 
 els are considered a good jdeld. Two to five bushels 
 probably represent the average crop. 
 
 Little is known relative to seed production east 
 of the Missouri River, although numerous observa- 
 tions have shown that plants frequently seed quite 
 abundantly. In the corn belt it is quite possible 
 that certain crops could be used for seed to good 
 advantage. . The probable yield of seed is indicated 
 if the crop has been in bloom for some time and 
 considerable seed is set before new shoots appear. 
 If dry weather prevails when these conditions are 
 evident there is a fair chance of a crop of seed. 
 
 The hope of securing varieties adapted to eastern conditions lies in the 
 possibility of seed production in the various localities. 
 
 The method of harvesting the seed of alfalfa is essentially the same as 
 that for red clover. 
 
 A Well-set Cluster 
 OF Alfalfa Pods.^ 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "The Book of Alfalfa." Coburn. 
 
 "Alfalfa in America." Wing. 
 
 "Clovers and How to Grow Them," pages 118-193, Shaw. 
 
 Missouri Extension Service Circular 6. "Growing Alfalfa in Missouri." 
 
 Delaware Expt. Station Bulletin 110. "Alfalfa." 
 
 Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 259. "Alfalfa Growing in Wisconsin." 
 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 75. "Alfalfa Seed Production." 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 315. "Legume Inoculation." 
 
 339. "Alfalfa." 
 
 495! "Alfalfa'Seed Production." 
 
 ^Courtesy of U. S. Dept of Agriculture. From Farmers' Bulletin 495. 
 
CHAPTER 10 
 
 Meadows and Pastures 
 
 Success with livestock is conditioned on the production of good grass. 
 This may be in the form of meadows or pastures, but a combination of the 
 two is generally desirable. In latitudes of long winters the importance of 
 meadows may predominate, whereas in regions of short winters, pastures 
 may be the more important. With minor exceptions, meadows and 
 pastures are the most economical source of the farm income. 
 
 As a rule, the highest type of general agriculture includes the rearing 
 of farm animals. They may be considered machines for the manufacturing 
 of the roughage produced on the farm into more concentrated and valuable 
 products, such as meat, milk, butter, wool, etc. These reciuire more skill 
 on the part of the farmer and give to him continuous emj^loyment. 
 
 Extent, Value and Importance. — It is estimated that about thirty 
 per cent of the improved land in the United States is pasture land. The 
 largest area of land used for grazing is embodied in the extensive ranges 
 lying in the western half of the United States. To this range land and the 
 permanent pastures on farms may be added large deforested areas that are 
 capable of producing pasture. The value of the products per acre from 
 the grazed land is exceedingly low, but since the area is so large, the aggre- 
 gate return is great. The return per acre from meadow land is also 
 comparatively low, but much larger than that from pasture lands. No 
 statistics are available by which to estimate the returns frcm pasture 
 lands, although there are fairly accurate statistics for the meadow^s, as 
 indicated in the chapter on "Meadow and Pasture Grasses." 
 
 Essential Qualities of Meadows and Pastures. — The essential qualities 
 of meadow grasses are given in the chapter under that name. It is not so 
 essential that meadows become permanent, except in case of wet land or 
 land too rough or stony to be cultivated, and which for any reason cannot 
 be pastured. 
 
 It is generally important, however, that pastures be made as permanent 
 as possible. This calls for a mixture of grasses that are either very long 
 lived or that are capable of reproduction under pasture conditions. A 
 good pasture should start growth early in the season and continue to produce 
 until late in the fall. The grasses should be palatable, nutritious and present 
 variety and give abundant growth. They should also form a continuous, 
 compact turf that will withstand much tramping by animals. A variety 
 of grasses that will provide for growth under both moist and dry soil 
 conditions is also advantageous. The deep-rooted grasses and clovers 
 can, therefore, be advantageously included with the shallow-rooted ones 
 
 (132) 
 
Sheep Pasturing on Hilly Land.^ 
 
 Land that is too roush or steep for plowing can often he made profitable by using 
 it for grazing purposes. 
 
 1 Courtesy of " The Fii'Id. Illustnitcd," N. Y. 
 
MEADOWS AND PASTURES 133 
 
 Such as blue grass and white clover. The latter are more substantial, both 
 in quality of grazing and in the character and durability of turf which they 
 form. 
 
 Advantages of Meadows and Pastures. — Where land is moderate to 
 low in price and labor is costly, no feed will produce results with cattle and 
 sheep as economically as good pasture. While a given area in meadow will 
 produce three times as much weight in hay as it will in pasture, yet there 
 is about three times as much protein in a given weight of dry material in 
 pasture grass as there is in the same material in hay. The increased energy 
 value of the hay over that of an equal area of pasture will generally be 
 offset by the increased labor required in harvesting and feeding the hay. 
 Meadows require on an average one unit of man and horse labor per acre 
 annually. This consists of ten hours work per year. The cultivated crops 
 
 f^-^^^^^^^^Mm^^^a^m 
 
 
 Live iStock on Pastuke. 
 
 require from two to as high as fifteen or sometimes twenty units of labor 
 per acre. 
 
 Pastures, on the other hand, require no labor unless it be for the pur- 
 pose of applying manure or fertilizers, or for improvement by re-seeding or 
 cultivating. It is from the standpoint of labor that meadows and pastures 
 are especially economical. When land values become exceptionally high, 
 farmers may be justified in reducing the acreage of pasture and resorting 
 to cultivated crops as a source of feed for livestock. This is an economical 
 problem that must be determined by local conditions. 
 
 Meadows and pastures make use of land which cannot be economically 
 used for cultivated crops. This is especially true in the case of woodland 
 pastures or pastures along streams that are irregular and subject to over- 
 flow. Stony portions of farms are often utilized as meadows or pastures. 
 Irregular corners, cut off by roads or streams, are more economically 
 devoted to hay than to a cultivated crop requiring tillage. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Requirements. — Most of the grasses and clovers 
 succeed best in moist, cool climates and on soils that range from medium 
 to heavy in texture. On the other hand, there are a few grasses and clovers 
 
134 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 that succeed in regions of continuous high temperature. There are, how- 
 ever, no regions in the world within the tropics that are especially promi- 
 nent for the production of meadows and pastures. These attain their 
 greatest perfection in temperate climates with abundant and well-distrib- 
 uted rainfall. England and Scotland represent the ideal conditions for 
 meadows and pastures. The range in variety of grasses and clovers makes 
 possible meadows and pastures which are more or less successful in all 
 parts of North America. Of course, there are considerable areas of sandy 
 soils, especially in the warmer sections, that are impracticable of utiliza- 
 tion in this way. 
 
 Formation of Meadows and Pastures. — Since meadows and pastures 
 are to remain for a considerable period of time, the necessity of thorough 
 preparation for their establishment is more imperative than in case of 
 annual crops. The successful orchardist goes to much expense in the 
 preparation of land and the setting of trees for the orchard, realizing that 
 orcharding is a long-time proposition. The same policy is applicable in 
 case of permanent pastures or meadows. The shorter the period of time 
 that a meadow is to remain as such, the less will be the expense justified 
 in its establishment. 
 
 The first consideration is the adaptation of the land for meadow or 
 pasture purposes. The value of the land and the possibility of its utiliza- 
 tion for other purposes should be considered. Consideration must also be 
 given to the variety and character of grasses adapted to the soil and climate 
 and that will meet the requirement of the livestock to be pastured. No 
 definite formula can be given, since conditions vary greatly. 
 
 Preparation of Soil. — The preparation of the soil for either meadows or 
 pastures should begin at least a year in advance of the time of seeding. 
 There are two things essential to the establishment of grasses and clovers, 
 namely, absence from weeds and a good physical condition of the soil. 
 This may be provided by growing an inter-tilled crop which is given 
 thorough cultivation during the year preceding the seeding of grass. 
 
 Organic matter in the soil is decidedly helpful for both grasses and 
 clovers, but not essential. In plowing for seeding grasses and clovers, 
 manure and organic matter should not be turned under too deeply, but 
 should be left as near the surface as possible. A thorough preparation of 
 the seed-bed is essential for both meadows and pastures. For meadows, 
 the soil should not only be thoroughly pulverized and made moist and 
 compact, but should also be level to facilitate cutting at a uniform height. 
 The presence of hummocks or depressions in a meadow means that some 
 of the plants will be cut close to the crowns and others cut far above. 
 
 A moist, compact, finely-pulverized seed-bed is essential in pastures, 
 but it need not be necessarily level, since animals can graze with as much 
 satisfaction on uneven land. 
 
 When seeding is to be made in August it is well to plow the land in 
 the spring. An occasional disking or harrowing during the summer will 
 
MEADOWS AND PASTURES 135 
 
 destroy the weeds, conserve moisture and provide a pulverized seed-bed 
 for the grass. It is advisable to plow land for spring seeding of grass and 
 clover the preceding year, or at least several weeks in advance of seeding 
 time, in order that it may become thoroughly settled before seeding. 
 
 Meadow and Pasture Seed Mixtures. — From the standpoint of both 
 variety and total yield, mixtures give best results in both meadows and 
 pastures. Experiments at several experiment stations report yields for 
 mixtures of two or more grasses and clovers that exceed the yield of any of 
 the varieties entering into the mixture when seeded alone under identical 
 conditions. There are a few exceptions, namely, that of alfalfa which is 
 cut several times a year, and which generally gives best results when grown 
 alone. The same has been found true with ItaHan rye grass. 
 
 Mixtures yield better than pure cultures because: (1) the require- 
 ments of the different plants entering into the mixtures are dissimilar and 
 do not make them direct competitors for plant food; (2) the root habits 
 being different, their distribution through the soil is more thorough; 
 (3) the average yearly return is more nearly even through a long period of 
 time; (4) variation in light requirements of different plants enable some 
 species to do well in the^shade of taller ones, thus increasing the quantity 
 of herbage; and (5) legmnes mixed with grasses increase the nitrogen 
 supply for the latter. 
 
 As before indicated, mixtures for mowing purposes should contain 
 only plants that mature near the same time. This will generally confine 
 the mixture to two or three species, although occasionally a larger number 
 may be advantageously used. Timothy and red clover constitute the 
 mixture most common and practical over a large region of the hay-produc- 
 ing district of North America. Redtop and alsike clover are frequently 
 included, especially where soils are wet and inclined to be sour. Alsike 
 clover and redtop are occasionally used without the timothy and red 
 clover. Orchard grass and alsike clover work well together, both as to 
 character of growth and time of maturity. 
 
 In pasture mixtures there is opportunity for a much greater variety 
 and wider range as to time of maturity in the plants used. In North 
 America, however, mixtures made up of a great number of clovers and 
 grasses are rather unusual, although these seem to be the rule in pasture 
 mixtures of England and Scotland. 
 
 Soil and climatic conditions are so diverse that it is impossible to enu- 
 merate all the mixtures suited to different conditions and localities for any 
 extensive region or for different purposes. Prominence should be given, 
 however, to those grasses that are best adapted to local conditions and best 
 meet the needs. One or more species that will make quick growth and give 
 early pasture should be included in such a mixture. The following general 
 suggestions are offered: 
 
 In regions adapted to Kentucky blue grass, add white clover, red clover 
 and timothy. 
 
 18 
 
136 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 On wet soils adapted to redtop, add white clover and alsike clover. 
 
 On poor upland soils use redtop, Canada blue grass and white clover. 
 Under certain conditions brome grass may be included. 
 
 Where Bermuda grass thrives best, add Lespedeza clover, bur clover 
 and Italian rye grass. 
 
 In addition to the grasses mentioned, orchard grass is desirable, because 
 it furnishes early pasture. 
 
 If there is any doubt relative to the purity of the grass and clover 
 seeds to be used, a sample should be submitted to the state experiment 
 station for examination and test. One familiar with grass and clover seeds 
 may make his own inspection by the use of a hand lens, and may also make 
 his own germination test by the use of white blotting paper moistened and 
 placed in an ordinary dinner plate covered with another to retain moisture. 
 One or two hundred seeds placed between the blotters and kept at favorable 
 temperature will enable oue to determine the percentage of germination. 
 Careful inspection every day or two should be made to keep the blotters 
 continuously moist. 
 
 Seeding Grasses and Clovers. — A full crop of grass, whether for a 
 meadow or pasture, necessitates a full stand of plants. The first essential 
 to this is the requisite number of viable seeds, well distributed on every 
 part of the field. There are many factors that influence the stand besides 
 the rate of seeding. 
 
 Rates of seeding for the different grasses and clovers when used alone 
 are given in the chapter on ''Grasses and Clovers." A few species only 
 enter into the average meadow mixture. As a rule, the ratio of the amount 
 of seed for the different species entering into a meadow mixture will be a 
 little larger than the amount when seeded alone. For example, timothy 
 seeded at the rate of 15 pounds alone and red clover at the rate of 12 
 pounds, when seeded together would require on an average of about 9 
 pounds of timothy and 7 pounds of clover, making a total of 16 pounds as 
 compared with one-half of the sum of the two individual rates, which would 
 be 13i 
 
 The depth of seeding has already been discussed under several of the 
 species of grasses and clovers. The depth in case of mixtures should be 
 regulated with even more accuracy than in seeding one species only. It 
 should meet as accurately as possible the needs of the leading grasses and 
 clovers in the mixture. In special cases it may be found advantageous to 
 drill the clovers and broadcast the smaller grass seeds, such as timothy, 
 redtop and blue grass. The depth is also controlled largely by character 
 of soil and weather conditions. In midsummer, when the soil is dry and the 
 temperature high, seeds should be covered rather deeply. In the cool, 
 moist portion of the year, very shallow covering is better. In no case can 
 grass and clover seeds be covered more than two inches without suffering 
 much loss. With the smaller grass seeds, one-half inch to an inch is 
 generally sufficient. 
 
MEADOWS AND PASTURES 137 
 
 The time of seeding is subject to considerable latitude, but there are 
 two seasons of the year that generally give best results. These are very 
 early in the spring or rather late in the summer. These two seasons will be 
 subject to some modification, depending upon weather conditions. It 
 is wise to seed when the soil is in a good moisture condition so as to insure 
 quick germination. As a rule, it is not advisable in case of summer seeding 
 to seed just before a heavy rain. Such a rain compacts the soil and the 
 hot weather that is likely to follow will form a crust that the small plants 
 cannot penetrate. Seeds deposited in a dry soil may be germinated by a 
 light shower followed by dry weather that will cause the small plants to 
 perish. 
 
 Grasses seeded in summer may be broadcasted on a well-prepared 
 seed-bed immediately following the harrow. One additional harrowing 
 will sift the seeds down into the soil and effect a satisfactory covering. If 
 the soil is dry the first harrowing may be followed by the plank drag. This 
 will mash the small clods, compact the soil, bring the moisture nearer 
 the surface and germinate the seed. 
 
 The manner of seeding depends largely on seasonal condition of the 
 soil and character of grass-seed mixture. Grasses and clovers are generally 
 sown broadcast. There are a number of forms of seeders. The grass-seed 
 attachment to the grain drill predominates where fall seeding with wheat 
 occurs. It is also extensively used where the drill is used for spring seeding 
 of oats. The wheelbarrow seeder and the hand seeder are extensively used 
 when seeded alone or on grain fields where drills are not employed. Slant- 
 toothed spike harrows are most generally used for covering the seed when 
 broadcasted in this way. Brush harrows are sometimes used when the 
 seed is very small and the seed-bed very mellow. This avoids covering 
 too deeply. In any case, implements should be used that do not tend to 
 drag trash or soil and result in bunching the seed. Much seeding is done 
 in the winter and very early spring which calls for no covering. In this 
 case the seed is covered by the freezing and thawing of the soil and by rains 
 and winds. 
 
 Late fall and early spring seeding usually takes place with a nurse 
 crop. In this way the cost of seed-bed preparation is charged chiefly to 
 the grain. This is the cheapest possible way of seeding grass other than 
 that of sowing it in the spring to be covered by the freezing and thawing and 
 rains. The nature of the nurse crop is important. Moderately thin seeding 
 and the use of early varieties generally favor a good catch of grass. 
 
 Seeding without a nurse crop calls for especially well-prepared seed- 
 bed and freedom from weeds. Such seeding generally does best in the late 
 summer. 
 
 Treatment of Meadows and Pastures. — Of all the farm crops, the 
 meadows and pastures are probably the most neglected. Meadows 
 usually receive more care and attention than pastures. The treatment 
 accorded meadows will consist chiefly: (1) in the application of manures 
 
' Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chenucal Company, Richmond, Va. From V.- C. Fertilizer Crop 
 Books. 
 
 ^38 
 
MEADOWS AND PASTURES 139 
 
 and fertilizers, (2) re-seeding of the grasses and clovers in case of failure, 
 (3) cultivation to maintain a good physical condition of the soil, and (4) 
 cutting of weeds when they become serious. 
 
 The cultivation given to meadows, while rather unusual, will consist 
 mainly in disking and harrowing. These operations will frequently be 
 demanded wherever re-seeding is required and may be used for the 
 destruction of weeds and the loosening of the soil. There are now on 
 the market certain forms of spiked disks designed especially for this type 
 of work. 
 
 Cultivation is even more applicable to pastures than it is to meadows. 
 Pastures are more permanent, or at least remain for a long series of years 
 without being disturbed. Certain grasses frequently become sod-bound. 
 As a result of close grazing, weeds also frequently become numerous. The 
 tramping of the animals tends to compact the soil. Cultivation is benefi- 
 cial for all of these difficulties. Harrowing spreads the droppings of the 
 animals and affords a more effective distribution of the manure for the 
 benefit of the grass. 
 
 Meadows should not be maintained for too long a period. Better 
 results have been secured by plowing and re-seeding than to continue too 
 long in consecutive crops of grass. In pastures the situation is much 
 different. There are records of pastures forty and fifty years in grass 
 without being disturbed. This applies, however, to those regions in which 
 the soils and climate are especially adapted to the typical pasture grasses 
 and clovers, such for example as Kentucky and Canada blue grass and 
 white clover. Where pastures are prone to run out in a few years, it is 
 better as a rule to re-seed. This, of course, applies only to lands that are 
 capable of cultivation and devotion to other crops. 
 
 Care of Meadows and Pastures. — The fife of a meadow and the main- 
 tenance of its productivity may be prolonged by exercising certain precau- 
 tions in connection with its care and the harvesting of the crops. It is 
 unwise to pasture animals or to haul manure onto a field when the soil is 
 too wet. The more permanent the nature of the meadow the greater 
 should be the care exercised. Meadows should go into the winter well 
 protected by either sufficient second growth or proper mulching with ma- 
 nure. It is, therefore, unwise to closely pasture the aftermath of meadows 
 late in the season. In favorable years a moderate amount of pasturing 
 will not be undesirable. If weeds occur in considerable numbers, late 
 summer or fall clipping to prevent seeding is advised. 
 
 Pastures should not be grazed too early in the spring. It is undesir- 
 able: (1) from the standpoint of not giving the grass a sufficient start, and 
 (2) through injury by tramping and compacting the soil when it is wet. 
 It is also unwise to pasture closely too late in the fall, since pastures, like 
 meadows, should have winter protection. It is never wise to pasture too 
 closely at any time of the year. Close pasturing reduces the vitality of the 
 plants and their subsequent producing capacity. The packing of the soil 
 
140 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 by animals under favorable conditions will be overcome in temperate 
 climates by the freezing and thawing during the winter. 
 
 In grasses the growth takes place at the base of the leaves and lower 
 portions of the internodes, so that grazing does not destroy the plants 
 unless the plants or portions thereof are injured below the point of 
 growth. 
 
 The grazing capacity of a pasture will be determined by the care given 
 to it and the manner in which it is grazed. Its grazing capacity should be 
 fully utilized, and it is believed that the pasture will be maintained fully 
 as well, and sometimes better, in this way than when not fully grazed. In 
 pastures that are not fully utilized many weeds occur that go to seed and 
 result in weedy pastures within a few years. No animals are better for 
 destroying weeds than sheep, although all classes of livestock will eat most 
 kinds of weeds when there is a shortage of grasses. There are few experi- 
 ments in America on pastures and pasturing. 
 
 Improvement of Meadows and Pastures. — "An ounce of prevention 
 is worth a pound of cure" applies especially to meadows and pastures. 
 This is pretty thoroughly covered in the treatment and care of meadows 
 and pastures discussed in the preceding topics. Brush pastures may be 
 improved by removing the brush by clearing, by firing or by pasturing with 
 goats. The latter is perhaps the most economical method, provided gcats 
 can be secured and disposed of without loss. This not only cleans the 
 pastures, but utilizes the removed product in the form of brush, weeds, etc. 
 
 Wet pastures may be improved by underdrainage. This net cnly 
 encourages the growth of the more nutritious and better grasses and 
 clovers, but protects the pasture against injury through tramping I y 
 animals wdien too wet. The expense of drainage for pasture land mutt 
 not be too great. 
 
 Manuring, Fertilizing and Liming. — Sour soils should be liberally 
 limed when prepared for meadows or pastures. Meadows that are to be 
 continued for several years may be top-dressed with lime to good advan- 
 tage, and pastures may be top-dressed at intervals of six to ten years. The 
 benefits from liming will be determined chiefly by the acidity of the soil 
 and the proportion of clovers that enter into the meadow and pasture 
 mixtures. 
 
 Barnyard and stable manure is advantageously used in the establish- 
 ment of meadows and pastures. It is often advisable to apply the manure 
 to the crop preceding the one in which the grass is seeded. On the other 
 hand, meadows that are to remain for several years may be advantageously 
 top-dressed with light api)lications of manure, greatly to the benefit of the 
 grass. Such top-dressing has been found profitable wherever manure is 
 available, or may be purchased at low cost. The better sod resulting is 
 also beneficial to the crops which are to follow the meadow. 
 
 It is unusual to apply manure to pastures once established, since the 
 droppings of the animals, if properly distributed, go far towards meeting 
 
MEADOWSAND PASTURES 
 
 141i 
 
 the needs of the soil. In all probability the manure can be more advan- 
 tageously used on the meadows and other crops. 
 
 Experiments at several of the state experiment stations have demon- 
 strated that moderate amounts of complete commercial fertilizers can be 
 economically used on meadows. The more perfect the stand of grass, the 
 larger the increased yields resulting from such treatment. While the com-; 
 position of the fertilizer will differ somewhat for different soils and grasses, 
 that for the grasses pro])er should contain about equal percentages of thu 
 
 Good Pasture Land.' 
 
 three fertilizing constituents. Nitrogen is essential in increasing vegetative 
 growth. A home-made mixture consisting of 150 pounds per acre each of 
 nitrate of soda and acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of muriate of potash, is 
 recommended. This should be applied broadcast very early in the spring 
 just as the grass is beginning to start. 
 
 Since nitrogen is so expensive, clovers should be used in both meadows 
 and pastures for the benefit of the grasses. They also increase the protein 
 content of both the hay and grazed product. 
 
 Utilizing Aftermath. — The amount of aftermath or second growth on 
 meadows depends on the nature of the grasses, the time of cutting the first 
 
 'Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. 
 
142 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 crop and the weather conditions which prevail. With early cutting of the 
 first crop and favorable subsequent weather conditions, the second crop 
 may be as large and well worth harvesting for hay. Certain precautions 
 in this connection are necessary, namely, not cutting so late as to prevent 
 further growth for winter protection. There is no objection to pasturing 
 the aftermath if not pastured too closely and if the character of grasses is 
 such as not to be seriously injured by the tramping of animals. The future 
 life and use of the pasture will be a factor in this connection. 
 
 Capacity of Pastures. — ^The capacity of pastures varies all the way 
 from fifty acres to the animal unit in case of the range pastures of the West 
 to one acre per animal unit on first-class pastures in humid regions. The 
 capacity is also measured by the length of grazing season, and this is depend- 
 ent chiefly upon latitude and elevation. It is also influenced by the nature 
 of the pasture grasses, some prolonging their growth into the cooler portion 
 of the year. Experiments show that more product is secured as hay than 
 can be secured when the same grasses are pastured. This has been deter- 
 mined by comparing the relative yield of cuttings at short intervals with 
 cutting once at maturity. Such experiments have given nearly three times 
 as much dry matter in the form of hay as was secured in frequent cuttings. 
 The protein content of the new growth was much higher and aggregated 
 nearly as much in frequent cuttings as in the matured product. 
 
 Pasture experiments in Missouri showed average daily gains of 1.65 
 and 1.85 pounds for yearlings and two-year-old steers respectively during 
 the summer season. At the usual charge for pasturage in that state, the 
 estimated cost per hundred pounds of live weight was $1.60 and $1.90 
 respectively. Pasture experiments in Virginia covering several years gave 
 gains in live weight of 150 pounds per acre annually. This was on average 
 blue grass pasture in that state. The average pasture in the humid region 
 should produce 150 pounds live weight in cattle per acre annually. 
 
 Composition and Palatability of Pasture Grass and Hay. — The com- 
 position of various kinds of grasses and hay is given in Table I, in 
 Part III. The composition of grass mixtures will be determined by the 
 relative portions of the species entering into it, and also by the stage of 
 growth when harvested, and the conditions under which grown. Nitro- 
 genous fertilizers have been found to somewhat increase the protein content 
 of the grasses. 
 
 The palatability and digestibility of grasses as grazed are doubtless 
 much greater than those for mature hay. The labor required for harvesting 
 the hay is also saved. 
 
 Temporary Pastures. — Temporary pastures are generally provided to 
 meet early needs and are designed for short periods. They consist of 
 annual plants, of which there are many species. These will be determined 
 by soil and climatic adaptation and the character of animals to be grazed. 
 Oats, sorghum and red clover make a good combination. Oats make rapid 
 growth during the early part of the season, while sorghum grows more 
 
MEADOWS AND PASTURES 143 
 
 rapidly with the approach of warm weather. As these two crops are becom- 
 ing exhausted, the clover takes their place. This mixture is suited to spring 
 seeding and can be pastured from the latter part of June to the close of the 
 season. Another mixture consists of spring wheat, barley and oats, using 
 about one-third of the usual sowing of each. These may be pastured as 
 soon as they attain sufficient size to afford a good supply of pasturage. 
 Another mixture frequently used consists of rye, winter wheat and winter 
 vetch sown in the fall. This will afford pasture in the spring earlier than 
 the spring-sown grains, and if seeded fairly early may furnish some winter 
 pasture. In pasturing the annual crops, waste by tramping may be pre- 
 vented by restricting the area grazed by means of hurdles or temporary 
 fences. Such pastures require knowledge relative to the date crops must 
 be sowTi to afford pasture when needed. In this respect it resembles the 
 provision for soiling crops which are to be cut and fed from day to day. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "Meadows and Pastures." Wing. 
 
 "Forage and Fiber Crops." Hunt, pages 1-274. 
 
 "Farm Grasses." Spillman. 
 
 Pennsylvania ]3xpt. Station Bulletin 101. "Meadows and Pastures." 
 
CHAPTER 11 
 
 Miscellaneous Annual hay and forage Crops 
 
 Of the miscellaneous annual hay and forage crops the legumes take 
 first place. They are important both from the standpoint of high feeding 
 value and of the benefit derived from them by the soil. In regions adapted 
 to alfalfa or the clovers, annual legumes find a minor place, chiefly as substi- 
 tutes when for any reason the clovers fail. 
 
 Cowpeas and soy beans are by far the most important annual legumes. 
 The former are especially adapted to the cotton belt, while the latter may be 
 grown wherever corn is successfully raised. For northern latitudes, Canada 
 field peas and winter vetch are hardy and promising. 
 
 Of the non-legumes, the millets and sorghums rank first as annual 
 hay and forage crops. 
 
 COWPEAS 
 
 The cowpea is a warm-weather crop, and is the best annual legume 
 for the entire cotton belt. It is suited for the production of both hay and 
 seed. It is seldom grown above 40 degrees north latitude, and in the 
 northern limits of its production only early-maturing varieties should be 
 used. There are more than sixty varieties of cowpeas, differing greatly in 
 size, character of growth, color of seeds and time of maturity. Only a few 
 of them are extensively grown. 
 
 Varieties. — Whippoorwill is the best known and most extensively 
 grown variety. It is of medium maturity and well adapted for making hay. 
 It may be recognized by seed which has a mottled chocolate on a buff or 
 reddish ground color. It makes a vigorous growth, quite erect and 
 produces a large amount of vine. It can be handled readily by machinery. 
 
 Iron is also a well-known variety, and is especially valuable because it 
 is practically immune to root knot and wilt, diseases which cause much 
 trouble with cowpeas in many parts of the cotton belt. 
 
 New Era is one of the earliest of the cowpea varieties and is adapted 
 to the southern portion of the corn belt. Its habit of growth is erect with 
 few prostrate branches, thus making it easy to cut with machinery. It 
 produces a heavy crop of small seed, characterized by innumerable minute 
 blue specks on a gray ground color. Because of the small seed, less quan- 
 tity is required for seeding. 
 
 Unknown or Wonderful is one of the most vigorous and largest growing 
 varieties and is late in maturing. It is quite erect and is handled readily 
 by machinery, either for hay or grain production. The seed is large and of 
 a light clay color. It is not adapted north pf North Carolina and Ten- 
 nessee, except in a few localities at the lower altitudes. 
 
 a44) 
 
ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 145 
 
 Clay is the most variable of any of the varieties, and the name is given 
 commercially to any cow'peas having buff-colored seeds, except the Iron. 
 For this reason there are doutbless many varieties that masquerade under 
 this name. This variety is vigorous, but of a trailing habit. It fruits 
 sparingly and is consequently rather unpopular either for seed or hay 
 purposes. It is especially valuable for jDasturing and for soil improvement. 
 
 Groit is very similar to New Era, but makes a slightly larger growth 
 and fruits more heavily. 
 
 Black is a variety characterized by its large black seeds that do not 
 jdecay rapidly after ripening, even after lying on the warm, moist earth. 
 
 Field op Iron Cowpeas Planted in One-fifth-rod Rows and 
 Cultivated Three Times, i 
 
 It is especially adapted to the sanay, coastal plain soils of Virginia and North 
 Carolina. It is also popular in the sugar-cane section of Louisiana. 
 
 Time, Manner, Rate and Depth of Seeding. — Cowpeas should not be 
 seeded until the soil is thoroughly warm. In most localities the date of 
 seeding will be one or two weeks later than the best time for planting corn. 
 The plants are tender and are injured by the slightest frost. 
 
 In the cotton belt, the time of seeding should be regulated so that 
 when harvested for hay, the proper stage of maturity will occur when the 
 weather conditions are favorable for hay making. This will usually be 
 sometime in September. 
 
 The seed-bed for cowpeas should be prepared the same as for corn. 
 The planting may be in drills or 'by broadcasting. When grown for seed 
 it is generally best to plant in drills not less than thirty inches apart and 
 
 iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 318, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
146 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 cultivate the same as for corn. Good results, however, have been secured 
 by seeding with the ordinary grain drill, which, of course, permits of no 
 cultivation. When seed is costly, the saving of seed by drilling in rows 
 thirty inches or more apart may offset the labor of cultivation. When 
 grown chiefly for hay, broadcasting or drilling in rows close together is best. 
 
 The rate of seeding varies from one to eight pecks i^er acre, depending 
 on the manner of seeding, the character of seed and the purpose for which 
 grown. When seeded with the wheat drill, with all of the holes open, one 
 bushel of seed per acre will give good results for hay and still provide for 
 fair yields of seed. Small seed requires less in planting than large, and less 
 seed is required for seed production than when grown for forage. 
 
 The depth of seeding will depend on the character and condition of the 
 soil. It may vary from one to four inches. The looser the soil or the drier 
 the seed-bed, the deeper should be the planting. The cowpea is really a 
 bean and, like all beans, should not be planted too deeply. 
 
 Cowpea seed usually costs from |2 to $3 per bushel. 
 
 Seeding with Other Crops. — There are two principal advantages in 
 seeding cowpeas with other crops, namely, the production of a better 
 balanced ration when used as forage, and the increased facility with which 
 the crop may be harvested and cured when supported by upright growing 
 plants. 
 
 The best crops to seed with cowpeas are corn, sorghum and millet. 
 These are all similar to the cowpea in soil and climatic requirements. It 
 is never wise to seed cowpeas with oats, as the one requires warm weather 
 and the other cool weather for best results. 
 
 The upright growing varieties of cowpeas may be grown wuth corn, 
 preferably by planting both corn and peas in rows at the same time. By 
 selecting the proper variety with reference to habit of growth and time of 
 maturity, the co^v]^eas may be harvested at the same time with a corn 
 harvester and used for making ensilage. 
 
 In the southern portion of the corn belt and in the cotton belt cowpeas 
 are frequently drilled between the corn rows after the last cultivation. The 
 pods are gathered for the peas and the vines turned under for the benefit 
 of the soil. When planted with corn, the cowpeas should be four or five 
 inches apart in the row and the corn about tw(4ve inches apart. Best 
 results are secured by using a cowpea attachment to the corn planter. 
 
 When grown for hay, seeding with sorghum or millet gives best results. 
 Sorghum is g(>nerally preferable to millet, because it has a somewhat 
 longer growing season and makes a more palatable hay. Best results are 
 secured by mixing the seed at the rate of two bushels of peas to one bushel 
 of sorghum and seeding with a wheat drill at the rate of one and one-half 
 bushels per acre. The large varieties of millet may be used with the early 
 maturing varieties of cow]:)eas. 
 
 Fertilizers, Tillage and Rotation. — Cowpeas respond to moderate 
 applications of i)hosphorus and potash, but do not need nitrogen. 
 
ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 147 
 
 When planted in drills sufficiently far apart to enable cultivation, 
 cowpeas do best when given frequent, shallow and level cultivation. The 
 earth should not be thrown on the foliage and tillage should cease as soon 
 as the vines begin to run. 
 
 Cowpeas are adapted to short rotations. They may frequently follow 
 an early-maturing crop, such as wheat, oats and early potatoes, thus 
 providing two crops from the land in one season. A rotation of wheat or 
 oats and cowpeas is giving excellent results in portions of Tennessee, 
 Arkansas and Missouri. 
 
 Time and Method of Harvesting. — For hay purposes cowpeas should 
 be cut when the first pods begin to ripen. A large growth of vines is some- 
 what difficult to cure. The cut vines should lie in the swath for one day. 
 They should then be placed in Avindrows where they may remain until 
 fully cured. If weather conditions are not most favorable the vines, after 
 remaining one or two days in the windrow, should be put into tall, narrow 
 cocks and left to cure for a week or more. If rains threaten, canvas covers 
 are advised. 
 
 The leaves are the most palatable and nutritious portion of the forage, 
 and every effort should be made to prevent their loss. When so dry that 
 no moisture appears on the stems when tightly twisted in the hands, the 
 hay may be put into stack or mow. 
 
 Harvesting for seed is most cheaply done by machinery. The crop 
 should be cut wth the mowing machine or self-rake reaper when half or 
 more of the pods are ripe. When thoroughly dry they may be threshed with 
 the ordinary threshing machine by removing the concaves and running the 
 cyhnder at a low speed to prevent breaking the peas. Better results are 
 secured by using a regular cowpea threshing machine. 
 
 Feeding Value and Utilization. — Well-cured cowpea hay is superior 
 to red clover and nearly equal to alfalfa hay. It is very high in digestible 
 protein. Experiments relative to its feeding value show that one and one- 
 quarter tons of chopped cowpea hay is equal to one ton of wheat bran. It 
 is a satisfactory roughage for work stock and for beef and milk production. 
 
 SOY BEANS 
 
 Soy beans are adapted to the same soil and climatic conditions as corn. 
 They are most important in the region lying between the best clover and 
 cowpea regions. This is represented by Delaware, Maryland, West Vir- 
 ginia, Virginia, Tennessee and the southern portion of the corn belt. They 
 do well on soils too poor for good corn production, but are not so well 
 adapted to poor soils as the cowpea. They stand drought well. 
 
 Varieties. — There are several hundred varieties of soy beans, but only 
 about fifteen are handled by seedsmen. The most important of these are 
 described in the accompanying tabulation. The selection of a variety 
 should be based upon time of maturity as related to the length of season 
 for growth and the purpose for which grown. For seed production, good 
 
148 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 seed producers should be selected, and for hay and ensilage the leafy 
 varieties are better. 
 
 Time, Method, Rate and Depth of Seeding. — The seed-bed for soy 
 beans should be prepared the same as for corn, and the seed may be sown 
 broadcast or drilled, according to the purpose for which grown. On land 
 that is not weedy the seed may be drilled solid with a grain drill. About 
 one bushel of soy beans should be used per acre and they should be covered 
 with one to two inches of soil. If land is weedy or if crop is grown for seed 
 the corn planter may be used, the rows narrowed to three feet if possible 
 
 Leading Varieties 
 
 OF Soy Beans and their Characteristics. 
 
 V.lMETT. 
 
 Color 
 
 OP 
 
 Seed. 
 
 Number 
 OF SErns 
 PER Lb. 
 
 Time 
 
 OP 
 
 Maturity. 
 
 Purpose 
 TO Which 
 Ad.^pted. 
 
 H.4BIT3 OF Growth. 
 
 Mammoth. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 2100 
 
 Late, 
 
 120 to 150 
 days. 
 
 Koughage and 
 grain for 
 entire South. 
 
 Large and bushy; 3 to 5 feet high. Will 
 not mature seed north of Virginia and 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Hollybrook. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 2100 
 
 Medium, 
 110 to 130 
 days. 
 
 Principally 
 for seed. 
 South. 
 
 Three feet or less; coarse; poor for hay. 
 Not so valuable as Manmioth. 
 
 Haberlandt. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 2400 
 
 Medium-early, 
 100 to 120 
 days. 
 
 Principally 
 for seed. 
 South. 
 
 Stocky; seldom more than 30 inches tall. 
 
 Medium Yellow 
 
 or 
 Mongol. 
 
 Yellow, with 
 pale hilum. 
 
 3500 
 
 Medium-early, 
 100 to 120 
 days. 
 
 Forage. 
 
 Erect; bu.shy; 2§ to 3 feet. 
 
 Guelph or 
 
 or 
 Medium Green. 
 
 Green. 
 
 2 GOO 
 
 Early, 
 90 to 100 
 days. 
 
 Principally 
 for seed. 
 North. 
 
 Coarse; not satisfactory for hay; stout and 
 bushy; IJ to 2 feet. Seed shatters easily. 
 
 Ito San. 
 
 Yellow, with 
 pale hilum. 
 
 3200 
 
 Early, 
 90 to 110 
 days. 
 
 Ilay and seed. 
 North. 
 
 Bushy, with slender stems; 2 to 2^ feet. 
 Much grown in North. 
 
 Wilson. 
 
 Black, 
 yellow germ. 
 
 2400 
 
 Medium-early, 
 100 to 120 
 days. 
 
 Hay and seed. 
 
 Tall, slender; 3 to 4 feet. Excellent for 
 hay. 
 
 Peking. 
 
 Black, 
 yellow germ. 
 
 C300 
 
 Medium, 
 110 to 130 
 days. 
 
 Hay and seed. 
 
 Bushy with slender, leafy stems; 2J- to 3 
 feet. Shatters very Uttle. 
 
 Sable. 
 
 Black. 
 
 
 
 Hay and silage. 
 
 
 and the seed drilled two inches apart in the row. This should require not 
 more than one-half busliel per acre. The drill will accomplish the same 
 result if every fifth drill hoe is used and the planting is made in rows for 
 cultivation. 
 
 Seeding should not take place until danger of frost is past. In the 
 Central states it is safe to seed as late as July 1st, and further south seeding 
 may take place later. Soy beans are adapted to seeding with corn to be 
 used as ensilage, in which case varieties should be used that mature about 
 the same time as the corn with which planted. This mixture is also well 
 adapted for hogs and they may be turned into the field as soon as the corn 
 reaches the roasting-car stage. 
 
ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 149 
 
 Inoculation, Tillage and Fertilizers. — On land which has not before 
 grown soy beans it is advisable to inoculate, either by soil transfer or by 
 artificial cultures. When sown in rows, inoculated soil may be put into the 
 fertilizing box and distributed with the beans at time of planting. This 
 reduces the amount of soil required and gives perfect inoculation^ The 
 precautions pertaining to inoculated soils and artificial cultures are the same 
 as those given for alfalfa. 
 
 The fertilizers for soy beans are the same as for cowpeas. 
 
 When planted in rows far enough apart to permit of cultivation, 
 cultivation should begin early and be sufficiently frequent to keep down all 
 weeds and maintain a soil mulch. Soil should not be thrown on the plants 
 when they are wet. Cultivation should cease when the plants come into 
 bloom. 
 
 Time and Method of Harvesting. — Beans grown for hay may be cut 
 with the mowing machine and cured in the same manner as cowpeas. For 
 this purpose it is best to cut when the leaves first begin to turn yellow and 
 the best developed pods begin to ripen. When harvested for seed it is best 
 to wait until the leaves have fallen and at least half of the pods have turned 
 brown. If much value is attached to the straw, harvesting for seed may 
 take place a little earlier. The method of threshing is the same as. that for 
 cowpeas. 
 
 When grown with corn for silage purposes, the beans should be a little 
 more mature than when harvested for hay. 
 
 Composition, Feeding Value and Utilization. — Well-cured soy bean 
 hay is superior to clover hay and equal to alfalfa. It is more palatable than 
 cowpea hay. Whether used for hay, grain, straw or ensilage, it is very 
 valuable as a feed for nearly all kinds of livestock. It is especially valuable 
 in all kinds of rations where high protein content is desired. The whole 
 plant is high in protein and the beans are very high in both protein and fat. 
 
 Vetches. — The hairy vetch is a winter annual and is important as a 
 forage and soil imi^rovement crop in the United States and Canada. It 
 belongs to the same family of plants as cowpeas and soy beans. It is best 
 adapted to a cool, moist climate and succeeds best in the northern half of 
 the United States and southern portion of Canada. Although it may be 
 seeded any time during the summer, it does best when seeded in the late 
 summer or autumn. It generally blossoms in May and matures seeds in 
 June or July. 
 
 It is valuable as a winter cover crop. The plant has a reclining habit. 
 It is, therefore, best to seed rye and vetch together. About twenty-five 
 pounds of vetch and one-half bushel of rye per acre makes a suitable mix- 
 ture. The crop may be turned under early in the spring for the benefit of 
 the soil, or pastured or cut green- for soiling purposes, or made into hay. 
 
 Canada Field Peas.- — This term is used for field peas regardless of 
 their variet5\ The plant is adapted to a cool, moist climate and succeeds 
 best when seeded early in the spring. When used for having or soiling 
 
150 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 purposes, it is best to seed it with oats. The oats support the peas and 
 faciUtate the harvesting of the crop. 
 
 The amount of seed to use will vary with the size of the pea and the 
 character of the soil. It will vary from two bushels per acre in case of small 
 
 Hairy Vetch and Rye Gro"^t;ng Together.* 
 
 seed to three and one-half bushels of the large seed. Wlien seeded with oats, 
 two bushels of peas and one bushel of oats per acre is about the right pro- 
 portion. 
 
 On light soils peas may be sown broadcast and plowed under to a 
 depth of three to four inches. Peas should not be buried so deeply on stiff 
 clays. Best results will be secured by drilling the seed Avith a grain drill. 
 Some of the peas will be broken in passing through the drill, but the loss 
 
 'From Farmers' Bulletin 515, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 151 
 
 will not be serious. When oats and peas are drilled together, it is best 
 to drill the peas first, after which the oats may be drilled at right angles 
 to the peas and not so deeply. Since the oats come up more promptly 
 than the peas, some advocate deferring drilhng the oats until three or four 
 days after drilling the peas. 
 
 Harvesting. — Peas are ordinarily cut with a mowing machine when the 
 first pods are full grown but not yet filled. At this time they make an 
 excellent quality of hay. They are cured in the same manner as clover or 
 timothy. Care should be taken to prevent loss of leaves by shattering 
 and injurj^ from rain. 
 
 Other Annual Legumes. — The Velvet Bean is a rank growing vine 
 requiring seven to eight months to mature seeds, and is especially adapted 
 as a cover crop in Florida and along the Gulf Coast. 
 
 The Beggar Weed is also well adapted to the extreme South and is 
 utilized both as forage and for cover crop purposes. It is adapted to light, 
 sandy soils, and when seeded thickly, can be converted into hay or silage. 
 It grows six to ten feet high and is relished by all kinds of livestock. 
 
 Sorghum. — The non-saccharine sorghums were discussed under the 
 head of Kaffir corn. The sweet sorghums, of which there are a number of 
 varieties, are utilized for forage purposes as well as for the manufacture of 
 molasses. The sweet sorghums are not so drought resistant as the non- 
 saccharine sorghums, and a small acreage may be advantageously grown on 
 many livestock farms east of the semi-arid region. 
 
 The season of growth is similar to that of corn and the plant demands 
 the same kind of soil and methods of treatment. When used for hay, it 
 should be seeded thickly either by broadcasting or by drilling with a wheat 
 drill, using 70 to 100 pounds of seed per acre. 
 
 The Early Amber is considered the best variety for general purposes. 
 
 Sorghum should be cut for hay when the seeds turn black. It may be 
 cut with a mowing machine the same as any hay crop. Best results are 
 secured by putting it into large shocks and allowing it to remain until 
 thoroughly cured. If cut too early or stacked before the weather becomes 
 quite cool, it is likely to sour and make a poor quality of hay. 
 
 Millet. — There are three common varieties of millet: German, Hun- 
 garian and common millet. The common millet is drought resistant and 
 grows well on rather poor soil. It matures in from two to three months. 
 It makes a good quality of hay and can be fed with less loss than the coarser 
 varieties. 
 
 The German variety is the largest and latest maturing variety. It 
 will outyield common millet, but is not so drought resistant. 
 
 Hungarian millet is about midway between the common and German 
 millet as regards time of maturity, drought resistance and yield. Its tend- 
 ency to produce a volunteer growth has brought it somewhat into disfavor. 
 
 The millets may be seeded any time after the soil is thoroughly warm. 
 In latitude 40 degrees north, German millet should be seeded the last week 
 
 19 
 
152 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 in May or the first week in June. Hungarian millet may be seeded two 
 or three weeks later, while common millet will frequently produce a crop 
 when seeded as late as the middle of July. 
 
 Millet is used chiefly as a catch crop for hay. It is well adapted for 
 this purpose and may be substituted where a catch of clover or timothy 
 fails. It is also excellent to fill in where areas of corn have failed. 
 
 The preparation of the seed-bed should begin as early in the spring as 
 conditions will permit. This gives an opportunity to rid the soil of weeds 
 by occasional harrowing prior to seeding. Millet is seeded broadcast at 
 the rate of one peck per acre when grown for seed, and one-half bushel per 
 
 Millet Makes an Excellent Catch Crop and is Profitable Either for Hay 
 Purposes or for Seed Production. 
 
 acre when grown for hay. Three pecks of seed is advised by some for hay. 
 This results in smaller plants with a finer quality of hay. 
 
 Where extensively grown for seed, millet should be harvested with the 
 self-binder when the seed is in the stiff dough stage. The after-treatment is 
 similar to that for wheat and oats. The best quality of hay is secured by 
 cutting before the seeds begin to ripen. The seeds act as a diuretic to ani- 
 mals and it is not safe to feed too much of it to horses. Hay that is to be 
 used for horses should be harvested before seeds form. 
 
 Rape. — Rape belongs to the same family of plants as cabbage and 
 turnips. There are two varieties, annual and biennial. The latter bears 
 seed in the second year. The best known variety of biennial is the Dwarf 
 Essex. This gives best results for soiling and pasture purposes. Cattle 
 and sheep are fond of rape. It is especially fine for hog pasture. 
 
ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 
 
 153 
 
 
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154 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 This plant is best adapted to cool, moist climates and does best in the 
 Northern states and Canada. South of latitude 38 degrees it is best to sow 
 it in the fall. This allows it to make most of its growth during the cooler 
 part of the year. North of this, rape should be seeded in the spring so that 
 it may make most of its growth before hot weather. 
 
 Three to six pounds of seed per acre are required. It may be either 
 broadcasted or seeded with a drill on a well prepared seed-bed. 
 
 Rape is usually ready to pasture in six or eight weeks after seeding. 
 If not pastured too closely, it continues to grow until freezing weather. 
 
 Making Hogs of Themselves.* 
 Rape makes an excellent late fall and early spring pasture for growing hogs. 
 
 Care must be taken in pasturing cattle and sheep in rape. They should be 
 allowed on the rape only a short period at a time, until they become accus- 
 tomed to it. Very bad cases of bloat may result if this caution is unheeded. 
 The preceding tabulation taken from "Wallace's Farmer" summarizes 
 the requirements for catch crops when used for pasture and hay. It gives 
 the approximate requirements for average corn-belt conditions, but is 
 subject to modifications as regards time of seeding and amount of seed, 
 depending on climatic conditions. 
 
 ' Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College. 
 
ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 155 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "Soiling Crops and the Silo." Shaw. 
 
 "Forage Crops for the South." Tracy. 
 
 "Forage Crops." Voorhees. 
 
 "Forage Plants and Their Culture." Piper. 
 
 Michigan Expt. Station Circular 27. "Hairy Vetch." 
 
 Mississippi Expt. Station Bulletin 172. "Forage Crops." 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 458. "Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage." 
 
 515. "Vetches." 
 
 529. "Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States." 
 
 599. "Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific Northwest. 
 
 605. "Soudan Grass as a Forage Crop." 
 
 677. "Growing Hay in the South for Market." 
 
 686. "Uses of Sorghum Grain." 
 
 690. "The Field Pea as a Forage Crop." 
 
CHAPTER 12 
 
 Annual Legumes, Grown Principally for Seeds 
 
 The annual legumes most grown in North America for seed are the 
 white or navy bean, the common pea and the peanut. They are used 
 extensively as food for man. In addition to these, cowpeas and soy beans 
 are grown for seed, some of which is used for human food, some for stock 
 food, but still more for seeding purposes. 
 
 The production of crimson clover, vetch and castor bean for their seed 
 is of minor importance in North America. 
 
 Field Bean. — Is extensively grown under field conditions for the pro- 
 duction of dried beans. These become the baked beans of New England 
 fame. According to the census of 1910 the production in tlie United States 
 was 11,250,000 bushels of 60 pounds from 803,000 acres. Michigan, Cali- 
 fornia and New York lead in bean production. During the same year 
 Canada grew about 1,000,000 bushels from 50,000 acres. 
 
 Field beans do best in a cool, moist climate. They are not adapted to 
 conditions south of 40 degrees north latitude. Field beans are adapted to 
 loamy soils of a calcareous nature, but may be grown fairly well on clay 
 loams and silt loams when well supplied with organic matter. The under- 
 drainage must be good and cultural methods such as will produce a fine, 
 mellow seed-bed. 
 
 Time, Rate, Manner and Depth of Seeding.—Beans are tender plants 
 and seeding, therefore, should be deferred until danger from frost is past. 
 This makes it convenient to plant them immediately after planting corn. 
 
 They give best results when planted in rows far enough apart to permit 
 horse cultivation. The beans may be drilled or planted in hills. Drilling 
 usually gives best results, distributing the seed from three to six inches 
 apart in the row. With rows thirty inches apart about one-half bushel of 
 seed per acre will be required. 
 
 Great care must be taken not to plant too dceplj'. The habit of growth 
 is such that the plant cannot reach the surface if planted deeply. An inch 
 and one-half to two inches is the maximum depth on any except sandy 
 soils. On sandy soils they may be three inches deep. 
 
 The beans should be thoroughly and frequently cultivated during 
 their early stages of growth to destroy weeds and conserve soil moisture. 
 They should not be cultivated when dew is on the plants. This precaution 
 must be taken to guard against certain diseases, the spores of which maj' 
 be in the soil. Disturbing the plants while they are wet tends to scatter 
 the spores and spread the disease. 
 
 (156) 
 
ANNUAL LEGUMES 
 
 157 
 
 Harvesting. — The rij^e beans are harvested with a bean harvester. 
 This implement cuts two rows at a time, leaving the vines in a single 
 windrow. If the vines are practically dead when harvested they may be 
 placed at once in small piles, and later built into large cocks around poles 
 five feet or more in height. 
 
 Threshing and Cleaning. — Beans growTi commercially are threshed 
 with a machine especially adapted to the purpose. It is operated in a 
 manner similar to the ordinary threshing machine. If only a few beans 
 
 Hakvesting Field Beans with a Harvester.* 
 
 are grown an ordinary threshing machine may be used. All except four 
 teeth should be removed from the concaves and the speed of the machine 
 should be such as not to break the beans. Most satisfactory results will be 
 secured by having all the beans uniformly dry. 
 
 Beans fresh from the thresher generally contain fragments of straw, 
 stones and particles of earth which must be removed before being placed 
 upon the market. This calls for the use of a special cleaning machine, 
 which removes most of the foreign matter. After this the remaining 
 broken and discolored seeds must be removed by hand, 
 
 ■ Courtesy of U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin S9. 
 
158 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Yield. — Variations in weights of measured bushels range from fifty- 
 seven to sixty-five pounds. The standard weight is sixty pounds. Beans 
 yield all the way from five to thirty-five bushels per acre. There is usually 
 no profit in a ten-bushel crop. According to the last census the average 
 yield per acre was fourteen bushels. 
 
 Field Peas. — The Canada field peas, described in the preceding chap- 
 ter, are extensively grown in Canada and a few of the Northern sta,tes for 
 the dried peas. These are adapted to a wide range of uses as feed for 
 hvestock. They also furnish the supply of seed for all localities where the 
 crop is grown for forage purposes. 
 
 Peas are very high in protein and are especially adapted as feed for 
 young stock and for the production of milk and butter. When given with 
 oats and bran to cows in milk, they may constitute from one-third to one- 
 half of the concentrates fed. 
 
 When harvested for seed, the vines are cut with a mowing machine 
 to which special guards are attached for lifting them from the ground. 
 There is also a device attached to the rear of the cutting bar, which leaves 
 the vines in a swath far enough from the standing peas to enable the team 
 and machine to work without tramping the peas. It is customary to cut 
 when two-thirds of the pods are yellow. 
 
 When dry the peas should be stacked under cover or threshed immedi- 
 ately with a pea huller or with an ordinary threshing machine in the same 
 manner as described for field beans. 
 
 The legal weight of field peas is sixty pounds to the bushel. They are 
 quite prolific and under favorable conditions will yield forty bushels to the 
 acre. At Guelph, Ontario, eight varieties during eleven years gave an 
 average yield of 31.5 bushels per acre. Four varieties at Ottawa averaged 
 34.4 bushels for five years, while six varieties grown for five years in three 
 other localities averaged 40, 41 and 41.2 bushels respectively per acre. 
 
 The most suitable varieties to grow depend somewhat on soil and 
 climatic conditions. Three good all-around varieties are Prussian Green, 
 Canadian Beauty and White Marrowfat. 
 
 Cowpeas. — The seed of cowpeas has been very little used as feed, 
 because the price has been too high to justify its use in this way. The 
 introduction of suitable harvesting and threshing machinery should make it 
 possible to produce grain of the more prolific varieties at prices that' will 
 put it in reach for feeding purposes. At present practically alT of 
 cowpea seed is used for seeding purposes, the price ranging from .|2 to 
 $4 per bushel. 
 
 The dried shelled peas contain 26 per cent of protein, 1.5 per cent of 
 fat and 63 per cent of nitrogen free extract. A comparatively low rainfall 
 is favorable to seed production. Continuous wet weather causes a develop- 
 ment of vines at the expense of seed. At one of the southern experiment 
 stations during a series of five years, the yield of peas with a yearly rainfall 
 of 62 inches was only 12 bushels per acre, whereas, with only 22 inches of 
 
ANNUAL LEGUMES 
 
 159 
 
 rainfall, the yield was 28 bushels per acre. The yield of hay in both cases 
 was practically the same. 
 
 The methods of seeding and harvesting for seed production are treated 
 m the foregoing chapter. 
 
 Soy Beans. — The growing of soy beans for grain to be used as feed is 
 profitable if the yield is sixteen bushels or more per acre. The seed is very 
 rich in oil and protein and occupies the same place in concentrates as 
 cottonseed meal and oil meal. The seed should be ground before being fed. 
 Some of the varieties with highest fat content are being utilized for the 
 manufacture of oil. This is used as a substitute for linseed oil in the manu- 
 facture of paints. The best varieties under proper cultivation yield from 
 
 '•4*»"V^>^ 
 
 Soy Beans, Bradford County, Pennsylvania. i 
 
 This annual legume is excellent for both forage and seed production, 
 grown nearly as far north as dent corn. 
 
 May be 
 
 thirty to forty bushels of seed to the acre. Hollybrook, Mammoth and 
 Haberlandt are three especially good varieties for seed production. Tall 
 varieties that bear pods some distance from the ground are most desirable 
 and most easily harvested. 
 
 The methods for harvesting and threshing are given in the preceding 
 chapter. The threshed beans should be thoroughly dried when stored. 
 Otherwise they are likely to heat and spoil. They should be carefully 
 watched when first stored and at once spread out to dry if there are signs of 
 heating. 
 
 Soy bean seed is especially exempt from weevils. 
 
 ' Courtesy of Department of Agricultural Extension, Pennsylvania State College. 
 
160 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Castor Bean. — There are two classes of castor beans, one a perennial, 
 bushy plant with large seeds; the other a small seeded variety which yields 
 oil of superior quality. The plant grows within a wide range of climate, 
 from the tropics to the north temperate zone. In Florida it is a perennial 
 plant growing from fifteen to thirty feet high. Further north, it becomes 
 an annual, matures seed in a short season and grows only four or five feet 
 high. 
 
 The castor bean thrives in sandy soils and its culture is simple. The 
 seeds germinate wdth difficulty and it is advised to place them in hot water 
 twenty-four hours before planting. 
 
 It is customary to plant them in hills two inches deep, eight to ten 
 beans to a hill. They are afterwards thinned to one or two plants per hill. 
 The rows should be five or six feet aj^art and the plants from two to three 
 feet apart in the North, and from five to six feet apart in the South, where 
 
 the plant grows more 
 luxuriantly. They 
 require about the same 
 tillage as corn. 
 
 Planting should be 
 done as early in the 
 sjiring as possible, but 
 nmst escape injury 
 from frost. 
 
 As soon as the pods 
 begin to open the fruit 
 branches should be re- 
 moved. This process 
 must be repeated at 
 least once a week as 
 The branches are spread out to dry on the floor of a 
 
 Crimson Clover, a Good Winter Cover Crop Where 
 Winters are Mild. 
 
 Well suited to the lighter soils in the Coastal Plain Region 
 south of Philadel]ihia. 
 
 soon as seeds ripen 
 suitable building. 
 
 In the United States most of the castor beans are produced in Kansas, 
 Oklahoma, California, Oregon and Wisconsin. 
 
 The chief use of the beans is for the manufacture of castor oil. This 
 oil is one of the best lubricants for machinery and is used in the manufac- 
 ture of many articles. 
 
 Vetch. — Common vetch and hairy vetch are the two most important 
 varieties of vetches. Common vetch seed is produced in large quantities 
 in the United States only in parts of Oregon. Hairy vetch has a wider 
 range of growth, but is grown mostly for forage, most of the seed being 
 imported from Russia. Both of these varieties seed freely wherever grown 
 and the prevailing high price of the seed ($5 to 18 per bushel) should induce 
 farmers to grow more of it for seed purposes. Yields ranging from twenty 
 to twenty-five bushels per acre have been reported for common vetch, the 
 average estimated yield being ten bushels. Hairy vetch is somewhat less 
 
ANNUAL LEGUMES 
 
 16] 
 
 prolific, but yields ranging from two and one-half to twenty-one bushels 
 per acre have been reported by different experiment stations, the average 
 yield being seven and one-half bushels. 
 
 The method of harvesting for seed is similar to that of cowpeas. It 
 is threshed with the ordinary threshing machine. 
 
 Crimson Clover. — The chief demand for seed of crimson clover is for 
 seeding purposes. The seed is larger than that of red clover, one pound 
 containing 125,000 to 150,000. The weight is sixty pounds to the bushel. 
 It yields better than red clover, averaging about six bushels to the acre. 
 Most of the seed is produced in Delaware and nearby states. 
 
 Crimson clover should be harvested for seed as soon as perfectly ripe. 
 The seeds shatter badly. For this reason it should be cut promptly, 
 preferably in the morning or evening when the plants are damp. The 
 mowing machine with a clover buncher or the self-rake reaper are best 
 adapted for harvesting the crop. If the clover becomes wet the seeds 
 sprout, causing serious loss. For this reason threshing should promptly 
 follow the harvest. 
 
 Fresh seed is shiny and of a pinkish color. Seed two years old loses 
 its bright color, becoming dark brown. It is then worthless for seeding 
 purposes. 
 
 The cultural methods for crimson clover are given in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 PEANUTS 
 
 During the last decade there has been a great increase in the production 
 and use of peanuts in the United States. Their annual commercial value 
 in the United States, according to the last census, was $18,272,000. The 
 states leading in production are North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia and 
 Florida, three-fourths of the marketable nuts being produced in these 
 states. They are valued for forage as well as for a money crop, having a 
 feeding value equal to that of clover hay. Peanut products, such as peanut 
 butter, oil and meal, also have a market value. The peanut kernel has a 
 high percentage of fat. After the oil has been extracted the meal is noted 
 for its high percentage of protein. Being nitrogen gathering like other 
 legumes, they are valued as a soil improvement crop. 
 
 In parts of the South where corn is not a successful crop, its place is 
 being taken by the peanut, the entire plant being fed. It also enters use- 
 fully into the cropping system, on the cotton and tobacco lands of the 
 Southern states. In parts of the South where the cotton-boll weevil is 
 troublesome, peanuts are more advantageously cultivated than cotton. 
 
 Soil and Climatic Conditions. — A light, loamy, sandy soil is best suited 
 to peanuts. A dark soil will produce the forage crop satisfactorily, but is 
 apt to discolor the nuts for market purposes. Heavier soils may be used 
 for forage purposes, but if grown for nuts, a loose soil is necessary, owing 
 to the fact that the nuts must burrow into the soil in order to develop. 
 
A Peanut Plant. ^ 
 
 1 Farmers' Bulletin 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 162 
 
ANNUAL LEGUMES 163 
 
 A compact soil does not facilitate this very necessary process. The peanut 
 is more susceptible to frost than the bean plant. It requires a long season 
 without frost in order to develop nuts. The small Spanish peanuts require 
 about 115 days to mature and the large varieties need a still longer period. 
 For this reason they are most successfully grown in the frost-free regions, 
 such as the South Atlantic and Gulf states and westward into California. 
 When grown for forage, however, a wider range of climate is possible, 
 peanuts being successfully grown as far north as Maryland and Delaware. 
 
 Fertilizers and Lime Required. — Soils that are adapted to peanuts 
 will not require much commercial fertilizer, although the peanut responds 
 readily to a moderate use of it. On river bottom lands no fertilizer will be 
 needed, but in hillside regions applications of fertilizers and lime are advis- 
 able. Practically the same fertilizer that is suitable for potatoes is suitable 
 for peanuts. The peanut responds well to the application of manure, but 
 the manure should be applied to the crop preceding the peanuts. For this 
 reason, peanui.s should follow a cultivated crop if possible. This also aids 
 materially in freeing the peanuts from weeds. Too much manure causes a 
 heavy growth of tops to the detriment of the pods. If the forage is fed and 
 returned to the land in the form of manure, the peanut is not an exhaustive 
 crop, but if the entire crop is removed it soon robs the soil of fertility. 
 
 Peanuts also require an abundance of lime in the soil. Soils that show 
 any indications of sourness should receive from 600 to 1000 pounds of lime 
 (preferably fresh burned) to the acre. This treatment should be given at 
 least every five years. The sorrel weed is an indication of a soUi soil. 
 
 The fertilizer may be distributed in the row to be planted and thor- 
 oughly mixed with the soil. Lime should not be applied at the same time, 
 but some time previous, either during the fall before or just after plowing. 
 
 Time, Rate, Depth and Manner of Planting. — Peanuts should be 
 planted as soon as the ground is thoroughly warm and all danger from 
 frost is over. This insures quick germination. The larger varieties must 
 be planted somewhat earlier than the Spanish variety, as more time is 
 needed to mature. 
 
 The soil is prepared much the same as that for potatoes. The peanuts 
 are planted in furrows about three feet apart. The nuts may be dropped 
 by hand or a one-horse peanut planter may be used. The running varieties 
 should be planted from twelve to sixteen inches apart in the row but the 
 bunch varieties somewhat closer, from nine to twelve inches apart. The 
 richer the soil, the greater should be the distance between plants, in order 
 to allow for growth. 
 
 Only one seed in a place is necessary, but in order to insure a good yield, 
 two seeds are preferable. Two pecks of shelled peanuts are generally 
 sufficient to plant an acre, while two bushels of the Spanish peanut in the 
 pod are required. 
 
 Peanuts should be covered from three-quarters of an inch to two inches 
 deep, depending upon character of soil. Light, sandy soils require a deeper 
 
164 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 planting, while on heavy soils from three-quarters to one and one-quarter 
 inches is sufficient. 
 
 Seed Selection and Preparation. — Selecting a good grade of seed is 
 just as important in peanut culture as it is with corn or any other crop. 
 Seed should be selected only from mature plants and from those producing 
 the largest number of pods. It must be properly cured and kept thoroughly 
 dry during the winter. It is not safe to use seed older than the preceding 
 crop. 
 
 Seed from the large pod varieties should always be shelled before 
 planting. / Shelled seed is surer and more rapid of germination than seed in 
 the pod, and insures a better stand. Machine-planted seed must be shelled. 
 
 The small or Spanish varieties may be planted in the pod with but 
 little disadvantage. Some growers make a practice of soaking the pods for 
 a few hours before planting in order to soften them and hasten germination. 
 Soaked seed must be planted at once, however, or it becomes useless. 
 Shelled seed should not be soaked. 
 
 Preparing the large varieties for seed entails much work, as they must 
 be shelled by hand. The smaller varieties, however, are usually shelled by 
 machinery, although some loss is experienced by this process. 
 
 Varieties. — Peanuts are divided into large-podded and small-podded 
 varieties, according to their size. The Virginia bunch and the Virginia 
 runner are the two most grown large varieties. These varieties are the 
 most used when roasted and sold for human consumption. They have 
 about the same weight per bushel. 
 
 The Spanish peanut is much used for forage and for shelled purposes. 
 Its range of growi.h is wider than that of the Virginia variety. 
 
 Other varieties are the African, the Tennessee Red and the Valencia. 
 They are all small varieties. 
 
 Cultivation, Harvesting and Curing. — Peanuts should be cultivated 
 in much the same manner as beans, corn or similar crops. Cultivation 
 should begin as soon as the crop is up and continue until the vines spread 
 over the ground. The soil should be kept loose and free from weeds. Pea- 
 nut pods have the peculiar habit of burrowing in the ground when they 
 begin to form. For this reason the dirt should be worked towards the vines 
 in the last cultivation and the vines should not be disturbed after the 
 process of burrowing begins. 
 
 The same implements may be used as for cultivating corn and beans. 
 A one-horse weeder is the general form of cultivator used. 
 
 Harvesting should occur just before frost, as frost will injure the forage 
 as well as the peanuts. Peanuts may be plowed from the ground with a 
 common turning plow, but the use of a potato-digging machine is a much 
 better method. The initial expense of such a machine is about $75, but it 
 lasts many years and does the work much more efficiently than it can be 
 done otherwise. If dug by plow the soil must be shaken from the roots by 
 hand, whereas the machine shakes off the soil as it digs. 
 
ANNUAL LEGUMES 
 
 165 
 
 A few hours after harvesting the peanuts should be stacked about a 
 pole. These poles should be driven firmly into the ground and pieces 
 nailed at right angles to them just above the ground in order to keep the 
 vines from the ground as much as possible. The stacks should be small 
 and conical and stacked as loosely as possible so that air will pass through. 
 It is not advisable to store peanuts in the barn until thoroughly cured. 
 Then the forage part may be stored after the nuts are picked. 
 
 The nuts should not be picked from the vines until they are thoroughly 
 dry and solid, else they will shrivel and become unfit for market purposes. 
 
 Hakvesting and Curing Peanuts.* 
 
 On the other hand, picking should not be delayed too late in the season on 
 account of ravages from crows and mice. 
 
 Hand-picked peanuts command the highest price, but owing to the 
 dusty, irksome labor involved, picking machines are coming into general 
 favor. There are two kinds on the market: one is a cylinder type used 
 mostly for Spanish peanuts; the other machine drags the vines over a 
 horizontal wire mesh, thus removing the nuts without breaking them. 
 
 Peanuts must be kept continually dry or they become discolored. 
 After picking they are usually covered with dust and kept in a dry, well- 
 ventilated place until stored in bags ready for market. 
 
 1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Fanners' Bulletin 431. 
 
166 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Preparing for Market. — Threshed peanuts contain much trash, neces- 
 sitating a thorough cleaning before marketing. This can be done on a 
 small scale by the grower, but if large quantities are involved, the process 
 is more economically done in a cleaning factory, which is equipped with all 
 necessary fanning and grading machinery. 
 
 Yields. — An average yield of peanuts is about thirty-four bushels an 
 acre, although it is quite possible on fertile soil and by expert methods 
 to increase this to sixty bushels an acre, with from one to two tons of 
 forage. Peanut forage is worth from $8 to $10 per ton. Sixty bushels of 
 nuts are worth from $40 to $60, according to quality. Estimating upon 
 this basis, allowing an expenditure of from $12 to $25 per acre to grow the 
 crop, the grower would realize a profit of from $36 to $45 per acre. 
 This is a conservative estimate and, all conditions being favorable, might 
 be much larger. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 "The Peanut." Jones. 
 "The Peanut and Its Culture." Roper. 
 "Peas and Pea Culture." Sevey. 
 
 Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 2,32. "Field Beans." 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 315. "Legume Inoculation." 
 
 318. "Cowpcas." 
 
 372. "Soy Beans." 
 
 431. "Peanuts." 
 
 561. "Bean Growing in Western States." 
 
 579. "Utilization of Crim.son Clover." 
 
 646. "Crimson Clover Seed Production," 
 
CHAPTER 13 
 
 Roots and Tubers for Forage 
 
 In the United States roots and tubers are grown principally as vege- 
 tables or for sugar production, but in Canada they are quite extensively 
 grown for forage purposes. In such root crops as the beet, turnip, parsnip 
 and carrot, the edible part is really an enlargement of the upper portion of 
 the root and the lower portion of the stem merged together. Roots, such 
 as cassava and chufa, are enlargements of the roots. 
 
 According to the last census Canada produced nearly 200,000 acres of 
 root crops, while those growai in the United States for forage purposes 
 
 
 hsss 
 
 '266 
 
 / '03S 
 
 179 i 
 
 3733 
 
 1 2099 
 23 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 1 
 
 
 173 
 
 \ 
 
 31 
 23 
 
 48 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 ^.. 
 
 Root Crops, 1909-1910. Figures = Acres.^ 
 
 aggregated only about 15,000 acres. Mangels, rutabagas, turnips, beets, 
 carrots and cabbage are best adapted to cool, moist climates. Of these the 
 rutabaga and turnip may be successfully grown further south than the 
 others. The accompanying map gives the acreage of root crops in the 
 United States and Canada by states and provinces according to the latest 
 census figures. 
 
 Relation to Other Crops. — The economy in growing root crops for 
 forage purposes depends chiefly on whether or not other succulent crops 
 suited to feeding livestock can be more cheaply produced. It also depends 
 on the relative yields of the different crops. 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. 
 20 
 
 From " Forage Plants and their Culture," by Piper. 
 
 (167) 
 
168 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 The longer the winter period, the greater the need for succulent food 
 for livestock during the stabling period. For this reason there is more 
 need of such foods in the northern part of the United States and in Canada 
 than farther south where the season for plant growth is longer. Many of 
 the root crops are adapted to a short growing season where corn cannot be 
 successfully grown. 
 
 Numerous experiments on the relative cost of producing corn and roots 
 show that corn is the cheaper source of feed wherever it can be successfully 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 
 3 
 
 \ti^. 
 
 IffPS-S • 
 
 
 S^C 
 
 
 
 J- : : .^'■'^^^^^^^^^i^^^ss^,^^-^:^ 
 
 — -^ 
 
 ^"■^^ 
 
 
 
 A Load of Mangels, Note Size and Character of Roots.^ 
 
 grown. The root crops require more labor than corn in culture, harvesting 
 and feeding. Less of the work can be done by labor-saving machinery. 
 It is for this reason chiefly that they are the more expensive source of suc- 
 culent food. Roots have the advantage in that they may be grown in 
 small quantities for small nmnbers of livestock when it would not be 
 practicable to have a silo. They also fit well into crop rotations and the 
 tillage required by them leaves the soil in excellent condition for crops that 
 follow. 
 
 Utilization and Feeding Value. — The root crops are best utilized for 
 dairy cattle, especially during the winter period. The various roots differ 
 considerably in their percentage of dry matter and feeding value. Sugar 
 
 1 Courtesy of Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Mino. From "Field Crops," by Wilson and 
 Warburton. 
 
ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE 169 
 
 beets rank first, as they have about 20 per cent of dry matter, three-quarters 
 of which is sugar. Mangels, rutabagas and turnips frequently have no 
 more than 10 to 12 per cent of dry matter, not more than one-half of which 
 is sugar. 
 
 Some of the flat-topped turhips that grow principally on the surface 
 of the ground maj^ be grown for pasturage and are readily eaten by sheep. 
 
 The dry matter in roots is slightly lower in feeding value, pound for 
 pound, than that in cereals. It is about equal in digestibility to the dry 
 matter in cereals. 
 
 The yield of some of the more important root crops, as grown at a 
 number of experiment stations, is as follows: mangels, average yield in 
 tons per acre during five years in five localities, 31; rutabagas, same locali- 
 ties and same number of years, 26.5 tons per acre; carrots, same localities 
 and same number of years, 23.6 tons per acre; sugar beets, same localities, 
 average five years in two of them and three years in other three, 20.6 
 tons per acre; turnips, three localities average of five years, 21.3 tons 
 per acre. 
 
 Sugar-Beets. — While sugar-beets have a high feeding value they are 
 not extensively grown as forage because the yield is generally much less 
 than can be secured from mangels and rutabagas. The by-products of the 
 sugar factories in the form of beet pulp are quite extensively used as 
 roughage for livestock. Beet pulp is a food that can be easily stored and 
 kept, and instead of losing its value it really improves with age. The 
 pulp may l^e simply thrown on the ground and preserved for three or 
 four years without deterioration except in the outer part. For cultural 
 methods of beets see the article on "Sugar Crops." 
 
 Mangels. — Mangels differ quite materially from sugar-beets in form, 
 color and size. Sugar-beets grow mostly in the ground, are tapering in 
 form, and both the skin and flesh are white. IMangels average four times as 
 large, are more cylindrical in form, and a considerable portion of the root 
 grows above ground. The flesh of the mangel is usually reddish or yellow, 
 while the skin may be white, red, golden, purplish or even black. Mangels 
 are planted in rows twenty-eight to thirty-six inches apart. The rate of 
 seeding ranges from six to eight pounds of seed per acre. The seed should 
 be covered about one inch deep and as soon as the plants are well established 
 they should be thinned by use of a hoe to little groups of plants at intervals 
 of twelve inches. These should be thinned later by hand to one plant to 
 each place. They should be cultivated to destroy weeds and maintain a 
 good soil mulch. They are generally harvested by plowing a furrow on one 
 side of the row, and are pulled by hand. On account of their large size they 
 require much cutting before being fed. They may be stored in root cellars 
 or in pits, and call for a low, uniform temperature and fair ventilation during 
 the storage period. 
 
 Turnips and Rutabagas. — There are a great variety of turnips. Ruta- 
 bagas or Swedes are but a few of the large growing varieties that are espe- 
 
170 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 cially adapted for forage purposes because of the large yields they 
 give. From two to three pounds of turnip seed and four to five pounds of 
 rutabaga seed per acre are required. The seed may be either drilled or 
 broadcasted, although in case of rutabages drilling is decidedly preferable. 
 The preparation of the ground, planting and method of tillage is very simi- 
 lar to that given mangels. As turnips make their growth in two or three 
 months, they may be seeded late in the summer and yet mature before 
 frost. Rutabagas require more time for maturity and should be sown in 
 May or June. 
 
 Turnips do not keep well and should be fed in the fall and early winter. 
 Rutabagas, on the other hand, keep through the winter without difficulty. 
 The methods of storage are similar to those for rutabages. 
 
 Carrots. — This crop is less extensively used for forage purposes, chiefly 
 because it yields less abundantly than rutabagas and mangels. It makes 
 
 UiTA/T/LATOR 
 
 Cross Section of an Easily Constructed Pit for Roots. ^ 
 
 an excellent quality of feed and calls for about the same soil conditions and 
 cultvn-al methods as the other root crops. The roots are much smaller and 
 consequently there should be more of them in a given area. From four to 
 six pounds of seed per acre are required. It should be drilled in rows, and 
 the ])lants should ultimately stand two or three inches apart in the row. 
 
 Parsnip. — This crop requires a rich, fertile soil, and demands the same 
 cultural methods as the carrot. The roots of the parsnip may be dug late 
 in the fall and stored or allowed to remain where grown and dug as required 
 for use. Whether they are allowed to remain in the field will be determined 
 largely by winter conditions and the possibilities of digging them in the 
 Avinter time. When used as human food, the freezing of the roots improves 
 their flavor. 
 
 Cabbage. — While this crop is grown chiefly for human consumption, 
 in some sections of the country it is extensively grown for forage purposes. 
 The usual method of storing cabbage is to dig a trench about eighteen inches 
 
 1 From Farmnrs* Bulletin 465, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE 171 
 
 deep and three feet wide in which the cabbage is set with the heads close 
 togethec'and the roots bedded in soil. As cold weather approaches they are 
 coverea with straw and a few inches of earth. Slight freezing does not 
 injure them, but they should not be subjected to alternate freezing and 
 thawing. They should be well ventilated while in storage. Cabbage 
 makes a good roughage for dairy cows and young stock. 
 
 Kale. — Thousand-Headad kale is the variety best adapted for forage 
 purposes because of its large, rank growth and heavy yield. It somewhat 
 resembles cabbage and makes a succulent forage which can be fed from 
 October until April in regions where the winter is mild. It is best fed fresh 
 or allowed to wilt, but should not be cut more than four or five days before 
 feeding; neither should it be fed while frozen. 
 
 The methods of growing are similar to those for cabbage, the plants 
 being grown in a seed-bed and transplanted in the field early in the spring. 
 
 Cabbage and any of the root crops that tend to give a peculiar taste 
 to milk should always be fed soon after the milking period and never for 
 several hours just prior to it. This precaution in feeding is said to obviate 
 the disagreeable flavor which is frequently imparted to the milk. 
 
 Artichokes. — This crop, of which there are several varieties, belongs 
 to the sunflower family, and both the tops and tubers are relished by 
 livestock. They are cultivated much after the manner of potatoes, although 
 planted somewhat farther apart. Yields of 200 to 500 bushels of tubers 
 per acre have been reported. 
 
 Artichokes are valuable as forage, chiefly for hogs, which may be 
 turned into the fields and allowed to harvest the crop themselves. The 
 tubers keep in the ground all winter and usually enough of them are left 
 by the hogs to produce a new crop for next year. 
 
 Cassava. — This plant is a native of the tropics and is adapted to Florida 
 and the Gulf Coast portion of the states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. 
 It is a large growing, bushy plant attaining a height of four to ten feet and 
 produces horizontal, fleshy roots or tubers three to five feet long and from 
 one to two and one-half inches in diameter. While it will grow on quite 
 ,a variety of soils, it can be economically produced only on loose, sandy soils 
 which will enable the easy harvesting of the roots. On fertile soils and with 
 good cultural methods, yields of five to ten tons per acre of roots are 
 reported. The roots are very high in starch and sugar content and make 
 an excellent food for all kinds of livestock. The crop is ciuite extensively 
 used in the manufacture of starch. 
 
 Cassava is propagated by means of portions of the roots or stems which 
 are stored in the dry during the winter. The roots or seed canes are cut 
 into pieces of the desired length and planted in the spring after danger of 
 frost is past. They are usually planted four feet apart each way and cov- 
 ered with a few inches of moist earth. 
 
 Chufa. — This is a sedge-like plant with creeping root stocks which 
 produce great numbers of edible tubers. These are small, sweet and 
 
172 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 frequently used as human food or pasture for hogs. The yield varies greatly 
 ranging from 50 to 300 bushels of tubers per acre. The plant is propagated 
 by planting the tubers in the spring in rows sufficiently far apart to permit 
 cultivation. The rate of planting is about the same as for potatoes. 
 
 Taro. — Thi plant, commonly grown for its edible roots in the tropics, 
 is more familiar to persons in the United States as seen in the large-leaved, 
 ornamental plant sometimes called "elephant's ear." The tubers are 
 similar to potatoes in composition. It requires a long season for its growth 
 and is adapted only to Florida and the lower portions of the Gulf states. 
 The bulbs are from six to twelve inches long and three to four inches in 
 diameter. It is grown chiefly for human food, but in semi-tropical districts 
 may be used as a forage for livestock. 
 
 Youtia. — This plant closely resembles the taro and is similar in its 
 requirements and uses. The jdeld of tubers under favorable conditions 
 may be ten to fifteen tons per acre. They are harvested by pulling, 
 supplemented by the use of the hoe. No doubt machinery such as is used 
 for the harvesting of sugar-beets could be utilized for the harvesting of this 
 crop and the one preceding.' 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 309. "Root Crops." Pages 7 to 15. 
 465. "Methods of Storing Root Crops." 
 
CHAPTER 14 
 
 The Potato 
 
 By Alva Agee 
 Director, Agricultural Extension, Rutgers College, N. J. 
 
 The potato is one of the world's most important products for human 
 food. The United States have been producing between 350,000,000 and 
 400,000,000 bushels, and Canada between 70,000,000 and 85,000,000 bushels 
 annually. Adaptability to this crop gives high value to land near good 
 markets, and good transportation facihties have made the crop profitable 
 
 The Potato Crop.^ 
 
 in sections of the country that must ship their products long distances. 
 The Southern states, growing their crop in the cool months of the spring, 
 supply Northern markets during the summer, and in the fall scores of 
 millions of bushels are sent southward from the Northern states. The crop 
 is important not only for the reason that it produces a large amount of 
 human food per acre, but on account of the reward it offers to the grower's 
 skill. The limit to production per acre is unknown, but it is a conservative 
 statement that the present average yield in this country could be doubled. 
 
 » From Farmera' Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 V(173) 
 
]74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 The Soil. — The potato is a tuber developing below the surface of the 
 ground and displacing soil particles as it grows. Therefore, a mellow soil is 
 essential. The best potato lands are naturally loose, but somewhat heavy 
 soils have been brought into profitable production by the free use of organic 
 matter from sods and cover crops. A good potato soil is retentive of 
 moisture, and rotted organic matter in it serves as the best insurance 
 against drought. Some light, sandy soils of the seaboard states are put 
 into productive condition by means of cover crops and manure which give 
 them body and excellent physical condition. Soils naturally too compact 
 for the potato may be made loose, friable and retentive of moisture by the 
 same means. 
 
 Crop Rotation. — The history of pot.nto production in other countries 
 as well as our own teaches clearly that this crop should be grown in rota- 
 tion with others and that when the crop rotation is shorter than four years 
 there is great danger of ultimate failure. The practice of growing potatoes 
 year after year on the same land, using a winter cover crop, or of using a 
 rotation of two j'^ears only, niq,y prevail for a number of years in a region 
 i:)eculiarly adapted to the crop, but it is only a matter of time until yields 
 will be badly cut by disease and lack of vegetable matter in the soil. One 
 excellent crop rotation is clover, corn, potatoes and grain, followed by 
 clover. The manure is put on the field for corn, and both it and the sod 
 are thoroughly rotted for the potato the following year. Another rotation 
 of some reputation is clover, potatoes and wheat. The clover sod rots 
 more readily than a grass sod and feeds the potato and at the same time 
 keeps the soil mellow. A fresh-turned grass sod does not favor this crop. 
 When it is necessary to follow grass with potatoes the sod should be broken 
 in the fall, and if there is danger of undue leaching, a winter cover crop of 
 rye or wheat should be grown. 
 
 Soil Preparation. — A deep soil holds moisture better than a shallow 
 one, and our more productive potato lands have been made and are kept 
 deep by proper plowing. A shallow soil should be deepened gradually, 
 and the best part of the sod never should be thrown into the bottom of the 
 furrow. A breaking-plow having a short, straight mold-board is to be 
 preferred for all land that is at all deficient in humus, as it is essential that 
 some organic matter be in the surfac9 soil. The time of plowing is a local 
 question. Wherever leaching is not to be feared and early planting is 
 practiced, fall plowing is advised. When land is broken in the fall or very 
 early in the spring, it is less subject to summer drought than late-plowed 
 ground. We should bear in mind all the time that a supply of moisture is a 
 big consideration and in the preparation of the ground that should be 
 kept chiefly in view. The use of a heavily weighted, sharp, disk harrow on 
 sod land before it is broken does much to hasten decay after the plowing 
 and to insure prime physical condition. It is easy to do harm by tramping 
 plowed land with horses in the spring, and disking before plowing reduces 
 the amount of required preparation after the plowing. ^ 
 
THE POTATO 175 
 
 The Seed. — The potato thrives in a relatively cold climate and loses 
 vigor when grown during midsummer in warm latitudes. The best seed is 
 obtained from our northernmost states, grown in midsummer, or from more 
 southern states when grown in the cool months of autumn. As a rule, the 
 northern seed is preferred, partly because it is in abundant supply. 
 
 Successful growers prefer potatoes of marketable size for planting. 
 The tubers are enlarged underground stems, and their vitality may be 
 measured by that of the vines which produce them. A small potato, known 
 as a second, may have been set late by a vine of strong vitality which 
 produced also a big crop of merchantable tubers. In that case the small 
 potato makes fairly good seed, and would be just as desirable as a section 
 of a large potato if it did not put out any more sprouts than the cut portion 
 of a large tuber. On the other hand, many seconds are small because the 
 vines producing them lacked in vitality. Experience has taught that 
 growers depending upon seconds soon have a large percentage of plants 
 that lack full productive power. Potato yields in the warmer latitudes of 
 the Northern states are kept low by the use of home-grown seed which 
 necessarily has had vitaHty impaired. 
 
 The amount of seed per acre depends somewhat upon variety, but 
 relatively heavy seeding is profitable. The grower wants sufficient foliage 
 to cover and shade the soil thoroughly, and ordinarily, that requires the 
 use of thirteen or fourteen bushels of seed per acre. The seed piece should 
 be a block of potato sufficiently large to average two eyes to the piece. The 
 size of the seed piece is important in insuring a good stand, and the cutting 
 should be related more to size of the piece than to number of eyes. In some 
 instances there will be only one bud which may produce two or three good 
 stalks, and in other cases a seed piece of right size may have three eyes. 
 Close cutting and any skimping of the amount of seed result in loss under 
 ordinary conditions, however successful they may be in a very fine and 
 fertile soil having the right amount of moisture immediately'' after planting. 
 
 Fertilization. — Large areas of sandy loams are planted with potatoes 
 because they have right physical condition and partly because they mature 
 a crop early in the season. Sandy soils are badly deficient in potash, and it 
 has come about that most growers think of the potato as a plant requiring 
 unusually heavy applications of potash. Manufacturers of fertilizers have 
 fostered this idea, but the results of careful experiments have shoAvn within 
 recent years that phosphoric acid should be the controlling element in the 
 potato fertilizer, just as it is in the fertilizer for corn and most other staple 
 crops. In normal soils of great natural strength no commercial fertilizer 
 may be used, but when need first develops, phosphoric acid is the require- 
 ment. This occurs even where clover and stable manure are freely used. 
 Commercial growers, as a rule, make no use of stable manure direct to 
 potatoes, as it furnishes ideal conditions for the development of disease, 
 and especially of the scab. In the case of naturally fertile land the manure 
 applied for com and the legumes in the rotation may furnish the most of 
 
The Condition op Seed Potatoes Depends on Charactee of Storage. 
 
 1 — Stored in cool place. 2 — Stored in warm place, tubers 
 shrunken and vitality impaired. 
 
 176 
 
THE POTATO 
 
 177 
 
 the needed nitrogen, and the decay of the vegetable matter may free all of 
 the potash required, but we now have relatively small areas in which 
 phosphorus does not add materially to crop yields. As potato production 
 continues, a need of nitrogen develops, and as has been said, potash is a 
 requirement for most sandy soils. A lack of fertihty maj^ be met by use of 
 a fertilizer containing 3 per cent of nitrogen, 10 per cent of phosphoric acid 
 and 5 or 6 per cent potash excepting, naturally, areas where the percentage 
 of nitrogen must be increased. The amount of fertilizer used per acre 
 varies greatl}'". Some growers in the seaboard states apply one ton of a 
 high-grade complete fertilizer per acre, and many growers on naturally 
 
 A Potato Planter.^ 
 
 fertile soil in the Central states use none at all. It is a common practice 
 to apply all of the fertilizer in the row, and when the amount is in excess 
 of 1000 pounds per acre, there is danger of injury to the plants as they start 
 growth 
 
 Lime is not applied to land immediately before potatoes are planted, 
 as it favors the development of potato scab. Acid soils are more free from 
 this disease than alkaline ones, but clover demands lime and is needed in a 
 rotation with potatoes. The best practice is to use finely pulverized 
 limestone rather than burned lime and to make the appHcation immediately 
 after the potato crop in the rotation. 
 
 The Planting. — As the potato thrives best in cold latitudes the planting 
 should be made as early as possible in the spring in the Southern states and 
 
 * From Farmera' Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
178 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 the southern tier of the Northern states. The only exception is in the case 
 of midsummer planting with the aim of securing a crop in the fall. Farther 
 north the planting may be later in the spring, although the tendency in 
 recent years has been away from June planting. 
 
 The depth of planting depends upon the character of the soil and the 
 variety. Where an early crop is wanted, the planting is shallow, but for a 
 main crop in loose soils the depth should be at least three inches below the 
 dead level of the surface. 
 
 A planter does more satisfactory work than can be done by hand, 
 dropping the seed in a more direct line. The width between rows may vary 
 from thirty to thirty-five inches and the distance between the seed pieces 
 in the row should be sufficient to require about fourteen bushels of seed per 
 acre. This is a surer rule than any fixed nmnber of inches, as much depends 
 upon the cutting. 
 
 Cultivation. — ^A soil that is sufficiently retentive of moisture for the 
 potato usually inclines to become more compact than is desired. The 
 preparation of the soil and the planting compacts some of the ground 
 beneath the surface. A few days after the planting is finished it is good 
 practice to give a very deep and close cultivation, the shovels being guided 
 by the furrows made in covering. Later the weeder or harrow should be 
 used to level the ground and kill all weeds so that the potato plants will 
 come up in a fresh, clean soil. Close and deep tillage should be given when 
 all the plants are above ground, and later the cultivation should be more 
 shallow so that the roots of the plants will not be unduly disturbed. Level 
 culture enables the grower to keep the maximum amount of moisture in 
 the soil, but dependence upon mechanical diggers has led practical growers 
 to ridge the rows and, when the growing is on a large scale, this is the only 
 practical method of controlling grass and weeds. Cultivation should 
 continue until the vines fill the middles, and the last cultivation should be 
 given by a light one-horse cultivator that will slip under fallen vines. The 
 early cultivation should keep the soil- loose 'and later cultivation should 
 keep the surface wejl mulched with loose earth and should prevent any 
 growth of weeds. 
 
 Diseases. — The number of virulent potato diseases is increasing in 
 this country, and the grower should study the latest bulletins from his state 
 experiment station. He will be informed regarding the formalin treatment 
 for the seed before planting, that gives control of some diseases. All 
 potato seed should be given this treatnient, which consists of soaking the 
 seed for two hours in a solution of formaldehyde made by diluting one pint 
 of 40 per cent formaldehyde in 30 gallons of water. This should be done 
 before the seed is cut and under no circumstances should scabby seed be 
 planted without this treatment. 
 
 Close examination of the seed pieces when cutting is an aid. Mechani- 
 cal cutters are not advised and partly for this reason. All tubers showing 
 discoloration of any sort should be:«,ej&Gted;.". ;. i 
 
THE POTATO 179 
 
 Spraying with Bordeaux mixture increases the yield of potatoes 
 through stimulation, and is profitable, except in case of very highly fer- 
 tilized soil, even when no blight prevails. The early blight which is 
 prevalent in the southern tier of our Northern states is not well controlled 
 by spraying, but in cooler latitudes where the late blight prevails spraying 
 should never be omitted. Directions for making the Bordeaux mixture and 
 applying it are furnished by the experiment stations. The only point to be 
 emphasized here is that the spraying should be thoroughly done, insuring a 
 perfect coating of the plants, and that is possible only by use of strong pres- 
 sure and two nozzles to the row when the plants have reached some size. 
 
 Insect Pests. — For white grubs and wire-worms, which may render a 
 potato crop unmarketable, there is no remedy. There is no soil treatment 
 that will kill these pests. The grower should know the life history of these 
 insects and plan his rotation as far as possible for their control. Examina- 
 tion will show whether a soil is infested or not at planting time, and pota- 
 toes should not be planted where serious injury is sure to come. 
 
 The potato beetle is easily controlled by use of arsenical poisons and 
 these should be on the plants when the larvae of the potato beetle are hatch- 
 ing. Two pounds of Paris green or four pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty 
 gallons of Bordeaux will prevent injury by this insect. 
 
 The flea-beetle does great injury not only by impairing the vitality of 
 the plant, but by opening the way for disease attacks. Control is very 
 difficult. The Bordeaux mixture repels for twenty-four to forty-eight 
 hours and to that extent is a help. 
 
 Harvesting the Crop. — An early crop of potatoes when dug for market 
 in hot weather must have careful handling. All cut and bruised tubers 
 should be discarded. If there is reason for not marketing promptly, the 
 crop is safer in the ground than out of it, although excessive wet weather 
 may cause rot. Later varieties, dug usually in the fall when nights are 
 cool, will bear placing in large bulk. 
 
 The best diggers elevate the soil of the row with the tubers and, having 
 sifted the soil back, drop the tubers on top of the fresh surface. Such 
 diggers are relatively expensive and small growers use low-priced diggers 
 that do fairly good work. When good seed is planted in highly fertilized soil 
 the percentage of seconds may be so small that little grading is required, 
 but it never pays to send to market any tubers below merchantable grade. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "The Potato." Eraser. 
 
 "Potatoes for Profit." Van Ornam. 
 
 "The Potato." Grubb and Gilford. 
 
 "Potatoes: How to Grow and Show Them." Pink. 
 
 South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 155. "Selection of Seed Potatoes." 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, XJ. S. Dept. of Ap-iculture: 
 
 365. "Farm Management in Northern Potato' Sections." 
 3S6. "Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms of the West." 
 407. "The Potato as a Truck Crop." 
 533. "Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them." 
 
CHAPTER 15 
 
 Sugar Crops (Cane, Beet and Maple Sugar, and Sorghum) 
 
 By W. H. Darst 
 
 Assistant Professor of Agrono^mj, The Pen7isylvania State College 
 
 The world's sugar supply is manufactured from two plants, namely, 
 the sugar-beet {Beta vulgaris) and the sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum). 
 The amount of sugar secured from the maple tree is insignificant, 
 
 SUGAR-BEETS 
 
 The development of the sugar-beet industry dates back to March 18, 
 1811, when the French Emperor dictated a note to his Minister of the 
 Interior, instructing him to see that 90,000 acres of beets were planted. 
 He then appropriated 1,000,000 francs with which to establish schools of 
 instruction, and to be given in bonuses to those who erected factories. 
 Even though sugar-beet was an unknown crop, the farmers were compelled 
 to glow them. At the end of two years France was producing 7,700,000 
 pounds of sugar. By 1836 the production of sugar in France amounted to 
 40,000 tons. At this time Germany observed that sugar-beets in France 
 had revolutionized French agriculture. By growing beets in the rotation 
 the yield of all the cereals was increased to an even greater extent than where 
 turnips were grown, as in England. Up to this time Germany had not been 
 able to induce her farmers to grow beets of their own accord. Germany 
 then adopted the French plan of governmental aid to establish the industry. 
 Other European countries soon followed the same plan, with the result that 
 today one-half of the world's supply of sugar is derived from European 
 sugar-beets.' 
 
 The following table gives the total world's production of beet and cane 
 sugar compared: 
 
 World's Production. 
 
 Short Tona. 
 
 1911-12. 
 
 1912-13. 
 
 1913-14. 
 
 Cane sugar 
 
 10,253,000 
 7,072,000 
 
 10,699,000 
 8,365,000 
 
 19,064,000 
 
 11,118,000 
 
 Beet sugar . 
 
 9,765,000 
 
 
 
 Total production 
 
 17,325,000 
 
 20,883,000 
 
 
 
 (180) 
 
SUGAR CROPS 
 
 181 
 
 The countries leading in the production of both beet and cane sugar 
 in 1914 were as follows: 
 
 Beet Sugar. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 France 
 
 United States . . . 
 Italy 
 
 Short Tons. 
 
 2,886,000 
 
 2,031,000 
 
 1,858,000 
 
 861,000 
 
 733,000 
 
 337,000 
 
 Cane Sugar. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 British India 
 
 Java 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 United States (Louisiana and 
 Texas) 
 
 Short Tons. 
 
 2,909,000 
 
 2,534,000 
 
 1,591,000 
 
 612,000 
 
 364,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 The development of the sugar-beet industry in the United States is of 
 comparatively recent date. It was not until 190G that the production of 
 
 'AV. Showing How Germany Has Increased the Yield of Wheat.Rye, Barley and Oata ^v. 
 Aofp ^y Planting Fields to Sugar Beets and Other Hoed Crops,One Year in Four. /er 
 
 PER CnNT 
 INCREASE 
 
 1879—1909 
 
 1879 I8S0 isai 189: \mm m less mi mt \m mt m \m U93 1194 m \m mi \m m \m m\ \m \m m 1905 1906 i9e; 1908 1909 
 COMBINED 1909 HARVEST OF f united states = 88.944,000 acres. i.94;,o<5,ooo bushels. 
 
 WHEAT.RYE BARLEY AND OATS \germany = 34,378 S36 acres. 1,373,000,000 bushels. 
 
 Agricultural Progress in the United States and Germany. 
 
 sugar from beets exceeded that from sugar-cane. At present the produc- 
 tion of beet sugar has more than doubled that of cane sugar in the United 
 States. (See above table.) 
 
1S2 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 The leading states in the production of beet sugar, in the order of their 
 
 production, are; Colorado, California, Michigan, Utah, Idaho and Ohio. 
 
 In the past and even at present, manj^ farmers think beet culture 
 
 injures the soil. This, with the high cost of extracting the sugar from the 
 
 beet, has made progress in beet culture in this country verj^ slow. 
 
 Results obtained in Germany and other European countries, when 
 beets are introduced into the rotation, suggest that the farmers of the 
 United States, having the proper conditions for production, would do well 
 to introduce them into their rotations. European farmers do not find the 
 beet crop in itself highly profitable, but the extra cultivation and fertiliza- 
 tion necessary to grow them, has greatly increased the yields of all other 
 crops, in the rotation, especially the cereals. 
 
 For the most part the profit is made indirectly 
 from the beet crop. The preceding chart from the 
 loose-leaf service of the United States Sugar Manu- 
 facturers' Association compares the average yields 
 of cereals in Germany, a beet-raising country, with 
 those of the same crops in the United States, where 
 very few beets or roots are grown. 
 
 Adaptation. — The soil and climatic conditions 
 are very im|)ortant factors in growing beets with 
 high sugar content. They are not as widely 
 adapted as other farm crops commonly grown in 
 this country. Plenty of moisture and sunshine, 
 particularly during early growth, are essential to 
 the production of Ix-ets with high sugar content. 
 Ideal conditions are found most commonly in the 
 irrigated districts of the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Pacific Coast, although many Northern states 
 have favorable conditions for sugar-beet growing. 
 Sugar-beets require deep, well-drained soils 
 
 Sug.ui-Beet.1 
 
 They do best on 
 rich loam or sandy loam and are not adapted to clays, muck or peaty 
 soils. 
 
 Preparation of Land. — The root of the sugar-beet grows entirely or 
 mostly underground, the smaller roots often reaching a depth of four to 
 six feet. For this reason, a deep soil and a deeply prepared seed-bed are 
 necessary. Beet ground should be plowed eight to twelve inches deep, and 
 where possible a subsoiler may be used with good results. Fall plowing is 
 advised where conditions will permit. It is very important that the seed- 
 bed be well prepared. The land should be worked often enough to secure 
 a fine, firm, moist seed-bed. It is necessary to obtain a soil free from weeds 
 or weed-seeds. Beets grow slowly at first, and if weeds are allowed to start, 
 considerable hand labor will be required to eradicate them. Beets should 
 never be grown in continuous culture. The rotation will depend on the 
 
 ' Courtesy of California Agricultural College. 
 
SUGAR CROPS 1S3 
 
 crops common to the region where grown. A three, four or five-year rota- 
 tion, including a legmne crop, should be used when growing beets. 
 
 Fertilization. — Barnyard manure and high-grade fertilizer are used with 
 profit on beets. The manure should be well rotted when applied, so as to 
 lessen the chances of weed-seed. High-grade fertilizers, selected to meet 
 the needs of the soil, should be used. 
 
 In European countries beets are fertilized very heavily. This produces 
 a large tonnage of beets and the residual effect of the fertilizer is taken up 
 by the crops that follow. 
 
 Seeding and Cultivation. — The beet plant produces seed in balls or 
 capsules containing one to five seeds. It is impossible, therefore, to regu- 
 late the rate of seeding so as to get a satisfactory distribution of plants in 
 the row. The seed is drilled rather thickly, and when the plants are large 
 enough, they are thinned to the required distance in the row. The seed 
 is ordinarily sown with a beet drill, which sows several rows at a time. The 
 distance between rows varies from twenty to twenty-eight inches. To 
 insure a full stand of plants, about twenty pounds of seed are sown to the 
 acre. In irrigated sections, beets are often sown in double rows one foot 
 apart and twenty-four to twenty-eight inches between each pair of rows. 
 Beet-seed should be sown early in May or after the ground warms up. 
 Cultivation should begin as soon as the rows can be followed and continued 
 at intervals of six to ten days, until the tops nearly meet between the rows. 
 A special beet cultivator is used that will cultivate several rows at a time. 
 
 The thinning of the plants should be done about the time the fifth 
 leaf is formed. Thinning is done by first blocking or bunching with a hoe. 
 This consists of cutting out the plants in the row, leaving small bunches 
 eight to ten inches apart. After blocking, further thinning is necessary, 
 leaving but one plant in each bunch. The blocking and thinning, hoeing, 
 pulling and topping of the beets are done by hand labor. On the larger beet 
 farms this work is generally done by foreigners under contract. 
 
 Harvesting. — Beets should be harvested before danger of frost in the 
 fall; if not worked up immediately, the roots should be protected from 
 freezing. Harvesting consists of lifting, puUing, topping, piling and hauling 
 away the roots. Lifting is done by a special implement that loosens the 
 roots in the soil. The pulling, topping and piling are done by hand. In 
 topping, the leaves are sometimes simply twisted off. A much better 
 method of topping, from the standpoint of the manufacturer, is to remove 
 the tops with a sharp knife at the lowest leaf scar on the root. The part 
 of the beet that grows above ground is not desirable. The sugar content 
 of this part is low, and there is a high percentage of minerals that may 
 crj^stallize the sugar at the WTong time in the process of manufacture. 
 
 Seed Production. — The sugar-beet is a biennial, producing seed the 
 second year. Almost all of the seed used in this country is imported. When 
 grown for seed, only beets with high sugar content should be saved. This 
 selection is based on the percentage of sugar as determined in a small sample 
 
 21 
 
184 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 taken out of the side of the root with a trier. The hole made by the trier 
 is filled with charcoal or clay to prevent rotting. The selected beets are 
 stored over winter in sand, in a dry cellar or pit. The next spring these 
 roots are planted in rows to produce seed. From three to five plants will 
 produce a pound of seed. 
 
 Manufacture of Beet Sugar. — At the factory the beets are washed in 
 sluiceways, then sliced into long strips called ''cosettes " The juice is 
 
 A Good Stand and Vigorous Growth of Sugar-Beets.^ 
 
 removed by applying hot water to the sliced beets, leaving a product known 
 as beet pulp. This juice is purified by adding small quantities of lime. The 
 lime combines with the foreign matter and is filtered out. The purified 
 juice is then placed in vacuum pans and boiled until the sugar crystallizes. 
 The sugar is removed by placing the product in a large centrifugal machine, 
 lined \Adth fine sieves. The whirling motion drives off the molasses through 
 the sieves, and the sugar is retained. The sugar is then dried and is ready 
 
 lU. S, Dept. of Agriculture, P. I. Bulletin 238. 
 
SUGAR CROPS 185 
 
 for market. The molasses, to which is added a httle fresh juice, is again 
 boiled in vacuum pans until the remaining sugar crystallizes. The sugar 
 is separated out as before, the product being known as second sugar. The 
 molasses, after the second boiling, is sold as stock feed. 
 
 By-Products of Beet Farming. — Beet tops left on the field after harvest- 
 ing may be cured as forage to be fed to livestock. If not fed, they should 
 be spread evenly over the ground and plowed under as a fertilizer. 
 
 Beet pulp, a by-product of the sugar factory, is an excellent substitute 
 for corn silage. Wet beet pulp contains about 90 per cent of water and 10 
 per cent of solids, which compares favorably with mangels as a feed. Many 
 factories dry the pulp. Dried pulp makes a better feed, in that it remains 
 in better condition for a longer time and is worth about eight times as much 
 as the wet pulp. 
 
 Beet molasses, another by-product, is not palatable when fed alone; 
 but when mixed with dried pulp, chopped hay or straw, has considerable 
 feeding value. 
 
 CANE SUGAR 
 
 Sugar-cane has been cultivated for many centuries in the tropical and 
 semi-tropical portions of the world. According to the best authorities, 
 sugar-cane appears to have originated in India. From there it was taken 
 to China and other parts of the Old World, where it has been extensively 
 cultivated from time immemorial. After the discovery of the New World 
 sugar-cane w^as introduced first in San Domingo, then into Mexico, Marti- 
 nique, Guadaloupe, Cuba, the Guianas and the warmer states of South 
 America. 
 
 The State of Louisiana produces almost all of the cane sugar produced 
 in the United States. Texas and Florida produce some. Sugar-cane was 
 first introduced into Louisiana in 1751, but sugar was not manufactured 
 from it until about 1792. 
 
 Description and Mode of Reproduction. — Sugar-cane is a perennial 
 grass, growing from eight to fifteen feet tall. The stalks are thick and 
 heavy, being filled with a sweet, juicy pith. The flowers are borne in 
 silky-like panicles. Seed is never formed in this country, and is not 
 abundantly produced in Egypt or India. Cane in its wild and native 
 state reproduces vegetatively more often than by seeds. 
 
 The stalk of cane is divided into joints or nodes and internodes. At 
 each joint is a bud which under proper conditions develops into a stalk. 
 Around each bud, on the stalk, are semi-transparent dots which develop 
 into roots that feed the bud when planted. 
 
 Soils. — Sugar-cane requires a large quantity of water during the grow- 
 ing season; consequently, it grows best on soils well supplied with humus 
 and having a high water-holding capacity. Well-drained alluvial bottoms 
 and muck soils are very good soils for sugar-cane. The more fertile clay 
 uplands produce cane higher in sugar, but do not supply the required amount 
 of water for large yields. 
 
186 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Sugar-cane is adapted to tropical or semi-tropical latitudes, the two 
 predominating essentials to growth being warmth and moisture. A mean 
 annual temperature of 70° F. and a minimum annual rainfall of about 60 
 inches are essential to the successful growth of sugar-cane. One of the 
 difficulties in growing sugar-cans is in the control of water. In Louisiana 
 as much as five to seven inches of water may fall during one rain. The 
 problem, then, is to get rid of the excess water before it damages the crop. 
 Good tile drainage is necessary on most of these sugar plantations. If for 
 any reasons, tile drainage is not possible, it is then necessary to depend on 
 surface drainage. 
 
 There are times when irrigation is necessary. The ideal sugar-cane 
 plantation should be equipped with underdrainage as well as irrigation 
 ditches. In Louisiana, scarcely a year passes that irrigation water cannot 
 be used at some time. Irrigation may be used to help prepare the seed-bed, 
 as well as to supply water when needed for the growing crop. 
 
 Varieties of Cane. — Many varieties of cultivated cane are grown 
 in this country. These have been and are being introduced from 
 various parts of the world. The Louisiana Agricultural Experiment 
 Station has arranged the varieties into groups and then under classes as 
 follows : 
 
 Class one — white, green and yellow canes. 
 
 Class two — striped canes. 
 
 Class three — solid colors other than class one. 
 
 In the Louisiana Bulletin No. 129, the variety known as D.74, a light- 
 colored cane, is recommended very highly. It is very high in sugar and 
 outyields by 20 per cent the green or ribbon canes. 
 
 Rotation and Preparation of the Land. — It is not desirable to grow 
 sugar-cane continuously. A common rotation is two years cane and one of 
 corn and cowpeas. The cowpeas are sown in the corn to be plowed down 
 for the benefit of the cane crop which follows. The plowing is generally 
 done in the fall of the year. The land must be plowed very deep, the 
 deeper the better, up to twenty to twenty-four inches. Traction plow^s are 
 quite generally used, as the work is too heavy for horses. On small plan- 
 tations, heavy mules and disk plows are used to break the soil. 
 
 After the land is plowed it is bedded with a two-horse mold-board plow. 
 This gives surface drainage between each two rows of cane. When ready 
 to plant, the rows are opened with a double mold-board plow. Two or 
 more running stalks are deposited in this furrow and covered by a disk 
 cultivator. 
 
 It has been demonstrated in Louisiana that fall planting gives best 
 results when winter freezing is not too severe and when the seed-bed is 
 properly prepared and drained. Planting may take place any time from 
 the middle of September to the first of April. 
 
 Fertilizers. — Cane is a rank-growing plant and demands the liberal 
 use of fertilizers. Since most of the potash and phosphoric acid removed 
 
SUGAR CROPS 187 
 
 by the crop is returned in the ash and the waste from sugar factories, as 
 explained later, nitrogen is the only element of fertility that need be pur- 
 chased in large quantities. The humus of the soil must be kept up by the 
 application of barnyard manure and by plowing down legumes. When 
 nitrogen is used as a fertilizer it should be applied in the organic form. The 
 nitrogen in cottonseed meal becomes available more slowly than in nitrate 
 of soda, hence this carrier is better adapted to the long-growing season 
 required for sugar-cane. 
 
 Cultivation. — Sugar-cane is cultivated frequently to keep down weeds 
 and to insure rapid growth by conserving the moisture. Considerable 
 hand hoeing is necessary as the cane rows can be cultivated only one way. 
 The disk is a favorable type of cultivator; however, the tooth or shovel 
 types are also used. 
 
 Harvesting. — The sugar in the plant increases up to a certain stage of 
 ripeness. While the maximum amount of sugar can be determined only 
 by chemical means, the grower learns to determine the proper stage quite 
 accurately by the appearance of the stalks and inflorescence or flower 
 cluster. For economy of production, it is desirable to continue the grinding 
 of cane over as long a period as possible. The season may be extended by 
 planting at different times and by using varieties that vary in time of matu- 
 rity on different types of soil. 
 
 In Louisiana the harvesting begins the first of November. The cane 
 is cut by hand and is a very slow process. The plant is first stripped with 
 the back of the cane knife, then topped and cut close to the ground. The 
 stalks are thrown in piles for loading. As the canes begin to lose sugar 
 rapidly in twenty-four hours after cutting, they are usually hauled immedi- 
 ately to the mill. 
 
 Cane Sugar Manufacture. — At the factory the stalks are first shredded. 
 The juice is then pressed out by running this shredded material through 
 three sets of heavy steel rollers. After passing through the first set of 
 rollers, the pressed material is sprayed with hot juice, then passed through 
 the second set of rollers. In turn, this material is sprayed with hot water 
 and again pressed. In this way from 90 to 95 per cent of the juice is 
 removed. The pressed material is used as fuel and is converted into the 
 heat and power necessary to operate the mill. 
 
 The juice is heated and purified by adding milk of lime. The 
 lime combines with the impurities and is filtered out. The purified 
 juice is then concentrated by boiling in vacuum pans and is finally 
 crystallized. 
 
 The principal by-products of the sugar-cane factories are the impurities 
 combined with lime, the different grades of syrup and molasses and the 
 ashes from the pressed cane. 
 
 Since the impurities taken out in combination with lime contain a 
 large part of the phosphorus and potash removed by the crop, this product 
 with the ashes is returned to the soil as a fertilizer. 
 
o 
 
 Q 
 
 Books, 
 
 188 
 
 Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. Prom V.-G. Fertiliaer Crop 
 
SUGAR CROPS 189 
 
 MAPLE SUGAR 
 
 The making of maple sugar, like every other farming industry, has 
 changed greatly within the last fifty years. In this country maple sugar 
 has become more and more a luxury, and less a necessity, owing to the 
 low price of cane and beet sugar. 
 
 The maple sugar production of the United States during the year 1909 
 was 14,060,206 pounds, valued at $1,380,492. The following states lead 
 in the production of maple sugar : Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania and 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Sugar is made from the saps of several varieties of maple trees. The 
 two most important are the Rock Maple {Acer saccharinum) and the Red 
 Maple {Acer rubrum). Ideal sugar weather occurs in the late winter or 
 early spring when the days are warm and sunny and the nights cold and 
 frosty. This weather starts a rapid flow of sap in the tree. The tree is 
 then tapped and the sap collected in covered buckets made for the purpose. 
 The sap as it comes from the tree is colorless and contains on the average 
 about three per cent of sugar. 
 
 Sugar Making. — In the process of sugar making, the sap is first boiled 
 dowTi in evaporators; then boiled to a much greater density in concen- 
 trating pans. 
 
 In making maple syrup the sap is boiled until the temperature reaches 
 about 219° F. ; in making sugar, the temperature must reach 234° to 245° F. 
 Tha boiling of maple sap for syruj^ must be done over a hot fire. Boiling 
 over is prevented by adding cream or skim milk from time to time. While 
 the thermometer is used to determine the amount of boiling necessary, 
 an experienced individual can tell simply by the way the syrup boils. 
 
 The broAvn syrupy fluid is then cooled, during which it must be stirred 
 vigorously until graining begins. The soft mass is then poured into molds. 
 
 SORGHUM 
 
 Sugar from sorghum has never been manufactured on a commercial 
 scale, although it has been made in small quantities and in an experimental 
 way. The difficulty in making sugar from sorghum lies chiefly in the fact 
 that there is only a very short period in the fife of the plant when it is 
 possible to crystallize sugar from its juices. The period is so short and the 
 possibihties of detecting the right period are so difficult that it makes 
 sugar making from this plant impracticable. 
 
 The plant is quite extensively used, however, in the manufacture of 
 molasses or syrup. It is best known as sorghum molasses, and is used for 
 cooking purposes more extensively than for the table. 
 
 The requirements and cultural methods for sorghum are given in the 
 chapter on "Annual Forage Crops." When used for molasses the crop 
 should be planted in drills and given thorough cultivation. The plants 
 should be about six inches apart in the row. 
 
 There axe many varieties of sorghum, but the Early Amber is the only 
 
]90 SUCCESSFULFARMING 
 
 early variety given any particular preference. There is much uncertainty 
 as to the quality of molasses that wdll be secured, and it does not seem to 
 depend either upon the variety used or the method of making. Experiments 
 indicate that there are frequently impurities in the juice which interfere 
 with the making of a good quality of molasses. 
 
 In general, the best quality of molasses is secured in the northern 
 region of production and in seasons of comparatively low rainfall and 
 abundant sunshine. It is essential that the canes be harvested at the right 
 stage of maturity and that there be uniformity in maturity. Carelessness 
 in the selection of seed and the manner of planting often give rise to canes 
 varying greatl}' in maturity at harvest time. It is very important to have 
 all the canes about the same height and of the same maturity. This facili- 
 tates the removal of the seed heads and is more likely to produce good 
 molasses. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 "American Sugar Industry." Myrick. 
 "Cane and Beet Sugar Industry." Martineau. 
 
 Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 136. "Production of Sugar Beet Seed." 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 238. "Sugar Beets: Preventable Losses in Culture." 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 260. "American Beet 
 
 Sugar Industry." 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 516. "Sugar Beet Growing Under Humid Conditions." 
 
 567. "Sugar Beet Growing Under Irrigation." 
 
 568. "Production of Maple S>Tup and Sugar." 
 
CHAPTER 16 
 Cotton Production 
 
 By Prof. E. F. Cauthen 
 Associate in Agriculture, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 
 
 Cotton, the second most valuable crop produced in the United States 
 and the first most valuable export, is grown in that part of the country 
 lying south of 36 degrees north latitude and east of western Texas. This 
 section is known as the " Cotton Belt." The climate and soil are pecuharly 
 adapted to its growth. The warm, moist spring and hot, humid summer 
 favor the growth of the plant and its fruit; the dry, warm autumn matures 
 and opens the bolls and permits the picking of the cotton. 
 
 Species. — The genus (Gossypium hirsutwn) includes the common 
 long and short staple varieties grown in the United States. The length 
 of lint varies from one-half inch to one and a half inches. 
 
 Sea Island cotton {Gossypium barbadense) grows on the narrow Sea 
 Islands along the coast of South Carolina and in some of the interior 
 counties of south Georgia and north-central Florida. It makes the long- 
 est, finest and most valuable of all cotton fibers. Sea Island cotton may 
 be distinguished from the ordinary upland cotton by: (1) its long, slender 
 boUs bearing usually three locks, (2) deeply lobed leaves, (3) yellowish 
 flowers with a red spot on each petal, and (4) many black seeds almost 
 necked, with long slender, silky fiber. Its fiber may be two inches long, 
 and is separated from the seed by the roller-gin, which does not cut the 
 fiber from the seed, but pushes the se^d out of the fiber. This cotton is 
 used in the manufacture of fine fabric and laces and in the finer grades of 
 spool cotton thread. - , - ■> . • . 
 
 Characteristics of the Plant. — Cotton is a ^tap-root, plant. In loose 
 soils this root penetrates to considerable depth, even into the subsoil. 
 When the subsoil is hard, poorly drained or near the surface, the tap-root 
 is forced aside and the plant becomes dwarfed. Mo^t lateral roots branch 
 from the tap-root near the surface and feed shallow, hence the need' of 
 shallow cultivation. 
 
 On fertile soil cotton may grow five or six feet high. From its nodes 
 spring two kinds of branches, vegetative and fruit-bearing. The lowest 
 branches or vegetative ones are often called base limbs; they may bear 
 short fruit-limbs. As the top of the plant is approached, the branches 
 shorten, giving it a conical shape. The bolls of cotton are borne only on 
 fruit-limbs. 
 
 Some varieties, like Russell and Triumph, produce bolls from one and 
 
 (191) 
 
192 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 one-half to two inches in diameter, and require from 60 to 70 to make one 
 pound of seed cotton; others, like King and Toole, having smaller bolls, 
 require from 100 to 120 to make a pound. 
 
 Some varieties are much more easily picked than others. If the parts 
 of the boll open wide, the locks of cotton are easily picked out by hand or 
 blown out by wind or beaten out by rain; but if the parts of the boll do 
 not open wide, the locks may cling to the burs and suffer less damage from 
 wind and rain. 
 
 Cotton fiber varies in length from three-quarters of an inch in the 
 upland varieties to two inches in Sea Island cotton, and may be likened to a 
 
 long, slender, flattened tube 
 with two-thirds of its length 
 slightly curled. It is this 
 curled condition of a fiber that 
 makes it valuable, for with- 
 out it the fiber could not ba 
 spun into thread. 
 
 Seed. — The number of 
 seed in a boll varies from 
 twenty-five to fifty. The size 
 of seed in some varieties is 
 larger than in others. Some 
 varieties have green seed, some 
 gray and still others have 
 blackish or necked seed. In 
 the upland varieties most seed 
 are covered with a short fuzz. 
 A bushel of seed weighs 33f 
 pounds. 
 
 Varieties of Upland Cot- 
 ton Grouped. — The cotton 
 plant is a native of the tropics; 
 but under the influence of man, 
 its growth has been extended 
 far into the temperate zones and its habit changed from a biennial to 
 an annual. Climate, soil, selection and cultivation have wrought many 
 changes in the plant. The true and so-called varieties now number 
 several hundred. 
 
 To facilitate the study of so many varieties, a system of grouping, 
 worked out by the Alabama Experiment Station, is followed. According 
 to form of plant, size of boll, time of maturing and other characteristics, 
 they are classified into six groups: cluster, semi-cluster, Peterkin, King, 
 big-boll and long-staple upland. There is no striking demarcation between 
 any two groups, but a gradual blending of the characters of one into the 
 next group. 
 
 A Good Cotton Plant Showing Good Base 
 Limbs; Variety, Cook. 
 
COTTON PRODUCTION 193 
 
 Cluster Group. — The distinguishing characteristics of the cluster 
 group are the one or two long base limbs near the ground and above them 
 the many short fruit-limbs that bear the bolls in clusters of two or three. 
 The plants are usually tall, slender and bend over under the weight of the 
 green bolls; the bolls of most varieties are small, pointed and difficult to pick. 
 
 The leading varieties of the cluster group are Jackson and Dillon. 
 The Dillon variety is important where cotton wilt {Neocosmospora vasin- 
 fecta) exists, because of its considerable immunity to this disease. 
 
 Semi-Cluster Group. — This group somewhat resembles the cluster 
 group, except that its fruit-limbs are longer and the bolls do not grow in 
 clusters. Its varieties have medium to large bolls and large, white, fuzzy 
 seed. 
 
 Two well-known varieties of this group are Hawkins and Poulnot. 
 Bolls of both are medium size, slightly pointed and easily picked. One 
 hundred pounds of seed cotton yields about thirty-four pounds of lint. 
 
 Peterkin Group. — The fruit and vegetative branches of the varieties 
 of this group are long and nearly straight; its leaves are small and have 
 rather sharp-pointed lobes; its bolls are medium to small in size; its seed 
 is small and many of them are without much fuzz. A striking character- 
 istic of the members of this group is the high percentage of lint that they 
 3deld — often as high as 40 per cent. 
 
 Some of the well-known varieties of this group are Peterkin, Toole, 
 Layt.on and Dixie. Layton and Peterkin are very much alike, except that 
 Layton does not have as many necked seed and is probably more uniform in 
 type. Toole and a selection from it called Covington Toole, resemble 
 both King and Peterkin groups. Toole has small bolls, is early and very 
 productive. Some selections from Covington Toole are fairly immune to 
 cotton wilt and are extensively grown in sections affected by this disease. 
 Dixie is a variety that is being bred up by the United States Department 
 of Agriculture to resist cotton wilt. 
 
 King Group. — This group embraces the earliest varieties. The plants 
 do not grow large; the leaves and bolls are usually small. Its base limbs 
 are often wanting, and its fruit limbs are usually long and crooked. A 
 distinguishing mark of the group is the red spot on the inner side of the 
 petals of many plants. Most varieties drop the locks of cotton on the 
 ground when they are rained on or blown by hard wind. 
 
 The leading varieties are King, Simpkins, Bank Account, Broad well, 
 etc. On the northern border of the cotton belt these varieties are well 
 adapted because of their earliness. 
 
 Big-Boll Group. — This group is marked by the size of its bolls. When 
 seventy or less will yield a pound of seed cotton, the bolls are considered 
 large and classed as a big-boll variety. Some varieties have long limbs; 
 others have short ones, giving the plant a semi-cluster appearance. As a 
 general rule, all big-boll varieties have rank stalks, large, heavy foliage and 
 mature their fruit late. 
 
194 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Some of the widely grown big-boll varieties are Triumph, Cleveland, 
 Truitt, Russell, etc. Triumph originated in Texas and is grown extensively 
 there. It shows considerable storm resistance, has big bolls, is easy to 
 pick and yields well under boll-weevil conditions. Cleveland has medium 
 size bolls and is medium early, but it lacks storm resistance. Russell is 
 late in maturing, has many large green seed and turns out a low percentage 
 of lint. 
 
 Cook Improved is a leading variety whose bolls are scarcely large 
 enough to belong to the big-boll group. The type of plant is variable. 
 This variety yields a high percentage of lint, is early and easily picked and 
 has stood at the top in yield of seed cotton in many experiments. However, 
 it has two faults — a tendency to boll-rot (Anthracnose), and a lack of storm 
 resistance. 
 
 Long-Staple Upland Group. — The chief characteristic of this group is 
 the leng-th of its fiber, which measures from 1| to IJ inches long. Most 
 long staple varieties are late and, therefore, are not suited for that part of 
 the country infested with boll-weevils. The percentage of lint is lower 
 than the other upland varieties, but it commands a premimn of three or 
 four cents a pound. Some of the better known long-staple varieties are 
 Webber, Griffin and Allen Long-Staple. 
 
 Desired Qualities of a Variety. — By careful selection, the type of plant 
 or yield of seed cotton of any common variety may be greatly improved in a 
 few years. 
 
 Some of the desirable qualities of a variety are : 
 
 (1) Large yield of lint. 
 
 (2) Medium to large size bolls that are easy to pick. 
 
 (3) Plants that are true to type and healthy. 
 
 (4) Medium earliness with some storm resistance. 
 
 Selection. — Field selection is the one method most frequently employed 
 to improve a variety of cotton. It consists in sending a picker, who is 
 familiar with the points to be improved, ahead of the other pickers to select 
 the best plants and to pick the well-matured bolls on them. In this way a 
 few hundred pounds of well-selected seed cotton is gathered and then 
 carefully ginned. The next year the selected seeds are planted in a well- 
 prepared and fertilized field away from the other varieties for a seed patch. 
 From the seed patch selection is made in the same way as the year before 
 in the field. By repeating this operation for several years a variety may 
 be greatly improved. However, no variety will continue pure if the seeds 
 are handled at the public gins in the usual careless way. 
 
 Soils Adapted to Cotton. — Cotton is grown on all types of soil from the 
 light sandy to the heavy claj^s, from the badly eroded hills to the rich 
 alluvial bottoms. However, in this wide range of soils are planted many 
 acres that would yield a better income if they were planted in some other 
 crop. It is the low yield of the poorly adapted acres that makes cotton an 
 unprofitable crop on so many farms. 
 
COTTON PRODUCTION 
 
 195 
 
 The type of soil influences the earhness of the cotton plants. As a 
 general rule, cotton grown on light, sandy soil makes a rapid growth and 
 matures the fruit early — a decided advantage where boll-weevils exist; 
 while that on heavy clay soil may grow until frost stops it, if the season is 
 favorable. Light soils are not naturally productive, but by the use of 500 
 to 1000 pounds of complete commercial fertilizer per acre, the yield is 
 increased from one-third of a bale to one or two bales an acre. 
 
 Special Types of Soil. — Of the different types of soil, the heavier 
 members of the Orangeburg series are the best adapted to cotton culture. 
 
 Cotton Grown by Single Stalk Method.^ 
 
 They are marked by a reddish-brown to gray color and open structure soil 
 with a friable, sandy-clay subsoil. 
 
 The Greenville series is very much like the Orangeburg in its adapta- 
 tion to cotton. 
 
 The Norfolk soils are not so productive; but when there is an abun- 
 dance of humus and a liberal supply of commercial fertilizer, they will 
 produce a heavy early crop of cotton. 
 
 The Houston series east of the Mississippi and the Victorian west, 
 with good cultivation and proper seasons, produce above an average crop. 
 However, the cotton plants often suffer from rust. 
 
 In the Piedmont regions are' located the Cecil soils. Where there is 
 not a deficiency of humus, these soils are productive, but the plant grows 
 
 » From p. I. Bulletin 279. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
10r> SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 slowly in the spring and late in the fall — a condition favorable to 
 boll-weevils. 
 
 Along the rivers and smaller streams are strips of alluvial land called 
 bottoms. They are nsnnlly fertile, well watered and produce a rank growth 
 of plants that do not make fruit in proportion to their size. On such land, 
 hay or corn is a more profitable crop. 
 
 FERTILIZER AND CULTIVATION 
 
 Plant Food Removed by Cotton. — There is probably no cultivated 
 crop that draws so lightly uixm the fertilit,y of the soil as cotton. The 
 a.verage crop per acre in the United States is slightly less than 600 pounds 
 seed cotton yielding 200 pounds lint. This amount of lint removes from 
 the land only. 42 pound nitrogen, .15 pound phosphoric acid and 1.32 pounds 
 potash. When both s(hh1 and lint are remoV(Hl, the loss is 13 pounds nitro- 
 gen, 4.74 pounds phosphoric acid and 5.70 pounds potash. The roots, 
 stems, leaves and burs contain about as much nitrogen and phosphoric 
 acid, and about three times as much potash, as the seed ccttcn. These 
 parts of the plants arc seldom removed from the field. 
 
 Need of Humus. — In the cotton belt the amount of humus in the soil 
 is small. The A\arm, moist conditions that ])r(n'ail during a. large part c4 
 the year favor rapid nitrification; and the luvivy winter and spring rains 
 rapidly leach out the soluble plant-food. As a general practice, cotton 
 follows cotton year after year and receives clean cultivation and furnishes 
 little organic matter to replenish thc> humus. There is needed en every 
 farm some systtun of crop rotation in which cue crop is plowed under to 
 renew the lunnus. 
 
 Need of Nitrogen. — The small size of the cotton i:)lants ever large 
 anws is evidcnun^ of the deficiency of nitrogen in the soil. In many fields 
 the plants are large enougli to mak(^ only two or three bolls. To make a 
 profitable crop they should be two or three feet high, full of fruit and have 
 a rich black color during the growing season. The only lands that do not 
 need a supply of nitrogcni arc the rich bottoms or those that have received 
 a heavy crop of clover or some other legume for soil imj^rovement. 
 
 The chief sources of nitrogen in commercial fertilizer are cottonseed 
 meal, Avhich also furnishes some phosphoric acid and potash, nitrate of 
 soda, tankage and calcium cyanamid. If quick results are desired, as in 
 the case of a side a])i)lication to a growing crop, some soluble form like 
 nitrate of soda is used. 
 
 Need of Phosphoric Acid. — The need of phosphoric acid is almcst 
 universal. IMost fertilizer experiments show an increased j'ield whenever it 
 is used. The only soils that do not show an increased yield from its use 
 are the rich alluvial lands and Houston and Victoria clays. A liberal 
 application of acid i)]iosi)hate on heavy clay soil often hastc^ns the maturing 
 of a crop of bolls that would not ripen and open before frost. When a 
 crop of 200 or 300 pounds lint cotton is expected, it is usual to 
 
COTTON PRODUCTION 107 
 
 a,I)ph' 150 or 200 pounds acid phosphate either before pkuiting or as 
 a side dressing. 
 
 Need of Potash. — Loose, sandy soils and the Houston clays show an 
 ii: creased yield when kainit or some other potash fertilizer is used; but 
 most red clay and some silty soils do not seem to need artificial potash to 
 make an average crop. The red clay soils, as a rule, have a great deal of 
 potash, but it is slowly available. 
 
 When used alone, an excess of potash tends to delaj' the maturity of 
 the fruit. When used in connection with other matt^rials making a complete 
 fertilizer, the tendenc}- to lateness is obviatt>d. Some soils subject to cotton 
 rust are greatly improved by the use of 150 to 200 pounds kainit or 35 to 
 50 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. 
 
 Commercial Fertilizers Profitable. — Commercial fertilizers usually 
 pay a good iirofit, wh(ni the season is favorable and they are intelligently 
 used. Lands that formerly produced a half a bale of cotton, now by the 
 use of $8 or $10 worth of liigh-gTade commercial fertilizer adapted to the 
 needs of the land, produce a bale per acre without much additional expense. 
 Th(^re is a strong tendency all over the cotton belt to increase the amount 
 of fertilizer antl especially the amoiuit of nitrogen. ]\Iany farmers are 
 using 400 to 600 pounds of a fornmla that analyzes 5 per cent phosphoric 
 acid, 4 per cent ammonia and 3 per cent potash for sandy soils and the 
 same with l(\ss potash for the clay soils. 
 
 Three-Year Rotation Suggested. — The long practice of planting 
 cotton continuously on the same land has destroyed nearly all the humus 
 in the soil. To increase the humus and to maintain soil fertility in the 
 cotton states, the follomng three-year rotation is recommended: 
 
 First year.— Cotton, following in the fall with crimson clover or some 
 other winter cover crop. 
 
 Second year. — Corn with cowpeas sowed or drilled between the rows 
 at the last cultivation. 
 
 Third year. — Oats or wheat followed by cowpeas sowed broadcast 
 for hay or soil improvement. 
 
 Preparation of Land. — ^The onlj^ preparation a great deal of the cotton 
 land receives before planting is one plowing, which consists in throwing 
 up beds or ridges on which the seed is planted. JManj^ farmers are begin- 
 ning to recognize the need of better preparation and are jjlowing the land 
 flat and then bedding it before planting. 
 
 Much of the plowing is done with a one-horse plow to a depth of four 
 or five inches. However, the lands that are producing a bale of cotton 
 to the acre are plowed with a team to a depth of six or eight inches. Sub- 
 soiling, as a special operation, is not recommended, but deeper plowing is 
 proving beneficial in many parts of the cotton belt. 
 
 Time of Plowing. — Late fall or winter plowing is commendable for 
 heavy soils and those that have a great deal of litter on them, if such lands 
 axe not subject to severe erosion. Light, sandy soils are liable to \vinter 
 
198 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 leaching if plowed early. All fall-plowed lands, especially if they are 
 sandy or subject to erosion, should have some winter cover crop like crimson 
 clover or grain so that their roots may take up the plant food as fast as it 
 becomes available and prevent washing of the surface. In the early spring 
 the cover crop is plowed under in the final preparation for planting. In a 
 large measure the date of the first plowing should be governed by the labor 
 on hand, the amount of litter and stiffness of soil. 
 
 Seed-Bed. — Land that was plowed broadcast in the winter or early 
 spring is marked off in rows by a furrow that receives the fertilizer. Where 
 cotton follows cotton without any previous plowing, as is too often the 
 practice in a large part of the cotton belt, a furrow with a middle-buster 
 is run in the row of old stalks or in the middle of the previous rows, and the 
 
 TuENiNG Under Crimson Clover for Cotton. 
 
 fertilizer is distributed in this open furrow with a one-horse machine that 
 has a shovel-plow to mix soil and fertilizer together. By throwing over 
 the fertilizer four or five furrows with a turning plow, a bed or ridge is 
 formed four or five inches high and two feet wide. When no fertilizer is 
 used, many farmers omit even the center furrow and "list" or bed without 
 running the center furrow as a preparation for the row. 
 
 Planting. — Just before planting a drag or spring-tooth harrow is 
 drawn across the beds or lengthwise to smooth them down and freshen the 
 surface. On well-drained land some farmers are discarding the high beds 
 and planting on a level surface. In the western" part of the cotton belt, 
 where the rainfall is below twenty-two inches, much planting is done in a 
 water-furrow made with a two-horse lister. 
 
 In the southern part of the cotton belt, planting begins in March and is 
 usually completed in the northern part of the cotton belt by the end of May. 
 
COTTON PRODUCTION 199 
 
 Most of the crop is planted in April. Where boll weevils are present, 
 planting should be made as soon as the danger from frost is past. 
 
 The seeds are sown or dropjjed in a shallow furrow and covered one or 
 two inches deep in soil. If the soil is dry the seed should be planted deeper 
 and the soil shghtly packed on the seed. When the seed is drilled, one-half 
 to one bushel of seed is required to plant an acre ; when planted in hills, 
 one or two pecks are required. If the land is rough, the planting should be 
 thicker to secure a stand without replanting. 
 
 Tillage. — Prompt germination is desirable. If a rain packs the surface 
 or a crust forms before the seed comes up, the surface should be stirred with 
 a spike-tooth harrow or weeder to help the young plants to break through 
 the crust. The harrow or weeder may be drawn across the rows after the 
 plants come up to destroy small weeds and to cultivate the cotton plants. 
 When the cotton begins to show its true leaves, it should be cultivated with 
 a scrape or turner, which leaves the plants on a narrow ridge. The cotton 
 is then thinned to one plant in a hill about one foot apart on poor land and 
 about one and one-half to two feet apart on fertile land. Soon after 
 thinning a little soil should be pushed up round the young plants. This 
 may be done with a small scrape, sweep or spring-tooth cultivator. 
 
 Flat, shallow, frequent cultivation should be given the growing crop 
 until about the first^of August, when it may cease, unless the crop is very 
 late. 
 
 HARVESTING AND MARKETING 
 
 Picking. — Cotton is picked by hand. A picker hangs a bag over his 
 shoulder, picks the cotton out of the open bolls and drops it in his bag. 
 He picks 150 to 200 pounds seed cotton a day and receives from forty to 
 seventy-five cents per hundred pounds. 
 
 Picking begins in the latter part of August or early in September and 
 ends about the first of December. When labor is scarce, the time of harvest 
 may be prolonged until midwinter. Cotton should be picked out as fast 
 as it opens to jDrevent damage from storms or rotting of fiber. 
 
 Picking is an expensive operation because it has to be done by hand. 
 However, it does not require much skill and much of it is done by the cheap- 
 est of labor — ^^vomen and children. Many cotton picking machines have 
 been invented, but none of them have proven successful. They damage the 
 plant and gather much trash with the cotton. 
 
 Cotton should not be picked when it is wet, nor should locks fallen 
 on the ground and badly stained be picked up and mixed with the white 
 cotton. The damaged cotton should be placed in a separate bale. If 
 cotton is picked when it is slightly wet, it should be dried before ginning, 
 as damp cotton cannot be ginned without injury to the fiber. 
 
 Ginning. — When 1200 or 1500 pounds of seed cotton have been picked, 
 it is usually hauled to a public ginnery. A suction pipe draws the seed 
 cotton into a screen where a great deal of the dirt and trash is blown out, 
 and then drops it into a feeder. The feeder picks up locks or small wads 
 
 22 
 
200 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 of cotton and drops them into the gin-breast, where they form a revolving 
 roll of seed cotton. On the under side of this roll are many small circular 
 saws rapidly revolving in opposite directions and cutting the lint cff the 
 seed, A rapidly revolving brush takes the lint off the saws and drive s it 
 into a condenser. The lint is then dropped into a large box and packed 
 into a bale of cotton, which is now ready for the market or warehouse. 
 
 Cotton Seed. — The s(hk1 is usually sold to a cottons(>ed-oil mill. The 
 short lint or fuzz is cut off the seed and is called 'Winters." The seed is 
 then run through a mill that takes off the hulls, which are used for cattle 
 food; the kernels, or meats as they are called, are ground and cocked, after 
 
 A FiJiiLD OF Cotton. 
 
 which they are put in a powerful press that removes th(> crude oil and leaves 
 a hard yellow cake. 
 
 The crude oil is refined and from it are obtained: (1) "summer white 
 oil," which is used in the manufacture of a coui])()und of lard; (2) stearin, 
 used in making solid oils, etc.; and (3) a residue that is used in making 
 soap. On the dry western stock ranches, a great deal of the yellow cake is 
 fed to cattle and sheep in the winter; the cake is ground, forming what is 
 known as cottonse(Ml menl, and is used as stock food and commercial 
 fertilizer. Ilecent experiments show that specially ])rei)ared meal mixed 
 with wheat flour mak(^s an excellent nutritious bread. 
 
 Not many decades ago, cottonseed was a waste product on the farm, 
 but now the commercial value of the seed equals one-seventh the value of 
 the lint. 
 
COTTON PRODUCTION 201 
 
 On an average 1500 pounds of seed cotton make a 500-pound bale and 
 1000 pounds of seed. When the seed passes through an oil -mill, it pro- 
 duces about 150 pounds crude oil, 337 pounds meal, 500 pounds hulls and 
 13 pounds linters. 
 
 Storing. — After the cotton is ginned, the bales may be marketed at 
 once, or stored on the farm or in a public warehouse. The bales of cotton 
 are often left lying about the ginhouse or homes, exposed to the vveather. 
 As a result of the weather, their covering becomes badly damaged and the 
 lint tinged with a bluish color, and the buyer "docks" them to cover the 
 damage. 
 
 Bales of cotton should be stored under a shed on timber to prevent 
 their touching the damp ground and absorbing moisture. In many markets 
 are large public w^arehouses where cotton can be weighed, stored and 
 insured at a small cost per bale. 
 
 Before selling a bale, a sample of lint is drawn from each covered side 
 and placed together as a sample of the bale. The buyer judges its grade 
 and makes a bid. The price is based on the grade and the demand for that 
 grade of cotton in the markets. Most farmers do not know the grade of 
 their cotton, as it takes expert knowledge to classify cotton correctly. 
 They accept the highest price bid on the cotton as the top of the market 
 for that grade. Where a large number of bales are offered in the market, 
 often an expert grader is employed to classify the cotton, which method 
 usually gives satisfaction to seller and buyer. 
 
 When a foreign or domestic mill washes a quantity of a given grade, an 
 order is placed with an agent, and this agent goes to the warehouses or 
 dealers and buys the grades desired. If the bales have to be shipped far, 
 they are sent to the compress, where the size is greatty reduced by a 
 powerful press and thereby the cost of transportation is reduced. 
 
 Grades of Cotton.— The grades of cotton depend mainly on (1) color 
 of fiber, (2) amount of trash, and (>3) quality of ginning. A high grade 
 requires that the filler be white, with a slightly creamy tinge, strong and 
 free from trash or dirt. When the cotton shows a yellowish or bluish tinge, 
 the fiber usually is not strong; immaturity or exposure to the weather are 
 the usual causes for this condition. To get a high grade, the farmer should 
 pick the cotton from only the fully opened and matured bolls, and pick 
 it free from trash and dirt. 
 
 There are seven primary gi-ades in the commercial classification of lint 
 cotton. They are named in the order of value: (1) ''fair," (2) "middling 
 fair," (3) "good middling," (4) "middling," (5) "low middling," (6) 
 "good ordinary," (7) "ordinary." The half grades, which lie between the 
 primary grades are named by prefixing the word "strict" to the name of 
 the next lower grade, as "strict good middling," which is a half grade better 
 than "good middling." The telegraphic dispatches from the cotton 
 exchanges quote prices on "middling," and the prices of better and lower 
 grades are calculated on the basis of "middling," 
 
202 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 The larger part of the cotton crop of the United States falls under the 
 following grades: strict good middling, good middling, strict middling 
 and middling. Storms and early frost increase the quantity in the lower 
 grades. 
 
 The diseases and insect enemies of cotton are discussed in Part II 
 of this book. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "From Cotton Field to Cotton Mill." Thompson. 
 
 "Hemp." Boyce. 
 
 " Cotton. " Biirkctt and Poe. 
 
 "Southern Field Corps." Duggar. 
 
 Alabama Tuskegee Station Bulletin 20. " A New and Prolific Variety of Cotton." 
 
 Alabama Tuskegee Station Circular 23. " Boll Weevil Control by Cotton Stalk De- 
 struction." 
 
 Alabama Experiment Station Bulletin 180. "Wilt Resistant Varieties of Cotton." 
 
 Georgia Station Bulletin 113. "Variety Work with Corn and Cotton." 
 
 Mississijijii Station Bulletin 169. " Cotton Experiments 1914." 
 
 MiBsissii3]u Station Bulletin 173. "Cotton Experiments." 
 
 North Carolina Station Bulletin 231. "Report on \'ariety Tests of Cotton for 1914." 
 
 South Carolina Station Ikillctir. 185. " Cotton — Varieties and Limiting B'actor Tests." 
 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; 
 
 Bulletin 38. "Egyptian Cotton Seed Selection." 
 
 Bulletin 62. " Tests of the Waste, Tensil Strength mil Bleaching Qualities of 
 the Different Grades of Cotton as Standardized by the Ignited States Govern- 
 ment." 
 Bulletin 121. " Spinning Tests of Up-land Long-staple Cottons." 
 Bulletin 146. "Economic Conditions in the Sea Island Cotton Industry." 
 Bulletin 216. "Cotton Warehouses: Storage Facilities Now Available in the 
 
 South." 
 Bulletin 279. " Single Stalk Cotton Culture at San Antonio." 
 Bulletin 288. " Custom Ginning as a Factor in Cotton-seed Deterioration." 
 Bulletin 31 1 . " The Handling and Marketing of the Ai-izona Egyptian Cotton 
 
 of the Salt River Valley." 
 Bulletin 332. " Community Production of Egj'ptian Cotton in the United 
 
 States." 
 Bulletin 382. " Cotton Boll- Weevil Control." 
 l^ulletin 375. " Disadvantages of Selling Cotton in the Seed." 
 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry: 
 
 Circular 26. "Egyptian Cotton in Southwestern U. S." 
 Circular 57. "Cultivation of Hemp in U. S." 
 Circular 123. " Production of Long-Staple Cotton." 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, IT. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 302. "Sea Island Cotton." 
 
 314. " Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape Boll-Weevil." 
 326. " Building up a Run-Down Cotton Plantation " 
 364. " A Profitable Cotton Farm." 
 
 501. " Cotton Improvement Under Weevil Conditions." 
 577. "Growing Egyptian Cotton in the Salt River Valley, Arizona." 
 591. "The Classification and Grading of Cotton." 
 601. " A New System of Cotton Culture and Its Application." 
 
CHAPTER 17 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 By George T. McNess 
 Tobacco Expert, Texas Experiment Station 
 
 Types and Their Commercial Uses. — The commercial tobaccos of 
 North America are divided into three principal types, known as cigar leaf, 
 manufacturing and export. These types are again subdivided according 
 to their market grades and commercial use. The cigar type consists of 
 three grades: wrapper, binder and filler leaf. The wrapper is a fine- 
 textured leaf used for covering the outside of the cigar, and must have 
 good appearance, length and width, be uniform in color and have fine 
 veins. Cigar wrapper leaf is the highest priced tobacco produced in North 
 America. The binder is that part of a cigar which holds the filler leaf or 
 bunch together. This grade of tobacco must have fair size and possess 
 good burning qualities. It is generally selected from the poorer grades of 
 wrapper leaf. The filler is that part which constitutes the bulk of the cigar, 
 and varies in quality according to the kind of tobacco used for this purpose. 
 Filler tobacco should possess good aroma, taste and perfect combustion. 
 
 There are quite a number of tobaccos used for cigar purposes, each 
 having distinctive characteristics and grown in different parts of the 
 country. The kind of seed used, the influence of climate, soil conditions 
 and methods of culture and curing determine the ultimate use of the leaf. 
 
 The tobaccos used in the manufacturing of cigars are: the Havana 
 Seed, Broadleaf, Cuban Seed, Florida Sumatra, Georgia Sumatra, Texas 
 Hybrid, Wisconsin Seed, Pennsylvania Seed, Zimmer Spanish, Gebhardt 
 and Little Dutch. Several types of tobacco are used in the manufacture 
 of smoking and chewing tobaccos, the principal type used in this country 
 being the White Burley, which is grown in Kentucky and parts of Ohio. 
 Cigarette tobacco is manufactured from the bright flue-cured leaf of the 
 Carolinas and southern Virginia. About 60 per cent of the crop is used for 
 home consumption. The heavy or fire-cured tobaccos are mostly exported 
 to Europe, although some of the finer grades are used for plug wrappers. 
 
 Principal Tobacco Districts. — The finest cigar tobaccos are grown in 
 the New England states of Connecticut and Massachusetts, and in the 
 South in Florida, Gegrgia and Texas. These states produce the fine grade 
 cigar wrapper leaf. In the New England states it is grown under cloth 
 shades, while in the Southern states a slat shade is used. These shade- 
 groA\ai tobaccos rival the fine tobaccos imported from Sumatra and Cuba 
 both in quality of burn and taste and in vva-apping capacity. The binder 
 
 (203) 
 
204 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 tobaccos are produced in the states of Connecticut and Wisconsin; while 
 filler leaf of the various types comes from the Miami Valley of Ohio, 
 and from Pennsylvania, Florida, Texas, Georgia and Connecticut. 
 
 The manufacturing tobaccos, air, sun, flue and fire-cured, are growTi in 
 Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, Tennessee and North and South Carolina. 
 Maryland also produces a fine grade of pipe tobacco, but most of this 
 tobacco is exported to England and France. Nearly all of the fire-cured 
 
 Field of Virginia Heavy Tobacco. 
 
 tobaccos produced in the alcove states are exported to the various parts 
 of the world. 
 
 Tobacco Soils. — It might be well to mention briefly a few of the prin- 
 cipal soils upon which tobacco is growTi. The heavy tobaccos of Virginia 
 are grown in the Piedmont District on soil known as the Cecil clay or Cecil 
 clay loam. This soil is a heavy, red clay soil and produces a heavy-bodied 
 dark-colored tobacco. This type of soil is also found in the tobacco dis- 
 tricts of Tennessee and part of Kentucky. The soil of the Carolinas is 
 a very light-gray, sandy soil and belongs to the Norfolk series of soils as 
 classified by the U. S. Bureau of Soils. This soil produces a light-colored, 
 thin-textured leaf which is used in the manufacture of cigarettes and 
 granulated tobaccos. The soil upon which the burly tobacco is grown is 
 also a light soil, as is also the tobacco soil of Maryland. The tobacco soil 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 205 
 
 of Connecticut and Massachusetts is a light, gravelly soil belonging to the 
 Hartford series of soils, and when well fertilized produces a fine quality 
 of tobacco. 
 
 The principal tobacco soils of the South Atlantic and Gulf states are 
 light sand to sandy loam, underlaid by either a yellow or red sandy clay. 
 These soils run from gray to red in color, and where they have the yellow 
 clay subsoil they belong to the Norfolk series, while the red clay subsoil 
 places them in the Orangeburg series. The Orangeburg soils are more 
 productive than the Norfolk and the better grades of cigar leaf are produced 
 upon the former soil. These southern soils are responsive to fertilization, 
 
 Field of Cigar Leaf Tobacco. 
 
 and as high as one ton of commercial fertilizer is used to the acre by the 
 best growers. 
 
 The soils of Ohio are of limestone formation, and produce a heavy- 
 bodied cigar filler leaf having good aroma, but on account of the hme content 
 are apt to flake. The Pennsylvania soils are a little heavj^ for the produc- 
 tion of wTapper leaf, but the standard cigar filler leaf used in this country 
 is produced upon these soils. The soils of Texas are the Orangeburg and 
 Norfolk, which produce the same grade of tobacco as Florida and Georgia. 
 They are found in the eastern portion of the state. For additional 
 information on soils, see Chapter 1 on "Soil Classification and Crop 
 Adaptation." 
 
 Preparation and Care of Seed-Bed. — The preparation of the seed-bed 
 varies in the different tobacco districts, owing to some extent to the varied 
 climatic conditions, financial condition of the grower and type of tobacco 
 being grown. The most expensive and complete seed-beds are to be found 
 
20G 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 in the New England states, while less i)retentious ones are to be found in 
 the Carolinas. The object, however, is the same, that is, to produce a 
 supply of good, healthy, vigorous plants ; for a failure of the seed-bed means 
 a failure of the crop. 
 
 In Connecticut and Massachusetts the young plants are grown under 
 glass in steam-heated beds, and the tobacco seed is sprouted before being 
 sown in order to produce plants by the time danger of frost is over. It is 
 only in the Northern states that it is necessary to go to this expense and 
 trouble. In most of the heavy tobacco-growdng districts, as well as in the 
 
 Tobacco Plant-bed, or Tobacco Seed-bed. 
 
 South Atlantic and Gulf states, the open seed-bed is used, the only covering 
 being a thin cheesecloth to keep out the cold and conserve the heat and 
 moisture in the bed. 
 
 In locating a good seed-bed for any type of tobacco the prospective 
 grower should select a piece of ground near to water, having a southern 
 exposure and protected on the north either by liuildings or timber. The 
 l)est plan is to select a piece of woodland near a small stream having the 
 desired exposure. The timber should be cut off the land in the fall of the 
 year, split into desired lengths and sizes and stacked to dry. January is the 
 best time to burn a seed-bed, excepting in the Northern states. In these 
 states this form of bed is not used. The first operation is to rake from the 
 bed all leaves and trash, then lay across the bed skids of green pine poles, 
 upon which the cut timber with a good supply of small brush is placed. 
 This pile of wood and brush should extend clear across the bed, but not over 
 
TOBACCO 207 
 
 the entire length. The fire should then be started and let burn until the 
 soil directly under the fire has been burnt to a depth of three inches. It 
 is then dragged on the skids and another section of the bed burnt. This 
 operation is repeated until the entire bed is burnt. As soon as the ground 
 has cooled off, the coals should be raked off the bed and the fine ashes spaded 
 or plowed under. 
 
 The bed is now ready for the frame to be placed around it. In some 
 states logs are used for this purpose, but one-inch planks twelve inches 
 wide and any desired length, best serve the purpose. The most conve- 
 nient size to make a seed-bed is six feet wide and fifty feet long, which will 
 make 300 square feet of bed. In building the frame to go around the beds 
 the planks should be set upon edge and where the ends meet they are nailed 
 to a stake which has previously' been driven in the ground (see preceding 
 page). After the frame is complete a No. 9 wire should be stretched from 
 the center of one end of the frame to the other, supported at intervals by 
 stakes, the tops of which are about two inches higher than the top of the 
 frame. When the cloth is stretched over the frame this will cause a peak 
 or ridge to the cloth roof. 
 
 Prior to stretching the cloth over the frame, fertilizer should be applied 
 to the bed. Best results have been obtained by using twenty-five pounds 
 of cottonseed meal and ten pounds of acid phosphate to every fifty square 
 yards of seed-bed. This should be thoroughl}' mixed with the soil, and 
 should be api^lied several days before the tobacco seed is sown. This 
 form of seed-bed is now used in nearly all of the tobacco districts of the 
 United States with the exception of the New England states, where, on 
 account of their severe climatic conditions and short gro"wdng season, glass 
 frames and steam heat are used in order to obtain early seedlings. 
 
 In sowing a seed-bed it is very important to secure a uniform stand of 
 seedlings and in order to have a stocky growth they must not stand too 
 thick in the bed. On account of the small size of tobacco seeds, it is neces- 
 sary to mix them with some foreign substance in order to facilitate uniform 
 distribution in the bed. The best material to use for this purpose is fine- 
 sifted dry ashes. One ounce of tobacco seed mixed with one gallon of 
 sifted wood-ashes will plant three hundred square feet of bed. More than 
 this amount of seed sown to three hundred square feet of bed will cause the 
 plants to grow too thick; consequently, they will not have that desired 
 stocky gro^\'th. The seed should not be raked in, but simply pressed into 
 the surface of the soil either by a small roller or by a board placed upon the 
 bed and pressure applied. As soon as the seeds have been pressed into 
 the soil the bed should be watered and the cloth covering placed in 
 position. 
 
 If the seed-bed has been well burnt and otherwise prepared very little 
 attention will be needed except the daily watering, and this must not be 
 neglected if a good germination is desired, for the grower must remember 
 that the seed is upon the surface of the soil and that it takes moisture and 
 
208 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 heat to cause the seed to germinat©. Tobacco seed germinates in from 
 ten to fourteen days under normal conditions. 
 
 In the Southern states it may be necessary to weed the plant beds, and 
 wherever weeds or grass appear in the bed they should immediately be 
 pulled out. From six to seven weeks after sowing the seed the young plants 
 will be ready to transplant to the field. The cloth cover should be removed 
 for a few days prior to transplanting so as to harden the plants, and the 
 beds should be well watered before the plants are pulled in order to lessen 
 the injury to the roots. Plants should be taken from the plant-bed in the 
 early morning and placed in a shady place until used. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil. — Tobacco requires a good seed-bed, therefore, 
 the preparation of the soil is one of importance, and although the minor 
 details of soil preparation may differ in the various tobacco districts, the 
 ultimate object should be the same. Fields intended for tobacco culture 
 should be plowed the previous fall to a depth of at least ten or twelve inches, 
 and, if it is desirable, as in some localities,to apply stable manure, this should 
 be applied at the rate of from fifteen to twenty loads to the acre, broadcasted 
 over the field before plowing. Lime has been found beneficial upon some 
 tobacco soils and should be applied after the land is plowed, and disked in 
 during the preparation of the seed-bed. 
 
 The spring preparation of the soil depends largely upon the method 
 to be used in transplanting the seedlings, either by machinery or by hand. 
 In most of the Northern states, especially where cigar leaf tobacco is grown, 
 machine setting is practiced, while in the Central Atlantic and Southern 
 states most of the tobacco is transplanted by hand. 
 
 In the North where machinery is used the fertilizer is applied broadcast 
 after the spring plowing and harrowed in by means of a disk harrow. 
 Smoothing harrows, such as the Acme or Meeker, are then run several 
 times over the fields, pulverizing the soil and leaving it in good condition 
 for the planter. 
 
 In the Central Atlantic and Gulf Coast states most of the tobacco is 
 transplanted by hand and the fields require entirely different treatment 
 than where the machine is used. The field to be used for tobacco culture 
 is bedded up during February, the beds varying from three to three and 
 one-half feet apart for cigar tobaccos. The commercial fertilizer is applied 
 in the drill and mixed with the soil by having a single-shovel plow furrow 
 run in the drill, after which two furrows are made with a one-horse turning 
 plow forming a list. 
 
 The field is left in this condition until the plants are large enough on 
 the plant-bed to transplant to the field. At this time this list is leveled 
 off either by a small harrow or with a log. Where the land has been listed 
 for some time, it is good practice to re-list and then log off, as the small 
 plants will take root much quicker in fresh-plowed mellow soil. 
 
 Fertilizers. — Tobacco responds to good fertilization and feeds heavily 
 on nitrogen and potash. Larger amounts of commercial fertilizer are used 
 
TOBACCO 209 
 
 in the production of cigar leaf tobacco than with tobacco used for other 
 purposes. The principal source of nitrogen is from cottonseed meal, 
 although where the heavy tobaccos are grown, castor pumace or ground 
 blood is used to some extent. Potash is needed in the production of all 
 tobaccos in order to improve the burning qualities of the leaf. Only- 
 sulphate or carbonate of potash should be used, as the salt contained in the 
 muriate of potash is detrimental to the burning quality of the leaf. Phos- 
 phoric acid is also necessary in small amounts. 
 
 In the tobacco-growing regions of Florida, Georgia and Texas a vast 
 amount of money is spent each season for commercial fertilizers. In 
 addition to a liberal application of stable manure, as high as 2000 pounds 
 of cottonseed meal, 400 pounds of sulphate of potash and 200 pounds of 
 acid phosphate are used to the acre in the production of cigar wrapper leaf. 
 Like amounts are used in the New England states. Smaller amounus are 
 used in the production of heavy and export tobacco, and in such states as 
 Virginia a crop rotation in which clover appears as one of the crops in the 
 rotation, reduces the amount of commercial fertilizer, especially that which 
 is used as a source of nitrogen. 
 
 Transplanting and Cultivation. — When the seedlings in the plant-bed 
 have reached a height of from four to six inches, they are ready to be 
 transplanted to the field. Great care is necessary in taking the seedling 
 from the bed that the roots are not injured; therefore, it is necessary to 
 water the bed well before pulling up the plants. Plants should be taken 
 from the bed early in the morning and placed in a cool, shady place until 
 they are to be used. If pulled during a rainy season there is no use in 
 watering the bed and they can be used at once. Plants should be pulled 
 one at a time with the finger and the thumb taking hold of the plant close 
 to the ground. They should be shaken off or, if water is near, the soil 
 washed from the roots, and then packed with the roots down in a basket 
 or box. 
 
 Where a machine is used for transplanting, the field is usually left flat, 
 having been previously harrowed so as to present a fresh surface. Two 
 men are required to feed the machine and one to do the driving. There 
 are several makes of transplanters, the most popular being the Beemis and 
 the Tiger. These machines open the furrow, set the plants and place 
 any amount of water desired around the roots. Tobacco transplanted by 
 means of these machines appears to recover from the shock of being trans- 
 planted, and grows off much sooner and with more uniformity than when 
 planted by hand. Another advantage of machine transplanting is that the 
 transplanting can be done just as well, if not better, during dry weather 
 as during wefc, or when the soil is in favorable condition. These machines 
 have been in use in the northern tobacco states for years, and they are 
 gradually finding favor with the southern grower. The cheap negro 
 labor of the South has been the principal cause of their restricted use, 
 but as the price of labor has risen in the last few years, tobacco trans- 
 
210 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 planters are now being used with success where formerly hand setting 
 was practiced. 
 
 When hand setting of tobacco is practiced, the field is bedded instead 
 of flat, the beds are marked off the distance required to plant the seedlings, 
 
 and if the soil is at all 
 dry, water is applied 
 at these places. The 
 plants are then 
 dropped at each mark 
 and a laborer sets 
 them at these places 
 with a dibble. Ti'ans- 
 planting by hand 
 should be done only 
 when the soil is in a 
 good moisture con- 
 dition, or during 
 cloudy or rainy 
 weather. The dis- 
 tance at which the 
 plants are set in the 
 rows depends entirely 
 on the type and com- 
 mercial use of the 
 tobacco. The heavy 
 tobaccos of Virginia 
 and Tennessee and 
 the flue-cured tobaccos 
 of the Carolinas are 
 usually checked at a 
 distance of thirty-six 
 inches, while cigar leaf 
 tobaccos are set in 
 the drill from twelve 
 to eighteen inches, 
 according to their 
 type. 
 
 Tobaccos of all 
 types require frequent and thorough cultivation. No weeds or grass 
 should ever be allowed to grow in the field. Cultivation usually 
 begins about eight days after transplanting, when the young plants 
 should be hoed and given a reasonably deep plo-ndng. This is the 
 only time that a deep cultivation should be given. In the North, riding and 
 walking cultivators are used, having an attachment of shallow running 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
 A Plant Ready to Set in Field. ^ 
 
TOBACCO 211 
 
 plows, while in the Southern states single stocks with sweeps are mostly 
 used. Cultivation usually ceases when the plants have received their 
 final topping. As soon as the seed-head appears it should be taken out 
 along with about three or four leaves Vidth cigar type tobaccos, while the 
 heavy and export types are topped down to eight or ten remaining leaves, 
 according to the growth of the plant and the style of leaf desired. The 
 Maryland and Burley tobaccos have more leaves left on the plant after 
 topping, but not as many as the cigar types. All types of tobacco will send 
 out shoots or suckers after being topped, and these should be broken 
 off, so that all the strength of the plant will go into the leaves on the 
 main stalk. 
 
 Tobacco is subject to insect pests from the time it germinates in the 
 plant-bed to the time it is harvested. The flea beetle which lives on the 
 young plants in the bed can be controlled by using kerosene and wood ashes. 
 In the field the bud worm, horn worm and grasshopper destroy the leaves. 
 These can be controlled by the use of Paris green, either applied dry mixed 
 with cornmeal or ashes for the bud worm and in a solution at the rate of 
 one pound of Paris green to 100 gallons of water, for the horn worm. More 
 detailed instructions for controlling these pests will be found in the chapter 
 on "Insect Pests." 
 
 Methods of Harvesting. — Various methods are used in the different 
 tobacco districts in harvesting tobacco. In the heavy and export districts 
 the entire plant is cut. The stalk is first split down the middle about two- 
 thirds its length ; then cut off close to the ground. The plant is then hung 
 across a stick about four feet in length holding from six to eight plants, 
 according to their size. When a stick is filled it is placed upon a wagon 
 and taken to the curing barn. In the Burley and Maryland tobacco dis- 
 tricts the plant is simply cut close to the ground and speared upon the stick, 
 the stalk not being cut as in the former method. This method of harvesting 
 is also used in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and to some extent in the 
 New England states with the binder and filler grade of cigar leaf tobacco. 
 
 For the cigar wrapper tobaccos of Florida, Georgia, Texas and the 
 New England states, the leaves are picked off the growing plants as they 
 ripen, beginning with the sand or bottom leaves. The leaves are placed in 
 baskets and taken to the curing barn, where, by means of a needle, they are 
 strung upon strings attached to sticks, each string holding about thirty- 
 five leaves. The ends of the string are fastened to each end of the stick, 
 which is then hung upon the tier poles in the barn where they remain 
 until cured. The bright flue-cured tobaccos of North and South Carolina, 
 also Virginia, are harvested by a similar method, differing in that the leaves 
 are tied upon the string in pairs and sometimes in triplets instead of the 
 individual leaves being strung upon the string bj^ means of a needle. 
 Cigar leaf tobacco, harvested b}^ the priming or single-leaf method, will 
 cure much quicker than when the whole plant is cut and will produce 
 tobacco of more uniform color and finer texture; besides, there will be less 
 
>12 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 waste of the bottom leaves and every leaf can be harvested at the desired 
 stage of ripeness. 
 
 Bam Curing. — There are four methods of barn curing practiced: air 
 curing, fire curing, flue curing and sun curing. All cigar leaf, Burley and 
 Maryland smoking tobaccos are air cured. The tobacco, either primed or 
 cut on the stalk, is hung upon the tier poles in the curing barn and there 
 allowed to cure out by a gradual dying of the leaf tissues and evaporation 
 of moisture. Favorable curing conditions exist when the tobacco will 
 come and go ''in kase" several times during the period of curing. Barns for 
 air curing are provided with ventilators which can be opened or closed 
 
 according to the climatic con- 
 
 ditions and the stage of the 
 cure. For the first few days 
 the barn should be kept closed 
 until the tobacco has wilted 
 and taken on a yellow shade of 
 color; then the ventilators 
 should be opened so as to ad- 
 mit a free circulation of air 
 until the tobacco assumes the 
 brown color. During dry, 
 windy weather the ventilators 
 should be kept closed during 
 the day and opened at night. 
 The heavy and export 
 tobaccos of Virginia, Tennessee 
 and Kentucky are fire cured. 
 As soon as the barn has been 
 filled with green tobacco, small 
 wood fires are started to wilt 
 the leaf until the yellow color appears; then the amount of heat is grad- 
 ually increased until the leaf turns brown. When the tobacco reaches this 
 stage the heat is again increased to cure the midrib or stem of the leaf, 
 after which the fires are allowed to die and the tobacco cool off. During 
 the curing process the heat should never be allowed to fall until the 
 final cure is obtained, as a fall of temperature during the curing process 
 will injure the color and texture of the tobacco. Small log barns with 
 tight walls are used for fire curing without any ventilation except the 
 door. 
 
 The briglit tobaccos of Virginia and North and South Carolina are 
 cured by flues. The barns used in this process are similar to those used in 
 the open fire process, except that the fires are built on the outside of the 
 barn in brick fireplaces, having a metal flue running around the inside of 
 the barn about two feet from the bottom. There are usually two fireplaces, 
 the flues of each uniting at the opposite end of the barn, and merging into 
 
 Fire-curing Barn. 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 213 
 
 a single return flue coming out at the same end of the barn as the fireplaces. 
 Some barns have the two flues independent of each other, in which case 
 both flues return to the front end of the barn. 
 
 The tobacco, after being hung in the barn, is first given a low heat so 
 as to wilt the leaf and produce the yellow color. The temperature is then 
 rapidly increased so as to set the yellow color in the leaf and prevent the 
 leaves turning brown. As soon as the color is set the temperature is again 
 increased to cure the midrib, when the temperature is allowed to fall and 
 the tobacco to cool off. Three days and nights is the usual time taken to 
 cure a barn of tobacco by this 
 process. 
 
 The sun-curing process is 
 similar to the air curing, the 
 difference being that the to- 
 bacco is allowed to wilt on 
 scaffolds before being placed 
 in the barn and when climatic 
 conditions are favorable it is 
 also sunned before being placed 
 in the barn. This process gives 
 the tobacco a delicate flavor 
 when smoked in the pipe. 
 
 Preparation for Market. 
 — The first damp season after 
 tobacco is cured is usually the 
 best time to take it from the 
 tier poles and prepare it for 
 the market, especially with 
 cigar leaf tobacco. At this 
 
 time the tobacco is soft and pliable, and can be handled without injury to 
 the leaf. The only grading done by the grower in preparing cigar leaf for 
 the market is to separate the leaves into three groups, namely, sand or 
 bottom leaves, middle leaves, and top leaves. Where the tobacco has 
 been cured on the stalk the leaves are stripped off and tied into hands con- 
 taining about forty leaves. Where the tobacco has been primed, or leaves 
 picked off the stalk in the field, the cured leaves are simply bunched on 
 the string and the string wrapped around the butt-end of the leaves. 
 The tobacco is then packed in boxes and hauled to the packing house or 
 kept in the barn until a buyer comes. 
 
 With the heavy, export and bright tobaccos, the grower usually grades 
 the tobacco into the commercial classes as sand lugs, lugs and wrappers, the 
 finer classification being perform'ed by the buyer, who is usually a rehandler 
 of tobacco. 
 
 These tobaccos are packed in hogsheads and remain for some time in 
 the warehouses to undergo an ageing process which mellows the tobacco 
 
 Flue-curing Barn, Virginia. 
 
214 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 and brings out its best qualities. All cigar tobaccos have to go though a 
 fermentation process, after which they are graded out according to color, 
 texture and size. The tobaccos of Ohio, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania and 
 certain grades of the New England tobaccos are packed in boxes, while the 
 ^^Tapper grades of Connecticut and Massachusetts are packed in mat 
 bales weighing about 160 pounds. The cigar leaf tobaccos of the southern 
 tobacco states are all packed in bales, either the Cuban or Simiatra style. 
 
 Methods of Selling. — All cigar tobaccos are sold by the growler in their 
 unfermented condition to dealers in leaf tobacco, who either buy the 
 tobacco from the curing barn, or upon delivery by the grower at the ware- 
 house. In some cases the tobacco is grown upon contract at a stipulated 
 price per pound for the various grades. All transactions are upon a cash 
 basis upon delivery of the tobacco. 
 
 The heavy, export, manufacturing and bright tobaccos are sold at 
 public auction, either in the hogshead or as loose tobacco. The place 
 of sale is a public warehouse and all transactions are cash at the close of 
 each auction. The sales are attended by buyers not only of this country, 
 but of foreign governments where the regi system (government monopoly) 
 exists; such countries as Spain, Italy, France and Japan having buyers 
 attending these auctions. 
 
 Danville, Virginia, is the largest market for loose tobacco, especially 
 the bright tobaccos; while Richmond, Lynchburg and Petersburg, Virginia, 
 handle mostly dark, fire-cured tobaccos. Public auctions are held at various 
 places in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio and the Carolinas, 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "Tobacco Leaf." Killebrew and Myi-ick. 
 
 "Tobacco: History, Cultm-e and Varieties." Billings. 
 
 Kentucky Expt. Station Bulletin 129. "Cultivating, Curing and Marketing Tobacco." 
 
 Kentucky Expt. Station Bulletin 139. "Tobacco Improvement." 
 
 Ohio Expt. Station Circular 156. "Disinfecting Tobacco Beds from Root Rot Fungus." 
 
 Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 239. "Breeding Cigar Filler." 
 
 Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7. "Tobacco in Canada." 
 
 U. S. Dept. of Agi'iculture Bulletin 40. "Mosaic Disease of Tobacco." 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 343. "Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky and Tennessee." 
 
 416. "Production of Cigar Leaf Tobacco in Pennsylvania." 
 
 523. "Tobacco Curing." 
 
 571. "Tobacco Culture." 
 
CHAPTER 18 
 
 Weeds and Their Eradication 
 
 Weeds are the farmer's most active and persistent enemy. If he would 
 keep them under control, he must wage a continual warfare against them. 
 Seldom is there soil so poor that it will not grow weeds, and the richer the 
 soil, the greater the weed crop. They seem to have been equipped by nature 
 to hold their own in the struggle for existence, for they manage to thrive 
 despite heat or cold, drought or flood. 
 
 Some may ask: Why do weeds exist? They undoubtedly have a 
 place in nature's great plan. They are her agents in restoring fertility to 
 the soil. If unmolested they will cover the soil as a blanket, first as weeds, 
 then as brush and finally as a forest. In fact, in some parts of our country, 
 land is farmed until crops are no long(?r profitable, and then abandoned. 
 Weeds then take possession, and by returning nitrogen to the soil, they 
 become restorative agents. Give nature time enough and she will restore 
 any land to its normal fertility. 
 
 Damage Done by Weeds. — It is impossible to calculate the damage 
 done yearly in the United States by weeds. Investigators roughly esti- 
 mate it to be hundreds of millions of dollars. 
 
 Weeds Reduce Crop Yields. — Weeds are more rapid of growth and 
 more tenacious of life than cultivated plants. They crowd out the rightful 
 occupants of the soil, depriving them of air and sunshine. Being more 
 vigorous, they absorb from the soil the plant food that should be used by 
 the crops, thus reducing the yield. A ton of dried pigweed contains as 
 much phosphoric acid, twice as much nitrogen and five times as much 
 potash as a ton of ordinary manure. 
 
 Weeds also absorb moisture in greater quantities and more rapidly 
 than crop plants. They are more drought resistant, for, having appro- 
 priated all the moisture to themselves, they continue to thrive while the 
 plant beside them dies. Experiments prove that some weeds transpire 
 250 to 270 pounds of water to develop a pound of dry matter. 
 
 In addition to this, it is a well-established fact that weeds exert an 
 injurious effect upon crop yields by giving off from their roots substances 
 which are poisonous to crop plants. 
 
 Weeds cause a direct money loss by reducing land values. A would-be 
 purchaser is not so apt to buy a farm where the fields are thickly covered 
 with mustard, wild carrot or the ox-eye daisy. Naturally, the loss in value 
 should be borne by the man who has allowed his land to be so abused. 
 
 Weeds increase the expense of harvesting the crop. A field overrun 
 with weeds calls for extra labor and entails extra strain on the machinery. 
 
 23 (215) 
 
216 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 It sometimes necessitates hand labor, which is most expensive. Also the 
 cost of threshing and cleaning the grain is increased by the presence of 
 weed seeds. 
 
 Mai'kct values are lessened by impure grain. Many crops are docked 
 full half their value on account of noxious weed seeds. It is estimated that 
 the State of Minnesota alone suffers a loss annually of over $2,000,000, 
 because of weed seeds in the wheat. 
 
 But the loss does not stop here. Some weeds harbor and encourage 
 harmful fungi and insects. For example, the very common clubroot of 
 cabbage thrives on the various members of the wild mustard family. 
 Stubble overgrown with weeds harbors cut worms, beetles and other insect 
 pests. Mildew, smut and rust are often transferred from friendly weeds 
 to the grain crop. 
 
 Furthermore, livestock and even human beings lose their lives as the 
 result of eating poisonous berries or roots. The water hemlock or cow- 
 bane is fatal to sheep and cattle. The deadly loco-weed on the western 
 plains has caused tlie dc^itb of many horses and cattle. 
 
 How Introduced and Spread. — Weeds are great travelers. They 
 travel by means of the Avind and water. They are carried by birds, beasts 
 and human beings. They are disseminated l)y means of manure, feedstuffs, 
 machinery and grain seeds. 
 
 Such weeds as the thistle, milkweed and the dandelion have downy 
 plumes attached to each seed. The faintest breeze will carry them miles 
 away, where they begin life anew. Members of the dock family have 
 seeds supplied with Avings which enable them to float upon the water as 
 well as upon the breeze. Some weed seeds have sharp barbs and stickers 
 by which they attach themselves to the hair of animals and to the clothing 
 of human beings, and are thus carried into new localities. 
 
 AVhen it is known how many thousand seeds one weed-plant produces, 
 it can readily be seen how great a calamity it is to let a weed bloom and go 
 to seed. One thistle head contains enough seeds to start several thousand 
 plants the next year. It is estimated that one wild mustard plant produces 
 10,000 seeds, and one pigweed 115,000 seeds. If only a few of these seeds 
 germinated, the situation would not be alarming, but the chances are that 
 if allowed to seed a very high percentage of them will find opportunity to 
 propagate their kind. 
 
 One of the most prolific sources of weed dissemination is in the bu>^ng 
 and sowing of impure seeds. Especially is this true of clover and grass 
 seeds. In an analysis of several samples of commercial seed at one of the 
 experiment stations, one sample of red clover seed was found to contain 
 36,000 weed seeds to the pound. A pound sample of timothy seed contained 
 79,000 weed seeds. 
 
 Care should be taken to procure seeds only from uninfested districts. 
 A farmer should have sufficient knowledge of seeds to enable him to detect 
 impurities. It is a wise precaution to send first for samples of seed under 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 217 
 
 consideration for purchase. If the farmer cannot determine with reasonable 
 certainty as to their purity and germinating power, he should submit his 
 sample to the experiment station of his state, that the weed seeds may be 
 identified. These institutions gladly test samples of seeds for farmers free 
 of charge. 
 
 Careful screening will overcome much of the difficulty with weed seeds. 
 
 Classification of Weeds. — It is not enough to know the name of a 
 weed. In order to win in the struggle against a weed enemy, one must 
 know its habits of life and its methods of propagation. There is no weed so 
 vicious that it cannot be subdued or even entirely eradicated if its habits 
 are understood. 
 
 Weeds may be divided into three classes according to their life cycle : 
 annuals, biennials and perennials. Annuals complete their growth and 
 ripen seed in one season, such as wild mustard and ragweed. These weeds 
 must depend upon seed in order to grow again the following year. It can 
 readily be seen that if the plant is destroyed before seeds form, the source 
 of next year's crop is much lessened. 
 
 Unfortunately, some of these seeds are encased in an oily covering, 
 enabling them to resist decay. Wild mustard seed, for instance, has such 
 power of vitality that it has been known to germinate after having lain in 
 the ground for many years. 
 
 Biennials are not so easily disposed of. They require two years in 
 which to complete their growth. Some of them have long tap roots in 
 which they store up plant food during the first year. This food is used to 
 produce seed during the second summer. Burdock and wild carrot are 
 common examples of this class. These weeds are seldom seen in cultivated 
 fields, for the plow and cultivator are disastrous to their roots. If these 
 weeds are cut off even with the ground, they branch out and become 
 thicker than before. Cutting two or three inches below the surface so as 
 to destroy the crown of the plant is eiTective. 
 
 Perennials grow year after year and produce seed indefinitely. Some 
 of them reproduce by seed only, such as the ox-eye daisy and dandelion. 
 Others have roots running under ground from which they send up new 
 plants yearly. Common examples of this kind of weed are Canada thistle 
 and bindweed. This class of weeds is the most difficult to eradicate, 
 for wherever these roots are cut or bruised new stalks are sent forth 
 and the difficulty increased. There is one time, however, during the 
 growing season when these weeds are most effectively attacked; that is, 
 when they are in full growth, but before seeds form. No plant can live 
 long without a leaf system. If the plants are cut off and plowed under at 
 this time, many of them will be eradicated. 
 
 Repeated and persistent attacks, however, on the part of the farmer 
 will be necessary for ultimate success. The poorer the land becomes, the 
 greater the number of biennial and perennial weeds. They seem to be best 
 adapted to the poor conditions and will thrive where other crops fail. 
 
218 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Weed Habitats. — ^Bindweed, Canada thistle and horse nettle are 
 entirely at home in any field, whether it be corn field, meadow or feed lot. 
 However, it is a well-established fact that certain weeds seem to follow 
 certain crops. For instance, corn fields are mostly infested by such weeds 
 as foxtail, cockle-bur and butter-print. These can be overcome by per- 
 sistent cultivation. Milkweeds and the large family of mustards, of which 
 shepherds' purse and wild radish are members, seem to follow the small 
 grains. The mustard family is easily overcome bj" cutting before it goes 
 to seed. The milkweed, however, is more difficult to eradicate, as it spreads 
 by means of underground roots. Meadows and pastures have a different 
 
 The Manner in which Canada Thistles Spread by Underground 
 
 rootstocks.i 
 
 When the rootstocks are brought to the surface by plowing at the right depth 
 they may be raked up and destroyed. 
 
 type of weed from corn and small grains. Three of the worst meadow 
 weeds are dock, ragweed and buckhorn. They spread by seed only and 
 can be kept down by mowing before they go to seed. The ground must 
 also be kept well seeded to grass or clover, for if bare spots appear, the 
 weeds are quick to appropriate them. Sorrel is a pasture weed which is 
 hard to eradicate, as it spreads by means of underground roots. It cannot 
 compete with red clover, however, for a place in the meadows. For this 
 reason it is usually found in meadows where the acidity of the soil does not 
 encourage red clover. Plowing and somng to cultivated crops is the best 
 method of eradication. If the land will not admit of cultivated crops, 
 common salt put on the plants will Icill them and keep them from 
 spreading. 
 
 Principles Governing Control. — The foregoing discussion suggests 
 
 I Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 219 
 
 the necessity of working out a system of farm management that will afford 
 weeds the least opportunity to gain a foothold. The problem is not how to 
 rid a farm of weeds, but how to prevent weeds in the first place. This can 
 be solved by a system of cropping which takes into consideration the needs 
 of the different fields as regards weed eradication. This phase of the 
 problem has been discussed under the chapter on "Rotations." 
 
 A few general principles for weed prevention and eradication are here 
 given: 
 
 1. Cut all weeds before seeding, if possible. 
 
 2. Burn all weeds with mature seeds. Do not plow them under. 
 
 3. Practice crop rotations. 
 
 4. Sow clean seed. 
 
 5. Watch for new weeds in your locality. If you can not identify 
 them, send them to your experiment station for identification. 
 
 6. See that the laws in your state dealing with control of weed plagues 
 are enforced. 
 
 A few of the most common weeds are here considered.* 
 
 Canada Thistle. — The Canada thistle is a perennial of European origin, 
 and is the most dreaded of all weed pests. It is a common weed of the 
 northern half of the United States. The stems of Canada thistle grow 
 from one to three feet tall ; they are much smaller and smoother than other 
 thistles. The leaves are very spiny and the margin has a ruffled appear- 
 ance. The upper side of the leaves is smooth and bright green in color, 
 while the lower side is downy or hairy. The flowers are rather small, 
 about one-half inch in diameter and of a rose-purple color. The Canada 
 thistle flowers from June to September, maturing the first seed by the mid- 
 dle of July. The seed is smooth and light-brown in color, measuring 
 one-eighth of an inch in length. The seed is easily carried by the wind and 
 is most commonly found in medimn red and alsike clover seed. 
 
 Propagation. — The Canada thistle propagates by underground root- 
 stocks as well as by seed. The underground rootstocks grow rather deeply 
 in the soil and run parallel with the surface. They are the storehouse of 
 the plants, and are capable of sending up young shoots for some time after 
 the parent plant has been destroyed. This fact explains the persistency 
 of the Canada thistle. As long as the plant is permitted to form green 
 leaf es, it will manufacture plant food, which is stored in the rootstocks. 
 As long as plant food is present in the rootstocks they are capable of sending 
 up new plants, and will continue to thrive as long as they grow leaves at 
 the surface. 
 
 Control. — The Canada thistle occurs in all crops in the rotation, 
 consequently no one method of control will be effective. The details of 
 control had best be worked out for each particular condition. 
 
 To thoroughly subdue the pest it is necessary to starve out the root- 
 
 * Taken, with modifications, from The Pennsylvania Farmer, prepared by Professor Darst, of The 
 Pemisylvauia State College. 
 
220 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 stocks by cutting off all green parts above ground. This requires destroy- 
 ing the plants in some manner every week at first, and then every two weeks 
 until the rootstocks die of starvation. 
 
 In a small grain crop keep them cut with scythe or hoe, so as not to 
 let them go to seed. After harvest the land should be plowed rather deeply 
 and then worked down with the drag harrow. All roots harrowed out 
 should be piled, dried and burned. The land sliould be disked regularly 
 about every ten days, so as to destroy stray plants. In the late fall the 
 land should be re-plowed, but not worked down, so as to exi30se the remain- 
 ing roots to frost action. In the early spring 
 the ground should be worked with a disk and 
 a smother crop sown, such as oats and Canada 
 field peas, millet or buckwheat. 
 
 Canada thistles occurring in pastures must 
 be cut out below the ground every ten days 
 until starved out. After cutting the plants, 
 it is well to pour a little kerosene on the stem 
 and roots. Often spraying with strong con- 
 centrated salt solution will be effective in 
 l^astures and waste places. The spraying 
 should be done tl oroughly and repeated when 
 young shoots reappear. Spray materials 
 should be applied under high pressure, and in 
 a vapor spray, to be effective. 
 
 After all, sprays used as a substitute for the 
 scythe and mower will not kill the roots below 
 the ground. 
 
 When the thistle occurs in a cultivated 
 
 crop, knives or sweeps should be used on the 
 
 cultivator instead of the ordinary shovels. 
 
 The sweeps will be more effective in cutting 
 
 o& the plants. The thistles that grow within 
 
 the row should be kept cut out wdth the hoe. 
 
 Quack Grass. — Quack grass is perennial and propagates both by seeds 
 
 and creeping underground rootstocks. The stems grow from one to two 
 
 feet tall. The leaves are ashy green in color, rough on the upper side and 
 
 smooth beneath. The plant flowers in June and seeds in July. 
 
 The plant sends out underground rootstocks which are jointed, each 
 joint capable of budding a new plant. Quack grass grows an enormous 
 root system, which soon crowds and smothers out other plants. 
 
 Control. — Quack grass may be subdued if no green leaves are allowed 
 to develop. Since quack grass makes fair pasture, a good plan, where 
 possible, is to pasture it close to the ground during the midsummer; then 
 plow deeply in the early fall. The ground should be worked down immedi- 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
 The Canada Thistle 
 {Circiuni arvense)} 
 B — Seed enlarged. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 
 
 221 
 
 Quack Grass {Agropyron repens). 
 
 ately with the spike-tooth harrow. This will drag out a great many of the 
 
 roots. These should be dragged or 
 
 raked to one end of the field, to be 
 
 dried in piles and then burned. The 
 
 ground should be plowed the second 
 
 time, late in the fall. This should be 
 
 done crossways of the first plowing. 
 
 The ground should be worked down 
 
 again with the harrow and as many of 
 
 the rootstocks dragged out, piled and 
 
 burned as possible. 
 
 The next spring cultivation should 
 
 begin as early as possible, the ground 
 
 being worked every few days. Then a 
 
 cultivated crop should be planted, 
 
 preferably corn. The corn should be 
 
 planted in hills so that cultivation 
 
 can be given both ways of the field. 
 
 The corn should be cultivated thor- 
 oughly and a close watch kept for 
 
 any stray quack grass which may come up. 
 If there is any doubt as to whether 
 the quack grass is completely killed, a 
 mixture of hairy vetch and rye should be 
 sown in the last- cultivation of the corn. 
 This cover crop should be plowed down the 
 next spring and a heavy seeding of millet 
 sown. The cover crop and the millet fol- 
 lowing the corn will surely smother out the 
 last of the quack grass. 
 
 A thick covering of straw or manure a 
 foot or so thick and well packed down, will 
 smother out the grass. It will take from 
 two to three montlxs to smother out quack 
 grass, as the roots remain alive for some 
 time even though the tops above ground 
 be dead. 
 
 Foxtail. — The green and yellow foxtails 
 are very similar in appearance and in habit. 
 They are both annuals and propagate by 
 seed alone, seeding from August to October. 
 The yellow foxtail is a common weed all over the world, while the 
 
 green foxtail is found mostly in North America. The seed of the foxtails 
 
 are common impurities in many grass and legimie seeds. Once in the 
 
 Green Foxtail {Getaria 
 viridis) } 
 
 1 — Concave side of seed. 
 3 — Convex side of seed. 
 
 Both enlarged. 
 
 > Ppurtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
222 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 ground, they retain their vitaUty for many years, germinating only when 
 brought near the surface of the ground. The stems of the foxtails grow 
 from one to four feet tall. The leaves are three to six inches long and are 
 rather wide, flat and smooth. The seed heads are from two to four inches 
 long. The seed is yellowish-brown in color, about one-tenth of an inch in 
 length and ovoid in shape. 
 
 Control. — In grain fields the stubbles should be given surface cultiva- 
 tion or, if the soil is dry enough, burning over will destroy the seeds that 
 have fallen on the ground. 
 
 In cultivated crops tillage should be continued very late, in order to 
 
 prevent the development 
 and distribution of seed 
 from late-grown plants. 
 Sheep may be turned in to 
 graze down the aftermath 
 of infested meadows. 
 
 Dodders. — There are 
 several kinds of dodders; 
 those found in this 
 country are known as 
 c o m m o n dodder, field 
 dodder, clover dodder and 
 alfalfa dodder. 
 
 They are annuals 
 and propagate by seed, 
 and are very pecuHar 
 weeds because they live 
 upon other plants. From 
 their habit of growth they 
 are known as parasites. 
 The seeds of the 
 dodder germinate in the soil and the young plants soon perish unless 
 they come in contact with a clover or alfalfa plant. Once in contact 
 with a suitable host plant, the roots of the weed soon decay. The fine 
 yellowish and reddish stems twine about the host and spread from plant 
 to plant; a single dodder plant often growing on several different host 
 plants at the same time. 
 
 This weed derives its nourishment by sending little suckers out into 
 the stems of the plant on which it grows. Dodders appear lifeless to the 
 casual observer as the leaves are reduced to mere scales. 
 
 The white or pink flowers occur in clusters along the slender stems. 
 During the latter part of summer the cluster may contain flowers in bloom 
 and the matured seed at the same time. 
 
 Small patches of dodder may result from a single seed. A patch can 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
 A B 
 
 Field Dodder. Flax Dodder 
 
 Seeds enlarged. 
 
 Alfalfa Dodder. ^ 
 
 Blossom of 
 Alfalfa Dodder. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 
 
 223 
 
 be distinguished at quite a distance on account of its distinct yellowish 
 cast. 
 
 Dodder seed is very difficult to remove from clover and alfalfa seed. 
 
 Eradication. — The first step in the control of dodder is to sow clean 
 seed. Clover and alfalfa seed should be carefully examined for the pest 
 before it is sown. 
 
 When a field is badly infested the crop should be plowed under before 
 the seeds form. Dodder seed, plowed 
 under, may remain in the soil for seven or 
 eight years and then germinate. After 
 plowing, plant a cultivated crop for a year 
 or two; as the weed is an annual, it yields 
 readily to cultivation. 
 
 When dodder occurs in small patches 
 it may be successfully eradicated by dig- 
 ging up the infested areas. To avoid scat- 
 tering the seed, dry and burn the plants 
 on the spot. 
 
 The dried plants may be burned by 
 covering them with straw or shavings 
 soaked with kerosene. After the first 
 burning, stir the surface with a rake, then 
 burn over for the second time, so as to de- 
 stroy any seed that may have matured and 
 fallen to the ground. 
 
 After a patch has been dug up, burned 
 and re-seeded, it will be well to watch for 
 stray plants which may come. If such 
 plants appear, destroy them before flower- 
 ing time. 
 
 When dodder seed is allowed to 
 mature in clover or alfalfa hay it should not be removed from the field, 
 but should be dried and burned. 
 
 Weed sprays are sometimes recommended for killing dodder in clover 
 and alfalfa. The spraying should be done before or at blooming time in 
 order to prevent the seed formation. A twenty per cent solution of iron 
 sulphate is found effective on alfalfa fields. The spray will kill the parasite 
 and apparently destroy the crop, but a new growth of alfalfa will spring 
 from the roots as soon as the plant is relieved of the pesfc. 
 
 Buckhom. — Buckhorn is a perennial of European origin. The weed 
 propagates by seed, which matures any time from May to November. 
 The plant has a short, thick root-stem which enables it to exist over winter. 
 Buckhorn leaves are long and slender, borne in rosette-like clusters at the 
 surface of the ground. The plant does not produce stoms as other weeds 
 
 Buckhorn or Narrow-leaved 
 Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) } 
 
 B — Two times natural size of seeds. 
 
 ' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
224 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 commonly do, but sends up a stiff, slender flower stalk one to two feet long, 
 at the end of which there is a short, compact head or spike. The figure 
 shows the plant in bloom. After blooming, the heads elongate somewhat 
 and turn a dark brown color. The seeds are shaped like a coffee grain, but 
 very much smaller, measuring about one-tenth of an inch long. The seeds 
 are a shiny amber to rich brown color. A dark-colored scar is present on 
 the concave surface, while a narrow yellowish stripe is generally present 
 on the back of the seed. 
 
 Control. — Buckhorn is a very common and persistent weed in meadows, 
 
 pastures and lawns. It is without doubt 
 the most common of all weed seed in clover 
 and alfalfa seed. In fact, it is very difficult 
 to buy seed, even from the best of seedsmen, 
 that is entirely free from this weed. The 
 first step in controlling the weed on the farm 
 is to sow nothing but clean seed. 
 
 Where meadows and pastures are badly 
 infested they should be plowed and a culti- 
 vated crop grown for one or two years. By 
 thorough cultivation and the use of hoes, all 
 plants may be destroyed before going to 
 seed. The seed remaining in the soil will 
 be induced to germinate by frequent culti- 
 vation, thus making it possible to rid a field 
 of the pest in one or two seasons. 
 
 Small areas in lawns may be controlled 
 by cutting out with a spud or narrow-bladed 
 hoe. This method is more effective during 
 hot, dry weather. Buckhorn can be de- 
 stroyed with carbolicacid without injuring or 
 defacing the lawn. Stab each plant in the 
 center, down to the fibrous cluster of roots, 
 with a pointed stick and squirt into the opening a few drops of the acid 
 with a common machine oil can. 
 
 Plantain. — The common plantain is a very persistent weed in 
 lawns and yards. The plant is a perennial and propagates by seed. Plan- 
 tain does not produce a true stem as most other plants. The leaves, which 
 grow in a tuft near the ground are large, coarse and oval in shape. The 
 weed flowers from May throughout the summer and ripe seed may be found 
 by July. 
 
 The seeds are dark brown to black, slightly flattened, with acute 
 edges. They are variable in shape, measuring one-twentieth of an inch in 
 length. 
 
 Control. — Conunon plantain when occurring in fields will yield readily 
 
 Common or Broad-leaved 
 Plantain {Plantago major). ^ 
 
 B — Two times natural size of 
 seeds. 
 
 I Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 
 
 225 
 
 II 
 
 to thorough cultivation. The control is the same as recommended for 
 buckhorn. 
 
 In lawns the most practical method of eradicating it is by hand 
 digging. If the plant is cut off several inches below the ground during 
 dry weather, it will give no more trouble. 
 
 Carbolic acid may be used in the same manner as recommended for 
 buckhorn, where digging roughens the lawn. 
 
 Pigweed. — Pigweed is an annual and is commonly found growing in 
 cultivated fields and waste places. While the weed itself is not hard to 
 eradicate, yet it produces abundantly 
 seeds which have long vitality. The seed 
 has been known to survive in the ground 
 for more than twenty years. 
 
 The pigweed has a long, fleshy, red 
 taproot. The main stem is erect, stout, 
 woody and slightly branched. The stem 
 and branches are covered with stiff, short 
 hairs. 
 
 Usually the plant will grow from one 
 to four feet tall, but under more favorable 
 conditions it will often reach six feet. 
 
 The leaves are long and ovate in 
 shape, measuring from three to six inches 
 in length. The small greenish flowers 
 are crowded into thick, compact heads 
 which are borne at the ends of the 
 branches or in the axils of the leaves. 
 The pigweed flowers from July to Sep- 
 tember and produces enormous quantities 
 of small, shiny seeds. The seed is a jet 
 black color, oval and flat in shape. It 
 propagates by seeds only. 
 
 Control. — Pigweed seed is commonly found in commercial seeds of 
 different kinds. The first step in its eradication is to guard against buying 
 seed containing this weed. 
 
 Thorough cultivation will suppress the weed. In case cultivation 
 cannot be continued late into the summer the weed should be pulled or cut 
 out with a hoe before going to seed. Plants which are pulled or cut while 
 blooming should be destroyed, as they frequently mature seed after cut. 
 
 Pigweed may be destroyed in small grain crops by the use of the weeder 
 or the spike-tooth harrow. By going over the grain field when the crop is 
 but a few inches tall the small seedlings may be dug out without injuring 
 the grain. If the weed makes its appearance later on in the growth of a 
 small grain crop, it may be killed with an iron or copper sulphate spray. 
 
 Pigweed {Amaranthus relroflexus) . 
 C— Root. 
 
 I Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
226 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 The spray to be effective must be applied before tlie grain begins to head 
 and before the weeds bloom. 
 
 Lamb's-Quarters. — Lamb's-quarters is sometimes known as smooth 
 pigweed or white goosefoot. This weed is a ^^ery common annual through- 
 out the world. It is commonly found in cultivated fields, orchards and 
 gardens. 
 
 Lamb's-quarters is distinguished by its upright grooved and many 
 branched stem. The stems are often striped with purple. The plant is a 
 rapid grower and attains a height of from two to four feet. The leaves are 
 quite variable as to size and shape, the lower ones on the stock being com- 
 paratively large and irregular, while the 
 upper ones are rather small and narrow. 
 The small greenish flowers are borne 
 on the ends or in the axils of the branches. 
 The entire plant presents a silvery gray 
 or mealy appearance which distinguishes 
 it from the true pigweed. The seed is 
 about one-twentieth of an inch in diam- 
 eter, lens-shaped and a dull black color. 
 The seeds have long vitality, lying dor- 
 mant in the soil for many years. 
 
 The control of lamb's-quarters is 
 similar to that of pigweed. In hoed 
 crops the weed is very persistent and 
 cultivation should be continued until late 
 in the season. In gardens and other 
 small areas the weed should be pulled or 
 chopped out while young. 
 
 Since the plants are very succulent 
 
 while young, sheep may be used to 
 
 pasture them where conditions M'ill per- 
 
 Cultivation in the late summer or fall will germinate seed remaining 
 
 Lamb's-Quarters, or Smooth 
 Pigweed (Cheno podium album)} 
 
 A — Root. 
 
 B — Seed enlarged tliree times 
 natural size. 
 
 mit. 
 
 in the soil which will eliminate the seed that may germinate the next 
 
 year. 
 
 Wild Mustard or Charlock. — The cruciferaj or mustard family con- 
 tains a large number of weeds, of which the wild mustard and tumbling 
 mustard are the most troublesome. The plants of this family may be 
 recognized by the shape of the flowers, which consist of four petals arranged 
 like arms of a cross. This character was used as the basis for naming the 
 family. 
 
 Wild mustard, because of its immense productiveness and the exceed- 
 ingly long vitality of its seeds, is one of the most difficult weeds to dislodge. 
 
 It is an annual plant, which in its earlier stages of growth bears some 
 resemblance to the radish or yellow-fleshed varieties of the turnip. It 
 
 > Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 
 
 227 
 
 produces erect branching stems from one to three feet in height which are 
 somewhat roughened by short stiff hairs. 
 
 The leaves are quite variable; the lower cnes are slender-stalked and 
 deeply pinnatifid, forming one large terminal lobe with two to four smaller 
 lateral lobes. 
 
 The upper leaves are irregularly toothed, somewhat hairy and have 
 very short petioles; the lobes are not very pronounced, while the terminal 
 one is much narrower than the terminal lobe 
 of the lower leaves. 
 
 The plant flowers from June to September 
 and mature seeds may be found as early as 
 August. The bright yellow, fragrant flowers 
 • which are about one-half inch in diameter are 
 borne in elongated clusters at the end of the 
 stem and branches. 
 
 The flowers begin to open at the bottom of 
 the cluster, which lengthens as the season 
 advances, and the pods form and empty so that 
 there may be emptied pods below and forming 
 pods above. One of the pods may contain 
 from four to twelve seeds. 
 
 The round dark reddish-brown seeds are 
 about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. 
 They are a common impurity of grass and 
 clover seeds. 
 
 Wild mustard grows in all kinds of grain 
 crops that are sown in the spring and usually 
 matures its seeds before the grain in which it 
 grows is ripe. Where spring grains are chiefly 
 grown the contest with this weed will be a 
 difficult one. 
 
 Wild mustard is distributed by different 
 agencies. Some of the small seeds are carried 
 from place to place by the birds, but usually 
 the weed finds its way to new centers in grain seed. The threshing 
 machine is also a potent means of carrying it from farm to farm. 
 
 It is further distributed over farms on which it grows by means of 
 manures. It is also very frequentlj^ distributed by spring floods; when 
 this is the case the farmer has a difficult job. 
 
 Control. — Wild mustard seed is a common impurity of small grain, 
 clover and alfalfa seed. The first step in its eradication is to avoid sowing 
 seed containing the pest. As the seeds are small, they are easily removed 
 from wheat, oats and barley by screening. Wild mustard is most common 
 in gTain fields and generally disappears in grass and cultivated crops. 
 
 1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
 Wild Mustard 
 (Brassica arvensis) .' 
 
 -Pod, natural size. 
 -Blossom, one-third natu- 
 ral size. 
 -Seed enlarged four times. 
 
228 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 A good short rotation will in time reduce the seed in the soil. In 
 grain fields, young seedlings may be harrowed out when the grain is but a 
 few inches high. Later on the mustard may be destroyed by the use of 
 iron sulphate or copper sulphate spray. Iron sulphate is probably the 
 most efficient and cheapest spray. The spraying should be done before 
 the grain heads are out and when the mustard is just beginning to flower. 
 The spraying at this time will kill practically all the mustard with little 
 or no injury to the grain. Spraying for weeds should be done on a bright, 
 still day when there are no immediate prospects of rain. For spraying, 
 
 use a solution made by dissolving 100 
 pounds of iron sulphate in 52 gallons of 
 water. This solution should be used at 
 the rate of 50 gallons to the acre and put 
 on at a high pressure of 100 or more pounds 
 to the square inch. The spraying can be 
 done at a cost of approximately $1.25 per 
 acre. 
 
 Shepherd's-Purse. — Shepherd's-purse 
 is sometimes known as Case weed, St. 
 James' weed and Mother's Heart. "With 
 the exception of the chickweed, it is prob- 
 ably the most common weed on earth," 
 being found in all cultivated regions of the 
 world. 
 
 Shepherd's-purse is very prolific and 
 its seeds have long vitality. This weed 
 often harbors the club-root fungus, so 
 common on cabbage, cauliflower, turnips 
 and radishes, and will infect soil where 
 those plants are cultivated. 
 
 Shepherd's-purse is an annual, or 
 winter annual. It is one of the first plants 
 to make its appearance in the spring and it is not uncommon to find 
 it making a good growth in March. 
 
 The seeds, as a rule, germinate in the fall and form a rosette of leaves, 
 close to the ground. From this rosette the following spring, arise the stems 
 which vary from three inches to two feet in height. The leaves growing 
 close to the ground are rather long and deeply cut, while those on the stem 
 are small and arrow shaped. The small white flowers are borne in elon- 
 gated heads or racemes. On the flowering stalks will be found all gradua- 
 tions from a small bunch of flowers in bloom at the end, down to mature 
 pods below. 
 
 Shepherd's-purse is propagated by seeds only, which germinate either 
 in the fall or spring. This weed flowers and produces seed throughout the 
 
 Shepherd's-Purse 
 (Capsella bursapastoris) .^ 
 
 A — Enlarged seed pod. 
 B — Enlarged seed. 
 
 ' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 229 
 
 season. An average size plant will produce about 2000 seeds. The seeds 
 are very small and covered with a transparent, mucilaginous material 
 which preserves them in the soil for several seasons. 
 
 Control. — Shepherd's-purse may be controlled in the field or garden 
 by thorough cultivation and use of the hoe. 
 
 In meadows or small grain fields the weed may be destroyed by spray- 
 ing. Spray while the weed is still young, and if possible before it blooms. 
 Seventy-five pounds of iron sulphate to fifty gallons of water is recom- 
 mended as a good weed spray. The spray material should be applied under 
 high pressure and in mist. It will take about fifty gallons to the acre. 
 
 If one intends to spray weeds in pastures or small grain crops on a 
 large scale, it will pay to purchase a weed sprayer, which is better adapted 
 for the work and will be more effective and economical than ordinary 
 sprayers. 
 
 Weeds can be sprayed in grass fields, but not in alfalfa or clover 
 fields, as the spray will kill the clover as well as the weeds. 
 
 Peppergrass. — Peppergrass is a native of this country; an annual, 
 and propagates b}^ seed. It seeds from June to October and will be found 
 in small grains and clover fields. The seed is often found in timothy and 
 red clover seed on the market. 
 
 Peppergrass grows from six inches to two feet tall and is much 
 branched. The weed sometimes becomes a tumble weed because of its 
 spreading growth. 
 
 The flowers are white and very small, borne on racemes or elongated 
 heads. The seeds are formed in round but flattened pods. They are 
 small, measuring about one-sixteenth of an inch in length. 
 
 Birds are very fond of the seed and dispose of large quantities. 
 
 Control. — The control is similar to that of shepherd's-purse. Care 
 should be taken in plowing under plants that are nearly mature, since part 
 of the seeds will germinate. 
 
 Badly infested land should be planted to a cultivated crop and thor- 
 oughly cultivated; thorough cultivation being all that is necessary to 
 control the weed. 
 
 Cocklebur. — Cocklebur is known by several other common names, 
 i.e., ''Clotbur," "Sheepsbur," ''Buttonbur" and ''Ditchbur." This weed 
 is an annual and native of this country. The plant is coarse, rough and 
 branched, growing from one to four feet tall. The stems are angled and 
 often reddish, spotted with brown. The leaves are broad, bristly rough on 
 both sides and placed alternately on the stems. 
 
 Cocklebur bears the male and female flowers at different places on the 
 plant. The male flowers are borne above and near the end of the main 
 stem, while the female flower clusters are borne below in the axils of the 
 leaves. 
 
 The seeds of the cocklebur are borne in reddish-brown, two-peaked 
 burs which are covered with stout hooked prickles. Each bur contains 
 
230 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 two seeds. It is claimed that one of the two seeds germinate the first year 
 and the other the following year, thus insuring at least seed for two years. 
 Control. — Clean cultivation and the rotation of crops are recommended 
 for this obnoxious weed. Infested corn fields should be put into a small 
 grain crop, followed by clover or grass. The harvesting of these crops will 
 kill or behead the weed before it has time to grow much or develop burs. 
 Plants that have formed burs should be cut, raked and burned. 
 
 Field Bindweed or Wild Morning Glory. — It is most commomy found 
 
 in grain fields, meadows and waste places. 
 "It is a most obnoxious weed, spreading 
 chiefly by means of its long, creeping, cord- 
 like roots, which at any part of their length 
 may bud new plants." Small bits of the 
 roots may be broken off and carried quite 
 a distance [by a cultivator and produce 
 new plants. 
 
 "The stems are smooth, slightly 
 angled, slender, one to three feet long, twin- 
 ing about and over any plants within 
 reach," tending to smother them. The 
 leaves are cordate or heart-shaped, one to 
 one and one-half inches long, with back- 
 ward pointing lobes at the base. The 
 flowers are pink, sometimes nearly white, 
 funnel-shaped, about one inch in diameter 
 at the mouth of the tube. 
 
 This plant is propagated by seed and 
 the underground fleshy root-stocks. It 
 flowers from June throughout the summer 
 and mature seed may be found in July. 
 The seeds, which are borne* in globular, 
 CocKUE,-B\j-R {Xanthium canadense) .^ two-celled capsules, are dull, dark brown, 
 A— Bur two-thirds natural size, about one-eighth inch long, rough, oval, 
 
 with one side flat and the other rounded. 
 Control. — If the land is planted to crops that can be cultivated very 
 often throughout the growing season, field bindweed can be completely 
 eradicated in two years. 
 
 When this weed grows in pastures and waste places, its growth may be 
 checked by allowing sheep to have access to the places where it grows. Three 
 years of pasturing with a large number of sheep will gr3atly weaken this 
 pest, if not kill it entirely. 
 
 Infested land should be plowed in the late summer after a crop has 
 been removed and hogs which have not been ringed turned in for the 
 purpose of turning out and eating the succulent roots, of which they are 
 
 ' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 
 
 231 
 
 very fond. If hogs are again turned into the field as soon as possible in 
 the spring and left until planting time the weed will be considerably 
 weakened in vitality. 
 
 Hedge Bindweed. — This weed is very similar to field bindweed and 
 about as hard to eradicate; its rootstocks are larger and not so difficult 
 to remove from the soil. The trailing or 
 twining stems are three to ten feet or more 
 in length and have the same method of 
 destroying other plants. The leaves are 
 smooth, long, triangular and pointed at the 
 end instead of rounded as the field bindweed. 
 The base of the leaves forms pointed lobes. 
 The funnel-shaped flowers are about two 
 inches long, pink with white stripes or clear 
 white. They are borne singly on slender 
 flower stocks in the axils of the leaves. 
 The seed capsules are globular and may 
 contain four seeds, but often only three are 
 fertile; the dark-brown, kidney-shaped 
 seeds are angular and about one-eighth inch 
 long. They retain vitality for several years. 
 
 Control. — The rootstalks should be 
 starved persistently by the frequent cutting 
 of the stems. The weed loves the mellow 
 soil of a cornfield. If the land is planted 
 to corn, this will mean that as soon as the 
 corn is too large to be cultivated by a 
 cultivator the field should be gone over 
 with a hoe and all young shoots cut off as 
 soon as they make their appearance. 
 Keeping them cut prevents the pest from 
 maturing seed and leaves to re-stock the 
 underground storehouse with food for 
 another year. 
 
 Fifty Worst Weeds. — The following table gives an alphabetical list 
 of the fifty worst weeds of the United States, with such information as will 
 enable the reader: (1) to identify them; (2) to determine the nature and 
 place of their greatest injuriousness; (3) to determine their duration or 
 natural length of life, that is, whether annual, biennial or perennial; and 
 (4) some methods of eradication. With this knowledge one will be able to 
 attack much more intelligently any troublesome weed. 
 
 Field Bindweed 
 (Convolvulus arvensis) .^ 
 
 After F. S. Matthews in Manual 
 of Weeds, by Ada E. Georgia. 
 
 ' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 
 
 24 
 
232 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
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WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 
 
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WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 
 
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236 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "A Manual of Weeds." A. E. Georgia. 
 
 "Farm Weeds of Canada." Clark. i 
 
 "Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden." Long and Percival. 
 
 "Weeds and How to Eradicate Them." Shaw. 
 
 North Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 112. "Fertility and Weeds." 
 
 Canadian Dept of Agriculture Bulletin 188. "Weeds of Ontario." 
 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 257. "Weed Factor 
 
 in Corn Cultivation." 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 306. "Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds." 
 
 334. "Weed Seeds in Feeding-stuffs and Manure." 
 
 368. "Eradication of Bindweed or Wild Morning Glory." 
 
 464. "Eradication of Quack Grass." 
 
 545. "Controlling Canada Thistles." 
 
 610. "Wild Onion: Methods of Eradication." 
 
 660. "Weeds, How to Control Them." 
 
PART II 
 DISEASES OF FARM CROPS 
 
 (237) 
 
CHAPTER 19 
 
 Diseases of Farm Crops and Their Remedies 
 
 By Dr. Mel. T. Cook 
 Plant Pathologist, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station 
 
 When any of the various parts of a plant are not doing their work 
 properly the plant is said to be diseased. The disease frequently causes 
 poor growth or poor fruit, or both; and in case of oiu: cultivated plants, an 
 unsatisfactory crop. 
 
 The most important causes of plant diseases are fungi, bacteria, slime 
 moulds, parasitic flowering plants, insects, mites, nematodes, unsatisfactory 
 soil, too much or too small amount of moisture, unfavorable temperature, 
 gas fumes and smoke. Some plant diseases occur for which there are no 
 satisfactory explanations. 
 
 Plant cUseases may be detected by characteristic symptoms which 
 readily distinguish the disease upon the healthy plants. The most common 
 of these symptoms are: (a) a discoloration of the foliage and sometimes 
 of the new growths; (6) wdlting, frequently followed by yellowing and 
 browning; (c) dropping of the foliage; (c/) the formation of spots on foliage, 
 stems or roots; (c) perforation of the foliage commonly called "shot hole;" 
 (/) variegation of the foliage commonly called mosaic; {g) the ''damping 
 off" or dying which is especially common on seedling plants; Qi) the bhght 
 or dying of leaves, twigs or stems; {i) the dwarfing of parts; {j) the increase 
 in size of parts; (/;) formation of galls, pustules or corky growths; (I) 
 cankers on fruit, stems or roots; (m) abnormal fruits; (w) the formation 
 of masses of small shoots called "witches' brooms;" (o) the curling of leaves; 
 (p) the formation of leaf rosettes; (g) abnormal root growths commonly 
 known as hairy root; (r) exudations of gums, resins, etc.; (s) the rotting of 
 fruit, stems or other parts; and {t) sunburn of fruits and foliages. 
 
 Some diseases of the soil, such as "damping off," are very severe in 
 seed-beds and in greenhouses, and can be controlled by sterilizing the soil. 
 Diseases that occur in the soil in fields are frequently overcome by a rota- 
 tion of crops, by improved drainage and sometimes by stimulating the 
 plants with suitable fertilizer. 
 
 Many diseases are controlled by spraying, but in most cases spraying 
 is used for the protection of plants against disease and not for curing them ; 
 therefore, it is a kind of insurance and must always be supplied in advance 
 of the appearance of the disease. Spraying cannot be conducted in a 
 satisfactory mannex unless the grower is sufficiently familiar with the disease 
 
 239 
 
240 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 :M 
 
 to understand when, why and how to give the necessary treatments. In 
 
 recent years it has 
 been found possible 
 to overcome some 
 diseases by growing 
 plants that are dis- 
 ease-resistant and, 
 therefore, do not 
 need treatments. 
 
 In this chap- 
 ter only the most 
 common and im- 
 portant plant dis- 
 eases in the United 
 States and Canada 
 are considered. 
 Brief descriptions 
 and condensed di- 
 rections for treat- 
 ment are given. 
 
 Farmers should 
 always report the 
 presence of disease 
 on crops to the 
 agricultural experi- 
 ment station of the 
 state in which they 
 reside, and ask ad- 
 vice as to treat- 
 ment. The treat- 
 ment of some dis- 
 eases will vary 
 somewhat, depend- 
 ent upon the part 
 of the country in 
 which it occurs. 
 
 The annual 
 losses occasioned by 
 insects to farm 
 products are enor- 
 mous and demand 
 the attention of all 
 farmers. 
 
 Anthracnose op Bean.i 
 
 The brown spots occur on both the pods and plants. They 
 are caused by spores coming in contact with the tender plant 
 tissues, where they germinate and give rifse to serious damage. 
 
 Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 255. 
 
DISEASES OF CROPS 241 
 
 BEAN 
 
 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum [Sacc. and Magn.], B. 
 and C). — This disease is most severe on the wax beans. It occurs on 
 the pods, causing unsightly, dark-colored, sunken, canker-like spots. It 
 also attacks the leaves and stems, producing similar spots and frequently 
 causing the death of the plants. The fungus is carried in the seed and one 
 diseased seed in a thousand is enough to infect a large number of growing 
 plants. 
 
 Treatment. — Select clean seed. 
 
 Rust {Uromyces ajypendiculatus [Pers.], Link). — This fungTis causes 
 minute rusty spots or blisters on the under surface of the leaves and 
 occasionally on the pods. These blisters break and set free great quan- 
 tities of the reddish or rust-colored spores. It is not so severe as the 
 anthracnose. 
 
 Treatment. — Practice clean cultivation and burn all old vines in the 
 fall. 
 
 Blight (Pseudomonas phaseoli, Smith). — This disease attacks leaves, 
 stems and pods, causing large watery areas, which later become dry, brown 
 and papery. It is carried from year to year in the seed. 
 
 Treatment. — Use seed from healthy plants. 
 
 Downy Mildew (Phytophthora phaseoli, Thaxt.). — This disease is 
 unlike the mildew on the fruits. It attacks the pods of lima beans, causing 
 irregular areas of dense, woolly-white growth. It also occurs on other 
 parts of the plant, causing dwarfing and irregular growths. 
 
 Treatment.- — ^Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta sp.). — This disease is most severe on the pole 
 lima beans. It causes an irregular spotting of the leaves and to some 
 extent of the pods. It is carried from season to season in the seed. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 PEA 
 
 Spot {Ascochyta pisi, Lib.). — This disease causes spots on stems, 
 leaves and pods which are most conspicuous on the latter. On the pods 
 they are circular, sunken with dark borders and pale centers, becoming 
 pink when mature. The spots on the leaves are oval and usually show 
 concentric circles. When severe on the stems it causes wilting and death 
 of the plant. 
 
 Treatment. — Select clean seed and rotate crops. 
 
 BEET 
 
 Leaf Spot (Cercospora heticoln, Sacc). — This fungus causes the very 
 common circular, brown, purple-bordered spots with ash-colored centers. 
 
 Treatment. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will control this dis- 
 ease. 
 
242 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Root Rot {Rhizodonia beta, Kuhn). — This disease causes the outer 
 leaves to turn black and fall. The roots crack and then rot. 
 Treatment.— Use lime and rotate crops. 
 
 CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP, ETC. 
 Black Rot (Pscudomonas campestris, Panimel). — This is a bacterial 
 
 disease which attacks 
 all of the above and 
 many related plants. 
 It starts at the edges 
 of the leaves, causing 
 a blackening of the 
 veins, gradually work- 
 ing downward to the 
 main stalk and then 
 upward and outward 
 until the entire plant is 
 affected. The affected 
 leaves become yellow, 
 wilt and then dry. In 
 advanced stages the 
 disease is accompanied 
 by other rot organisms 
 which cause a pro- 
 nounced odor. 
 
 Treatment. — When 
 once in the soil it is 
 extremely difficult to 
 eradicate. Prevent in- 
 fection by using clean 
 seed, which as a pre- 
 cautionary measure 
 should be soaked for 
 fifteen minutes in for- 
 maldehyde (1 part for- 
 malin to 30 parts 
 water) . 
 
 Club Root or Fin- 
 ger and Toe Disease 
 {Plasmodiophora hrassica?, Wor.). — This very destructive and well-kno-sTO 
 disease attacks cabliage and related plants, causing unsightly knotted 
 roots. The diseased plants are dwarfed and fail to develop heads. 
 
 Treatment. — Use nothing but absolutely clean soil in the seed-beds; 
 use lime in the fields; rotate crops. 
 
 ' From Farmers' Bulletin 488, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Enlarged Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes.' 
 
DISEASES OF CROPS 243 
 
 CARROT 
 Soft Rot (Bacillus carotovorus, Jones). — This is a bacterial disease 
 which causes a soft rotting of the roots. It also attacks turnips, radishes, 
 parsnips, onions, celery, beets and many other plants. The only satis- 
 factory treatment lies in the rotation of crops. 
 
 POTATO 
 
 Late Blight or Downy Mildew (Phytopthora infestans [Mont.], De 
 By.). — This disease usually starts near the tip or margin of the leaf, but 
 causes the infected area to die and blacken. In cool, wet, cloudy weather 
 it spreads very rapidly and causes an offensive odor. The diseased tubers 
 may show slightly depressed, dark-colored areas and a dirty brown color 
 within. The disease is frequently the cause of heavy losses by rotting. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the plants 
 are about six inches in height and repeat about every two or three weeks 
 throughout the growing season. 
 
 Early Blight (AUernaria solani[E. and M.], J. and G.). — This disease 
 appears earlier in the season than the late blight. It causes brown, brittle, 
 irregular, more or less circular leaf spots with rather definite concentric 
 circles. These spots frequently unite and the plant dies very much as 
 though from natural causes. 
 
 Treatment. — Same as for late l^light. 
 
 Wilt, Stem Rot and Dry Rot (Fusarium oxysporum,, Schlecht). — The 
 plant assumes an unhealthj^ appearance, the leaves roll and curl and the 
 plant falls and dies prematurely. The stems are partly or entirely black and 
 dead near the base and frequently show a white or pink mould. When 
 stems are cut across below the ground they show discolorations just below 
 the surface. This field form of the disease is known as " wilt " or " stem rot." 
 
 In storage the tubers undergo a "dry rot" beginning at the stem end, 
 which causes them to shrivel and become light in weight. When cut 
 across, these tubers show black discolorations just below the surface. The 
 disease can be carried on the seed and will also persist in the soil. 
 
 Treatment. — Select seed potatoes which are fi-ee from surface cankers 
 and are perfectly white when cut. When the soil becomes infected use 
 rotation of crops for from three to five years. 
 
 Black Leg {Bacillus phytophthorus, Appel). — This disease causes the 
 plants to be dwarfed, erect, pale in color and to die early. The stems 
 become brown or black near the ground and the disease works downward. 
 It is carried in the seed. 
 
 Treatfnent. — Soak the seed in formaldeh^^le or corrosive sublimate as 
 recommended for potato scab. 
 
 Scab (Oospora scabies, Thaxt.). — This well-knowai disease is readily 
 recognized by the rough, pitted character of the tubers and is the cause of 
 heavy losses. It can be carried on the seed and will persist in the soil for 
 several years. 
 
244 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Treatment. — Soak the seed potatoes for two hours in formaldehyde 
 (1 pound in 30 gallons of water) or in corrosive sublimate (4 ounces in 30 
 gallons of water) for one and one-half hours. When the land becomes 
 infected, avoid the use of stable manure and lime, and rotate crops for 
 three to five years. 
 
 Little Potato, Rosette, Stem Rot, Scurf (Rhizoctonia or Cortidum 
 vagum, B. and C, var. solani, Burt.). — This disease assumes different forms, 
 varying with the climatic conditions, soils and varieties. In very severe 
 cases many of the young plants fail to get through the ground. Many 
 that do get through are dwarfed and show a peculiar crinkling of the 
 foliage. The part of the stems below ground shows peculiar brownish 
 or black cankers. 
 
 Treatment. — Soak seed potatoes in corrosive sublimate as recom- 
 mended for scab. 
 
 Bacterial Wilt {Bacillus solanacearum, Smith). — The plants wilt 
 prematurely, become yellow, then black and dry. This disease attacks 
 tomatoes, tobacco, peppers and eggplants. 
 
 Treatment. — Rotate crops, avoiding those that are susceptible. 
 
 Tipbum. — ^This disease is due entirely to hot, dry weather. It causes 
 the leaves to dry at the tips and margins, roll up and break off. 
 
 Note. — -There are a number of other diseases of the potato which 
 cannot be included in this brief discussion. 
 
 PEANUT 
 
 Peanuts are subject to several foliage and root diseases of more or 
 less importance. Growers of this crop should consult with their state 
 agricultui'al experiment station. 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 Granville Tobacco Wilt {B. solenacerarum, Smith).— This is due to the 
 same organism as the wilt of the potato, tomato, peppers and eggplants. 
 (See Potato.) 
 
 Mosaic, Calico or Mottle Top. — The cause of this disease is still some- 
 what uncertain. The leaves of the diseased plants show dark and light 
 areas and frequently irregular thickenings or twistings. 
 
 Treatment. — Remove the diseased plants. Be careful not to touch 
 healthy plants while working with the diseased plants. The disease can 
 be communicated by contact. 
 
 Leaf Spots. — There are a number of leaf spot diseases and also mildews 
 which cause more or less trouble. 
 
 Root Rots (Thielavia hasicola, Zopf.). — This disease is a rotting of 
 the roots, accompanied by the production of numerous new roots. The 
 affected plants are dwarfed and frequently killed. 
 
 Treatment. — Sterilize seed-bed. Rotate crops. Avoid liming and 
 acid fertilizers. 
 
DISEASES OF CROPS 
 
 245 
 
 CORN 
 
 Smut (Ustilago Zeae [Beclon.], Ung.). — Corn 
 
 Smut op Corn.'- 
 Showing a young smutted ear. 
 
 sistant varieties should bo used and if possible 
 sown early. 
 
 Loose Smut {Ustilago tritici [Pers.j, Jens.)-- 
 familiar disease is the cause of much greater loss 
 
 Treatment. — It can be controlled by treating 
 
 I From Farmers' BuUetin 507, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 smut on ear, tassel and 
 leaves is so common 
 that it is not necessary 
 to give a description. 
 It is frequently very 
 destructive, especially 
 on sweet corn. 
 
 Treatment. — ^The 
 treatment will depend 
 largely on the severity 
 of the disease. Do 
 not use manure from 
 anhnals which have 
 been fed en smutted 
 cornf odder. Rotate 
 crops. If growing 
 sweet corn on the 
 same land year after 
 year, it is advisable to 
 remove the smut balls 
 as soon as they appear. 
 
 WHEAT 
 Rust {Puccinia 
 graminis, Pers., P. 
 rnbigovera, Wint.). — 
 This crop is affected 
 with the familiar rust 
 diseases, all of which 
 appear to be very 
 much the same to the 
 inexperienced student 
 of plant diseases. 
 They are very difficult 
 to control and in fact 
 comparatively little 
 effort is made to pro- 
 tect the crop. Re- 
 spring whea.t should be 
 
 -This very common and 
 than the growers realize, 
 with hot water. Clean 
 
Loose Smut of Wheat, i 
 
 Showing four smutted heads of various stages of development, and for comparison 
 
 a sound wheat head. 
 
 'From Farmers' Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 (246) 
 
DISEASES OF CROPS 
 
 247 
 
 the seed and soak for five to seven hours in water at a temperature of 63° 
 to 72° F. Then put into loose bags or wire baskets holding about one peck 
 each and plunge into water ranging between 126° and 129° F. for ten min- 
 utes. Care should be taken 
 
 Smut op Oats.^ 
 
 Showing a smutted head, and for comparison 
 a sound oat head. 
 
 Jens.l 
 
 to keep the water at the 
 proper temperature and to 
 keep the grain well stirred. 
 The seed can be dried on a 
 barn floor or canvas. 
 
 Stinking Smut or Bunt 
 (TiUetia faians [B. and C], 
 Trek). — This disease is very- 
 different frcm the loose smut. 
 The diseased grains are shriv- 
 eled, greenish tinted, filled 
 with a mass of black spores 
 and have a disagreeable 
 odor. Badly infested crops 
 are worthless for milling or 
 for stock feed. 
 
 Treatment. — Put one 
 pound of formaldehyde in 
 fifty gallons of water and 
 sprinkle on the grains at the 
 rate of one gallon to each 
 bushel of grain. Shovel the 
 wet grain into a pile and 
 cover with canvas or burlap 
 for six to twelve hours. 
 Spread and dry. (See Chap- 
 ter on Wheat.) 
 
 OATS 
 Rust (Puccinia coronata, 
 Cda.). — ^Also the two species 
 found on wheat. 
 
 Treatment. — Same as for 
 wheat. 
 Very similar in appearance to the 
 
 Smut ( Ustilago avena [Per 
 loose smut of wheat. 
 
 Treatnmit. — Formaldehyde treatment same as for stinking smut of 
 wheat. ' 
 
 iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agiicultur 
 
248 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 SUGAR CANE 
 
 Red Rot {CoUctotrichum falcniiwi, Went,). — This is one of the most 
 destructive diseases of the sugar cane. It causes the plants to wilt and 
 finally a yellowing of the upper leaves. This is followed by a blackening 
 and dying of the eyes and a gradual discoloration on the outside extending 
 from the nodes. Upon splitting the canes, the fibro-vascular bundles are 
 found to show reddish discolor- 
 ations. 
 
 Rind Disease {TricJiosphae- 
 ria sacchari, Massee). — Although 
 this disease is not so severe as the 
 preceding one, it causes a prema- 
 ture yellowing and dying of the 
 plants. The joints become dis- 
 colored and shrunken and the 
 entire plant loses weight. Finally, 
 small black eruptions which are 
 thread-like in api^earance appear 
 over the canes. 
 
 The Pineapple Disease 
 (Thiclaviopsis ethacefica, Went.). 
 ■ — -This disease is of comparatively 
 little importance, but it some- 
 times attacks the cuttings which 
 have been prepared for planting 
 and prevents their growth or 
 causes weak, unhealthy plants. 
 
 Treatment. — The most satis- 
 factory treatment for these three 
 diseases is care in selection of 
 good healthy plants for cutting 
 and the treatment of these cut- 
 tings with Bordeaux mixture 
 before planting. 
 
 When the grower has any 
 reason to suspect the appearance 
 
 of these or other diseases, he should consult with the plant pathologist of 
 the experiment station in the state in which he is located. 
 
 Other Diseases. — There are a number of other diseases of minor 
 importance. 
 
 COTTON 
 Anthracnose {Golmerella gossypii, Southworth Edg.)- — This disease 
 attacks stem, boll and leaves, causing dull, reddish-brown spots which aiQ 
 
 iCourtesy of Bureau of Plaut Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
 
 A Young Cotton Plant Affected by 
 Cotton Wilt.i 
 
DISEASES OF CROPS 249 
 
 slightly depressed. In advanced stages these spots are covered with a 
 dirty gray or pinkish powder which is the spores of the fungus. This 
 disease is carried in the seed and is the cause of heavy losses. 
 
 Damping Off, Sore Shin, Seeding Rot. — These diseases may be due to 
 any one of several organisms. They attack the young plants at or just 
 below the surface of the ground, causing them to rot off and die. They are 
 sometimes the cause of heavy losses. 
 
 There are a number of other diseases of the cotton. The most satis- 
 factory remedy for most diseases is the selection of seed from healthy 
 plants. Where growers experience much difficulty, they should consult 
 with the authorities at the state agricultural experiment station. 
 
 FLAX 
 
 Wilt {Fusarium lint, Bolley). — This is one of the most severe diseases 
 of the flax. Sometimes the organism causing this disease is so abundant 
 in the soil that it leads to the term " flax sick soil." The new plants affected 
 with this disease wilt and die and fields are very frequently seen in which 
 there are large bare spots due to the ravages of this disease. When the 
 older plants are attacked they wilt and gradually turn yellow and die. 
 
 The grower who has any difficulty with this or other diseases should 
 consult with the state agricultural experiment station. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "Diseases of Tropical Plants." Cooke. 
 
 "Fungous Diseases of Plants." Duggar. 
 
 "Spraying of Plants." Lodeman. 
 
 "Minnesota Plant Diseases." Freeman. 
 
 "Diseases of Economic Plants." Stevens and Hall. 
 
 Michigan Expt. Station (Technical Bulletin 20). "Control of Root Knot Nematode." 
 
 Olaio Expt. Station Bulletin 265. "Cob Rot of Corn." 
 
 Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 136. "Collar-Blight and Related Forms of Fire 
 
 Blight." 
 Washington Expt. Station Bulletin 126. "Bunt or Smut of Wheat." 
 Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 229. "Smuts and Rusts." 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 
 
 64. "Potato Wilt and Other Diseases." 
 
 203. "Field Studies of the Crown Gall of Sugar Beets." 
 
 216. "Rust of Grain in United States" (Bureau of Plant Industry). 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 333. "Cotton Wilt." 
 
 507. "The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley and Corn." 
 
 544. "Potato Tuber Diseases." 
 
 555. "Cotton Anthracnose and Rs Control." 
 
 618. "Leaf Spot: A Disease of the Sugar Beet." 
 
 625. "Cotton Wilt and Root Knot." 
 
 648. "The Control of Root Ivnot," 
 
CHAPTER 20 
 
 Insect Pests and Their Control 
 
 By W. B. Wood 
 Scientific Assistant, Bureau of Entomologij, U. S. De-parUnent of Agriculture 
 
 Insects are, without doubt, the greatest enemies of the farmer, for they 
 destroy the crops of field and garden and render the fruit on the trees unfit 
 for use; they injure the domestic animals by constant irritation, causing 
 them to lose weight and even to die. Stored grains, tobacco and other 
 farm products also suffer from their attacks. 
 
 After studying their life histories and habits, methods of control have 
 been devised by which they can be combated with a reasonable amount of 
 success. Many species can be held in absolute control by thorough and 
 timely applications of the proper remedies, while others are only partially 
 held in check. 
 
 In order to intelligently apply a treatment for the control of an insect, 
 something of its habits must be known, especially in regard to its manner 
 of feeding. Most of the important pests fall within two great groups, 
 namely, biting or chewing insects and sucking insects, depending on 
 whether the mouth parts are chisel or pincher-like in the first class, or 
 beak-like and made for piercing and sucking in the second class. A 
 number of these pests will fall in certain special groups which require a 
 definite treatment, indicated by their manner of living or by the injury they 
 do. Some of these special classes are internal feeders, as boring insects, 
 subterranean insects and insects affecting stored products. 
 
 The external feeders, which have biting mouth parts, usually feed upon 
 plants by gnawing out small pieces of the plant tissue which are swallowed. 
 This group includes the larvae or caterpillars of moths and butterflies, the 
 larva? of beetles and the adults, grasshoppers and crickets, and the larva? of 
 some species of Hymcnoptera or the wasp group. Such insects may usually 
 be controlled by applying a poison to the plant, either as a fine spray or as 
 a powder dusted or blown over it« surface. The arsenicals have been found 
 to be the best remedy for this group. 
 
 The sucking insects feed by piercing the skin or epidermis of plants 
 wth their sharp beaks and sucldng the sap. This group of insects is 
 represented by the tree bugs or Hemiptera, to which order belong the 
 squash bug, scale insects, plant lice and leaf hoppers. It is evident that a 
 stomach poison on the surface of the plant would not affect insects of this 
 class, so it is necessary to use what is known as a contact insecticide, which 
 should be applied as a spray or wash directly to the insect's body. Such 
 
 (250) 
 
INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 251 
 
 remedies kill by their suffocating or corrosive action. The most common 
 of these insecticides are nicotine solutions, kerosene or oil emulsions, lime- 
 sulphur wash and fish-oil soap. 
 
 In the following pages -udll be found listed the principal insect pests of 
 farm crops under the class of crops to which they are most injurious. Only 
 a verj' brief description of each insect can be given, and in most cases noth- 
 ing of their life histories, in the limited space devoted to the subject. The 
 treatments which have given the best results in each indi\idual case are 
 indicated briefly and reference is made to publications which give a more 
 extended account of the insects. The abbreviations which are used in the 
 references are as follows: 
 
 Bur. Ent. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Bulletin. 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. — U. S. Department of Agi-iculture, Bureau of Entomology Circular. 
 Farm. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin. 
 Dept. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin. 
 
 GENERAL CROP INSECTS 
 
 Caterpillars (^leaf- eating). — ]Many plants are attacked by caterpillars 
 which feed upon the leaves. These worms are the larvse of Lepidopterous 
 insects, or moths and butterflies. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray with an arsenical, preferably arsenate of lead, or 
 dust ^dth powdered arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the spray gathers 
 in drops and does not adhere well to the surface of the leaves, use a resin 
 fish-oil soap sticker. 
 
 Cutworms. — Various species of the family Noctuidce, usually feeding 
 at night upon the roots, crowns or foliage of plants. The worms may be 
 found in da^-time \ymg curled up in ground about an inch below surface. 
 
 Treatment. — Broadcast poison bran mash about the garden in the 
 spring just before the plants come up. ]Make other applications later if 
 the cutworms are still found. Cultivate the ground thoroughly in late 
 summer and early in the spring to prevent the growth of grasses and weeds, 
 thus starving out worms if present. 
 
 Grasshoppers or Locusts. — A number of species feed on corn, wheat, 
 sorghum and other field crops, also on man}'- garden crops and at times on 
 fruit trees. 
 
 Treatment. — Cultivate the fields and stony fence rows in the fall to 
 break up the egg masses deposited one to two inches below the surface of 
 the ground. Broadcast Criddle mixture or poison bran mash flavored with 
 juice of orange or lemon in fields where grasshoppers are plentiful. 
 
 Leaf Beetles (Chrysonielidce). — Crops of many kinds are injured by 
 beetles which feed upon the leaves as adults and sometimes as larvae. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray or dust the affected plants "oath arsenicals. 
 
 Plant Lice {Aphididce). — Manj-^ species of plant lice are found attacking 
 field, garden and orchard crops. They feed by sucking the juices of the 
 host plant and cannot be controlled by a poison spray. 
 
252 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Treatment. — Use sprays of nicotine or tobacco extract, kerosene 
 emulsion (5 to 10 per cent strength) or fish-oil soap just after the aphids 
 appear and at such other times as may be necessary. Spray thoroughly, 
 being sure to wet all plant lice. If spray does not adhere to the bodies of 
 insects, add 2 or 3 pounds of laundry soap to 50 gallons of spray solution, 
 or preferably an equal amount of resin fish-oil soap as a sticker. For under- 
 ground forms practice rotation of crops or use soil fumigants. 
 
 White Grubs (Lachnosterna spp.). — White grubs or grubworms are 
 the larvse of the common brown beetles known as May beetles or June 
 bugs, commonly seen around lights and on the screens in the spring and 
 summer. Their natural breeding place is grass lands, but they are found 
 in fields and gardens feeding upon the roots of many plants. 
 
 Treatment. — No successful treatment is known. Practice crop rotation 
 when necessary. Fall plo^ving wall be of some benefit. Do not plant 
 crops liable to be injured, as strawberries, on recently broken sod land. 
 
 Wire Worms {Elateridcc) . — Slender, brown, hard, shining larvse, 3^ 
 inch io IY2 inches long, body divided into several segments which show 
 plainly three pairs of small legs near front end of body. Their natural 
 breeding place is grass lands, but they feed on or in the roots of many 
 garden and field crops. Two years or more are required for development. 
 
 Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment has been found. Rotation of 
 crops, preventing ground from remaining long in grass, and late fall plow- 
 ing followed by repeated harrowing for a month or two are the best means 
 of preventing their increase. Seeds might be protected by the use of some 
 substance as a repellent which would not injure germination. 
 
 GENERAL CROP INSECTS 
 
 The Army Worm (Leucama unipimcta, Haworth). — In general appear- 
 ance it resembles cutworms. About 13/^ inches long, dark in color, with 
 three yellowish stripes down the back. The adult insect is a dull brown 
 moth, often seen about lights in the spring. The worm feeds naturally on 
 wild grasses, l3ut when it is abundant marches across fields, destroying 
 many crops, including corn, wheat, oats and related crops, as well as many 
 truck crops. 
 
 Treatjuent. — The march of the worms to uninfested fields may be 
 checked by a deep dust furrow through which a log is dragged occasionally 
 to crush the worms and to maintain a thick coat of dust on the sides. 
 Scattering poison bran mash through infested fields will often prove very 
 effective. Late fall plowing and cultivating will help in destroying over- 
 wintering worms. 
 
 The Alfalfa Leaf Weevil (Phytonomus posticus, Fab.). — This insect, 
 which has been accidentally introduced into the United States from Europe, 
 now threatens the alfalfa industry of the country. From a small field 
 near Salt Lake, where it was first found, it has spread through the surround- 
 ing country mitil it has gone as far as Wyoming and Idaho. In the spring 
 
INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 253 
 
 the adult insect punctures the stems of the plants as they are coming 
 up, and deposits its eggs in the wounds. The grubs hatch and feed upon 
 the tender leaves until they are fully developed. Transformation then 
 
 takes place and the adult beetle begins to de- 
 stroy the foliage. 
 
 Treatment. — ^Breaking up the ground in the 
 sprmg with a disk harrow to stimulate a rapid 
 growth has been found to be beneficial. Clean 
 up all trash and rubbish which might form hiding 
 places for the insect. Immediately after first 
 cutting use a spike-tooth harrow, followed closely 
 by a brush drag to knock off and kill the grubs. 
 Bur. Ent. Bull. 112; Utah Exp. Sta. BuU. 110. 
 The Chinch Bug (Blissus Icucopterus, Say.). — 
 Throughout the Middle states this is the worst 
 enemy of all kinds of grains. It hibernates for 
 the most part in clumps of grass, but may be 
 found in weeds and rubbish along fence rows. 
 The bug injures the plant by sucking the sap 
 from the stalks. 
 Treatment. — Concerted action by the farmers in a large area, in burn- 
 ing the bunch grass late in the fall or in early winter, is the best means of 
 control. The grass should be burned close to the ground when it is per- 
 
 Chinch Bug 
 (Blissiis leucoplerus) .^ 
 
 Adult of long- winged form, 
 much enlarged. 
 
 Chinch Bug (Blissus leucopterus).''- 
 Adults of short-winged form, much enlarged. 
 
 fectly dry, thus destroying many of the insects and leaving others unpro- 
 tected against the storms of winter. When bugs are migrating from small 
 grains to corn or other crops in summer, they may be stopped by dusty 
 ditches with post holes in bottom, by dust ridges or coal tar barriers. 
 Farm. Bull. 657. 
 
 1 Bur. Ent. Cir. 113, 
 
254 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Clover Mite {Bryobia prcetensis, Garm.). — A common red mite on 
 many plants, including clover, alfalfa and a nmnber of varieties of fruit. 
 
 Treatment. — Dust the plants with sulphur and lime at rate of 1-4, or 
 spray with either 10 per cent kerosene emulsion or sulphur in water, 1 
 pound to 4 gallons. Destroy eggs on fruit trees in winter with 20 per cent 
 kerosene emulsion or with lime-sulphur. 
 Bur. Ent. Cii-. 158. 
 
 Clover Root Borer (Hylastinus ohscuriis, Marsham) . — The beetle win- 
 ters over in clover roots; emerges 
 in the spring and lays eggs in 
 the larger roots. The grubs, on 
 hatching, bore through central 
 part, destroying plants. 
 
 Treatment. — Plow the fields 
 after haying, allowing the roots 
 to dry. Pasturing checks the 
 injury. Infested field should not 
 be allowed to stand over the sec- 
 ond season. 
 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. 119. 
 
 Com Ear Worm {HeUothis 
 obsolcta, Fab.). — This insect is 
 also known as the cotton boll 
 worm, the tobacco bud worm or 
 the tomato fruit worm. It has 
 a long list of other food plants, 
 but on many causes no serious 
 injury. On corn the eggs are 
 laid by the moths upon the silk. 
 The larvae upon hatching enter 
 the ear and begin to feed on 
 the immature grains. Cotton is 
 not seriously attacked until the 
 corn silks are drying up, as corn 
 is much preferred by the worms. 
 The adults lay their eggs upon the 
 cotton leaves and the larva;, after feeding for a short time upon the foliage, 
 enter the bolls. They attack tobacco by eating into the buds, and tomatoes 
 are injured by attacks upon the fruit. 
 
 Treatment. — For all crops the injury is materially lessened by late 
 fall plowing and cultivation which crushes many pupae in the soil and 
 exposes others to the winter. On cotton the insect may be well controlled 
 by two applications of an arsenical dust or spray at the time the eggs are 
 hatching. Tobacco may be protected by dropping into the buds a little 
 
 > Bur. Ent. Cir. 158, 
 
 Clover Mite {Bryobia proelensis) .^ 
 Enlarged; natural size shoun by lino at right. 
 
INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 255 
 
 corn meal, poisoned with powdered arsenate of lead, using 2 or 3 spoonfuls 
 to a quart of meal. Early maturing varieties of corn or cotton will not 
 be so seriously injured as the later kinds. 
 Farm. BuU. 290; Bur. Ent. BuU. 50. 
 
 The Com Root Aphis {Aphis maidi-radicis, Forbes). — A bluish-green 
 plant louse found on the roots of corn, broom corn, sorghum and on several 
 weeds. It weakens the plant, causing it to be stunted and poorly nour- 
 ished. 
 
 Treatment. — One year rotation to other crops than corn, clean cultiva- 
 tion and liberal use of fertilizers, winter plowing to break up nests of ants 
 where aphis eggs are stored. 
 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. S6; Bur. Ent. BuU. 85, Pt. 6. 
 
 Cotton Boll Worm (Heliothis obsoleta, Fab.). — 
 See Corn Ear Worm, 
 
 Cotton Worm {Alabama argillacea, Hbn.). — A 
 dark-greenish caterpillar, striped with black, the 
 larva of a grajash-brown moth marked on the fore 
 wings with irregular darker bands. They feed on 
 the under side of leaves when young, later feeding 
 on the entire leaf and when abundant on buds and 
 tender stalks. Adults make strong flights, going as 
 far north as Canada. They feed at times on ripe 
 fruit, which they are able to puncture with strong 
 mouth parts. 
 
 Treatment. — Dust the plants with powdered ar- 
 senate of lead when the worms appear. 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. 153. 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 Clover Root Borer {Hylastinus obscurus).^ 
 
 1 — Adult beetle, natural size at right. 2 — Larva or grub, much enlarged. 
 3 — Showing work of the borer. 
 
 iBur. Ent. Cir. 119. 
 
Cotton Worm (Alabama argillacea).^ 
 Stages and work. 
 
 'Bur. Ent. Cir. 153. 
 
 (25G) 
 
INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 257 
 
 c 
 
 Fall Army Worm 
 {Laphygma frugiperda).^ 
 
 A — Moth, plain gray form. B 
 wing of prodenia-like form. C — Larva 
 extended. D — Abdominal segment of 
 larva, lateral view; twice natural size. 
 E — Pupa, lateral view. 
 
 The Cotton Red Spider {Tetran- 
 ychus bimaculatus, Harvey). — This 
 small red mite is common on cot- 
 ton and on several other plants, es- 
 pecially pokeweed and violet. It 
 causes the leaves of cotton to turn 
 red and fall off. It kills plants if 
 abundant. 
 
 Treatment. — Prevent the mites 
 from starting on the cotton by clean 
 culture, being sure to eradicate all 
 pokeweed and violets near the fields. 
 If found in cotton fields, spray the 
 affected plants with potassium sul- 
 phide 3 pounds and water 100 gallons; 
 make two applications one week 
 Fore apart. 
 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. 172. 
 
 The Fall Army Worm (Laphygma 
 frugiperda, S. and A.). — In general 
 
 appearance is similar to the common 
 army worm, but with different markings. It has wide range of food 
 plants, including many 
 forage and truck crops. 
 
 Treatment. • — P r a c - 
 tice fall plowing to break 
 up the pupae cells in the 
 ground. Scatter poison 
 bran mash when the cat- 
 erpillars appear, or spray 
 or dust with arsenicals. 
 Bur. Ent. Bull. 29. 
 
 The Green Bug, or 
 Spring Grain Aphis (Tox- 
 opteragraminum, Rond.). 
 — ^A small green plant 
 louse which attacks oats, 
 wheat, barley and other 
 grains. It appears very 
 early in the spring. 
 
 Treatment. — No sat- 
 isfactory method of con- 
 trol is known. Attacks 
 may be partially pre- 
 
 'Hessian Fly (Mayetiola destructor).^ 
 Adult female, much enlarged. 
 
 »Bar. Ent. Ball 29. 
 
 " Farm. Ball. 040. 
 
/^ 
 
 '^.' 
 
 Green Bug, or Spring Grain Aphis (Toxoplera graminum)} 
 
 Wheat plant showing winged and wingless viviparous females with their 
 young clustered on leaves, and a few paraeitized individuals on lower leaves. 
 About natural size. 
 
 >Bur. Ent. Bull. 110. 
 
 (258) 
 
INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 259 
 
 Southern Corn Root Worm 
 {Diabrolica duodecimpimctata).^ 
 
 A— Beetle. B— Egg. C— Larva. D— Anal 
 
 segment of larva. E — Work of larva at base of corn 
 
 stalk. F — Pupa. All much enlarged except E, which 
 is reduced. 
 
 two weeks after usual time 
 vent most of usual injury. 
 
 U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 51, Office of 
 Secretary; Farm. Bull. 640. 
 
 vented by late planting 
 and by the destruction of 
 volunteer wheat and oats 
 in the fall. 
 
 Bur. Ent. Bull. 110. 
 
 The Hessian Fly 
 
 {Mayetiola destructor, 
 Say.).^ — -This small two- 
 winged fly is one of the 
 most destructive insects 
 of growing wheat, causing 
 the plants to be stunted 
 and to break down near 
 harvest time. 
 
 Treatment. — Burn the 
 stubble or plow it under 
 as soon after harvest as 
 possible. Destroy all 
 volunteer wheat just be- 
 fore sowing. Delay the 
 sowing until ten days or 
 The two latter precautions should pre- 
 
 A B 
 
 Cotton Boll Weevil 
 {Anthonomus grandis).^ 
 
 A — Beetle, from above. B — Same from 
 side. About five times natural size. 
 
 Tobacco Flea Beetle 
 (Epitrix parvula).^ 
 
 A — Adult beetle. B — Larva, side 
 view. C — Head of larva. D — Hind leg 
 of same. E — Anal segment of same. 
 F— Pupa. A, B, F— Enlarged about fif- 
 teen times. C, D, E — More enlarged. 
 
 ' Bur. Ent. Bull. 4:j. 
 
 ' Farm. Bull. 344. 
 
 » Bur. Ent. Cir. 123. 
 
260 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandis, Boh.). — No pest of 
 cotton has caused so much injury as this small brown beetle. Both the 
 adult insects and the larvae feed upon the squares and the bolls, injuring 
 the fiber. 
 
 Treatment. — Clean up and destroy all stalks, dead bolls and crop rem- 
 nants as soon as cotton is picked, either by burning or burjang. Plow- 
 under or burn in the fall and winter all trash in neighboring fields and 
 
 Southern Tobacco Horn Worm (Phlegcthontius sexto). ^ 
 A — Adult. B — Larva. C — Pupa. 
 
 hedgerows where the insect might hibernate. Prepare the land early* 
 plant early and fertiUze heavily to secure an early crop. 
 Farm. Bull. 344, Senate Document No. 305, 62d Congress. 
 
 Spring Grain Aphis (Toxoptera graminum, Rond.). — See Green Bug. 
 
 Southern Com Root Worm, or Bud Worm {Diabrotica duodecimpunc- 
 iata, Oliv.). — Greenish-yellow beetle marked on the back with twelve 
 black spots. Feeds on a variety of plants. Larva or grub feeds on roots 
 of corn after boring into roots and stem. 
 
 Treatment. — No satisfactory insecticidal treatment is known. The 
 worst of the injury may be prevented in Southern states by planting about 
 
 »Bur. EDt. Cir. 123. 
 02 
 
Western Corn Root Worm (Diabrotica longicorni.s).'- 
 
 1— Adult, or beetle; a, claw of hind leg; much enlai-ged. 2 — Larva, 
 or worm, much enlarged. 3 — Egg, highly magnified. 
 
 Wheat Joint W^orm (Isoso77ia tritici).- 
 
 1 — Adult of the joint worm much enlarged. 2 — One 
 effect of the joint worm in wheat straw. 
 
 iDept. Bull. 8. 
 
 « Bur. Ent. Cir. 66. 
 
 (261) 
 
262 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 three weeks later than* usual or after most of the first brood eggs have 
 been deposited. 
 
 Dept. Bull. No. 5. 
 
 Tobacco Flea Beetle {Epitrix parvula, Fab.). — A small dark-colored 
 beetle, eating holes in the leaves of tobacco. The 
 beetle is a very active jumper and cannot be readily 
 captured. 
 
 Treatment. — Apply arsenicals by spraying or as 
 dust when the injury is first noticed and again a 
 few days later, if the beetles are still present. 
 
 Bur. Ent. Cii-. 123; Year-Book 1910, pp. 281-296. 
 
 Tobacco Worms, or Horn Worms (Phlegethontius 
 quinquemaculata, Haw., and P. sexta, Johan.). — These 
 two pests are the most destructive of the tobacco 
 insects. They feed on the leaves and buds. 
 
 Treatment. — Hand picking or the use of arsen- 
 icals will prevent serious injury. 
 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. 123; Bur. Ent. Cir. 173 
 
 Western Com Root Worm (Diahrotica longicor- 
 nis, Say.). — A yellowish green beetle, the larva of 
 which feeds on the roots of corn. There is only 
 one generation of the insect each year. 
 
 Treatment. — The only successful way of com- 
 bating the pest is to rotate crops from corn to one 
 of the small grains. 
 
 Dept. Bull. No. 8. 
 
 Wheat Joint Worm (Isosoma tritici, Fitch). — 
 Most of the injury from this insect has been found 
 in the wheat-growing regions east of the Missis- 
 sippi River. The adult is a small black insect 
 somewhat resembhng a small winged ant. Eggs 
 are laid in the straw of growing wheat after several 
 joints have been formed. The larvae develop in 
 the joints and emerge in the following spring. 
 
 Treatment. — Burn or plow under all stubble in the fall. Burn all 
 outstanding straw in spring. Do not scatter green manure in fields to be 
 planted in wheat in spring if infested straw was used for bedding. Fertilize 
 liberally. Practice rotation of crops. 
 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. 66. 
 
 Wheat Straw Worm {Isosoma grande, Riley). — West of the Mississippi 
 River this insect is often a very serious enemy of wheat. The larva works 
 inside the young shoots early in the spring and the later generation in 
 straw. 
 
 Treatment. — Injury can be largely prevented by a rotation of crops 
 
 > fiur. £ut. Cir. 106. 
 
 Larva of Isosoma 
 
 grande m Wheat 
 
 Straw. 1 
 
INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 263 
 
 according to Prof. F. M. Webster. Wheat should not be planted on the 
 same ground two years in succession. 
 Bur. Ent. Cir. 106. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 "Insects Injurious to the Household and Annoying to Man." Herrick. 
 "Injurious Insects: How to Recognize and Control." O'Kane. 
 "Manual for Study of Insects." Comstock. 
 "American Insects." Kellogg. 
 
 " Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard." Sanderson. 
 Connecticut Expt. Station Bulletin 186. "Gipsy Moth." 
 Missouri Expt. Station Bulletin 134. "Insect Pests of Field Crops." 
 New Jersey Expt. Station Circular 46. "Hessian Fly." 
 Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 138. "Control of Grasshoppers." 
 Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin: 
 
 150. "Common Fungous and Insect Pests." 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
 
 344. "Boll-Weevil Problem." 
 
 498. " Methods of Exterminating the Texas Fever Tick." 
 
 512. "Boll-Weevil Problem." 
 
 543, "Common White Grubs." 
 
 564. "The Gipsy and Brown Tail Moth : Their Control." 
 
 634. "The Larger Corn Stalk Borer." 
 
 636. "The Chalcis-Fly in Alfalfa Seed." 
 
 637. "The Grass Hopper Problem and the Alfalfa Culture." 
 640. "The Hessian Fly." 
 
 671. "Harvest Mites or Chiggers." 
 
CHAPTER 21 
 
 iNSECTICroES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 By H. Garman 
 Professor of Entomology, University of Kentucky 
 
 The word insecticide has come to mean any chemical or other sub- 
 stance used to destroy insects that are hurtful or objectionable in any way 
 to man. This definition excludes substances such as sticky fly-paper that 
 may be employed to entrap pests and would, according to some entomolo- 
 gists, exclude also simple deterrents, such as oil of citronella, used to keep 
 insects away by their offensive odors. In a general way, however, every 
 substance employed to prevent the injuries of insects is an insecticide and 
 in this view it does not matter whether or not they kill, deter or entrap. 
 
 The insecticides most used and valued by practical men either kill 
 as poisons when eaten with food, or else destroy when brought in contact 
 with the bodies of insects, in which case they are sometimes called contact 
 insecticides. 
 
 A group of insecticides of which the effective ingredient is arsenic has 
 proved especially popular and useful in suppressing insects which feed by 
 gnawing away and devouring the leaves of plants. 
 
 Paris Green. — Of these the one best known and most used is Paris 
 green, Schweinfurth green, or Imperial green, French green and Emerald 
 green. It was first used in the arts, and because of its cheapness and 
 poisonous properties was early tried on the Colorado potato beetle (about 
 1868) proving a very satisfactory means of suppressing the pest when used 
 either as a dry powder or when stirred into water. It contains a little 
 soluble arsenic however, and in water this is liable to burn leaves to which 
 it is applied, hence care must be exercised not to use too much. Four to 
 five ounces of the powder in a barrel of water is commonly regarded as 
 enough; if more is used a pound or two of freshly-slaked lime may be added 
 to neutralize its caustic effect. 
 
 Arsenate of Lead. — Paris green has two defects: Its burning action 
 is often hard to guard against, and its weight causes it to settle quickly 
 when used in water, rendering the spray produced uneven in strength. 
 Stirrers connected with spray pumps obviate the latter trouble, but some- 
 times increase the labor of operating pumps. The addition of lime, as 
 already suggested, lessens the burning action, though the lime may, if care 
 is not exercised, increase the labor of applying. 
 
 Arsenate of lead has neither of these defects. It is practically insol- 
 uble in water, does not bui'n foliage, and it is so finely subdivided that it 
 
 (264) 
 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 265 
 
 remains suspended much better than Paris green. It has the additional 
 advantage of adhering to leaves longer than Paris green, and thus fewer 
 apphcations are required. A single spraying with this substance, if applied 
 at the right time, is for some plants sufficient for a whole season. The 
 arsenate of lead paste is commonly used with water in the proportion of 
 2| to 3 pounds in 50 gallons. As found in the market it contains about 50 
 per cent of water. 
 
 It requires more by weight to destroy insects than Paris green, but 
 the cost per pound is less and hence the actual cost for materials amounts 
 to about the same, whichever poison is used. Its advantages are so 
 decided in other chrections that it is now supplanting Paris green in popular 
 favor. For the injuries of most gnawing insects working on foliage this 
 insecticide may be safely recommended. 
 
 To meet the objections sometimes made to arsenate of lead paste, 
 a powdered arsenate of lead has recently been offered to the public by 
 manufacturers of insecticides. The paste when dried out is lumpy and is 
 not in this condition easy to mix with water. In the powdered form it is 
 not open to this objection and may, besides, be dusted over plants without 
 the addition of water. 
 
 There are serious objections to the use of poisonous dusts, however, 
 though in practice they have advantages that always commend them to 
 workmen. The weight of the water to be carried when using liquid sprays 
 increases the labor, of course, and this ought to be lessened if it can be done 
 without diminishing the effectiveness of the applications, and also without 
 increasing the danger to those maldng the applications. The inhaling of 
 either diy Paris green or arsenate of lead is a serious matter, and if con- 
 tinued long is certain to lead to ill health. Liquid sprays go more directly 
 and evenly to the plants and stay there. They may be made just as 
 promptly effective as the dusts if used when the injury is beginning. They 
 are not so likely to be inhaled. 
 
 Arsenite of Zinc. — This poison has somewhat recently been recom- 
 mended as a substitute for Paris green and arsenate of lead, and appears 
 to be about equally good and somewhat cheajDer than either. It is a finely 
 divided white powder as put on the market and remains in suspension 
 about as well as arsenate of lead, having thus some advantage over Paris 
 green. It contains a little water-soluble arsenic and has been claimed to be 
 less injurious to foliage even than arsenate of lead, possessing at the same 
 time about the same killing power. For use it is stirred first into a httle 
 w^ater and allow^ed to soak for a time, then is stirred into the water in which 
 it is to be used, about one pound of the powder being added to 50 gallons of 
 water. It contains nearly the same quantity of arsenic as Paris green. 
 Like arsenate of lead, it remains in suspension better if a little soap is 
 dissolved in the water into which it has been stirred. It has of late been 
 quoted by dealers at from 20 to 25 cents per pound. 
 
 London Purple, — This arsenite came into use for injurious insects 
 
266 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 somewhat later than Paris green (about 1878), but is less used now than 
 formerly because of its lack of uniformity in composition and its excessive 
 burning of foliage. Its affective ingredient as an insecticide is arsenic in 
 the form of lime arsenite and lime arsenate, of which it contains about 40 
 per cent, nearly half of which is soluble. It is the soluble arsenious and 
 arsenic oxides that make this insecticide so injm-ious to the foliage and 
 render necessary the addition of lime. The amount of i:)ure arsenic 
 present has been found to be about 29 per cent. For use it is customary to 
 recommend about one-quarter pound each of London purple and fresh lime 
 in from 50 to 75 gallons of water. 
 
 White Arsenic. — The use of this poison has been recommended from 
 time to time for gnawing insects, but the time and labor required in boiling 
 it with milk of lime (thus producing an arsenite of lime) in order to avoid its 
 burning effect on foliage has prevented its general employment as an insect- 
 icide. It can be made to accomplish the same purpose as Paris green and 
 arsenate of lead, without injury to foHage, by boiling for a half hour 1 
 pound of commercial arsenic and 2 pounds of fresh lime in 4 gallons of 
 water, diluting with water finally to make 100 gallons. 
 
 Sulphur. — Flowers of sulphur has been used for many years as an in- 
 secticide, especially for mites infesting hothouse plants, Wlien dusted on 
 plants it does no harm to the leaves, but is not as effective as could be 
 desired. When burned in hothouses it may do severe injury to plants. 
 These defects have led to its neglect by entomologists. Wlien sulphur is 
 boiled -with lime, however, it produces a lime sulphide, in which condition 
 it becomes one of the best of insecticides for use in winter against scale 
 insects. 
 
 Lime-sulphur Wash.^ — In tliis condition thousands of barrels of the 
 boiled sulphur and lime are sold to fruit growers every year, Avho use it 
 largely as a remedy against 8an Jose scale. A concentrated solution 
 is prepared by boiling in large iron kettles, tanks or other vessels, 50 pounds 
 of fresh lime, 100 pounds of sulphur and 50 gallons of water. Part of the 
 water is heated, then the lime is added and is followed by the sulphur, the 
 whole being stirred continually while boiling, the time employed being 
 from fifty minutes to an hour. Finally, after adding enough hot water to 
 make 50 gallons, the solution is strained and set aside until ready to use. 
 Home-made solutions may not test higher than 27 to 30° Baume, but when 
 carefully made go higher and may even reach 34 or 35° Bamne, the differ- 
 ences being apparently due to differences in the quality of limes used. 
 
 The manufacturers now follow about the same formula in producing 
 their concentrated products, but because of having better facilities will 
 perhaps average higher in concentration than the fruit grower, although 
 analysis of samples bought in the market have sometimes shown that they 
 did not test as high as good home-made lime-sulphur. 
 
 These concentrated solutions are of a deep reddish-yellow color and 
 for use must be greatly diluted with water. It is customary in spraying 
 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 267 
 
 for San Jose scale to use one part of the solution to eight or ten of water 
 and to apply during open weather in February or March, while the trees are 
 still dormant. For summer use they must be diluted with from 30 to 50 
 parts of water to avoid injury to the foliage, but lose much of their value 
 as insecticides when thus weakened. The concentrated solution is regarded 
 as the most effective remedy for scale injury now in use. 
 
 It should be added that there has somewhat recently appeared a 
 so-called "soluble sulphur" which is recommended for the same uses as 
 
 A LiME-suLPHrR Cooking Outfit.* 
 
 lime-sulphur. It promises well, but has not been tested long enough and 
 carefully enough to justify very positive statements as to its merits. 
 
 Tobacco Extracts. — For use against soft-bodied insects such as plant 
 lice there is no more useful insecticide than extracts made from the midribs 
 of tobacco leaves. These extracts contain as their effective ingredient 
 nicotine and differ widely in the percentage of nicotine they contam. 
 Home-made extracts or decoctions are made by placing a couple of pounds 
 of the midribs in a wooden bucket full of boiling hot water, allowing it to 
 stand over night. The percentage of nicotine under such treatment will 
 probably not be more than 0.07 per cent, but it is a very useful wash for 
 plants infested with aphides, does no harm at all to leaves, and where 
 
 •From Farmers' Bulletin 650, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
 
2G8 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 tobacco is grown and the midribs can be easily secured is one of the very- 
 best insecticides for uses of this sort. The whole leaf makes a somewhat 
 stronger extract (0.12 per cent) as determined by tests recently made at 
 the Virginia Station. Soaking seems to extract as much of the nicotine as 
 boiling. When plants are to be treated on a larger scale it becomes impor- 
 tant to know just how much nicotine is present in a wash, and manufactured 
 extracts, some of them containing 40 per cent of nicotine, are demanded. 
 For the apple leaf louse, the lettuce louse, the rose aphis and other similar 
 pests, these extracts are safe and effective. For thick-skinned insects they 
 are not so satisfactory. 
 
 Tobacco is often used in other ways as a remedy for insect injuries, 
 but is open to some objections when so employed. Florists have long used 
 the midribs (often called "stems") for making a smudge for the destruction 
 of plant lice. The tobacco is simply burned in a perforated iron vessel. 
 The smoke leaves a strong smell of tobacco on flowers, which is sometimes 
 objected to by buyers. The odor can be avoided by using the extract 
 diluted with water and driven off as a vapor by dropping a hot iron into a 
 pan containing it. 
 
 P3rrethrum. — Under the name Persian insect powder or simply insect 
 powder this msecticide is to be obtained from most dealers in drugs. It 
 is a brown powder made from the flowers of a rather handsome plant of 
 the sunflower family (Composites). Its beauty leads florists to propagate 
 it, though few who grow the plant know that it has any relation to the 
 powder sold in drug stores. It comes to us from the East, and the pow- 
 der commonly sold here is imported, though an effort has been made in 
 the west coast states to manufacture the powder in this country. 
 
 The powder is thought to give off a volatile oil which penetrates the 
 breathing tubes of insects and thus by some irritating or suffocating effect 
 overpowers them. It is effective either dry, in water or when burned to 
 produce a smudge, but must be fresh. It loses much of its effectiveness if 
 kept in open packages. Though rather costly for use on field crops, it has 
 a place in the household at times, and may sometimes be profitably resorted 
 to for limited outbreaks of garden pests. Unlike most other insecticides, 
 this one is not hurtful to man; at any rate, not more so than snuff. 
 
 White Hellebore. — This is another vegetable product, being the 
 pulverized rootstocks of a plant {Veratrum album) of the lily family, 
 occurring in Europe and northern Africa. It is used in this country for 
 the rose slug, either dry or in water, in the latter case about two heaping 
 tablespoonfuls being stirred into a wooden bucketful (2| gallons) of water. 
 It is a stomach poison and also a contact insecticide. 
 
 Old samples when not kept in airtight receptacles lose their virtue and 
 tend to discredit this vegetable poison as a remedy for pests. 
 
 Coal Oil. — This oil has become well known as an insecticide in the 
 form of an emulsion. It is a good contact insecticide, serving the same 
 purpose as lime-sulphur wash in the destruction of scale insects, and having 
 
 64 
 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 269 
 
 the advantage of remaining effective when diluted. It can, therefore, be 
 used on foliage in summer for both scale insects and plant lice, and being 
 quicker in its action than tobacco extract, has advantages under some 
 circumstances over the extract for the prompt destruction of soft-bodied 
 insects. It is, however, more likely to do injury to plants, especially if the 
 emulsion is badly prepared, and this, together with the work required in 
 making it, leads practical men to neglect it whenever they can use some- 
 thing else. 
 
 The standard emulsion is made of one-half pound of whale oil or 
 laundry soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling hot water, this to be added to 
 two gallons of coal oil, and the whole churned for ten minutes by passing 
 rapidly through a force pump. As thus made it can be diluted for use, 
 one part to ten of water. 
 
 Crude Oils. — These are sometimes used for the same purposes as the 
 refined oil, and to render them easily mixed with water are sometimes 
 mixed with caustic potash, fish oil and crude carbolic acid, producing a 
 so-called miscible or soluble oil, which can be diluted with water for use 
 like the coal oil emulsion. 
 
 Soaps. — Many of the soaps sold in our market can be used at times as 
 a means of lessening the injuries of insect pests. A good soapsuds fre- 
 quently and freely used on plants infested with aphides or scale insects has 
 a good effect, though not a very prompt one. Stronger solutions must be 
 used with some caution to avoid injury to foliage. When trees are dormant 
 very strong solutions (one or two pounds to a gallon of water) are sometimes 
 used on the trunks for scale and other insects. 
 
 Whale oil soap or fish oil soap, as it is sometimes called, is to be pre- 
 ferred to most others because of its more even composition. It is particu- 
 larly good for use in making coal oil emulsion. 
 
 Coal Tar. — In the early days of fruit gi'owing in America this substance 
 was much used on the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent in the spring 
 of the wingless female canker worm moth. It proved to have an injurious 
 effect on the trees after a time, and hardened on exposure, so that the insects 
 could pass over the barrier. It was then used on bands of tin, and by 
 frequent renewal proved a useful check on the insect. But with the intro- 
 duction of arsenites and spraying machinery, it was given up for the more 
 convenient treatment. It is still used as a barrier, poured along the ground, 
 for chinch-bugs which are migrating from small grains to corn. Seed corn 
 may be treated with it before planting to deter wire worms and the seed 
 corn maggot from attacking the germinating seeds. The corn is fii'st 
 immersed in warm water for a minute or two, then a couple of teaspoonfuls 
 of the tar are stirred quickly among the gTain so as to bring a little in con- 
 tact with each seed. It dries over night so as to be ready for planting the 
 following day. The application does no harm to the germ, as has been 
 determined by germination tests of treated seeds. 
 
 Borax. — This substance has often been recommended for roaches in 
 
270 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 dwellings, and is sometimes found with an arsenite as an ingredient of 
 proprietary roach pastes. Recent work done with a view to destroying 
 the larvse of house flies in manm-e indicates that this is one of the best of 
 insecticides for the purpose, excelling for this use, coal oil, pyroligneus acid, 
 formalin and Paris green. Sodium borate and crude calcium borate were 
 both found effective in Idlling the larva, either when used dry or in solu- 
 tion. It was recommended as a result of the work done that about 0.62 
 pound of borax be used in 8 bushels of manure. Larger amounts of borax 
 are believed to be injurious to plants when the manure is spread on land. 
 The cost was estimated at one cent per horse per day. 
 
 Other Insecticides. — Numerous other insecticides have been recom- 
 mended, and have had a limited use, but, exceptmg the fmnigants con- 
 sidered later, they have not been generallj^ adopted by practical men. 
 Among them may be mentioned benzene, which is sometimes applied to 
 fabrics to destroy clothes moth; carbolized plaster, sometimes recom- 
 mended as a remedy for fleas about stables; fir-tree oil, lemon oil and oil 
 of citronella, the latter often employed as a deterrent against the attacks 
 of mosquitoes and also as a preventive of injury to seed corn in the soil. 
 Quassia, the effective ingi-ecUent of which is quassiin, is obtained from 
 the wood of the Jamaican Picrasma excelsa. It is an old insecticide that 
 has been perhaps most used in solutions for the hop aphis m the West. 
 The extract is made from the ''chips" by either soakmg or boiling. 
 
 Bisulphide of Carbon. — As sold by druggists and manufacturers, this 
 is a brownish fluid which quickly disappears in the air when exposed in 
 an open vessel. Its disagreeal:)le odor is due to mipurities, since the odor 
 of pure bisulphide of carbon is not unpleasant. The fumes are not only 
 poisonous, but are inflammable, so that some care must be exercised in 
 handling the fluid. It has proved of special service as a remedy for grain 
 weevil, bean weevil and other insects attacking stored seeds, and for the 
 phylloxera of grapevines in Europe, for the woolly aphis, for ants, and 
 even for the clothes moth. Its great value for such purposes comes not 
 only from its effectiveness in destrojdng all insects, but also because it is 
 not corrosive and is otherwise not injurious to seeds, fabrics and other 
 objects fumigated. The offensive odor is soon gone if objects that have 
 been exposed to the fumes are thoroughly aired. It cannot be used for 
 fumigating plants infested with insects because of its destructive effect on 
 the plants themselves. 
 
 About one fluid ounce should be used on each bushel of seed, and may 
 be poured over the seeds or simply placed in a saucer or other open vessel 
 set on their surface. It is absolutely necessary that the seeds be enclosed 
 in a tight box or bin to get satisfactory results, and the time of exposure 
 should not be less than two nours. 
 
 Carbon Tetrachlorid. — The disagreeable odor of commercial bisulphide 
 of carbon renders it objectionable to some people for use on fabrics infested 
 with moth, and has led to the suggestion that carbon tetrachlorid, which 
 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 271 
 
 has a rather pleasant odor, be used in its stead. This also is a fluid, and is 
 used in the same way as carbon bisulphide, namely, by pom-ing it into open 
 dishes or crocks and allowing it to evaporate in a box, bin or room. 
 
 It is not nearly as effective in small quantities as either cyanide of 
 potassium or carbon bisulphide, and the large quantities that must be 
 used increase the cost of treatment. 
 
 Para-dichlorobenzene. — This is a recently proposed fumigant and is 
 not yet in general use, because of its cost. Ifc is not evil-smelling like 
 
 Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas.^ 
 Front edge of sheet tent and top of derrick ready to be pulled over tree. 
 
 carbon bisulphide, and appears to be quite effective in destroying weevils 
 in grain and clothes moth. Since it is not inflammable, it can be more 
 safely used about dwellings, though its fumes have wonderful penetrating 
 power and escape in some quantity even from tightly stoppered bottles. 
 From a limited experience with it the writer is disposed to regard it very 
 favorably for fumigating seeds and fabrics, though more extended tests 
 may show it to have defects that are not now apparent. 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. — This gas is made from cyanide of potassium 
 (98 per cent), commercial sulphuric acid of good grade and water. The 
 
 > Courtesy of U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
272 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 gas produced is very poisonous, as are also the cyanide of potassium and 
 sulphuric acid. When fumigating it is well to place a notice on the room 
 or house warning jDeople not to enter. After the fumigating is accomplished 
 it is advisable to open up doors and Avindows and air out for ten minutes 
 or more before entering. 
 
 The dose to be used depends upon the space to be fumigated and upon 
 the character of the j^lants to be treated. Dormant trees can be exposed for 
 
 Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas.' 
 Sheet tent ready for introduction of chemicals. 
 
 a time to very strong fumes. Growing plants must be treated cautiously 
 with very mild doses. Some of them are very sensitive to the gas and will 
 be slightly burned with any dose calculated to be of value in destroying 
 insects. The condition of the air as to moisture may influence the results, 
 since dampness favors injury from the gas. 
 
 For nursery stock it is customary to employ for each 100 cubic feet 
 enclosed, the following: 
 
 Cyanide of potassium 1 ounce 
 
 Sulphuric acid 1 . 25 fluid ounces 
 
 Water 3 fluid ounces 
 
 1 Courtesy of U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 273 
 
 FUNGICIDES 
 
 When all has been said the number of fungicides approved by the 
 experience of practical and scientific men is very small. Many have been 
 recommended, but comparatively few have stood all the tests as to effective- 
 ness, convenience of application and cheapness. 
 
 Copper Sulphate. — At the head of the list stands copper sulphate, a 
 cheap, effective fungicide, commonly known as bluestone. This is the 
 active and most essential ingredient of Bordeaux mixture. Concentrated 
 solutions of it cannot be used alone on foliage because of their caustic action. 
 In winter on dormant trees it is sometimes used for fungous troubles, about 
 two pounds being dissolved in a barrel of water. A weaker solution — 1 
 
 Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes. 
 Not Sprayed. 1 
 
 One Row 
 
 pound in 200 gallons of water — may be used on foliage in summer when 
 fruit is well matured and it is not desirable to use sprays like Bordeaux 
 mixture, which leave a residue. The bluestone may be quickly dissolved 
 by pouring boiling hot water over it. When one is not hurried it may be 
 dissolved by suspending in a loose sack in the water. It dissolves slowly 
 if simply thrown in the water and allowed to settle. 
 
 To avoid to some extent the delays involved in dissolving bluestone it 
 is well to buy a finely powdered grade now manufactured for the making 
 of fungicidal preparations. 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture. — A standard formula for the preparation of this 
 valuable mixture is the following: 
 
 Bluestone 4 pounds 
 
 Fresh lime '. 4 pounds 
 
 Water ' 50 gallons 
 
 * Courtesy of New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. 
 
274 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Dissolve the bluestone in 25 gallons of water, slake the lime separately, 
 and add water to make 25 gallons; then pour the two, bucket by backet, 
 into a third barrel so as to mix thoroughly. For peach and plum, which are 
 more tender than apple and grape, the above formula may be changed to 
 the following: 
 
 Bluestone 2.5 pounds 
 
 Fresh lime 2.5 pounds 
 
 Water 50 gallons 
 
 These are the best preparations known for mildews, rots, scabs, smuts 
 and the like, and where one is dealing v\nth a fungous trouble and is uncer- 
 
 Treating Grain with Formalin for Smut.' 
 
 tain as to how to proceed, the chances are that he will accomplish as much 
 by using this preparation as with anything that could be recommended. 
 It is the best general-purpose fungicide we have at present. 
 
 Copperas, or Iron Sulphate. — While this is less often used than blue- 
 stone, yet it has decided fungicide and antisei^ie value, and because of its 
 cheapness may sometimes be found serviceable. As now used it generally 
 comes to the market as a waste product in the manufacture of steel wire, 
 and may be bought for a cent or less per pound, 
 
 Fonnalin, or Formaldehyde. — This very valuable preservative and 
 antiseptic has been much used of late as a remedy for potato scab and to 
 some extent for wheat smut. It is sold as a fluid containing forty per cent 
 of formalin. In this condition it is very acrid, and gives off fumes that 
 affect the eyes and nostrils unpleasantly. Used on the hands, it quickly 
 
 'Courtesy of H. L. Bolley and M. L. Wilaon, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 275 
 
 destroj's the outer skin. It cannot, therefore, be employed except when 
 greatly diluted. But since it retains its active fungicide and bactericidal 
 properties even when very greatly diluted, and is not so dangerous a poison 
 in this condition as are corrosive sublimate and other antiseptic agents, it 
 becomes very useful in the hands of those who wish to disinfect quarters in 
 which have been lodged people, or animals, affected with communicable 
 diseases. The wash or spray of the dilute formalin has always seemed to 
 the wi'iter much better for such uses than the fumes of formalin as generally 
 produced. 
 
 On plants the action of even dilute sprays is very quickly destructive, 
 and I doubt if it has a value for their treatment. But for seed wheat, 
 likely to produce smutted heads and for potato scab it has proved very 
 convenient and useful. A pint of the 40 per cent formalin may be poured 
 into a barrel containing 30 gallons of water, stirred thoroughly, and the 
 potatoes in a sack can be set in the barrel for disinfection. They should be 
 left in the fluid for two hours and may then be removed and spread out on 
 grass or on a clean plank floor to dry, when another sack may be placed 
 in the barrel. The treated potatoes must not be put in barrels or sacks 
 that have not been treated with the formalin. By having a number of 
 barrels at hand, the work proceeds rapidly. 
 
 Oats and wheat liable to smut may be treated by sprinkling the seed 
 with dilute formalin (1 pint in a barrel of water) until every seed is moist, 
 not wet, then leaving for several hours in a heap, finally spreading out 
 to dry. 
 
 Fumes of formalin produced either by heat or by the use of perman- 
 ganate of potash have been recommended as a remedy for potato scab, 
 but the writer's experience with the fumes has not been such as to warrant 
 him in recommending them for this or for other purposes. 
 
 Bichloride of Mercury. — A very poisonous chemical, valuable in dilate 
 solutions (1 part in 1000) as a disinfectant, and particularly good as a 
 remedy for potato scab. The whitish, crystalline, very heavy material is 
 very dangerous to have about, since it may attract the attention of children 
 or animals. It should of course always be kept labeled as a poison. It 
 dissolves slowly in cold water, and it is best, therefore, to make use of heat, 
 afterward turning the dissolved poison into the larger quantity of water 
 required, best kept in a barrel. Good results have been obtained in check- 
 ing potato scab with this disinfectant, using 4 ounces in 30 gallons of 
 water and soaking the seed potatoes one hour. They were placed in the 
 fluid in gunny sacks and afterward spread out on a barn floor to dry. 
 
 It is very essential that poisoned potatoes be not left where stock will 
 eat them, and the poisonous fluid must be disposed of after treating the 
 seed, so that it will do no harm: 
 
 Lime-Sulphur Wash. — This preparation of sulphur and lime has 
 already been mentioned under insecticides. It has undoubted fungicide 
 value both in concentrated and dilute preparations. For foliage the latter 
 
276 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 must always be used. Even the sulphur alone thickly strewn over leaves 
 is a fairly good remedy for mildew. A very small quantity of the sulphur 
 dissolved in the presence of lime renders it more effective both as an insect- 
 icide and as a fungicide, 
 
 COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 The cost of treatment for pests is greatly increased by the necessity 
 for frequent spraying when insecticides and fungicides are used separately. 
 They have been combined in some cases with no loss in the effectiveness of 
 either, and one of the important problems of both entomologists and plant 
 pathologists at the present time is the finding of ways and means of reducing 
 the number of sprayings still further. 
 
 Some work in determining the compatibility of different mixtures has 
 already been done, and it may be said that the following mix without loss 
 and in some cases with a gain in effectiveness: 
 
 Arsenate of lead (acid) and Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Arsenate of lead and tobacco. 
 
 Arsenate of lead and acids. 
 
 Arsenate of lead (neutral) and Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Arsenate of lead (neutral) and lime-sulphur. 
 
 Arsenate of lead (neutral) and tobacco. 
 
 Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Arsenite of lime and Bordeau.x mixture. 
 
 Arsenite of lime and tobacco. 
 
 Lime-sulphur and tobacco. 
 
 Soaps and Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Soaps and tobacco. 
 
 Soaps and emulsions. 
 
 Tobacco and lime-sulphur. 
 
 Tobacco and soaps. 
 
 Tobacco and emulsions. 
 
 Tobacco and alkalies. 
 
 Some dangerous combinations are the following: 
 
 Arsenate of lead (acid) and soaps. 
 
 Arsenate of lead (acid) and emulsions. 
 
 Arsenate of lead (acid) and alkalies. 
 
 Arsenate of lead (neutral) and acids. 
 
 Arsenite of zinc and lime-sulphur. 
 
 Arsenite of zinc and soaps. 
 
 Arsenite of zinc and emulsions. 
 
 Arsenite of zinc and alkalies. 
 
 Arsenite of zinc and acids. 
 
 Hydrocyanic acid gas and Bordeaux mixture. 
 
PART III 
 
 TABLES OF AGRICULTURAL 
 
 STATISTICS AND WEIGHTS 
 
 AND MEASURES 
 
 P77) 
 
Table I.— Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products. 
 
 Table VI. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Corn, dent 10.6 
 
 Corn, flint 11-3 
 
 Corn, sweet 8.8 
 
 Corn meal 15.0 
 
 Corncob 10.7 
 
 Corn and cob meal 15.1 
 
 Corn bran 9 1 
 
 Corn germ 10.7 
 
 Hominy chops 11.1 
 
 Germ meal 8.1 
 
 Dried starch and sugar feed 10.9 
 
 Starch feed, wet 65.4 
 
 Maize feed, Chicago 9.1 
 
 Grano-gluten 5.8 
 
 Cream gluten 8.1 
 
 Gluten meal 8.2 
 
 Gluten feed 7.8 
 
 Wheat, all analyses 10 . 5 
 
 Wheat, spring 10 . 4 
 
 Wheat, winter 10 . 5 
 
 Flour, high grade 12 .2 
 
 Flour, low grade 12.0 
 
 Flour, dark feeding 9.7 
 
 Bran, all analyses 11.9 
 
 Bran, spring wheat 115 
 
 Bran, winter wheat 12 . 3 
 
 Middlings 12.1 
 
 Shorts 11.8 
 
 Wheat screenings 116 
 
 Rye 11-6 
 
 Rye flour :^^- ^^.l 
 
 Rye bran 11.6 
 
 Rye shorts 9.3 
 
 Barley 10.9 
 
 Barley meal 11.9 
 
 Barley screenings 12.2 
 
 Brewers' grains, wet 75 . 7 
 
 Brewers' gi-ains, dried 8.2 
 
 Malt sprouts 10.2 
 
 Oats 11 
 
 Oat meal 7.9 
 
 Oat feed 7.7 
 
 Oat dust 6.5 
 
 OathuUs 7.3 
 
 Rice 12.4 
 
 Rice meal 10.2 
 
 RicehuUs 8.2 
 
 Rice bran 9.7 
 
 Rice polish 10.0 
 
 Buckwheat 12. 6 
 
 Buckwheat flour 14 . 6 
 
 Buckwheat hulls ,. 13.2 
 
 Buckwheat bran 10 . 5 
 
 Buckwheat shorts 11.1 
 
 Buckwheat middhngs 13.2 
 
 Sorghum seed ' 12.8 
 
 Water. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 1.5 
 1.4 
 1.9 
 1.4 
 1.4 
 1.5 
 
 0.9 
 2.8 
 0.7 
 0.9 
 1.1 
 1.8 
 1.9 
 1.8 
 0.6 
 2.0 
 4.3 
 5.8 
 5.4 
 
 1.9 
 0.7 
 3.6 
 5.9 
 2.4 
 2.6 
 3.6 
 1.0 
 3.6 
 6.7 
 3.0 
 2.0 
 3.7 
 6.9 
 6.7 
 0.4 
 8.1 
 13.2 
 10.0 
 6.7 
 2.0 
 1.0 
 2.2 
 3^0 
 5.1 
 4.8 
 2.1 
 
 Protein. 
 
 10.3 
 
 10.5 
 
 11.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 9.8 
 
 9.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 19.7 
 
 6.1 
 
 22.8 
 
 31.1 
 
 36.1 
 29.3 
 24.0 
 11.9 
 12 . 5 
 11.8 
 
 14.9 
 18.0 
 19.9 
 15.4 
 16.1 
 16.0 
 15.6 
 14.9 
 12.5 
 10.6 
 
 6.7 
 14.7 
 18.0 
 12.4 
 10.5 
 12.3 
 
 5.4 
 19.9 
 23.2 
 11.8 
 14.7 
 10.0 
 13.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 7.4 
 12.0 
 
 3.6 
 12.1 
 11.7 
 10.0 
 
 6.9 
 
 4.6 
 12.4 
 27.1 
 28.9 
 
 9.1 
 
 Crude 
 Fiber. 
 
 2.2 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.8 
 1.9 
 
 30.1 
 6.6 
 
 12.7 
 4.1 
 3.8 
 9.9 
 4.7 
 3.1 
 7.6 
 
 12.0 
 1.3 
 3.3 
 5.3 
 1.8 
 1.8 
 1.8 
 0.3 
 0.9 
 3.8 
 9.0 
 8.0 
 8.1 
 4.6 
 7.4 
 4.9 
 1.7 
 0.4 
 3.5 
 5.1 
 2.7 
 6.5 
 7.3 
 3.8 
 
 11.0 
 
 10.7 
 9.5 
 0.9 
 6.1 
 
 18.2 
 
 29.7 
 0.2 
 5.4 
 
 35.7 
 9.5 
 6.3 
 8.7 
 0.3 
 43.5 
 
 31.9 
 8.3 
 4.1 
 2.6 
 
 Nitrogen- 
 Free 
 Extract. 
 
 70.4 
 70.1 
 66.8 
 68.7 
 54.9 
 64.8 
 62,2 
 64.0 
 64.5 
 62.5 
 54.8 
 22.0 
 52.7 
 33.4 
 39.0 
 46.5 
 51.2 
 71.9 
 71.2 
 72.0 
 70.0 
 63.3 
 56.2 
 53.9 
 54.5 
 53.7 
 60.4 
 56.8 
 65.1 
 72.5 
 78.3 
 63.8 
 59.9 
 69.8 
 66.3 
 61.8 
 12.5 
 
 51. 
 
 48. 
 
 59. 
 
 67. 
 
 59. 
 
 50. 
 
 52. 
 
 79.2 
 
 51.2 
 
 38.6 
 
 49.9 
 
 58.0 
 
 64.5 
 
 75.8 
 
 35.3 
 
 38.8 
 
 40.8 
 
 41.9 
 
 69.8 
 
280 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Contimied). 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Broom-corn seed 
 
 Kaffir seed 
 
 Millet seed 
 
 Hungarian grass seed 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 Flaxseed, gi-ound 
 
 Linseed meal, old process 
 
 Linseed meal, new process 
 
 Cotton seed 
 
 Cotton seed, roasted 
 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 Cottonseed hulls 
 
 Cottonseed kernels (no liulls) 
 
 Cocoanut cake 
 
 Palm nut meal 
 
 Sunflower seed 
 
 Sunflower seed cake 
 
 Peanut kernels (no hulls) 
 
 Peanut meal 
 
 Rape seed cake 
 
 Pea meal 
 
 Soy bean 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 Corn fodder, field cured 
 
 Corn stover, field cured 
 
 Corn husks, field cured 
 
 Corn leaves, field cured 
 
 Corn fodder, green 
 
 Dent varieties, green 
 
 Dent, kernels glazed green 
 
 Fhnt varieties, green. : 
 
 Fhnt, kernels glazed green 
 
 Sweet varieties, green 
 
 Leaves and husks, gi"een 
 
 Stripped stalks, green 
 
 Hay from Grasses: 
 
 Mixed grasses 
 
 Timothy, all analyses 
 
 Timothy, cut in full bloom 
 
 Timothy, cut soon after bloom . . . . 
 
 Timothy, cut when near ripe 
 
 Orchard grass 
 
 Redtop, cut at diiTerent stages . . . . 
 
 Redtop, cut in full bloom 
 
 Kentucky blue gi-ass 
 
 Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed 
 
 is in milk 
 
 Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed 
 
 is ripe 
 
 Hungarian grass 
 
 Meadow fescue 
 
 Indian rye grass 
 
 Perennial rye grass 
 
 Rowen (mixed) 
 
 Water. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Crude 
 
 Nitrogen- 
 Free 
 
 Ether 
 
 
 
 
 Fiber. 
 
 Extract. 
 
 Extract. 
 
 11.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 10.2 
 
 7.1 
 
 63.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 9.3 
 
 1.5 
 
 9.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 74.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 11.8 
 
 9.5 
 
 57.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 9.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 63.2 
 
 4.7 
 
 9.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 22.6 
 
 7.1 
 
 23.2 
 
 33.7 
 
 8.1 
 
 4.7 
 
 21.6 
 
 7.3 
 
 27.9 
 
 30.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 5.7 
 
 32.9 
 
 8.9 
 
 35.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 10.1 
 
 5.8 
 
 33.2 
 
 9.5 
 
 38.4 
 
 3.0 
 
 10.3 
 
 3.5 
 
 18.4 
 
 23.2 
 
 24.7 
 
 19.9 
 
 6.1 
 
 5.5 
 
 16.8 
 
 20.4 
 
 23.5 
 
 27.7 
 
 8.2 
 
 7.2 
 
 42.3 
 
 5.6 
 
 23.6 
 
 13.1 
 
 11.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.2 
 
 46.3 
 
 33.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 6.2 
 
 4.7 
 
 31.2 
 
 3.7 
 
 17.6 
 
 36.6 
 
 10.3 
 
 5.9 
 
 19.7 
 
 14.4 
 
 38.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 10.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 16.8 
 
 24.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 16.3 
 
 29.9 
 
 21.4 
 
 21.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 6.7 
 
 32.8 
 
 13.5 
 
 27.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 7.5 
 
 2.4 
 
 27.9 
 
 7.0 
 
 15.6 
 
 39.6 
 
 10.7 
 
 4.9 
 
 47.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 23.7 
 
 8.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 31.2 
 
 11.3 
 
 30.0 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.5 
 
 2.6 
 
 20.2 
 
 14.4 
 
 51.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 4.7 
 
 34.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 28.8 
 
 16.9 
 
 14.8 
 
 3.2 
 
 20.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 55.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 11.3 
 
 3.8 
 
 26.6 
 
 7.2 
 
 50.1 
 
 1.0 
 
 42.2 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 34.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 40.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.8 
 
 19.7 
 
 31.5 
 
 1.1 
 
 50.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.5 
 
 15.8 
 
 28.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 30.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 21.4 
 
 35.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 79.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 12.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 79.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.7 
 
 5.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 73.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 15.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 79.8 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.3 
 
 12.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 77.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 14.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 79.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 0.5 
 
 66.2 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 8.7 
 
 19.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 76.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.5 
 
 7.3 
 
 14.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 15.3 
 
 5.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 27 2 
 
 42.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 13.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.9 
 
 29.0 
 
 45.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 29.6 
 
 41.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 14.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.7 
 
 28.1 
 
 44.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 14.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 5.0 
 
 31.1 
 
 43.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 9.9 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.1 
 
 32.4 
 
 41.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 8.9 
 
 5.2 
 
 7.9 
 
 28.6 
 
 47.5 
 
 1.9 
 
 8.7 
 
 4.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 29.9 
 
 46.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 21.2 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.8 
 
 23.0 
 
 37.8 
 
 3.9 
 
 24.4 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.3 
 
 24.5 
 
 34.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 27.8 
 
 0.4 
 
 5.8 
 
 23.8 
 
 33.2 
 
 3.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 27.7 
 
 49.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 20.0 
 
 6.8 
 
 7.0 
 
 25.9 
 
 38.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 8.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.5 
 
 30.5 
 
 45.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 14.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 10.1 
 
 25.4 
 
 40.5 
 
 2.1 
 
 16.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 11.6 
 
 22.5 
 
 39.4 
 
 3.1 
 
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 
 
 281 
 
 Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products {Continued). 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Hat from Grasses {Continued) 
 
 Mixed grasses and clovers 
 
 Barley hay, cut in milk 
 
 Oat hay, cut in milk 
 
 Swamp nay 
 
 Salt marsh hay 
 
 Wild oat grass 
 
 Buttercups 
 
 White daisy 
 
 Johnson grass 
 
 Fresh Grass: 
 
 Pasture grass 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 
 
 Timothy, difierent stages 
 
 Orchard grass, in bloom 
 
 Redtop, in bloom 
 
 Oat fodder 
 
 Rye fodder 
 
 Sorghum fodder 
 
 Barley fodder 
 
 Hungarian grass 
 
 Meadow fescue, in bloom 
 
 ItaUan rye grass, coming in bloom 
 
 Tall oat grass, in bloom 
 
 Japanese miUet 
 
 Barnyard millet 
 
 Hay from Legumes: 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Red clover in bloom 
 
 Red clover, mammoth 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 White clover 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 Japan clover 
 
 AlfaKa 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Soy bean 
 
 Pea vine 
 
 Vetch 
 
 SerradeUa 
 
 Flat pea 
 
 Peanut vines (no nuts) 
 
 Sainfoin 
 
 Fresh Legumes: 
 
 Red clover, different stages 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Soy bean 
 
 Serradella 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 Flat pea 
 
 Water. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Crude 
 
 Nitrogen- 
 Free 
 
 
 
 
 Fiber. 
 
 Extract. 
 
 12.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 10.1 
 
 27.6 
 
 41.3 
 
 15.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 24.7 
 
 44.9 
 
 15.0 
 
 5.2 
 
 9.3 
 
 29.2 
 
 39.0 
 
 11.6 
 
 6.7 
 
 7.2 
 
 26.6 
 
 45.9 
 
 10.4 
 
 7.7 
 
 5.5 
 
 30.0 
 
 44.1 
 
 14.3 
 
 3.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 48.8 
 
 9.3 
 
 5.6 
 
 9.9 
 
 30.6 
 
 41.1 
 
 10.3 
 
 6.6 
 
 7.7 
 
 30.0 
 
 42.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.2 
 
 28.5 
 
 45.9 
 
 80.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 9.7 
 
 65.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 17.6 
 
 61.6 
 
 2.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 11.8 
 
 20.2 
 
 73.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 8.2 
 
 13.3 
 
 65.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 11.0 
 
 17.7 
 
 62.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 11.2 
 
 19.3 
 
 76.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 79.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 6.1 
 
 11.6 
 
 79.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 71.1 
 
 1.7 
 
 3.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 14.2 
 
 69.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 10.8 
 
 14.3 
 
 73.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 6.8 
 
 13.3 
 
 69.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 9.4 
 
 15.8 
 
 75.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 13.1 
 
 75.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 7.0 
 
 13.1 
 
 15.3 
 
 6.2 
 
 12.3 
 
 24.8 
 
 38.1 
 
 20.8 
 
 6.6 
 
 12.4 
 
 21.9 
 
 33.8 
 
 21.2 
 
 6.1 
 
 10.7 
 
 24.5 
 
 33.6 
 
 9.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 25.6 
 
 40.7 
 
 9.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 15.7 
 
 24.1 
 
 39.3 
 
 9.6 
 
 8.6 
 
 15.2 
 
 27.2 
 
 36.6 
 
 11.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 13.8 
 
 24.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 14.3 
 
 25.0 
 
 42.7 
 
 10.7 
 
 7.5 
 
 16.6 
 
 20.1 
 
 42.2 
 
 11.3 
 
 7.2 
 
 15.4 
 
 22.3 
 
 38.6 
 
 15.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 13.7 
 
 24.7 
 
 37.6 
 
 11 3 
 
 7.9 
 
 17.0 
 
 25.4 
 
 36.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 7.2 
 
 15.2 
 
 21.6 
 
 44.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 22.9 
 
 26.2 
 
 31.4 
 
 7.6 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.7 
 
 23.6 
 
 42.7 
 
 15.0 
 
 7.3 
 
 14.8 
 
 20.4 
 
 39.5 
 
 70.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 8.1 
 
 13.5 
 
 74.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 11.0 
 
 80.9 
 
 1.7 
 
 3.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 71.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 83.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 7.1 
 
 75.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 10.6 
 
 79.5 
 
 3.2 
 
 2.7 
 
 5.4 
 
 8.6 
 
 84.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 6.5 
 
 66.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 8.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 12.2 
 
282 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products {Continued). 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Straw : 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Rye 
 
 Oat 
 
 Barley 
 
 Wheat chaff 
 
 Oat chaff 
 
 Buckwheat straw. 
 
 Soy bean 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 Silage: 
 
 Corn 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Soy bean 
 
 Apple pomace 
 
 Co^'pea vine ■ • ■ • 
 
 Cow and soy bean vines mixed . 
 
 Field pea vine 
 
 Barnyard millet and soy bean. . 
 
 Corn and sov bean 
 
 Rye ^ 
 
 Roots and Tubers: 
 
 Potato 
 
 Common beets 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Rutabaga 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Artichoke 
 
 Sweet potato 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Spurry 
 
 Sugar beet leaves 
 
 Pumpkin, field 
 
 Pumpkin, garden 
 
 Prickly comfrey 
 
 Rape 
 
 Acorns, fresh 
 
 Apples 
 
 Cow's milk 
 
 Cow's cohistrum 
 
 Mare's milk 
 
 Ewe's milk 
 
 Goat's milk 
 
 Sow's milk 
 
 Skim milk, gravity. . . . 
 Skim milk, centrifugal. 
 Sutterinilk 
 
 Water. 
 
 9.6 
 
 7.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 14.2 
 
 14.3 
 
 14.3 
 
 9.9 
 
 10.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 79.1 
 76.1 
 72.0 
 74.2 
 85.0 
 79.3 
 69.8 
 50.1 
 79.0 
 76.0 
 80.8 
 
 78.9 
 88.5 
 86. 5 
 90.9 
 90.5 
 88.6 
 88.6 
 88.3 
 79.5 
 71.1 
 
 90.5 
 
 75.7 
 88.0 
 90.9 
 80.8 
 88.4 
 84.5 
 55.3 
 80.8 
 87.2 
 74.6 
 91.0 
 81.3 
 86.9 
 80.8 
 90.4 
 90.6 
 90.1 
 
 Ash. 
 
 4.2 
 3.2 
 5.1 
 5.7 
 9.2 
 10.0 
 5.5 
 5.8 
 3.7 
 
 1.4 
 1.1 
 2.6 
 2.8 
 0.6 
 2.9 
 4.5 
 3.5 
 2.8 
 2.4 
 1.6 
 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 0.9 
 1.1 
 0.8 
 1.2 
 1.0 
 0.7 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 
 1.4 
 4.0 
 2.4 
 0.5 
 0.9 
 2 2 
 2^0 
 1.0 
 0.4 
 0.7 
 1.6 
 0.4 
 0.8 
 0.9 
 1.1 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 
 Protein. 
 
 3.4 
 3.0 
 4.0 
 3.5 
 
 4.5 
 4.0 
 5.2 
 4.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.8 
 4.2 
 4.1 
 1.2 
 
 2.7 
 3.8 
 5.9 
 2.8 
 2.5 
 2.4 
 
 Crude 
 Fiber. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 1 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.4 
 2.0 
 2.6 
 1.3 
 1.8 
 2.4 
 2.3 
 2.5 
 0.7 
 3.6 
 17.6 
 2.1 
 6.3 
 3.7 
 6.2 
 3.3 
 3.1 
 4.0 
 
 38.1 
 38.9 
 37.0 
 36.0 
 36.0 
 34.0 
 43.0 
 40.4 
 37.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 6.4 
 8.4 
 9.7 
 3.3 
 6.0 
 9.5 
 13.0 
 7.2 
 7.2 
 5.8 
 
 0.6 
 0.9 
 0.9 
 0.9 
 1.2 
 1.3 
 1.3 
 1.0 
 0.8 
 1.3 
 
 1.5 
 
 4.9 
 2 .2 
 1^7 
 1.8 
 1.0 
 2.6 
 4.4 
 1.2 
 
 Nitrogen- 
 Free 
 Extract. 
 
 40.4 
 46.6 
 42.4 
 39.0 
 34.6 
 36.2 
 35.1 
 37.4 
 34.3 
 
 11.0 
 
 15.3 
 
 11.6 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 11.1 
 
 26.0 
 
 7.2 
 
 11.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 17.3 
 
 8.0 
 
 9.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.2 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.6 
 
 10.2 
 
 15.9 
 
 24.7 
 
 3.9 
 
 12.7 
 4.4 
 5.2 
 7.9 
 5.1 
 5.4 
 34.8 
 16.6 
 4.9 
 2.7 
 5.3 
 4.7 
 4.4 
 4.4 
 4.7 
 5.3 
 4.0 
 
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 
 
 283 
 
 Table II. — Fertility in Farm Produce. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Corn, grain 
 
 Corn, stover 
 
 Corn crop . . . 
 
 Oats, grain 
 
 Oats, straw 
 
 Oat crop 
 
 Wheat, grain 
 
 Wheat, straw 
 
 Wheat crop 
 
 Soy beans 
 
 Soy bean straw 
 
 Soy bean crop 
 
 Timothy hay 
 
 Clover seed 
 
 Clover hay 
 
 Cowpea hay 
 
 Alfalfa hay 
 
 Cotton, lint 
 
 Cotton, seed 
 
 Cotton, stalks 
 
 Cotton crop 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 Apples 
 
 Leaves 
 
 Wood growth 
 
 Total crop 
 
 Fat cattle 
 
 Fat hogs 
 
 Milk 
 
 Butter 
 
 Rye, grain 
 
 Rye, straw 
 
 Rye crop 
 
 Beets, roots 
 
 Beets, tops 
 
 Beets, crop 
 
 Grass 
 
 Cotton cake, decoraticated. . 
 
 Rape cake 
 
 Linseed cake 
 
 Cotton cake, undecorticated . 
 
 Linseed 
 
 Palm kernel meal, English . . 
 
 Malt dust 
 
 Bran 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Swedes 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Amount. 
 
 100 bushels . 
 3 tons 
 
 100 bushels . 
 21/^ tons 
 
 50 bushels . 
 23^ tons.. . 
 
 25 bushels. 
 2J^ tons... 
 
 3 tons 
 
 4 bushels . . . 
 
 4 tons 
 
 3 tons 
 
 8 tons 
 
 1000 pounds . 
 2000 pounds . 
 4000 pounds . 
 
 300 bushels. 
 
 20 tons 
 
 600 bushels . 
 
 4 tons 
 
 1 tree 
 
 1000 pounds . . 
 1000 pounds . . 
 10,000 pounds. 
 400 pounds . . . 
 1470 pounds . . 
 3500 pounds. . 
 4970 pounds. . 
 36,800 pounds. 
 9200 pounds . . 
 46,000 pounds. 
 4000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds . . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds . . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds . . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 1000 pounds . . 
 1000 pounds. . 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 pounds. 
 
 100 
 
 48 
 148 
 
 66 
 
 31 
 
 97 
 
 71 
 
 25 
 
 96 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 159 
 
 72 
 
 7 
 
 160 
 
 130 
 
 400 
 
 3 
 
 63 
 102 
 168 
 
 63 
 100 
 
 47 
 
 59 
 
 6 
 
 112 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 57 
 0.8 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 
 88 
 
 26 
 114 
 
 53 
 
 66 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 22 
 1.9 
 2.4 
 1.6 
 1.8 
 
 Phosphorus, 
 pounds. 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 23 
 11 
 
 5 
 16 
 12 
 
 4 
 16 
 13 
 
 8 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 20 
 14 
 36 
 
 0.4 
 11 
 18 
 
 29.4 
 13 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 0.2 
 12 
 
 4 
 16 
 22 
 11 
 33 
 13 
 
 31.2 
 24.6 
 19.6 
 22.9 
 15.4 
 12.2 
 17^2 
 32.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 68 
 
284 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Table III. 
 
 -Weight per Bushel, Seeding Rate per Acre, Number of Seeds 
 PER Pound and Depth to Cover Farm Seeds. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Grasses. 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 Canada blue 
 
 Creeping bent 
 
 Crested dog's tail 
 
 Erect brome 
 
 Fowl meadow 
 
 Hard fescue 
 
 Italian rye 
 
 Johnson 
 
 Kentucky blue 
 
 ^leadow fescue 
 
 Meadow foxtail 
 
 Orchard 
 
 Perennial rye 
 
 Redtop 
 
 Reed canary 
 
 Rough stalked meadow 
 
 Sheep's fescue 
 
 Smooth brome 
 
 Sweet vernal 
 
 TaU meadow fescue 
 
 Tall meadow oat 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Velvet 
 
 Yellow oat 
 
 Legumes. 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 Bird's foot trefoil 
 
 Bur clover 
 
 Common vetch 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 Field peas 
 
 Garden peas 
 
 Hairy vetch 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 Japan clover 
 
 Kidney beans 
 
 Kidney vetch 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Soy beans 
 
 Sweet clover 
 
 Velvet beans 
 
 White clover 
 
 White lupine 
 
 Yellow trefoil 
 
 Annual Forage Crops. 
 Barnyard millet, Japanese . . 
 Broom corn millet 
 
 Weight per 
 Bushel, 
 pounds. 
 
 36 
 
 14-20 
 
 15-20 
 
 26-30 
 
 14-15 
 
 12-15 
 
 10 
 
 17-24 
 
 28 
 
 6-28 
 12-28 
 
 6-14 
 12-21 
 18-30 
 12-40 
 14-48 
 12-28 
 12-28 
 12-14 
 
 6-15 
 14-25 
 
 7-14 
 44-50 
 
 6-7 
 12-14 
 
 00-63 
 
 60-66 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 52-68 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 60-64 
 
 60-64 
 
 60 
 
 60"' 
 60-63 
 50-60 
 64-66 
 
 35 
 60 
 
 Rate of 
 Seeding. 
 
 5 pecks. . . 
 15 pounds. 
 
 4-6 pecks . 
 30 pounds. 
 
 30 pounds .... 
 4-6 pecks .... 
 
 25 pounds .... 
 12-15 pounds. 
 40 pounds .... 
 20 pounds .... 
 30 pounds .... 
 12-15 pounds. 
 20-25 pounds. 
 
 26 pounds .... 
 30 pounds .... 
 15-20 pounds. 
 30 pounds .... 
 12-20 pounds. 
 30-40 pounds. 
 15 pounds. . . . 
 20 pounds. . . . 
 30 pounds. . . . 
 
 15-25 pounds. . 
 4-8 pounds .... 
 
 1 1 pounds 
 
 15 pounds 
 
 60 pounds 
 
 4-6 pecks 
 
 12-15 pounds. . 
 2 1^-3 3^ bushels 
 
 3 bushels 
 
 40-60 pounds. . 
 
 4 bushels 
 
 15-25 pounds. . 
 
 18-22 pounds.. 
 8-14 pounds. . . 
 
 2-3 pecks 
 
 2-4 pecks 
 
 2-6 pecks 
 
 3-6 pounds .... 
 11^-2 bushels.. 
 4-6 pounds .... 
 
 1-2 pecks . 
 2-4 pecks , 
 
 Number 
 
 of Seeds 
 
 per Pound. 
 
 180,000 
 
 2,583,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 897,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 578,000 
 275,000 
 
 2,637,000 
 
 264,000 
 
 769,000 
 
 457,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 4,135,000 
 
 632,000 
 
 2,706,000 
 
 802,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 837,000 
 
 246,000 
 
 151,000 
 
 1,146,000 
 
 1,268,000 
 
 1,540,000 
 
 210,000 
 692,000 
 367,000 
 
 129,000 
 2,400-4,000 
 800-2,400 
 75,000 
 
 370,000 
 3,200-4,000 
 169,000 
 304,000 
 2,000-7,000 
 
 739,000 
 305,000 
 
 212,000 
 212,000 
 
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 
 
 285 
 
 Table III. — Weight per Bushel, Seeding Rate per Acre, Number of Seeds 
 PER Pound and Depth to Cover Farm Seeds {Contimied). 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Annual Forage Crops {Con 
 tinued). 
 
 Millet, common 1 
 
 Millet, Hungarian 1 
 
 Millet, German | 
 
 Millet, Golden Wonder J 
 
 Rape 
 
 Sainfoin 
 
 Serradella 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Sunflower 
 
 Cereals. 
 
 Barley 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Flax 
 
 Kaflir corn 
 
 Milo 
 
 Maize, shelled 
 
 Maize, on cob 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rye 
 
 Spelt 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Vegetables and Roots. 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 Beets 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Potato 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Rutabaga 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 Sweet potato 
 
 Fiber. 
 
 Broom corn 
 
 Cotton, Sea Island 
 
 Cotton, upland 
 
 Hemp 
 
 * Roots. 
 
 Weight per 
 Bushel, 
 pounds. 
 
 50 
 
 50-60 
 
 26 
 
 28-36 
 
 56 
 
 24-50 
 
 48 
 
 42-50 
 
 56 
 
 50-60 
 
 50-60 
 
 56 
 
 70 
 
 43-45 
 
 56 
 
 40-60 
 
 60 
 
 32 
 
 50-60* 
 
 50* 
 
 50-60* 
 
 45-50* 
 
 60 
 
 55-60* 
 
 50-60* 
 
 50-60* 
 
 50-55 
 
 30-48 
 44 
 30 
 44 
 
 Rate of 
 Seeding. 
 
 Number 
 
 of Seeds, 
 
 per pound. 
 
 2-3 pecks. 
 
 3-8 pounds . . . 
 40 pounds . . . . 
 40-50 pounds . 
 13^-2 bushels. 
 10-15 pounds. 
 
 7-9 pecks . . . 
 3-5 pecks . . . 
 2-8 pecks . . . 
 3-12 quarts. . 
 5 quarts 
 
 > 5-16 quarts 
 
 1-3 bushels . . 
 5-10 pecks. . 
 
 5-8 pecks . . . 
 8-10 pecks . . 
 
 6-8 bushels- . . 
 4-6 pounds.. . 
 3-4 pounds . . . 
 5-8 pounds . . . 
 4-8 pounds . . . 
 8-15 bushels. . 
 2-4 pounds . . . 
 3-5 pounds . . . 
 15-20 pounds. 
 13^-4 bushels. 
 
 3 pecks 
 
 1 1-3 bushels . 
 33^-4 pecks. . 
 
 212,000 
 
 22,500 
 23,000-35,000 
 
 25,000 
 384,000 
 
 112,000 
 208,000 
 
 Depth 
 
 to Cover, 
 
 inches. 
 
 -Vz 
 
 M-1 
 
 1-2 
 
 13^-23^ 
 
 1-23^ 
 1-2 
 
 3^-1 
 
 1-2 
 1-2 
 
 13^-4 
 
 1^-3 
 
 M-2 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-2^ 
 
 3^-1 
 
 2-4 
 
 3^-1 
 
 3^-1 
 
 3^-1 
 
 2-4 
 
 1-2 
 
 13^-3 
 
 1-2 
 
286 
 
 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Table IV. — Water Requirements of Various Standard Crops. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Barley . 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Rye.. 
 Peas. 
 
 Potatoes . 
 
 Alfalfa, 1 year . 
 Alfalfa, 2 years 
 
 Clover, red . 
 
 Sugar beets . 
 Rice 
 
 Location. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 India 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 England 
 
 Logan, Utah .... 
 
 Davis, Cal 
 
 Bozeman, Mont. 
 
 Reno, Nev 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 India 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 England 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 India 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 Germany 
 
 India 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 England 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 India 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 Germany 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 Davis, Cal 
 
 State College, N. M 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 England 
 
 Germany 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Logan, Utah 
 
 Akron, Col 
 
 India 
 
 Experimenter. 
 
 Sorauer 
 
 HeUriegel 
 
 Von Seelhorst 
 
 Leather 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . . . 
 
 Lawes 
 
 Widstoe 
 
 Fortier and Beckett . . 
 Fortier and Gieseker . 
 Fortier and Peterson . 
 
 WoUny 
 
 Sorauer 
 
 HeUriegel 
 
 Leather 
 
 Kmg 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . . . 
 
 Lawes 
 
 WoUny , 
 
 Sorauer 
 
 HeUriegel 
 
 Von Seelhorst 
 
 Leather 
 
 King 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . . . 
 
 Wollny 
 
 Leather 
 
 King 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . . 
 
 Helh-iegel 
 
 Von Seelhorst 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . . , 
 
 Lawes 
 
 Wolhiy 
 
 HeUriegel 
 
 Leather 
 
 King 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . . . 
 
 Von Seelhorst 
 
 King 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . . . 
 Fortier and Beckett. 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . 
 
 Lawes 
 
 HeUriegel 
 
 King 
 
 Widstoe 
 
 Briggs and Shantz . 
 Leather 
 
 Pounds Water per 
 Pound Dry Matter. 
 
 Max- 
 imum. 
 
 708 
 390 
 333 
 544 
 534 
 235 
 489 
 359 
 334 
 395 
 
 464 
 
 52G 
 639 
 262 
 
 366 
 454 
 
 461 
 544 
 
 390 
 420 
 438 
 700 
 
 353 
 
 294 
 
 1265 
 971 
 
 363 
 564 
 
 Min- 
 imum. 
 
 328 
 
 468 
 
 427 
 286 
 226 
 309 
 
 339 
 
 502 
 
 598 
 258 
 
 263 
 295 
 
 375 
 527 
 
 305 
 319 
 315 
 343 
 
 231 
 
 268 
 
 1005 
 522 
 
 757 
 
 297 
 398 
 
 * This column represents the average of all reliable and comparable tests. 
 
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 
 
 Table V. — Cost per Acre^ Producing Crops.* 
 
 287 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Average Cost. 
 
 Barley, fall plowed 
 
 Clover, cut for seed 
 
 Corn, ears husked from standing stalks 
 
 Corn, cut, shocked and shredded 
 
 Corn, cut, shocked and hauled in from field . . . 
 
 Corn, growTi thickly and siloed 
 
 Flaxseed, threshed from windrow 
 
 Flaxseed, stacked from windrow 
 
 Flaxseed, bound, shocked, stacked, threshed . . 
 
 Fodder corn, cut and shocked in field 
 
 Fodder corn, cut, shocked and stacked 
 
 Hay, timothy and clover, first crop 
 
 Hay, timothy and clover, two cuttings 
 
 Hay, millet 
 
 Hay, vfild grasses 
 
 Hay, timothy 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Oats, fall plowed 
 
 Oats, on disked corn stubble 
 
 Potatoes, machine production 
 
 Potatoes, machine production, use of fertilizer 
 
 Timothy, cut for seed 
 
 Wheat, fall plowed 
 
 $8.21 
 
 6.50 
 
 10.44 
 
 15.30 
 
 10.26 
 
 19.89 
 
 7.50 
 
 7.85 
 
 7.28 
 
 9.65 
 
 12.36 
 
 5.59 
 
 7.18 
 
 7.10 
 
 4.04 
 
 3.39 
 
 6.74 
 
 32.68 
 
 8.86 
 
 8.88 
 
 26.37 
 
 37.72 
 
 4.43 
 
 7.25 
 
 *Minneaota Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 117, page 29. 
 
 Table VI. — Cost of Farm Horse Power.* 
 
 Agricultural Region. 
 
 Total Annual Cost of 
 
 Keeping One Horse. 
 
 Average 5 Years, 1908-12. 
 
 Actual Cost per Hour 
 
 of Work for One Horse. 
 
 Average 9 Years, 1904-12. 
 
 Southeastern Minnesota 
 
 $103.27 
 
 100.64 
 
 84.67 
 
 9.72 cents 
 
 Southwestern Minnesota 
 
 8.64 cents t 
 8.05 cents 
 
 Northwestern Minnesota 
 
 
 
 Note. — The cost figures shown in this table have been selected from the statistical data of the 
 Division of Farm Management of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. These figures are 
 not estimates, taut actual records from a large number of Minnesota farms. The averages are based on 
 records of about 450 horses in each region. The annual cost includes interest on investment, deprecia- 
 tion, harness depreciation, shoeing, feed, labor and miscellaneous expense. Feed is the largest item in 
 the cost of farm horse power, representing on the average % to % of the total cost. The cost of horse 
 power per hour is computed by dividing the total annual cost by the actual number of hours worked. 
 
 * Taken from "Field Management and Crop Rotation," by Parker, 
 t Seven-year average. 
 
288 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 
 
 Table VII. — Weights akd Measures. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound (lb.). 
 
 100 pounds =1 hundredweight (cwt.). 
 
 20 cwt =1 ton (T.). 
 
 1 ton =20 cwt. or 2000 lbs. or 32,000 oz. 
 
 DRY MEASURE. 
 
 2 pints (pt.) =1 quart (qt.). 
 
 8 qts =1 peck (pk.). 
 
 4 pks =1 bushel (bu.). 
 
 1 bu =2150.42 cu. in. 
 
 LIQUID MEASURE. 
 
 4 gills (gi.) =1 pint (pt.). 
 
 2 pints =1 quart (qt.). 
 
 4 quarts =1 gallon (gal.). 
 
 3lH gaUons =1 barrel (bbl.). 
 
 U. S. gallon =231 cu. in. 
 
 7}/2 gallons water = 1 cu. ft. approximately. 
 
 LINEAR MEASURE. 
 
 12 inches (m.) =1 foot (ft.). 
 
 3 feet (ft.) =1 yard (yd.). 
 
 5}4 yds. or 161^ ft = 1 rod (rd.). 
 
 320 rds =1 mile (mi.). 
 
 1 mile or 320 rds. or 17G0 yds. or .5280 ft. or 63,300 ins. 
 
 SQUARE MEASURE. 
 
 144 square inches (sq. in.) =1 square foot (sq. ft.). 
 
 9 square feet (sq. ft.) =1 square yard (sq. yd.). 
 
 3OJ/4 sq. yds =1 square rod (sq. rd.). 
 
 160 sq. rds =1 acre (a.). 
 
 640 acres =1 square mile (sq. mi.). 
 
 1 sq. mi =1 section . 
 
 36 sections =1 township (twp.) 
 
 43,560 sq. ft =1 acre. 
 
 SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE. 
 
 1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) =1 cubic foot (cu. ft.). 
 
 27 cu. ft =1 cubic yard (cu. yd.). 
 
 1 cu. yd = 27 cu. ft. or 40,656 cu. in. 
 
 1 cu. yd =1 load. 
 
 24^ cu. ft =1 perch. 
 
 128 cu. ft. or 8 ft. X 4 ft. X 4 ft =1 cord. 
 
 1 ft. X 12 in. X 1 in =1 board foot. 
 
 surveyor's LINEAR MEASURE. 
 
 7.92 inches =1 link. 
 
 100 links =1 chain. 
 
 80 chains =1 mile. 
 
 Gunter's chain is the unit and is 66 feet long. 
 
 surveyor's SQUARE MEASURE. 
 
 10,000 sq. links =1 square chain. 
 
 10 sq. chains = J acre. 
 
 10 chains square - 10 acres. 
 
^ 
 
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