o33 Hollinger Corp. pH 8.5 var E 1109 :g86 1828 bopy 1 GRAMMAR HM^ILiriFIIlID^ OR, AN ^^ OCULAR A^TALiYSIS OF THE ENGIilSH liANGUAGi: BY rf* teREENLEAF. TWENTIETH EDITION; Corrected, Enlarged, and Improved by the Author. STEREOTTFED BY JAMES CONNER, NEW-YORK. 3lltattUI>oro% 2^t. HOLBROOK AND FEBSENDEN. 1828. SQ3S£C2flrt^l 1 ■Bui 4/4^^8 RECOMJUENDATIONS. Prom the Rev. Edward D. Oriffin, D. D. now President of Williamstown College. I have read, with some care, the second edition of Mr. Greenleara Grammar Simplified. There is nothing miraculous nor mysterious in it, nor in the effects which it is said to produce. The whole is comprehended in the following facts : Mr. G. has attentively studied the principles of English Grammar ; and, with the exception, perhaps, of a few minor details, has exhibited them with entire correctness. His manner of expressing them is short, lucid, and striking. He has brought together a greater number of principles than is found in almost any other Grammar, and those happily selected ; and has presented them in a naked form, disencumbered of all unneces- sary matter. There is nothing heavy, nothing perplexed. The arrangement is new, and strikes me favourably. How much is gained by this means, and particularly by speakingso much to the eye, I could better judge were I to see the effects exemplified in a school. Much will depend on the skill and adroitness of the teacher ; but I am prepared to say, let him have the lively concep- tion and aptness to teach, which are manifested in the compilation of this Grammar ; let him, in short, be Mr. Greenleaf himself, and children will be likely to become initiated sooner and more thoroughly upon this plan than upon any other which I have seen. JVewark, (JV. J.) March 29, 1821. E. D. GEIFFIN, Having examined Mr. GreenleaPs Grammar Sunplified, and received from his partner some ex- planations of his mode of instruction, I am satisfied that this system is moresimple,anabetter cal- culated to impart a knowledge of the subject in a shorter period of time, than any other now in use. Very respectfully, yours, &c. JVew-Brunswick, May 11, 1821. AUGUSTUS K. TAYLOR, M. D. We have examined, with considerable attention, a large class of pupils under the tuition of Mr. Chevalier, stated to have been engaged in the study of English Grammar about two months. The facility which these pupils manifested in dissecting and combining any sentence given them to parse ; the manner in which they gave the definitions, applied the rules of syntax, and raised objections against false construction ; discovered such a practical knowledge of the science, as is not commonly attained by children of their age, by the common drudgery of teaching, in years. The text-book in use is " Oreenleafs Grammar Simplified;" and from a perusal of the work itself, together with the evi.lence we have had of its superior excellence in assisting the learner in his progress to understand and apply every thing, thereby rendering the rudiments of Grammar a matter of amusement rather than labour, we are entirely of opinion, tl*it Mr. Greenleaf's book is by far the best adapted for learners of any that has yet appeared on the subject. The matter of this book is essentially the same with Murray and others ; but the arrangement is entirely origi- nal i the language is easy to be understood ; many difficult parts in other Grammars, (as the case absolute or " independent" and others,) are here rendered perfectly familiar, and some valuable improvements made in Syntax. H. J. PELTUS, A. M. Jifea-Tork, May 17, 1821. BENJ. T. UNDERDONK, A. M. ' — « Greenleaf's " Grammar Simplified" we consider as deserving publick attention and patronage, because it redeems the pledge given in the title. JOHN B» ROMEYN, D. D. ALEX. ft'LEOD, D. D. ^. LEWIS, A. M. MR. .STARR. vP Dear Sir — I have been able to give but a cursory perusal to Greenleaf's Grammar : but I have seen enough ofit to convince me that it deserves the title of" Grammar Simpii^ed." For a begin- ner, I think it the best book of the kind which I ever met with. Asfaras the nature of thecase will admit, 'thasreducedthe elementary principles of Grammar into the form of a chart ; and thus, not only aids the memory of the pupil, but makes him, at one view, see the bearing of the several parts of speech on each other. I wish well to your efl'ort to give the book a general circulation. Yours, sir, respectfully, JVew-rm-fc, Sept. 11,1821. J. M. MATHEWS, A. M, I have examined " Oreenleafs Grammar Simplified," and cheerfully subscribe to the senti- ments expressed by Mr. Mathews in the above recommendation: JVew- York, Sept. 18, 1821. G. SPRING, D. D. I have given considerable attention to Mr. GreenleaPs System of Grammar, and have had the pleasure to witness it in operation among a class of young pupils. For such, I consider it deci- dedly the best book of Grammar with which I am acquainted. One of its peculiar excellencies is this, that the learners appear to view the study of it, in a class, as a pleasing amusement, and not, as is the case with that of the old systems, an intolerable drudgery. JVew-York, Sept. 14, 1821. J. NITCHIE. From t'le Rev. Frederick Beasley, D. D. President of the University of Pennsylvania. I have examined the plan cf teaching Grammar drawn up by Mr. Greenleaf, and agree with those who have given their testimony in its favour. It is the best system 1 have seen for the use of elementary schools, such as those in which young ladies and young men are prepared for the higher branches of study. It is not intended to supersede the study of Murray, or any other larger Grammar which may be preferred in colleges or higher schools ; but only to become pre- paratory to them with young persons, or those who do not expect to obtain a liberal education. Under this view of the subject, I can decidedly recommend the Grammar of Mr. Greenleaf as the best I have ever seen. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Dec. 1, 1821. FREDERICK BEASLEY. At the request ofMr.Carpenter,I have read Mr. Greenleaf's "Grammar Simplified," and have been gratified by the perusal of it. I am not sufficiently conversant with the generally approved course of teaching English Grammar, to place entire confidence in any opinion I may form of a treatise intended to alter that course ; especially without the aid afforded by observing its practical operation and effect. So far as I can trust a judgment formed without that aid, I think the Gram- mar offered to the publick by Mr. G. well adapted to its professed purpose. Its arrangement is clear and methodical ; its rules and examples seem to be correct and well selected; it is so con- densed as not to charge tlie memory with any useless burthen, while it contains, I think, what is necessary togivethestudentajust conception of the mechanism and organization of our language. The very respectable names by which this work has been recommended, do not require the addi- tion of mine ; but, at the request of Mr. C. I cheerfully subscribe to the opinions they have given. Richmond, Jan. 1822. J. MARSHALL, [Chief Justice.] 1 have perused "Grammar Simplified," and seen something of its practical application in a school. I judge it to be well calculated to facilitate and expedite the acquisition of English Grammar. JOHN D. BLAIR, D. D. I have looked through the little work called "Grammar Simplified," and am of opinion that it is well calculated for communicating.inashorttime.a knowledge of theelementsofEnglishGramiuar. Jan. 15 1822. JOHN H. RICE, D. D. 4^ v "^ I regard Mr. GreenleaTs little treatise, entitled " Grammar Simplified," as calculated to re- move much of the usual labour and obscurity from the study of the science it is designed to teach ; and, consequently, to recommend that science in the same proportion, to the taste of learners— of mere beginners especially. Whilst I am not prepared to affirm that Mr. G.'s work has intro- duced any hidden principle of science, or that it exhibits a philosophical analysis of language, I cannot doubt that it is an instrument which, in the hands of competent instructers, may and will be productive of rapid and extensive advantages. on„ p. V. DANIEL, Richmond, Jan. 21, 1822. [Lieut. Governor of firginia.'} We, the undersigned, having examined Mr. GreenleaPs " Grammar simplified," and received from Mr. Carpenter some explanations of his mode of instruction, are thoroughly convinced that his system is more simple, and is calculated to impart a knowledge of grammar with more &- cility, and, in a much shorter lune, than any other now in use. JOHN BUCHANAN, D. D. THOS. M. RANDOLPH, [Governor of Virginia.'\ REV. J. H. TURNER, Preceptor. I have, with considerable attention, examined "Grammar Simplified," &c. by J. Greenleaf, Esq. and am much pleased to find the drudgery, usually attendant on an attempt to acquire a knowledge of this branch of literature, in his compend in a great measure removed. I consider it not only the most unexceptionable, but really the best system of Grammar, formed on the Latin model, which has heretofore met my eye. But let the worth of theories and systems be tested by their practical usefulness, and let them be appreciated accordingly. I must confess, I never witnessed such attainments from a course of eighteen lessons, as were those of my friend, Mr. M'Clintock's little son, of only seven years ; wTio had been taught by Mr. Greenleaf, on the plan of his Grammar, and who was examined, by his father's request, in my presence. This is prac- tical demonstration. " Let works bear witness." 1 most cordially recommend both the Gram- mar and the Author to a liberal and enlightened publick, to whose patronage they are, in aliigh degree, entitled. SAMUEL B. WYLIE, D. D. [Professor of the Latin, Greek, and Btbrew Langunges, and Philadelphia, Jlpril 29, 1822. late Professor in the University of Pemisylvania.] Dear Sir — With the Rev. Dr. Wylie, I most cheerfully concur in an unequivocal recommenda- tion of your "Grammar Simplified," &c. and view it entitled to universal patronage, for rea- sons the most self-evident. The pleasurable witnessing I had of its worth, on application, from an examination of a number of your amiable female pupils, induces me, without hesitation, to, express my full accordance with the Rev. Dr. Beasley, and the numerous other competent judges, in attesting its superior excellency. In anticipation of a mode of instruction, combining the "utile cum dulci," speedily taking place of all others, hitherto in painful practice, I do most heartily congratulate you. WILLIAM ROGERS, D. D. [Quondam Professor of English, Sjc. in tht University of Pennsylvania.^ J. GREENLEAF, ESa. Sir — After having thoroughly examined your "Grammar Simplified," I have not the least hesi- tation in saying, that it possesses a decided preference over all other Grammars extant. But this is really doing injustice to its merits. To say that your system of Grammar is pre-eminent to all others, is too indefinite. It is pre-eminent, in pointof facility, in a eery Aio-A degree. Simplified as it is, however, it will undoubtedly have to encounter much prejudice from the superficial and malevolent ; especially from ignorant and pedantick schoolmasters : for I perceive it is impossi- ble for any one to teach from your plan, unless he know something of Grammar himself ; as the pupil commences parsing immediately, and "m'akes the application of every thing as he goes along." Whereas, from other systems, it is a very easy matter for teachers, who know nothing of Grammar themselves, to keep their pupils drilling, year after year, in Grammar, tliat :s to say, in committing the rules, definitions, &c. Hence it is to be expected, that many teachers will keep the book out of their schools as long as possible. But a cursory perusal of the work is suf- ficient to convince the judicious and discerning, that it is what it professes to be, " Grammar Simplified," and that it is an invaluable acquisition to literature. Truly, and with sincere gratulations, your's, WILLIAM MANN, Philadelphia, May 4, 1822. [Professor of the Latin, Greek, ana Hebrew Languuges.'] We, the undersigned, having witnessed the examination of a number of Mr. GreenleaPs pu- pils, after they had attended the very short course which he thinks necessary to give, viz. six- teen lessons, hesitate not to say, that the proficiency of his pupils exceedingly surpassed every thing we had conceived, in regard to facility in the acquisition of Grammatical learning. The unthought-of pleasantness of the path to this very useful attainment, struck oat by Mr. Greenleaf, constitutes a prominent characteristick of the pre-eminence of his system of tuition. Mr. GreenletiPs method possesses one peculiarity , which affords singular advantages. The car, as well as the eye, is continually, and yet agreeably, impressed by the subject. A surprising ex- emplification of the foregoing remarks was presented in the case of a pupil of Mr. Greenleaf, who was blind. The knowledge of Etymology and Syntax, evinced in the examination of this in- teresting pupil, who had attended the usual course of lessons, was, in the estimation of many spectators, an ample demonstration ofthe superior advantages of Mr. GreenleaPs plan. JAMES ROSS, A. M. [Author of Ross's Greek and Latin Grammar, Vocabulary, SfX. ^c.\ REV. DR. THOMAS DUNN. REV. JAMES SMITH. REV. WILLIAM SMITH. DR. CHARLES W. PARISH. Philadelphia, April, 2, 1822. I have perused the work entitled "Grammar Simplified," by Mr. Greenleaf. It is precisely what it declares itself, "An Ocular Analysis of the English Language." It is scarcely possible to enter the temple of Grammatical knowledge, by a more easy, or a more beautiful inlet. In my judgment, the internal merit of the work must ensure its circulation. WM. STAUGIfTON, May 25, 1822. [President ofthe Columbian College, in the District qf Columbia.^ From the Rev. Dr. Ahercrombie, author of a System of Graramar. I have examined, with much satisfaction, Mr. GreenleaPs "Grammar Simplified," and hesi- tate not to recommend it to Teachers, as well as juvenile Students, as giving much facility to the acquisition of that necessary and useful art. Philadelphia, Feb. 27, 18-.H. JAMES ABERCROMBIE, D. D. fjifFor other Recommendations, see the Cover. SOUTHER^r DISTRICT OF J^-EW-YORIC, ss. (L H \ BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the tenth day of September, in the forty-sixth year ofthe Independence ofthe United States of America, Jeremiah Greenleaf of the said ■" district, hath deposited in this ofiicethe title of a book, the right wlierof he claims us author, in the words following, to wit : " Grammar Simplified; or, an Ocular Analysis ofthe English Language. By J. Greenllnf. , Third F.ditioni Corrected, enlarged, and improved, by tht Author." In conformiiv lo the Act ofthe Congress ofthe United States, entitled "An Act for the encouragement, of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and pro- prietors of such topics, during the time therein mciitioned." And also to an Act, entitled " An Art, supplementary to an Act, entitled an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, <-||„rLs, and books, to the nulliorB and proprietors of such copies, duiing the times therein mentioned," and extending Uie benefits thereof lo the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and oilier nrints." ' JAMES DILL, ClerA ofthe Southern District of JVctr-York. mm PREFACE, NOTWITHSTANDING the numerous publications upon English Grammar, and the ability with which many of them are written, it is a fact, which I believe few will deny, that this science has never yet been so simfjnfied, as to render the study of it, at once concise, easy, and inviting. From experience in teaching this branch of learning, I was first led to believe, that a correct knowledge of the Grammar of the English Language might be obtained, in one tenth part of the time usually occupied in the attainment of it ; and that, instead of a long, dry, and irksome study, it might be made, not only a very short, but a most agreeable and interesting one. With these impressions, I have constructed a grammar upon a plan entirely new, which concisely embodies all the general rules and principles, and which presents to the eye of the learner, in a simple and perspicuous manner, the whole field of this important branch of education. In selecting materials for the work, I have consulted Harris, Lowth, Priestley, Johnson, Sheridan, Home Tooke, Webster, and Murray ; and, in constructing it, have endeavoured to render it plain and intelligible to the lowest capacity ; and to obviate every difficulty or obscurity that might tend, in the least degree, to embarrass or perplex the mind of the learner. In short, I am positive, that this treatise is calculated to impart a knowledge of Grammar with more facility, and in a much shorter time, than any other system heretofore published. With hum- ble confidence, therefore, I present " Chrammar Simplified''^ to an enlightened publick. THE AUTHOR. New-York, September, 1821. ^A CONTENTS. PART I. PAGE. Preface 3 Key, or Method of Instruction 7 Definitions of the Parts of Speech . . . 8 Parsing Lesson 1 in the Indicative Mood . 8 Ditto 2 " Subjunctive Mood , 10 Ditto 3 " Potential Mood . . 12 Ditto 4 " Infinitive Mood -. .14 Ditto 5 " Imperative Mood • 16 Ditto 6 to 12 Promiscuous Exercises . . . . . 10, 12, 14, 16 Moods and Tenses .... 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 Conjugation of Verbs . . . 9,11,13,15,17 DeclensionofNouns and Pronouns 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 Rules of Syntax .... 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 A List of the Pronominal Ad- ) jectives, and the compari- > 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 son of Adjectives ) ' ^ PART n. OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . . , . 18 Orthography 18 Of the sounds of the Letters . . . .18 OfSylIables,andthe rules for arrangingthem20 Of Words in general, and the rules for Spelling them 20 Etymology 21 Of Articles . . . . ' 21 Of Nouns 21 Gender 21 Person 22 Number 22 Case 22 Of Pronouns Personal and Relative . . 22 Of Adjectives 23 Of Verbs 24 Number and Person 24 Moods 24 Tenses 25 Conjugations 25 General Remarks on the Moods and Tenses, and the inflection of Verbs : 27 Catalogue of irregular verbs .... 28 Ditto defAjtive ditto .... 29 Of Participles 29 Of Adverbs 30 Of Prepositions 30 Of Conjunctions 30 Of Interjections 31 Of Derivation 31 Syntax 32 Rules and Notes 32 Specimens of Syntactical Parsing ... 39 Remarks on the Ellipsis 40 Prosody ..... 41 Punctuation 41 Directions respecting the use of the Capi- tal Letters 42 Exercises in Punctuation 42 False Grammar, adapted to the Rules of Orthography 43 False Grammar, adapted to the Rules of Syntax 45 False Grammar, adapted to the Notes under the Rules of Syntax .46 False Grammar, adapted to the Rules of Syntax and their Notes, promiscuously disposed % ... 47 APPENDIX. Of Versification 49 Pauses 49 Rhetoric and Oratory 49 Tropes, or Figures of Speech . . . ' . . . .50 Composition 50 A KEY TO "GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED." THE names of parts of speech are designated by their initials; thus, at stands for article, n for noun, 7>ro for pronoun, &c. (See the bottom of this page.) On page 8, are the definitions of the parts of speech, and on the margin of pages 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16, are parsing lessons, adapted to the several moods and tenses. The moods, tenses, and the conjugation of the verbs, together with the rules of syntax, the declension of nouns and pronouns, a list of the pronominal adjectives, and the comparison of adjectives, are respectively sxhibited on the right-hand pages of the parsing lessons. METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. The first thing which the learner has to do, and the only thing preparatory for parsing, is to become acquainted with the names of the parts of speech, and the letters which stand for them, as exhibited at the bottom of this page. When this is done, which will require but a few minutes, he will be enabled, with perfect facility, to commence parsing, in the following manner. (See page 8.) ar n V A man loves. Instructer. Pupil. What part of speech is o.^ An article. What is an article ? ' An article is a word placed before noims to limit their signification. What kind .' The indefinite. Why ? The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a kind, &c. • What does it belong to .' It belongs to man. Give the rule Rule 3, Articles and adjectives belong to nouns, &c. What part of speech is man? A noun. What is a noun .' A noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing. What kind ? Common. Why .' ■ Common noims are the names of whole sorts or species. What gender .' . The masculine. Why ? The masculine gender denotes males. What person .' . . ; The third. Why ? The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. What number ? The singular. Why? The singular number denotes but one object. In the same manner with all the parts of speech. The instructer must refer his pupils, in the first place, to the definitions^ rules, &c< a distance from them, when they commence parsing, and take the following method. Instructer. Pdpii,. What case ? The nominative. Why ? The nominative case is the actor, &e. Nominative to what ? To the verb loves. Give the rule Rule 1, The nominative case governs the verb. What part of speech is loves? A verb. What is a verb .' A verb is a word which expresses action or being. What kind of a verb .' Active. Why ? An active verb denotes action or energy which terminates on some object. Is it regular, or irregular ? Regular. Why ? Regular verbs are those which form the imperfect tense, &c. What mood ? Indicative. Why .' : The Indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. What tense .' Present. Why ? The present tense denotes present time. What person and number ? Third person, singular number. What does it agree with for its nomi- native ? It agrees with man. • Give the rule Rule 2, The verb must agree with, &c. He can, if he please, be at .A n V Charles writes. Instructer. Pupil. What part of speech is Ckarle* .?....-....... ..-A noun. What is a noun ? ---.--•--••---•.-.. ..--A noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing. It is a proper noun — ^Why.' '•---•----..--.... Proper nouns are the names of individuals. The masculine gender — Why ?------•---...... The masculine gender denotes males. Tliird person — Why ?-..--------..-..-.... The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. . As soon as the learner becomes sufficiently initiated into the subject to enable him to parse without giving the definitions, (and the first lesson is always suiB- cient for this purpose,) he may omit them -and parse in the usual way : and, after going through with the several marked lessons, he may commence at Promiscuous Exercises, Parsing Lesson 2. It is necessary, however, that the definitions, rules, &c. be, eventually, thoroughly committed to memory. The most important thing in teaching is, that the mind of the learner be perfectly free and unembarrassed ; much, therefore, depends on the teacher. Many examples are left for him to supply. He should endeavour to give his pupils an idea of the parts of speech by as simple means as possible ; and should make such illustrations as may, at any time, be deemed necessary. It is generally allowed, that a pupil will learn more from the mouth of an able instructer, than from books. As a relaxation, the class should be occasionally exercised in conjugating the verbs, declining the nouns and pronouns, comparing the adjectives, &c. N. B. The learner should be made to understand, as soon as possible, the use of the different forms or personal terminations of verbs, as exhibited on the right-hand pages of the parsing lessons; so that he may fcaow what is meant, by mailing the verb agree with its nominative in number and person. WALKER'S KEY TO THE 1. k The long slender English a, as in file, pi-per, &c. 2. i The long Italian a, as in (kr, fi-ther, pa-pi, mam-mi. 3. i The broad German a, as in tkW, will, wi-ter. 4. 3. The short sound of the Italian a, as in fit, mit, mir-ry. 1. & The long e, as in mh, hire, mi-tre, mi-dium. 2. i The short e, as in m^t, lit, gh. 1. i The long diphthongal i, as in pine, tl-tle. 2. i The short simple i, as in pin, tit-tie. 1. A The long open o, as in n6, nAte, nA-tice. 2. 5 The long close o, as in m&ve, prAve. SOUJ^TDS OF THE VOWELS. 3. 6 The long broad o, as in n&r, f3r, Ar ; like the broad i. 4. 6 The short broad o, as in n6t, h6t, g6t. 1. A The long diphthongal u, as in tibe, ci-pid. 2. 6. The short simple u, as in tSb, c6p, sup. ^ 3. fi. The middle or obtuse u, as in bill, fill, pull. Ai. The long broad A, and the short i, as in Ail. Ai. The long broad A, and the middle obtuse u, as in thou, pAond. 771. The acute or sharp th, as in think, thin. Th. The grave or flat th, as in Tiiis, THat. ENOIilJSH GRAMMAR. Grammar is the art of speaking and writing correctly. ar n pro a _ V J* There are, in English, ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly called, parts of speech ; viz. the Article, Noun, Pronoun, 'Adjective, Verb, PaMCiple, ad pr c i Adterb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. PARSING LESSON 1. ar n v'' A man loves, ar n ▼ The boys study, ar a n t A good girl learns. n V n Harriet loves Eliza. n V ar n Charles writes a letter. n V ar n Charles wrote a letter. n V ar n Charles has written a letter. n V ar n Charles had written a letter. n . V ar n Charles will write a letter. n V ar n Charles will have written a letter. ar n v pr n The girls play in school. ar n pr n v ar n The paths of virtue are the paths pr n of peace. ar a n v n pr A good man worships God with a n humble confidence. n n pa a pr ai Cesar's troops, being eager for an n V ad pr ar n onset, rushed furiously on the foe. n ad V pa Men are often found transgressing ar n the laws, pro y c V pr pro n I will arise, and go to my father, c V pr pro n pro and will say unto him ; Father, I V pr n c have sinned against Heaven, and pr pro before thee. V was Newton, the philosopher, great astronomer. n V ad pro a n Esther put on her royal apparel. Pfo V n pr ar n pr She obtained favour in the sight of ar n the king. n pa pr n v pro Money, taken by fraud, betrays its n possessor. ar n pro pro v pr n The ladies, whom we saw at court, ad V were genteely dressed. n V ar n Henry had received the news ad ar n v before the messenger arrived. n a V ar n pro General, this is the sword which pro V pro you gave nle. ar n pro pro ad A letter, which we have just V V pro ar n received, gives us an answer. a V pr n pro ad Some talk of subjects they do not V a V n understand ; others praist virtue, jro ad V pro who do not practise it. ar n v pr ar n The men were tried by the court, a pr pro and «ach of them was fined, pro ad V i I haye often been occupied, alaa ! pr i with tribes. ' _ » ad a V pro O ! virtue, how amiable art thou ! GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. ARTICLE. An Article is a word placed before nouns to limit their signification. There are two articles, a or an, and the. A or an is called the indefinite article. Tht Is called the definite article The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a kind, but, generally, to no particular one. The definite article limits the noun to one or more particular objects. A Noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing. Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. Common nouns are the names of whole sorts or species. Proper nouns are the names of individuals. To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. GENDER is the distinction of sex. There are three genders, the masculine, feminine, and neuter. The masculine gender denotes males The feminine gender denotes females. The neuter gender denotes things without sex. PERSOJf is the quaUty of the noun which modifies the verb. There are three persons, the first, second, and third. The first person denotes the person speaking. The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. Nouns have but two persons, the second and third NUMBER is the distinction of one from many. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and plural. The singular number denotes but one object. *> The plural numher denotes more objects than one. CASE is the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective. The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb. It generally comes before the verb. The possessive case denotes property or possession. It is generally formed by adding s to a noun with an apostrophe ; thus, " John's book." When the plural ends in s the apostrophe only is added ; as, " On eagles' wings." The objective case is the object on which the action of a. verb or participle terminates, or the object of a preposition. It generally comes after the verb. PROJ^OUJ^. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same wosd. There ate two kinds of Pronouns, personal and relative. Personal pronouns stand immediately for the name of some person or thing. Relative pronouns relate directly to some noun or personal pronoun, called the antecedent. They are who, whose, whom, which, what, and that. All pronouns, except the relatives, are personal. The same that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns. They have three persons : Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a word which expresses some quality or property of a noun. Pronominal adjectives are those which are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as pronouns; Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution ; as, wise, great, good. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification ; as, wiser, greater, less wise. The superlative degree increases or lessens ' -o in the highest or lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison , -^j ^■'■i-^j , perfect, supreme, Six. VERB. A Verb is a word which expresses action or being. Verbs are of three kinds; active, passive, and neuter. They are also" divided into regular, irregular, and defective. An active verh denotes action or energy which terminates on some object. A passive verh denotes action received, or endured, by the person or thing which is the nominative. It is formed by adding the perfect participle of an active verb to the verb he through all its various changes of number, person, mood, and tense. A neuter verh denotes simple being or existence, or it denotes action which is limited to the subject. Regular verbs are those whose imperfect tense and perfect participle end in ed. Irregular verbs are those whose imperfect tense and perfect participle do not end in ed. All monosyllables are irregulars, unless cornpounded. Defective verbs are those wliich arc used only in some of their moods and tenses. To verbs belong mood, tense, number, and person. PARTICIPLE. ' A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of the verb, adjective, and noun. Participles are of two kinds, present and perfect. The present participle denotes present time, and generally ends in ing, as loving. The perfect participle denotes past time, and, in regular verbs, corresponds exactly with the imperfect tense ; as, loved. The union of two or more participles is, sometimes, called a compound participle ; as, having loved. Participles, like verbs, have an active, passive, and neuter signification. ADVERB. An AnvEigj is a word used to qualify the sense of verbs, participles, and adjectives ; and, sometimes, of other adverba. Some adverbrudmit of comparison; as, score, sooner, soonest PREPOSITIOJ^. A Preposition is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them. cojTju^rcTioj^. A Conjunction is a word that is, chiefly, used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentenoes into one Oom« pound one. It, sometimes, connects only words. IKTERJECTIOJ^. An Interjection is a word used to express passion or emotion ; usually that which is violent or sudden ; aa, 0aa! Ah! Hush! Lo! Fie! 0! Belvold! OhJ GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. MOOD is the manner of representing action or being. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. Present Tense denotes present time. TENSE is the division of time. Singular number. 1. 1 love, a 2. Thoulovest, fe 3. He loves. Imperfect Tense denotes past time, how- ever distant. Singular number. I loved, Thou lovedst, He loved. Plural. 1. We love, 2. Ye or you love, 3. They love. Singular number. 1. I have, M 2. Thou hast, % 3. He has. B o Plural. h 1. We have, 2. Ye or you have, 3. They have. 1. 2. S 3. Singular number. I am. Thou art, He is. Plural. 1. We are, 2. Ye or you are, 3. They are. S 1. o 2. H 3. Singular number. I am loved, Thou art loved, He is loved. Plural. We are loved. Ye or you are loved, They are loved. Plural. We loved, Ye or you loved. They loved. Singular number. I had, Thou hadst, He had. Plural. We had. Ye or you had. They had. Singular number I was, Thou wast, '' He was. Plural. We were, Ye or you were. They were, Perfect Tense denotes past time, but also conveys an alljision to the present. Singular number. I have* loved. Thou hast loved. He has loved. Plural. We have loved. Ye or you have loved, They have loved. Pluperfect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other past time specified. Singular number. I had loved. Thou hadst loved. He had loved. Plural. We had loved. Ye or you had loved. They had loved. Singular number I have had, Thou hast had. He' has had. Plural. We have had, Ye or you have had. They have had. Singular number. I have been. Thou hast been, He has been. Plural. We have been. Ye or you have been. They ia.\€ been. Singular number. I was loved. Thou wast loved. He was loved. Plural. We were loved. Ye or you were loved, They were loved. Singular number. I have been loved. Thou hast been loved. He has been loved. Plural. We have been loved. Ye or you have been loved. They have been loved. Singular number. I had had, Thou hadst had, He had had. , Plural. We had had. Ye or you had had, They had had. Singular number. I had been. Thou hadst been. He had been. Plural. We had been. Ye or you had been, They had been. First Future Tense denotes fiiture time. Singular number. I shall or will love. Thou shalt or wilt love, He shall or will love. - Plural. We shall or vnll love. Ye or you shall or will love, They shall or will love. Secondfuture Tense denotes fiiture time, but as prior to some other future time specified. Singular number. I shall have loved, Thou shalt or wilt have loved. He shall or will have loved. Plural. We shall have loved, [loved. Ye or you shall or will have They shall or will have loved. Singular number. I shall or will have, Thou shalt or wilt have. He shall or will have. Plural. We shall or will have. Ye or you shall or will have, They shall or will have. Singular number. I shall or will be. Thou shalt or wilt be, He shall or will be. Plural. We shall or will be, Ye or you shall or will be. They shall or will be. Singular number. I had been loved. Thou hadst been loved. He had been loved. Plural. We had been loved, Ye or you had been loved. They had been loved. Singular number. I shall have had, Thou shalt or wilt have had. He shall or will havt had. Plural. We shall have had, [had. Ye or you shalt or wilt have They shall or will have had. Singular number. I shall hav.3 been, Thou shalt orwilt have been. He shall or will have been. Plural. We shall have been, [been, Ye or you shall or will have They shall or will have been. Singular number. 1 shall or will be loved, Thou shalt or wilt be loved, He shall or will be loved. Plural. We shall or will be loved, Ye or you shall or will be loved. They shall or will be loved. > Singular number. I shall have been loved, Thou shalt or wilt have been loved, [loved. He shall or will have been Plural. We shall have been loved. Ye or you shall or will have been loved, ~ [loved. They shall or will have been RULE 1. The nominative case gO' verns the verb. RULE 7. Participles have the same government, as the verbs jective case have, from which they are derived. RULE 13. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or the nouns they represent, in gen- der and number. RULE 2. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. RULE 8. Prepositions govern the ob- RULE 3. Articles and adjectives be- long to nouns, which they qualify or define. RULE 9. Neuter verbs have the same case after as before them. RULE 14. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and, generally, verbs of the like moods and tenses. RULE 15. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, and stand- ing independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the no- minative case independent. RULE 4. Participles, like verbs, re- late to nouns or pronouns. RULE 10. A noun or pronoun signify- ing possession, is governed by the noun it possesses. RULE 16. A verb in the infinitive mood, may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or par- ticiple. RULE 5. Adverbs qualify verbs, par- ticiples, adjectives, and other adverbs. RULE n. Two or more nouns signi- fying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case. RULE 17. A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands inde pendent of the remaining part of the sentence. RULE 6. Active verbs govern the objective case. RULE 12. When an address is made to a person, the noun or pro- noun is put in the nominative case independent. RULE 18. The verbs which follow bid, dare foel, hear, let, make, need, see, &c. are used in the infi- nitive mood without having the sign to prefixed to them. FIRST itRSON. Singular. Nom. I, Pass, my or mine, Obj. me. Plural- Norn, we, Pos». our or ours, Ohj, UB. Declension of the personal Pronouns. THIRD PERSOK. Singular. Nom. it, Poss. its, Obj. it. Plural. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. SECOND PF.nSON. THIRD rERSOJf. THIRD PERSON. Singular-. Singular. Singular. Nom. thou, Nom. he, Nom. she, Poss. thy or thine, Poss. his, Poss. her or hers, Obj. thee. Obj. him. Obj. her. Plural. Plural. Plural. Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, Nom. they, Poss. your or yours, Poss. their or theirs, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. yf>u. Obj. them. Obj. them. VVhen the noun self ia added to the personal pronouns, as, himself , myself , itself , themselves, &.C. they are used in differently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. A list of the pronominal Adjectives. One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, latter, none. Of these, one and other are declined the same as nouns. Another is declined, but wants the plural . Comparison of Adjectives. Pomfiue, wise ;Co7nj)ora«i»e, wiser; R«pcrJa«tt!e, wisest.— Po». amiable; Com. more amiable; Sup most amiable.— Pos. able ; Com. I'iss able; Sup. Icnst ;ible. Declension of the relative Pronouns. Singular and Plural. Nom. who, Poss. whosfe, Obj. whom. Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever. Aom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever. Wliich, ty/iot, and that, are of both numbers, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but have no pos- sessive ; except that whose is sometimes used as the pos- sessive of which ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought death." Who, whose, and whom, .-re applied to persons, and which, to things or brutes, l^hat, is applied both to persons and things. VVhen the word ever or soever is an- nexed to relatives, they are, sometimes, called compound relatives. Declension of J^ouns. Sing. Nom. king Poss. king's Obj. king Plu. ■ Nom. kings Poss. kings' Obj. kings. Sing. Nom, man Poss. man's Obj, mam Plu. Nom. men Poss. men's Obj. men. * Auxiliary, or heJp'mii ■ncrhn nimxhme. by the help of which the EnRlinh verba are principally conjiiffnfnil. Those which ore always BUJiiUaries, are may, can, must, might, eouid, would, should, and shall. Those which are sorni-liraes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs, uro dn, be, liane., anil mill. mm 10 PARSING LESSON 2. ~ c pro n V a ^ P'" If our desires be moderate, our n V a wants will be few. CM n V ad a ITthe resolution were not legal. c pro V pro Unless thou hast loved her. en V pr pro If John had spoken to me. c pro V ar n prar Unless he will do the work in a a n genteel manner. c ar n ',. , j If the man shall have accomphsned pro n pr n his work by midsummer. en V pro n n If James has lost his money, Jack V ^ro will recover it. n pa pr n Henry, having graduated at college, V pr ar n pr . n will enter upon the study of divinity, c pro n V if his health admit. c pro n V pr n pro If our friend be in trouble, we, pro pro v «, , ^ .„ whom he knows and loves, will V pro console him. c pro V pr n c If we contend about trifles, and ad V pro n pro violently maintain our opinions, we V ad a n shall gain but few friends. on v pro n pro If greatness flatter our vanity, it V pro n multiplies our dangers. c pro V pr pro pro If we look around us we shall V c ar a n v perceive, that the whole universe is a pr a n full of active powers. c pro V pro c i ad pa If thou art he — but oh ! how fallen ! n pro v a c Gentlemen, you are mistaken, if prov ar n pr pro pro v I be the person to whom you allude, c pro V ad ar n pr If we possess not the power of n pro V ar n self-government, we shall be the prey pr a a n of every evil propensity. pa pro n pro Having resigned his office, he V pr a n c n retired to private life, if history V n spetik truth. en V ad n If youth be trifled away, manhood V a can will be contemptible, and old age a miserable. c pr a a n ar n If, from any internal cause, a man's n pr _n v ad peace of mind be disturbed, in vain pro V pro pr n c n we load him with riches or honours, pro pa pro n He having ended his discourse, ar n v the assembly dispersed. c ar n ad v pro If the mind be well cultivated, it V ar n pr n c ad pro produces a store of fruit ; if not, it V pr n is overrun with weeds. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. "" ~ PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. PARSING LESSON 6. SCHEMES OP LIFE OFTEN ILLUSORY. Omar, the son of Hassan, had passid seventy-five years in honour and prosperity. The favour of three successive califs had filled his house with gold and silver ; and whenever he appeared, the benedio tions of the people proclaimed his passage. Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance. The brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel ; the fragrant flower is passing away in its own odours. The vigour of Omar began to fail ; the curls of beauty fell from his head ; strength departed from his hands, and agility from his feet. He gave back to the calif the keys of trust, and the seals of secrecy ; and sought no other pleasure for the remains of life, than the converse of the wise, and the gratitude of the good. The powers of his mind were yet unimpaired. His chamber was filled by visitants, eager to catch the dictates of experience, and officious to pay the tribute of admiration. — Caled, the son of the viceroy of Egypt, entered every day early, and retired late. He was beautiful and eloquent : Omar admired his wit, and loved his docility. " Tell me," said Caled, " thou to whose voice nations have listened, and whose wisdom is known to the extremities of Asia, tell me how I may resemble Omar the prudent. The arts by which thou hast gained power and preserved it, are to thee no longer necessary or useful ; impart to me the secret of thy conduct, and teach me the plan upon which thy wisdom' has built thy fortune." " Young man," said Omar, " it is of little use to form plans of life. When I took my first survey of the world in my twentieth year, having considered the various conditions of mankind, in an hour of solitude, I said thus to myself, leaning against a cedar, which spread its branches over my head : ' Seventy years are allowed to man : I have yet fifty remaining. Ten years I will allot to the attainment of knowledge, and ten I will pass in foreign countries ; I shall be learned, and therefore shall be honoured ; every city will shout at my arrival, and every student solicit my friendship. Twenty years thus passed, will store my mind with images, which I shall be busy, through the rest of my life, in combining and comparing. I shall revel in inexhaustible accumulations of intellectual riches ; I shall find new pleasures for every moment ; and shall never more be weary of myself I will not, however, deviate too far from the beaten track of life, but will try what can be found in female delicacy. I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries, and wise as Zobeide j with her I will live twenty years within the suburbs of Bagdat, in every pleasure that wealth can purchase, and fancy can invent. I will then retire to a rural dwelling; pass my days in obscurity and con- templation ; and lie silently down on the bed of death. Through my life it shall be my settled resolution, that I will never depend upon the smile of princes ; that I will never stand exposed to the artifices of courts ; I will never pant for public honours, nor disturb my quiet with the affairs of state.' Such was the scheme of life, which I impressed indelibly upon my memory. " The first part of my ensuing time was to be spent in search of knowledge, and I know not how I was diverted from my design. I had no visible impediments without, nor any ungovernable passions within. I regarded knowledge as the highest honour, and the most engaging pleasure; yet day stole upon day, and month glided after month, till I found that seven years of the first ten had vanished, and left nothing behind them. I now postponed my purpose of travelling ; for why should I go abroad when so much remained to be learned at home? I immured myself for four years, and studied the laws of the empire. The fame of my skill reached the judges; I was found able to speak upon doubtful questions; and was commanded to stand at tlie footstool of the calif I was heard with attention ; I was consulted with confidence ; and the love of praise fastened on my heart. « " I still wished to see distant countries ; listened with rapture to the relations of travellers ; and resolved some time to ask my dismission, that I might feast my soul with novelty : but my presence was always necessary; and the stream of business hurried me along. Sometimes I was afi'aid lest I should be charged with ingratitude ; but I still proposed to travel, and therefore would not confine myself by marriage. " In my fiftieth year, I began to suspect that the time of travelling was past; and thought it best to lay hold on the felicity yet in my power, and indulge myself in domestic pleasures. But at fifty no man easily finds a woman beautiful as the Houries, and wise as Zobeide. I inquired and rejected, consulted and deliberated, till the sixty-second year made me ashamed of wishing to marry. I had now nothing left but retirement; and for retirement I never found a time, till disease forced me from public employment. " Such was my scheme, and such has been its consequence. With an insatiable thirst for knowledge, I trifled away the years of improvement ; with a restless desire of seeing different countries, I have always resided in the same city; with the highest expectation of connubial felicity, I have lived unmarried; and with unalterable resolutions of contemplative retirement, I am going to die within the walls of Bagdat.'* DR. JOHNSON. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 11 MOOD is the manner of representing action or being. The Subjunctive Mood expresses action or being in a doubtful or conditional manner. Present Tense denotes present time. TENSE is the division of time, Singular number. 1. If I love, a 2. If thou love, ^ 3. If he love. p Plural. r" 1. If we love, 2. If ye or you love, 3. If they love. Imperfect Tense denotes past time, how- ever distant. Singular number. If I loved, If thou lovedst. If he loved. Plural. If v^e loved. If ye or you loved. If they loved. 5 3. 3. Singular number. If I have. If thou have, If he have. Plural. If we have, If ye or you have. If they have. Singular number. 1. If I be, ^ 2. If thou be, BQ 3. If he be. o t< Plural. 1. If we be, 2. If ye or you be, 3. If they be. Singular number. . 1. If I be loved, g 2. If thou be loved, i* 3. If he be loved, o Plural. 1. If we be loved, 2. If ye or you be loved, 3. If they be loved. RULE 1. The nominative case go- verns the verb. RULE 7. Participles have the same government, aa the verbs have, from which they are derived; RULE 13. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or the nouns they represent, in gen der and number. Singular number. If I had. If thou hadst. If he had. Plural. If we had. If ye or you had, If they had. Singular number. If I were. If thou wert, If he were. Plural. If we were, If ye or you were. If they were. Singular number. If I were loved. If thou wert loved. If he were loved. Plural. If we were loved. If ye or you were loved. If they were loved. Singular number. If I have been. If thou hast been. If he has been. Plural. If we have been. If ye or you have been, If they have been. RULE 2. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. RULE 8. Prepositions govern the ob' jective case. RULE 14. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and, generally, verbs of the like moods and tenses Perfect Tense denotes past time, but also conveys an allusion to the present. Singular number. If I have* loved, If thou hast loved, If he has loved. Plural. If we have loved, If ye or you have loved. If they have loved. Singular number. If I have had. If thou hast had. If he has had. Plural. If we have had. If ye or you have had, If they have had. Singular number. If I had had. If thou hadst had. If he had had. Plural, If we had had, If ye or you had had, If they had had. Singular number. If I have been loved. If thou hast been loved. If he has been loved. Plural. If we have been loved. If ye or you have been loved, If they have been loved. RULE 3. Articles and adjectives be- long to nouns, which they qualify or define. RULE 9. Neuter verbs have the same case after as before them. RULE 15. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, and stand- ing independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the no- minative case independent Pluperfect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other past time specified. Singular number. If I had loved, If thou hadst loved, If he had loved. Plural. If we had loved. If ye or you had loved, If they had loved. Singular number. If I had been, If thou hadst been, If he had been. Plural. If we had been. If ye or you had been. If they had been. Singular number. If I had been loved, If thou hadst been loved. If he had been loved. Plural. If we had been loved, If ye or you had been loved. If they had been loved. RULE 4. Participles, like verbs, re- late to nouns or pronouns. RULE 10. A noun or pronoun signify- ing possession, is governed by the noun it possesses. RULE 16. A verb in the infinitive mood, may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or par- ticiple. FIRST PERSON, Singular, Nom. I, Pass, my or mine, Obj. me. Plural. Nom. we. Pom. our or ours, OW, us Declension of the personal Pronouns. SECOND PERSON. Singular. Nom. thou, Poas. thy or thine, Obj. thee. Plural. Nom. ye or you, Poas. your or yours, Obj. you. THIRD PERSON. Singular. Nom. she, Poas. her or hers, Obj. her. Plural. Nom, they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. THIRD PERSON. Singular, Nom. he, Poss. his, Obj. him. Plural. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, vj|ri ., , . , — ./' J"-* Ooj, them. *-'< have, M 3. He may, c. or m. have ■^ Plural. ^ 1. We may, can, or must have, [have, 2. Ye or you ra. c. or m. 3. They m. c. or m. have. Singular number. 1. I may, can, or must be, . 2. Thou mayst, c. or m. be, (§3. He may, c. or m. be. ^ Plural. ^ 1. We may, can, or must be, 2. Ye or you m. c. or m be, 3. Tliey m. c. or m. be. Singular number. 1. I may, can, or must be a loved, [loved ^ 2. Thou mayst, c. or m. be| o 3. He m. c. or m. be loved •^ Plural, [loved, gl. We may, c. or m. be 2. Ye or you m. c. or m. be ^ loved, [loved. 3. They m. c. or m. be Perfect Tense denotes past time, but also conveys an allusion to the present. Singular number. I may, can, or must have loved, [loved. Thou mayst, c. or m. have He may, c. or m. have loved Plural. We may, c. or m. have loved. Ye or you m. c. or m. have loved. They m. c. or m. have loved. Singular number. I might, could, would, should have. Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have, He might, c. w. or s. have, Plural. We might, could, woiild, or should ha^^^ Ye or you ^^Hl or s. have, They m. c.^^Hs. have. Singular number. I might, could, would, should be. Thou mightst, c. w. or s. be. He might, c. w. or s. be. Plural. We might, could, would, or should be. Ye or you m. c. w. or s. bS; They m. c. w. or s. be. Singular number. I might, could, would, or should be loved, [loved. Thou mightst, c. w. or s. be He might, c: w: or s: be loved Plural. We m. c. w. or s. be loved, Ye or you m. c. w. or s. be loved, They m. c. w. or B.be loved. Pluperfect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other past time specified. Singular number. I might, could, would, or should have loved, [loved. Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have He m. d. w. or s. have loved. Phiral We m. c. w. or s. have loved. Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have loved, [loved. They m. c. w. or s. have Singular number. I may, can, or must have had, Thou mayst, canst, or must have had, [had He may, can or must have Plural. We may, can, or must have had, [have had Ye or you may, can, or must They m. c. or m. have had Singular number. I may, can, or must have been, [been Thou mayst, c. or m. have He may, c. or m. have been Plural. We may, c. or m. have been Ye or you m. c. or m. have been, They m. c. or m. have been Singular number. [loved I may, can, or must have been Thou mayst, c. or m. have been loved, [loved He may, c. or m. have been Plural. [loved We may, c, or m. have been Ye or you m. c. or m. have been loved, [loved They m. c. or m. have been First Future Tense denotes future time. Singular number. might, could, would, or should have had, [had, Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have He might, c. w. ors. have had. Plural. We m. c. w. or s. have had, Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have had. They m. c. w. or s. have had. Singular number. I might, could, would, or should have been, [been. Thou mightst, c. w. or s. have He m. c. w. or s. have been Plural. We m. c. w. or s. have been. Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have been, [been. They m. c. w. or s. have Singular number: [loved, I might, c. w. or s. have been Thou mightst, c.w. ors. have been loved, [loved. He might, c.w. ors. have been Plural: [loved, We m. c. w. or s. have been Ye or you m. c. w. or s. have been loved, [loved They m. c. w. ors: have been Secondfviure Tense denotes future time, but as prior to some other future time specified. RULE 1. The nominative case go- verns the verb. RULE 7. Participles have the same government, as the verbs jective case- have, from which they are derived. RULE 13. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or the nouns they represent, in gen- der and number. ^ RULE 2. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. RULE 8. Prepositions govern the ob- RULE 3. Articles and adjectives be- long to nouns, which they qualify or define. RULE 9. Neuter verbs have the same case after as befpre them RULE 14. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and, generally, verbs of the like moods and tenses. RULE 15. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, and stand- ing independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the no- minative case independent RULE 4. Participles, like verbs, re- late to nouns or pronouns. RULE 10. A noun or pronoun signify ing possession, is governed by the noun it possesses. * RULE 16. A verb in the infinitive mood, may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or par ticiple. RULE 5. Adverbs qualify verbs, par- ticiples, adjectives, and other adverbs. RULE 11. Two or more nouns signi fying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case. RULE 17. A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands inde- pendent of the remaining part of the sentence. RULE 6. Active verbs govern the objective case. RULE 12. When an address is made to a person, the noun or pro- noun is put in the nominative case independent. RULE 18. The verbs which follow bid, darefeel,hear,let,make,need, see, &c. are used in the infi- nitive mood without having the sign to prefixed to them. Declension of the personal Pronouns. FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. THIRD PERSON. THIRD PERSON. THIRD PERSON. Singular. Norn, it, Pass, its, it. Plural. they, their or theirs, them. Obj. Nom Poss Obj Singular, Singular. Singular. Singular, Nom. I, Nom. tliou, Nom. he, Nom. slie, Poss. my or mine, Poss. thy or thine, Poss. his, Poss. her or hers, Obj. me, Obj. thee. . 06;. him. Obj. her. Plural. Plural. Plural. Plural. Nom. we, Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, Nom. they, Poss. our or ours, Poss. your or yours, Poss. their or theirs, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. us. Obj. you. Obj. tliem. Obj. them. when the noun self\s added to the personal pronouns, as, himself, myself, itself, themselves, &i,c. they are used in differently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. A list of the pronominal Mjectives. One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, latter, none. Of these, one and other are declined the same as nouns. Another is also declined, but wants the plural Comparison of Adjectives. Positive, 'wise; Comparative, viher ; ;Super2. Obj, men. 14 PARSING LESSON 4. pr pro n pro v n In our travels we saw much to V c n V approve, and much to condemn. pro V a V ar It is delightful to contemplate the n pr n goodness of Providence, pro V ar n pro v ar n I am the person who owns a fault pa c pro v committed, and who disdains to V pro conceal it. pro V V pro He was known to have loved her. ar a n V a v A good man is unwilling to give n pr n c n pain to man or beast. ar a n a n v The good parent's greatest joy is V pro n a c a to see his children wise and virtuous. pro pro ad ad ~v c Whom can we so justly love as pro pro V V tliera who have endeavoured to make pro a c a us wise and happy ? pro V ad V pro We dare not leave our n studies pr n without permission. pro n c n Our parents and teachers V ar are the 11 pro pro V pr persons whom we ought in ar a par- ticular manner to respect. pro V ad V n v We need not urge Charles to do n pro V V pro good, he loves to do it. V v To have been admired, availed pro ad him little. pro pa a v They being willing to improve, ar n v a the study was rendered agreeable, n V pro v Compassion prompted us to relieve n n Norman's wants. ar a n ad a c A young man, so learned and vir- a V V ar ad a tuous, promises to be a very useful n pr n member of society. c n c a Neither threatenings nor any pro- T) V pro v ar mifies could make him violate the n truth. c a n V V Though bad men attempt to turn n pr n pro v pro virtue into ridicule, they honour it pr ar n pr pro n at the bottom of their hearts, n pro V Sir Charles, are you prepared to V pr a n answer to these accusations ? pro pa pr ar n He, being loved by the duke, ex- V V c i ar pcctcd to be pardoned ; but ah ! the n pr n delusions of hope I V pr ad To have been censured by so ju- a^ ar n ad dicioUs a friend, would Iiave greatly V pro discouraged mo. V ar n pro v pr n To confnss the truth, I was in f lult. GRAMMAR SLMPLIFIED. P^RSIJSTG LESSOJ^ 9. PROVIDENCE INDICATED IN V&IE KlESENi- STATE OF MAN, Heav'n from all creatures hides the book of fate. All but the page prescrib'd, their present state ; From brutes what men, from men what spirits know, Or who could suffer being here below? The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flow'ry food, And licks the hand just rais'd to shed his blood. Oh, blindness to the future ! kindly given, That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heav'n; Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, A hero perish, or a sparrow fall ; Atoms or systems into ruin hurl'd, And now a bubble burst, and now a world. Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar ; Wait the great teacher death ; and God adore. What future bliss,he gives not thee to know, But gives that hope to be thy blessing now. Hope springs eternal in the human breast : Man never is, but always to be blest : The soul, uneasy and confin'd from home, Rests and expatiates in a life to come. Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutor'd mind Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind ; His soul proud science never taught to stray ' Far as the Solar Walk or Milky Way; Yet simple nature to his hope has giv'n, Behind the cloud-topt hill, an humbler heav'n ; Some safer world in depth of woods embrae'd, Some happier island in the wat'ry waste ; Where slai^es once more their native land behold, No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold, To BE, contents his natural desire ; He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire : But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, His faithful dog shall bear him company. Go, wiser thou! and in thy. scale of sense, Weigh thy opinion against Providence ; Call imperfection what thou fanciest such, Say here he gives too little, there too much. In pride, in reas'ning pride, our error lies ; All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes, Men would be angels, angels would be gods. Aspiring to be gods, if ang^s fell, Aspiring to be angels, men rebel ; And who but wishes to invert the laws Of ORDER, sins against th' eternal cause. pope. PARSIJ^G LESSOJ^ 10. selfishness reproved. ' Has God, thou fool ! work'd solely for thy good, Thy joy, thy pastime, thy attire, thy food ? Who for thy table feeds the wanton fawn, For him as kindly spreads the flow'ry lawn. Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings? Joy tunes his voice, joy elevates his wings. Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat ? Loves of his own, and raptures swell the note. The bounding steed you pompously bestride, Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. Is thine alone the seed that strews the plain? The birds of heav'n shall vindicate their grain. Thine the full harvest of the golden year ? Part pays, and justly, the deserving steer. The hog, that ploughs not, nor obeys thy call, Lives on the labours of this lord of all. ( Know, nature's children all divide her care ; The fur that warms a monarch, warm'd a bear. While man exclaims, " See all things for my use 1" " See man for mine !" replies a pamper'd goose. And just as short of reason he must fall. Who thinks all made for one, not one for all. Grant that the pow'rful still the weak control ; Be man the w^«nd tyrant of the whole ; Nature that tj^^K checks : he only knows. And helps anWrer creature's wants and woes. Say, will the falcon, stooping from above, Smit with her varying plumage, spare the dove ? Admires the jay the insect's gilded wings? Or hears the hawk when Philomela sings ? Man cares for all : to birds he gives his woods. To beasts his pastures, and to fish his floods. For some his int'rest prompts him to provide. For rhore his pleasure, yet for more his pride. All'feed on one vain patron, and enjoy Th' extensive blessing of his luxury. That very life his learned hunger craves, He saves from famine, from the savage saves ; Nay, feasts the animal he dooms his feast ; And, till he ends the being, makes it blest; Which sees no more the stroke, nor feels the pain> Than favour'd man by touch ethereal slain. The creature had his feast of life before ; Thou too must perish when thy feast is o'er ! pope. PARSIJSTG LESSOJ^ 11. THE DYING CHRISTIAN. Vital spark of heav'nly flame I Quit, O quit this mortal frame : Trembling, hoping, ling'ring, flying, O the pain, the bliss of dying ! Cease, fond nature, cease thy strife. And let me languish into life. Hark ! they whisper, angels say, " Sister spirit, come away ;" What is this absorbs me quite ? Steals my senses, shuts my sight, Drowns my spirit, draws my breath ? Tell me, my soul, can this be death? The world recedes, it disappears ! Heav'n opens on my eyes — my ears With sound seraphic ring ! Lend, lend your wings, I mount ! I fly ! O grave, where is thy victory ? O death, where is thy sting ? pope. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 15 MOOD is the manner of representing action or being. The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner ; having no nominative, consequently, neither number nor person. Present Tense denotes present time. TENSE is the division of time. To love. Participle. Present. Loving. Imperfect Tense denotes past time, how- ever distant. g To have. Participle. Present. Having. H pa o To be. Participle. Present. Being. O q To be loved. Participle. Present. Being loved. RULE 1. The nominative case go- verns the verb. RULE 7. Participles have the same government, as the verbs jective case have, from whicli they are derived. RULE 13. Pronouns must agree "vixlh their antecedents, or the nokins they represent, in gen- der and number. Perfect Tense denotes past time, but also conveys an allusion to the present. RULE 2. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. RULE 8. Prepositions govern the ob- RULE 14. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and, generally, verbs of the like moods and tenses. Pluperfect Tense First Fviure Tense denotes past time, but denotes future time, as prior to some other past time specified. To have loved. Participle. Perfect. Loved. Compound Perfect. Hav- ing loved. To have had. Participle. Perfect. Had. Compound Perfect. Hav ing had. To have been. Participle. Perfect. Been. Compound Perfect, Hav- ing been. To have been loved. Participle. Perfect. Loved. Compound Perfect. iilg been loved. Secondfuture Tense denotes fiiture time, but as prior to some other future time specified. Hav- RULE 3. Articles and adjectives be long to nouns, which they qualify or define. RULE 9. Neuter verbs have the same case after as before them. RULE 15. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, and stand- ing independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the no minative case independent. RULE 4. Participles, like verbs, re- bate to nouns or pronouns RULE 10. A noun or pronoun signify- ing possession, is governed by the noun it possesses, i RULE 16, A verb in the infinitive mood, may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or par- ticiple. Nom. Posa. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. flRST PERSON. Singular, I, my or mine, me. Plural. we, our -or ours, us. Declension of the personal Pronouns. SECOND PERSOIT. THIRD PERSON. Singular. Singular. Nom. thou, Nom. he, Poss. thy or thine. Poss. his, Obj. thee. ' Obj. him. Plural. Plwal. Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, Poss. your or yours, Poss. their or theirs Obj. you. Obj. them. THIRD PERSON. Singular. Nom. she, Poss. her or hers, Obj. her. Plural. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. tliem. THIRD PERSON. Singular. Nom. it, Poss.' its, Obj. it. Plural. Nom. they, Poss, their or theirs, Obj. them. rfiffil-!i^'Jl!;''f„".r" ''i^'V'^^ed to the personal pronouns, as, himself, myself, itself, themselves, &c.lhey are used in- differently in the nominative or objective ease, but have no possessive. "' •" •' ^ list of the pronominal Adjectives. latfp^nnn'T' or^t^f' '^^' *''/T,' either neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, latter, none. Of these, one Mdother are declined the same as nouns. Anotheria alsodeclined, but wMtsthe plural Comparison of Adjectives : PoraWe*; Co":&r;'S"S l^^^J^'^^'^'^^'-Po^-^-^^Ue; Com. more amiable; Sup.most amiable.- ^:i1kaU:'^'?iZ Siir*rre'"L'i^iarfes,?nd°Llti^^^^^^^ '^'"« ^''''='' ="« alwa^ys^auJlTa^re's, IZraa^^Zn^^^v^l'MigK could, wom,.n■ 2 Plural. ij2. Love, love ye or you, i-i or do ye or you love. Singular number. . 2. Have, have thou, or do ^ thou have. < * Plural. jP2. Have, have ye or you_ or do ye or you have. Singular number, 2. Be, be thou, or do thou be. o Plural. E" 2. Be, be ye or you, or do ye or you be. Singular number. . 2. Be loved, be thou lov- g ed, or do thou be > loved. o '^ Phtral. § 2. Be loved, be ye or you Q loved, or do ye or you fi be loved. RULE 1. The nominative case go- verns the verb. RULE 7. Participles have the same government, as the verbs jective case. have, from which they are derived. RULE 13. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or the nouns they represent, in gen- der and number. RULE 2. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. RULE 8. Prepositions govern the ob- First Future Tense denotes future time. RULE 3. Articles and adjectives be- long to nouns, which they qualify or define. RULE 9. Neuter verbs have the same case after as before them. RULE 14. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and, generally, verbs of ing independent of the rest of the like moods and tenses. RULE 15. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, and stand- the sentence, is in the no- minative case independent. RULE 4. Participles, like verbs, re late to nouns or pronouns. RULE 10. A noun or pronoun signify- ing possession, is governed by the noun it possesses. RULE 16. A verb in the infinitive mood, may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or par- ticiple. Secondfuture Tense denotes future time, but as prior to some other future time specified. RULE 5. Adverbs qualify verbs, par- ticiples, adjectives, and other adverbs. RULE 11. Two or more nouns signi- fying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case. RULE 17. A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands inde- pendent of the remaining part of the sentence. RULE 6. Active verbs govern the objective case. RULE 12. When an address is made to a person, the noun or pro- noun is put in the nominative case independent. RULE 18. The verbs which follow bid, dare.feel,hear ,let,mdke,need, see, &c. are used in the infi- nitive mood without having the sign to prefixed to them. Declension of the personal Pronouns. FIRST PERSON, SECOND PERSO!J. THIRD PERSON. Singular. Singular. Singular. {>0"»- I, Norn, thou, Nom. he, Po8«. my or mine, Poss. thy or tliine. Poss. his, Obj. me. Obj. thee, ' Obj. him. Plural. Plural. Plural. Nam. we, Nom. ye or you, Nom. they, Posh, our or ours, Por.s. vour or yours, Poss. tlieir br theirs, iiifi,"^'i. ^^^- •''"'• ^^J- "'^'"- ""./• '■""'"*■ ^"J- "'"'"■ When the noun self'xs added to the personal pronouns, as, himself , myself , itself , themselves, &lc .they are used in- differently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. A list of the pronominal Adjectives. One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former; latter, none. Of these, one and other are declined the same as nounsi Another is also declined, but wants the plural THIRD PERSON. THIRD PERSON. Singular. Singular. Nom. she, l\om. it. Poss. her or hers, Poss. its. Obj. her. Obj. it. Phtral. Plural. Nom. they. Nom. they. Poss. their or theirs. Poss. their or theirs. Obj. them. Obj. them. Comparison of Adjectives. Positive, wise i Comparative, wlsCT ; Superlative, wiBest. — fos, amiable ; Com,more amiable j iSVp.most amiable. — Pos. able ; Com. less able ; Sup. least able, ' Declension of the relative Pronouns. Singular and Plural, Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj, whom. Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever, Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever.' Which, what, and that, are of both numbers, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but have no pos- sessive ; except that whose is sometimes used as the pos- sessive of lohich ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought death." Who, whose, and lohom, are applied to persons, and lohich, to things or brutes. That, is .applied both to persons and things. When the word ever or soever is an- nexed to relatives, they are, sometimes, called compound relatives. Declension of JVouns. * .Auxiliary, or helping and shall "*' ■ ■ • - Sing. Nom, king Poss. king's Obj. king ■ Plu. Nom. kings Poss. kings' Obj. kings. Sing. Nom. man Poss, man's Obj, man Plu, Nom, men Poss, men's Obj. men. iion/, or helpinir verba, are thoso by the help of which the English rerhg arc principally conjugated. . i hose which are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs, are do, be, have, ma will. Thoso which aro always auxiliaries, are may, can, must, might, could, would, should, I "«'^-'-'^' IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CjtRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing correctly. It is divided into four parts; Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just method of spelling words. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation. Syntax treats of the agreement, government, and proper arrangement, of words and sentences. Prosody treats of the just pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification. ORTHOGRAPHY. J^L LETTER is the first principle, or least part of a word. There are twenty-six letters in the EngUsh language, called the English Alphabet, namely, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, ^, j, k, I, to, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, V, w, X, y, z ; and these are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter which makes a full and distinct sound of itself. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u; and w and y are considered as vowels, except at the beginning of words. A consonant is a letter which cannot make a distinct sound, without the help of a vowel. All letters except the vowels are consonants. Consonants are sometimes divided into mutes and semivowels. The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the help of a vowel. They are, h, p, t, d, h, and c and g hard. The semivowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are/, I, m, n, r, V, s, 2, X, and c and g soft. Four of the semivowels, namely, I, to, n, r, are also distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were, into their sounds. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; as, om in sound. A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable ; as, eau in beauty. A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as oi in voice. An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle. SOUJVDS OF THE LETTERS. A has four sounds. First, the long slender English sound, as infate,paper, &c. Second, the long Italian sound, as in far, fa-ther, pa-pa, ma-ma : Third, the hroad German sound, as in fall, wall, wa-ter : Fourtifi, the short Itahan sound, as in fat, mat, mar-ry. The long Italian sound of o is often styled the middle sound. There are two cases in which a varies from the above description ; first, a in cedar and liar sounds like u short. Second, a in cabbage, fruitage, sounds Uke i short. Aa in proper names, generally, sounds like a short ; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal, Gaal. Ae has the sound of long e. It is often found in Latin words. Some au- thors retain this form ; as, anigma, aquator, JEsop, &c. ; but others have laid it aside, and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. Ai has the sound of a long, as in paid; of a short, in raillery ; of e short, in said, saith, again, waistcoat. Ao has the sound of a long, in gaol, pronounced jale. Au sounds like a long, m guage ; like a middle, in aunt, jaunt ; and like a broad, in laud, fraud, sauce, saucy. It has the sound of long o, in hautboy ; and that of o short, in laurel, laudanum, &c. Aw has always the sound of broad a ; as in bawl, scrawl, dawn, fawn, pawn. Ay, like its near relation ai, has the sound of a long ; as in day, pray, delay, and of cz in says. B B has but one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and end of words ; as in baker, number, rhubarb. It is silent before t, and after m, in the same syllable ; aB, lamb, debt, subtle. In other words, besides being silent, it lengthens the syl- lable ; as in climb, comb, tomb. C has two sounds ; first, hard, like i, before a, o, u, I, r, t; as in cart, cottage, curious, cloth, tract, craft, &c. ; second, soft, like s, before e, i, and j/ ; as in centre, civil, cymbal, &c. When c ends a word, or syllable, it is always hard, as in music, flaccid, siccity, pronounced mu-sik, flak-sid, sik-sity. It has sometimes the sound of sh ; as in ocean, social. C is silent in some words, as in Czar, victuals, indict. Ch is commonly sounded like tsh ; as in church, chin, chaff, charter ; but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of k ; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, distich : and in foreign names ; as, Achisk, Baruch, Enoch, &c. It sounds like sh, after Z or w ; as, filch, branch, and in words derived from the French ; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like fe; as in archangel. Archipelago, architect, archives, archetype; except in arched, archery, archer, archenemy ; but before a consonant it always sounds like tch ; as in archbishop, archduke, archpresbyter, &c. In choir, and chorister, the ch is pronounced like qu ; in ostrich, like dgde, as if spelled ostridge. Ch is silent in schedule, schism, and yacht ; pronounced seddule, sizm, and yot. D D has one uniform sound, as in day, red ; unless it may be said to take the sound of t, in stuffed, tripped, &c. pronounced stuft, tript, &c. D, like (, to which it is so near related, when it comes after the accent, and is followed by the diphthongs ie, io, ia, or eou, slides into gzh, or the consonant j .•* thus soldier, grandeur, are pronoimced as if written sol-jer, gran-jeur ; and verdure, (where it must be remembered that u is a diphthong,) as if written ver-jure ; and for the same reason, education is elegantly pronounced ed-jucation, although the accent comes after the d. But duJce and reduce, pronounced juke and re-juce, where the accent is after the d, cannot be too much reprobated. E E has two sounds. First, the long sound, as in me, here, me-tre, me-dium ; Second, the short sound, as in met, let, get. E has a number of irregular sounds. It sounds like a lon^, in there, where, they, whey, and e'er ; like a middle, in clerk, sergeant, &c. ; like i short, in yes, England, praises, faces, &c. ; like u short, in her, and the unaccented termina- tion er, as in reader. E is always silent at the end of a word, except in mono- syllables that have no other vowel ; as, he, me, she ; or in words derived from the Greek; as, catastrophe, epitome. It "softens the foregoing consonants, and lengthens the preceding vowels ; as, force, rage, robe. Ea has the sound of a. long, as in great, steak, bear, pear, swear, wear ; of a middle, in dearn, heart, hearth ; of c long, as in eat, beat, deacon, treason, plead, bohca ; and e short, in head, bread, cleanly, &c. Ea7i has the sound of long o ; as in beaii, flambeau, portmanteau. Inbeauty and its compounds, it has the sound of long u. Ee sounds like e long, as in seek, sweet ; and like i short, in 6een. Ei sounds like a long, in vein, reign, feign, deign, reigns, eight, weight, heir, veil, streight, freight, feint, skein, neigh, &c. ; Uke e long, in ceil, seize, fiend, deceit, either, neither, leisure, obeisance ; like e short, in heifer ; hke i long, in height, sleight ; like i short, in teint, forfeit, surfeit, sovereignty, &c. Eo sounds like e long, in people; hke e sliort, in leopard, jeopardy ; and in the * This rule in not universal. We are generally agreed in aspirating the sounds, ac- companied by the aspirate, or h, form all the varieties which are found in authors upon tliirietter. 5 is silent in isle, island, aisle, viscount, demcsjie. Sc has the power of sfc, before a, o, u, and r; as in scale, sco_ff; sculpture, scrib" ble; like soft s, before e, i, and y; as in scene, science, S(ythian. J T generally sounds, as in take, temper, y before «, where the accent precedes, wunds like tch, or Ish; as in nature, virtue, pronounced as if written na-tshure, or na-tchure, vir-tshue, or vir-tchne. The same may be observed of /, when fol- lowed by eou, or uou ; as in righteous, piteous, plenteous, unctuous, presumptuous, Sic. pronounced righ-tchcous, pit-cheous, plen-tcheous, ung-tchuous, presump-* tchuous. Sic. Nor is this tendency of t before long u found only where tlie ac- cent immediately precedes ; for we hear Uie same aspiration in this letter in' spiritual, spirituous, signature, ligature, forfeiture, as if written spiriishual, spiritshv^us, &c. whore the accent is two syllables before these letters ; and tlie only termination which seems to refuse this tendency of lire t lo tho aspiration, is- that in (vcie; ap, tatitude, Imgih'dc, muiUlude, Sic. 20 GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. Tt before a rowel, ppeceded by s, x, or n, has the sound of tch, or tsh ; as in hestial, celestial, frontier, admixlion. Sic. pronounced bes-ichial, ccks-tchial, frtm-tcheer, admix-tchion ; but vhen not preceded by s, x, or n, it sounds like sh ; as in nation, patient, notion ; except in such words as tierce, tiara, &c. and excepting also derivatives from words ending vOity; as, mighty, mightier; I pily, thou pitiest, he pities ; twentieth, thirtieth, &c. yis silent when preceded by s, and followed by the abbreviated terminations en and le ; as in hasten, chasten, fasten, listen, christen, moisten, castle, nestle, wrestle, thistle, whistle, epistle, apostle, bustle, &c. which are pronounced as if written hace^n, chace''n, cassle, nessle. Sic. In often and soften, the t is silent ; also, in mortgage, bankruptcy. Til, has two sounds, one soft and flat ; as, thus, v;hether, hither, thither, &c. the other sharp ; as in breath, thick, throne, panther, ethics, Thursday. Th is, some- times, proaounced like simple t ; as, Thomas, thyme, Thames, asthma, &c. u U has three sounds. First, the long diphthongal sound; as in tube, cube, cubic : Second, the short simple sound; as in tub, cup, sup : Third, the middle or obtuse sound ; as in bull, full, pull : In tlais sound we do not pronounce the latter part of u quite so long as the oo in pool, nor so short as the u in dull ; but with a middle Mund between both, which is the true short sound of the oo in r.oo and woo, as may be heard by comparing wco and wool ; the latter of which i's a perfect rhyme to bull. U has some irregular sounds. When u accented follows r, or ch, in the same syllable, it, sometimes, has tlie long sound of oo ; as in true, rule. . It has the sound of e short, in bury, and burial; pronounced berry, berrial; and of i short, in business ; pronounced bisness. Ua sounds like wa, in assuage, persuade, antiquary ; like middle a, in guard, guardian, guarantee. Ue soui'ds like u long, in clue, cue, due, blue, hue, flue, pursue, &c. like ive in quench, querist, conquest, &c. In a few words it is pronounced like e short ; as in guest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk ; as in antique, oblique, prorogue, catalogue, dialogue, &c. Ui sounds like u long, in suit, sluice, juice, pursuit, Szc. When ui follows 6 or g, the M is silent, and the g has its hard sound ; as in guide, guile, guild, build, guilt, disguise, beguile, guinea, &c. It sounds like wi, in languid, anguish, quickly, extinguish. Sac. like oo, in fruit, bruise, recruit, &c. Uo sounds like wo ; as in quote, quorum, quondam, &c. Uy has the sound of long e ; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; pronounced obloquee, &c. ; except buy, and its derivatives. Uai has the sound of wa ; as in quail, quaint, acquaintance. Uea and uee sound like wee ; as in squeak, squeal, squeamish, squeeze, queer. See. Uoi and uoij sound like woi; as in quoif, quoiffure, quoit, quoin, and buoy. V F'has the sound of flat /; and bears the same relation to it as s does to *. It has one uniform sound, as in voice, vanity, love; and if ever silent, it is in the word twelvemonth, where both that letter and the e, are, in colloquial pronuncia- tion, generally dropped, c3 if written tweV month. w W, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; as, water, resembles ooater. 7f^ before h is pronounced as if it were after tlie h; as in ivhy, when; pronoun- ced hwy, hwtn. ?^ before r is always silent ; as in wrack, wrangle, wrap, wrath, &c, and before h and the vowel o, when long, as whole, tvho, &c. pronounced hole, hoo, &c. In sword, and answer, it is always silent : also in the preposition toward, and towards, wronounced as if written toard and toards, rhyming with hoard and hoards ; out in the adjectives and adverbs, toward and towardly, froward and frowardly, the w is heard distinctly. It is sometimes dropped in the last syllable of awkward, as if written awkard ; but this pronunciation is vulgar. W is, often, joined to o at the end of a syllable, without affecting the sound of that vowel ; as, crow, blow, grow, know, row, tow, &c. X X has three sounds, viz. It is sounded like s at the beginning of proper names of Greek original ; as in XapJhus, Xenophon, Xerxes. It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the accent upon it ; OS, exit, exercise, excellence ; or when the accent is on the next syllable, if it ■begin with a consonant; as, excuse, extent, expense. It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the accent is not on it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel ; as, exert, exist, example; pronounced, egzert, egsist. egzample. f « Y Y, when a consonant, has always the same sound ; as in young ; but, as a vowel, it has different sounds. When it follows a consonant, and ends a word or sylla- ♦)le, it sounds like i long, as in defy, tyrant, reply, &c. but when the accent does not fall on it, then it is sounded like e long, as folly, vanity. z Z sounds like the flat s ; as in freese, frozen, brazen. OF SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING TIIEM. A s ?Li,ABLE ij a sound, either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of Oie voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word; as, a, an, ant. Spelling is tlie art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of express- ing a word by its proper letters. The fallowing are the general rules for the division of words into syllables. 1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined to the latter syl- lable ; as, de-light, bri-dal, re-source : except the letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-omlm; an,il except li1:ewiso words conipDimaetl ; as, rrp-m; ■urvcutn, dis'-eaa. 2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be separated ; as,fa-b[r^ sti-fle. But when they come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, tliey must be divided ; as, ut-most, un-der, in-seat, er-ror, r.of-fin. 3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced long-, they are not to be sepa- rated ; as, de-throne, destroy. But when the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to that syllable ; a=, dis-traet, dis-prove, dis-train. 4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them as can begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to tlie former syllable ; as, abstain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, dap-ple, constrain, hand-some, parch-ment. 5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into separate sylla- bles ; as, cru-ei-, de-ni-al, so-ci-e ty. 6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over-power, never-the-less. 7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are generally separated ; as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed, good- ness, free-dom, false-hood, OF WORDS IN GENERAL, AND THE RULES FOR SPELLING THEM, WoKDS are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a word of t'ns) syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. All words are either primitive or derivative, A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler word in the language ; as, man, good, content. A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in Englisli of greater simplicity ; as, manful, goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.* The orthography of the English Language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this inconvenience may be remedied, by attending to the general laws of formation ; and, for this end, the learner is presented with a view of such general maxims in spelling primitive and deriva tive words, as have been almost universally received. Rule i. — Monosyllables ending with /, /, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass. Sic, The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. RuLji II. — Monosyllaoles ending with any consonant but /, I, or s, and pre- ceded by a single vowel, never double the linal consonant; excepting add, ebby butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. Rule in. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plurals of nouns, tlie persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i ; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest ; Ac carrieth, or carries ; carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest. The present participle in ing, retains the y, that i may not be doubled ; as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying. Sic. But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not changed; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, Sic. ; except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid. Sic. Rule iv. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly change y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional syllable; as, coy, coyly; boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy. annoyer, annoyance ; joy, joyless, joyful. Rule v. — Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double tliat consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, wit, witty ; thin, tlminish ; to abet, an abetter ; to begin, a beginner. But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, an offering ; maid, maiden, &c. Rule vi. — Words ending with any double letter but /, and taking ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the lettei double ; as, harmlessness, carelessness. carelessly, stiffly,, successful, distressful, Sic. But those words which end with double /, and take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one /; as, fulness, skilncss, fully, skilful, &c. Rule vii. — JVess, less,' ly, nnA ful, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful; except in a few words; as, duly, truly, awful. Rule viii. — Menl, added to -words ending with silent e, generally preserves tlie e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitemeiit, lie. The Titords judg- ment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from tlie rule. Like otlier terminations, ment changes y into i, when preceded by a couso» nant; as, accompany, accompaniment; merry, merrivient. Rule ix. — Mle and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent f, almost always cut it ofl'; as, blame, blamable ; cure, cicrable ; sc7ise, scrisible. Sic. but if c or g- soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, Sic. llvLE X. — When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, tlic e is almost universally omitted; as, place, placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish. Rule xi. — Words taken into composition, often drop those letters which wcro superfluous in the simple words ; as, handful, dunghil, withal, also, chilblain, &c. • A compound worj is included onder tbe head of derivative WfrJs : (B< ftnknift, ttorvj; tmkin[- gta'ssi Di»y ^ iirdljceil to cUicr vi-grts sf greatet simjUciy. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 21 ETYMOLOGY. There are, in English, ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly called, parts of speech, namely, tiie Article^ JYoun^ Pronoun^ Jldjective^ Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjmiction, and Interjection. \ OF ARTICLES. An Article is a word placed before nouns to limit their significa- tioD ; as, a garden, an eagle, tlie woman. There are two article?, a or an, and (he. jS or an is called the indefinite article. The is called the definite article. The indefinile article limit? the noun to one of a kind, but, generally, to no particular one; as, " Give me a book;" that is, any book; "Bring me an apple ;" that is, any apple. It can be prefixed to nouns in the singular number only. The definite article limits the noun to one or more particular objects; as, " Give me the book ;" " Bring me the apple ;" meaning some particular book, or apple referred to. It is prefixed to nouns, both in the smgular and plural. - " There is a seeming exception to the rule respecting the indefinite article ; for a is jsed before plural nouns preceded hyfew or many ; as, " A few days ; a great many years." It is also used before plural nouns preceded by dozen, hundred, OMusand, &c. ; as, " A dozen men ; a hundred years :" but in reality this is not an exception, because the adjective, in such cases, indicates one whole number consiciered in a collective view : a feto men, means, a small number of men. ■'^' The indefinite article often includes the meaning oi every and each; as, " He inherits an estate of three thousand pounds a year." "They were paid at the rate of twenty pounds a man." A is used before words beginning with a consonant, or long u; as, a man, a tmicorn : An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h ; as, an acorn, an hour. ' The definite article is, sometimes, used before adverbs of the comparative or superlative degree, in order to mark the degree more strongly, or to define it zuore precisely ; as, " The more I read the book, the better I like it." The article is generally omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, " Prudence is commendable ; /akeAoorf is odious ; an^er ought to be avoided." It is not pre- fixed to a proper name ; as, Alexander, Cesar, (because that of itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguish- ing a particular family ; as, " He is a Howard, or of the family of the Howards ;' ' or by way of eminence; as, "Every man is not a Newton;" " He has the courage oi an Achilles;" or when some noun is understood; as, "He sailed down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." '«•'' Wlien nouns are taken in their most extensive signification, they do not admit articles before them ; as, " Dogs are faithful."^^ " Horses are useful." " Man is the most noble creature in this lower world." Articles are words of great use in speech. Their force consists in pointing or singling oat from the common mass, the individual, or individuals, of which we mean to speak. A or an is more general and unlimited, and is nearly synonymous with one. The is more definite and special, and is nearly synonymous with this or that. The peculiar use and importance of the articles, will be seen in the following examples ; " 2'he son of a king — the son of the king— a son of the king." Each of these three phrases has an entirely different meaning, through the diffprent application of the two little words a and the. " Thou art a man," is a very harmless position ; but, " Thou art /Ae man," (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable of striking terror and remorse into the heart. It must be recollected that a and an are in reality the same word, the n being added merely for the sake of sound ; thus, it would be very disagreeable to say, " a elephant, a inch, a hour," and the like. Articles are so called from the Latin word arliculus, which signifies, ^ joint or small part. OF NOUNS. A Noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, Man, London, book, virtue. Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. Common nouns are the names of whole sorts or spocica ; as, Man, lion, horse, tree, city, rirer. Proper nouns are the names of individuals; as, George, Eliza, Boston, JVew- York. Thames, Potomac. When proper nounn have an article annexed to them, they are used as common nouns; as, "He is the Cicero of his age;" "He is reading the lives of the twelve Ccsars.'''' Common nonns become proper, when applied to the Deity; as, King, Father, Lord. To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case> GENDER. Ge.vder Ls the distinction of eex. There are three genders, ibe Masculine, Feminine, and Nenter. The masculine gender denotes males ; as, Man, Jlorte, bull. The feminine gender denotes females ; as. Woman, diuk, hen. The muter gender denotes things Without sex; as) i?ere> heii^p, trie. ■ Some nouns, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender ; as when we say of the sun, he is setting; and of a ship, she sails well. Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the masculine gender to nouns which are conspicuous for the attributes of imparting, or commuaica- ting, and which are by nature strong and effica :;ious. Those, again, are made leminine, which are conspicuous lor the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or which are peculiarly beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the sun is said to be masculine • and the moon, being the receptacle of the sun's light, to be feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise made feminine, being receivers or containers. Time is always masculine, on account of ita mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the object of love. Fortune, and the Church are generally put in tlie feminine gender. On this fiction, called personification, depends much of the descriptive force and beauty of poetry. Nouns that denote creatures whose sex is not known, or has not been deter« mined by the custom of language, may be esteemed neuter; as, bird, fish, mole, fiy, &c. The English language has three methods of distinguishing the sex, viz. 1. By different words ; as, Male. Female. Male. Female. Bachelor. . Maid. Husband, Wife. Boar. Sow. King. Queen. Boy. Girl. Lad. Lass. Brother. Sister. Lord. Lady. Buck. Doe. Man. Woman, Bull. Cow. Master. Mistress. Bullock OT \ ' Steer. \ Heifer* Milter. Spawner, Nephew. Niece. Cock. Hen. Ram. Ewe. Dog. Drake. Bitch, buck. Singer. ; Songstress or \ Singer. Earl. Countess. Sloven. Slut. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter. Friar. Nun. Stag. Hind. Gander. Goose. Uncle. Aunt. Hart: Roe. Wizard. Witch. Horse. Mare, 2. By a difference of termination ; as, Hide. Female. Male. Female. Abbot, Abbess. Landgrave. Landgravine. Actor. ActxesiS. Lion. Lioness. Administrator. Administratrix. Marquis. Marchioness. Adulterer. Adulteress. Master. Mistress. Ambassador, Ambassadress. Mayor. Mayoress, Arbiter. Arbitress. Patron, Patroness, Baron. Baroness, Peer. Peeress, Bridegroom. Bride. Poet. Poetess. Benefactor. Benefactress. Priest. Priestess. Caterer. Cateress. Prince. Princess. Chanter. Chantress. Prior. Prioress. Conductor, Conductress-. Prophet. Prophetess* Count. Countess. Protector. Protectress. Deacon- Deaconess. Shepherd. Shepherdess. Duke. Dutchess. Songster. Songstress. Elector. Electress. Sorcerer. Sorceress. Emperor. Empress. Sultan. < Sultaness or \\ Sultana. Enchanter. Enchantress. Executor. Executrix. Tiger. Tigress. Governor. Governess-. Traitor. Traitress. Heir. Heiress. Tutor. Tutoress. Hero. Heroine. Viscounti Viscountess, Hunter. Huntress. Votary. Votaress. Host. Hostess. Widower, Widow. Jew. Jewess. 3. By prefixing some word imilcatihg sex; £is, A co quent repetition of the same word ; as, " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; h& is useful." There are two kinds of pronouns, personal and relative. Personal pronouns stand immediately for the name of some person or thing ; as, " / write ; thei; play." Relative pronouns relate, in general, to some preceding noun, or sentence, call- ed the antecedent ; as " The general, who commands the army, is an accomplished officer." In this sentence, general is the antecedent, and who is the relative. The same that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns. They have three persons : Gender has respect ouly to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it, - There are five persottal pronouns, with their variations to express number paid case ; viz. /, the person who speaks ; thou, the person to whom a speech is directed ; and he, she, or it, the person or thing spoken of. This account of perrons will be very intelligible, when we reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of a discourse : first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may spealc of tlie person to whom he addresses himself; thirdl}', he may speak of some other person ; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have the plural number. The objective case of pronouns has, in general, a form different from that of the nominative or possessive case. The personal pronouns are thus declined. Stnguiar. JVb»i. I, Pos. mj' cr mine, Olij. me, StnguJtcr. JVo7». thou, Pos. th)' or thine, Obj. thee. Singular, JVom. he, Pos. his, Obj. him. ,Sing^dar. JVom. site, Pos. her or litr.", Obj. her. Singuliir.- .'Vow. it, Pos. its, Ot>j, it. FIRST PERSON. Plural JVom. \»'e, Pos. our or ours, Obj. us. SECONn PERSON. Plural. JVom. yc or you, Pos. your or yours, Obj. you. Tiriirl) PERSON. Plural. A"om. tlicy, Pos. their or theirs^ Obj. tliom. Plural. JVom. they, Pos. their or theirs, Obj. them. Plural. JVom. they, Pos. their or their?, ()&?. them. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 23 Whefe vhcre are two forms of the possessive case, as thy or Ihine, the former is used with a noun ; the latter when the noun is understood but not expressed. 77ioa is here given as the second person singular; but common custom has set aside the rules of a^rammar in this case, and we generally make use oSyou in- stead of thou. Thus, instead of saying, thou M'ast ; we say, you were. In short, it may be remarked, once for all, that thou and ye are the second person, used in sacred or solemn style ; and that yov, is the second person, used in common or fkmiliar style, instead of either of thera. -^ The noun sf.lf is frequently joined witli the personal pronouns ; as, himself, herself, itself, myself, yourself: and expresses emphasis or apposition, or forms what some call a reciprocal pronoun : but such compound pronouns are still properly termed personal pronuuns. They are indifferently used in the nomi- native or objective, ^^elf, in modern style, is never added to Aw, their, mine, or thine ; but himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, instead of hisset,, theirselves ; as, "He came himself;" "He himself shall do this;" " They performed it themselves.''' -, which signify 1.0 add to, to join to, to put to ; and this name is given fhom because Ihey are ^Idcilj or put 1/1 no.nniH ^ OF VERBS. ' A Verb is a word which expresses action, or being ; as, *' The birds ^2/; the horses run ; the city stands; lam." Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neuter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, and defective. An active verb denotes action or energy which terminates on some object ; asj " Cesar conquered Pompey." " I love Penelope." A passive verb denotes action received, or endured, by the person or thing which is the nominative; as, " Pompey was conquered by Cesar." " Penelope ii loved by me." It is formed by adding a perfect participle of an active verb to the verb be through all its various changes of number, person, mood, and tense. Passive verbs are so called because the receiver or endurer is passive ; that is to say, does nothing. A neuter verb denotes simple being or existence, or it denotes action which is limited to the subject ; as, " I am, thou sittest, he stands, the birds fiy, Henry plays." Verbs active are sometimes called transitive : Because the action terminates on the object, either expressed, or understood ; a?, " He reads a book." Here the object is expressed. "He reads well." Here the object is understood ; that is, " He reads words, or language, or books, well." Neuter verbs are sometimes called intransitive : Because the action expressed, or the manner of existing, that is represented, does not pass over to any object, but is wholly confined to tlie actor. ^ In English, many verbs are used both in an active and neuter signification ; the construction only determining of which kind they are ; fis, io flatten, signifying to malce even or level, is a verb active ; but when it 'signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is a verb neuter. / It is difficult to distinguish, at all times, between tlip active, passive, and ' neuter verbs : Illustration — " Henry struck John ; Henry was struck by John ; Henry plays." In the first sentence the verb is active, because the action of striking terminates on an object, John. Henry, the nominative, gives the blow, andWoAn, the ob- jective, receives it. In the second sentence, the verb is passive, because the action of striking, instead of terminating oq the objective case, is received by the nominative. John, the objective, gives the blow ; and Henry, the nominative, receives it. In the first sentence, Henry does something ; that is, strikes a pei:- son. In the second, he dses nothing ; tliat is, another person strikes him. In the third sentence the verb is neuter, because the action ofplaying is limited to the nominative, and has no influence on any other word. AHen-'y does something, but the action is confined to himself — We cannot say, "Henry plays John." |Neuter verbs generally express simple being or existence ; but some of them, it will be perceived, express the highest degree of action ; as, I run, he played. Hence it appears that, action alone does not constitute the active verb : but it also implies an object acted upon, expressed, or understood. An active verb may be known by its admitting an object after it ; a neuter verb, by its not admitting an object ; and a passive verb, by its always admitting of the preposition by or icith after it, with a noun or pronoun expressing the agent by which the subject or nominative is acted upon ; as, " The master is loved by vac."/ Passive \ erbs are formed from active verljs, therefore a neuter verb cannot T)ecome passive ; but having, in some degree, the nature of a passive, it admits, in many instances, of tlie passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such as sig- nify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition ; as, " I am come ; I was gone ; I am grown ; I was fallen.'' The same word is sometimes used as a passive verb, and sometimes as an adjective ; " Thomas is mistaken by Henry." Here mistaken, in union with the verb is, is a passive verb, as it conveys tlie idea that Thomas is misunderstood. But when it means tliat Thomas is wrong, then the word mistaken is an adjective ; as, " Thomas is mistaken." f To verbs belong nfmber, person, mood, and tense. OF MIMBER AND PERSON. Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plufal; as, "He nun. we run," &c. In each number there are three persons ; as, Singular. Plural. First person. I love. We love. Second person. Thou lovest. Ye or you love. Third person. He loves. They love. / Thus, the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to express, or agree witli, different persons cf the same number ; as, " I love, thou lovest, he loveth, or loves ;" and also to express different numbers of the same person ; as, " thou lovest, ye love ; he loveth, they love." In the plural number of the \ orb, there is no variation of ending to express the diflorer)t persons ; and the verb, in tlie three persons plural, is the same as it is in the first person singular. Yet tliis scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for all tlie purposes of discourse, and no ambiguity arises from it : the verb being always attended, either with the noun expressing the subject acting or acted upon, or with the pronoun representing it. For tliis reason, the plural teriiiination in en, tlioy loven, they weren, formerly in use, was laid aside as unnecessary, and has long been obsolete. OF HOODS. ■ Mood or Mode is the manner of representing action or being The nature of a mood may be more iutcUigibiy explained to the scholar, by observing, tliat it consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signiJy various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circumstances of action : which explanation, if compared with the following account, and lists of the (TiTTerent mo^id?-, will lie fwinrt to a^rre wilhj and iritistrate them. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 25 I There are five mood? of verbs ; the indicativG, subjitnctite, potentiai,, tWFiwiTivE, and imperative. The Indicalite Mood siinply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question ; as, " He loves, he is loved ;^'' " Does he love .?" " Is he loved?-'' The Subjunctive Mood expresses action or being in a doubtful or cond-tional manner; as, " If he wW^e;" " If thou /earn." The verb, in this mood, is always preceded by a conjunction expressed or understood, and is attended by another verb; as, " I will respect him, though he chide me;" " Were he good, he would be happy ;" that is, " if he u-ere good." The Potetilia^ Mood declares the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of action or being ; as, " It ma^ rain; he mai/ go, or stay ; I can ride; he couia walk ; they should learn.''' The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner ; having no nominative, consequently neither niunber nor person ; as, " to act, to speak, to be feared J''' The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, or entreats ; as, " Depart thou ; mind ye ; let us stay ; go in peace." OF THE TENSES. Tense is the division of lime. There are six tenses, the present, imperfect, perfect, PLrPERFECT, FIRST FUTUKE, and second future. The Present Tense denotes present time ; as, " I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ; 1 fear.'" ^^i^ The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at present ex- isting; as, "He is an amiable man;" " She is an amiable woman." It is sometimes used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time , as, " He frequently rides ; and he walks out every morn- ing." It is even sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long since dead, as transacting at the present time; as, " Seneca reasons well;" " Only by pride cometh contention, sat/s Solomon." When the present tense is preceded by the words where, before, after, till, as toon as, it is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action, as brought into present view ; as, " When the stage arrives, we shall hear from home ;" " Before he returns he will probably hear the news ; or at least, soon after he arrives.'''' In animated historical narrations, the present tense is sometimes substituted for the imperfect tense ; as, " He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabit- ants ; he fights and conquers, fakes an immense booty, which he divides among his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." / The Imperfect Tense denotes past time, however distant ; as, " I loved her for ner modesty and virtue ;" " They ^vere travelling post when he met them." The Perfect Tense denotes past time, but also conveys an allusion to tlie present ; eis, "I have finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was recommended to me."-""-^- In the former example, it is signified that the finishing of the letter, though past, was at a period immediately, or very nearly, preceding the present time. In the latter instance, it is uncertain whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before. Tlie meaning is, " I have seen him some time in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, the present time.'' When the particular time of any occurrence is specified, as prior to the present time, this tense is not used : for it would be improper to say, " I have seen him yesterday ;" or, " I have finished my work last week." In tliese cases the imjjerfect is necessary: as, "I saiy him yesterday ;" "{finished my work last week." But when we speak indefinitely of any thing past, as happening or not happening in the day, year, or age, in which wc mention it, the perfect must be employed; as, "I have beeii there this morning;" "I have travelled much this year ;" " We have escaped many dangers through life." In referring, liowever, to such a division of the day as is past before the time of our speaking, wc use the imperfect; as, " They came home early tliis morning ;" " He wa« with them at three o'clock this afternoon." The perfect t..nse, and the imperfect tense, botli denote time tliat is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner, that there is still actually remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been (lone ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present century :" but if we speak of the last century, we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century." " He has been much afflicted this year ;" "I have this week read the king's proclamation ;" " I have heard great news this morning." In these ins-tances, " He An* 6e«n," "I have read,'''' and *^ heard,'' ^ denote things that are past; but they occurred in this year, in this ■week, and to-day ; and still there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. In general, the perfect tense maybe applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the author, or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, *' Cicero hat written oraXiom ;''' but we cannot say, "Cicero has written poems;" be- cause the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have in all ages claimed great powers ;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we speak of the Druids, aa any particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests have claimed grea-t powers;" but must say, " The Druid priests claimed great powera ;" because that order is now totally extinct. / The Pluperfect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other p Plural. 1. I shall or will write, I. We shall or will write. 2. Thou shalt or wilt write. ' 2. Ye or you shall or will write. 3. He shall or will write. 3, They shall or will write. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Plural. Singular. 1. I shall have written. 2. Thou shalt or wilt have written, 3. He shall or will have written. 1. We shall have written. 2. Ye or you shall or will have written. 3. They shall or will have written. Note. — Will is not used in the first person of this tense; it being incompati- ble with the nature of a promise. We cannot say, " I will have written a year, on tlie first of October next;" but, "I shall have ivrilten," is a common ex^ pression. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. If I write. 1. If we write. 2. If thou write, 2, If ye or you write, 3. If he write. 3. If they write. Singular. 1. If I wrote. 2. If thou wrotesti 3. If he wrote. Singular. 1. If I have written. 2. If thou hast written. 3. If he has written. IMPERFECT TENSE. Plural 1. If wc wrote. 2. If ye or you wrote, 3. if they wrote. PERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. If we have viriltcn, 2. If ye or you have -wriltru. 3. If they have written. • When a verb, of the indicntive Inood, is used in the unorccl or solemn style, tUe ending of llM ihird person sinjrul.Tr, present lime, is ever in M; afi, "He virittth. he tcarntlk. he Ttiaket/tt iifl ioveth. lie hatcth," Sec. The verb to be is an cxecption. 11 y^fltA is used Id the sacred attil eulcmastylc, insttad of Au>; at, " IXc liaih xtt'M^n ;'' "lU hnth jovcdi" Itc. 26 GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. Sin^'ular. 1. If I had written. S. If thou hadst written. ■3, If he had written. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. If we had written. 2. If ye or you had written. 3. If they had written. 2, Singular. I may, can, or must write. Thou mayst, canst, or must write. He may, can, or must write. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. If I shall or will write. 1. If we shall or will write. 2. If thou shalt or wilt write. 2. If ye or you shall or will write. 3. If he shall or will write. 3. If they shall or will write. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. S'mg-ixlar. Plural. 1. If I siiall have Avritten. 1. If we shall have written. 2. If thou shalt or wilt have written. 2. If ye or you shall or will have written. 3. If he shall or wiU have written. 3. If they shall or will have written. Note. — The subjunctive mood has no variation, in tJie form of the verb, from t'le indicative, except in the present tense of verbs generally, and the present and imperfect tenses oS the verb to be. It may be of use to the learner to re- mark, that though we have used if only, in the conjugation of the verb in the subjunctive mood, yet any other conjunction, expressing doubt, may, with equal propriety, occasionally be used ; as, though, unless, &c. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 1. We may, can, or must write. 2. Yb or you may, can, or must write. 3. They may, can, or must write. :'H IMPERFECT TENSE. Sin^lar. Plural. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should write. write. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or shouldst write. should write. 3, He might, coulJ, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or should write. write. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have written. 1. We may, can, or must have written. 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 2. Ye or you may, can, or must have written. written. 3. He may, can, or must have written. 3. They may, can, or must have written. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should have written. have written. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or shouldst have written. should have written. 3. He might, could, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or should have written. have written. Note. — It will be perceived that the auxiliaries, mat/, can, and must, are used to express present and perfect time ; and that might, could, would, and should, are used to express imperfect and pluperfect time : but, they are not unfrequent- ly employed indefinitely, expressing time present, past, or future. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To Write. PERFECT TENSE. To have Written. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. % Write, write Oiou, or do thou 2. Write, write ye or you, or do ye or write. you write. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Writing. h PERFECT. Written. 1 COMPOUND PERFECT. Having writtwi. Note. — In making three persons in tlie imperative mood, grammarians have committed an errcr. For these expressions, let me write, let him write, let ta write, let them write, are evidently addresses made to a second person. That the verb let, is not an auxiliary, is very plain from its conjugation. It is of itself a principal verb ; and, when immediately followed by another verb, it expresses the idea of permitting, or sufteriiig an action to be done, f The verb that follows let, is ever in tlie infinitive mood, the preposition to being under- stood; a?, '^ Let mt learn;'''' that is, " Pej-mit tne to Icarii.''''/" Let him go;'''' Ihst is, '^Suffer him to go.'''' We do not command, or cxhorlr ourselves. " Let me learn,''' ia not a coiumand given to myself, but to a second pei-son ; as, " Let me leitrn ;'''' that i^ '^ Suffer Ihvu mv to learn-.''' Au))-, when we addi-css com- mands to a third person, we ever use Uie instrumentality of a second person. When we say, " Let them learn,''' the meaning evidently is, " Suffer thou them to learn." And when we say, " Let us learn," we mean, " Suffer thou, or suf- fer you, us to learn." Hence it appears, that a verb, in the imperative mood, is always in the second person. For the conjugation of the verbs, To love, To have, To be, and the passice form of the verb, To lore, see pages 9, 11, 13, 15, 17. As the Indicative and Potential Moods are frequently used in asking questions, the following example of a verb conjugated interrogatively is subjoined, in order to give the learner a distinct idea of the different forma of conjugation. Conjugation of the verb, To BE, ttsed interrogatively ■, • INDICATIVE MOOD. Singular. 1. Ami? 2. Art thou? 3. Is he ? Singular. 1. Was I? 2. Wast thou? 3. Was he? Singular. 1. Have I been? 2. Hast thou been ? 3. Has he been ? Singular. Had I been ? Hadst thou been ? Had he been ? PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 1. Are we? 2. Are ye or you ? 3. Are they ? IMPERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. Were we? 2. Were ye or you ? 3. Were they ? PERFECT TENSE. Plural 1. Have we been ? 2. Have ye or you been 3. Have they been ? PLUPERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. Had we been? 2. Had ye or you been? 3. Had they been ? FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. Shall I he ? 1. Shall we be ? 2. Shalt or wilt thou be ? 2. Shall or will ye or you be : 3. Shall or will he be ? 3. Shall or will they be ? SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. Shall I have been ? 1. Shall we have been ? 2. Shalt or wilt thou hare been ? 2. Shall or will ye or you have been .' 3. Shall or will he have been? 3. Shall or will they have been ,- POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Plurnl. 1. May we be ? 2. May ye or you be ? 3. May they be ? Singular. 1. May I be? 2. Mayst thou be ? 3. May he be ? Singular. 1. Could 1 be ? 2. Couldst thou be ? 3. Could he be? IMPERFECT TENSE. Plural 1. Could we be ? 2. Could ye or you be ? 3. Could they be? PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. Can I have been ? 1. Can we have been ? 2. Canst thou have been ? 2. Can ye or you have been? 3. Can he have been ? 3. Can they have been ? PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. Could I have been? 1. Could we have been f 2. Couldst thou have been ? 2. Could ye or you have been ? 3. Could he have been? 3. Could they have been ? Cmjvgatton of the AUXILMRY VERBS, in their simple form) wiik observations on their peculiar nature and force. That the auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, aiid unassisted by others, are of very limited extent ; and that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which they afford in conjugating the principal verbs ; will clearly appear to the scholar, by a distinct conjugation of each of them, unconnected with any oJlier. They arc exhibited for his inspection ; not to bu committed to memory. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 27 Sing. 1. I may. Plur. 1. We may. MAY. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thoumayst. 2. Ye or you may. 3. He may. 3. They may. IMPERFECT TENSE. Sin^. 1. I might. 2. Thou mightst. 3. He might Plur. 1. We might. 2. Ye or you might 3. They might Stng, 1. I can. Plur. 1. We can. CAN. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou canst 2. Ye or you can. 3. He can. 3. They can. IMPERFECT TENSE. Sing. 1. I could. 2. Thou couldst. 3. He could. Plur. 1. We could. .2. Ye or you could. 3. They could Sing. 1. I shall.* Plur. 1. We shall. SHALL. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou shalt 3. He shall 2. Ye or you shall. 3. They shalL IMPERFECT TENSE. Sing. 1. I should. 2. Thou sfaouldst 3. He should. Plur. 1. We shoxild. 2. Ye or you should. 3. They should. Sine. 1. I wilL Plur. 1. We will WILL. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou wUt 3. He will. 2. Ye or you will. 3. They will. IMPERFECT TENSE. Sing. 1. I would. 2. Thou wouldst. 3. He would. PUir. 1. We would. 2. Ye or you would. 3. They would 3n7ST. Must has no change of termination, but is joined with verbs in the present and perfect tenses. DO. PRESENT TENSE. Shig. 1. I do. 2. Thou dost. 3. He doth, or does. Plw. 1. We do. 2. Ye or you do. 3. They do. IMPERFECT TENSE. Sing^. 1. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did. PUtr. 1. We did. 2. Ye or you did. 3. They did. P.iRTICIPLES. PRESEjiT. Doing. PERFECT. Done. BE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou art. 3. He is. 2. Ye or you are. 3. They are. Sing. i. I am. Pbur. 1. We are. IMPERFECT TENSE. Sing. 1. l-wa«. 2. Thou wast. 3. He was. Plttr. 1. We were. 2. Ye or you were. 3. They were. PARTICIPLES. PBESEST. Being. perfect. Been. Sing. 1. I have. Pku. 1. We have. HAVE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou hast. 2. Ye or you have. 3. He has. 3. They have. IMPERFECT TENSE. 9hig. 1. I bad. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. PiMT. 1. We hod. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They liad. PARTICIPLES. PREBERT. Having. pf.rfect. Had. The verbs, have, be, will, and do, when thoy are unconnected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs; as, " We * Bkall a here properly used In the preacnt teiwe, having (lie taiM onulogj to «&0bM, UM tan haa to ctvdd, way to mignt, and teill to woidd. have enough ;" " I am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so ;" " They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries ; as, " I shali have enough." " I win, be grateful ;" " Thfty must do it," &c. J The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the foUovring ac- count of them. M Do and did, are used to add a particular emphasis to an affirmation, or to mark the time with greater positiveness ; as, "I cr/oM)('n^>-s of the Nile." "Ho seeth all his goings." Sometimes the plural is used when an adverb is attached to tho participle ; as, " Tho goings out — tho comings in." But tijis uso of tho participle is not deemed elegant, nor is it common in colloquial discourse. f Note. — Many words, such as untouched, unvexijd, &c. have tho appearance of being participles, which are, in fact, adjectives f as, " Can we, untouched by gratitude, view the profusion of good which tho Annighty hand bestows around 30 GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. MgMM US?" These words will not admit have before them, and make sense; we can- not say, " I have untouched him ;" " I Jiave unvexed him." Participles are so called from the Latin word participo, which signifies, to paftake ; and this name is given them because they partake of the nature of verbs, no^ns, and adjectives. OF ADVERBS. a , , , jf An Adverb is a word used to qualify the sense of verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "He fought bravely;" "We heard them secretly contriving evil ;" " Extremely fine vi^eather ;" " He speaks very gracefully." Some adverbs are compared thus ; soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest. Those ending in ly, are compared by Tnore and ?no«i ; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely. Adverbs form a very numerous class of words in every language ; as they serve to modify, or to denote some circumstance of an action, or of a quality, relatix-e to its time, place, order, degree, and the other properties of it, which we have occasion to signify. They seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more; as, "He acted wisely," for, he acted with wisdom; "prudently," for, with prudence ; " He did it here," for, he did it in this place ; " exceedingly," for, to a great degree ; " often and seldom," for, many and foi few times; " very," for, in an eminent degree, &c. Hence adverbs may be considered as of less ne- cessity than any other class of words. Adverbs may be reduced to certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirma- tion, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. •;-- A list oftlie principal Adverbs^ 1. Of numier. Once, twice, thrice, &c. * 2. Of order. First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally, «&c. 3. Of place. Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, no- where, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, back- ward, whence, hence, thence, whithersoever, &c. 4. Of time. Of time present. Now, to-day, &c. Of time past. Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. Of time to come. To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways, &c. Of time indefinite. Oft, often, oft times, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. 5. Of quantity. Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly, &c. 6. Of manner or quality. Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly ; as, " Bad, badl^ ; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admi- rably." T. Of doubt. Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. 8. Of affirmation. VerUy, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. 9. Of negation. Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, &c. 10. Of Interrogation. How, why, wherefore, whether, &c. 11. Of comparison. More, most,. better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are formed by a combination of several of the prepositions with the adverbs of place, here, there, and where ; as, " Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby ; herewith, therewith, wherewith 5 herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. where-for,) hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &c. Except therefore, these are seldom used. » Some adverbs are simple or single, others compound; the former consists of but one word ; as, happily, bravely, «&c. The latter consists of two or more words ; as, atpreseiU, now a days, at length, at once, at first, by and by, &c. I A preposition becomes an adverb when it has no object expressed or under- stood ; or, when joined with a verb, and necessary to complete the sense of the verb ; as, " The business was attended to ;"P To cast up ;" " To give over ;" " He rides about/' " He was near falling;" " But do not after lay the blame on me ;" " He died long before;" " He dwells above;" " They had their reward soon after." * The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, such as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, die. may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjujictions ;,^of ad- verbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of place; of conjuhctions, as they conjoin sentences. , It may be particularly observed with respect to the word therefore, that it is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction ; as, " He ia good, therefore,he is htippy.'' The same observation may bo extended to the words consequently, accordingly, and the like. When these are subjoined to_ and, or joined to if, since, &c. they are adverbs, the connexion being made without their help : when they appear single, and unsupported by any other connective, they may be called conjunctions. The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what necessity there is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided with tenses to show that circumstance. Th« answer is, though tenses may be sufficient to denote the greater distinctions of time, yet, to denote them all by the tenses would be a perplexity without end. What a variety of forms must be given to the verb, to denote yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, formerly, lately, just now, now, immediatehj, presently, soon, here- after, &c. It was this consideration that made the adverbs of time necessary, over and B.bove the tenses. Adverbs are^o called from the two Latin words, ad and verbum, which signiQr to a verb ; and this name is given them because they are, generally, added to verbs. OF PREPOSITIOJ^S, A Preposition is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them ; as, " He went from London to York ;" " She is above disguise;" " They are instructed by him." -^ All words, which express the relative situation of two things, are prepositions; as, in, when separately considered, implies, that one thing is within another. On implies, that one thing is under another. The preposition shows also the relative situation of moving objects ; as, " William travelled by Boston through New- York towards Washington." Here by, through, and towards, show the relative situation of their respective objects, Boston, JVew-York, and Washington, to William. Prepositions are not a very numerous class of words, but are of great impor- tance in language. Of to for with A list of the principal Preposiiiotis. into above within below at without between up over beneath down under from before t/irough beyond behind on or upon among jCfter i about against <^ Verbs nre ofte;i compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to invest, to over- look : and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to undtr- stand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb ; in which situation it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning, and may still be considered as belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, lo cast, is to throw ; but tn cast up, or to compute, an account, is quite a different thing ; thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &c. So that the meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables employed, which grammarians have called inseparable prepositions ; as, be, con, mis, &c.in bedeck, conjoin, mistake : but as they are not words of any kind, they cannot properly be called a species of preposition. One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express tliose relations, which, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, or the different endin^rs of noims. The necessity and use of them will appear from the following examples. If we say, '• He writes a pen ;" " they ran the river ;" " the tower fell the Greeks ;" " Lambeth is Westminster-abbey ;" there is observable, in each of these expres- sions, either a total want of connexion, or such a connexion as produces false- hood or nonsense ; and it is evident, that, before they can be turned into sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting word : as thus, •' He writes with a pen ;" " they ran towards the river ;" " the tower fell upon the Greeks ;** " Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey." We see by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to connect those words, which, in their sig- nification, are not naturally connected. Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to h.ave denoted relations of place ; but they are now used figuratively to express other relations. For example, as they who are above have in several respects tlie advantage of such as are below, prepositions expressing high and low places are used for supe- riority and inferiority in general ; as, " lie is above disguise ;" " We serve under a good master ;" " He rules over a willing people ;" "We should do nothing 6«- neath our character." The importance of the prepositions will be ftirther perceived by the explana- tion of a few of them. Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or consequence, and other rela- tions connected with these ; as, " The house of my friend ;" that is, " the house belonging to my friend ;" " He died of a. fever ;" that is, " in consequence of a fever." To or unto is opposed to from; as, " He rode fVom Salisbury to Winchester." For indicates the cause or motive of any action or circumstance, &c. ; as, " He loves her /or (that is, on account of) her amiable qualities." By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, means, «S:c. ; as, "He was killed by a fall ;" that is, " a fall was the cause of his being killed ;" " This house was built by him ;" that is, " he was the builder of it." With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c. ; as. " We will go witA you ;" " They are on good terms with each other." — With also alludes to the in- strument or means ; as, " He was cut with a knifo." In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or actins, &c. ; as, " He was born in (that is, during) the year 1720;'' "Ho dwells in tne city;" " She lives in affluence." Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind ; as, " He retired into the country ;" " Copper is converted into brass." Within relates to something comprehended in any place or time ; as, " Tboy are within the house ;" " He oegan and finished his work within the limited .time." The signification of without Is opposite to that of within; as, " She standa GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. xoitfumt the gate." But it is more ftequently opposed to with; as, " You may go xcitlieut me." The import and force of the remaining prepositions will be readily understood, without a particular detail of them. We shall, therefore, conclude this head with observing, that there is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the use of the prepositions hy and with ; which is observable in sentences Uke the follow- ing : " He walks with a staff ii/ moonlight ;" " He was taken hy stratagem, and kiDed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, "he walks hj a staff with moonlight ;" " he was taken with stratagem, and killed hy a sword ;" and it wiU appear that they differ in signification more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine. Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect of conjunctions ; as, " .4/ifcr their prisons were thrown open," &c. "Before I die 5" "They made haste to be prepared against their friends arrived ;" but if the noun time, which is imderstood, to be added, they will lose their conjunctive form ; as, " After [the time when] their prisons," &c. / The article a before participles in the phrases a coming, a going, a walking, a hunting, «&lc. and before nouns ; as, a bed, a broad, a shore, a foot, &c. is fonerally supposed to be a contraction of the preposition on or at; as, " I am at unting ;" /' He is on board." /Sometimes the article and noun are blended in one term, and become an adverb ; as, ahed, abroad, ashore, aside, asleep, &c. The letter o before nouns in the phrases, " one o'clock, ten o'clock," &c. is a contraction of the preposition ora or of; the same as to say, " one of the clock ;" or, " one on the clock." When two prepositions are placed together, the first is used adverbially ; as, " He came down from the mountain ;'' here down is used as an adverb. Prepositions are so called from the two Latin words pra and pono, which sig- nify hefore and place ; and this name is given them because they are, in most cases, placed before nouns and pronouns. 1f| OF COJ^JUJS'CTIOJS'S. ' A Conjunction is a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences ; joining two or more simple sentences into one compound one. It sometimes connects only words. Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the Copulative, and the Disjunctive. The copulative conjunction connects words and sentences together, and con- tinues the sense ; as, " He and his brother reside in London ;" " Two, and three, and four, make nine." The disjunctive conjunction joins together words and sentences, but e-xpresses opposition in the sense ; as, " The hand of the diligent shall bear rule ; but the slothful shall be under tribute." Conjunctions are not numerous, but, like prepositions, are very essential to discourse. ji A list of the principal Conjunctions, Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore. Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. **'^ / Several words, belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used Bfl conjunctions. " He provided money for his journey ;" " I will do it, provided you lend me some help." In the first sentence, provided is a verb ; and in the second, a conjunction. ■•*»•'- " Except him ;" " Paul said, except these abide in the ship." In the fiist sen- tence, except is a verb in the imperative mood ; and in the second, a conjunc- tion. Excepting is also used as a participle and conjunction. " Both horses were stolen ;" " He is both virtuous and brave." In the first sentence, both is an adjective; and in the second, a conjunction. " Christ he.in^ the cnief corner stone ;" " Being this reception of the gospel was anciently foretold." In the first sentence, being is a participle ; and m the Mocond, a conjunction. " You may take either of the books ;" " He will either sail for Canton or Ja- pan." In the first sentence, either is a pronominal adjective ; and in the second, a conjunction, correBj)onding with or. " You shall take neither of the books ;" • He will neither study nor work." In tlie first sentence, neither is a pronominal adjective j and in the second, a con- junction corresponding with Jtor. " He arrived then, and not before ;" •< I rest then upon this argument." In tlie first sentence, then is an adverb ; and in the second, a conjunction. " He contended for victory ;" " I submitted, for it was vain to resist." In tho first sentence, fur is a preposition ; and in the second, a conji'.iiction. " Our friendship commenced long.vmce;" "I have not seen him since that time ;" " Since we must i)art, let us do it peaceably." In the first sentence, siTue is an adverb ; in the second, a preposition ; and m the third, a conjunction. ^ That, when it can be changed into which, who, or whom, is ever a relative pronoun; as, " The book that he gave me;" or, "The book which he gave me." When it belongs to a noun, either expressed or understood, it is a pro- nominal adjective ; as, " That man ;" " Whose pen is that 9" that is, " whose pea iB tliMt pen?" JVtat, on all other occasions, is a conjunction. •^*' Conjunctions and prepositions form that class of words called connectives, v/ith- out which tliore could be no language ; serving to e.\pross the relations which things bear one to another, their mutual influence, dnpcndence, and coherence ; thereby joining words together into intelligible and significant propositions. Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences ; as, "Blessed is the man who feaj-oth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments." I A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoun and a cormective. Nay, the union by relatives is rather closer, than that by mere conjunctions. The latter may form two or more sentences into one ; but by the former, several sentences may incorporate in one and the same clause of a sentence. Thus, " Thou seest a man, and he is cabled Peter," is a sentence consisting of two dis- tinct clauses, united by the copulative and : but, " The man wluom thou seest is called Peter," is a sentence of one clause, and not less comprehensive than tho ; other. Conjunctions very oflen unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words ; as in the. following instances ; " Duty aiid interest forbid vicious indul- gencies ;" " Wisdom or foily governs us." Eacli of these forms of expression contains two sentences, uamely ; " Duty forbids vicious indulgencies ; interest forbids vicious indulgencies ;" " Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect sentences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely connects words, not sentences ; as, " The king and queen are an amiable pair ;" where the affirmation cannot refer to each ; it be- ing absurd to say, that the king or the queen only is an amiable pair. So in the instances, " two and two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books." Prepositions also, asbefoio observed, connects words ; but they do it to show the relation which the connected words have to each other : conjunctions, when they unite words only, are designed to show the relations, which those words, so united, have to other parts of tho sentence. As there are mnny conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the members of a sen- tence ; so tliere are several conjunctions appropriated to the latter use, which are never employed in tlie former ; and soirio that are equally adapted to both those purposes; as, again, further, besides. &c. of the first kind; than, less, un- less, that, so, that, &c. of the second ; and but, and, for, therefore, &c. of the last. Conjunctions not only connect sentences in construction, but they also begin sentences after a full period, manifesting some relations between sentences in the general tenor of discourse. The distinguishing use of the conjunction is to save the repetition of words ; for this sentence — " John, Thomas, and Peter reside at York," contains three simple sentences ; " John resides at York — Thomas re- sides at York — Peter resides at York ;" which are all combined in one, with a single verb, by means of the conjunction and. Hence it appears that, conjunc- tions often unite sentences, when they appear to unite words only. Conjunctions are so called from the two Latin words con and jungo, which signify to join with ; and this name is given them because they conjoin or join together, words or parts of sentences. OF IJ^TERJECTIOJ^S. f An Interjection is a word used to express passion or emotion ; usually that, which is violent or sudden; as, " Oh! 1 have alienated my friend ; alas! I fear for life :" " O virtue ! how amiable art thou." The English interjections, as well as those of other languages, are comprised within a small compass. They are of different sorts, according to the different passions which they serve to express. Those which intimate earnestness or grief, are, O ! oh ! ah ! alas ! Such as are expressive of contempt, are, pish ! tush .' of wonder, heigh! really.' strange! of calling, here! ho! soAo .' ol aversion or diagviBt, foh ! Jie ! away! of a call of the attention, lo! behold! hark! of re- questing silence, hush ! hist ! of salutation, welcome ! hail ! all hail ! Besides these, many others, frequent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enume- rated ; but it is unnecessary to expatiate on such expressions of the passions, or emotions of the mind, as are scaTcely worthy of being ranked among tho parts of speech. Sometimes, verbs, nouns, and adjectives, are uttered by way of exclamation, in a detached manner ; as, " Bless me ! Gracious heavens !" &c. liUerjeitioiLS are so called from the two Latin words later and jacio, which signify, to throw between; and this name is given them because they are thrown in. between the parts of a sentence, to express passion or emotion. Note. — The noun and verb are the two princijjal parts of speech ; that is to say, all other words are dependant on them, or added to them as auxiliaries. No complete sentence can be formed without the use of both, expressed or un- derstood, unless when a pronoun is used for a noun. OF DERIVATION. Of the various ways in which words are derived from one another, Havino treated of the different sorts of words, and their various modifioo- tions, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word is derived from another. Words are derived from one another in various ways, viz. 1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 2. Verbs arc derived from nouns, adjectives, and, sometimee, from adverbs. 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from " to love," comes " loveor ;" from " to visit, visiter;" from " to survive, survivor," &c. In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to detomuie whether tho verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from tho verb, w'l. ) 32 GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride > act, to act," &c. 2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs ; as, from the noun sait, comes " to salt ;" from the adjective warm, " to warm ;" and from the adverb forward, " to forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from "grass, to graze :" sometimes by adding en; as, from "length, to lengthen;" especially to adjec- tives ; as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, in the following manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y ; as, from " health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty ;" &c. Adjectives denoting the matter^ out of which any thing is made, are de- rived from nouns by adding en ; as, from " oak, oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woollen;" &c. Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns, by adding ful ; as, from " joy, jojrful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful ;" &c. Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are derived from nouns, by adding some ; us, from " light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome ;" »fcc. Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns, by a.dding less ; as, from " worth, worthless ; care, careless ; joy, joyless ;" &c. Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns, by adding hj ; as, from " man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, courtly ;" &c. Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns, by adding ish to tliem ; which termination when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality ; as, " white, whitish ;" i. e. somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character ; as, " child, childish ; thief, tliievish." Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs, by adding the termination able ; and those adj ectives signify capacity ; as, " answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the termination ness ; as, " White, whiteness ; swift, swiftness;" sometimes oy adding th or t, and making a small change in some of the letters ; as, " long,, length ; high, height." oT Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the adjectives from which they a-.e derived ; as, from " base," comes " basely ;" from " slow, slowly ;" from " able, ably." There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The primitive words of any language are very few ; the derivatives form much the greater number. A few more instaneee only can be given here. Some nouns are derived from others, by adding the terminations hood or head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and age. Nouns ending in hood or head, are such as signify character or qualities; as, " manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. Nouns ending in shij), are those that signify office, employment, state, or con- dition ; as, " lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some nouns in ship, are derived from adjectives ; as, " hard, hardship," &c. Nouns which end in ery, signify action or habit ; as, slavery, foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives ; as, " brave, bravery," &c. Nouns ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, jurisdiction, or con- dition ; as, " bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c. Nouns which end in ian, are those that signify profession ; as, " physician, musician," »&c. Those that end in ment and age, come generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit ; as, " commandment, usage." Some nouns ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit ; as, " drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard." Some nouns have the form of diminutives ; but these are not many. They are formed by adding the terminations, kin, ling, ing, ock, el, and the like ; as, "lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hiU, hiUock ; cock, cock- erel;" &c. That part of derivation which consists in tracing English words to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, must be omitted, as the English scholar is not supposed to be acquainted with these languages. The best English dictionaries, will, however, furnish some information on this head, to those who are desirous of obtaining it. The learned Home Tooke, in his " Diversions of Purley," has given an ingenious account of the derivation and primitive meaning of many of the adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. It is highly probable that the system of this acute grammarian, is founded in truth ; and that adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are corruptions or ab- breviations of other parts of speech. But as many of them are d^ved from obsolete words in our own language, or from words in kindred languages, the radical meaning of which is, t-herefore, either obscure, or generally unknown; as the system of this very able etymologist is not universally admitted ; and as, by long prescription, whatever may have been their origin^ the words in ques- tion appear to have acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it seems proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary treatise of grammar : espe- cially as this plan coincides with that, by which other languages must be taught ; and will render the study of them less intricate. It is of small moment, by what names and classification we distinguish these words, provided their meaning and, use be well understood. A pliilosophical consideration of the subject, may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the grammatical student, when lus knowledge and judgment become sufficiently improved. SYNTAX. Syntax treats of the agreement, government, and proper arrange- ment of words and sentences. Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gen- der, or person. Government is when one word causes another to be in some par- ticular mood, tense, or case. RULE 1. The nominative case governs the verb; as, "i walk ; thou lovest; he runs." Note 1. — The infinitive mood, a sentence, or part of a sentence is, some- times, the nominative to a verb ; in which case the verb is ever in the third per- son singular ; as, " To err is human." " To die is the inevitable lot of man." " To see the bright sun is pleasant." " That virtue ■will be rewarded arid vice punished, is a doctrine plainly taught in the bible." Note 2. — It is a general rule, that there should be no nominative case in a sentence without a verb expressed or implied ; except it be in the nominative case independent. Sometimes, however, redundant words are peculiarly emphatical ; as, " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." In this sentence, the pronoun he lias no verb to answer to it, expressed or understood ; yet the construction is much more forcible tlian it would be to say, " Let him hear, that hath ears to liear." Note 3. — An adjective, without a noun expressed, having the definite article before it, is used as a noun, and is generally in the third person plural ; as, " The sincere are always esteemed ;" " Providence rewards the good." The nominative case, generally, comes before the verb ; as, " He walks ;" &c. but when a question is asked or a command given, the nominative follows the helping verb, or the principal verb; as, " Shall he come .' Go thou." In many other instances the nominative follows the verb. To find the nominative to a verb, ask the question who ? which ? or what ? and tlie word that answers the question, is the nominative ; as, " Dick is idle." Wlio is idle.' answer, Dick. Dick is, therefore, the nominative. RULE IL The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person ; as, " He improves ;" " The birds sing." Note 1. — Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, must have a nominative case ; but elegance often requires that the nominative be not expressed. Thia is especially the case, when the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, " Come on, learn, read." Note 2. — When a verb is placed between two nominatives of different num- bers, it may agree with either ; but it is generally made to agree with the first, and this may be considered as preferable ; as, " Words are wind." Note 3. — When the nominative is a collective noun, or noun of multitude, conveying an idea that the whole is considered as one united in a body, the verb and pronoun must agree with it in the singular number ; as, " The meeting was large, and it held three hours ;" but, if the nominative convey an idea that the whole is not considered as one, but as many, the verb and pronoun must be in the plural number ; as, " The council were divided in their opinion." No pre- cise rule can be given to dii ect in every case, wliich number is to be used. Much'regard is to be had to usage, and to the unity, or plurality of idea. In general, modern practice inclines to the use of the plural verb, as may be seen by the daily use of clergy, nobility, court, council, commonalty, enemy, and the like. Note 4. — When a collective noun is preceded by a, this, or that, or any other word which clearly limits the sense to unity, it requires a verb and pronoun in the singular number ; as, " A company of troops 2cas collected;" " This people is become a great nation." Yet our language seems to be averse to the use of ii, as the substitute for nouns even tlius limited by a, this, or that. " How long will this people provoke me, and how long will it be ere they will believe me lor all the signs that I have showed among them ?" " Liberty should reacli every indi- vidual of a people ; as they all share one common nature." In these passages, it in the place of they, would not be relislied by an English ear. RULE in. Articles and adjectives belong to nouns, which they qualify or de- fine ; as, " A toise man ; the king ; this book, those books." An adjective is usually placed before the noim to which it relates ; as, " A tcise prince, a brave soldier." But it is frequently placed after the noun, especial- ly in poetry ; as, " Fruit pleasant to the taste ;" " The genuine cause of every deed divine." The article commonly precedes the adjective and noun; as, "^ learned man ;" but it is occasionally placed between the adjective and notm; thus, "So rich a dress ;" " As splendid a retinue ;" " He is too careless an author." GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. 33 Note 1. — The indefinite article a or mi is prefixed to nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively ; as, " ^ Christian, a?i infidel, a com- pany.'" A should be used before words beginning' with a consonant, or u soimd- ed like iju; as, " j3 man, a unicorn." .4 should likewise be used before a diph- thong sounded like yu ; as, " A eunuch ;" and before words beginning with a vowel sounded like w ; as, " Many a one." An must be used before words be- ginning with a vowel, or silent h; as, " An apple, an hour ;" and before li not silent, when the accent is on the second syllable ; as, " An herculean task." Note 2. — The definite article the, is prefixed to nouns both in the singular and plural ; as, " The garden, the houses, the stars." Note 3. — When tlie number or quantity of any thing is intended to be ex- pressed in a positive manner, the article a or an should be used ; but when a negative meaning is intended, the article should be omitted. Thus, if I say, " fle spoke with a little reverence ^"t my meaning is positive, and I rather praise the person ; but if I say, " He spoke with little reverence," my meaning is negative, and I dispraise him. " Few were pleased, and a few were pleased," convey very different ideas. Note 4. — Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood ; as, " To see is pleasant— to ride is more ug reeable than to walk — to calumniate is detestable." And sometimes the adjective belongs to the infinitive mood, in union with another adjective or a noun; " To be blind is unfortunate ; to be a coward is disgraceful." Here the adjective unfortunate, is the adjective of the first clause, to he blind, &c. NoTjE 5 — Adjectives are sometimes used to modify the action of the verb, and to express the qualities of things in connexion with the action by which they are produced. Examples; " Magnesia feels swioofA; calcarious earths feel dry; the apples bcil soft or hard." The words here used cannot be- adverbs, neither can they be changed into adverbs without destroying the meaning of the passages. Let the sentences be put to the test ; " Magnesia feels smoothly- — calcarious earths fee^ryly — the apples boil softly or hardly." Note (^-When a noun is attended by two or more adjectives, that which more nearly relates to it should be placed next ; as, " A rich old man ;" not, " An old rich man." We sometimes meet with adjectives applied to wrong nouns ; as in the phrases, "Anew pair of shoes ; a good piece of land." The shoes are new, not the pair; the land is good, and not the piece. It should be, " A pair of new shaes ; a piece of good land." Care must be taken jiot to use such adjectives as are im- proper to be applied to the nouns with winch they are used ; as, " Good virtues, bad vices, pj,inflil tooth-aches, pleasing pleasures." These are staringly absurd. Note 7. — Double comparatives and superlatives, most straightest, most high- est, &c. being improper and useless, are not tQ be used. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, and such as do not admit of increase or diminution, should not be compared ; as, " Chief, extreme, perfect, right, uni- versal, supreme, square, round," &c. which are sometimes iihproperly written, " Cliiefest, extreraest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most supreme, squarest, roundest," &c. When an adjective or adverb is used in a comparison between two persons or things only, it should be in the comparative degree ; but when three or more are implied, the superlative should be used ; as, " He is the stronger of the two." " This is the best pen of the three." Note 8. — This and that, the only adjectives varied to express number, must agree in number with the nouns to which they refer ; as, " This city, tliat church ; these cities, those churches." Adjectives conveying unity or plurality of idea, require nouns agreeing with them accordingly ; as, " One foot, six feet ;" not six foot. In some tecnnical terms, an adjective conveying plurality of idea, is jomed with a singular noun ; as, " twenty sail of vessels, ten head of cattle." But such phrases as, tioenty foot, forty pound, &c. are un^raminatical. Note 9. — The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, another, t&c. represent, or relate to, nouns of the singular number only, or such as convey a collective idea, and require nouns, pronouns, and verbs, agreeing with them in the singular number ; as, " Every tree is known by its fruit." Each and every signify the whole of any number taken distinctly or separately : either and neither signify only one or the other of two persons or things ; and they should be used accordingly. Note 10. — Tlic pronoun them should not be used as an adjective to any noun ; as, " Give me those books ;'' not them books. In some cases it is difficult to determine, whether the pronominal adjectives these or those, or the pronouns they or tliem is preferable ; as, " Those that sow in tears, shall reap in joy ;'' or, " they that sow," &c. " We do not wish to be ac- quainted with them vnvt are given to detraction," or, "'with those wlio arc given to detraction." In aiicii sentences, the easy flow and perspicuity of liio languiigo should be chieflv regarded. Note II. — Tlio noun mean sigriidns mediocrity, or middle state, and is always of the singular number ; as, " This is a,rriean between the t\Vo oxtroiiins." liut it sboiild not be used to express the cause, or reason, or iiistriimcnt ol'un action, which should bo oxpTCHsed l)y the noun mr.uns. Like some other nouns ofa Biinilar construction, menus does not change its termination on account of number ; and the adjoclives Ihi.y, that. &c. should agree with it acconiimrly, as it refers to wli:it iH siniruliir (11- plural; as, "Me liveil temperately, and hy this means pre- Beryod his health ;" " The scliolars wore attentive, induslrious, and obedient to their tutors, and by these means acquired knowledge." Young piirsoiiH wlui study gr.niniiiar liad it dilhcult to decide, in particular coustructiDus, whellK^r an udjcclire or an adrerb ought to bo used. A few ob- srrviitions nn tliis j)(>itij,, may servo to inform their judgment, and direct their dotoruiinalion. They should carofidly attend to tlio deiinilion of tlio adjoctivo nnd the advorb, and see whetlicr, in tho case in (piestion, quality or manner in indicated. In tlie former case, an adjective is proper ; in the latter, an adverb. A nuinl)cr oJ* "xnrnplcs will illuslrato this direction, and jirovo useful on other occasions. " SliR looks cold; she looks coldly on him." " He feels warm; ho feels warmly the insult offered to him." " He became sincere and virtuous; he became sincere^?/ virtuous." "She lives /ree firom care ; she lives /reeZy at ano- ther's expense." " Harriet always appears neat ; she dresses neatly." " Charles has grown great by his wisdom; he has grown greatly in reputation." " They now appear happy ; they now appear, happily in earnest." " The statement seems exact ; the statement seems exactly in point." The verb to he, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and, consequently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying the sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with an adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations ; " This is agreeable to our interest." " Rules should be conformable to sense." is is " The rose smells sweet ; How sweet the hay smells ! How delightful the coon- is are are try appears ! How pleasant the fields look ! The clouds look dark ; How black was are were is the sky looked ! The apples taste sour ; How bitter the plums tasted ! He feels happy." In all these sentences, we can, with perfect propriety, substitute some tenses of the verb to be for the other verbs : but in the following sentences we cannot do this ; " George feels disagreeably ;" " How pleasantly she looks at us !" If we should say, George is disagreeable, it would vary the sense ; and if we should say. How pleasant she is at us ! it would be no sense at all. . These direc- tions are offered as useful, not as complete and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us ; but we must not reject rules because they are attended with exceptions. Note 12. — The adjective such is often misapplied ; as, " He was such an ex- travagiftit young nian, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years ;" it should be, " so extravagant a young man." "I never before saw smcA large trees ;" " saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found ;" but when degree is signified, we use the word so ; as, "6'o bad a temper is seldom found," RULE IV. Participles, like verbs, relate to nouns or pronouns ; as, " I saw him labouring in the field." Note 1. — Participles sometimes agree with a sentence, or part of a sentence ; as, "According to Hierocles, Ammonius was induced to execute the plan of a distinct elective school." Here, according relates to the whole statement of facts in the last clause ; " Ammonius was induced to execute the plan of a distinct elective school" — all which is according to Hierocles. Note 2. — Participles often stand without a noun, pronoun, or sentence on which they immediately depend, being referable to either of the persons indefi- nitely ; as, " It is impossible to act otherwise, considering the weakness of our nature." " Granting this to be true, it would help us but little." " Generally speaking, the heir at law is not bound by the intention of the testator." " Com- paring two men, in reference to a common parent, it is easy to frame the idea of brothers." , RULE V. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " He spoke eloquently." " Having lived prudently, he became rich." '" He is unaffectedly polite." " He writes very correctly." Note 1. — Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, «&c. re- quire an appropriate situation in the sentence ; viz. for the most part before ad- jectives, after verbs, when single ; and between the auxiliary and the verb, when compound ; as, " A very prudent woman." " She behaves discreetly, and is much admired." Wlion two auxiliaries are used, tho adverb is usually placed after tho second ; as, " We have been kindly treated." Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or after it, whether simple or compound ; and often at some distance from the verb. Hence it appears that, no exact and determinate rule can bo given for tlie ])lacing of adverbs on all occasions. The general rule may be of considerable use ; but, tho easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase are the things wliich ought to bo chiefly regarded. Tlie adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds notiiing to the sense ; in which ciiso it precedes tho verb and tho nominative noun ; as, " There is a jiorson at tho door ;" which would bo as well or butter expressed by saying, " A person is at the door." JYever soeiiiH to be improperly used in tho following passages ; " Ask ine verer .so much dowry and gill." '' If 1 make my hiuidw ncrcr so clean." The word ever would 1)11 more suitable to the sense. Note 2. — Tho adverb not should follow the conjunctions lo/icther, or, when a contrast is intended ; as, '• lie would proceed vvhiitlier ho obtained permisHion or not ;" not " whet her he obtained permission or no." Note :{. — 'I'lin adverbs where, here, and there, .iliould not bo used for whereby, herein, and therein ; or whore a iireposition and relative pronoun would bo more clogiint and expressive ; as, " An account was drawn in which (not xchcre) their suffcriiigB were represented." Notk 4. — Adverbs of time and place, are frcqiiontly preceded by a preposition, and convey tho moaning of nouns ; but tlii.^i construction should generally bo avoided, and tho noun applied; thus, instead of, "He went from here, it should be, " From this plure." — Hither, thither, and whither, denoting to a place, are obsolete in popular practice ; being superseded by here, there, and where ; as, " Where shall we go," iuFtcad of, " Whither shall we go." NofE 5. — Hence, whence, and thence, are used with or without the preposition u GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. from. In strictness, the idea of from is included in the words, and it ought not to be used. The adverb hoio should not be used before tho conjunction that, or instead of it ; as, " He was informed that he must go ;" not, " how that he must go." Note 6. — ^We have some examples of adverbs being used for nouns ; as, " It is not worth their while." We are accustomed to use as adverbs, a little, and a great deal ; as, " The many letters I receive, do not a little encourage me." " Indeed, they encourage me a great deal." Many nouns are used in the like manner, as modifiers of the sense of verbs. " You don't caxe six-pence whether he was wet or dry." Johnson. Note 7. — Two negatives in English destroy one another, or are equivalent to an affirmative; as, " JVor did they not perceive him;" that is, "They did perceive him." " His language, though inelegant, is not wragrammatical ;" that is, " It is grammatical." It is better to express an affirmation by a regular af- fiteiative, than by two separate negatives, as in the former sentence ; but where one of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression. Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one to ex- press negation ; as, " I cannot by no means allow him what his argument is in- tended to prove." I cannot by any means, &c. or, I can by no means. " J^or let no comforter approach me ;" nor let any comforter, &c. " I never did re- pent of doing good, nor shall not now ;" nor shall I now. " Never no imitator grew up to his author ;" never did any, &c. " JVor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thun- der or earthquake ;" any more. " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics." Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born in a republic. RULE VI. Active verbs govern the objective case ; as, "Alexander conquered the Persians." Nouns and pronouns, especially in poetry, are frequently transposed from their natural order, and when in the objective case, come before the verbs which govern them, and when in the nominative, come after the verbs ; as, " She with extended arms Iiis aid implores." " Him declare I unto you." Whom, and which, when in the objective case, always precede the verb. Note 1. — It often happens that active verbs and their participles govern two objective words ; one expressing the person, and the other the thing ; as, " He taught them philosophy." And sometimes the active verb governs two nouns in the objective, both of which are expressive of things only ; as, " The liter-ati who make etymology the invariable rule of pronunciation." The position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and govern- ment to be neglected ; as in the following sentences ; " Who should I esteem more than the wise and good .'" " By the character of those loho you choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." " Those are the persons who he thought true to his interest." " Who should I see the other day but my old friend." " Whosoever the court favours." " Who do you see ?" In all these instances it ought to be whom, the pronoun being governed in the objective case by the verbs esteem, choose, thought, see, &c. " He who, under all proper circum- stances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend." It should be, Him who, &c. Note 2. — Some verbs were formerly used as transitive, which are no longer considered as such ; as, " He repented him — flee thee away — he was survived — the sum was amounted ;" &c. which are held improper. Note 3. — Some neuter verbs assume a transitive form ; as, " To live a life of virtue." " To die the death of the righteous." " To dream dreams." " To run a race." " To sleep the sleep of death." " To walk the horse." " To dance the child." " And rivers run potable gold." " The crisped brooks ran nectar." " Groves whoso rich trees wept odorous gums and balms." " Grin a ghastly smile." " Her lips blush deeper sweets." In these examples, and many others of the like kind, the verbs may not impro- perly be denominated active, although the nouns which follow them are not in strictness their objects ; but they are either the names of the result of the verb's action, or closely connected with it. Nearly allied to this idiom is that of using after transitive verbs, certain nouns which do not appear to be tla objects of the verb, nor of precisely the same sense. Examples — " A guinea weighs five pennyweights, six grains." " A crown weighs nineteen pennyweights." " A piece of cloth measures ten yards," &c. But in these and similar examples, the noun may be called the objective case. Note 4. — It sometimes happens that nouns in the objective case, carry the appearance of being governed by a verb, when they are, in fact, governed by a praposition, or some other word understood ; as, " He resided many years in that street ;" that is, for or during many years. " He rode several miles on that day ;" that is, for or through tlie space^of several miles. " He lay an hour in great tor- ture ;" that is, during an hour. RULE VII. Participles have the same government as the verbs have, from which they are derived; as, "They found liiin transgressing the laws." Note. Here transgressing is a present participle, from the active verb transgress, and governs laws in the objective case. NoTB 1. — Participles are often used as nouns, in which character they may be in the nominative or objective case ; and, like nouns, may govern the possessive caae. It not unfrequently happens, that tliey perform at once, the office of a verb and noun ; as, " The taking from anotlier wliat is his, witliout liis kijow- ledge or allowance, is called stealing." " By the mind's changing the object to which it compares any thing." " To save tkem from other people's damning them." "Such a plan is not capable of being carried into execution." " They could not avoid submitting to tWs influence." " Suppose a Christian, Platonist, or Pythagorean, should, upon God's having ended aM his works, think his soul hath existed ever since." " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mis- chief." " He Was displeased with the king's having disposed of the office, or with his having bestowed it upon a worthless man." " Its excesses may be restrained without destroying its existence." " He was near losing his life." Note 2. — When the participle of the present time is preceded by a or the, it takes the character and government of nouns ; and, in most cases, must be fol- lowed by of ; as, " The repenting of sinners gives joy to the celestial regions." " This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him." " These are the rules of grammar, by the observing of which you may avoid mistakes." If either the or of be omitted, we should generally omit both. It would not be proper to say, " by the observing which," nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase without either article or preposition would be right; as, "by observing which." Note 3. — As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different in their form, caro must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, " He begun," for ',' he began ;" " he nm," for "he ran;" "he drunk,". for "he drank;" the participle being here used in- stead of the imperfect tense ; and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the participle; as, "I had wrote," for "I had written;" "I was chose," for " I was chosen ;" " I have eat," for " I have eaten." The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed into t ; as, " In good behaviour he is not surpast by any pupil of the school." " She was much distrest." They ought to be, surpassed, distressed. RULE VIIL Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, " JFVom New- York to Philadelphia ; across the Delaware ; over land ; by water ; through the air ; with us ; for me ; to them ; in you ; among the people ; towards us." In general, the preposition is placed next before a pronoun ; sls, " to him, for us;" but it may be separated from a noun by an adjective and article ; aa, "In the busy scenes of life." An accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great importance. Note 1. — Elegance requires, that we do not use prepositions in conjunction with those verbs that preserve their signification without the preposition ; as, ".Accept it; admit him; approve; address; attain." These axe more elegant than " accept of it ; admit of him," &c. Note 2. — The preposition is often separated from the relative which it go- verns ; as, " Whom wilt thou give it to 9" instead of, " To whom wilt thon give it .'"' " He is an author wlwm I am much delighted with ;" instead of, " withwkom I am much delighted." This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well 'with the familiar style in writing : but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and eievated style. In many cases, the relative pronoun is suppressed ; as, " I did not see the per- son he came with;" that is, " with whom he came." But this is most common and most allowable in colloquial and epistolary language : in the grave and ele- vated style, it is seldom elegant ; and never to be admitted to the injury of perspicuity. Note 3. — Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect different prepositions with the same noun ; as, " To suppose the sodia« and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent (o, themselves." This mode of ex- pression, whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where great exact- ness is requisite, it may be admitted. Note 4. — Prepositions are often omitted, especially before pronouns ; as, " Give it me;" " Buy him some books ;" that is, to me ; for him. " Wo is Tne;" that is, to me. " He was banished the kingdom ;" that is, froyn the king- dom. After the adjective near, to is often omitted ; as, " To bring them ntar*r the truth." Also after adjoining ; as, " A garden adjoining a river." After worth and like there is an ellipses of of and to ; as, " The book is worth a dollar ;" that is, worthy of a dollar. " She is like the lovely Thais ;" that is, like to the lovely Thais. Home, after a verb denoting motion to, is always used without to ; as, " We are going home." Nouns that signify the time when, or how long, or that signify space, are generally governed by prepositions understood ; as, " He went home last week;" that is, on last week. "He lived four years at college;" that is, RUL£ II. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones, and separated by commas ; as, " The decay, the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections." EXCEPTIONS. 1. Two words of the same kind, immediately connected by a conjunction, though they may render the sentence a compound one, must not be separated. But, if there be more than two, they must all be separated, unless connected in pairs, in which case the pairs only must be separated ; as, " Some men sin de- hberately and presumptuously." « Deaths of parents, friends, and companions, are doubtless intended for our improvement." " There is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." 2. In comparative sentences, where the members are short, the comma is bet- ter omitted ; as, " Wisdom -is better than riches." " No preacher is so success- ful as time." 3. Sentences connected by what cannot be separated ; and where the relative is understood, the comma is generally omitted ; as, " Eat what is set before you." " With sorrow may they mingle gratitude for the wise counsel he has given them, and for the excellent example he has set before them for imitation." " Value duly the opportunities you enjoy." 4. When a simple sentence stands as the object of a preceding verb, and its ■^erb may be changed mto the infinitive mood, the comma may be omitted ; as, " When I supposed he was at rest ;" changed, " when I supposed him to be at rest." When a longer pause than a comma is required, and yet the sense is incom- plete, a semicolon may be used ; as, " The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the applause of those about him." RULE IV. The colon is- used when the sense of the division of a period is complete, so as to admit of a full point, but something is added by way of illustration ; as, " A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass : in a few years lie has all the endowments li&^is capable of; and were he to live ton thousand more, would be the same thing he is at present." Note. — This point is of little use ; the difference between tlie colon and semi- colon is so small, that the two pauses are frequently confounded, as may be seen by the present version of the Proverbs. We conceive the colon might be reject- ed without injury to the perspicuity of sentences ; and punctuation very mucii simplified by substituting tlie semicolon and the full point. RULE V. A sentence making in itself complete sense, requires a period after it ; as " Fear God." « Honour the King." The period is used also after initials when used alone ; as aflor A. D. for Anno Domini ; Q. for question ; and after abbreviations ; as, Col. for Colonel ; Mr. for Mister ; &c. for and so forth, or ct cetera. Interrogative sentences require a mark of interrogation ; and sentences ex- pressing wonder or suprise, a mark of admiration after them ; as, " Whom do you see ?" " How wonderful is man !" 43 GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. The following characters are also frequently used in composition. The dash [ — ] marks a break in the Sentence, or an abrupt turn ; as, " If thou art he — but Oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !" " Here lies the great — false marble, where ? Nothing but sordid dust lies here." It is also used when a long pause is necessary, and ji person is waiting for an answer ; as, " Hold up thy hand, make signal of thy hope — He dies, and tnakes no sign !" • Parentheses ( ) include a remark or clause, not essential to the sentence in construction, but useful in explaining it, or introducing an important idea. They mark a moderate pause, and the clause included is read with a depressed tone of voice; as, " Knpw then this truth; (enough for man to kiow,) Virtue alone is happiness below." Brackets or Hooks [ ] include words that serve to explain a foregoing word or sentence; as, " He [John]" &c. "They [the Americans]" &c. " This event took place in 1736, [1763, probably an error of the press,] when the enemy," &c. Th« mark to distinguish a long syllable, is this - , as, " Rosy ;" and a short one thus "-' ; as, '■ iPoUy." The Accent is marked thus ' ; as, " Fan'cy." The caret [ a ] denotes an interlineation, and shows where to bring in what was- omitted in the first writing ; as, a but " Without friend the world is a wilderness." A A The hyphen [ - ] is used to join compound words together ; as, Sea-water, lap-dog, tea-pot, &c. but its chief use is to join the parts of words together that are written partly in one line and partly in another ; as, " The words in this case must be divided according to the most approved rules of good pronun- ciation." The apostrophe [ ' ] is a sign of the possessive case ; as, " Peter's cane." It also contracts words ; as, Lov'd for loved, e'en for even, 'tis for it is, &c. The quotation [ " " ] or [ ' ' ] includes a passage that is taken from some other author in Ms own words. Where a quotation occurs within a quotation, its commencement must be marked by a single inverted comma, and its conclu- tion by a single apostrophe ; as, " When Antisthenes was asked, what learning was the most necessary, he replied, ' To unlearn that which is naught.' " The ellipsis [ — — ] is used when some letters in a word, or some words in a sentence are omitted ; as, K- — —g, for King. The brace [ > ] unites three poetical lines which have the same rhyme, or con- nects a number of words in prose with one common term. The section [ § ] divides a discourse or chapter in less parts. The paragraph [ IT ] is chiefly used in the Bible, and denotes the beginning cf a new subject. The index or hand [ [CF] points out a remarkable passage, or something that requires particular attention. "The asterisk or star [ * ] directs the reader to some note in the margin or bot- tom of the page. Two or more asterisks generally denote that something is wanting, defective, or immodest, in the passage. The obelisk or dagger, [ t ] double obelisk or dagger, [ t ] parallel lines, [ |1 ] letters of the alphabet, and figures, are used as references to the margin, or bot- tom of the page. DIRECTIONS RESPECTING THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. Capitals are used in the following situations. 1. At the-beginning of every principal word in the titles of books, chapters, &c. as, " Johnson's Dictionary of the Enghsh Language ; Rollin's Ancient History." 2._ The first word of etery book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing. 3. 'The begiiming of the first word after a period ; and if the two sentences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. But, if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are thrown into one general group ; or, if the construction of the latter sentence depends on the former, all of them except the first, may begin with small letters ; as, " How long, ye sim- ple ones, win ye love simplicity ? and the scorners delight in their looming .' and fools hate knowledge ?" " Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same !" 4. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon or semicolon, or when it is in a direct form ; as, " Always remember this maxim ; ' Know thyself " But when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary ; as, " Solomon observes, ' that pride goes before destruction.' " The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital ; as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 5. The pronoun 7, and the interjection 0, must always be capitals ; as, " I write ; Hear, O earth." 6. At the beginning of every line in poetry. 7. All names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, if not wholly written, with capitals ; as, God, Lord, Supreme Being, Almighty, Most High, Divine Providence. "The word heaven must always begin with a capital, when used as the name of the King of heaven; as, " May Heaven pros- per you.'* But when it is used as the name of the abode of the blessed, it may begin with a small letter, except at the beginning of a sentence ; as, '• The angels of heaven." " The Lord of heaven and earth." 8. All proper names, of whatever description, must begin with capitals; of persons, heathen gods and goddesses, brutes, the planets,* the fixed stars and constellations, countries, kingdoms, states, cities, towns, streets, islands, moun- tains, rivers, ships, seas, oceans, &c. as, Benjamin Franklin ; Sir Isaac Newton ; the Allegany Mountains ; the Ohio River ; Lake Superior : the Red Sea ; the Frigate Guerriere. Also all adjectives derived from proper names ; as, the Newtonian system ; Grecian, Roman, American, French, Italian, &c. 9. All titles of honour, professions, and callings of men, particularly when an address is made, ought to begin with capitals ; as. President, Govemor, General, Judge, Esquire, Mr. &c. Also all qualities used as titles of men ; as. Honourable, Reverend, &c. 10 Capitals are always used to begin the names of all coivts. Societies, and public bodies of men ; as, Congress, the General Assembly, the Supreme Judicial Court, the Court of Common Pleas, the Humane Society, the Corporation, &c. 11. The names of all religious sects and denominations, are begun with capi- tals ; as, Episcopalians, Baptists, Friends, &<;. 12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months, and the days of the week ; as, January, February, «fcc. Monday, Tuesday, &c. Also aU puD- Uc days ; as, a Public Thanksgiving, a Solemn Fast, &c. 13. The names of all articles of commerce, when entered in merchants' books, advertisements, &c. should begin with capitals ; as, Linen, Cotton, Silk, Riun, Sugar, Tea, &c. Also all sums of money specified in notes, bonds, &c. as. Ten Dollars and Seventy-five Cents. 14. Very emphatical words are frequently begun, and sometimes wholly Writ- ten in capitals. * The earth excepted. EXERCISES liV PUNCTUATION. COMMA. K The tutor by instruction and discipline lays the foundation of the pupil's future honour. Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospect of many a youth. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. To live soberly righteously and pi/jusly comprehends the whole of our duty. " The path of piety and virtue pursued with a -firm and constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy principal study. Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortunes. He who is a stranger to industry may possess but he cannot enjoy. Beware of those rash and dangerous connexions which may afterwards load thee with dishonour. SEMICOLON. The path of truth is a plain and a safe path that of falsehood is a perplexing maze. Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth and has ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of fierceness and ani- mosity. COLON. » Often is the smile of gayety assumed whilst the heart aches within though ftUy may laugh guilt will sting. There is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same time wisdom is the re- pose of minds. PERIOD. We ruin the happiness of life when we attempt to raise it too high a tolerable and comfortable state is all that we can propose to ourselves on earth peace and contentment not bliss nor transport are the full portion of man perfect joy ie re- served for heaven. INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION. To lie down on the pillow after a day spent in temperance in beneficcnoftand in piety how sweet it is. « ■ We wait till to-morrow to be happy alas why not to-day shall we be yom»ge» I are we sure we shall be healthier will our passions become feebler and our love of the world less. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. FALSE GRAMMAR, ADAPTED TO THE RUIiES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 4a It is no great merit to spel properly ; b\it a great defect to do it incorrectly. — Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staf. — We may place too little, as well as too much stres upon dreams. — Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. RDLE II. A carr signifies a chariot of war, or a small carriage of burden. — In the names of druggs and plants, the mistake in a word may endanger lift. Nor undelightful is the ceaseless humm . To him who muses through the woods at noon. The finn of a fish is the limb by which he balances his body, and moves in the ■,yg.ter. — Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth. — Many thousand fami- lies are supported by the simple business of making matts. RULE m. We should subject our fancys to the government of reason. — ^If thou art seek- ing for the living amongst the dead, thou wearyest thyself in vain. — If we have denyed ourselves sinful pleasures, we shall be great gainers in the end. — We shall not be the happyer for possessing talents and affluence, unless we make a right use of them. — The truly good mmd is not dismaied by poverty, afflictions, or death. RCLE nr. It is a great blessing to have a sound mind, uninfluenced by fancyful hu- mours. — Common calamities, and common blessings, fall heavyly upon the envi- ous. — The comelyness of youth are modesty and frankness ; of age, condescen- sion and dignity. — When we act against conscience, we become the destroiersof our own peace. — We may be plaiful, and yet innocent; grave, and yet corrupt. It is only from general conduct, that our true character can be portraied. RULE V. When we bring the lawmaker into contempt, we have in effect anuled his laws. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows. — The pupils of a certain ancient "philosopher, were not, during their first years of study, per- mited to ask any questions. — We have all many faillings and lapses to lament and recover. There is no aJBliotion with which we are visitted, that may not be im- proved to our advantage. — The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things, which the heathen philosophers allowed. RULE VI. Restlesness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the performance of our duty. — The arrows of calumny faU harmlesly at the feet of virtue. The road to the blisful regions, is as open to the peasant as the king. — A chillness or shivering of the body generally precedes a fever. — To recommend virtue to others, our Lghts must shine brfghtly, not dullly. The silent stranger stood amaz'd to see Contempt of wealth, and vnllfU poverty. RULE vn. The warmth of disputation, destroys that eedatness of mind which is neces- sary to discover truth. All these with ccasless ptaifie his works behold. Both day and night. In aU our reasonings, our minds should be sincerly employed in the pursuit of truth. — Rude behaviour, and indecent language, are peciJiarly disgracful to youth of education.— The true worship of God is an important and aweful ser- vice. — Wisdom alone is truely fair -. folly only appears so. RULE Till. The study of the Ennjish language is making daily advancment.- arrangment of studies facilitates improvment. To shun allurments is not hard, To minds resolv'd, forewarn'd, and well prepar'd. -A judicious Every person and tiling connected with self, is apt to appear good and desire- able in our eyes. — Errors and miscor-duct are more excuseable in ignorant, than in well-instructod persons. — The divine laws are not revcrseible by those of nwn. — Gratitude is a forcoiblo and active principle in good and generous minds. — Ova natural and involuntary defects of body, are not chargable upon us. — We are made to be servicaUIe to others, as well o^ to ourselves. 11 RULE X. An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile and cringeing humour. — By solaceing the sorrows of others, the heart is improved at the same time that our duty is performed. — Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. — The inadvertencies of youth may be excused, but knaveish tricks should meet with severe reproof. EULE XI. Love worketh no ill to our neighbour, and is the fullfilling of the law. — ^That which is sometimes expedient, is not allways so. — We may be hurtfull to others, by our example, as well as by personal injuries. — Wliere diligence opens the door of the understanding, and impartiality keeps it, truth finds an entrance and a wellcome too. PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. Neglect no oppurtunity of doing good. No man can stedily build upon accidents. How shall we keep, what sleeping or awake, A weaker may surprize, a stronger take. Neither time nor misfortunes should eraze the rememberance of a friend.— Moderation should preside, both in the kitchin and the parlor. — Shall we re- cieve good at the Divine hand, and shall we not recieve evil ? — In many de-, signs, we may succede and be miserable. — We should have sence and virtue enough to receed from our demands, when they appear to be unresonable. — All our comforts precede from the Father of Gropdness. — The ruin of a state is gene- rally proceeded by a universal degenaracjkf manners, and a contempt of re- ligion. — His father omited nothing in his education, that might render him vir- tuous and useful!. — The daw in tlie fable was dressed in pilforred ornaments. — A favor confered with delicacy, doubles the obligation. — They tempted their Creator, and limitted the Holy One of Izrael. — The preeepts of a good educa- tion have often recured in the time of need. — We are frequently benefitted by, what we have dreaded. — It is no great virtue to live loveingly with good-natured and meek persons. — Tlie Christian religion gives a, more lovly character of God, than any religion ever did. — Without sinisterous views, they are dextrous managers of their own interest. Any thing commited to the trust and care of another, is a deposit. Here finnish'd he, and all that he had made, Vieu'd and beheld ! All was intirely good. It deserves our best skil to enquire into those rules, by which we may guide our judgement. — Food, clotheing,and Irabitations, are tlie rewards of industry. — If we lie no restraint upon our lusts, no controul upon our apetites and passions, they will hurry us into guilt and misery. — An independant is one who, in reli- gious affairs, holds that every congregation is a compleat Church. Receive his council and securly move : Entrust thy fortune to the Power above. Follov/ing life in cretures we disect. We loose it in tlie moment we detect. The acknowledgement of our transgressions must precede the forgivnesa of them. — Judicious abridgements often aid the studys of youtli. Examine how thy humor is enclin'd. And which the ruleing passion of thy mind. ^ He faultcrs at the question : His fears, his words, his looks, declare him guilty. Calicoe is an Indian stuff made of cotton ; sometimes stained with lively colors. — To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the saino as being the acters of it ourselvs. — The glasier's business was unknown to the antients. — The anteco- dant, in grammcr, is the noun to which the rektivc refers. — Be not aifraid of the wicked : they are under tho controul of Providence. Consciousness of guilt may justly afright ns. — Convey to others no inteligonce which you would be ashamed to avow. — Many are weighed in the ballanco, and found wanting. — How many disapointments have, in their cousucjuences, saved a man ttom ruin! — A well-poised mind makes a chearfiil countenance. — A certain hous- holdcr planted a vinyard, but tho men imploycd in it made ungratefuU re- turns. — Let us show dilUgence in every laudable undertaking. — Cinamon is the fragrant bark of a low tree in the iland of Ceylon. — ^A ram will but with his head, though ho be brought up tame, and never saw tho action. — Wo percieve a piece of silver in a bason, when water is poured on it, though we could not discover it before. — Virtue imlialms the memory of the good. — Tho king of Great Brittain is a limitted monarch ; and tho Urittish nation a free people. — The phisician may dispcnco tho mcdicin, but Providence alone can bless it. — In many persuits, wo imbark with pleasure, and land sorrowfiilly. — Rooka, 44 GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. rite mountains, and caverns, are of indispensible use, both to the earth and to man. The hive of a city, or kingdom, is in the best condition, when their is the least noize or buz in it. — The roughnesses found on our enterance into the paths of virtue and learning, grow smoother as we advance. — That which was once the most beautifull spot of Italy, coverred with pallaces, imbellished by princes, and cellebrated by poets, has now nothing to show but ruins. — Batterring rams were antiently used to beat down the walls of a city. — Jocky signifies a man that rides horses in a race ; or who deals in horses. — The harmlesness of many ani- mals, and the injoyment which they have of life, should plead for»them against cruel useage. — We may be very buzy to no usefiill purpose. — We cannot plead in atatment of our guilt, that we are ignorent of our duty. — Genuine charaty, how liberal soever it may be, will never impoverish ourselves. If we sew spareingly, we shall reap acordingly. — However disagreable, we must resolutly perforni our duty. — ^A fit of sickness is often a kind chastisment and disciplin, to moderate our affection for the things of this life. — It is a happiness to young per- sons, when they are preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden in- closed. — Health and peace, the most valueable posessions, are obtained at small expence. — Incence signifies perfumes exhailed by fire, and made use of in;>re- ligious ceremonies. — True happyness is an ennemy to pomp and noize. — Few reflexions are more distre.sing, than those which we make on our own ingrati- tude. — There is an inseperable connection between piety and virtue. — Many actions have a fajr complection, which have not sprung from virtue. — Which way soever we turn ourselvs, we are incountered with sensable demonstrations of a Deity. — If we forsake tlie ways of virtue, we cannot alledge any color of io-noranoe, or want of instruction. — There are more cultivators of the earth, t^an of their own hearts. — Man is incompassed with dangers innumerable. — War is attended with distresful and dessolating effects. It is confesedly the scorge of our angry passions. — The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness therof. — The harvest truely is plenteous, but the laborers are few. — The greater our incit- ments to evil, the greater will be our victory and reward. — We should not in- courage persons to do what they beleive to be wrong. — Virtue is placed between two extreams, which are on both sides, equally biameable. — We should con- tinually have the gaol in our eyes, which would direct us in the race. — The goals were forced open, and the prisoners set free. — It cannot be said that we are charitible doners, when our gifts proceed from selfish motives. — Straight is the gate, and narrow the way, that lead to life eternal. — Integrity leads us strait forward, disdaining all doubleings, and crooked paths. — Licenciousness and crimes pave the way to ruin. — Words are the countres of wise men, but the money of fools. — Recompence to no man evil for evil. — He was an excellent pwson ; a mirrour of antient faith in early youth. — Meekness controuls our angry passions ; candor, our severe judgments. — He is not only a descendent from pious ancestors, but an inhm'iter too of their virtues. — An idle person spends his time, arid eats the fiuitPof the earth, like a vermin or a wolf — Faith- fulness and judgment are peculiarly requisit in testamentory executors. — To be faithfull among the faithless, argues great strength of principal. — Mountains ap- pear to be like so many wens or unatural protuberancies on the face of the earth. — In some places the sea incroaches upon the land ; in others, the land upon tlie sea. — Pliilosopliers agreed in despizing riches, as the encumberances of life. — W^ars are regulated robberries and pyracies. — Fishes encrease more than beasts or birds, as appears from their numrous spaun. — The piramids of Egypt have stood more than three thousand years. — Precepts have small influence, when npt inforced by example. How has kind Heav'n adorn'd the happy land, And scatter'd blessings with a wastful hand. A friend exaggarates a man's virtues, an enemy enflames his crimes.^ — A wit- ty and humourous vein has often produced ennemies. — Neither pleasure nor buisness should ingress our time and affections ; proper seasons should be alotted for retirnicnt. — It is laudable to enquire before we determin. — Many have been visitted with afflictions, who have not profitted by them. — We may be succesful, and yet disapointed.— The experience of want inhances the value of plenty. — To maintain opinions stifly, is no evidence of their truth, or of our moderation. — Horehouiid has been famous for its medecinal qualities ; but it is now little used. — The wicked are often ensnared in the trap wliich they lie for others. — It is hard to say what diseases are cureable : they are all under the guidance of heaven. — Instructors should not only be skilfull in those sciences which they teach ; but have skil in the method of teaching, and patience in the practise. — Science strengthens and mlarges the minds of men. — A steady mind may re- ceive council ; but there is no hold on a changable humour. — We may enure ourselves by custom, to bear the extremities of whetlier without injury. — Ex- cessive mcrrym'ent is the parent of greif — Air is sensable to the touch by its motion, and by its resistence to bodies moved in it. — A polite address is some- times the cloke of malicB, — To practice virtue is the sure way to love it. — Many things are plausable in theory, which fail in practise. — Learning and knowledge mnst be attained by slow degi;ees, and are the reward only of dilligence and patience. — We should study to live peacably with all men. A soul that can securly death defy. And count it nature's priviledge to die. Whatever promotes the interest of the soul, is also condusive to our present felicity. — Let not the sterncss of virtue afright us ; she will soon become aimable. The spatious firmament on high. With all the blue etheriel sky. And spangled heav'ns, a shineing frame, Their great originel proclame. Passion is the drunkeness of the mind ; it supercedes the workings of reason. — If we are sincere, we may be assured of an advocate to intersede for us, — We ought not to consider the increase of another's reputation, as a dimunition of our own. — The reumatism is a painful distemper, supposed to precede from acrid humors. — The beautiful and accompUshed, are too apt to study behaivour rather than virtue. — The peazant's cabbin contains as much content as the soverein's pallace. — True valor protects the feeble, and humbles the oppressor. — David the son of Jesse, was a wise and valient man. — Prophecies and miracles pro- clamed Jesus Christ to be the Savior of the world. — Esau sold his birthright for a savory mess of pottage. — A regular and virteous education, is an inestemable blessing. Honor and shame from no condition rise ; Act v/ell your part ; there all the honor lies. The rigor of monkish discipUn often conceals great depravity of heart. We should recollect, that however favourable we may be to ourselves, we are rigour- ously examined by others. — Virtue can render youth, as well as old age, honora- ble. — Rumor often tells false tales. — Weak minds are rufled by triffling things. — The cabage-tree is very common in the Caribbee ilands, where it grows to a prodigious heighth. — Visit the sick, feed the hungry, cloath the naked. — His smiles and tears are two artifitial to be relied on. — The most essensial virtues of a Christian, are love to God and benevolence to man. — We should be chearfiil without levity. — A calender signifies a register of the year, and a calendar, a press in which clothiers smooth their cloth. — Integrity and hope are the sure softners of sorrow. — Camomile is an odouriferous plant, and possesses considera- ble medicinel virtues. — The gaity of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age. — Certainty, even oh distresful occasions, is somtimes more eligible than suspence. StiU green with bays each antient alter stands, Above the reach of sacriligious hands. The most acceptable sacrifise is that of a contrite and humble heart. — We are accountable for whatever we patronize in others. — It marks a savage disposition, to tortur animals, to make them smart and agonise for our diversion. — The edge of cloath, where it is closed by complicating the threads, is called the selvidge. — Soushong tea and Turky coffee were his favorite beveridge : chocolade he sel- dom drank. — The guilty mind cannot avoid many melanchoUy apprehensions. If we injure others, we must expect retalliation. — Let every man be fully per- swadedm his own mind. — Peace and honour are the sheeves of virtue's harvest. The black earth, every where obvious on the surface of the earth, we call mold. — The Roman pontif claims to be the supream head of the church on earth. High-seasoned food violates the pallate, and disgusts it with plain fare. The conscious receiver is as bad as the thief. — Alexander, the conqueror of the world, was, in fact, a robber and a murderer. — The Divine Being is not only the Creator, but the Ruler and Preserver of the world. — Honest endeavors, if persevered in, will finally be succesftil.— He who dies for religion, is a martyr ; he who suffers for it, is a confessour. — In the paroxism of passion, we sometimes give occasion for a life of repentence. — The mist which invelopes many studies, is dissipated when we approach them. — The voice is sometimes obstructed by a hoarsness, or by viscuous phlegm. — The desart shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose. — The fruit and sweetmeats set on table after the meat, are called the desert. — We traversed the flowry fields, till the falling dews admonished us to return. — There is frequently a worm at the root of our most florisliing con- dition. — The stalk of ivey is tough, and not fragil. — The roof is vaulted, and dis- tills fresh water from every part of it. — Our imperfections are discernable by others, when we think they are concealed. — They think they shall be beared for there much speaking. — True critizism is not a captious, but a liberal art. In- tegrity is our best defense against the evils of hfe. — No circumstance can hcence evil, nor dispence with the rules of virtue. — We may be cyphers in the world's estimation, whilst we are advancing our own and others' value. — The path of vertue is the path of peace. — A diptheng is the coilition of two vowels to form one soimd. — However forceable our temptations, they may be resisted. I ac- knowlege my transgression ; and my sin is ever before me. — The colledge of cardinals are the electers of the pope. — He had no colorable excuse to palliate his conduct. Thy humourous vein, thy pleasing folly, Lie all neglected, all forgot. If we are so conceited as obstinatly to reject all advice, we must expect a di- , reliction of friends. — 'Cronology is the science of computeing and ajusting the periods of time. In groves we live, and lay on mossy beds, By chrystal streams that murmer tnro' the meads. It is a secret cowardise which induces us to complement the vices of our su- periors, to applaud the libertin, and laugh with the prophane. — "The lark each morning waked me with her spritely lay. — There are no fewer than thirty-two species of the Ally. — We owe it to our visitors as well as to ourselves, to enter- tain them with useful and sensable conversation. — Sponsors are those who be- come sureties for the children's education in the Christian faith. — The warrier's fame is often purchased by the blood of thousands.— -Hope exhilerates the mind, and is the grand ehxer, under all the evils of life.— The incence of gratitude, whilst it e-xpresses our duty, and honors our benefacter, perfumes and regails ourselves. GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. FALSE GRAMMAR, ADAPTED TO THE RUL.ES OF SYNTAX. 45' — ^O©— RULE 1, Thee must be more attentive to thy studies. — Them that oppress the poor to increase their riches, shall come to want. — Her that is virtuous, deserves esteem. — Whomsoever is contented, enjoys happiness. — Him that thinks twice before he speaks once, will speak twice the better for it. — He admonished all whom he thought had been disorderly, to be more watchful in future. — How dost thee do ? — Art thee well ? — Hast thee been to town to-day ? — I can run as far as him. — You spoke better than her. — These are better than them. The girls was here yesterday. — Thou should be more diligent in attending to thy studies. — Great pains has been taken to little purpose. — Frequent commis- sion of sin, harden men in it. — There is many occasions in Ufe, in which silence and simplicity are marks of true wisdom. — He dare not act contrary to his in- structions. — What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them ? — Not one of them whom thou hast clothed in purple, are happy. — The following treatise, together with those which accompany it, were written many years ago, for my satisfaction. — In him were happily blended true dignity with softness of manners. — Reconciliation was offered, on conditions as moderate as was consistent with a permanent union. — Slight as the value of the things of time are, we continue to pursue them with unremitting diligence. RULE V. He acted agreeable to his promise. — He speaks very fluent, but does not rea- son very coherently. — The task was the easier performed, from the cheerfulness with which they engaged in it. — He conducted himself very unsuitable to his profession. — She writes very neat, and spells accurate. — He was so deeply im- pressed with the subject, that few could speak nobler upon it. — Alas ! they are miserable poor. — She was exceeding careful not to give offence. — He was pro- digal, and his property is now near exhausted. — You read that very good. RULE VI. The master loves thou, because thou art diligent. — He that is idle and mis- chievous reprove sharply. — Who have I reason to love so much as this friend of ray youth. — The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. — He and they we know, but who art thou .' — Who did they entertain so freely .'' — If he will not hear his best friend, who shall we send to admonish him .' — They who have la- boured to make us wise and good, are the persons who we ought particularly to love and respect. — Whatever others do, let thou and I perform our duty. — We should love, fear, and obey the Author of our being, as He who has power to re- ward or punish us for ever. — He who committed the offenco, thou shouldst cor- rect, not I who am innocent. — Who do you see coming .' — Ye have reason to dread his wrath, which one day will destroy ye both. RULE VII. Suspecting not only we, but they also, he was studious to avoid all inter- course. — You are displeased with me for admonishing ye. — I could not avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me, and thou as a suspicious friend. — From having exposed hisself too freely in different climes, he entirely lost his health. RULE Tin. Who did he give the book to ? — From he that is needy and afflicted, turn not away. — Associate not thyself with those who none can speak well of. — Who does he study with ? — What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, and they who abhor them .' — From the character of those persons who you asso- ciate with, your own will be established. — I hope it is not I who they are dis- pleased with. — Who are you to work for .' RULE IK. Thou art him who sold the books. — I believe it to be they who raised the re- port. — It was not me who made the noise. — I would act the same part, if I were him, or in his situation. — He so much resembled his brother, that at first sight I tottb it to be he. — It could not have been her, for she always acts discreetly. — He is not the person whom he appeared to be. — After all their professions, is it possible to be them ? — It might have been him, but there is no proof of it. — If it were not him, who do you imagine it to have been .' — Who do you think me to be ?— Whom do men say that I am ? — Let him be who he may, I am not afraid of him — I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is him from whom I have received many benefits. RULE X. Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. — Thy fathers offence will not condemn thee. — Wisdoms precepts are the good boys greatest delight. — Hast thou read Cowpers poems .' — The girls books were kept in better order than the boys. — I will not destroy the city for tens sake. — Nevertheless, Asa his heart was per- fect with the Lord. — A mothers tenderness, and a fathers care, are natures gifts' for marts advantage. — ^A mans manner's frequently influence his fortune. — Wis- doms precepts' form tlie good mans interest and happiness. — And he cast himse-lf down at Jesus feet. — Moses rod was turned into a serpent. — For Herodias sake, his brother Philip's wife. — If ye suffer for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. — Ye should be subject for conscience's sake. RULE XI. I gave my book to James my cousin, he who was here yesterday. — This house belongs to Samuel, the carpenter, he who built the house. — Augustus, the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is variously described. — Those books are my friend's, liim who keeps the Hbrary. — The estate was left to Simori and John, the two eldest sons, they that had been to Europe. — Art thou acquainted with Clarissa, the milliner, she whom we met in our walks this morning ? RULE XIII. He is a wise man which speaks little. — I do not think that any person should be censured for being careful of their reputation. — The woman which we saw is very amiable. — Rebecca took goodly raiment, which was with her in the house, and put them on Jacob. — Tliey which seek wisdom will certainly find her. — The male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the colour of its species. — Every person, whatever be their station, should attend to the duties of morality and religion. — Let eacli of us cheerfully bear our part in the gene- ral burdeit— If an animal should be taken out of its instinct, wc should find him wholly destitute of understanding. — An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ears of their auditors. — Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it towards the heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh ; and it shall be- come small dust. — The exercise of reason appears as little in the sportsmen, as in the beasts whom they sometunes himt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted. RULE XIV. He loves you and I.— I esteem him, and her, and they.— My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. — You and us enjoy many privileges. — She and him are very unhappily connected. — Peter and me went to church. — Between you and I there is some disparity of years ; but none between him and she. — If a man say, I love God, and hates his brother, he is a liar.— If thou sincerely desire and earnestly pursuest virtue, she will be found of thee. — He would neither do it himself, nor suffered another to do it.— You and her and him are to blamed.— He invited my brother and I to see his garden. — She is more fond of gayety than him. RULE XV. Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed.— Them being will- ing to improve, the study was rendered agreeable. — Her being, absent, the busi- ness was attended to by others.— They all had liberty to go, us only excepted.— The sun's being risen,'it became very warm.— They wore all more or Jess cen- surable, her only excepted, who was very circumspect in her conduct. — Thee having been unwatchful, the work is rendered more difficult. RULE XVI. It is better to live on a little, than outlive a great deal.— You ought not walk too hastily.— We wish neither to write, nor read so fast.— She thought to went home last week. — He desires theo stay for him. RULE XVIII. I need not to solicit hun to do a kind action.— It is the difference of their con- duct, which makes us to approve the one, and reject the other.— I bid him to shut tlio door.— I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very discreet- ly.— I dare not to presume so hastily, lest 1 should give offence.— I bid lum to go, but he refused.— I feel my heart to beat, but very faintly.— I dare not to express my sentiments upon so contested a subject.— I dare to say that we need not to urge nor to bid Charles to study liis grammar : it is so plain as to make him to see the propriety of what he says, and to hear, understandmgly, tlie explanations of his teacher. We need, therefore, only to let him to have tlic book ; and if he see the other boys to learn, he will feel his heart to beat high with ambition. Mji 46 GBAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. FALSE GRAMMAR, ADAPTED TO THE NOTES UNDER THE RULES OF SYNTAX. Note 1, under rule i. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are re- quired of all men. — To do unto all men, as we would that they, in similar cir- cumstances, should do unto us, constitute the great principles of virtue. — That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, to be just and kind to our feliow-creatures, and to be pious and faithful to Him that made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and well-informed mind. Note 2, vnder bile i. He that will learn, let him learn. — He that wishes to be great, let him pay diligent attention to his studies. — Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. Note 3, under kule i. The sincere is always esteemed. — The inquisitive is generally talkative. — The generous never recounts minutely the actions they have done ; nor the prudent, thoso they will do. Note 3, under rule ii. The people rejoices in that which should cause it sorrow. — The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's care. — The court have just ended, after having sat through the trial of a very long cause. — The crowd were so great, that the judges with difRculty made their way through them. — The Corporation of New- York consist of a Mayor, Aldermen, and Common Council. — The British Parliament are composed of king, lords, and commons. — When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their voice. — In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. — The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. — The flcCtWere seen sailing up the channel. — A great number do not always ar- gue sicength. — The meeting have established several salutary regulations. — The co^lncil was not unanimous, and it separated without coming to any determinave "ot, nor shall not consent to a proposal so unjust.— Wo have subjo(tod ourselves to much exjionse, that thou may be well educated.— This tiontyin^ made at carl Moreton the governor's castle.— Bo especially careftd that Hju g'vest no oflcnce to the aged or helpless.— The business was no sooner opc«od, but it was cordially acquiesced in.— As to his general conduct, h« deservcdpun''il™eiit as much, or more than his companion: He left a son of a singiilap«liaracter, and behaved so ill that he was put in prison.— If he does but approv* my endeavours, it will bo an iiinplo reward.- 1 he the favour of your ncccF'•''-' A Trochee - *' An Iambus ~ ~ A Spondee - ~ A Pyrrhick " •" A Trochee has the first syllable accented^ and the last unaccented ; as hatefiil, pSttish. Restless mortals toil for nought ; Bliss in vain from earth is sought An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented ; as, delay, behold. Ajid mSy at last my weary age. Find out the peacefiil hermitage. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, a high tree, the pale mOon. See the bold youth strain up the thrfiatnlng steep. Old time brings man to his long home. A Pyrrhick has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, on th6 tall tree. In 5 small stream, by the side of a mountain, "We bath'd with delight. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccented ; as, con- quSrOr, horriblg. From thfi low pleastires of this ftUen nature, Rise we to higher, &c. An £mphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the middle one accented ; as, delightful, amazing. The piece you say is incorrect, why take It, I'm all submission, what you'd have it make it. An Anavmst has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented ; as, TacfimmGde, c5ntravene. May I govfirn my passions with absClfite sway. And grow wiser and better as life fades away. A Trihrach has all its syUablea imaccented ; as, unpardonable, innumerable. And rolls impetiiouB to the plain. Some of these feet may be denominated prJ7»cJpo/ feet ; as pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Trochee, Iambus, Dactyl and Anapest. They are capable also of numerous variations by mixing them with each other, and by the admission of the secondary feet. The Spondee, Pyrrhick, Amphibrach, and Tribrach, arc secondary feet. Measure, in poetry, is the number of syllables or feet contained in a line. The I measures that are most in use, are those often, eight, and seven syllables: but lithe lambick, Trochaick, and Anapcestick verse, is aometimes very short, and aomctimes long meaiure. OF PAUSES. Tbebk are two kinds of poetical pauses — one for the sense, called the sen- tetUvd pause, and known to us by the names of comma, semicolon, &c. — the other for the melody, called the harmonick pause. These are perfectly distinct from each other. The harmonick pause may be subdivided into the final pause, and the cmsural panBe. These sometinies coincide with the sententisJ pause, and sometimes have an independent state ; that is, exist whpre there is no stop in the sense. The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the verse, marks the Bteoenre, preserves the melody, without interfering with the sense, and alone, on many occasions, marks the difference between prose and verse : which will bo evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines. " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mor' tal taste brought death into the world, and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater Man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing, heavenly muse !" A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By properly adjusting the final pause, we shaD restore the passage to its true state of verse. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal tas^i Brought death into the world, and all ov^^o, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. Sing, heavenly muse ! These examples show the necessity of reading verse, in such a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear ; for, what is the use of melody, or for what end has the poet composed in verse, if, in reading his lines, we suppress his num- bers, by omitting the final pause ; and degrade tnem, by our pronunciation, into mere prose .' As this pause is made only by the suspension of the voice, not by a change, it prevents that monotony, that sameness of note at the end of lines, which, however pleasing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. • The cmsural pause divides the line into equal, or unequal parts, falling gene- rally on the 4th, 5th, or 6th syllable, in heroick verse. Exemplification of the CcBsural Pauses : [ " ] The silver eel," in shining volumes roll'd. The yellow carp," in scales bedropp'd with gold. Round broken columns," clasping ivy twin'd. O'er heaps of ruins," stalk'd the stately hind. Oh, say, what stranger cause," yet unexplor'd, Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. The line is sometimes divided into four parts, by the introduction of what is called a dcmi-casura ; thus: Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze. Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees; Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent. Spreads,' imdivided," operates,' unspent. RHETORICK AND ORATORY. Rhetorick, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, methodically, and ele- gantly, upon any subject ; so as to instruct, persuade, and please. A speech made according to the rules of this art, is called an Oration, and the speaker an Orator. The word rhctorick is derived from a Greek word [Pijropiio)] of the same signification. A good orator must be eminent for invention, disposition, memory, gesture, and elocution. Invention is the talent of forming, or selecting, such arguments, for the proving or illustrating of a subject, as will move the passions, and conciliate or instruct the minds of the hearers. Disposition is the arrangement of the arguments, in the most orderly and ad- vantageous manner. Gesture is the natural, or the artificial, accommodation of the attitude to the several parts of a discourse ; — the " suiting of the action to the word." Elocution is the art of expressing our ideas in a clear and distinct manner, and in harmonious, appropriate language. Elocution comprises, 1st. Composition; or the grammatical arrangement, plainness, and propriety of language. 2d. Elegance; which consists in the purity, perspicuity, and politeness of lan- guage, and is gained chiefly by studying the most correct writers, conversing with polite, well-informed people, and making frequent and careful essays in composition. 3d. Dignity; which adorns language with sublime thoughts,rhetorical figureB,&c. An oration has five parts ; the exordium, narration, confirmation, refutation, and peroration. The exordium, or preamble, is the beginning of the discourse ; serving to gain the good opinion of the hearers ; to secure their attention, and to give them a general notion of the subject. It ought to be clear, modest, and not too prolix. The narration is the recital of the facts as they happened ; or, as tliey are supposed to have happened. It ought to be perspicuous, probable, concise, and (on most subjects) entertaining. The confirmation is the proving by argument, example, or authority, the truth of the propositions advanced in the narration.* The refutation, or confutation, is the destroying of the arguments of the an- tagonist ; by denying what is apparently false, detecting some flaw in the rea- soning, or showing the invaUdity of the proof. It should bo sharp and lively. The veroration, or conclusion, is a recapitulation of the principal arguments, concisely summed up with new force av.d weight ; in order to excite the feeling of hatred or pity. * Rhetoricians advise us to place our Htrongmt argamenta in the froat, the weakest In the mid- dle, and to reserve some of the beiit till the close. 50 GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED. TROPES, OR FIGURES OF SPEECH. Tropes, or %ures of speech, always denote some departure from simplicity of expression J as, "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity." This is simple language : but when I say — " To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," I express the same sentiment in a figurative, and in a more impressive and vivid manner. Figures, or tropes, greatly enliven and enrich language. The following are some of the principal figures — persanification, apostrophe, hyperbole, simile, metaphor, allegory, irony, climax, metonymy, and synecdoche. Personification bestows life and action upon things inanimate ; as, " The earth thirsts for rain." Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old ocean smiles. Behold, the morn, in russet mantle clad, Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hUls. Apostrophe is a figure nearly allied to personification. It consists in bestowing an ideal presence upon real, cither dead or absent. We address them as if they stood before us, listening t(^i||e overflow of our passions ; as, " Retire ; for it is night i^love, and the dark winds sigh in your hair. Retire to the hall of my feast, and think of the times that are past ; for I will not return till the storm of war is gone." — Ossian, ■ Weep on the rocks of the roaring winds, O maid of Inistore ; bend thy fair fn.'Tfr^T -P"^' ^^^ if'"*- ^""'i^^ '•^"^' ' ^^^ "ff''^ ^°^ the cause : the eoTUams for the contained ; or the sign for the thing signified: as, «woi« should be respected;" « The kettle boifs,"-i. e. the water in the^ettle; "Si addressed the chair,"— i. e. the person in the chair; " She assumed the sceptre."— 1. e. the royal authority. ^ * A Synecdoche puts a part for the whole, or the whole for a part : as. While o'er the roof, [house] loud thunders break. " By the sweat of his brow, earns he his bread," [food, clothing, «Skc.] . COMPOSITION. Composition is the forming of words together in grammatical order. Perspicuity is a fundamental quality in every piece of correct composition : a quahty so essential that nothing can atone for the want of it. We are pleased with an author, just in proportion as he frees us froni all fatio-ue in searchino- for his meaning, and carries us, as upon the swell of a sweet flowing style, witSout embarrassment or confusion, through his subject. Perspicuity and accuracy of expression, require attention to the miritv, pro- pnety, and precision o£langua.ge. r riir PuriUj of language consists in the use of such words and constructions as belong The Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing an object beyond reality. Hyperbole soars high, or creeps too slow; , Exceeds the truth, things wonderful to show. He touch' d the skies. A snail don't crawl so slow. 1 found her on the floor. In all the storm of grief; yet beautiful ; Pouring forth tears, at such a lavish rate, That, were the world on fire, they might have drown'd The wrath of Heaven, and quench'd the mighty ruin. — Lee. "He was owner of a piece of ground not larger than a Lacedemonian letter." A simile is a comparison, by which any thing is illustrated. This figure, equally familiar and beautiful, discovers resemblances, real or imaginary, be- tween actions, which, in their general nature, are dissimilar ; as, " The ravisiok of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." — Ossian. She never told her love ; But let concealment, like a worm i' the bud, i Feed on her damask cheek : She pined in thought : And, with a green and yellow melancholy. She sat, like Patience on a monument, smiling at grief. — Shake sp. A metaphor'^ is the putting of the name of one thing for that of another ; so as to comprise a simile in a single word : or, it is the application of a word to a use, to which, in its original import, it cannot be put ; as, Wallace was a thunderbolt of war ; Fingal, the gale of Spring. A hero resembles a lion, and is often compared to one. Such a comparison is a simile : but imagine a hero to be a lion, instead of only resembling one, and you have a metaphor. " Like a mighty pillar, doth this one man uphold the state." [This is a simile.] "He is the sole pillar of this ponderous state." [A metaphor.] An Allegory is a continued metaphor ; — or, it is the representation of one thing by another, tliat resembles it, and that is made to stand for it. An allegory is a chain of tropes ; — I've passed the shoals ; fair gales now swell my hopes. " Venus grows cold witliout Ceres and Bacchus." i. e. — love grows cold with- out bread and wine. There cannot be a more beautiful and correct allegory than the following ; in which the people are represented under the image of a vine. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it : thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the seas, and her branches unto the river. Why hast thoft, then, broken down her hedges, so that all tliey who pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of the wood doth waste it ; and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of hosts ; look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine." — 80th Psalm. Irony is a mode of speech in whidh the meaning is contrary to the words. Irony, dissembling with an air. Means otherwise than words declare. " Cry aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." — 1 Kings, xviii. 27. A Climax is a figure by which tlie sentence gradually rises. A climax, 'tis said, by gradation ascends. They were my countrymen, my neighbours, my friends. 9. Pleasing ideas and forcible reasoning can hardly bo transmitted to thendai " Franco, amidst the ferocity of successive factions ; unaided by a single friend ; by means of narsii and disagreeable sounds : particular attention ought theicftn assailed, on all sides, by the strongest energies of surrounding kingdoms, pre- to be paid to ihc harmony and easy flow of the Iwiguage. served her territory unuljured." ■* yoreign and learned wovde, unless where nece^tsitvreoirirpAttipm ahnni.! f^.i»A.ft.» . ._ ^ • A metaphor differs from a simile in form only, not in substance : comparison is the founda- into our composition. On some occaeinns, they cive an annmViirui nV»i.vn.i!^^It j i-^ tion of both. style : but they often render it stifl-and aplwcmly forced. or elevation and Ojgnilj of THE END. Propriety of language consists in the selection of such words and phrases as are best suited to express the ideas we mean to convey by them. IN ORDER TO PRESERVE PROPRIETY IN O0R LANGUAGE, WE MUST BE CAREFUL, 1. To avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. 2. To avoid low expressions; as. Topsy-turvy, hurly-burly, pell-msll, &0. 6. l o supply words that are wanting. 4. Not to use the same word too frequently, nor in different senses in the mma sentence. 5. To avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. 6. To use no unintelhgible or inconsistent words or phrases. 7 To employ only such words and plirases as are best adapted to the ideas we wish to communicate, and most expressive of them Precision requires the retrenching of all superfluities ; or the pruning of our language, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than the exact copv of the idea we mean to communicate. ■' ^^^ The words we use to express oui ideas may be faulty in three respects: m. sem'bles it^ "^^^ ^''^''^'' '''^^ "^^'"^ "^^ "'^®"'^' ^"* ^^^ °t^®'' ^ ^ 2. They may express that idea, but not fully and completely a They may express that idea together with something more than is intended. Note. The great source of a loose style, in opposition to precision, is the in- judicious use or words termed synonymous. They are called synonymous, be- cause they agree m expressing one principal idea; but for the most part, if not always, they express it with some diversity of circumstance. ■.,«*»» SENTENCES. Remark 1. Sentences, in general, should neither be very lomr nor verv short Long sentences require a laboured attention in order to our cfearly perceiviiur the connexion and sense ; while very short ones, on the contrary, break the co^ nexion of tliouglit, and injure the sense. Yet, occasionally, both mav bo intro- duced with advantage. ■' »*"•*"- 2. A long train of sentences constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, tires the ear, and therefore should never be allowed in any composition. But a judiciov^. mixture of periods, longer and shorter and variously constructed, gratifies the ear, and gives force and animation to the' style. 3 In the arrangement of a sentence, the words or members, most clearhr fb- iated, should be placed as near to each otJier as possible, and so as to maka their mutual relation manifest. 4. Several circumstances should not be crowded together, but interspcrsed^in different parts of the sentence, connected with the principal words on which they depend. 5. Never press into one sentence, things wliich have so little connexion as fto admit of being divided into two or three. Long, involved, intricate senteiwes are great blemishes in couipoaition. 6. During tlie course of the sentence, change the scene as often as pwBible : and keep clear ot all unnecessary parentheses. 7. The several vyords and members of which a sentence is composed, shonU be so arranged as tliat each may have its due weight and force, ajid the whole sense be brougiit out to tlie best advantage. 8. A weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a stroneer one and, when a sentence consists of two, or more members, the longeS should generally come last ; as, " Hhcn our pa^^sums have forsaken vs, wo flatter era- selves with the behef that we have forsaken them." LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 003 238 353 1 •! \\\1\1\\ iNOR£^^ liMitw*^ m »»»7003 2^8''^' Hollinger Corp. pH8.5 HoUinger Corp. pH 8.5