aass__Lu/l3_£<2>5* Book -_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/americanschoolbu01mill American School Building Standards WILBUR T. MILLS, Architect A. A. I. A. FRANKLIN EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY COLUMBUS, OHIO 1910 The Champlin Press, Columbus, Ohio Copyright 1910, by WILBUR T. MILLS ©CU278828 PREFACE. The present work is offered to the public in the belief that there is still great need for the dissemina- tion of reliable information regarding correct design and construction in public school buildings in this country, and that "every little helps." The author makes no claim of originality for most of the matter contained in the work, unless it be as regards arrangement and selection. He has drawn freely upon all the well known modern works upon the subjects treated, modifying conclusions as experience and the most recent authorities approve. The controlling motive has been to so condense and standardize the best present day practice as to pro- duce a compact handbook for ready reference, elimi- nating both the historical and purely aesthetic phases of the subject, for the sake of utility. The author acknowledges help received from, and opinions influenced by, publications of The Boston Schoolhouse Commission, Mr. Edmund M. Wheel- right, Prof. A. D. F. Hamlin of Columbia University, Mr. Warren R. Briggs, Mr. M. C. Huyett, Prof. Rolla C. Carpenter of Cornell University, Prof. S. H. Wood- bridge of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Mr. R. Clipston Sturgis, Mr. W. B. Ittner and others. TO MY BROTHER Edwin Stanton Mills: This book is affectionately dedi- cated by —THE AUTHOR. THE MAN WHO KNOWS. From the American School Board Journal, April, 1908, revised. There was a time, — and not many years ago, — when the majority of our American cities and towns saw very little expert skill employed in the design- ing of buildings for school purposes. Indeed, even now, one often meets people who unblushingly pro- claim that "most any one" can design a school building, since it is "nothing but a collection of plain rectangular rooms, a few entrances, exits, stairs, etc." Worst of all, these people actually seem to believe what they say, incredible as that may seem. Unfortunately the existence of such sentiments, in altogether too many otherwise enlightened com- munities, renders still possible the erection of so called school buildings which, to those WHO KNOW, plainly and loudly proclaim hideous defiance of all laws of art, hygiene, ventilation and in some cases of even common sense. The adage "If ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise" can not excuse or palliate such conditions, for it is a case in which the lives and health of your children, and your neighbor's children, are at stake, and it is your duty to know. No one can tell how many cases of ruined eyesight, tuberculosis (con- sumption), chronic female disorders, nervous col- lapse — yes even dangerous epidemics, owe their be- ginning or continuation to such miserable excuses of school buildings as are above described. Cases have been known in which contagious diseases have been carried from one season to another in un- sanitary rooms. The entire country was horrified at the frightful catastrophe at Collinwood in which more than 160 children and one teacher lost their lives by fire. Yet making proper allowance for the effect of panic, and other extenuating circumstances, it appears to be established, beyond the possibility of a doubt, that no such calamity could have oc- curred in a building properly designed and con- structed. Moreover it is undoubtedly true that the absence of many more such catastrophes can be credited to no cause but the absence of some initial accident necessary to set the trouble in motion. Have you such a building in your town ? Be sure about it, and, if so, do all you can to see that it is replaced with one of the right sort. The lives of your own children may be the price to pay for neglect of this all important duty. The public school concerns intimately more people than any other class of public edifices, (1) be- cause every citizen avails himself of its privileges in his youth, and sends his children to the same school in later years; and (2) its design unquestionably affects, for better or worse, the health, happiness and morals of the pupils, to say nothing of the educa- tional work carried on therein. While much has been done, especially in our lar- ger cities, toward standardizing and formulating data of school design, this should only serve the purpose of imposing u^>on every school board and all architects of school buildings, the duty of mastering such details which are now readily procurable ; a duty which, as Professor Hamlin says, "is all the more imperative when one reflects how large a span of the life of a community is spent within the walls of its schools, and how important it is to surround its children with the most perfect environment for their hours of study. The school houses of any com- munity are gauges of its enlightenment. They should be the best and most carefully constructed buildings it possesses, not the most splendid and ornate, but the most perfect in design and complete and thorough in execution and equipment." In this day of enlightenment, everybody should know that an educational theory which does not put the utmost stress upon the correct relation of mind and body, with its hygienic and ethical meaning, would be simply ridiculous. No matter how small or inexpensive your building must be, — if it is to contain only one school room,— you are grossly negligent unless you make every provision known to the architect's and builder's art to provide for the comfort, safety and health of the precious children who will be forced to use it, and unless you do your part by influencing your board, for the very first step, to secure THE MAN WHO KNOWS to direct, and instruct them and thus avoid the countless errors and omissions which are certain to come if any one less skilled or experienced undertakes the work. Do not allow a feeling of false loyalty to prejudice you in favor of a local architect simply because he is a "home man" unless you are absolutely certain that he is THE MAN WHO KNOWS. Such misplaced sympathy is responsible for many hideous and dan- gerous buildings. Simple fairness prompts the supposition that many boards really desire to exercise these^ pre- cautions and to secure buildings correctly designed and built, but owing to the inexperience of the in- dividual board members, — usually men elected to serve for short terms only, and engaged in business, the professions or other callings not in any way re- lated to the designing or construction of buildings, — they do not know and can not easily or quickly learn how this result may best be accomplished, or where THE MAN WHO KNOWS is to be found. These facts alone are sufficient justification for the follow- ing statement relating to architects and their work. Architects are men who design and supervise the construction of buildings for the occupation of human and other beings, in which buildings the ele- ments of beauty and pleasure are of importance. In early days the architect's work required only a mas- tery of building construction, supplemented with knowledge of how to beautify and emphasize that construction. But the designing of buildings to meet modern conditions requires the architect to be thoroughly versed, if not expert, in architecture, art, structural engineering, steel and iron work, rein- forced concrete and other fireproof construction, heating and ventilating, sanitary engineering, electricity, and other important subjects of such variety and magnitude that one might easily imagine the men who presume to undertake such formidable tasks are like fools rushing in where angels fear to tread. Indeed it would require more than the life- time of an ordinary man, unassisted, to master each one of the subjects involved in the designing of buildings — if it were possible to accomplish such a stupendous task in any length of time — but such a result is perhaps not within the bounds of human possibilities. 10 Clearly it is impossible for any one man to com- bine very great skill in several of these subjects at the same time, and therefore we find that most architects, when called upon to handle branches of work in which their experience or training is limited, have no hesitation in retaining experts in those lines to execute that part of the work. On the other hand many of the ablest architects deliberately train themselves as specialists in buildings requiring pro- ficiency in a limited and definite line of work. It is surely easy to understand how men of such special training are able, with notable ease and proficiency, to handle the work toward which all their training has been inclined, and also to appreciate how much more the perfection and success of a building en- terprise is assured when all its details are kept at all times within the grasp of one competent in- dividual. It is by men of such specialized training that your school buildings should be designed. Architects are professional men and have no organization comparable with Unions or Orders having oaths of allegiance or requiring unwilling obedience. In this country the largest and most authoritative organization of architects is the Ameri- can Institute of Architects, a voluntary association comprising many but not all of the best architects in America. Many good architects are not members of the institute and suffer no embarrassment thereby. This institute sets up certain high professional standards evolved from the experience and judg- ment of the best men in the profession, and toward these standards its members are urged— not com- pelled—to aspire. Its work is thus wholly unselfish, 11 aimed only at the uplifting and enlightenment of its members, and the advancement of the profession of architecture. The institute, however, recommends a code of ethics, and a minimum schedule of fees, below which the experience of thousands demonstrates that its members can not afford to work. The code of ethics and schedule of fees of the institute may be found on page 215 to 219. To this code and schedule no member is compelled to adhere, but all come to it sooner or later, and many exceed it. Honest and sufficient compensation — indeed an adequate living can not be assured otherwise. A member who sets at defiance the standards and recommendations of the institute may be expelled therefrom, but the institute has no power, such as legal or medical societies possess in some states, to prevent members thus deposed from continuing in practice. Nevertheless, while architects outside of the institute may practice the profession and charge such fees as they see fit, — being accountable only to themselves, — the standards of the institute have become the standards by which all American archi- tects are measured, both by the profession itself and by the general public, thus demonstrating the just- ness and righteousness of those standards more effectually than the use of any force or coercion could ever do. So generally is this true that all so called architects who practice under other standards or for lower fees may well be regarded with caution and in most cases with suspicion and distrust. As a rule all architects who work for less than the institute schedule of fees may be grouped under three classes — (1) Young or inexperienced men anx- 12 ions for a start and willing to sacrifice the fee for the experience. (2) Those men who fall under the head of "has beens" and are therefore in need. (3) Dishonest men who intend to seek the balance of the full fee by indirect and crooked methods. Whatever the class, be assured that "Jan- uary sales prices" are just as risky and deceptive ra the building world as in mercantile business, and almost certain calamity is involved in considering cheap architects. Any school building which is at all worthy of a competent architect's attention merits the service of the best man your board can induce to undertake the work. Even were the financial difference necessary to secure the best man an item of considerable size, it is nothing compared to the risks otherwise involved. Inexperience will cer- tainly display itself in every important feature of your building besides annoying you constantly by its bungling and inefficient management of the work itself; while cut prices, rebates and graft schemes of every sort simply put a premium on dishonest and cheap work, which will be foisted upon you at un- expected times and in devious ways you can not dis- cover until too late. No power on earth can force an incompetent practitioner to do high grade work, or a dishonest one to do honest work. No matter how- many "smart" or "practical" men may sit upon your board, the rogue will always beat you. In all activities of life the specialist becomes the most expert. The marvelous developments in the trades, arts and sciences in these recent years would have been absolutely impossible except for the ex- istence of the specialist — "men of one idea" whose time, thought and money were concentrated on the 13 accomplishment of a single purpose. And there is no class of building more worthy of the best efforts of the educated specialist than our public schocl buildings. The wonderful improvement made in school work by some of our cities in the last few years shows what may be done when the highest skill of the specially trained architect is brought to bear upon this problem. "What has been done in some cities may be done in all. "What may be done in the cities is also possible in the towns, and what is possible in the towns may even be done in the country. Every board member, every teacher, every citizen should make it a part of his business — as it is certainly a part of his duty — to help forward the cause of better school buildings by securing THE MAN WHO KNOWS. 14 SELECTING AN ARCHITECT. "When an individual or a body of individuals pro- poses to undertake the erection of a building of any magnitude, the very first questions to be confronted are (1) The advisability of employing an architect and (2) the wisest method of selecting the one best qualified for the work in hand. "With regard to (1) nothing will be said, as any one who attempts a building in this day of the world without the guid- ance of a competent architect deserves the trouble he is sure to encounter. But with reference to the method of selection many people need guidance and help. It is an old saying that there's two sides to every question, and this one is no exception. Many archi- tects and laymen claim that the only right way to choose an architect is by individual selection, — upon the basis of integrity, professional skill and ex- perience, just as men in other professions are se- lected, and where no sufficient reasons exist for do- ing otherwise, this is by far the simplest and easiest method. Supporters of this view offer the follow- ing arguments in its favor. (1) Any other method involves competition among several architects, the waste of much time, often much needless expense, — both to owners and competitors, much annoyance and sometimes hard feelings. 15 (2) In all competitions the gambling instinct is appealed to, and the prospect of winning the prize tempts architects to submit the sort of work MOST LIKELY TO WIN, regardless of real architectural merit; and unless the owner retains professional advisers to guide him, he, being incompetent to judge, is al- most certain to select unwisely. (3) Even if, by accident, the owner selects a competitive DESIGN of real merit, he runs the risk of thus choosing a MAN brilliant in design but inexperienced or unsafe in con- structive ability, or perhaps even utterly ir- responsible. (4) Under the very best conditions of com- petition it is exceedingly difficult to select an architect with absolute fairness to each competitor, and it is practically impossible when the owner trusts his own untrained judgment to make the selection. However, in spite of these seemingly conclusive arguments against competitions, it remains a fact that, aside from priA^ate work done for individuals, the great majority of important architectural con- tracts are, have always been, and perhaps always will be awarded by competition of one sort or an- other. And the following are some of the reasons offered in explanation of this state of affairs. 1 — Architects themselves are not of one mind in opposing competitions. The American In- stitute of Architects solemnly pronounces against competitions and yet, recognizing their prevalence and growth, spends years 16 trying to formulate a satisfactory code for their regulation. Meantime, some of its most prominent officers and members engage in competitions, — and, indeed, some of them would hardly be known, or able to continue in architecture without such practice. 2 — The people practically demand competi- tion in public work, and look with suspicion and distrust upon all contracts not so award- ed. Nothing offers the yellow journal a more welcome subject for sensation and cries of " Graft" than an award without giving at least several good men a chance. As a result, there are but few monumental public, or even semi-public buildings in this country, the architects of which were not selected by com- petition of some sort, while the list of those important building designs selected in com- petitions, and of those architects who have be- come famous thereby would be a long and representative one. 3 — Many individuals and bodies of men claim to see great advantage in competitions arising from the number of different designs or schemes presented to choose from, these being the work of trained minds all directed to the solution of a given problem; and some — but not all by any means — are willing to pay all competitors in order to secure this real or fancied advantage. 4 — In many cases, competitions are unavoid- able, such as the requirement of competitions by law, or by condition of bequests, or by 17 reason of inability to choose otherwise from among equals in ability or favoritism. And, as above stated, they are almost unavoidable in public work. Resume. To express in a word the best thought and ad- vice upon the subject: Be good, and if you can't be good, be as good as you can. Always be sure your architect is ' ' The man who knows. ' ' If such a man, having the requisite integrity, ability and experience is available, have nothing to do with competitions. But if no such man is readily available, or if any reasons exist, such as above suggested, why the com- petition is wise, necessary or unavoidable, then ar- range your competition and its requirements with the utmost care, being particularly watchful to have its terms wise, honest and fair to all concerned, — or better yet, turn the whole matter over to professional advisers who KNOW HOW to guide you safely and wisely. Data on Competitions. The American Institute of Architects recognizes the following underlying principles for the conduct of competitions: On the Forms of Competition. The following forms of competition are recog- nized : 1. Limited : In this form, participation is limited to a certain number of architects, of ample qualifica- tion, whose names are stated in the program and to any one of whom the owner is willing to entrust the 18 work. This form is generally employed by con- servative owners having large interests at stake. It has the advantage that the owner, and the pro- fessional adviser, may meet the competitors and fully discuss the terms of the competition with them be- fore the final issuance of the program. The Institute is of the opinion that, unless cogent reasons prevent it, competitions should be of this limited form. II. Open: (a) Open to all architects. This form has sometimes to be employed on account of legisla- tive enactment. It consists in permitting all archi- tects—or all within certain limits— (without regard to their qualifications), to take part. (&) Open to approved applicants. In this form all architects who desire to compete make applica- tion, accompanied by evidences of their professional capabilities. The owner, with the assistance of his professional adviser, determines which of such ap- plicants he deems capable of properly executing his work, and issues invitations to all such, or a limited number of them. This is obviously a much better form than the open competition, for if the standard be kept high, none but men of experience and ability will be admitted. Like the open competition, how- ever, it fails to insure the participation of architects of the highest standing. III. Mixed : In this form, a limited competition is conducted simultaneously with one open to ap- proved applicants, the program being uniform to all. This form has the advantage of insuring the parti- cipation of architects of known ability. 19 General Requirements. 1 — The object of a competition is to secure the most skilled architect. 2 — Nearly all owners are ignorant of architecture and building, and especially of drawings. There- fore, an architectural adviser should be employed to draw up a program for the competition, to as- sist in selecting the architects who are to com- pete, and to advise the owner regarding it. The same adviser, or better, a jury of three practic- ing architects should advise the employer in mak- ing the award. 3 — The amount to be spent on the building, as stated in the program, should be sufficient to erect such a building, or no cost limit should be set. Archi- tects are no better able than other mortals to ac- complish the impossible, and owners simply in- vite trouble by tempting them to do so. 4 — The program should be made in the form of a proposal on the part of the owner, fully specify- ing awards, payments, etc., the acceptance of which by the successful competitor, upon notifica- tion of award, will form a contract between the parties. 5 — Whenever practicable the competitors and the professional adviser should meet with the owner, and agree upon terms to be binding upon all, (but this is seldom feasible except on very large work). _ 6 — Competitors should be paid for their services as follows : 20 a — In limited competitions each competitor invited should be paid for his services an amount suffi- cient to cover the cost of the work demanded. b — In competitions open to all architects, a few should be repaid their expense — say five com- petitors. c — In mixed competitions, the architects especially- invited should be paid as above stated, and in ad- dition, prize offered for the best schemes offered, said prizes not to be confined to the uninvited competitors. 7 — The drawings required should be the least in number, and sufficiently elaborated only to ex- press the design and arrangement of the schemes submitted, and each competitor should be con- fined to exactly the same number, style and scale of drawings. Discussion. The following paragraphs may well be omitted by any readers who already understand or approve the foregoing general principles of fair competition, but for the benefit of others a little explanation may be appreciated ; the numbers refer to the above para- graphs as discussed. I — Object of competition to secure best architect. This proposition appears self-evident, and yet all architects know some competitions are held in which the best architect is deliberately turned down for a local favorite, a grafter, or a smooth talker; and others are held merely to dispel public criticism, the winning architect being known all the time to the 21 :> owner. All such methods are manifestly dishonest and unfair whatever the motive, and architects and owners alike should eschew them. 2 — Employing architectural advisers. If there is any occupation or profession in which " Fools rush in where angels fear to tread" it is in the designing and construction of buildings, and most owners consider themselves absolutely com- petent to select the best architectural scheme from among any number submitted to them. The utter fallacy of such misguided confidence is best proven by the results displayed in the many hideous struc- tures thus designed. Tremendous and immediate improvement would follow upon a change in this matter as herein suggested, particularly in public work like schools, churches, etc., etc. 3 — Item three is self-evident. 5 — Item five applies only to limited competitions. 4 — 6 and 7 Contract, Payments, Professional ad- viser, etc. Most owners do not appreciate and must be taught that every architect who properly enters into com- petition for their work does so at great inconvenience and expense to himself, for no competitive scheme is worthy of anybody's consideration which is not the result of the most careful application of a mind trained in that particular line of endeavor. No fair minded or honest man should be willing to accept such services FOR NOTHING, but should be glad to limit the competitors for his work to such a number as he is willing and able to pay a fair compensation, proportioned to the value of their services. 22 As a matter of fact, a large number of com- petitors, even for a very important building, is generally a great detriment. In the largest competi- tions there are rarely more than five or six whose work is really worthy of serious consideration, ex- cept those competitions in which the competitors are carefully selected on the basis of equal and proven ability, and are personally invited on that basis. As a rule, a large number of competitors serves in many ways to complicate the management of a competition, — first, by seeming to hold out to a large number of persons the hope of employment which only one can obtain, and of which the majority will in reality stand no real chance of success, the element of chance involved tempting many into use- less expense and labor. On the other hand, this method very largely increases the labor of those who serve as judges in such competitions, causing them, if they are fair, to spend much time and effort upon productions which are not worthy of it. We doubt whether it is ever wise, or good business judgment, to consider more than a half dozen care- fully selected competitors on any contract amount- ing to less than $200,000, and it is very easy to in- form applicants who are too late that the number has been limited and the list filled. The expense incurred by the employment of a professional adviser and by the paid competition itself will be many times repaid in the excellent re- sults obtained in the finished building. The charges of such professional advisers and the proper amount to pay competitors may always be proportioned to the magnitude of the building project itself, and only a very small proportion of the total expendi- 23 ture, comparatively speaking, need ever be set aside for these purposes, but in all cases where each com- petitor is paid it is a fair proposition for the owner to require that all schemes presented under such con- ditions shall remain his own property. By this method he secures not only the benefit of studying the solution of his problem as offered by several competent men, but also has the benefit of the com- parative criticism of his professional adviser with reference to all of the schemes. Further, the archi- tect whom he finally employs may honorably be per- mitted to inspect the various schemes before under- taking his own final study of the project. Surely no argument is required to show that the advantage of such procedure is all on the side of the owner, and in the interest of good architecture. It is almost impossible to properly judge com- petitions unless the competitive drawings are all based upon the same premises ; that is, they should all be drawn in the same scale ; each competitor should present the same number of drawings (representing the same definite portions or views of the building) ; each competitor should be required to bring his building within approximately the same number of cubic feet of contents, and the style in which the various drawings are rendered, gotten up and dis- played should be identical in the case of each com- petitor. Further, the number of drawings required should be the minimum number which is absolutely necessary to express the design and arrangement of the building, and should be as simple as possible, thus avoiding unnecessary expense to all concerned. Whatever the method may be which governs a competition, the utmost care should be used to 24 guarantee to every competitor therein an ABSO- LUTELY EQUAL opportunity to present his plans and ideas and to receive from the owner every con- sideration which is shown to each other competitor. The program should be drawn up explicitly and carefully stating all conditions of the competition, and each competitor should be supplied with an identical copy of this program. Any communication whatever which is held between any competitor and the owner, prior to the time of the competition, should be in writing, and should be made known, with the reply thereto, in full to every other com- petitor, and an equal opportunity offered to each of the others. It should also be borne in mind by the owner that the real purpose of a fair competition is not to obtain advice or counsel from architects gratuitously, but, as previously stated, to select the MOST SKILLFUL ARCHITECT and the BEST ARCHITECTURAL SCHEME among those con- sidered. 25 THE SCHOOL ROOM. The controlling elements in planning a school building are the class rooms and the communica- tions, the former being, of course, the fundamental unit in every school house design. Experience dem- onstrates that for the utmost efficiency a school room in an elementary building should not seat more than forty pupils, but in high schools, the work being done largely by lectures, no definite limit can be placed upon the seating capacity of rooms. Size of Rooms. — In school rooms each pupil has a desk, and under ideal conditions the rooms should be proportioned to allow 20 square feet of floor space and 260 cubic feet of volume for each pupil, but under no conditions should these figures be less than 15 square feet of floor space and 200 cubic feet of volume per pupil. It is almost uni- versal practice to make school rooms slightly oblong with the teacher's desk at one end of the room, in the proportion of 24 feet by 30 feet and 25 feet by 32 feet, etc., with ceiling heights of not less than 12 feet or more than 14 feet. Primary school rooms should not be made smaller than other rooms in elementary buildings because activity is ab- solutely vital in small children, and the rooms should be ample in size to provide opportunity for much physical exercise, outside of net seating space. Lighting 1 . — Some architects have resorted to the use of prismatic glass in lighting school rooms pro- 26 ""I 1 n □ □ □ an" 1 [=] a a □ a □ i □ □ □ □ □ a 1 □ □ □ □ □ a 1 □ □ □ □ □ □ ■ t I==1 1 □ □ □ □ □ □ p □ □"* i □ ana □ a It — z4- FIG. 2, WINDOW DETAILS 30 Finish of Walls. — The walls of school rooms should be finished smooth but without high gloss and should be painted so that they may be washed down and thoroughly cleaned as desired. There is general unanimity of preference for greenish tints in the decoration of school rooms, although other warm tints are used, particularly in rooms having sunless or cold exposures. Reds, yellows, blues and grays, — except grays of an olive tint, — should be avoided. The paint used should have no gloss but should dry flat. The ceilings may be made white or of a lighter tint than is used for the side walls. Window Shades. — Window shades in school rooms should be opaque. In case it is necessary to have the color of the shade exposed to the outside some particular tint to match the color of the build- ing, duplex shades should be used so that the inside surface may be of somewhat the same tint as that used on the walls or a trifle darker. "Window shades should be hung on adjustable rollers so that the en- tire shade, roller included, may be moved to any part of the window desired. Venetian blinds should never be used in the school room, if for no other reason than because they are unsanitary. Blackboards. — Slate blackboard is much to be preferred over any other sort, but several brands of artificial blackboard can be obtained which are practically satisfactory and produce excellent re- sults. In elementary school buildings as much blackboard as possible should be provided in every room. The height of blackboards from the floors should be as follows : Primary grades, 26 inches ; in- 31 3 termediate grades, 30 inches; grammar grades, 36 inches. Blackboards should be at least 3 feet 6 inches high, and 4 feet is better. All blackboards should have a chalk trough at the bottom 3 inches wide containing a woven wire cover % inch mesh, easily removable. The trough may also well be fur- nished with clean-out holes in which the chalk dust may be brushed and removed by proper receptacles. In many of the better class of buildings mechanical means are provided for removing this refuse. Hooks should also be provided on the under side of chalk troughs to receive rulers or yard sticks, and in primary and intermediate grades a shelf may be pro- vided over blackboards to receive pictures, draw- ings and art objects, although this shelf is a dust catcher and other provision for pictures, etc., is preferred. Doors. — Each school room should be provided with at least one door 40 inches to 44 inches wide near the teacher's end of the room, and where finances will admit, the door should be glazed with plate glass, the lower half of which is chipped. Transoms may be used with the doors if desired, although in all buildings in which mechanical ven- tilating apparatus is installed the transoms should be made stationary and serve only for an architectural effect or for increased light in corridors, etc. Other Conveniences of the School Room. — Every school room should contain a small closet for the per- sonal use of the teacher, having sufficient space for the storage of her wraps and personal effects. It should also be made large enough to contain a limit- 32 ed number of books such as may be kept at the school room for reading to pupils, etc. Platforms for teachers' desks are but little used and are only pro- vided upon special request to meet specific con- ditions. -5= Book Shelved C = Teachers Ci.o.sjet H'f « Meat |nj_et FIG. 6 Figure 6 illustrates a type of coat closet, which is hardly a coat room, but is more like a coat rack or ward- robe. It consists of a rack or frameworK about eight feet high, erected about five feet away from the wall contain- ing heat and vent registers. The back or wall side of this rack contains hooks for clothing, but no doors or covering for same. The front or room side of the rack may oe covered with blackboard, may contain shelves for books, or both blackboard and shelves as shown. Admirers of this scheme claim many advantages for it, but chiefly that it enables teachers to have surveillance of the coat room space without leaving the school room. To offset this and other advantages claimed, however, it must be granted that the scheme is unsightly, unsanitary, wasteful of space and more expensive than any other coat hanging scheme above described. 4f, SPECIAL ROOMS. Apparatus Rooms. — In every school building to contain any considerable quantity of apparatus such as high school buildings, suitable rooms should be provided for the storage and care of such apparatus, and in proportion to the value of the apparatus is it important that such rooms should be fire-proof and fool-proof. They should be provided with suitable cases in which the apparatus may be protected from dust and interference, the cases be- ing furnished with lock and key so as to be kept under the control of the head of the department at all times. It is always desirable to have apparatus rooms connected with physical and chemical labor- atories, and the floor area of same should equal about one-fourth to one-third that of the laboratory. Astronomy Room. — High schools which are equipped with observatories should have a small room adjacent to the observatory which may be heated in cold weather, as the observatory itself is always cold. This room may also contain cases for small instruments. Assembly Rooms or Auditoriums. — Two different systems are used in the designing of American high school buildings with regard to Assembly Halls. In some, especially those located in small cities and towns, the Assembly Hall is intended for use only as a public Auditorium, in which ample stage facilities are necessary together with provision for stereopti- can entertainments, and in which audiences of from 47 800 to 1500 persons may be seated. In other build- ings the Assembly Hall partakes more of the nature of a study room, being seated with desks and in- tended for the use of pupils only. In still other buildings the stage equipment is provided even though the room be seated with desks for study pur- poses, and in such schools the Assembly Hall is used not only for a study room but also for such literary and chapel exercises as are conducted for or by the pupils. In either of the latter schemes the hall must be large enough to accommodate all pupils of that building at one sitting, this end being ac- complished by different means in different build- ings. Under the present heading, reference is had only to the room intended as an auditorium in which no desks are provided and the following are the im- portant items regarding same. Such rooms should never be placed higher than the second floor of a building and never lower than the first floor, provid- ing the basement story is out of the ground, a "ground floor" Assembly Hall being favored by all authorities and required by law in some states. If galleries are used, entrance to the same may be had from the second floor. Auditoriums in school build- ings should be provided with a stage as high as pos- sible and at least 15 feet in depth behind the cur- tain and should be equipped with a rigging loft, dressing rooms and a small amount of drop scenery and curtains, much the same as may be found in theaters. The larger and more elaborate the Audi- torium, the more liberal and better equipped should be the stage. The floors of school Auditoriums are 48 almost invariably made level, or at least with very- slight incline, no attempt being made to copy thea- ters in this regard. Direct current outlet contained in an iron box should be located in gallery to supply light for the lanterns, and a white curtain may well be included in the equipment of the stage for the same purpose. An ample switchboard should be provided on the stage by which every light in the Auditorium may be controlled at will, both separately and as a whole, and the stage should be lighted with foot lights, bor- ders, etc., in much the same manner as the stage of a small theatre, all being controlled from the switch- board. Means of exit must be provided directly from the Auditorium to the ground outside regardless of exits provided inside of the building, and no Auditorium should be placed high enough above ground to ren- der this impossible. Balance Room. — In the larger and more complete high schools a small room is provided in connection with physical laboratory in which delicate balances are kept in cases for experimental purposes. These rooms need not be larger than 50 square feet area. Biological Rooms. — In the better high J schools biological rooms consist of a pupil's laboratory, a private laboratory for the instructor, a dark room and apparatus room all of which are described under their several headings below. The biological labor- atory should be abundantly lighted and equipped with cabinet desks containing a drawer for each pupil having the use of such desk, also glass cases for specimens, and also containing suitable 49 r demonstration table, preferably with slate top, and instructor's desk. Equipment of private laboratory and apparatus room may be made as simple or elaborate as available finances will permit. The size of biological or other laboratories is dependent upon the number of pupils required to use them. If the building contains a conservatory it should adjoin the biological laboratory. Bicycle Room. — In cities and towns where bicy- cles are used to any extent it is advantageous to have provision in school buildings for a bicycle room containing permanent bicycle racks, and a bicycle run from ground level down to the room. Such rooms should be provided with substantial locks. Board Room. — In many places it is necessary to provide rooms in the school building for the use of the Board of Education, the size of which should be proportioned to the number of members on the Board. Such rooms should always be provided with private toilet room, and if possible a telephone closet and fireproof vault. If the Clerk of the Board is a permanent employe, who devotes his entire time to the work of the Board, an additional work room should be provided for his use having abundant light. Boiler Room. — The boiler room for school build- ings should if possible always be located outside of the main building. In case this is impossible the floor above boiler room should be made both fire- proof and heat-proof regardless of the construction of the balance of the building. Boiler rooms must always be at least twice the length of the boilers themselves to provide for cleaning flues, and in case 50 fuel is also contained in the same room abundant provision must be made for storing same. No boiler room should be less than 12 ft. clear height and con- siderably more height is advisable. Business Department. — The Business Department in high schools should contain at least three rooms, one each for bookkeeping, shorthand and typewrit- ing. Ordinarily the room for bookkeeping is made the size of an ordinary school room and the other two rooms about one-half this size. The rooms for shorthand and typewriting may be separated simply by a glass partition, and be so located that one in- structor may oversee both rooms. The three rooms of this department should be well lighted, located en- suite, and in the more elaborate buildings may also be supplied with an additional small room for the instructor's private use. Chemistry Rooms. — Rooms for the study of chem- istry in high schools include lecture room, labor- atory, apparatus room, balance room and dark room. The size of the lecture room and class room is do- pendent on the number of students required to use them, and the other rooms proportioned thereto. The equipment of the laboratory may be as elaborate and complete as finances will admit, but in any case it is advisable to use work tables having closed hoods which are connected with suction pipes under the floor and these, in turn, with vent risers in the walls leading to an exhaust fan by me&ns of which all air in the laboratory may be drawn through the work tables and forced out doors; this method of ven- tilation preventing the escape of foul odors into the 51 r building. The chemical laboratory should also be provided with a floor drain readily accessible at all times. Clerk's Office.— The data for a Clerk's Office may be found under the head of Board Rooms. Coal Room. — Coal rooms should be located out- side of building if possible but always in conjunction with boiler or furnace room. They shonld be large enough to contain not less than a half season's sup- ply of coal, and if possible a supply for the full sea- son. Coat Rooms. — This topic is treated in conjunc- tion with school rooms but as here employed refers to those rooms, in the larger high school build- ings, which are centrally located and intended to con- tain the wraps for an entire floor or any other large number of pupils. Two systems prevail in this re- gard, one being the use of steel or other closed lockers, each pupil being provided with his own locker and the key thereto ; and the other system con- sisting of open racks in which the wraps are allowed to hang on individual hooks and are kept under the espionage only of the janitor. The users of both systems seem to be satisfied, so that it is largely a matter of individual choice. Commercial Rooms. — See paragraph on Business Rooms. Conservatory. — In large and elaborate high schools a conservatory is provided in connection with the Biological Laboratory. This is a room con- structed all of glass, located on a sunny side of the building and so arranged with piping that it may be kept at any desired degree of temperature uniform- ly. It usually contains an aquarium and a counter- table under the windows constructed of slate and supported on brass pipe. It should be separated from the Biological Laboratory by a partition all of glass, and the frame work of the outside should be constructed in the same manner as the highest grade hot-houses, preferably of metal frame with glass filling. Dark Rooms. — Dark rooms are considered one of the essentials of modern high school buildings to pro- vide for photographic work. They may be very small, — not over fifty square feet area, — and should be provided with a sink, running water and two or three convenient shelves. The chief essential of these rooms is that they must be absolutely dark, be paint- ed on the inside with dull black paint and be separ- ated from any outside room by two doors or some other device which will render it impossible by ac- cident, or otherwise, for any daylight to be admitted into the room while experiments are going on. Directors' Room. — In connection with large and complete gymnasiums, at least one and preferably two rooms should be provided for the personal use of the Director, this room being connected with the gymnasium itself by a glass door or partition and being well lighted, although skylight will answer for this purpose. Dining Room. — In buildings containing depart- ments of domestic science a small dining-room is de- sirable in connection with the room in which cooking experiments are conducted. This room need not be large, say 180 square feet. 53 Domestic Science. — The department of domestic science in present day high schools as a rnle com- prises two departments called by some domestic economy and domestic art, the former consisting of a department for the study of cooking and the latter for the study of sewing, etc. The room for domestic economy is much like a laboratory, and its size will be dependent upon the number of pupils to be ac- commodated, the work being done at specially de- signed tables which must be so disposed as to leave abundance of working room all around them. Pro- vision must be made for carrying gas supplies to each table and plumbing supplies to each sink, and in addition, a general sink of liberal dimensions and preferably of slate or soapstone should also be pro- vided. Ample provision must be made for cup- boards for the storage of utensils, dishes, etc., and it is advisable if possible to provide for a small ice- box for the preservation of food supplies. The room for domestic art or sewing seldom needs to be larger than the ordinary school room unit and in many buildings only half this area is ample. The chief requirement for this room is an abundance of light and ventilation. Drawing Rooms. — Every modern high school must make provision for both free-hand and mechan- ical drawing, and while not necessary, it is usually advisable that the rooms for these two departments shall be close together and communicating. A first requisite for drawing rooms is an abundance of light, preferably north light, but skylight is alsft acceptable, especially for free-hand drawing. Draw- ing rooms should contain cases for books, studies 54 and models, a teacher's desk and abundant pro- vision for drawing tables, easels and chairs or stools. The room for free-hand drawing should contain a shelf not less than 18 inches wide and about 2 feet 6 inches above the floor, and also a second shelf about 12 inches wide located 7 feet or 8 feet above the floor, both shelves extending clear around the room except where windows and doors are located. The wall space between these two shelves should be covered with Compo board or other soft material which will readily take thumb tacks, and the outside surface of same should then be covered with burlap of a neutral tint. Dressing Rooms. — Two, and preferably four small dressing-rooms should be provided in con- nection with the stage of auditoriums or assembly halls, and, while it is not necessary, it is nevertheless advisable that these rooms should have outside light and ventilation and stationary lavatory in each room. Gas lights should also be provided as well as electric lights. Engine Room. — In every building containing machinery, such as engines, dynamos, etc., a separate room or rooms must be provided to contain the same so that this delicate machinery may not be con- taminated with the dust from boiler or coal rooms, and so that all machinery units may be kept within close compass, thus being more easily attended to by the engineer. The electric switchboard should al- ways be located in the engine room, and this room should have connection by telephone or speaking tube with the office of the principal or superinten- dent of the building. The engine room should be 55 lighted from outdoors if possible, should be equipped with a clock containing the program or control and alarm bell, providing the same are used else- where in the building. The engine room should also contain a sink and water-closet for the engineer's use, either in the room itself or connected directly therewith. Fan Room. — Where blast fans are used for heat- ing school rooms, ample provision must be made for them in the proper location. Most architects err in locating fan rooms by not providing for sufficient height or proper means of obtaining fresh out- side air. It is always wise if possible to have fans located near the center of the building so that the work to be done will be symmetrically divided on both sides of the fan. Furnace Room. — The general requirements of furnace rooms are similar to those of boiler rooms ex- cept for the provision regarding cleaning of flues, but abundance of space should be left in front of furnaces for firing space. The height of rooms to contain hot air furnaces need not be made as great as that for rooms to contain boilers. Gymnasium. — "Where gymnasiums are used in school buildings it is safe to figure on an area for the gymnasium itself of about 8 or 10 square feet per pupil in the building, but every well equipped gym- nasium should also have locker rooms, and rooms for shower baths and toilets for each sex in addition to the gymnasium itself. The height of a gymnasium should be not less than 20 feet and should be made 25 feet in the clear if possible. It is impossible to lay down any definite rule for the equipment of gym- 56 nasiums, locker rooms, etc., because the require- ments and supply of money are seldom the same in any two cases. Elsewhere in this book may be found the equipment schedule of the Boston public schools, which is a safe guide. It is generally considered best to locate gym- nasiums in basement stories, as it is much easier to sound-proof the ceiling than it is to sound-proof floors, which would be necessary in case the gym- nasium were located in the upper stories. Every gymnasium must be provided with the most liberal provision for ventilation and, if possible, also have outside light, although the latter is not an absolute essential. It is not necessary that gymnasiums should be heated to a high degree, but provision should be made so that this matter may be within control. Wherever possible, running tracks are provided in gymnasiums, the chief requirement of which is that no radius of any turns in same should be less than 15 feet, and that the floor of running track should be slanted to allow for the inclination of the runners' bodies. It is well to cover the floor of run- ning tracks with cork, and also to have the slant especially designed so that the curves will be exactly correct. It is also of vital importance to so design the supports of running tracks that it will be im- possible for runners to collide with them in going around the track, no matter how close to the outside rail they may be running. The ideal floor for gymnasium is hard maple, cut opposite to the grain of the wood, although some authorities recommend hard asphalt set in concrete and covered with linoleum. The use of pressed brick 57 for inside walls of gymnasiums is preferable to any other wall covering, although hard plaster is used in some places. The circular iron stairway from the running track to the floor of gymnasium, and also the brass sliding pole, are features which may well be included in the building equipment. Janitor's Room. — Where the machinery is looked after by the janitor, the engine room will answer the double purpose and no extra janitor's room be re- quired, but in buildings containing no engine room and in buildings in which separate engineers are provided, the janitor should be given a room for his own use, containing toilet facilities and space for storage. Kindergarten. — Primary, and in some cases in- termediate school buildings, should have two kinder- garten rooms, separated by sliding or folding doors, these rooms so isolated that games and music will not disturb other classes. The floors and walls should be carefully sound-proofed. These rooms should never be located above the first floor and should be provided with a separate toilet-room, equipped with low fixtures of special pattern for the use of children. A circle should be painted on th(? floor and the walls of the room may well be finished in the manner described for drawing rooms, so as to provide for pictures, models, etc. Kitchen. — In all school buildings where lunches are served to pupils, it is advisable to provide for a kitchen, the size and equipment of which will be de- pendent on the number of pupils daily to be taken care of. In any such room, however, ample smoke 58 flues must be provided, a liberal sink equipped with hot and cold water, and such other equipment as the circumstances of the case demand. Library Room. — Most American cities of the present day have large libraries, so that it is rarely necessary to provide a library in school buildings larger than necessary to contain such works of ref- erence as are especially required in the curriculum of the school. In every case, however, a library should be well lighted, conveniently located, equip- ped with metallic book-cases and also with good, comfortable chairs and tables. In some of the larger high schools libraries are made sufficiently large to accommodate an entire class at one time. In smaller buildings where no separate library is possible pro- vision is usually made in the superintendent's or principal's office for sufficient book-cases to answer the purpose. Locker Rooms. — In connection with the gym- nasium in basement, locker rooms should be pro- vided for each sex, which should be well ventilated but may be lighted either by skylight or artificial light if necessary. The lockers usually employed are of sheet steel construction, and usually two tiers in height, provided with a lock and key for the use of each pupil. Locker rooms usually also contain com- partments about 4 feet square built of slate or mar- ble partitions, and having either doors or curtains at the front, these compartments being used as dress- ing-rooms for the purpose of classes doing gym- nasium work. Locker rooms must always have im- mediate access to the gymnasium and also to the rooms containing shower baths and toilets. 59 Locker rooms are also provided in the upper por- tions of some school buildings, as described under the heading of coat rooms. "Wherever locker rooms are provided and steel lockers made use of, it is wise to insist upon patterns which are connected with the exhaust ventilating system, so that air may be sucked through the lockers, thence to the wall risers and thus out doors. Lunch Rooms. — In nearly all large cities, high school buildings must be provided with lunch rooms for the convenience of pupils. In some buildings these rooms are not provided with conveniences for serving any sort of food, but are merely intended to provide a place in which pupils may eat lunches brought with them to school. This case is very sim- ple, requiring simply a room of ample size and con- venient location, equipped with broad-armed lunch chairs, such as are used in the various dairy lunches throughout the country. In other places provision is made for serving warm food, and in such cases kitchens must be provided as above described and permanent lunch tables or counters at which the food may be served. It is impossible to give any general requirements, owing to the great difference in custom throughout the country in this regard. Manual Training Department. — Manual Training Departments of present day school buildings usually consist of rooms in which are taught the art of join- ery, wood-turning, forging and metal working. This department should also always be provided with a liberal stock room for the storage of materials and tools. Manual training work is usually done in basement stories, and in portions of the building so 60 located that the noise can not easily interfere with the work in other portions of the building. Forges should, if possible, be connected with down draft suction pipes leading to exhaust fans, so that all smudge in these rooms may be forcibly drawn out and forced into the open air without contaminating the balance of the building. The equipment of each of the rooms or departments named depends entirely upon the scope of the work being undertaken, the number of pupils engaged in the work and the finances available for the building and equipenmt. Museum. — Many school buildings contain mu- seums, the chief requirements of which are that they should be well lighted, should be fire-proof and equipped with the necessary cases of proper design for displaying the exhibits belonging to the school. Music Room. — As a general rule music is taught in separate classes, but many buildings also contain separate rooms for the teaching of music. Such rooms need not be seated with desks but use may be made of the wide armed lecture chair ordinarily used in lecture rooms. Blackboard space must be provided and some musical instrument such as piano or organ. Observatory. — Where high schools are equipped with observatories it is essential that the walls sup- porting same must be solid masonry from the ground to the observatory floor, and it is also es- sential that the floor upon which the observers walk must not at any point be in contact with the floor which supports the instruments. The designing of observatories is an art in itself and the utmost care should be exercised in providing for one which will 61 work satisfactorily. The majority of high school observatories in existence at the present time are not satisfactory. Physical Laboratory. — As stated with regard to other laboratories, the size and equipment of the physics laboratory is dependent upon the number of pupils, the size of the building and the financial assets in hand. In the larger buildings the physical laboratory is arranged en suite with a physics lec- ture room, apparatus room, balance room, dark room and also, where possible, a private laboratory and office for the instructor of the department. The chief requirement of design in the physical laboratory is that none of the work tables should contain any metal whatever in their construction and that where- ever it is necessary to use metal in any portion of the room, it should not be of iron or steel. The physical laboratory should be so arranged and de- signed that it will be as free from vibrations as possible, and most authorities prefer this depart- ment to be located directly upon the ground in the basement story. Play Rooms. — In grade buildings throughout the country, play rooms should be provided but these are almost invariably located in the basement. They should be made as cheerful as possible, one being provided for each sex, and directly connected with toilet rooms. It is also advisable to have doors opening to the outside from basement play rooms and that stone or cement stairways be provided to give access directly therefrom to the playground outside. A splendid finish for the interior walls of play rooms is pressed brick. 62 Principal's Office. — Every school building su- pervised by a principal should contain an office for the use of the principal, and in large and important buildings both a public and private office and pri- vate toilet room should be arranged for the use of the principal. In buildings where the Board of Education or its Clerk do not have their offices, it is important that the principal should have a fire- proof vault connected with his office. Recitation Room. — Rooms for recitation purposes only, as distinguished from class rooms, differ there- from in the matter of size and in the method of seat- ing. Ordinary school rooms usually have fixed and permanent desks. Eecitation rooms are usually equipped with wide armed lecture room chairs. School rooms seldom provide for more or less than forty pupils, but class rooms are arranged with pro- vision for seating any number from twenty to one hundred. Such rooms seating more than forty pupils usually have the floors arranged in steps so that pupils in the rear seats may see over the heads of those in front. The rules for direction of lighting school rooms are not held to be as immutable, in the case of recitation rooms, as they are in ordinary school rooms. Rest Rooms. — Every school building should con- tain at least one emergency or rest room which may be used by pupils of either sex taken suddenly ill. These rooms should have a pleasant, sunny exposure, be well lighted and connected directly with a private toilet room. They should be equipped with a couch or davenport, easy chairs, a table and reading mat- ter, and should have a small cupboard containing 63 medicine and other conveniences suitable for ren- dering first aid to the injured or sick. Stage. — For description of stage requirements see Assembly Room, Dressing Room, etc. Superintendent's Office. — The requirements for Superintendent's rooms are identical with those given for principal's office. Shower Rooms. — In connection with gymnasiums, provision should be made for separate rooms for the use of each sex, equipped with shower baths. The type of baths to be used are fully described in the chapter on sanitation. In, or adjacent to the shower room, should also be provided toilet rooms of ample capacity and correct design. The floor of shower rooms, locker rooms, toilet rooms, etc., should be of tile if possible. Science Lecture Room. — Every important high school building should be equipped with a large lec- ture room for the teaching of science, the floor being arranged in steps to provide for the seating of classes in chairs. The science lecture room should be provided with facilities for lantern exhibitions and should have a large and complete demonstration table with slate top on which scientific experiments of various sorts may be performed. The lighting in the room should be so arranged as to be controlled by a switch, located on or near this demonstration table, and some provision should be made whereby the windows may be absolutely dark at the will of the instructor upon a moment's notice. Study Rooms. — In high school buildings where i the plan of separating the classes into general study 64 rooms is followed, these rooms are made of a size sufficient to seat one or more classes together at a time at desks, such as freshmen-sophomore, junior- senior, etc., and where this plan is followed the general rules as to area per pupil, ventilation, light- ing, etc., given in chapter on school rooms, should be followed. It is also important where the study room system is used that ample locker or coat rooms be located in proximity thereto, for obvious reasons. Toilet Rooms. — The equipment of toilet rooms is fully discussed under the head of sanitation, etc., and it will suffice to say here that separate toilet rooms must be provided for each sex, and must be well lighted and ventilated. If possible, the ventila- tion must be performed by the suction of air through the fixtures, thence into the wall risers and out doors, this system being entirely separate from the gen- eral ventilating system of the building. Wherever possible, separate private toilet rooms should be ar- ranged for the use of teachers of each sex, although these may be adjacent to the rooms used by pupils. Vault. — Fire-proof vaults should be provided as stated in paragraph on principal's office and Board Room. 65 SANITATION. No effort will be made in these pages to deal with the subject of school hygiene which covers every aspect of school life likely to affect the health of children, such as periods of study, care of the eyes, discipline, medical inspection, etc., as the pur- pose of the present work is to cover the essentials of correct school buildings without reference to ad- ministration. Heating and ventilation also properly come under the head of sanitation, as nothing is more important for correct sanitary conditions than pure air, but this subject will be treated in a separate chapter. Sanitation as here considered, will have reference only to those features of the school buildings them- selves which conduce to healthfulness and comfort. Walls. — In a previous chapter the recommenda- tion has been offered that school walls should be finished smooth and decorated with paint, also that corners and mouldings should be finished round so as to admit of easy cleaning. The first step in the proper sanitation of the school building is to have it so designed as to be easily and perfectly cleaned. "When these provisions have been made in the building itself, proper hygienic conditions of walls will be maintained if janitors are forced fre- quently and thoroughly to brush or wash down the walls, and if provision is made for having them re- coated with paint at reasonable intervals. 67 In the designing of school rooms the use of wood frames around doors and windows should be reduced to a minimum, and the finish should be made as nearly like that which is used in hospitals as possible. It will be found that it is not necessary to use casing around windows and doors, such as is used com- monly in dwelling houses, but that the jambs of doors and windows may be formed as shown in figure (2p30), thus eliminating all unnecessary woodwork, mouldings and other devices upon which dust is liable to gather and disease germs to lodge. Sewerage and Drainage. — Reference has already been made to the necessity of waterproofing base- ments of school buildings to render them dry, but it is of even more importance that school buildings be so situated that the ground surrounding them may be readily drained, and that all sewage resulting from the building itself may be quickly and surely disposed of. Nearly all American cities at the pres- ent time have effective sewerage inspection, and definite codes governing the construction of sewers, so that elaborate detail on this subject seems un- necessary. For cities in which no regulations exist it is very easy to obtain copies of codes from neigh- boring cities from which the standards of good work may be obtained. For buildings in country districts in which no sewage facilities are provided, the ser-, vice of sanitary engineers should be obtained to de- sign sewage disposal plants to care for the sewage I from the buildings. In every school building, the| sewage and plumbing system should be made ab- solutely tight, rendering the escape of sewer gas in| the building impossible. In buildings set with al- 68 lowance for scant fall to the sewer, rendering the building liable to the danger of sewage backing up into the basement, proper valves or traps should be installed by means of which this may be rendered impossible. Plumbing Fixtures. — No part of the building so concerns its sanitary condition as the system of plumbing and plumbing fixtures which is installed therein. Probably no class of material entering into the construction of buildings has been brought to a higher standard in recent years than sanitary plumb- ing, and the best demonstration of this statement is an inspection of school buildings erected fifteen or twenty years ago in comparison with those being erected at the present time. Probably the first step in the present develop- ment, was the abolition of the range and dry closet systems, and the development of individual water flushing closets of sanitary design. The process of development has been a long one, and has probably not yet reached its utmost perfection, but several types of water closets have been developed which are highly satisfactory for school use. First among these may be mentioned the system of closets known as latrines because they are the least satisfactory of the types now in use. They are merely a modern de- velopment of the old style range closet, in which a number of bowls are arranged consecutively and con- nected together in such a manner that the entire range may be flushed by the flow of water which is caused to pass through them at short intervals. They may also be provided with positive means of ven- tilation, but care should be exercised that the ven- 69 ®=*F Plan of Water Closet Stalls Details of Ventilated 11 I "WATER CL.05ET5; 5TALLS Primary Hi&h 5choou Utility Chamber Etc. ^Elevation or Stall Doors 70 tilation of closets has no connection whatever, with the system of ventilation controlling school rooms. The merits claimed for latrines are that they are so simple in construction that it is almost impossible for them to get out of order, and that the control of the flushing device rests entirely with the janitor, who adjusts the apparatus as desired. Properly con- structed latrines, connected with plumbing thor- oughly well done, and so designed as to be flushed automatically and powerfully, are quite satisfactory and are being used in a large number of present day schools. However, another and better type of closet is being used extensively, consisting of a porcelain bowl of either wash down or siphon jet pattern, so designed that pressure upon the seat of the fixture admits water to the tank placed on the wall in the rear of the closet. When the seat is released the water in the tank immediately rushes into the bowl thoroughly flushing and cleansing it and no more water is wasted than the operation requires. It is impossible to make use of the fixture without having it thoroughly flushed with water at each operation, and the mechanical part of the apparatus is so hid- den and protected from view that it is practically impossible for mischievous boys to cause any dam- age thereto. Various other forms of special closets for school buildings are on the market, but the one just described has more in its favor than any other type which has yet been developed. One closet should be provided in each school building for every twenty-five boys and for every fifteen girls. Near every closet or system of closets should be an ample 71 number of lavatories supplied with soap and towels, not only to provide pupils the opportunity of wash- ing but to teach them the advisability of so doing. Every water closet should be surrounded with a partition making a small compartment to ensure privacy, but many authorities contend that no doors should be provided at the front of such compart- ments in elementary and intermediate buildings. These partitions should be of black slate, soap stone or marble, and should be set up from the floor 10 or 12 inches and should be of such design that they may be frequently and easily cleaned. Water closets and closet systems should always be so arranged that they may be well lighted and easily cleaned. Where*- ever possible, provision should be made for the posi- tive ventilation of every fixture, but most certainly of every toilet room. The closet bowls should not exceed 14 inches in height, especially in the lower grades. A utility chamber or working space of 24 inches should be provided behind the backs of closets wherever possible, wherein all tanks, flush- ing and plumbing pipes of every description may be concealed. A door must be provided for the ad- mittance of inspection or repair men. In buildings having forced ventilation, these utility chambers serve well the purpose of vent chambers, through which the closet compartments may be ventilated. Individual compartments should be about 3 feet 6 inches in depth, front to back, providing no doors are used, or 4 feet 6 inches, front to back, when doors are used, and they should be 30 inches or more in width. Next in importance to the closets comes the urinal fixtures. A urinal which is sanitary must be so de- 72 signed that it will (1) thoroughly flush frequently, (2) maintain a body of flowing water to keep the surface of the urinal constantly flushed without waste, and (3) be effectively ventilated. In build- ings where the saving of expense is an important item the best type of urinal now in use consists of a large exposed surface of black slate about 4 feet in height, the bottom of which is carried up from the floor about 4 inches and out from the wall about the same distance. The surface of the slate is kept con- stantly moist by a flow of water supplied from the top of the slab. Under the bottom of the slab is pro- vided a porcelain or cement trough into which the water is received, and the space back of the urinal slab serves as a vent chamber through which the air is drawn and forced to the outside air. Such urinals are illustrated in the Appendix. Recently a much superior but more expensive urinal has been per- fected consisting of solid white porcelain about 18 inches wide and 4 feet high shaped like half of a cylinder standing on its end. These urinals are made all in one piece having all exposed surfaces glazed, and adjacent parts being fitted into each other with perfect cemented joints. The fixtures are built into the tile or cement floor of the toilet room and there are absolutely no open joints or crevices in which foulness may gather and produce annoying odors. Each urinal is provided with a flushing de- vice which distributes water evenly over the con- cave surface of the urinal, the flushing being ac- complished by an automatic tank which may be set to operate as often as desired. Each urinal is also supplied with a vent opening protected by a shield under the bottom of the urinal and thus perfect i 73 ventilation may be assured. One urinal should be allowed for every eighteen or twenty boys. Lavatories. — So many admirable patterns of lavatories are on the market that it is hardly neces- sary to say much concerning them except that the matter of individual use should always be consider- ed, and ample provision made whereby each pupil may have access to a separate lavatory when neces- sary. Many of the solid porcelain or cast iron por- celain enameled lavoratories are suitable for use in school buildings, and those types are preferred which do not have any direct connection with the walls, and every part whereof is readily accessible for cleaning. All lavatories should be provided with self closing cocks of substantial and durable pattern, and should have some device for controlling the waste, other than the old fashioned chain and stopper. Each lavatory should be provided with liquid soap and a device from which same may be obtained. Where- ever possible, hot water should be supplied to the lavatory as well as cold water. Sinks should be provided for the use of janitors, engineers, etc., which should be cast iron porcelain enameled, having roll rim backs in one piece with the sink. These sinks should always be supplied with both hot and cold water, where possible. In all cities where gas may be obtained, it is now possible to have an abundance of hot water, by means of instantan- eous heaters, which are both effective and economical. In buildings equipped with gymnasiums, or in which it is desirable to provide shower baths, they should be arranged in stalls consisting of a dressing compartment and a shower compartment separated 74 by duck curtains. The shower stalls and dressing stalls may be constructed of either black slate, soap stone or marble as the available funds may justify; and the shower stall should be not less than 3 feet by 3 feet, inside measure, the dressing stalls not less than 3 feet by 2 feet 6 inches, inside measure, and all stalls at least 6 feet 6 inches high above the finished floor. If the funds will admit the shower stall should have a marble or porcelain counter-sunk floor slab with combination drain and trap in the center there- of. A curbing of the same material as the stall par- titions 6 inches high should be provided between the shower and dressing compartment to keep the water from splashing the floor of the dressing room. The dressing room should be provided with a seat of the same material as the walls thereof for use in dress- ing. Stall partitions should be set in the finished floor inch. The wide variety of shower fittings manu- factured is fully illustrated in the catalogues of the various manufacturers from which selection may be made in accordance with the funds available. Es- sentials in every outfit are that the showers should be of plain type with shower head having removable :ace with ball and socket joint so the angle may be changed at the will of the bather. The shower should be provided with non-scalding valve, and should come from the wall or ceiling instead of from the floor. In the better class of work tem- perature regulating chambers are always provided and if desirable needle baths, sprays, etc., may be added to the equipment. Another sanitary feature deemed necessary in every modern school building is the drinking foun- 75 tain, the first and most important requirement of which is that it must be of some type which does not permit of the use of the old-style germ ladened cup. Owing to this requirement, leading manufacturers produce pedestal fountains with porcelain bowls and with some type of bubbling cup on top, by means of which a stream of running water, arising therefrom, may be used for drinking without the necessity of any contact between the lips and the fixture. The better patterns of fountains are pro- vided with self-closing faucets to avoid wasting water, and the fitting through which the water emerges is made of porcelain to prevent corrosion or discoloration which would result in case metal is used. FIG. 8 Figure 8 illustrates an ideal arrangement for toilet rooms for either sex, and shows the vent through which the foul air of the toilet room, after being drawn through the fixtures themselves is exhausted to the open air, outside the building. Location of Sanitary Conveniences. — There is much discussion of the proper location of toilet 76 rooms or sanitaries in school buildings. Some authorities assert that toilet rooms for children should never be placed in the basement and argue in favor of detached pavilions. Undoubtedly, it is best in the large and more expensive types of build- ings to provide ample toilet conveniences on each floor, located, wherever possible, in well ventilated wings or separate portions of the building, — ease of access and complete isolation being the two prin- cipal requirements regarding their location. In any case every school building, should be provided with at least one toilet room on each floor for the use of teachers, and this may, without disadvantage, be arranged in connection with the toilet rooms for pupils. There can be no objection to the placing of toilet equipments in basements providing the base- ments are dry, well lighted, equipped with proper facilities for water supply and sewerage, and also provided there is a good positive system of ventila- tion of the compartments used for the toilet equip- ment. The floors of toilet rooms must always be of non- absorbent materials, and if constructed of cement the cement must be absolutely water-proof as else- where stated. Toilet room floors of unglazed or semi-glazed tiles, or of artificial plastic cement, make ideal materials for the purpose, especially because cove mouldings may be used at the walls instead of base mouldings, thus rendering it possible to keep the rooms absolutely clean. Wherever the supply of funds will admit, toilet rooms should be wainscoted with glazed tile or marble. 77 Vacuum Cleaning. — One of the sanitary devices which has now been brought to a high degree of ex- cellence is a device whereby buildings may be cleaned by means of vacuum equipment. Many different systems of vacuum cleaning are on the mar- ket, some of which are absolutely dependable and the cost of installing such plants is not relatively very high, especially compared with the positive and excellent results obtained therefrom. By means of such devices not only floors but walls, ceilings and any other portions of rooms desired may be thor- oughly cleaned. Estimates of the cost of installing such apparatus, full directions concerning their use, and the results to be secured from them are readily obtainable from any of the manufacturers of such apparatus. 78 FIRE PROOF AND PANIC PROOF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Until very recent years the impression has pre- vailed that, owing to its excessive cost over ordin- ary construction, no method of fireproofing could be employed in any school building except the largest and most expensive ones, because the voting public would consider such expenditure needless ex- travagance. This impression has been somewhat strengthened by the ever increasing cost of struc- tural steel, and the difficulty of obtaining it without weeks or months of annoying delay, which also added to the expense and difficulty of fireproof con- struction. Recently these conditions have become decidedly modified owing to three potent influences; (1) one or two frightful school calamities have awakened the public conscience to the conviction that it is almost criminal parsimony, instead of wise economy, to spare the added expense necessary to render school buildings fireproof and panic proof. (2) The alarming scarcity of lumber has not only great- ly increased the cost of timber for construction pur- poses, but the quality of timber now procurable in many parts of the country is so inferior, and of such short lengths, that various expedients of design have become necessary in order to render such tim- ber useable at all. These expedients have seriously added to the cost of non-fireproof construction until 79 there is but a narrow, and ever narrowing, margin between the ordinary type and the fireproof type of buildings. When to this factor is added the cost of fire escapes and other such devices, required in many of the states by law, it is found that there is but little difference between the ultimate cost of the non-fireproof building and that of the so-called fireproof structure. (3) Most potent of all, how- ever, must be mentioned the almost marvelous growth of reinforced concrete construction, by the use of which, intelligently handled, school buildings may be made fireproof at practically the same cost as the ordinary combustible type of building; pro- viding the latter is sufficiently complete to comply with the ordinary safeguards for life and health which are now demanded by the laws in the most progressive states. In addition to the moderate cost of reinforced concrete work, its increasing popu- larity is doubtless due to the fact that the in- gredients entering into its construction may be found in almost every part of the country. Such steel as is necessary to reinforce the concrete may be made of the simplest patterns, everywhere pro- curable on short notice, and of such character that no steel company or combination can easily work schemes for putting unreasonable prices upon them. Generally speaking, therefore, no progressive board i of education should be willing to consider any| school building proposition which precludes the pos- sibility of fireproof construction. One has only to think, for an instant, of the 160| innocent children who were roasted to death in th< frightful holacaust, at Collinwood, Ohio, in 1907 ; oJ 80 the homes thus darkened by the angel of death, and the desperate efforts of those in authority, in such cases, to find some excuse on which their blasted reputations can be hung, to become convinced that it is little short of criminal to participate in the erection of school buildings which are not practi- cally fireproof and panic-proof. Definitions. — The term fireproof, while well understood by competent architects, is still but a hazy term in the minds of many people. It is safe to say that there are few, if any, buildings which are absolutely fireproof, — i. e., which could not be destroyed by any fire, however great, from without or within. But it is a safe statement that there are very many buildings in the country fireproof in the sense that they could not be utterly destroyed by any fire which can ever assail them, and in which the salvage in case of fire would amount to 70 or 80 per cent. Practically all of these buildings are in- destructible by fire from within themselves, and could only be seriously damaged by fires of in- describable fierceness attacking them from the out- side. In Chicago, the term fireproof construction applies to all buildings in which the parts thereof carrying weights or resistance, including all exterior and interior walls and partitions, all stairways, ele- vator enclosures, etc., are made entirely of incombust- ible materials; and in which all metallic structural members are protected from fire by incombustible materials. ' ' The materials which shall be considered as fireproof covering or protection are, (1) burned brick, (2) burned wall tiles, (3) approved cement concrete, (4) burned terra cotta, and (5) approved 81 cinder concrete." The definition of fireproof con- struction in the New York building code is in effect similar to that stated from the Chicago code ; but is more explicit, especially with reference to the con- struction of high buildings. From the foregoing definitions it will be readily seen that school build- ings are easily made of fireproof construction, and it may be done without the excessive expense which is contingent upon the construction of high office buildings, etc. Application to School Buildings. — All walls of a school building, except mere dividing partitions, should be of solid brick masonry, particularly those walls which enclose or surround stairways. Divid- ing partitions, where necessary, may be constructed of hard burned terra cotta tile plastered with ce- ment plaster. All floors should be constructed of either hollow terra cotta tile or entirely of rein- forced concrete, preferably the latter. Stairways should be constructed of either iron and steel, or of reinforced concrete, and should be isolated in stair- way halls and entirely surrounded with masonry or non-combustible materials. The stairway leading to basement should be kept strictly separate from stairways leading to upper portions of the building. Steep roofs, to be finished with tile or slate, should be constructed on steel trusses, the roof surface be- ing formed of slabs of concrete or terra cotta tile and covered with ornamental tile or slate on the out- 1 side. Flat roofs may be of either tile or reinforced | concrete and should be covered with asbestos roof- ing, waterproof cement or waterproof tiles laid in| cement. 82 Various preparations are on the market, of a fireproofing nature, for finishing floors and this may be used in place of wood flooring; but buildings which are fireproofed as above outlined, may be con- sidered well within every requirement of safety for school building purposes if the floors, doors and windows are made of wood. However, where suf- ficient funds are available, even the doors, windows and trimmings may be procured of non-combustible materials, if desired. Precautionary and Extinguishing Appliances. — "Where school buildings are exposed to adjacent structures the utmost care should be observed in rendering the exposed portions of the school build- ing absolutely fire resisting, with reference to the outside danger; which may be done by means of metallic frames and sash in windows and the use of wire glass. In case of an exposure of unusual risk and danger, a sprinkler system could be in- stalled on the outside of the building so arranged as to provide a sheet of water pouring down over the building in case fire reaching a certain tem- perature should ever come against it. Sprinkler systems may also be installed in any portions of school buildings in which it is considered that an unusual danger of fire may arise, such as labora- tories, manual training rooms, engine and boiler rooms; the above rooms containing combustible material. Every school building whether of fireproof or ordinary construction should be provided with stand pipes connected with the city water system, or 83 in case this source of supply is of questionable value, with a pressure tank located in the attic and kept constantly supplied with a large volume of water under pressure. Outlets from the standpipes should be provided on each floor and supplied with a liberal quantity of non-rotting hose equipped with nozzles, ready for instant use. In addition, fire ex- tinguishers should be supplied in all school build- ings, particularly in locations exposed to com- bustible materials as above named. The use of such devices are advisable even in buildings of fireproof construction, and their absence in combustible buildings is absolutely inexcusable. Panic Proofing. It is a remarkable fact that even in buildings which are generally known as fireproof structures, it is still possible for accidents to occur which may give rise to frightful panics on the part of those occupying the buildings. This is, perhaps, especial- ly noticeable in school buildings where little children are congregated in large numbers and easily fright- ened by any unusual noise, the smell of smoke, or an alarm of any sort indicating danger. The instinct for self-preservation often drives even adults to extremes, which, after the passing of the excitement, seem to the actors themselves almost idiotic; but during the frenzy created by the alarm, reason is cast aside and the sedate human being actually be- comes, for a time, an ungovernable maniac. For this reason, much study should be devoted to the ar- rangement of school buildings so that the occur- 1 rences of panics will be rendered practically impos-, sible. 84 It is not necessary here to speak of the ad- ministrative duties of teachers in keeping pupils constantly drilled, in anticipation of fire or panic, regardless of the character of the building oc- cupied by them, as it is now universal practice, made necessary by law in many of the states, for teachers to require constant practice in this regard. Bef- erence must be made, however, to those features of arrangement and construction in the school build- ing which, (1) render the creation of undue alarms practically impossible and (2) provide such facili- ties that even where the alarm does occur an escape to safety may be easily and quickly made. Some of these features have been touched upon in other portions of this work, but may be briefly reviewed here. Every building should contain at least two fire- proof stairways surrounded by fireproof masonry walls, not connected with each other in any par- ticular, and if possible placed upon opposite sides of the building. Under no circumstances, should a school building be designed with a central hall into which all stairways open, as a fire or panic in such a hall would instantly and effectively block all means of egress from the building. There should be no connection, in any case, between the stairways leading to the upper portions of the building, and the stairways leading down to the basement used as such, — i. e., containing heating apparatus, etc. Every building should contain a liberal number of stairways and these should be of ample capacity. Buildings which are not of fireproof construction should contain emergency stairways, so that each 85 emergency stairway will serve not more than two school rooms in the second story. Every school building should be constructed so as to render the use of outside fire escapes unnecessary, as the latter are not only unsightly and expensive, but almost as dangerous as some of the features within a com- bustible building itself. School rooms in first story in combustible buildings should be provided with a doorway leading direct to the ground in addition to the usual exits by means of corridors, etc. Base- ment rooms should have an area space outside the foundation walls, and exits provided into the areas from every basement room to be used by pupils so that instant egress may be had therefrom to the out- side in case of fire or alarm. Design of Stairways, Entrances, Etc. — Every door in school buildings should open outward, whether leading from the school room to the cor- ridor, the corridor to the vestibule or the vestibule outside. No top and bottom bolts should be per- mitted on doors, and no doors within combustible buildings should be provided with key locks, except main entrance door, library, book closets and boiler room doors. The proportion of stairways is covered elsewhere in this work, but it may be added here that no stair- way should have more than one landing and all landings should be of ample capacity. The outside wall of landings should be made octagonal or cir- cular construction, reducing the landing space to approximately a half circle approaching in capacity that of the stairways, and in case the stairways are 86 of double width, as elsewhere described, the rail- ings forming the division should be carried on a cir- cle arc clear around the landing. The balustrade separating the upper from the lower flight of stairs should be made high, absolutely rigid and with no open space whatever between the top rail of same and the steps, this space being filled either with re- inforced concrete, metal screen or balustrade or some other similar device rendering it absolutely impossible for pupils either willfully, or by pressure during a panic, to fall from one flight of stairs to the one below. A solid wall separating the two flights is the best design of all, but the same may be con- structed of a steel frame fitted with wire glass, if desired, and this form of design is seen in many oC the higher grade schools of the present day. General Provisions. — In general, the danger of panics in buildings is made remote in proportion to the simplicity and directness of the plan. The more, liberal, straight and thoroughly lighted the cor- ridors are, the less danger there will be of panic. Secondary corridors should be avoided, if possible, but in any case must be liberal in size, well lighted and not only have access to principal corridors, but if possible, to emergency stairways at the end of secondary corridors. All emergency exits and, other means of egress from the building which are not prominent and obvious at a glance should be prominently marked "EXIT", and in case the build- ings are used at night, lights should be provided in connection with these exits so that the letters will appear in red. Such exit doors not only should open outward, but be so fastened that it will always be 87 possible to open them from the inside without diffi- culty. There should be absolutely no "dead ends", dark nooks or useless spaces in which frightened children could become jammed without easy escape. Finally when every possible precaution has been made, the children should constantly be impressed with the fact that no danger can ever come from the building which they need to fear. 88 HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Practically all works relating to school building treat the subjects of heating and ventilating con- jointly as one subject. With reference to some systems this is fitting, because in them the heating and ventilating is performed at one operation, the heated air being used also for ventilating; but per- haps a more intelligent understanding of the subject may be obtained if the two processes are first con- sidered separately and afterwards with reference to their relation to each other. Direct Heating. All systems of heating may be grouped under two general heads, (1) direct heating systems in which the heat radiating apparatus is located in the room being warmed, such as stoves, steam and hot water radiators, and (2) indirect heating in which the heat radiating apparatus is not located im- mediately in the room to be warmed, but in the basement or some other portion of the building dis- tant from the room or rooms being warmed. There are buildings in which both the direct and indirect are used in combination, which systems are discuss- ed fully in the chapter on ventilation. One principle should be borne in mind constant- ly, — that ventilation on any positive or sanitary basis is an utter impossibility in rooms warmed by the direct system; heating is possible but no prac- tical ventilation. It is also well to remember that 89 the process of heating a room is a three-fold opera- tion; (1) heating the air within the room, (2) heat- ing the walls, floor and ceiling of the room, and (3) 1 _u ^ u Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Evolution Of h eating Systems Fis.i Direct Heating,, No Ventilation Tig. 2. Indirect Heating " No Ventilation heating the air which may find its way into the room through crevices, around windows, doors, etc., to replace air which has leaked out in the same or any other manner. Heating Devices: Direct System. — The heating apparatus of the earliest schools undoubtedly con- sisted of enormous open grates or fire places which were, without question, bright and cheerful but no1 suited to school requirements. The open fire-plac< superheats those nearest the fire and leaves col< those at a distance. It is also expensive, as at leasj 50 per cent of the heat producing power of the fuel is lost through the open chimney. Open fire place] 90 may produce slight ventilation by reason of the draught created by the hot air passing up the chim- ney, but such ventilation is limited exactly to the amount of air which can leak into the room around doors, windows, etc., and such leakage rather con- tributes to the discomfort of the occupants of the room, than to ensure a perfect ventilating system. Doubtless, the next step in the development of direct heating apparatus, was the modern iron stove which is still used, particularly in rural districts, for heating school rooms. Any sort of stove is but little better than the open fire place, possessing all of its defects and no additional merit except that of economy. The stove produces even less ventilation and in fact possesses but one reliable characteristic, -the ability to produce a great deal of heat at one point in the room quickly, and with a limited quan- tity of fuel. "With the use of steam for heating buildings, the annoying and unsightly radiator came into use, and in many cases soon replaced the old- fashioned fire place and stove; but steam radiators for direct heating of school rooms are little better than fire places or stoves, and are incapable of pro- ducing any ventilation whatever. They are chiefly admirable as dust catchers. Owing to the excessive temperature and rather depressing effect of steam heat, hot water is often substituted therefor, but aside from the different character of heat furnished by the two systems and the very slight economy re- sulting from the use of hot water, the two systems are identical in principle and results. Many schemes have been devised for modifying and elaborating the apparatus for direct heating, 91 above described, and for combining so called sys- tems of ventilation therewith, but with very indif- ferent success. Even though flues are provided for the outflow of heated air from the rooms they do not ventilate, except in the imagination of the de- signer. Indirect Heating. Indirect heating is any system in which the heat radiating surfaces are located outside of the room to be heated. Indirect systems may consist of hot air furnaces, or a " Battery' ' of steam or hot water coils located at some central point or points in the build- ing, the apparatus being so connected with flues and piping that the air which is heated in the ap- paratus is conducted, in the flues, to the rooms to be heated. Flues or outlets are then provided in each of the rooms for the escape of the air in the room outdoors. Where no fan or blower is used, such a system is commonly designated as a gravity system, this phraseology being based on the theory that the heated air entering the room is rarified, by means of the heat, sufficiently to cause it to rise in the outlet flues and escape outdoors, thus creating space in the school room which will be immediately filled by other heated air and the operation thus kept up in- definitely; a theory, however, far from reliable 01 trustworthy. Where the operation is controlled by means of fans or blowers the result may be positive and sure, but this phase of the subject is treate( under the head of ventilation. 92 In the systems of direct heating described it is assumed that the heating apparatus simply warms, and keeps warmed, the air in the school room, no provision being made for the admission of fresh air or the egress of vitiated air except by leakage as stated. Indirect heating, however, involves some movement or change in the air of the rooms being heated, and a system of flues to provide for same; for if no means be provided whereby the air first in the rooms may find its way out, it is manifestly im- possible to introduce fresh heated air from the base- ment, or other central point, into the rooms. In- direct heating, therefore, has the advantage over direct heating that it necessarily involves more or less positive ventilation. TRE5H Air- Heated Air )pen Register. -Radiator. xample or Direct-Indirect Meating Direct Indirect Heating. — A system of heating once much in vogue, but now obsolete and little used, was the direct-indirect system, which can be used only in connection with steam or hot water. This system consisted of the placing of radiators 93 adjacent to windows, or other openings, leading direct outdoors, the theory being that the heat in the radiator would induce currents of fresh air to pass from out doors over the radiator into the rooms to be heated. Of course, no air whatever would enter the rooms in such manner unless flues were also pro- vided whereby air in the rooms might find its way through these vents outdoors, and even in such case, ventilation by this system is exceedingly un- certain. Systems of this sort give much annoyance through freezing of the steam pipes exposed to the cold air and it is impossible to construct such a system so as to supply an ample and positive volume^ of fresh air for ventilation. 94 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION. Ventilation in reality is a branch of sanitary- science, and although many believe the science still to be in its infancy, vast progress has been attained in its development and perfection within very re- cent years. Ventilation, as contemplated by this work, refers to the continuous renewal of the air within build- ings intended for school purposes. It will have no reference to accidental or imperfect ventilation, such as may be obtained through windows, doors or other such means, but only to such positive ventilation as may be brought about only by means of a definite supply of fresh air forced into the rooms at one or more places by means of pressure from a blower or otherwise, and the consequent displacement of the foul air in the room by means of the same pressure, •in short, will refer to a gradual, complete and con- tinuous changing of the air from foul to fresh so> that the air breathed by the occupants of the rooms will be at all times as near perfectly pure as pos- sible. No such result can be attained unless the volume of fresh air supplied is based on the number of occupants, and length of periods during which the rooms are occupied, and unless the supply of fresh air, and the removal of foul air, is accomplished re- gardless of the varying internal and external tem- peratures, as well as the velocity and direction of the air outside of the building. A few general principles, now well established, 95 regarding the character and motion of air in a room should be kept in mind to insure an intelligent grasp of the subject. (1) The air in a room must be conceived of as a definite medium, just as one thinks of the water in a bucket which is filled to the brim with that liquid. As it is impossible to put more water into the bucket without forcing out of the bucket some of the water which is already therein, so is it impossible to force air into a room without displacing some of the air already within the room. Further, the volume of air which can be delivered into any room is always equal to the quantity of air displaced therefrom, if the pressure remains the same. (2) The air of nature is a mechanical mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, with a little carbonic acid, a form of oxygen called ozone and more or less vapor of water. The amount of carbonic acid in the open air of nature is from 4 to 6 parts in 10,000 by volume. In places where ventilation is not perfect, air contains also impurities such as sulphuretted hydro- gen, sulphuric, nitric and other acids and often more or less solid matter like particles of dust. Air in rooms occupied by human beings becomes rapidly contaminated by the products of respiration from the human beings, the pores of the skin, etc. Ai.» also contains bacteria or disease germs; and many authorities believe that the dust particles in air are largely responsible for the distribution or propaga- tion of the bacteria of various diseases. (3) "While the ends to be sought in ventilating are threefold (1) hygienic, (2) economic and (3) 96 mechanical, both heating and ventilating are most important for hygienic reasons. Pure air is as im- portant to the human body as food and water. A candle will not burn in air impoverished of oxygen. So also, breathing impure air dulls the fires of the body and thus clouds the intellect. The more the bodily vitality is lowered, the greater is the danger of contracting both temporary and permanent disease. Real vital energy must not be expected in abnormal atmospheric conditions. If pure air is entirely absent, death is immediate. One cubic foot per minute will barely support life,. Five or even ten cubic feet per minute admit of but low vitality; thirty cubic feet per minute will en- sure vigor and health, but additional fresh air up to the point where noticeable draught begins, is the ideal condition. (4) The air in a room is always in motion owing to the fact that certain portions of the room, such as glass, may be colder or hotter than other por- tions, such as walls, and this inequality of tem- perature is certain to result in air motion by the force of gravity, cold air falling because of its density and heated air rising because of its rarity. (5) Carbonic acid gas expelled from the human lungs by respiration, or emitted through the pores of the skin, is 50 per cent heavier than pure air and therefore falls toward the floor. (6) The air in nature is purified by the action of winds, rain, lightning, etc., but it is impossible to purify the air inside of a building except by re- moving and replacing it with fresh air brought from out doors ; therefore any so called system of veutiia- 97 tion which does not positively produce this result is not in reality a system of ventilation at all. (7) Positive ventilation can be secured only where provision is made for (1) some source of power for forcibly moving the air, (2) flues and in- lets for conducting the fresh air into the rooms, (3) outlets and flues for conveying the exhausted air again to the out doors. (8) The quantity of fresh air necessary to main- tain a fixed standard of purity may easily be de- termined, using the carbonic acid as the index. Each adult averages 20 cubic inches of air at each, breath, and about 20 respirations each minute. Knowing the amount of carbonic acid in pure air, and in air expelled from the human lungs, and knowing by experiment that discomfort if not harm attends the breathing of air containing more than 8 parts in 10,000 of carbonic acid, it is easy to figure the requirements for any standard. This subject is fully elaborated in Prof. R. C. Carpenter's excellent work on Heating and Ventilating Buildings. In Massachusetts the state law requires that the ventilating apparatus of all school buildings shall supply at least 30 cubic feet of fresh air per minute or 1800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil, upon which basis the air in a standard school room con- taining 40 pupils would have to be wholly changed once in every 8 minutes. This has practically be- come the standard the country over. Inlets, Outlets and Flues. — The utmost care must be observed in designing inlets, outlets and flues for ventilation. It is an easy matter to bring a definite volume of air into a given space in a given time, but| 98 it is often exceedingly difficult to accomplish this result reaching all parts of the room with the fresh, pure air, but avoiding the formation of air currents, draughts and eddies. Te secure satisfactory re- sults the air should be uniformly distributed, should be warmed enough to prevent a feeling of chilliness on the part of individuals in the room, and should proceed at a speed which will not give the sensa- tion of a draught. Air entering a school room should not have an initial velocity in excess of 15 feet per second at the opening in the flue, or in ex- cess of 6 feet per second in the school room. The best results are obtained when the air inlets are located at a considerable height above the floor and the outlets are located at the floor on the same side of the room as the inlet. The advantages of this arrangement are that heated air tends to rise and spread uniformly just under the ceiling, after which it settles lower and lower in the room, grad- ually displacing the cool and foul air there-in and the room is thus soon filled with fresh warm pure air while the vitiated air passes out through the vent shafts under the impelling force of the fresh air which has been forced into the room. Mr. War- ren E. Briggs, of Bridgeport, Conn., published in the third annual report of the Connecticut State Board of Health, 1879, the results of a series of ex- periments made by him to determine the most ad- vantageous location of inlet and outlet flues for entilation purposes. The results of these experi- ents were given in the work published by Mr. riggs in 1899, on the American School Building. hese experiments were conducted with a model 99 having about one-sixth the capacity of an ordinary^ school room and the movements of the air were made visible by mingling smoke therewith whereby all changes undergone in the air were made visible. Worst Possible Arrangement .Little Better. Circulation too high Circulation One Sided Tair Circulation Ideal method FIG. *2. These experiments are illustrated in figure (12), It is perhaps well to add that the practice of thel best ventilating engineers and the experienced] of the years which have elapsed since these ex-l periments by Mr. Briggs demonstrate the correct™ ness and reliability of his conclusions. 100 SYSTEMS OF VENTILATION. Until very recent years, ventilation was regarded more as a luxury than a necessity. Although the discomforts of poorly ventilated rooms have al- ways been known and deprecated, the apparent necessity of complex and expensive methods for correcting the difficulty has undoubtedly retarded the advancement in this department of building economy. But, as a result of the recent advance in hygienic science and experiment, it is now well known that the vitiated atmosphere of crowded rooms is positively and undeniably injurious, often leading to the propagation of various dangerous diseases, and that continued exposure to it is rea- sonably certain to be followed by serious conse- quences. A vitiated atmosphere lowers the vitality and therefore decreases the physical and mental working power of the individual and at the same time increases his susceptibility to disease. It is of the utmost importance that school buildings should be ventilated according to the most advanced prin- ciples, and every school board should insist upon expert service in this department of building economy whether it has been afforded elsewhere or not. The practice, followed by many boards, of per- mitting various manufacturers to submit their own layouts is a very unwise practice, being due no doubt to the fact that many architects not skilled in the designing of ventilating apparatus are glad to have manufacturers assist them in this manner. 101 This procedure not only defeats all true com- petition, but has the additional defect of making the boards of education act in the capacity of judges of the various ventilating schemes submitted, which they are utterly incompetent to do, and many fail- ures can be explained by the following out of this program. If any portion of a school building is worthy the attention of an expert surely this is it. Ventilation by Natural Methods. — On the basis of least expense, natural agencies, such as air supply through doors and windows, were long depended upon, but it is apparent that such ventilation is not a "system" at all and is both spasmodic and dis- agreeable, if not dangerous because of draught. Ventilation by Gravity. — The first step away from ventilation by natural methods consisted in supplying buildings with flues either for the in- troduction of fresh air, the withdrawal of vitiated air, or both ; but where no method was employed for forcing fresh air in through the former, or drawing the foul air out through the latter, such systems of flues were even less dependable than the natural pro- cesses above referred to. This led to a further step in advance known as the Gravity System and con- sisting of some means of encouraging or inducing a movement of the air in the rooms into the foul air flues. One such plan involves the use of two flues for each room, one leading into the room from a fur- nace, or battery of furnaces, located in the basement, and the other leading from the room to a point above the roof of the building. It is the theory of this system that when the air used for heating the rooms leaves the furnaces, it both rises and expands in 102 volume, because of its heat and lighter specific gravity, and thus enters the room with a certain velocity due to these causes. This velocity is sup- posed to be sufficient to displace an equal volume of Went Stack Smoke Stack. Grayjty System Of Mot Air Indirect Heating Amd Ventilating Combined. This illustration shows diagramatically the principle of a gravity system of heating and ventilation, showing the path of outside cold air as it passes over the furnace, up into the school room and outdoors again through the vent stack. The motion of the air is produced by the heat of the furnace. the air already in the room and force it up the vent flue and thus out doors. This is a beautiful theory and such systems sometimes do operate with a fair degree of satisfaction when the wind and weather 103 conditions are favorable, but if the winds or weather are unfavorable, the system is just as certain to prove ineffectual and little better than no system of ventilation whatever. A final step in the development of the gravity system consists in placing gas jets, steam coils, iron smoke stacks, etc., in the exhaust flues, with the idea that the heat thus generated will cause a positive draught and thus force foul air up the exhaust flue and thus out doors, but the same objections may be urged to this phase of the gravity system, which is sometimes called ventilation by aspiration, as have 1 been urged against the simple gravity system, differing only in degree. Forced or Mechanical Ventilation. — The inevitable result of the unsatisfactory results obtained from all methods of ventilation previously referred to, has been the general conclusion of all authorities that there is no system of ventilation, of any sort, which is positive, uniform or otherwise dependable except the method of supplying air for ventilation by force from a blower or fan ; and that if the air is wanted in a particular place, at a particular time, and in cer- tain definite quantities and velocities, it must be forced to go there under the necessary conditions i v spite of winds, weather and all other such con- ditions. Further, actual experience is demonstrat- ing that no positive system of ventilation is so in- expensive — -results considered — as the fan system, ir buildings of eight rooms or more. Ventilation and Heating Combined. — Although the subject of heating has been separately treated in the present work, experience has demonstrated 104 that in our climate it is never wise to operate the system of ventilation entirely by itself, as the air used for ventilation should at least be warmed to the temperature of the room into which it is intro- duced. In some systems the heating and ventila- tion is performed at one operation, the ventilating air being first forced through the heating furnaces or coils thus raising it to a high temperature, in which condition it is introduced into the school room under pressure from the fan or blower. After passing through the room it is forced out through the ventilating stacks, but not until it has performed the two operations at once. The latter system while in more common use is not as good practice as the systems in which the heating and ventilating are more nearly independent of each other for the fol- lowing reasons : 1. In order that the ventilating air shall not lose so much heat in its passage through the school rooms as to cause an unpleasant and cooling feeling upon the occupants of the room, it is necessary to overheat the air at the furnaces, thus cooking or burning its dust and depriving the air of the humid^ ity which it must have for the best results. 2. Owing to the absence of this humidity the mucous membranes of the persons occupying the room become affected and are more liable to colds and other irritating affections. 3. Such dry air quickly affects the vitality and comfort, if not the health of the pupils occupying the rooms, and it is very frequently found necessary to resort to the opening of windows or transoms to secure fresh air in its natural condition of humidity 105 because of the absence of same in the ventilating air furnished to the room, thus counteracting and nulli- fying the mechanical ventilation. Systems of Forced Ventilation. — There are two systems of forced ventilation, (1) the Exhaust sys- tem, and (2) the Plenum or pressure system. The exhaust system consists in using a fan to forcibly withdraw the air from rooms. This system is now little used except for ventilating toilet rooms, chemical and other laboratories, etc. In this system a partial vacuum is created within the apartment and, as all air currents and leaks are thus inward, there is nothing to govern the quality or velocity of the air, and it is difficult to provide proper means of warming it. In the case of toilet rooms, laboratories, etc., the system is very desirable, and in many build- ings imperative. Further, the tendency of the air in corridors and adjoining rooms to leak into the toilet rooms, etc., because of the vacuum above described, is a positive merit rather than a defect in this case because it counteracts all tendency of foul smelling air to pass from these apartments into other portions of the building. By the Plenum system, fresh pure air may be forced into the rooms at any desired degree of tem- perature or velocity, at any desired degree of humidity, and under such conditions as may be pos- itively controlled at all times ; and all leakage is out- ward through windows, etc., thus preventing the drawing of polluted air into the room from any source whatever. Moreover, all air which is forced into the room by the ' Plenum or pressure system,, and owing to that pressure, forces out of the room| 106 an equal volume of the vitiated air, which is already in the room, and does so by positive measurable pro- cesses which remove all doubt as to the actual re- sults accomplished. When it is remembered that the physical energy of the body is absolutely dependent upon a constant and positive supply of fresh pure air, as surely as the energy of the engine is the re-, suit of the fires under the boilers, the vast importance of this result is easily realized. Heating and Ventilating Air. — Air used for ven- tilation is always heated in cold weather before its introduction into school rooms, and as already ex- plained, may be sufficiently heated so that the heat- ing and ventilating may be performed at one opera- tion. In buildings where steam or hot water is used for heating, the air for ventilation is frequently heated to only 70 degrees by means of indirect coils located in the basement, the idea being that the radiators in the rooms are to provide the heat neces- sary for the rooms, and the indirect coils in the base- ment are for the purpose only of tempering the ven- tilating air so that it may enter the rooms at the same temperature as the air which is already in the rooms. This latter plan is considered far the best system of heating and ventilating now in common use and is much to be preferred over any system in which the heating and ventilating is done at one operation. Quantity of Ventilating Air. — Professor Wood- bridge says that ' ' Only two considerations should be allowed to limit the quantity of air supply: Air draughts and bank drafts." In other words, ven- tilating air should be supplied in maximum quan- 107 tities up to the point where danger arises from colds due to draught, providing the funds in hand will admit of such liberal supply. The length of time rooms are actually occupied continuously has much to do with the quantity of ventilating air which should properly be used in the rooms. Under the Massachusetts law, as first passed, it was attempted to require 50 cubic feet of air per capita per minute in public schools, but as it was found impracticable to obtain such a high standard, especially within reasonable financial limits, the standard was drop- ped to 30 cubic feet per minute which is now gen- erally adopted in school work throughout the coun- try as the minimum volume to be provided in any system of ventilation worthy of the name. As more and more attention is given to perfecting ventilating apparatus, the time will probably come when 40 cubic feet or even 50 cubic feet may be obtained within reasonable limits of expense and this is the goal toward which all progress should be aimed. Air Velocities. — The inlets and flues in a ven- tilating system should be so designed that the velo- cities of ventilating air will be as follows : Leaving the register into the room 350 linear feet per minute ; passing through distributing flues and risers 750 linear feet per minute ; in mains and branches 100(7 to 1500 linear feet per minute. The velocity of ven- tilating air in toilet rooms, laboratories, gymnasiums, physical training rooms and other such special rooms may be varied from the above to suit the special conditions as the judgment of the engineer dictates. But all such rooms should have much lar- ger per capita supply than ordinary school rooms. 108 Heating by Rotation. — As a measure of economy, many heating and ventilating plants are so designed that for quick preliminary heating of the building the ventilating air is drawn from within the building itself into the fan chamber, and thence forced back again into the building thus making a complete rotation of the building without contact with the cold air from out doors. This process no doubt saves expense in the initial heating of buildings, and may be recommended for that purpose only, but all air for ventilating purposes, while rooms are oc- cupied, should be drawn directly from out doors and if possible from a point above the building rather than near the ground. Automatic Control. — Wherever the funds in hand will permit, the heating and ventilating apparatus should be automatically controlled, and no first- class building may be considered complete without such control. "While many systems are on the mar- ket the Johnson system and Powers system are probably in more general use than any others. One remarkable effect of impure air is to render the oc- cupants of the room more or less insensible to heat. Thus both teachers and pupils in poorly ventilated rooms will frequently complain of cold when the thermometer indicates the actual temperature of the room to be as high as 75 or 80. Under such con- ditions the addition of more heat, without pure fresh air, simply aggravates the conditions. Moreover, if teachers in various parts of the building are per- mitted to tinker with the heating and ventilating ap- paratus to satisfy their own whims, or even if an experienced janitor is allowed to have control of 109 this matter, the results will prove very unsatisfactory and annoying. By the use of an automatic system the heat may be kept permanently at any desire^ degree in every portion of the building, and the flow of ventilating air may be controlled according to the wishes of the superintendent of the building, and kept within any bounds desired. This result is ac- complished by means of thermostats, located in each room, which are connected by means of compressed air pipes with various dampers located at the proper points in the heating and ventilating system. In some of the systems the work is accomplished by means of electricity instead of compressed air. Ther- mostatic valves are also provided for attachment directly to steam or hot water radiators so that no 1 matter what system of heating and ventilating is used, automatic regulation is not only feasible but has been demonstrated absolutely reliable. In gen- eral the cost of automatic regulation amounts to about one-tenth or one-twelfth of the cost of the en- tire heating and ventilating system. Location of Openings. — The location of inlets and outlets for ventilating air is a very important mat- ter and has much to do with the efficiency with which the ventilating air performs its work. Nat- urally the air currents within a room always tend downward owing to the cooling effect of windows and the outside walls, and the movement of the air which is thus slightly chilled is over the floor and back toward the warmer and inner walls again. The tendency of the air near the ceiling is naturally toward the outer walls and the falling currents above mentioned. For these reasons the proper lo- 110 cation for the air inlets is upon the inside wall at a point as nearly as possible central with reference to the outside or exposed walls, and the best prac- tice includes the use of diffusers to spread the air in every direction horizontally, as it enters the rooms, in order to encourage its distribution into all por- tions of the room, and avoid the danger of a mere circling of air in a vertical plane from the point of inlet to the point of outlet. It is also advisable to have the inlet high enough to avoid any possibility of draught upon the occupants of the room and the best practice of the present day is to locate inlets at least seven feet above the floor level. From the foregoing reasoning, it will be obvious that the out- let for vitiated air should also be on the inner and warmer wall of the room, and should be in or near the floor so as to catch all impure air as it passes over the floor, before it has an opportunity to rise along the inside wall and become again a part of the air current ventilating the room. Where it is pos- sible to do so, it is advantageous to have two inlets and outlets for the purpose of better distribution of the ventilating air. Humidity. — We do not usually note by our feel- ings the presence of moisture in the air any more than we note the air itself. It is only by the lack of moisture that its absence is manifest. Of course there is not in nature such a thing as dry air or air wholly without moisture. The warmer the air is, the greater amount of vapor is required to produce a given percentage of moisture ; and the colder the air is, the less vapor is required to produce a given percentage of moisture. This explains why the 111 percentage of moisture contained in outside winter air is comparatively small, and when such air is warmed to 70 degrees or higher without any in- crease of moisture, the capacity of the warm air for absorbing additional moisture is very great, and therefore evaporation from all moist surfaces ex- posed to it becomes rapid. As a result the mucous membranes of the nasal passages, the skin, and the moist surfaces of the eye and ear, are more or less affected and often serious discomfort results. In view of these conditions the larger and more com- plex systems of heating and ventilating, at least in the better grade of school buildings, include ap- paratus for maintaining the humidity of the air at a percentage approved by the best medical authority, and wherever the funds in hand will admit of such equipment it should be included. Filtering Air for Ventilation. — Another refine- ment found in the better grade of heating and ven- tilating plants, consists of air filters for the purpose of purifying the air which is used for ventilation. While such an equipment may be desirable or neces- sary in some localities which are particularly dusty or smoky, it is not as yet considered of sufficient im- portance to be included in the majority of American school buildings. Hygienically considered, it is not of great importance, as the filters would in no case remove disease germs. And simply to remove dust from the air by the ordinary methods of Alteration requires so much extra fan power in forcing air through the filters that the result does not justify the added expense. 112 NOTE. All readers who care to study a more ex- haustive and technical paper relating to the warm- ing and ventilating of school buildings are re- ferred to a treatise written by Professor S. H. Wood- bridge of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for the Board of Education of the State of Con- necticut in 1898. Professor Rolla C. Carpenter, in his exhaustive work on heating and ventilating build- ings, page 430, publishes this treatise and pro- nounces it the best general discussion of the subject hitherto published. The author acknowledges this paper to be his authority for many of the con- clusions on this subject contained in the present work. 113 STATE SCHOOL CODES. The following states are still without any definite laws or code governing the character of public school buildings, in regard to construction : Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Michigan None of the states in the above list have any laws lor codes governing the construction of school build- ings at the present time (January, 1910), although some of the states in this list have laws requiring [drawings and specifications for school buildings to >e submitted to the state boards of health or the state factory inspector for approval before the build- ings are constructed. These conditions obtain in Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Mexico North Carolina Oklahoma Oregon Ehode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Washington Wisconsin Wyoming 115 Indiana, Vermont and one or two other states. How- ever, no state in the above list has any requirements whatever regarding the heating and ventilating, lighting, sanitation, fireproofing or panic proofing of school buildings. In all of these states, notably Missouri and Illi- nois, the large cities like St. Louis and Chicago have city building codes, the provisions of which apply to school buildings in common with all other buildings, but as a rule such city building ordinances relate only to safety of construction and fire protection. THE CONNECTICUT LAWS. All public schoolhouses, the construction of which was not begun before the passage of this act, shall be constructed in accordance with the provisions hereof. No school house for the accommodation of pupils of grammar school grade, or of a lower grade, shall be constructed so as to contain more than two stories above the basement. No schoolhouse for the accommodation of pupils of a higher grade than grammar school grade shall be constructed so as to contain more than two stories above the basement, unless such schoolhouse is of fireproof construction throughout, and in that event shall not exceed three stories above the basement. All schoolhouses of eight or more class rooms not of fireproof construction throughout shall be built as follows: (a) The outer walls shall be brick natural or artificial stone, terra cotta blocks, re-in- forced concrete, or other fireproof material, (b) The walls separating the schoolrooms from the hall 116 or corridors shall be of masonry or other fireproof material, (c) There shall he a stairway constructed in at least two opposite sides of the building leading to the ground floor from the floor or floors above, and no such schoolhouses hereafter built shall con- tain circular stairs, (d) There shall be one exit con- structed in at least each of two opposite sides of the building upon the first floor leading to the ground, which may be the same as the exits from the floor or floors above the first, (e) The stairs and stairways shall be of fireproof construction. (f) All doors leading from rooms into halls or corridors shall be hung so as to swing into the hall or corridor, and all doors leading from the corridors out of the building shall be so hung as to swing outward, (g) There shall be a door of fireproof material at the head of each stairway leading from the first floor to the basement. (h) All wooden partitions, ceilings, floors and woodwork about the heating apparatus or plant shall be covered with asbestos, tin, sheet iron, or other fireproof material so as to effectually overcome danger from fire. No door leading from a schoolroom into a hall or corridor, or from a hall or corridor out of the build- ing shall, during school hours, be locked or bolted, or secured in any other manner than by a spring which will readily yield to pressure from the inside. There shall be placed in a hall or corridor of every such school an alarm consisting of a bell or gong arranged or equipped so as to be sounded from at least one convenient station or place upon each floor, and of sufficient size and volume of tone to be distinctly heard in every room when sounded. In the absence of such alarm there shall be placed in each 117 room an alarm consisting of a bell or gong of suffi- cient volume to be heard throughout the room where placed, all of which alarms shall be arranged or equipped so as to be sounded simultaneously from the same station or place, at least one of which stations or places shall be conveniently located in a hall or corridor upon each floor. Any janitor, teacher, or other person who violates the provisions of the fourth section of this act shall be fined not more than three hundred dollars, or im- prisoned not more than three months, or both. Every member of a board of education, school board, board of school visitors, or building com- mittee, or official who is charged with the duty of planning, contracting for, or building a public schoolhouse, who plans or contracts, or participates in contracting for, or votes to build, or builds such schoolhouse in violation of any of the provisions of this act shall be fined not more than three hundred dollars, or imprisoned not more than three months, or both. Approved June 10, 1909. THE KANSAS LAW. Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Kansas : Doors in Schoolhouses. — That the doors of all public or private schoolhouses of more than one story shall open outwards, and all doors of school- houses shall remain unlocked while school is in ses- sion. Separate Exits. — That in every public or private schoolhouse of two or more stories every story above 118 the first shall be provided with either two or more exits from the upper floor, separate and distinct from the exits of the lower floor, or shall be provided with sufficient and suitable fire escapes, which shall be built of iron or steel. Furnaces. — That the tops of all furnaces in public or private schoolhouses shall be covered with as- bestos covering or masonry, and the top of such fur- nace shall not be nearer than eighteen inches to the nearest woodwork above. The ceiling above said furnace shall be covered with asbestos. Plans — State Architect. — That no contract shall be let for the erection of any school building, nor shall any public funds be paid out for the erection of schoolhouses of two or more stories, until the plans for such buildings shall have been submitted to the state architect and approved as to all the require- ments of this act. Inspections. — That each county superintendent shall annually inspect each public school building, including the county high-school building, in dis- tricts under his supervision; and the mayor or fire marshal shall annually inspect all public and private school buildings in cities of the second class ; and the fire marshal shall annually inspect all public and pri- vate school buildings in cities of the first class. The examining officer under this section shall report to the respective school boards having jurisdiction any violation of this act, or any conditions which he may deem dangerous, or which will in any way prevent a speedy exit from the building, and it shall be the duty of said school board when thus notified im- mediately to make such changes as are required by 119 this act, and such boards are hereby authorized to draw upon their general revenue funds, without further appropriation, to comply with all require- ments of this act. Fire Drills.— That in every public or private school haying more than one hundred pupils (ex- cepting colleges and universities) a fire drill and summary dismissal from the building shall be prac- ticed at least once each month at some time during school hours, aside from the regular dismissal at the* close of the day's session. Penalties. — That any officer or member of a school board who shall permit any provision of this act to be violated for sixty days may be removed from his office by a civil action. Independent of such civil action, any officer, member of a school board, city superintendent, principal or teacher violating any provision of this act shall be guilty of a misde- meanor, and shall be punished by a fine of not less than fifty dollars or more than five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in jail not exceeding six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment; provided, however, that this act shall not prevent the prosecu- tion and punishment of an officer or other person under the Ordinary provisions of the crimes act for death or injury to any child in a public or private school occasioned by the negligence of such officer or other person. When Effective — Penalties. — That within sixty days after the taking effect of this act the pro- vision of section 1 of this act must be fully complied with, and within one hundred and twenty days the provisions of sections 2 and 3 must be com- 120 plied with; and any neglect to comply with the pro- visions of this act beyond the times herein specified shall subject the officers and persons named in this act to the penalties prescribed in this act. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its publication in the statute-book. Approved February 23, 1909. Published May 29, 1909. MASSACHUSETTS LAW. In the State of Massachusetts, school, and all other public buildings are under the authority of the In- spection Department of the District Police, whose inspectors are required to enforce the laws regard- ing factories and public buildings. The city of Bos- ton has a school house commission consisting at the present time (January 1st, 1910) of three persons: K. Clipston Sturgis, Jas. B. Noyes and Tilton S. Bell. This commission has full charge of the school buildings in the city of Boston, determines the char- acter of buildings to be erected for school purposes, selects the architects and approves the drawings and specifications used for the construction of such build- ings, and has prepared a very elaborate and itemized building code, relating to school buildings for the city of Boston, based on the experience and re- searches of the members of the commission, as well as the experience gained from the construction of many buildings in recent years. It is believed that this code represents the very acme of public school requirements at the present day, and may safely be considered as authoritative, proper allowance being made for local modifications and conditions neces- 121 sary in the different parts of the country. This code is reproduced in full by permission from the 190'9 report of the Boston School House Commission among the following codes. State Law: — Form of specification to accompany plans for public buildings and schoolhouses. This form is intended to give architects and others general information as to what is required by law and the regulations of this department, and, if fully filled out, may be accepted by the inspector in place of a copy of the building specifications, but full detail specifications may be required if deemed essential to a clear understanding of the plans. The law requires that a copy of the plans of every public building and every schoolhouse (except in the city of Boston) shall be deposited with the inspector of factories and public buildings of the district in which such building is located, before the erection of the building is begun, which plans shall also include the system or method of ventilation to be provided, together with such portion of the specification as the inspector may require. The plans usually required are a plan of each floor, including the basement and the attic, if the at- tic is occupied, and a front and a side elevation, and also plans and sectional detail drawings of the sys- tem of ventilation. Further plans may be required by the inspector if deemed by him to be necessary. In planning buildings to be used for schoolrooms, or places of assemblage above the first story, pro- vision should be made for at least two stairways, and such stairways should be as far apart as practicable. 122 No such stairways should be less than four feet wide in the clear, and winding steps should be avoided. The height of rise and width of tread of all stairs, measured on the cut of the stringer, should be given on the plans. No flight of stairs should be more than fifteen steps between landings. The main stairways from places of assemblage should have a width of not less than twenty inches for every hundred persons accommodated therein. Such stairways should be railed on both sides. Alt outside doors to such buildings should open out- wardly, and be plainly so shown on plans. The standing leaf of all pairs of doors leading to ways of egress should be fastened by face bolts, operated at top and bottom by one handle, at a convenient height from the floor. In the ventilation of school buildings the many hundred examinations made by the inspector of this department have shown that the following require- ments can be easily complied with : 1. That the apparatus will, with proper manage- ment, heat all the rooms, including the corridors, to 70 degrees F. in any weather. 2. That, with the rooms at 70 degrees and a difference of not less than 40 degrees, between the temperature of the outside air and that of the air entering the room at the warm-air inlet, the ap- paratus will supply at least thirty cubic feet of air per minute for each scholar accommodated in the rooms. 3. That such supply of air will so circulate in the rooms that no uncomfortable draught will be felt, and that the difference in temperature between 123 any two points on the breathing plane in the oc- cupied portion of a room will not exceed 3 degrees. 4. That vitiated air in amount equal to the sup- ply from the inlets will be removed through the ven- tiducts. 5. That the sanitary appliances will be so ven- tilated that no odors therefrom will be perceived in any portion of the building. To secure the approval of this department of plans showing methods or systems of heating and ventilation, the above requirements must be guaran- teed in the specifications accompanying the plans. MINNESOTA LAW. NOTE : The State of Minnesota has no definite law or code governing the construction of school buildings but all plans for school buildings in the State of Minnesota must be prepared in accordance with the regulations of the State Board of Health which are as follows : No school room, or class room, except an as- sembly room, shall have a seating capacity that will provide less than eighteen square feet of floor space and 216 cubic feet of air space per pupil, and no ceil- ing in buildings hereafter to be erected shall be less than twelve feet from the floor. A system of ventilation, in order to be approved by the Minnesota State Board of Health, shall fur- nish not less than thirty cubic feet of air per minute for each person that the room will accommodate, when the difference of the temperature between th<^ outside air and the air in the school room shall be thirty degrees F. or more. 124 In a gravity system of ventilation, in connection with a furnace or steam plant, the flues for admitting fresh air to the room, as well as the vent flues, shall have a horizontal area of not less than one square foot for every nine persons that the room will ac- commodate. The flues for a "plenum" or "vacuum" system of ventilation shall have a horizontal area of not less than one square foot for every fifteen persons that the room will accommodate. The window space shall equal one-fifth of the floor space of the school room. In all rooms not exceeding twenty-five feet in width all the light shall be admitted to the left of the pupils. In rooms exceeding twenty-five feet in width, light shall be admitted to the left and rear of the pupils. Translucent instead of opaque shades shall be used in the windows for controlling the light. The top of the windows shall be as near the ceil- ing as the mechanical construction of the building will allow. No cloak room shall be less than six feet wide, nor shall it have less than one window. The so-called "sanitary wardrobe" which allows the foul air of the room to pass through the clothing of the children before passing into the vent duct, shall be condemned as unsanitary. THE NEW HAMPSHIRE LAW. Buildings, etc., in Cities. — No schoolhouse shall be erected, altered, remodeled, or changed in any city school district, unless the plans thereof have 125 been previously submitted to the school board of that district and received its approval, and all new school houses shall be constructed under the direction of a joint special committee, chosen in equal numbers by the city councils and the school board. Upon the completion of a new schoolhouse, the city councils shall, by vote, transfer it to the care and control of the school board. "Whenever a school- house shall no longer be needed for public school purposes, the school board shall re-transfer its care and control to the city. Doors to Open Outward. — The outer doors and doors of passage leading outward, of churches here- after built or rebuilt, school houses containing more than two school rooms, and halls and other buildings used for public gatherings, shall open outward ; and it shall be the duty of the selectman of towns to see that these provisions are complied with, and to prosecute persons who neglect to do so. THE NEW JERSEY LAW. Suitable Accommodations Must be Provided. — Each school district shall provide suitable school facilities and accommodations for all children re- siding in the district and desiring to attend the pub- lic schools therein. Penalty for Non-compliance. — Whenever such school facilities or accommodations shall be inade- quate and unsuited to the number of pupils at- tending or desiring to attend such schools, the county superintendent of schools shall transmit to the custodian of the school moneys, of the school dis- 126 trict an order directing him to withhold from the dis- trict all moneys in his hands to the credit of such school district, received from the state appropria- tion or from the state school tax, until suitable facilities or accommodations shall be provided, and shall notify the board of education of such district of his action, with the reasons therefor. Such order shall not take effect until approved, in writing, by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, and said approval shall state when said order shall take effect. Suitable Water-Closets. — Each board of educa- tion shall provide at least two suitable and con- venient outhouses or water-closets for each of the school-houses under its control. Said outhouses and said water-closets, if detached from the school- houses, shall be separated by a substantial, close fence, not less than seven feet in height. The board of education shall have said outhouses and water- closets kept in a clean and whole&ome condition. Amount Raised without Submission to Voters. — The question of raising the amount needed to carry into effect the provisions of this section shall not be submitted to the legal voters of the school district, but the board of education shall notify the assessor or assessors and collector, by notice signed by the^ president and district clerk or secretary, of the amount for such purpose, and such amount shall be assessed, levied and collected at the same time and in the same manner as other special school taxes are assessed, levied and collected. Approval of Plans by State Board. — In order that due care may be exercksd in the heating, lighting 127 and ventilating, and other hygienic conditions of public school buildings hereafter to be erected, all plans and specifications for any such proposed school buildings shall be submitted to the State Board of Education for suggestion and criticism be- fore the same shall be accepted by the board of edu- cation of the district in which it is proposed to erect such building. Doors to Open Outwardly. — In any school-house of two or more stories in height, the doors leading from the class-rooms to the corridors, and from said corridors to the street or to the ground surrounding such school-house shall open outwardly. All swing- doors shall have plate-glass windows of suitable dimensions. Requirements in Erecting School-Houses. — In order that the health, sight and comfort of the pupils may be properly protected, all school-houses here- after erected shall comply with the following con- ditions : I. Light. — Light shall be admitted from the left, or from the left and rear of class-rooms, and the total light area must, unless strengthened by the use of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty per centum of floor space ; II. Ventilation. — School-houses shall have in each class-room at least eighteen square feet of floor space, and not less than two hundred cubic feet of air space per pupil. All school buildings shall have an approved system of ventilation by means of which) each class-room shall be supplied with fresh air at| the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute j for each pupil ; 128 III. Height of Ceilings. — All ceilings shall be at least twelve feet in height • IV. Stairs. — All stairs, except cellar stairs, shall be not less than fonr feet in width and shall have in- termediate landings. The several flights of stairs shall be enclosed by brick walls or by partitions of slow burning construction, and without open well holes. The risers of stairs shall not exceed seven and one-half inches in height, and the treads shall be at least ten inches in width, exclusive of the projecting nosings ; V. — Every school-house having eight rcoms shall have two flights of stairs of not less than four feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, one flight of stairs situated near the center of the building, not less than six feet in width ; VI. — Every school-building having more than eight and less than sixteen rooms, shall have two flights of stairs not less than five feet in width ; VII. — Every school-house having sixteen or more rooms shall have three flights of stairs not less than four feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, two complete flights of stairs not less than six feet in width ; VIII. — Every building more than one story in height shall have metal ceilings, wooden ceilings painted white, or some light-tint, or plastered ceil- ings on metal lath. THE NEW YORK LAW. No schoolhouse shall hereafter be erected in any city of the third class or in any incorporated village or school district, and no addition to a school build- 129 ing in any such place shall hereafter be erected, the cost of which shall exceed five hundred dollars, until the plans and specifications for the same shall have been submitted to the commissioner of education and his approval indorsed thereon. Such plans and specifications shall show in detail the ventilation, heating and lighting of such building. Such commissioner of education shall not approve any plans for the erection of any school building, or additior thereto, unless the same shall provide at least fifteen square feet of floor space and two hun- dred cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be ac- commodated in each study or recitation room there- in, and no such plans shall be approved by him un- less provision is made therein, for assuring at least thirty cubic feet of pure air every minute per pupil, and the facilities for exhausting the foul or vitiated air therein shall be positive and independent of atmospheric changes. No tax voted by a district meeting or other com- petent authority in any such city, village or school district exceeding the sum of five hundred dollars, shall be levied by the trustees until the commissioner of education shall certify that the plans and specifi- cations for the same comply with the provisions of this section. All schoolhouses for which plans and detailedl statements shall be filed and approved, as required] by this section, shall have all halls, doors, stairways,, seats, passageways and aisles, and all lighting and] heating appliances and apparatus, arranged t< facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident and t( afford the requisite and proper accommodations foi 130 public protection in such cases. All exit doors shall open outwardly, and shall, if double doors be used, be fastened with movable bolts operated simultan- eously by one handle from the inner face of the door. No staircase shall be constructed with wider steps in lieu of a platform, but shall be constructed with straight runs, changes in direction being made by platforms. No door shall run immediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be provided between such stairs and such doorways. This act shall take effect immediately. The following points should be specially ob- served : 1. The plans and specifications must be sub- mitted in duplicate, the original set to be returned after the indorsement of approval, the duplicate to be retained on file at this Department. 2. The plans and specifications must show in de- tail the ventilation, heating and lighting of the build- ing and must be accompanied by a guaranty fron the contractor that the system of ventilation des- cribed will provide at least 30 cubic feet of air every minute for each pupil. It will be necessary to give the size of windows, distance from top of win- dow to ceiling and number of panes in sash. 3. At least 15 square feet of floor space and 200 cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be accom- modated in each study or recitation room must be provided. In this connection it will be necessary not only to state the size of the rooms (length, breadth and height) but also to give the number of in- dividual desks to be placed in the room. 131 The plans and specifications must clearly show that proper provision is made in all respects "to> facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident and to afford requisite and proper accommodations for pub- lic protection in such cases.' ' THE NORTH DAKOTA LAWS. Whenever a school house is to be purchased^ erected or constructed in a common school distrir the school board shall consult with the county superintendent of schools, and the county superin- tendent of health, with regard to plans providing for the proper construction, lighting, heating and ven- tilation; provided, further, that it shall be the duty of the state superintendent of public instruction to furnish plans for school houses of one and two rooms as will be in accord with the best ideas per- taining to heating, lighting, ventilating and other sanitary requirements. Board of Inspectors. — The county superintendent of health, the chairman of the board of county com- missioners and the county superintendent of schools of each county are hereby constituted a board for the purpose of inspecting school houses and out- buildings with reference to their sanitary condition, and whenever the county superintendent of schools shall report to said board of inspection that a school house or out-building is in an unsanitary or unsafe, condition, said board shall inspect the same and shall direct the district school board to make such changes*! or repairs as are necessary to make such building] or buildings sanitary, safe and fit for school pur- poses. 132 THE PENNSYLVANIA LAW. To Purchase or Rent Lots and Erect School- liouses. — They shall cause suitable lots of ground to be procured and suitable buildings to be erected, purchased or rented, for school houses, and shall sup- ply the same with proper conveniences and fuel, and shall have power, with the directors and controllers of adjoining districts, to establish joint schools, and the expense shall be paid as may be agreed upon by the directors and controllers of said districts. School Buildings. — That in order that due care may be exercised in the heating, lighting and ven- tilating of public school buildings hereafter erected, no school house shall be erected by any board of education or school district in this State, the cost of which shall exceed four thousand ($4,000.00) dollars, until the plans and specifications for the same shall show in detail the proper heating, lighting and ven- tilating of such building. Lighting. — Light shall be admitted from the left or from the left and rear of class-rooms, and the total light area must, unless strengthened by the use of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty-five per cen- tum of floor space. Class-rooms — Air-space — Heating. — School houses shall have in each class-room at least fifteen square feet of floor space, and not less than two hun- dred cubic feet of air space per pupil, and shall pro- vide for an approved system of indirect heating and ventilation, by means of which each class-room shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less, than thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, and 133 warmed to maintain an average temperature of seventy degrees Fahrenheit during the coldest weather. THE SOUTH DAKOTA LAW. School House Plans. — Plans for school buildings approved by State Superintendent: In order that due care may be exercised in the heating, lighting and ventilation of public school buildings hereafter erected, no school house shall be erected by any board of education or school district board in this State until the plans and specifications for the same showing in detail the proper heating, lighting and ventilation of such building shall have been ap- proved by the superintendent of public instruction. School houses shall have in each class room at least fifteen square feet of floor space, and not less than two hundred cubic feet of air space per pupil, and shall provide for an approved system of heating and ventilation by means of which each class room shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, and have a system of heating capable of maintaining an average temperature of seventy degrees Fahrenheit during the coldest weather. THE UTAH LAW. School Sites and Buildings. — When necessary for the welfare of the schools of the district, or to pro- vide proper school privileges for the children there- in, or whenever petitioned so to do by one-fourth of the resident tax payers of the district, the board shall call a meeting of the qualified voters, as de- fined in Section eighteen hundred and eleven, at some convenient time and place fixed by the board, 134 to vote upon the question of selection, purchase, ex- change or sale of a school house site, or the erection, removal, purchase, exchange, or sale of a school house, or for payment of teachers' salaries, or for the current expenses of maintaining schools. If a majority of such voters present at such meeting shall by vote select a school house site, or shall be in favor of the purchase, exchange, or sale of a desig- nated school house site, or of the erection, removal, or sale of a school house, as the case may be, the board shall locate, purchase, exchange or sell such site, or erect, remove, or sell such school house, as the. case may be, in accordance with such vote; pro- vided, that it shall require a two-thirds vote to order the removal of a school house. Provided that no school house shall hereafter be erected in any school district of this State not in- cluded in cities of the first and second class, and no addition to a school building in any such place, the cost of which school house or addition thereto shall exceed $1000, shall hereafter be erected until the plans and specifications for the same shall have been submitted to a commission consisting of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Secretary of the State Board of Health, and an architect to be appointed by the Governor, and their approval endorsed thereon. Such plans and specifi- cations shall show in detail the ventilation, heating, and lighting of such buildings. The commission herein provided shall not approve any plans for the erection of any school building, or addition thereto, unless the same shall provide at least fifteen square feet of floor space and two hundred cubic feet of air 135 space, for each pupil to be accommodated in each study or recitation room therein, and no such plans shall be approved by them unless provision is made therein for assuring at least thirty feet of pure air every minute for each pupil, and the facilities for ex- hausting the foul or vitiated air therein shall be positive and independent of atmospheric changes. No tax voted by a district meeting, or other com- petent authority in any such school district, shall be levied by the trustees until the commission shall certify that the plans and specifications for the same comply with the provisions of this Act. All school houses for which plans and detailed state- ments shall be filed and approved, as required by this Act, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, passageways, and aisles, all lighting and heating ap- pliances and apparatus arranged to facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident, and to afford the re- quisite and proper accommodations for public pro- tection in such cases. No school house shall hereafter be built with the furnace or heating apparatus in the basement or im- mediately under such school building. The commission herein provided shall serve with- out compensation, but shall receive their actual and necessary expenses incurred in the performance of their official duties, except the architect, who shall receive as above provided, and four dollars per day while attending meetings of the commission, the amount for which shall be verified on oath and be paid from the state school fund. Approved March 9th, 1909. 136 THE VERMONT LAW. The words, "Public Buildings", as used in this chapter, shall mean churches, school buildings, hotels more than two stories high, and places of amusement more than one story high, and buildings, factories, mills or workshops more than two stories high in which persons are employed above the second story. Said board shall take cognizance of the interests of the life and health of the inhabitants of the State. shaU make or cause to be made sanitary investiga- tions and inquiries respecting causes of disease, especially of epidemics, and the means of preventing same; the sources of mortality and sickness and the effect of localities, employments, habits and circum- stances of life on the public health; and, when re- quested, or when, in their opinion, it is necessary, shall advise with municipal officers in regard to drainage, water supply and sewerage of towns and villages, and in regard to the erection, construction, heating, ventilation and sanitary arrangements of public buildings; and said^board may compel the owners of such buildings to provide them with the necessary appliances and fire escapes for preventing accidents to persons who may be in such buildings; and said board shall exercise the powers and author- ity imposed by law upon said board. Said board shall, when necessary, issue to local boards of health its regulation as to the lighting, heating and ventilation of school houses, and shall cause sanitary inspection to be made of churches, school houses and places of public resort, and make such regulations for the safety of persons attending 137 the same as said board deems necessary. Public buildings now standing or hereafter erected shall conform to the regulations of said board in respect to sanitary conditions and fire escapes necessary for the public health and for the safety of individuals in such public buildings. A person, corporation or committee intending to erect a public building shall submit plans thereof showing the method of heating, plumbing, ventila- tion and sanitary arrangements to said board, and procure its approval thereof, before erecting such building. A person, corporation or committee which erects a public building without the approval and with- out complying with the regulations of the state, board of health as provided for in the preceding section, shall be fined not more than five hundred dollars, nor less than one hundred dollars, and shall make such building to conform to the regulations of said board before the same is used, otherwise such building shall be deemed a nuisance, and be put in proper condition by the local health officer under the direction of said board at the expense of the owner. Said board may examine or cause to be ex- amined a school building or an outhouse and con- demn the same as unfit for occupation or use, and a building or outhouse so condemned by written notice served upon the chairman of the board of school directors, or the person having such school in charge, shall not be occupied or used until the same is re- paired and the sanitary conditions approved by the state board of health. A person who violates a pro- vision of this section shall be fined not more than fifty dollars nor less than five dollars. 138 THE VIRGINIA LAW. Approved March 11, 1908. Whereas, it is of great importance to the people of this commonwealth that public school buildings hereafter erected by any school board shall be properly heated, lighted and ventilated; therefore, 1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of Vir- ginia, that the State board of inspectors for public school buildings shall not approve any plans for the erection of any school building, or room in addition thereto, unless the same shall provide at least fifteen square feet of floor space and two hundred cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be accommodated in each study or recitation room therein, and no such plans shall be approved by said board unless pro r vision is made therein for assuring at least thirty cubic feet of pure air every minute per pupil, and the facilities for exhausting the foul and vitiated air therein shall be positive and independent of atmos- pheric changes. All ceilings shall be at least twelve feet in height. 2. All school houses for which plans and de- tailed statements shall be filed and approved by said board, as required by law, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, passage-ways, and aisles, and all lighting and heating appliances and apparatus, ar- ranged to facilitate egress in cases of fire or ac- cidents, and to afford the requisite and proper ac- commodations for public protection in such cases. All exit doors in any school house of two or more stories in height shall open outwardly. No stair- case shall be constructed except with straight runs, changes in direction being made by platforms. No 139 3 doors shall open immediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the doors shall be provided between such stairs and such doorway. All school houses, as aforesaid, shall provide for the admission of light from the left, or from the left and rear of the pupils, and the total light area must be at least twenty-five per centum of the floor space. THE WEST VIRGINIA LAW. Must Provide Sites and Buildings. — The board of education of every district shall provide by purchase, condemnation, leasing, building or otherwise, suit- able school houses, and ground in their districts, in such locations as will best accommodate the pupils thereof, and improve such grounds and provide such furniture, fixtures and apparatus for the said school houses, as the comfort, health, cleanliness and con- venience of the pupils may require, and keep such grounds, school houses, furniture, fixtures and ap- paratus in good order and repair, but no board of education may purchase school apparatus of any kind without the advice and consent of the county superintendent first had in writing. County Superintendent Shall Approve Plans. — "Whenever any board of directors shall be authorized by the electors of their district to erect a school building, it shall be the duty of such board, before/ entering into any contract for the erection of any building, to obtain the approval of the county superintendent, of the plans and specifications for the building to be erected, including also the heat- ing, lighting, ventilating and safety thereof. 140 Approval of Location and Plans. — In the con- struction of school houses the board of education of each district shall have regard to economy, con- venience and durability of structure, and the health and comfort of pupils, and no such school house shall be constructed until the location and plan 1 thereof have first been approved by the county superintendent, and in the event the board of edu- cation cannot agree upon plans or location, the county superintendent shall select the plans and lo- cation for such house. THE OHIO CODE. Classification According to Construction. First Class Construction, Fireproof Building. — This classification includes such buildings as are built entirely of incombustible, fire and water proof material, with all metal structural parts thoroughly fireproofed, except that the floors, doors, windows and the usual trim of rooms are of ordinary con- struction. Second Class Construction. Composite Buildings. — This classification includes such buildings as have the enclosing walls and roof covering of incom- bustible materials with doors, windows and frames of wood, and the interior walls of brick; or, columns and girders made of fireproofed iron and steel; the floor construction of wooden beams. In buildings of this class, a single thickness of metal lath or furring, and hard incombustible plaster will be deemed sufficient protection for iron and steel columns and girders. Third Class Construction. Frame Buildings. — This classification includes such buildings as have the ■ 141 enclosing and interior partition walls constructed en- tirely of wood. Wood frames covered with a veneer will be included in this class. Classification Required According to Height. Where the basement ceiling is 6 feet (six feet) or more above the grade line, the basement will be rated as the first story. All buildings over two stories high shall be of No. 1 (fireproof) construction. All buildings one story high, without basement and with the floor line not over 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) above the grade line, can be of No. 3 (frame) construction. Auditoriums. Any one room where more than one hundred (100) persons can congregate will be considered an assembly room. No assembly room can be located above the sec- ond story in buildings of the first class, above the first story in buildings of the second class; or in any building of the third class. One balcony may be used in connection with auditoriums, providing the same has means of egress in the same proportion as called for in school rooms. Dimensions of School and Class Rooms. Floor Space. — The minimum floor space per pupil to be as follows : Primary grades 12 (twelve) square feet per pupil. 142 Grammar grades 16 (sixteen) square feet per pupil. High Schools 18 (eighteen) square feet per pupil. Height of Stories. — Basement play and toilet rooms to be not less than eight feet high. Class rooms 20 feet inches (twenty feet no inches) wide and less, 11 feet inches (eleven feet no inches) story. Class rooms from 20 feet, 1 inch (twenty feet one inch) to 24 feet inches (twenty-four feet no inches) wide, 12 feet inches (twelve feet no inches) story. Class rooms 24 feet 1 inch (twenty-four feet one inch) to 28 feet inches (twenty-eight feet no inches) wide, 13 feet inches (thirteen feet no inches) story. Heater Room. For Buildings of First and Second Class Con- struction. — Furnaces, hot water heating boilers, and low pressure steam boilers may be located in the basements, providing the heating apparatus, breech- ing, fuel room and firing room are inclosed in fire- proof apartments, with masonry wall not less than 1 foot, 1 inch (one foot, one inch) thick; with ceil- ings of reinforced concrete, brick or hollow tile arches, and provided with self-closing (not auto- matic) fire doors of a type as approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. No boiler or furnace shall be located under stair- ways or corridors. Exits. Buildings of First Class Construction. — Exits from rooms in the superstructure shall be in the 143 proportion of 30 inches (thirty inches) in width to every fifty persons or fraction thereof; but in no case shall an exit be less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) nor more than 6 feet inches (six feet no inches) wide. Nu fire escapes or stair towers will be necessary in buildings of first class construction and all exits shall lead to the corridors. Each basement room shall have a direct exit not less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) wide with stone, cement or iron stairs leading up to the grade line; area-ways around stairways shall have substantial hand rails and guards on both sides. These exits to be in addition to the usual service stairways and means of egress. Buildings of Second Class Construction. — Each room in superstructure used by pupils, or the public, shall have at least two separate and distinct means of egress. Two doors or openings leading into the same hall or corridor will be considered as only one means of egress. Communicating doors between any two class rooms will not be considered as a means of egress. The proportion of exits to the seating capacity shall not be less than 30 inches (thirty inches) to each fifty persons or fraction thereof. One half of the exits shall lead to the main corridors, and the other half to fire escapes or inclosed fireproof stair- ways. No^exit shall be less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) or more than 6 feet inches | (six feet no inches) wide. Each room in the base- 144 ment shall have a direct exit not less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) wide, with stone, cement or iron stairs leading up to the grade line. Area-ways around such stairways to have sub- stantial hand and guard rails on both sides. These exits to be in addition to the usual service stairways and means of ingress. Buildings of Third Class Construction. — Each room shall have at least two, three foot exits; one leading to the open with steps to the grade, and the other the usual means of ingress; all steps to have handrails on both sides. Stairways. Buildings of First Class Construction. — Buildings of first class construction shall have at least two stairways, located as far apart as possible • the same to be continuous from the grade line to the topmost story. No further means of egress will be necessary ^ Stairways must be separated from main corridors by self-closing doors at each story. Buildings of First and Second Class Construction. — No basement stairway shall be placed under nor within twenty feet of any stairway from the first to the second story, except under the following con* ditions, viz. : basement stairs may be placed under a first story stairway only when a grade line platform, open to the air, is inserted and no direct connection is made between the stairway below the platform and the one above the same. Inside stairways from the basement to the first story shall be inclosed in masonry walls not less than 145 A 1 foot 1 inch (one foot one inch) thick, with fireproof ceiling or soffit above and be provided with a self closing fire door, as approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, which shall be placed at the head and foot of the stairway; the steps shall be of iron or concrete. Width of stairway shall be at the rate of 30 inches (thirty inches) per hundred persons or fraction thereof. No stairway shall be less than 3 feet 6 inches (three feet six inches) nor more than 6 feet inches (six feet no inches) wide; or have less than three nor more than sixteen risers in any run. No stairway shall have winders and all nosings shall be on a straight line. Maintain a uniform width in all stairways, and stair platforms, by rounding the corners and bevel- ing the angles. Provide hand rails on both sides of all stairways and steps. Stairways shall have a uniform rise and tread in each run, viz : Primary schools to have not over 6 inches (six inches) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven inch) tread. Grammar schools to have not over 6% inch (six and one-half inch) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven inch) tread. High schools to have not over 7 inch (seven inch) rise or less than 10% inch (ten and one-half inch) tread. The above dimensions to be cut on the stair horse. All treads shall be covered with rubber or lead mats. 146 Fire Escapes. To be Used on Buildings of Second Glass Con- struction. — One fire escape shall be used for each one hundred and fifty persons or fraction thereof. Fire escapes shall be 3 feet 6 inches (three feet six inches) wide, with 7 inch (seven inch) rise, 10 inch (ten inch) tread and shall be constructed ac- cording to the Standard Specifications as prepared by this department. No runs shall have more than 18 (eighteen) nor less than 3 (three) risers. No winders shall be used, and return platforms, if used, shall be 3 feet 6 inches by 7 feet inches (three feet six inches by seven feet no inches). Platforms inserted in straight runs of fire escapes shall be no less than 3 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches (three feet six inches by three feet six inches). Where there are no openings in the walls, the fire escapes may be placed against the wall, and be supported upon standard brackets, and will be built according to the B Standard Specifications as pre- pared by this department. Where openings occur, the fire escape may be run dther at right angles to the wall; or, parallel to the vail provided it is placed 2 feet 6 inches (two feet six inches) away from same, and will be constructed ccording to the B Standard Specifications, except hat columns will be used instead of brackets and the onstruction will be known as the "C" Standard. Fire escapes shall be supported every eight feet, ither by standard brackets or steel columns as the ase may require. 147 "Where fire escapes run at right angles to the building, they will be supported on gas pipe or angle iron columns with a 3x3x3-8 inch (three inch by three inch by three-eighth inches) angle riveted to the top of the two columns, with columns thoroughly sway braced. When fire escapes parallel the wall, they must be supported by gas pipe or angle iron columns, with 3x3x3-8 inch (three by three by three-eighth inches) L angle riveted to the top of the two columns and bolted to and through the wall. Balconies level with the floor line shall be placed at the top of all fire escapes. Where fire escapes run at right angles to the building, or are placed against the wall of the build- ing, the top balcony must be at least 3 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches (three feet six inches by three feel six inches.) Where fire escapes parallel the building and are placed 2 feet 6 inches (two feet six inches) awa^ from the wall, the top balcony must be at least 3 feeP 6 inches by 6 feet inches (three feet six inches ty six feet no inches). Where balconies are used in connection with fire escapes, channel irons will be used instead of la^ tice work to support the balcony and the construe tion of the same must be figured to safely support total live and dead load of 125 (one hundred ai twenty-five) pounds per square foot. The following dimensions given for gas pi] columns, refer to the internal diameter of the sai 148 GAS PIPE COLUMNS. 2% inch column, 15 feet and under. 3 inch column, 15 to 17 feet. 3% inch column, 17 to 19 feet. 4 inch column, 19 to 21 feet. 5 inch column, 21 to 25 feet. 6 inch column, 25 to 30 feet. L ANGLE COLUMNS. 2%x2%x% inch L 's, 15 feet and less. 2y 2 x3x3/ 8 inch L's, 15 to 20 feet. 2%x3%x% inch L's, 20 to 25 feet. Two 2y 2 x2y 2 x% inch riveted, 25 to 30 feet. Enclosed Fireproof Stairways. To be used in Buildings of Second Class Con- struction. — Emergency stairways shall be enclose^ by masonry wall not less than 1 foot 1 inch (one foot one inch) thick; with brick, hollow tile or rein- forced concrete floors, platforms and ceiling, and with iron, stone or concrete steps ; and provided with a sufficient number of windows to properly light the same. No open risers can be used. There shall be no basement openings into space under inclosed fireproof stairways. The same enclosure can be used for more than one stairway providing there is no direct connection between any two stairways or stories. Width of stairs shall be at the rate of 30 inches (30 inches) per hundred persons or fraction thereof. No stairway shall be less than 3 feet 6 inches (three feet 6 inches) nor more than 5 feet inches (five feet no inches) or have less than three or more than eighteen risers in any one run. 149 No winders shall be used and all nosings shall be on straight lines. Maintain a uniform width in all stairways and stair platforms by rounding the corners and beveling the angles. Provide gas pipe hand rails on both sides of stair- ways. Stairways shall have a uniform rise and tread in each run, viz : Primary schools to have not over 6 inch (six inch) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven inch) tread. Grammar schools to have not over 6% inch (six and one-half inch) rise or less than 11 inch (eleven inch) tread. High schools to have not over 7 inch (seven inch) rise or less than 10% inch (ten and one-half inch) tread. The above width of tread to be measured from nosing to nosing. Treads shall have roughened surface. Exit Doors. For Buildings of First, Second and Third Class Construction. — Exit doors shall not be less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) wide, swing out- ward (viz., towards the open), and be so hung as not to interfere with passageways or close other open- ings. No double acting doors will be permitted. Seats, Desks and Aisles. All class, recitation, study, high school or as- sembly rooms seating more than fifteen persons shall 150 be equipped with seats, chairs or desks securely fas- tened to the floor by screws. The chairs and desks of teachers may be por- table. Auditorium Seats and Aisles.— The least average width of chairs measuring from center to center of arm, shall not be less than 20 inches (twenty inches) : and the least spacing of seats from back to back, measuring horizontally, shall not be less than 30 inches (thirty inches). No seat shall have more than six seats between it and the aisle on either side. Aisles with seats on both sides of same shall not be less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) wide where they begin, and shall be increased in width towards the exits in the ratio of % inch (one- half inch) to the foot. Aisles having seats on one side only shall not be less than 2 feet inches, (two feet no inches) wide at their beginning, and increase in width the same as aisles having seats on both sides. Class Room Seats and Aisles. — Class rooms shall have aisles on all wall sides. In primary rooms, center aisles shall not be less than 17 inches (seventeen inches), and wall aisles not less than 2 feet 4 inches (two feet four inches]"' wide. In grammar rooms center aisles shall not be less than 18 inches (eighteen inches), and wall aisles not less than 2 feet 6 inches (two feet six inches) wide. In high school rooms center aisles shall not be less than 20 inches (twenty inches), and wall aisles not less than 3 feet inches (three feet no inches) wide. 151 3 Passageways. No halls or passageways leading to stairways shall be less in width than the width of the stairway. Hall and passageways shall be so designed and proportioned as to prevent congestion or confusion. Flues, Etc. All flues shall rest on and start from the ground and shall be built with no less than 9 inch (nine inch) walls. Vent flues for class, recitation and high school rooms shall be of such a size as to provide not less than ten square inches of flue space per pupil. Registers shall be 50 per cent (fifty per cent) larger than the area of the flue. Vents for toilet rooms shall provide one square inch of flue space to thirteen cubic feet of contents. Vertical ventilation flues shall be built of brick with an outer wall not less than 8 inch (eight inch) thick. Division walls shall be no less than 4 inch (four inch) thick. Vent flues shall extend through and above the roof. Ventilation carried through floor construction, furring or stud partitions will not be permitted. Optics. The proportion of glass surface in each class, study, recitation or high school room shall be not less than one square foot of glass to every five square feet of floor surface. Windows must be placed either at the left or the 152 left and rear of the room, but in no case on the two opposite sides of any room. Tops of windows shall not be placed more than 8 inches (eight inches) below the ceiling line. Vaults. Vaults for outside water closets to be not over six feet deep, and must be constructed of brick or concrete walls not less than 9 inches (nine inches) thick. No part of the vault to extend under the floor of the closet. Fire Extinguishers. Provide standpipe and hose in basement with sufficient length of l 1 /^ inch (one and one-half inch) hose to reach any part of the story. Hose lines shall be provided with nozzles and hose racks and hose shall be connected ready for use. Provide three-gallon chemical fire extinguishers of a type approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters for all stories above the basement. Fire extinguishers shall be provided in the propor- tion of one to every four class rooms, or equivalent or fraction thereof. Hose and extinguishers must be examined at least once every six months, and be put in first class working condition ready for use. Plumbing. Remove waste plug from lavatory bowls, or use sinks instead of lavatories. Use sanitary school house drinking fountain with jet giving a continuous flow of water where holly service is available. Where pumps are used invert the outlet. 153 A No tin cup or tumblers shall be allowed in or about the building. Provide one water closet for each fifteen girls, and one for each twenty-five boys or fraction there- of. Provide one ventilated individual urinal for each fifteen boys, or fraction thereof. No dry closet system will be permitted. Plumbing shall be installed as per code pre- pared by this department. Gas Fittings. No rubber hose connections shall be made with any stove or heater; the same must be made with metallic piping. All piping shall be capped, tested and proved tight before plastering is done. Electric Work. Electric equipment shall be installed according to the "National Electric Code.' , Fire Alarm. All buildings with basement, and all buildings over one story high, to be provided with an 8 inch (eight inch) in diameter fire gong in connections enabling the ringing of same from any story or basement. In semi-detached buildings provide gong for each section. All gongs to be connected up so as to ring simultaneously from one story or basement of either section. Construction. No nine inch wall can be used over ten feet high except for flues. 154 Cover all floor joists with rough sub-floor as soon as the joists are laid. In calculating construction the superimposed load on class room floors must be assumed at 60 (sixty) pounds per square foot, uniformly dis- tributed, and for halls, auditoriums, stairs and cor- ridors it must be assumed at 80 (eighty) pounds per square foot uniformly distributed. Hardware. Double acting spring hinges shall not be used, but all outside entrance and exit doors shall swing outward, and all inside doors shall swing outward toward the natural way of egress; all doors from halls to rooms and cloak rooms shall swing into halls. Single outside entrance doors shall have key locks on same that can be locked on the outside, but that can always be opened on the inside by simply turning the knob, whether same are locked on the outside or not, the locks being operated by key on outside only. No night latch attachment being placed on face of lock, or other bolts, hooks, thumb knobs or other locking device being used on doors. We advise that doors from halls to rooms and cloak rooms have no locks upon same, but that they be equipped with knob latches only; however, if locks are desired, same style locks as above specified for entrance doors shall be used so they can be locked on hall side, but that will always open on room and cloak room sides, whether locked on hall side or not. Locks of this kind are used so that the building and rooms can be locked from the outside to prevent access to building or rooms from the outside, 155 but so that under no conditions can a person be locked in the building. Outside doors used for exit purposes only, shall have one knob latch only, no bolts, hooks, or other locking devices being used. One of each pair of outside or inside double doors shall have a double extension panic bolt on same, bolt to have push bar, push plate, push handle or other device whereby the simple act of pushing against the same will release the top and bottom bolts at the same time and allow the doors to swing open. Independent top and bottom bolts will not be permitted. The outer door of each pair of outside and inside double doors shall have lock or latch as above specified. All bolts, latches, faces of locks, working parts of extension bolts, and other exposed working parts about this hardware, shall be cast bronze metal to prevent rusting, etc., which would interfere with the working of same. Sliding doors for entrance or exit purposes, or for openings that are in the natural course of exit from buildings shall not be used. Single doors to fire escapes, inclosed stair towers and emergency exits from basement shall be fitted with one knob latch, (without key) or equivalent. School room doors shall have knob latch (without key) or equivalent. The only doors in the building that may have key locks will be one main entrance door, library door, closets and boiler room doors. 156 Heating, Ventilation, etc. Heating. — The heating system shall be so de- signed and proportioned, as to uniformly heat all parts of the building to a uniform temperature of seventy (70) degrees in ten (10) degrees below zero (0) weather, and also so as to provide at least thirty cubic feet (30 cu. ft.) of outside fresh air per minute per person the room is designed to accommodate. The systems doing this and approved, are stoves, furnaces, indirect steam or hot water radiator sys- tem, or mechanical fan plenum system. A direct- indirect or semidirect system of steam or hot water heating will not be approved. Stoves. Stoves may only be used in one-story structures without basements, and same shall be closed jacketed stoves. Outside fresh air shall be brought in under the building through vitrified sewer tile or masonry ducts, and turn up and be connected to bottom of stove, then to circulate up around radiating surface of stove, between jackets and stove, and be heated and enter into the room from top of stove. Separate cast iron trays under stove, or solid cast iron bases in connection with stoves, shall be provided, these trays being kept up three inches (3 inches) above floor and having a diameter of at least two feet no inches (2 feet inches) greater than the diameter of stove. No smoke pipe connection between the stove and smoke flue, shall be over five feet no inches (5 feet inches) long. Yent flues as hereinafter specified, shall be used in connection with room where stoves are used. 157 Furnaces. Furnaces may be used in all classes of buildings, provided same, together with the fuel rooms in con- nection with same, be located in fireproof rooms as hereinafter specified. All furnaces shall have out- side fresh air connection to same from opposite sides of the building, of sufficient size to furnish the re- quired amount of air as above specified. Furnaces shall be connected to masonry hot air flues, which will carry the heated air up and enter same into rooms at a height of at least seven feet six inches (7 feet 6 inches) above floor level. In churches, heating air from furnaces will be allowed to enter into rooms through floor registers, but masonry flues must be provided for all school building work. All furnace pipes must be wrapped with at least three thicknesses of asbestos paper, and must be kept at least eight inches (8 inches) away from wood ceiling joists, etc., and all wood work must be protected by laying one-quarter inch (% inch) thick asbestos board over pipes, same being at least twelve inches (12 inches) wider than pipes on both sides. All floor boxes shall be kept at least one inch (1 inch) away from all woodwork, and all these spaces shall be lined with one-quarter inch (% inch) asbestos board before metal floor box is placed in position. Temperature regulating device should be used in hot air flues as hereinafter specified. Vertical metal hot air flues to carry heated air above the first floor shall not be used, but same must be masonry flues. Indirect Hot Water or Steam Radiator System. Steam or hot water boilers and fuel rooms in con- 158 nection with same, shall be located in fireproof rooms as hereinafter specified. Indirect hot water or steam radiators shall be placed in basement fresh air rooms at the base of* masonry hot air fines, and shall be properly con- nected to same with galvanized iron housing. Hot air fines, protecting woodwork, ontside fresh air connections, etc., same as above specified for fur- nace work, shall be used in connection with indirect radiators. In indirect radiator systems, enough direct radiation can be located in the rooms to do the heat- ing, and only enough indirect radiation need be in- stalled at the base of flues to furnish the required amount of fresh air heated to about seventy-two (72) degrees. Mechanical Fan Plenum System. In connection with a fan plenum system, furnaces or steam or hot water boilers can be used, provided, the furnaces or boilers together with the fuel rooms in connection with the same be located in fireproof rooms as hereinafter specified. This system shall be so designed with furnaces, or tempering coils and blast coils, to furnish heated air, to have cleaning; screens, fan plenum chamber, galvanized iron or masonry horizontal ducts, masonry hot air flues, electric motor, gas or gasoline engine, or a low pres- sure steam engine operating on a steam pressure not to exceed twenty pounds, to operate fan and such other device as is necessary to make this a complete working system. All parts and apparatus in eon- 159 nection with system to be of ample size so as to make a perfectly free and easy working system, and to thoroughly heat all portions of the building without* forcing. A combination direct radiation and fan plenum system can be installed, enough direct radiation can be placed in the rooms to do the heating, and the fan plenum system need only be designed to heat the re- quired amount of fresh air to about seventy-two (72) degrees. No steam boiler carrying over twenty (20) pounds of steam pressure shall be located within the main walls of any school building or other public building. No ashes are to be stored in buildings of the third class construction, and not more than one day's accumulation of ashes shall be stored in the basements of buildings of the first and second class construction. Pipe Covering. All steam and hot water main and return piping shall be covered with sectional asbestos pipe cover- ing. Main and return steam piping where used in radiation in finished portions of buildings need not be covered. All pipes passing through floors, walls, etc., shall have metal protecting sleeves or collars entirely through the floor, wall, etc., and flanging out on both sides for pipes to pass through. Ventilation. Air Space. — All rooms, etc., shall be of such a size as to provide two hundred and fifty (250 cu. ft.) 160 cubic feet of air space for every pupil or person the rooms are designed to accommodate. Hot Air and Vent Flues. — All hot air and vent flues thirteen by thirteen inches or smaller in size shall be enclosed in four inch (4 inch) brick walls and all flues larger in size shall be enclosed in eight inch (8 inch) brick walls, these flues being smoothly plastered on inside with Portland cement mortar. Division walls in flues can be four inch (4 inch) in thickness. All flues shall start at ground on sub- stantial foundations, and all vent flues shall extend up and out above roof, except as below stated. All hot air flues shall have arched top back of registers, to turn hot air into rooms. In gravity work for school buildings, all vent flues shall be of such a size as to provide ten square (10) inches of flue area for each person the room is designed to accommodate. Hot air flues shall be figured on the same basis. In gravity work in churches, large assembly rooms, etc., the size of vent and hot air flues need only be figured on a basis of not less than two-thirds (2-3) of the full seating capacity of the room. In mechanical fan system, ducts and flues shall be figured as follows : Air leaving fan to travel at a velocity of not to exceed one thousand (1000) feet per minute, in hori- zontal ducts not to exceed seven hundred and fifty (750) feet per minute, and in vertical flues not to ex- ceed five hundred feet (500 feet) per minute. Twenty (20) gauge galvanized iron flues enclosed with two inches (2 inches) of reinforced concrete, will be accepted in place of four inch (4 inch) brick walls, and twenty (20) gauge galvanized iron flues 161 A enclosed with four inches (4 inches) of reinforced concrete will be accepted in place of eight inch (8 inch) brick walls. Twenty (20) gauge galvanized iron flues may be used in attics of buildings of composite construction, to connect to masonry vent flues and run to a cen- tral point for exhaust fan connection, provided, a weighted fire-door or shut off valve is arranged at the top of each masonry vent flue in attic just before galvanized iron connection is made to same; this door or valve being held by fusible link, so that in case of fire traveling up a flue, the link would fuse and fire door or valve close off the flue perfectly tight. These galvanized iron flues in attic only to be used in connection with an exhaust fan connecting to same, otherwise masonry flues are to run out through roof. Registers. Register connection to vent flues shall be made at floor line, and to hot air flues at least seven feet, six inches (7 feet 6 inches) above floor level. Registers shall have a free area of at least fifty per cent (50 per cent) greater than the area of vent and hot air flues. Temperature Regulation. Either a manually operating, or mechanically operating system of temperature control for mixing hot and cold air in flues, should be installed in con- nection with all of these heating systems. Cold air by-pass connections should be made from fresh air intakes or rooms, to the hot air flues, and a valve should be arranged in flue so that the hot and cold air can be mixed in flue to regulate the temperature ; 162 this valve should be manually operated by handle and dial located in each school room, or by mechani- cally operated temperature regulating device. Fireproof Furnace or Boiler and Fuel Rooms. In new buildings, these rooms should be enclosed in at least one foot, one inch (1 foot 1 inch) thick masonry or nine inch (9 inch) thick reinforced con- crete walls; the ceiling of rooms shall be reinforced concrete or standard fireproof hollow arched tile and iron beam construction, designed to carry a load of at least one hundred (100) pounds to the square foot in addition to the weight of the floor itself. All doors entering these rooms from remainder of building, shall be hinged type, underwriters' approval, two and one-half inch (2y 2 inch) thick fire doors, tin clad, hung with proper equipment and being normal- ly held closed with weight and chain. In old buildings, the boiler or furnace and fuel rooms, shall be enclosed in same masonry walls and should have same fire doors opening into same, and the entire ceiling shall be fireproof ed as follows: First overlay the entire ceiling with one quarter inch (i/4 inch) thick asbestos board, lapped at least one and one-half inches at joints; then furr same with one and one-half inch (l 1 /^ inch) high metal furring spaced twelve inches (12 inches) on centers; then lath with metal lath and heavily plaster with asbestos and Portland cement plaster. All boiler and fuel rooms shall be so arranged in basement that persons other than the janitor will not have access thereto or will not have to pass through same to get from one portion of the base- ment to the other. 163 STANDARD CODE OF THE BOSTON SCHOOL HOUSE COMMISSION. General Information for First Class Construction. Elementary Schools. School Rooms.— (1) Size will be 23 by 29 for elementary grades and not less than 12 feet in clear. Modification allowable only after consultation with the Board. A building having no grades above IV, with no desk larger than 21 inches, might have rooms 22 by 28, but the standard size gives the extra space wanted for modern methods. Desks should be laid out on the preliminary plans. .(See drawing.) This drawing should give 18-inch, 21-inch and 23-inch desks, laid out in a 23 by 29 room. The School Com- mittee advise, and this Board has adopted, the policy of having a small portion of the rooms in a building, perhaps 10 or 20 per cent, of a size that will seat 50, i. e., 23 feet by 32 feet. Every class-room shall be consecutively numbered on the plans to designate it. These numbers to be for the doors, as noted below, and for the annunciator. Other rooms that ap- pear on the annunciator to be named on the plans, as assembly hall, teachers' or master's room, cooking- room, manual training room. The kindergarten shall be counted as a class-room. In high schools, both class and recitation rooms to be numbered, other rooms named. (2.) Windows will be on the long side for left- hand lighting. The glass, measured inside the sash, shall contain not less than 1-5 of floor area, about 135 165 3 square feet for a room 23 feet wide;* neither double run of sash nor double glazing will be required, but a dustproof metal weather strip; the head square and close to the ceiling ; the sill about 2 feet 6 inches from the floor; the windows divided with muntins, no large sheets of glass. Finished with plastered jamb, no architrave, metal corner bead. (3.) Doors.— One to corridor, 3 feet 6 inches by 7 feet, partly glazed, to open out, placed preferably near the teacher's end; brass-plated steel butts, 4- lever mortise lock, master keyed; cast brass knobs, marble thresholds to corridors. Doors to have 2-inch, plain brass numbers, and cardholders 3% inches by 5 inches, and hooks to hold open. (4.) Floors will be Georgia rift pine or maple. (5.) Walls will be painted burlap up to top of blackboards, or of tack boards, and above this plas- ter, tinted in water color,— a warm gray green or buff gives the best results,— the blackboards, 4 feet high, 2 feet 2 inches from floor in kindergarten, 2 feet 4 inches to 2 feet 6 inches to Grade IV, and 2 feet 8 inches in Grades V, to VIII. Behind the teacher and on the long side. These will be of best black slate, % inch thick. At end, in place of blackboard, pine sheathing with burlap stretched over it for a tack board, to extend from base to the molding at top of blackboards. In lower grades a rack or tack board for holding cards is required above the blackboard. A picture molding at top of burlap, and also near ceiling in all rooms. (See drawings.) *It is evident 1hat if this area of glass is requisite to light a room in a building with free space about it, it is inadequate for a room in a building on a narrow street. Under exceptional- ly free conditions, with no obstructions to the direct light from the sky, it is possible that the area of glass might be re- duced, but it appears to be no more than enough for the ordi- nary conditions of the new buildings, and should be increased, if possible. 166 (6.) Ceilings will be level, plaster tinted a light cream color. (7.) Heating and Ventilation, — The inlet for heat above 5 square feet, the outlet for- ventilation about 5 square feet. (9.) Bookcase.— Provide a bookcase in any con- venient position, capable of containing 300 octavo volumes (600 volumes in bookcases for upper grades) ; upper doors fitted with pin tumbler locks and latch and knob; drawers fitted with pin tumbler lock and small brass knobs. Lower doors to have pin tumbler locks; same lock in each bookcase; all bookcase locks master keyed. (See drawing.) Special equipment for care of books where school is held day and even- ing is described on page 20, Report 1908. (10.) Map Supports.— Provide one map support for each class-room in Grades IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII, preferably behind the teacher's desk or oppo- site the windows. (11.) Teacher's Closet.— Provide a small closet for teacher's coat and hat, preferably opening from the class-room, but allowable from the wardrobe. Fresh Air Rooms. — The School committee is re- sponding to the more general demand for fresh-air rooms for children who are anaemic or of tubercular tendencies. At present all that the Board is advis- ing to meet this new demand is that a sunny room, preferable a sunny corner room, be chosen for this work, and that the windows on one or on two sides be made casement to open out, instead of double hung ; and that the heat be largely direct, so that the temperature can be quickly raised if necessary when 167 the windows are closed. Otherwise these rooms will be the same as other class-rooms. Wardrobes. — A (1) Size. — Wardrobes will ad- join school-rooms and be from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet wide. (2 and 3.) — Windoivs and Doors. — Outside light, two doors, both connecting with school-room, and not to corridor, and having no thresholds. Doors, double swung, 2 feet 6 inches wide, brass double acting butts, foot and hand plates, hook or adjustable stops to hold open, ventilation under door farthest from vent. (4.) Floors.— Terazzo, with granolithic border and base. (5.) Walls.— Painted burlap up to hook rail; Poles on brass-plated iron brackets with hooks under and pins over, 44 in number ; umbrella clips and drip gutter below. (See drawing.) Walls above, piaster, tinted. Height of lower pole, kindergarten, 30 inches from floor; lower grades, 36 inches to 40 inches; up- per grades, 44 inches, 48 inches and 52 inches; dis- tance between poles, 8 inches for elementary, 12 inches for high schools. Pins and hooks, 8 inches to 12 inches on centers for elementary and 16 inches to 18 inches for high. (6.) Ceiling.— Plaster, untinted. (7.) Light.— One lamp. Ceiling outlets, elec- tric. Switch in class-room. (8.) Heating and Ventilation.— Heating, direct. Ventilation, direct, 1 2-3 square feet area cross sec- tion. Wardrobes. — B. The so-called Chicago type has been studied in a model for one building, but has not yet been tested in practice. It is a recess 20 inches 168 deep and about 14 feet long, equipped with the stand- ard pole and 44 hooks. The floor is of terazzo, the ceiling is at about 7 feet above the floor. The doors are hung like sash, to slide up, are framed flush and covered with burlap for a tack-board. The ventila- tor is independent of the room vent, but there is no heat except what is drawn in from the room at the bottom. Corridors and Vestibules. (1.) Sizes — Not less than 8 feet wide for four rooms on a floor; not less than 10 feet for over four rooms, governed by length, access to stairs, etc. (2.) Windows. — Outside light essential. (3.) Doors.— Main outer doors to open out, heavy butts, standard, master keyed, school lock; door check; heavy hooks to hold open. Vestibule doors open out, heavy butts, pulls, push plates, hooks to hold open, door checks, no locks. Outer doors to basement open out, and fitted with standard latch lock. Other hardware as above. (4.) Floors.— Terazzo divided into areas not to exceed 80 square feet, by slate strips, or linoleum on a cemenf surf ace. (5 and 6.) Walls and Ceilings.— A light glazed brick, untinted walls and ceilings. Put picture mold- ing at ceiling in corridors. (7.) Light. — Ceiling or short pendant fixtures (electric) 32 candle-power each, also gas for emer- gency in corridors, on stairs, and in vestibules. (8.) Heating and Ventilation. — Heat direct, sup- plemented by foot warmers on first floor. Ventila- tion where possible. 169 (9.) Sinks and Closets. — On each floor above the first one or two 4-foot sinks, and emergency clos- ets, with water-closet, one for boys and one for girls. Staircases. — (1.) Number and Arrangement. — Determined by the Board, but fireproof construction in all cases, and not over 5 feet wide. (2.) Material.— The treads, North River stone on iron string, or concrete construction with grano- lithic surface. Rails of a simple pattern, easily cleaned; wall rails are not wanted. (3.) Steps. About 6% or 7 inches by 10. Rail not less than 2 feet 8 inches on runs and 3 feet on landings. Sanitaries. — (1) Size. — General toilet-rooms in basement, in size approximating space for 2.25 wa- ter-closets for each school-room, .75 boys, 1.5 girls, and 33 inches of urinal for every school-room, ar- ranged for convenient supervision and circulation.* Slate sinks, length from 10 inches per class-room in small buildings to 6 inches per class-room in large buildings located preferably in the play-rooms. The above refers to mixed schools. (2.) Windows. — Ample outside light; glazed where exposed to view outside with factory ribbed glass. To have wire guards. (3.) Doors.— The doors arranged "in" and "out," with spring or door check and stout brass hooks to hold open; glazed with ribbed glass; half doors to water-closets, except where ordered omitted. * Inquiries have been addressed to principals of all schools where water-closets and urinals have been installed on this basis, and the consensus of opinion appears to be that the number cannot be reduced without inconvenience, but that it is satisfactory as it stands. 170 (4.) Floors.— Asphalt. Boys' drained to urinal, girls ' to floor wash. (5.) Walls.— Salt-glazed brick or other non- porous, inexpensive surface, 7 feet high; above, brick painted. (6.) Ceiling. — Untinted plaster or white-washed concrete. No basement ceiling need be furred level. (7.) Light.— Ceiling or short pendant electric fixtures. (8.) Heat and Ventilation. — Heat direct. "Ven- tilation through water-closets and space back of uri- nals, allow 10 square inches local vent for each water-closet and 8 square inches for each lineal foot of urinal. Masters' and Teachers' Rooms. — (1.) In each school of the upper grades a room of about 240 square feet for the master, with a water-closet and bowl and a book-closet adjoining. This room should be near the center of the building, i. e., on the second floor in a three story building. In all schools a room or rooms for teachers, averaging about 300 square feet for ten teachers, with one water-closet and bowl for each ten. Doors to be clearly marked "Master" or "Teachers" in brass letters. (2.) Where men as well as women are teachers, a separate room with toilet accommodations for men. (3.) Opportunity in teachers' rooms for warm- ing luncheon, either gas or electric. Play-Rooms. — (1.) All free basement space to be arranged as play-rooms for boys and girls. Salt- glazed brick, 7 feet high, and painted or whitewash- ed brick or stone walls above. Granolithic floors 171 drained to floor washes, plaster ceilings or white- washed concrete. Basement doors and windows to have wire guards in channel iron frames; guards to be hinged and padlocked. Playgrounds. — Playgrounds to have boundary fences and to be paved for the play-yards, coal and ash teams. Borders to be planted. Plumbing Fixtures. — (1.) Water-closets. — The basement water-closets for elementary schools are short hopper closets; elsewhere, a heavy washdown closet. (See drawing.) (2.) Slate partitions. — Any sound, close-grained slate, black, green or purple, supported at ends with iron pipe about 8 feet high, tied together and to the wall, to which doors are hung. (See drawing.) (3.) Urinals.— The urinals will be of slate, floor slab, trough and back, with partitions, flushed automatically, through % inch perforated pipe, with cold water; vented at bottom, into space behind. (See drawing.) (4.) Sinks of black slate, self-closing cocks, set 15 inches on centers, and cup-hooks at each side of cocks, and jet drinking fountains, in the external angles. A sink is desired for electrician unless there is one near by. (5.) Floor Washes in sanitaries and playrooms as already mentioned. (See drawing.) (6.) Piping. — (a.) Cast iron must be laid on good footing in basement, clean-outs at every change of direction. Soils and vents exposed as far as possible, no asphaltum, but oil-tested, red lead and three coats of paint. 172 (&.) Supplies.— Exposed as far as possible; where covered may be plain brass, elsewhere polish- ed brass; no nickel-plate. Hot water for janitor's use in basement, cooking-room, and for master's and teachers' rooms and emergency toilets. Supply from boiler and from summer boiler, if any, or from an independent hot-water heater. (c.) Fire Lines.— In buildings over three stories high, one or more lines of 3-inch pipe if re- quested by the Board. Special Rooms. Assembly Halls. — (1.) Assembly halls should accommodate from 400 to 800. It is not considered necessary to seat the full number of pupils in schools of greater capacity. The floor to be level and of wood like class-rooms. The windows to be fitted with rebated moldings to take black shades, and so designed as to make the operation of shades practi- cal and simple. The platform should be capable of accommodating one, or, in the large schools, two classes, and should have removable stepped plat- forms of wood to take the benches. Galleries may be used where the hall is two stories in height. Ante- rooms near the platform are desirable, and a con- nection from adjoining class-rooms to the anterooms or directly to the platform. A dignified architect- ural treatment of the walls, and a studied color scheme for walls and ceiling is expected. The light- ing, acoustics and exits should be such as belong to a small lecture hall. Artificial lighting to be under control from at least two points, one of which must be near an exit. Electric outlet for 30 ampere pro- 173 3 jection lantern, 25 feet from curtain. Provide re- cess in ceiling over platform for spring rolled cur- tain 13 feet long. Manual Training Rooms. — (1.) Size. — Room gen- erally located in basement, should be approxi- mately 900-1,000 square feet, preferably a corner room, and the larger of the two allowed sizes of rooms; and arrangement, shown by drawing, for number of benches there given, 28.* (2.) Light.— The windows should be as near full length as possible, and on two sides. Artificial light in chain pendant electric fixtures, one light to every four benches. 13.) Floors.— Of wood. (4.) Walls.— A basement room should be finish- ed as a shop; salt-glazed brick up to 7 feet where exposed, and above black board space of about 15 running feet, 4 feet high, and above this brick walls whitewashed. If above basement, finished as a class- room. (5.) Ceilings.— Like basement. (6.) Heating and Ventilation.— The same as in class-rooms. (7.) Fittings.— (a.) Stock-room.— Stock-room should contain at least 80 square feet, preferably long and narrow. Eighteen-inch shelves should run around the room, 5 feet 6 inches and 6 feet from the floor. (b.) Wardrobes. — Wall space for 30 double coat and hat hooks, in a separate room. *In elementary schools for boys only, 25 is sufficient, as this would always take half a class. 174 (c.) Teachers' Closet.— Teachers ' closet should be large enough to be used also for storage of finish- ed work, and should be fitted with all shelving pos- sible, as well as with the customary coat hooks. An area of 40 square feet is adequate. (d.) Bookcases.— Like those in class-rooms, 150 capacity. (e.) Work-rack.— About 28 feet long, made in sections, 6 feet 6 inches high, and 2 feet deep. The length is to take 27 compartments (equaling the number of benches) and the height the number of divisions that use the room (two each day, five days, outside limit). Compartments to have numbers painted. (For all of these see drawings.) (/.) Sink. — A 3-foot porcelain enameled iron sink, with hot and cold water. { (g.) Furniture. — (Not included in the building contract.) The furniture comprises 28 benches and stools, 4 display frames about 6 feet long and 30 inches wide, demonstration steps and guard rail, teacher's desk, table 4 feet by 2y 2 feet with un- finished top, 1 desk chair and 2 common chairs. (See drawing.) Lay these out on preliminary drawings. Cooking-Room. — (1.) Size. — Should have an area of 900-1,000 square feet, preferably a corner room on top floor but generally in basement, and the larger of the two allowed sizes of room, and ar- ranged for 28 stations. (2.) Light.— Windows as in a class-room, if located in a corner, from two sides. Artificial light as in a class-room. 175 (3.) Walls.— Above basement, similar to school- rooms, blackboards, 4 by 10 feet, back of teacher's desk. "Walls painted in oils. A basement room may have salt-glazed brick walls up to 7 feet and painted brick above. (See drawings.) (4.) Floors.— The floor linoleum, on cement, ex- cept space occupied by ranges, which is tiled. (5.) Ceilings.— Ceilings like basement, or if above basement like class-rooms. (6.) Heat and Ventilation.— hess heat is re- quired than in a class-room, but the ventilation should be the same, with additional vent from the demonstration ranges. (7.) Fittings.— (a.) Wardrobes.— Provision for 28 pupils, double coat and hat hooks in separate lighted closet, and small teacher's closet. (6) Work benches, accommodating 28 pupils, fitted with compartment for utensils, bread-board, etc., a Bunsen burner with a hinged iron grill over it, set on aluminum plates at each station; benches arranged in the form of ellipse, or oblong with ac- cess to center from two sides ; top of pine 26 inches wide; open underneath and supported on pipe standards. One section detached and fitted as a demonstration bench; a clear space of 4 feet all around. Dining table (furnished under another con- tract) is to be set in center. (See drawings.) Lay these out on preliminary drawings and include in final drawings and contract. (c.) Dresser. — Ten feet long, in 3 sections, 4 adjustable shelves and glazed sliding, or hinged, doors at top ; one set of 3 drawers and 2 cupboards 176 on lower part. A shelf should be put in each cup- board about 12 inches from top. (d.) Fuel-box. — In 2 compartments, each about 24 inches square and 30 inches deep, with hinged lids ; small shelf in one section. Accommodations in the main coal-room for a supply of range coal and kindling wood. (el) Bookcase.— Similar to those provided in class-rooms. (/.) Sink.— Soapstone, 5 feet long; 2 cold and 2 hot water cocks ; soapstone drip shelves, 24 inches long, at each end of sink, and a small sink about 2 feet long, with 1 hot and 1 cold water cock. Sinks should be near ranges. (g.) Hot-water Supply.— (See instructions in plumbing.) (h.) Coal and Gas Ranges.— A six-hole coal range and a similar gas range, with hood provided and set on a hearth previously mentioned. (i.) Refrigerator. —Will be a part of the fur- niture. Furnished under another contract. Kindergarten. — (1.) Size. — The rooms can be contained in the space of a class-room and wardrobe, but a slightly larger area, 800 to 900 square feet, is desirable, and preferably the larger of the two al- lowed sizes of room. They comprise a large room, a small room, a supply closet, a wardrobe and a water- closet. The large room should take a 16-foot circle, regulation lines painted on the floor, with at least 4 feet all around it. The small room, about 200 square feet. 177 (2.) Light.— Windows should be as in a class- room, if on a corner, on both sides. Exposure should be sunny. Artificial light of the class-room type, arranged for the different rooms. (3.) Doors. — Door to corridor as in class-rooms. "Wide doors should open from small room into large room. (1.) Floors. — Linoleum cemented on to concrete surface, with painted lines as above. (5.) Walls.— As in class-rooms, with blackboard as in lower grades. (6.) Ceilings.— As in class-rooms. (7.) Heat and Ventilation.— As in class-rooms. (8.) Fittings.— (a.) Wardrobe.— Hooks for 60 arranged as in ordinary wardrobes. (&.) Teachers' Closet.— For clothing of two or three teachers. (c.) Toilet-room— Immediately adjoining, with low-down seat and bowl or sink. (d.) Bookcase.— As in lower grades. Nurse's Room.— (1.) Size.— From 200 to 400 square feet, according to size of school. (2.) Windows.— Outside light as in class-rooms. (3.) Shades.— Set to roll from window-sill up- ward. Not in building contract. (4.) Doors.— One door to corridor, as in class- rooms, marked " Nurse's room." (5.) Walls.— Upper two-thirds plaster, smooth finish, round corners, painted with light green oil paint. Lower one-third to floor, glazed white tile. 178 (6.) Floor.— Terazzo, like corridors. (7.) Heat and Ventilation. — As in class-rooms. (8.) Light. —Pendant electrolier with special shade. Extra socket on body of fixture for hand portable. (9.) Nurse's Closet far Supplies.— Size, 3 by 4; one shelf; 6 hooks for clothing. (10.) Bath Tub.— Five-foot porcelain enameled iron, hot and cold water, where requested by Super- intendent of Nurses. (11.) Bowl.— Enameled iron, hot and cold water faucets to turn by foot pressure, i. e., hospital pat- tern. Hot water must be available all the year. (12.) Stove and Clock.— Gas or electric heater as in teachers' rooms, and a secondary clock. (13.) Fittings.— (Not in building contract.) (a.) Cabinet.— Oak finish, medical cabinet, adopted as standard by Schoolhouse Commission. (&.) Stool. — White enamel revolving stool. (Not in building contract.) (c.) Table.— Dressing table, white- enamel frame, glass top and shelf ; size 16 by 20, rub- ber crutch tips, (d.) Filing Case for Nurse's Rec- ords. — Oak finish, to hold 1,000 cards, 4 by 6; lock and key; guide cards, (e.) Writing Table.— Oak finish, with drawer and lock; size, 20 by 30. "(/.) Chair.— Oak to match table, (g.) Couch.— Plat frame oak, canvas adjustable top. (h.) Mirror — Size 2% by 3, set over bowl. High Schools. Class-Rooms and Recitations-Rooms. — (1.) High school class-rooms are laid out for classes of thirty- 179 six or forty-two, generally the latter. A room, 26 feet by 32 feet, will accommodate forty-two high school desks. The larger class-rooms are to accom- modate from sixty to eighty pupils ; the larger num- ber can be accommodated in a room 33 feet 8 inches by 43 feet. Eecitation-rooms, which to a certain ex- tent will be used also as class-rooms, should be about 16 by 26. These rooms, if equipped with continuous desks and seats as in a lecture-room, or with double desks, such as are to be used in the Charlestown High, would accommodate about thirty pupils each. Lay out desks in one room of each type on prelimi- nary plans. Assembly Hall. — (1.) For a high school would not differ materially from that already described for elementary schools. Masters' and Teachers' Rooms. — (1.) For ac- commodation of the principal there should be an outer office, that is, a waiting-room or reception- room, and an inner office; and rooms for both men and women teachers, which might well be concen- trated in the neighborhood of the reception-room and the principal's room. The School Committee now have under consideration a change in the organiza- tion of high school teachers, which may require a modification of the arrangement of the offices. Chemistry.— (1.) The Boom in General Be- quired.— Laboratory, separate from lecture-room, may be used as recitation-room, but better to use lec- ture-room and keep laboratory free from desks and demonstration table. Lecture-room, separate from laboratory, but easy of access, may be used for re- 130 citation ; in that case should have facilities for dem- onstration. Combined lecture-room for physics and chemistry admissible. Three rooms for administra- tive purposes, store-room for dry chemicals and ap- paratus, room for storage of liquid chemicals and preparation of reagents, which may also be used as a teacher's laboratory and an office. The total area of the laboratory and administration rooms should be about 1,200 square feet, and of the lecture room about 600 square feet. Chemical Laboratory. — (1.) Size. — Should ac- commodate a class of forty to fifty pupils, with ap- paratus. Accommodation for three such classes. (2.) Light.— On two sides. (3.) Heating and Ventilation. — On same basis as for class-rooms, but removal of gases should also be provided for by a hood, each compartment of which should be ventilated by 9-inch hole at top, venting into elbow or T of drain pipe, thence connected by drain pipe into main flue, in which should be a fan operated by a motor. (4.) Walls and Ceiling.— Walls of brick ideal, but not generally feasible, except on outside walls; plaster walls painted in oils and ceiling of plaster, covered with water-resisting surface containing no lead. All woodwork to have natural finish, except tops of desks. (5.) Flaor.— Preferably of concrete; may be of hardwood in narrow strips, filled in by asphalt; should slope very slightly between desks, interspaces again trending to common corner, which may be drained. 18 L (6.) Equipment.— Working desks at right an- gles to greater length of room, in sections back to back between windows; sections movable when top is removed. Each section 21 feet to 24 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet wide, 3 feet to 3 feet 2 inches in height. Distance between double sections about 5 feet, same distance at least between ends of sections and hood, which should be opposite longer line of windows and at right angles to direction of desk sections. Other ends of section near enough to wall to allow for drain at right angles to sections and under windows. Desks to be of ash or any durable wood, natural finish. Top of narrow pine strips, treated with aniline black and waterproof lead finish. Individual desks provided with 3 lockers and 3 sets of drawers each, each set of drawers operated by bar from locker, combination lock to fasten locker. Each double section of desks provided with soapstone sink, placed between sections and flush with section top, which should slope slightly to sink.* Sink 8 inches at least wide, and should begin within 1 foot of the end toward hood, depth here to be 6 inches, running nearly to other end, where depth should be 8 inches. Each pupil to have working space of 3 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 8 inches. Each double sec- tion of desks provided with shelf for reagents, run- ning length of desk, 10 inches to 12 inches above desk, supported by metal standards at suitable in- tervals, of white wood, 1% inches thick, 9 inches wide, natural finish, covered with glass plates, Vi inch thick, 9 inches wide, suitable lengths, clamped *Individual sinks are preferred by the teachers, although the long trough is apparently adequate for teaching elementary chemistry, and is less expensive. 182 to wooden shelf with as few clamps as possible. Wooden shelf at free end of each section, 1 inch to iy 2 inches thick, 3 feet to 4 feet long, not over 1 foot 3 inches wide, height of 2 feet 8 inches to 2 feet 10 inches, for holding blast lamps, reagent jars, etc. Finish off top of shelf in aniline black. Floor space under second row of windows taken up with line of extra desks, built like sections, furnished in similar way, but without necessarily a drain, to be used for emergency or general utility. Wall space not other- wise occupied may be used for shelves or cabinets. Fixed slate blackboards at end opposite second set of windows, and parallel to desk sections, sliding slate blackboards above hood. Liquid waste may be thrown into desk sink, dry waste into earthern jars. Hood should run at right angles to desk sections. and along wall opposite free ends of sections. In the construction of hood, protection against fire should be considered. Should be built against brick wall. Floor of hoods to be of slate ; wood, inside and outside, to be finished natural. Space divided into 3 or 4 compartments, closed by sliding windows. Space against wall not occupied by hood for general link. (7.) Gas.— Lead from gas main at free end of center of double desk sections, branch into 2 leads along back of each section. Take-offs between each working desk space in form of pillar with two %- inch cocks, at each end desk a single cock. Two %- inch gas nipples at each side of each compartment of hood. Cocks of these outside of hood. Wall desk fitted with single gas taps at intervals of 2 feet. 183 (8.) Water.— Lead from water main at free end of center of double desk sections. Size, large enough to fill section sink rapidly. Lead of ordinary size along length of section, underside of shelf, take-off at free end of section to which blast and suction pump may be attached. At junction of each four working desk spaces take-off, carrying two valves with hose bibb delivery %-inch, the two valves or cocks facing opposite sides. Suction pump attached to these bibbs if desired. (9.) Drains. — Section desk sink to have open drain and mercury arrester, into which should be set movable concave netting of wide mesh to arrest larger solid matter. Main desk drain at right angles to sections along and under windows, between win- dows and sections, should be in form of wooden trough, in sections dovetailed from 6 inches to 8 inches inside diameter and equally deep, covererj with asphalt paint or filling; may be supported on brackets against wall and left open, or covered and provided with movable top. Into this drain will drip the lead pipes coming from section sink. Slate floor of each hood compartment should deepen slightly in center, where there should be a hole 1 inch in di- ameter, into which is fitted short lead drain pipe, closed by perforated plug; drain pipes to be con- nected with sloping drain pipe, open or closed, run- ning toward and delivering into general sink. (10.) Electricity .— Current of electricity on section desks need not exceed ten volts, may be sup- plied from source common to physical and chemical 184 side. Plugs between each working space placed under desk top on frame. Lecture and Recitation Room. — (1.) Size. — Area to depend on number of seatings required or number of pupils in classes ; should be large enough for tw- classes, and should occupy a position between the laboratories for physics and chemistry. (2.) Light. — As much glass area as class-room, preferably from left. Fit windows and other open- ings admitting light with dark curtains as specified under Assembly Hail. Electric lighting from the top, controlled at point convenient to demonstration table. (3.) Floor stepped up in fireproof construction and finished in wood, like floor. (4.) Heating and Ventilation.— As for class rooms, with extra ventilation to remove fumes. Space at left end of desk provided with register and flue of at least 10 inches diameter, to afford means of down draught. Flue carried under floor to nearest wall, flue and draught actuated by motor, if not sufficient. (5.) Equipment.— Demonstration table, not less than 12 feet long, not more than 3 feet nor less than 30 inches wide, height 32 inches. Placed 4 feet dis- tant from wall, material same as that of room, top made of pine plank and and finished like chemical laboratory desks. Pneumatic sink at right hand of desk, of soapstone in 2 depths. Not to exceed 30 inches long, 20 inches wide. Depth, 4 inches to 6 inches minimum; 16 inches to 18 inches maximum. Length of minimum depth not to exceed 60 per cent 185 of total length. Sink to be depressed in table and provided with flush cover. Sink to have screened drain with mercury trap and overflow. Supply hot and cold water under reduced pressure and cold water under street pressure for quick filling, 2 goose- necks with %-inch hose bibbs, to one of which com- bined blast and suction pump may be attached: steam supply direct from boiler main with a by-pass to summer boiler; supply gas air suction, and gas taps not exceeding 6 in number. Over demonstration table, secured to ceiling, provide a plank with heavy screw hooks. Behind lecture table provide sliding blackboards of not less than 50 square feet, and a canvas curtain on heavy spring roller for attaching charts. Drawers and closets for lesser lecture ap- paratus and chemicals in body of table, wall on either side provided with shelves for reagent bottles under glass, and side wall provided with cabinets for larger pieces of permanent apparatus, if there is no special room for this. Lifting seats with desk for taking notes arranged on platforms, so that the suc- cessive tiers will rise one above the other to insure an unobstructed view of demonstration table. (See drawing.) (6.) Electricity.— Provide three (3) forms of current, viz., one circuit for direct current at 110 volts, 30 amperes, and one circuit for 5 to 20 volts, 50 amperes, and one circuit for alternating current at 110 volts, 30 amperes. Regulating rheostat for the 5 to 20 volt direct current to be located con- veniently to table. A 50-ampere ammeter and a 125- volt volt-meter, both with extra large illuminated 186 dials, mounted on swing brackets in full view of class and instructor; suitable means for switching am- meter and voltmeter to either circuit. Terminate circuits in nonreversible push plug receptacles. A projection lantern, and receptacles for same, at end of table and at rear of room. Lantern screen on spring roller at side of room, width of screen usually 12 feet, but dependent on distance and lenses used. Administrative Facilities. — (1.) Apparatus Store- room. — Should give ample space for storage of extra and reverse apparatus and original packages of stock chemicals. These should be kept in dust-proof cabinets with glass doors and in drawers. (2.) T reparation-room. — This should adjoin the above. Primarily for storage of liquid chemicals in bulk and preparation of liquid reagents, and stor- age of supply bottles, also fitted for teacher's laboratory. Should have wide center table with gas in center, working desks, with drawers and closets along two sides, also gas, water, sink, blast, suction, steam and electricity. Shelves along desks for storage of liquid chemicals, supply bottles and smaller reagent bottles. An adequate hood should be provided. (3.) Office and Balance Room.— Adjoining store- room and preparation-room should be small room to contain desk, book shelves, table and a good grade balance. Physical Laboratory. — (1.) Size. — In a space about 30 by 40 feet. A laboratory, apparatus-room and shop. 187 (2.) Light. — The same basis as for class-rooms, one wall having as direct a southern exposure as possible for porte lumiere studies. Artificial light- as in a class-room Dark curtains in addition to regular shades for darkening room. Windows and all openings admitting light fitted as specified under Assembly Hall. (3.) Heating and Ventilation.— On same general basis as for class-rooms. (4.) Equipment.— Small laboratory tables to ac- commodate two or four pupils at each, built of hard wood, white pine tops, fitted with 4 drawers, sup- ports and adjustable cross-bar. Wall tables around room on sides where there are windows, with one or two shallow drawers under, but not deep enough to interfere with comfort of pupil. Soapstone drip sinks with cold water to be provided at these tables, one to every six or eight pupils. Instructor's table, fitted with hot and cold water, Richards' pump, numerous cupboards and drawers of various depths and widths. Two-inch plank bolted to ceiling over this table, with space of 2 or 3 inches between plank and ceiling for attachment of pendulums and other apparatus. Provide electric outlet for stereopticon and screen for same. (5.) Furniture.— Provide adjustable stools for all the tables and a sufficient number of tablet arm chairs to accommodate the entire division during demonstration exercises. Chairs to be placed in rectangle formed by pupils' tables and demonstra- tion table. These are not in building contract, but to be laid out on preliminary plans. 188 (6.) Electricity.— One outlet for direct current at 110 volts E. M. F. and 30-ampere capacity. One outlet for direct current at low voltage with regu- lator conveniently located. One outlet for alternat- ing current at 110 volts E. M. F. and 30-ampere capacity. One outlet for each kind of current at demonstration table, to be single pole push plugs instead of binding posts. Series and multiple con- nections at each pupil's table. Switch in laboratory to cut out pupils' tables. (7.) Gas.— Pupils' tables to be equipped with gas, 4 cocks to each table. "Wall tables to be equip- ped with gas. Demonstration table to be provided with gas. (8.) Bulletin Board.— 25 to 50 square feet of bulletin board, covered with burlap, secured at edges, but not glued on like wall paper. (9.) Blackboards. — As much blackboard space as possible. Sliding blackboards back of demonstra- tion tables. Apparatus Rooms. — (1.) Size. — One large or several small rooms, to open directly out of labor- atory, and connected with lecture-room. (2.) Equipment.— To be fitted with dust-tight cases with adjustable shelves and sliding glass doors, 7 feet high; cabinets of drawers of various widths and depths, mostly narrow and shallow. Some of these cases may be in the laboratory if there is suffi- cient wall space. A small sink and hood should be provided. 189 :>. Shop. — (1.) A small shop is desirable, though not absolutely necessary. This should be equipped with work bench, power lathe, belted to motor generator, and shelving for tools and stock, and may be set up in apparatus-room. Botanical and Zoological Laboratory. — (1.) Size. In a space about 30 by 40 feet. Laboratory and ap- paratus-room. (2.) Light.— Windows the same as for class- rooms, one wall with southern exposure. Artificial light as in class-rooms. (3.) Equipment. — (a.) Twenty-one pupils' tables, 54 inches by 24 inches by 30 inches high, each to accommodate two pupils, to have plate glass tops, (&.) Soapstone sink, 72 inches by 30 inches, 10 inches deep, accessible on all sides. Supply with cold water, about 8 bibbs and 2 hose bibb cocks. (c.) One aquarium, 30 inches long, 20 inches wide and 20 inches high, with supply, gooseneck cock with aspirator and standing waste. (d.) Ice chest, 36 inches by 24 inches. '(e.) Cases built wherever practicable. Three sections to contain 42 pigeonholes, 3 inches by 3 inches by 8 inches, for storage of instruments. A liberal supply of cases to contain drawers and cup- boards in lower compartment, and shelves above for exhibition of specimens, storage of material, instru- ments, books, charts, etc. (4.) Furniture.— Forty- two adjustable screw re- volving chairs, not in building contract. Gymnasium and Drill Hall. — .(1.) To be used in common for gymnasium exercises, athletic games and 190 the drilling of the school cadets. On account of its size and for structural conditions, to be generally located in the basement, with clear span of ceiling and combined height of basement and first story. Visitors' gallery generally provided at one end, en- tered from first floor. (2.) Size.— The classes exercising in the gym- nasium are from fifty to one hundred, and a suitable floor space for this number, as well as floor space for a full company of cadets at drill, is from 3,750 to 4,000 square feet. The height should not be less than 24 feet. (3.) Light.— Ample outside light in all cases. Electric light from ceiling protected with wire guards. (4.) Heat and Ventilation. — The former suffi- cient to guarantee a temperature of about 60 de- grees, and about twice as much ventilation as is cus- tomary for the ordinary class-room. This is, of course, insufficient for the number of people who might occasionally occupy the gymnasium for ex- hibitions, but it is more than enough for the ordin- ary number using it for class exercises. (5.) Equipment. — The standard gymnastic ap- paratus consists of the following fixtures, which may be slightly modified in particular cases. 25 Bar stalls. 25 Bar stall benches. 4 Double booms. 4 Saddles. 20 Vertical ropes. 2 Inclined ropes. 191 2 Eope ladders. 5 Serpentine ladders. 3 Horizontal ladders. 2 Boxes, 1 horse, 1 buck. 12 Balance boards. 2 4 by 7 mats. 2 5 by 10 mats. 4 Pairs jumping standards and ropes. 4 Inclined planes. 6 Traveling rings. 1 Pair basket ball goals. 3 Basket balls. 4 4-lb. medicine balls. 16 2-lb medicine balls. 24 Small rubber balls, 2% to 3 in. in diameter. 8 Indoor baseballs. 1 Fairbanks scale. 1 Water spirometer. 1 Tape measure. 1 Dozen glass mouthpieces. 24 Bean bags. 1 Truck to carry mats. 1 Storming board. 6 Pairs 1%-lb. Indian clubs. 40 Pairs %-lb. Indian clubs. 8 Chest weights. 1 Horizontal and vaulting bar. 1 Pair parallel bars. 2 Jump boards. 1 Shoulder caliper. (6.) Gun Backs. — Eacks for holding the guns carried by the cadets should be provided on wall. These racks should be protected by locked doors. 192 (7.) Special Booms.— Adjoining gymnasium and drill hall two small rooms about 10 feet square should be provided for school matron and director of gymnasium. (8.) Dressing Booms, Baths and Lockers. — (a.) System.— The clothing of all the pupils is in a cen- tral locker-room, each suit being numbered, and all being under the control of the attendant in charge. Dressing-rooms are provided in number equivalent to the number of a class. A class coming for exer- cise are given their gymnasium clothing and keys to dressing-rooms, which they lock behind them when exercising. After exercise they can take a shower bath. When dressed the dressing-room keys are given up, but the gymnasium clothing is left to be gathered up by the attendant. The clothing is carried to the dry-room, and when dried each set is put back in its proper pigeonhole. (b.) Lackers.— The locker-room is controlled by the attendant, and contains pigeonholes, 10-inch cube, one for each pupil in the school, and a counter over which to deliver the clothing. Adjoining this is the dry-room, capable of being heated to a high temperature and thoroughly ventilated. This is fitted with hooks and clothes line. (c.) Dressing-rooms. — The dressing-rooms are small cabins, about 3 feet square, with a locked door, a seat and hooks. (d.) Shoivers.— The shower baths are 3 feet square, divided by slate partitions, similar to those for water-closets, each having a bar at the front, 193 3 over which a cotton sheet can be dropped. Each compartment has two sprays in opposite corners. Handicraft Booms. — There should be space in one or more rooms for free-hand drawing, mechanical drawing, woodworking and metal-working. (1.) fee.— The space should be about 3.000 to 3,600 square feet. The free-hand drawing-room should be preferably divided into two drawing- rooms, with a work-room between. (2.) Light— Windows and artificial light, by special fixtures. North light preferable in the draw- ing-rooms. L (3.) Floors.— Ol wood. (4.) Walls.— As in a manual training room. (5.) Ceilings.— As in a manual training room. (6.) Heating and Ventilation.— Same as in class- rooms. (7.) Stock-room. — The lumber stock-room should contain at least 80 square feet, preferably long and narrow. Two 18-inch shelves should run around the room, 5 feet 6 inches and 6 feet from floor. (8.) Teachers' Closets. — Teachers' closet in woodworking room should be large enough to be used for storage of finished work, and should be fitted with all shelving possible, as well as with the customary coat hooks. An area of 40 square feet is adequate. (9.) Fittings. — (a.) Bookcases, like those in class-rooms, 150 capacity. (&.) Cases. — For work in process, extra tools, 194 supplies, drawing boards, models, paper, finished drawings, etc. (For all of these, see drawings.) (c.) Display Boards. (d.) Sink.— A 5-foot sink, with hot and cold water. (10.) Equipment of Free-hand Drawing-room. — Provide accommodation for five divisions, each class about twenty-five pupils. (11.) Equipment for Mechanical Drawing-room. (See Fittings.) Also 12 double drawing tables, 7 feet 4 inches by 2 feet, with drawers for instruments. (12.) Equipment of Woodworking Room.— Provide accommodation for four divisions, each class about 20 pupils; 20 benches, 36 inches by 18 inches, fitted with 2 vises, one to be a quick action, iron vise, 3 speed lathes, 1 jig saw, 1 circular saw. (13.) Equipment of Metal-working Room.— Six double benches, 8 feet by 2 feet, fitted with 12 Pren- tiss iron vises, 3%-inch jaw; wall bench, fitted with 10 stations, tool drawers and 5 Bower's tool holders; one ^-inch gas hose cock terminal above each bench station; 2 gas blast burners, 1 large, 1 small; metal covered bench with ventilated hood; 1 muffle fur- nace, ventilated ; 1 drill ; 1 forge, ventilated ; 1 anvil : 1 grindstone; 1 table tool rack; 1 pair bench shears: 1 engine lathe. (14.) Motor. Household Science. — (1.) Size. — The space should be about 1,200 square feet, and should ac- commodate the kitchen, two small rooms for showi^ the care of a dining-room and of a bedroom, and ». china closet and pantry. 195 (2.) Light, Heat, etc.— The same as that for other rooms, with additional ventilation in the ki chen. (3.) Equipment. — The kitchen to contain the same equipment as that for grammar school cooking rooms, but for 24 stations only; a kitchen pantry fitted with shelving and a china closet fitted with a sink; drawers, cupboards and shelves inclosed with glass doors. The dining-room and bedroom simply finished rooms, having no equipment except the fur- niture. Lunch-Rooms. — (1.) In General. — The lunch- rooms in Boston schools have usually been located in the basement, and where these are high and well lighted this location seems to serve satisfactorily. They should, however, have the special ventilation that is provided in a basement cooking-room. In size, they should accommodate comfortably, seated at benches or small tables, that proportion of the pupils in the school which take advantage of the luncheon facilities. (2.) Equipment.— (a.) The counter should be set at 2 feet 8 inches high, and should have a rail 2 feet from it, with openings at intervals, to keep chil- dren in single file, and there should be accommoda- tion under the counter for dishes. (&.) Range.— A six-hole gas range, with arnph oven space. (c.) Sinks.— Two good-sized soapstone sinks. (d.) Ice Box.— Of sufficient size to take care oi •milk supply. 196 (e.) Lockers.— Sufficient to care for the cloth- ing of the attendants, and for mops and brooms, etc. These should not be under the counter, or near any place where food is kept. (/.) Furniture.— In some cases the children are provided with camp chairs and small round tables to seat four. In others, ordinary school benches have been provided. Both seem fairly satisfactory in operation. Library. — (1.) A space equivalent to a small class-room is ample for library purposes. The book accommodation will depend somewhat on the size of the school. The library is planned as a reading- room, that is, with the books in the room and not in a separate stack-room. Wardrobes. — (1.) In high schools common ward- robes are — one for boys and one for girls — advised for all the clothing, situated on the lower floor to avoid bringing dirt into the upper floors. There being an attendant on the lower floor, the room, as a whole, can be locked up. (2.) Light.— The rooms should have outside light. (3.) Heat and Ventilation.— This should be thor- oughly well heated and ventilated, similar to class- rooms. (4.) Equipment. — The poles, hooks, etc., will be similar to those used in the other schools, but more space should be given the girls, i. e., about 1 foot 6 inches on center. It has been found desirable to jhave some locked pigeonholes, 20 by 20 by 12 inches. 197 Heating, Ventilation and Electric Systems. Heating and Ventilation, Gravity System. — (1.) Heat Ducts for School-rooms. (a.) Location.— In a corner room, locate the duct on the inside wall within 10 feet of the outside wall. In a room with one outside wall, locate the duct on the inside wall, near the middle. (b.) Size.— Allow one square foot area of duct for each nine occupants. The opening into the room is to be the same area as the duct. The bottom of the opening is to be about 8 feet 6 inches above the floor. Galvanize d-ir on deflectors, painted to match the adjoining walls, will be placed in each opening. In addition, there will be a galvanize d-ir on ground around the opening. (2.) Vent Ducts for School-rooms. (a.) Location.— In a corner room, locate the duct at the inside corner of the room, and where possible on the same wall as the heat duct. In a room with one outside wall, the duct is to be on the same inside wall as the heat duct, and as near the middle as pos- sible. (b.) Size. — Allow one square foot area of vent duct for each ten occupants. The opening into the room will be at the floor, and will be the full size of the vent duct. There will be no guard at the open- ing. The floor will be carried into the bottom of the duct, and the baseboard will be carried in and around. The inside of the duct exposed to view will be plastered and finished to match the adjoining walls. 198 Plenum Fan System. — (1.) Heat Ducts for School-rooms. (a.) Location. — In a corner room, locate the duct within ten feet of the outside wall. In a room with one outside wall, locate the duct on the inside wall, near the middle. (&.) Size.— Allow one square foot area of duet for each ten occupants. The opening into the room is to be one-third larger than the area of the duct. The bottom of the opening is to be about 8 feet 6 inches above the floor. Galvanized-iron deflectors, painted to match the adjoining walls, will be placed in each opening. In addition, there will be gal- vanized-iron ground around the opening. (2.) Yent Ducts for School-rooms. (a.) Location. — The location and size will be the same as those for the Gravity System. Toilet-room Vents. — (1.) Duct. — Allow 10 square inches of duct area for each closet and 8 square inches for each lineal foot of urinal space. (2.) Opening. — Each door into the toilet-room is to have an opening either in the lower panel, with a register face on each side, or underneath the door. The net area through the opening in either case is to be equal to the area of the main vent duct from the room. Wardrobe Vents. — (1.) *Duct. — Each wardrobe is to have a vent duct with an area of 1 2-3 square feet and having a register at the bottom of the room. (2.) * Opening. — The door leading into the ward- robe at the end farthest from the vent duct is to have •This would be modified if the Chicago system of wardrobes is adopted. 199 3 an opening similar to that for a toilet-room, so that the air can pass from the school-room into the ward robe and thence out through the duct. Electric Work. — (1.) Service. — This should enter basement underground at location to be determined by reference to street mains, and should terminate on a switchboard located in a fireproof closet, open- ing if possible into the basement corridor. (2.) Conduits.— All wires to be run in iron con- duit concealed, except conduits for mains in base- ment, and side outlets in boiler, engine and stack rooms. Tap circuit conduits to be run above rough floor wherever possible. If floor construction will not allow this, they are to be run below floor beams and above ceiling, a space of 2 inches being left in which they can be run. (3.) Wire Slot.— Obtain from electrical division the location of slots and openings for conduits and panel boards. (4.) Cabinets.— All cabinets to be furnished by wiring contractor, but finished by the general con- tractor. (5.) Cutting.— All cutting and patching to be done by the general contractor. (6.) Outlet s.— Class-rooms to be provided witE 9 four-light ceiling outlets, controlled by 3 switches. Wardrobes to have 1 ceiling outlet, controlled by switch in class-room. Corridors to be lighted front ceiling wherever possible. Height of side outlets in rooms to be 6 feet and in corridors 6 feet 4 inches. 200 Switch outlets to be 4 feet. Switches in corridors, play-rooms, and pupils' toilet-rooms to be operated by private key. (7.) Fixtures. — Fixtures in class-rooms to be of special design to combine a direct and diffused light. (8.) Gas.— Gas outlets to be provided in all cor- ridors, vestibules, stairways, boiler-room and as- sembly hall exits ; all except vestibule to be wall out- lets. Gas-piping to be included in the electrical en- gineer's work. (9.) Stereopticon.— All grammar schools and high schools to be provided with an electric pro- jection lantern with reflectoscope attachment. (10.) Clocks and Bells.— All schools to be pro- vided with an electric system of clocks, operated by a master clock. All primary schools to be provided with a system of signal bells, operated by push but- tons. In all grammar and high schools the bell system to be operated automatically by master clocks, according to prearranged programme. (11.) Telephones.— In all schools, each class- room, hall, teachers' room and boiler-room to be con- nected to master's office, or to room occupied by the first assistant, by a telephone system. 201 FORM OF PROGRAM FOR COMPETITIONS. NOTE: Early in 1910 a competition was held by the First Baptist Church of Pittsburg, Pa., under the direction of Prof. "Warren P. Laird of the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania. A large number of well known architects took part in this competition and the pro- gram gave such general satisfaction that the same general form has been adopted in the following schedule, which is believed to be as near the very best practice of the present day as it would be possible to arrange. For convenience the program is divided into five general headings and each paragraph num- bered so that competitors who may write for infor- mation and explanations may refer to the heading, paragraph and lines by number, which is obviously of great convenience and avoids mistakes. SECTION (1),— THE PROJECT. P 1. THE BOAKD OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF PROPOSES to erect a (high or grade) school building on the property of the Board located at in the city of , which location is fully de- scribed on the topographical map supplied with this program. P 2. TO SELECT AN ARCHITECT FOR THIS BUILDING a competition is hereby established and will be conducted by the said Board under the terms set forth in this program. The Secretary (or Clerk) of said Board is Mr (address) 203 3 P3. AS ITS CONSULTING AECHITECT to prepare this program, and act as professional adviser in the conducting of this competition, the said Board has appointed Mr (Address) SECTION (2)— THE PROGRAM. P4. THE TERMS OP THIS COMPETITION are set forth in this program, which constitutes an agreement between the said Board of Education, on the one hand, and each competitor and the appointed architect severally on the other hand. P 5. IT IS THEREFORE UNDERSTOOD THAT EACH ARCHITECT who submits designs in this competition thereby accepts the terms of same as binding upon him, both as to the competition and any agreement which may arise from it. P6. THE TERMS OF THE COMPETITION WILL NOT BE MODIFIED in any important re- spect without the consent of a majority of the com- petitors, but additional information will be supplied when necessary. P7. COMMUNICATIONS REGARDING THE COMPETITION may be addressed either to the Secretary of the said Board, or to the professional adviser. They must be in writing. Copies of all such communications, with the replies thereto, will be sent simultaneously to each competitor and will thereupon become a part of this program. No such communications will be received nor information is- sued after. . (date) 204 P8. THE TERM ARCHITECT OR AUTHOR AS USED IN THIS PROGRAM means the single competitor, whether he be an individual or a firm of architects. The term " Board " refers to the Board of Education named in Section (1), PI. The term " Appointed Architect" means the architect award- ed the prize of this competition, and appointed as architect of the proposed work. The topographical plan of the site, and the schedule of charges of the the American Institute of Architects form an es- sential part of this program. SECTION (3)— THE COMPETITION. P9. ESPECIALLY INVITED ARCHITECTS. The board have especially invited two (or more"> architects to submit designs in this competition each of whom will be paid . . . ($ ) ... in full com- pensation for his services in the competition. P10. OTHER ARCHITECTS ELIGIBLE The competition will also be open to all other archi- tects who may be qualified, as hereinafter stated, and two (or more) prizes or competition fees will be awarded among said architects as follows: ($. . . . ) to the uninvited competitor standing first in merit ; ($ ) to the uninvited competitor standing second in merit, etc. Pll. FINAL JUDGMENT WILL BE REN- DERED by a jury composed of the Board's pro- fessional adviser, and two other architects to be chosen by ballot by the competitors, this choice tc be based on majority preference as shown by the ballots deposited with the Board. These ballots will 205 J J be invited early in the competition and will not be accepted later than (date) When arranged, the personnel of the jury will immediately be announced to each competitor. The Board will bear the expense of securing the jury. P12. THE AECHITECTS ESPECIALLY IN- VITED. The following architects have been especially in- vited : The Board reserves the right to fill any vacancy among the foregoing that may occur during the com- petition. P 13. THE BOARD DESIRES THE PARTICIP- ATION of other architects of good professional standing and experience in the execution of work of this magnitude. All who wish to enter the com- petition are requested to apply for admission upon forms furnished, upon application, by the Secretary of the Board. The Board will extend invitations to approved applicants to submit designs in the com- petition. Only architects receiving such invitation shall be eligible to this competition. P14. THE PRIZE OF THE COMPETITION will be the commission to design and supervise the construction of the building herein described. This prize will be awarded to the competitor whose de- sign is awarded first prize by the Board as provided in P24 of this program. 206 P 15. THE NUMBER AND KINDS OF DRAW- INGS and their scale, etc., are to be as follows: PLANS; one of each floor will be required. These plans should each include at least ike property lines of the site. ELEVATION AND SECTIONS; two of each are required. No drawings other than those prescribed in this section are permitted. (NOTE: In case it is preferred to receive a perspective draw- ing, the elevations may or may not be omitted as the professional adviser and Board may determine). SCALE; the scale of all drawings is to be one-six- teenth (or one-eighth) of an inch to the foot. P16. PERSPECTIVE; in case a perspective drawing is required, the program must state the dis- tance from the building at which the point of sight is to be assumed, and the angles at which the building is assumed to stand with reference to the beholder; also the location of the horizon line. P17. RENDERING, ETC., OF DRAWINGS MUST be made with black pencil on tracing paper mounted on cardboard, one drawing to each sheet. No drawing shall exceed in dimensions. . (inches) . . . Brush work may be employed in rendering, but must be in black and white. No landscape or scenic ac- cessories whatever will be permitted on any drawing, but a single human figure 5 feet 8 inches high should be drawn on each elevation, section and perspective to show its scale. Lettering may be done in red, but otherwise neither color nor gold is to be used in the making of any drawing. Treatment of floor and ceiling surfaces may be indicated if desired. Desks,, cabinets and other permanent furniture may be 207 3 shown if desired, but in any case the seating capacity and area of each room should be lettered thereon. Lines of grading, terracing, pavements, steps, etc., and all lines given in the topographical map of the site, may be included but no other scenic accessories. The names of all rooms with their dimensions and areas and any other such information necessary to explain the purpose of the drawings throughout may be lettered thereon. Sections must have story heights from floor to floor lettered thereon. The title to be put upon each sheet of drawings shall be COMPETITION OF THE (HIGH OE GEADE) SCHOOL BUILDING OF . . (city) and any such other words as are actually necessary to desig- nate parts and uses of the structure ; dimensions and capacity; drawings and the scale to which they are drawn. Eoman lettering only may be used. P 18. IT IS A CONDITION OF THIS AGEEE- MENT that the design submitted by any architect must be his own authorship, produced within his own office under his personal direction. It is under- stood that by his participation in this competition, each competitor thereby agrees that any violation by him of this section nullifies this agreement so far as he is concerned and any engagement proceeding from it. P 19. ONLY ONE DESIGN may be submitted by any competitor ; flaps and alternative schemes are not permitted. No design may be accompanied by any description or means of illustration other than those expressly provided herein, and the required drawings must conform absolutely to the requirements of this program in every way. 208 P 20. NO NAMES, SYMBOLS OR ANY OTHER identifying name or mark may appear upon the drawings, nor upon the wrapper in which designs are delivered, nor upon the outside of the sealed en- velope below provided. No competitor directly or indirectly may reveal the identity of his design, or seek to influence in his favor any member of the jury or of the Board. P 21. THE DRAWINGS ARE TO BE IN PORT- FOLIOS securely wrapped and addressed to the Clerk of the Board of .... (city) Inside of the wrapper, attached to the outside of portfolio is to be placed an opaque envelope, sealed with wax, and addressed on the outside in typewriting to the Clerk of the Board. Inside of this sealed envelope is to be placed a card bearing the name of the author of the designs which it accompanies. The designs thus prepared and addressed, must be in the hands of the Clerk of the Board, at his address first herein given, not later than twelve o'clock noon on. . (date) P 22. DISPOSAL OF DESIGNS. All designs so delivered, will be turned over to the professional ad- viser for inspection, by himself and associates of the jury. The sealed envelopes accompanying the port- folios will be retained by the Clerk of the Board, and will not be opened until after the award has been de- termined by the jury. Any drawings which do not conform with the terms of this program will, upon recommendation of the adviser, be excluded from the competition by the Board. P 23. THE APPROVED DESIGNS will then be examined by the jury and after due consideration of 209 3 all conditions of this program, and the site on which the building is to stand, and after due comparison of all designs admitted to competition, the jury will mark each design in the order of its merit as de- termined by them, No. 1 being the design standing first in merit, No. 2 the design standing second in merit, etc. The jury will then report to the Board the rating of the designs in the order of their merit and will recommend to the Board for its choice, as the first prize design, that one which has been selected by the jury as standing first in merit. The report of the jury as to the relative merit of the designs submitted, and the recommendation as to first prize design, shall constitute the report of the jury to the Board, and a majority vote shall de- termine such recommendation and selection. P 24. THE BOARD WILL THEN CONSIDER the said report and make examination of all the de- signs with the adviser's assistance and immediately take action by selecting that design which may be in its opinion the best; will thereupon open the en- velope containing the name of the author of said de- sign, and appoint him the architect of the work des- cribed in Section 4 of this program. The Board will then open the remaining envelopes, and award the cash prizes to the architects standing next in merit as shown by the report of the jury, and no especial- ly invited paid competitors shall be eligible to these awards. All votes of the Board in this connection shall be taken and determined in the usual manner as prescribed by law. P25. THE PRIZE OF THE COMPETITION! will not be awarded to any design which calls for a| 210 volume of more than ( cu. ft.), said volume being computed within the outer face line of all out- side walls, comprising all buttresses, columns, porte- cocheres, etc., and comprising the vertical height be- tween basement floor level and the mean level of roofs. In case towers or domes are included in the design, their volume shall be computed at double the actual dimensions. P 26. PAYMENT SHALL BE MADE after the making of awards as follows: To the appointed architect ($ ) on account of his fee as archi- tect of the work, and to the remaining architects such competitive fees as may be due them. If the appointed architect be among those especially in- vited or entitled by merit to a competitive fee, such fee shall be liquidated by the above payment on ac- count. P 27. DRAWINGS SHALL BE RETURNED to the authors of unaccepted designs, and the Board Iwill make no use of any ideas or data contained in them without proper compensation to their authors. P28. THE VIOLATION BY ANY COMPETI- TOR of paragraphs 18, 19 or 20 of this program will thereby exclude him from the competition, and thi& penalty may be imposed at any time when his identity becomes known. P 29. IN THE EVENT OF DISAGREEMENT between the Committee and competitor, or the ap- pointed architect, at any time relating to any of the )rovisions of this program, all parties at interest lereby agree that the judgment of the professional 211 3 adviser of the Board relating to such disputed ques- tion shall be final and binding upon the parties con- cerned. SECTION (4)— THE PROBLEM. Under this head it is impossible in a program for general application to set forth conditions which will apply equally well under all conditions. ' It will therefore suffice to say that this section should in- clude the fullest and most definite statement pos- sible regarding the building to be constructed. The sections should give full information concerning the following items and all others which may be of value to competitors : (1). The amount of money which the Board have available for the construction of the building, and a statement whether said amount is fixed or variable ; (2). The number of stories the building is to contain, name each story specifically; (3). The style of architecture if any preferred by the Board; (4). The character of materials if any preferred by the Board for the exterior of the building ; (5). The statement whether or not the building is to be fireproof, or ordinary construction, also what type of construction; (6). A complete list of every room to be con- tained in the building and as nearly as possible the size required for each room (NOTE: A very con- venient way to arrive at satisfactory results in this particular is to adopt an ordinary school room 212 ; measuring 23x32 feet as a unit, and refer to all other rooms as equal to so many units or portions thereof) ; (7). A complete statement as to the method of heating and ventilating to be used in the building ; (8). Definite instructions as to the plan of ad- ministration to be followed in the building — that is, whether the study room plan, or separate class room plan is to be followed, etc. ; (9). The method of lighting if any which com- petitors will be required to observe ; Finally all other information which may be at the disposal of the Board and which will be of value to the competitors in preparing designs. SECTION (5)— APPOINTED ARCHITECT. P 40. THE ARCHITECT APPOINTED as here- in provided shall revise his competitive design until it meets the approal of the Board, and shall then promptly prepare full working drawings and specifi- cations of the work as a whole, and shall during its construction have and be in full charge and author- ity of the work. P 41. THE SAID ARCHITECT shall at his own expense make such revisions and alterations of working drawings and specifications, based upon the approved competitive design, as may be necessary to ensure the proper construction and completion of the building within the cost limit fixed by and sub- stantially as described in this program. P42. THE COMPENSATION OF THE AP- POINTED ARCHITECT shall be at the rate of six per cent upon the cost of the work committed to hip charge. Should expert engineering services be re- 213 quired by the Board the fee therefor shall be paid by the Board, but not in excess of five per cent of that portion of the work. Except as above provided, the architect shall render service and receive compen- sation in accordance with the schedule and practice of the American Institute of Architects, as shown in statement appended to this program. He shall not in any way transfer, assign or bequeath his appoint- ment or share it with any other person, without the- written consent of the Board. P43. A CLERK OF THE "WORKS shall (or shall not as desired) be employed by the architect as the work may require, said Clerk of the works to be satisfactory to the Board and worthy of a com- pensation of not less than $100.00 per month. P44 ALL DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS AND THEIR COPIES are and shall remain the property of the architect, and shall be used only as instruments of service in the construction of the building; but one copy of the revised competitive design and of each general working drawing and of the specifications shall be permanently left with the Board by the architect. This program approved this (date) The Board of Education of (City) Pres. Secy. , , Adviser, 214 THE CANONS OF ETHICS, AMERICAN INSTI- TUTE OF ARCHITECTS. The following canons of professional ethics are adopted by the American Institute of Architects as a general guide, yet the enumeration of particular duties should not be construed as a denial of the ex- istence of others equally important although not specifically mentioned. It is Unprofessional for an Architect. 1. To engage directly or indirectly in any of the building trades. 2. To guarantee an estimate or contract by bond or otherwise. 3. To accept any commission or substantial service from a contractor, or from any disinterested party other than the owner. 4. To advertise. 5. To take part in any competition the terms of which are not in harmony with the principles ap- proved by the Institute. 6. To attempt in any way, except as a duly authoried competitor, to secure work for which a competition is in progress. 7. To attempt to influence, either directly or in- directly, the award of a competition in which he is not a competitor. 8. To accept the commission to do the work for 215 which a competition has been instituted, if he has acted in an advisory capacity, either in drawing the programme or in making the award. 9. To injure falsely or maliciously, directly or in- directly, the professional reputation, prospects or business of a fellow architect. 10. To undertake a commission while the claim for compensation, or damages, or both, of an archi- tect previously employed, and whose employment has been terminated remains unsatisfied, until such claim has been referred to arbitration or issue has been joined at law, or unless the architect previous- ly employed neglects to press his claim legally. 11. To attempt to supplant a fellow architect after definite steps have been taken toward his em- ployment. 12. To compete knowingly with a fellow archi- tect for employment on the basis of professional charges. 216 SCHEDULE OF MINIMUM CHARGES. 1. The architect's professional services consist of the necessary conferences, the preparation of pre- liminary studies, working drawings, specifications, large scale and full size detail drawings, and of the general direction and supervision of the work; for which, except as hereinafter mentioned, the mini- mum charge, based upon the total cost of the work complete is six percent. 2. On residential work, on alterations to existing buildings, on monuments, furniture, decorative and cabinet work and landscape architecture, it is proper to make a higher charge than above indicated. 3. The architect is entitled to compensation for articles purchased under his direction, even though not designed by him. 4. If an operation is conducted under separate contracts rather than under a general contract, it is proper to charge a special fee in addition to the charges mentioned elsewhere in this schedule. 5. Where the architect is not otherwise retained, consultation fees for professional advice are to be paid in proportion to the importance of the questions involved and services rendered. 6. "Where heating, ventilating, mechanical, structural, electrical and sanitary problems are of such a nature as to require the services of a special- ist, the owner is to pay for such services. Chemical and mechanical tests and surveys, when required, are to be paid for by the owner. 217 7. Necessary traveling expenses are to be paid by the owner. 8. If, after a definite scheme has been approved, changes in drawings, specifications or other docu- ments are required by the owner ; or if the architect be put to extra labor or expense by the delinquency or insolvency of a contractor, the architect shall be paid for such additional services and expense. 9. Payments to the architect are due as his work progresses in the following order : Upon completion of the preliminary studies, one-fifth of the entire fee ; upon completion of specifications and general work- ing drawings (exclusive of details) two-fifths ad- ditional, the remainder being due from time to time in proportion to the amount of service rendered. Until an actual estimate is received, charges are based upon the proposed cost of the work and pay- ments received are on account of the entire fee. 10. In case of the abandonment or suspension of the work, the basis of settlement is to be as follows : For preliminary studies, a fee in accordance with the character and magnitude of the work; for pre^ liminary studies, specifications and general working drawings (exclusive of details), three fifths of the fee for complete services. 11. The supervision of an architect (as dis- tinguishd from the continuous personal superin- tendence which may be secured by the employment of a clerk-of-the-works, or superintendent of con- struction) means such inspection by the architect or his deputy, of work in studios and shops, or a build- ing or other work in process of erection, completion 218 or alteration, as he finds necessary to ascertain whether it is being executed in general conformity with his drawings and specifications or directions. He has authority to reject any part of the work which does not so conform, and to order its removal and reconstruction. He has authority to act in emergencies that may arise in the course of con- struction, to order necessary changes, and to define the intent and meaning of the drawings and specifi- cations. On operations where a clerk of the works or superintendent of construction is required, the architect shall employ such assistance at the owner's expense. 12. Drawings and specifications, as instruments of service, are the property of the architect. 219 APPENDIX. In the following pages are given details of school fittings and equipment, also numerous illustrations of sanitary fixtures, correct heating and ventilating apparatus, shower baths, etc. There are also given the floor plans and illustra- tions of the best types of present day American school buildings. It would be a pleasure to illustrate many other equally correct and successful buildings, but the scope of the present work limits us to just enough to fully illustrate present day standards. 221 WARDROBE-FITTINGS' '-v^rr**. SCALE li'-MFOOT » Moouunci to £ WARDROBE BRACKET « 1 WLWVHOOKft. 9 HOOK* etTWBJiM BRACKKTJ UM6WUA HOI-&EK BftACKETS T=ofc H|«H'*CHOeU«. T»IS.S., 9o* XI ISC t-iKIHd &RJP PAH PKSVS* BIMVIKB.T JU "DtTAlUOF CL-OTHES "POUES USED WHEM At-l_ SIDE'S OF WAW.DTU3BES AW.E UTIU'Z.EO. Boston Public Schools 222 BOSTON PUBLIC SCHOOLS •LECTURE- S' 0^ •SECTlOM< Fim. FLooM^ SECTlON.-TVl ROUGH PoPil-S ■ DfiSK A*0 CHAIR.- SE £• Pi. AN -&ELOV/- l5'-0" .WiN6oWSArR£AS.OFIlOOM' ROOM- 223 Bostoh Public schools •CHEMICAL- LABORATORY - - BOUIMG OVttS. TfcOUJH'. l''9°H'0> iSTOCK. iROon -50APSTON£.-SJNK » Pi-AN' iABOCLATORlES- HorA_Acoi : D an ml ([ j SECTION- A- B- -SECTlON.C-D. • END* Boston Public 5chool,s 226 ■PUPILS- TABLE- Bostons. ^-Public s Schools / WHTC PINE TOP Balance, of -mat: I UK \ -E wmW '5ECYfOA4. r C55ES PHYSICAL- n SEE3 4l TABLES -LIKE THIS- V '& L s *t :ffl =£ FiM- floor.' • PRONT. .EL£VAYlOAi< ELEC *0 'i OoyBL&_^_j'i €ft*>TERMlNAU |[ GASTfcRMINAL, Ei.EC. ■PL.A/H. LABORATORY- 227 PU PI US -TABLE- AND • MAR.BLE-SNK- •BOTANICAL- [*/& PLATE. CLASS CROU/VD . 3 FR.ONT* AN D • ZOOLOGICAL- i 3^T >fr.ony< a-b'' 1 r I •EMO. .SECTION. LAbOPArOKy. 228 •DRAWING-ROOM- DDDD saga namn s DRAWING BOA «>£ DOCKS H£K£ SAME AS Boston Public 5cHools LJ m. • SEcncrt. CAS&FOR:DQfWING»E£ABa5' MQDBL<-ST7\ND<> •&LE.VATION- t pa bcm* pR.o/«rr« SECTION. DUDJLST^BLE- 229 COOKING-ROOM ^ FITTINGS -tfr" 1 ? . » SR39 Coc ^Minora rt». JCAWfek i»-|v»u)a. s»»»- I 1 1 < IN6 £ 1 * «RpM t iftfi*9M>» SWUfMM* I poor Boston Public Schools W:H&OW* 6K THtS »IOTT- -1 ^ « x »?,*;; Ml ?u*n of cooking R.oom 8CAl.Ef"«\rOOT 230 •MANUAL-TRMNING-ROW scale jfvir- 1F0OT Boston public vSchools wi^oowa on thv$ side bwoHiroATton * iTtpjfc. TEAX-HE.*-* KSK. t> IMOK STRATH M SIKCJt □ □ □ □ □ □ □□□.□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □.□□□ D d □ □ n □ □ □ □ □ Stock Room A(EEP.1HSID£ •z zzzzzzzzzz zzzzz z Z Z ZZ ZZ2 ^ FJUtlTH, To LiFt OUT T«E«% FIKSH7 4 T© COVSd May IN LENftTM B*6« BOAJO. DETAIL OF STOCK CASE'S 231 CITY OF B05TOK •DE^ONSTQ^riWTAbLE' PIUJNG z-8" 1 3FFt1 3jf 2*U 23 ^=-*5="«^C-" 3 O til . I > f ! « i * 5 I L«J 2.'- 9" LECTURE- DOOM- n5cal.e Tt. 232 LAVATORY- BOWLS PLAN. 5106. EJLEVAtlON' HINGES' •WATER.- CLOSET DOORS- ^r^ evear tmir.o tbwau •EJLEVAHOA1* SECTION • ^5C&L£ SHOWING* Boston ScHoois BRASS,H,NCas - 233 -SLATE -SINK a i! a* i an» iiNoa.) m j |T< -$iA« &A«C EM V»L.v.„..._. «,_,.■* < Itf /i©1t BMeKftltTO 88 RAW Vol** SINK* ■« »A»»M«IVr »iUO? SINKS' (nbassmsnt-w sc oarmiNBO wom scmbowiain S?K.ciPiCA*n©rtS* •SLATE-UUJNAb •LftAsT-rwcr i. iKo<« vawi* LfefiZK. _- J •SECTION. Boston Public Schools 234 < ssss ■ ^^^ ■=3^< kv.v\ ^ -VN - ^^^ \; FRONT ELEVATION DRAWSSi 1 FLtTEi urrsBD WITH <3.l. AMD CARRIED DO WIN TO SEWtR PLAN AT D °jl HOT WATER HERE., ij COl-D WATER AMD ftUNStn !l 6URnE« Ot-I OTHER S>tX>& _j| WATER SUPPLY PIPE.S 1 1 ^"olAMETEft. PLAN ATC IX&LEib in Chemical Laboratory 235 Q°f --~- IT l l t ■ »H n 236 d i I !t a of U e 3 J* □ !< F o 9 J u n if iiiJi 237 □ X / MM r g I \d J v aJ id Q ^ KS.SS.S.S'S.'S.S.'S^S.'S.SSVS.S.'S.'S.SS.'-sV 1 2 238 $ HO0KS SPACB-D AGT IH TW i^jc^ff. JBt-OOfZ &'X3"xJb"/ ]pAMGt.es IscBEweJa Te>F r /.oo&. COAT RACKS IN HALLS 239 CHAL.K TROUGHS 240 /1 \ Y \ ' f -JT^ \.« O &RAS.& OR COPPER LEG& OF E»CA£»t PIPE = l"-IROM PIPE SI^E. /7 1 t"-OC. ■Si FLOOR ^ SECTIOtS ELEVATION 5emch For Physical. Laboratory Drinking Fountain Porcelain Mouthpiece. Modern Drinking Fountain With Metal Top. Courtesy of Jas. B. Clow & Sons, Chicago. Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. Section of Automatic Water Closet, showing seat - control of water valve. 241 ALL PORCELAIN DRINKING FOUNTAIN Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. '■:■■ ::^i;:^ ^^^mS^mmm :■! BATTERY OF FOUR DRINKING FOUNTAINS in Iron Porcelain Enameled Basin. Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 242 GOOD TYPE OF VENTILATED SLATE URINAL Such as described on page 73. Courtesy of James B. Clow & Sons, Chicago. 243 ALL PORCELAIN VENTILATED URINAI^ Courtesy of Trenton Potteries Co. Trenton, N. J. 244 PORCELAIN URINALS IN BATTERIES Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 245 ""1 STANDARD DESIGN FOR TOILET AND STALL PARTITIONS. Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 246 VENTILATED AUTOMATIC WATER CLOSET SEAT CONTROL. Closet vents into wall as shown. Courtesy of James B. Clow & Sons, Chicago. 247 PATENTED BY JAMES B. CLOW & SONS, CHICAGO. Good arrangement of Closets and Utility Chamber to Ventilate as described on pages 70-76. 248 JUK STANDARD SCHOOL LAVATORIES Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. *£- AUTOMATIC VENTILATED CLOSET. Courtesy of The J. L. Mott Iron Works. 249 J 1;,- „ G' Tf Newark.- -Ohio First Floor Plan •Woodside. • School ■ Blps Newark.- -On Basement Floor Plan WOODSIDE SCHOOL, NEWARK, OHIO. Wilbur T. Mills, Architect. 260 261 262 263 264 o o < o I— I o hi o o o CO H H H CO T rL°oE. Pl_A^ EIGHT ROOM FIREPROOF SCHOOL BUILDING Cost $25,000.00. Probably more eight room school buildings are erected than any other type. There is almost no limit to the variety of designs employed in these buildings. Economy considered, this is one of the best plans we have ever seen. System of construction, reinforced concrete. 284 285 :[ zz nq * C l^^s Eooi tan'=:i Cla&?> Room 5eco-MD Pl°o& Pla^m EIGHT ROOM FIREPROOF SCHOOL BUILDING Cost $25,000.00. In this plan, what is known as the Chicago Plan for coat rooms is used. For description see pages 43 and 44. Heat- ing and ventilation by hot air furnaces and Plenum fan system, automatically controlled. 286 / ^SnH L: ^--^iF/ii^S f^^B .F^S~ /E^pll ■ d £ \ Ifif '' W« ! i-;£- : ■■%.■■■ • 287 289 290 -Basement' Plan - ^tuyvesant, ijKgb jj»ctoooi ~ Manhattan *» 291 "First -Floor- Pla as »> $iuyvesant*^ieh- T ichoo1 'Manhattan 292 "Second Floor Plan - - ^tuyvesant "^ieb $cbooi -Manhattan- 293 294 HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 295 FIRST FLOOR PLAN. ID'DDnDDQD lDDQ&Q'Q-nDlb inndo'DD.nn lnnnnnnnn : n Heoa«y K.6DM nnrfnnmfini DnflDDDDPI inBfl-&&DD.I tfnnnnnni i annua dpi HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 296 ': -f-, ;|| HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 297 SECOND FLOOR PLAN. □ ncmnnmn □ DQQP'HDO □ □ □ Ha a □ □ annanntiD dflddddadnddnnnatjnn a □ a $ q%5 ya 5_ftg)M a a a n rt aDDannjH'^Ba««atinndad d; □ noannfinanhnDnnnna 11 - 1 ■ naaauautmnntinabana aDannnnnnndnndaanti naannna fd nan and 4J fiiW& ( laannana 3* HIGH SCHOOL AT GOSHEN, N. Y. Squires & Wynkoop, Architects, New York. 298 299 _n_n_Ji 300 High School, Battle Creek, Mich. Wilbur T. Mills, Architect Columbus, Ohio. 301 302 303 *— * I ■ IN" irTT i— I * * mmmmmmmmmmm * I : ' ■ J > . ; 3 ill i f,J— . :.. 1 J MAIN FLOOR PLAN. PRIZE DESIGN FOR PITTSBURG HIGH SCHOOL. Rutan & Russell, Architects, Pittsburg, Pa. 304 305 ... Ml i[p i iriTTin * J-- J tilt «ffr^r=iiili m A (BiiiiBisaat A l S f— Timisat * mm |i" 1 H »• •* 1—1-4 t— * 1 . 1 ; ._ j j j m ll p §> * & J * u ;- 1 »>■■*' ■■< J ^ * It=3 ^ -rl r si 1 * * ? i? 11 i:.v.-:.;.; *• ..;. I I * — .[ H in* . . *-.- r . ¥ .~a ,, — jg ' i Mg i ».-; &» * ««'Jh.** # «*■--« r— r- ! i 1 S | f| l""'IW HUW( 11 1 s , j 3 fr ' i °! * • ! i E ! 1 1 - "1 ^44 Ml j S" , 1 i •'-■' : i l »**;».* a» * *, * * mm iutJ ...? LLf ffffl 4 $ • : ' , i ■ . ■ 1 • . : 1(11,1 ■■■'■ '"" " m "** , . m , f'-:' ' ^ ™:,._ . . -: ■ .. 1 THIRD FLOOR PLAN. PRIZE DESIGN FOR PITTSBURG HIGH SCHOOL. Rutan & Russell, Architects, Pittsburg, Pa. 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 305 Ip 1 II, : * ; > — £ 1 MM - ■ « » — 4. M\*\ *pavav'I 1- <■- n * , ^ ,i «"; il ». — .-* .Jfc...JH-.. j— J. - lilt •i* * *«•*•»« »-*ji f ■ * i * ml 1" "" **S THIRD FLOOR PLAN. PRIZE DESIGN FOR PITTSBURG HIGH SCHOOL. Rutan & Russell, Architects, Pittsburg, Pa. 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Man Who Knows 7 CHAPTER II. Selecting an Architect 15 CHAPTER III. The School Room ; 26 CHAPTER IV. The School Building 34 CHAPTER V. Special Rooms 47 CHAPTER VI. Sanitation \ . . . . 67 CHAPTER VII. Fireproofing and Panic Proofing V.. 79 CHAPTER VIII. Heating of School Buildings \. 89 CHAPTER IX. Ventilation — General Principles \ 95 CHAPTER X. \ Systems of Ventilation \ 101 CHAPTER XL School Laws of States 115 CHAPTER XII. Code of Boston School House Commission 165 CHAPTER XIII. Competition Program 20h CHAPTER XIV. Canons of Ethics, American Institute of Architects 215 CHAPTER XV. Schedule. of Fees, American Institute of Architects. 217 APPENDIX. Plates of Details of Equipment, Photographic Details, Perspectives and Plans of Buildings .221-312 313 GENERAL INDEX, A Abraham Lincoln School, Boston — Basement Plan 2 56 Perspective View 257 First Floor Plan 258 Air- Composition 96-97 Direction of 96-97 Humidity 105, 111 Quantity Per Pupil . 107 Velocity 108 Vitiation 96 Washing and Filtering 112 Air Inlets, Size and Location 98, 110 Air Outlets, Size and Location . 98, 110 Apparatus Rooms 47 Arched Windows, Undesirable 29 Architects, Importance of Skilled 7 Code of Ethics 215 How to Select 15 Schedule of Fees 217 Architectural Competitions 18-20 Program for 203 Assembly Halls, Character of 47 Astronomical Laboratory 47, 61 Atmospheric Conditions, Influence Ventilation.. . 104 Automatic Control, Heating and Ventilating 109 Automatic Flushing Water Closets 71, 241, 247, 249 B Balance Room 49 Base Boards and Mouldings 42 Basements — Use of 36 Waterproofing 36 Baths 75, 250 Battle Creek High School- Perspective 299 314 INDEX-Continued. Sub Basement Plan 300 Basement Plan 301 First Floor Plan 302 Second Floor Plan 303 Beauty in School Building 34 Bicycle Room 50 Biological Laboratory 49 Biological Laboratory, Table Details 238 Bishop Cheverus School Building — Perspective View 261 Basement Plan 262 First Floor Plan 263 Blackboards, Material and Dimensions 31 Moulding and Trough Details 240 Bluefield, W. Va., High School- First Floor Plan , 274 Perspective View , 275 Second Floor Plan 276 Board Room 50 Boiler Room 50 Boston — Complete School Code 165 Boston — Equipment Details 222-234 Botanical Laboratory 4 See Biological 49 Botanical Laboratory, Equipment 228,238 Briggs, Warren R., Air Experiments ... 100 Building — Attic 37 Construction 34 Corridors 39 Entrances and Exits 38 Floors 41 General Character 34-36 Number of Stories 37 Position 35 Roofs 37 Site 34 Stairways 39 Building Laws of States 115 Business Department 51 315 A INDEX- Continued. c Canons of Ethics, Am. Inst. Architects........... 215 Ceilings — Height, Finish and Color. 26 Chalk Trough Details 241 Cheap Architects 12, 13 Chemistry Rooms 51 Chemistry Laboratory, Details 224-226, 235 Clark School Building, St. Louis — Floor Plan 254 9.KZ Perspective View D<> Class Rooms, Description and Dimensions 28-27,63 Plan for Forty Pupils . 27 Plan for Forty-Eight Pupils 27 Lighting of 26-30 Clerk's Office 52 Coal Room 52 Coat Racks, Detail 239 Coat Rooms i General Description, 42-52 Arrangement of 42-45 Equipment Details 222 Plans of 44 Size of 43 Code of Boston 165 Code of Ethics .... 215 Code of Ohio 141 Commercial Rooms 51, 52 Competitions, Advantages and Disadvantages 17,18 Expense of 23 Program for 203 Composition of Air 96 Connecticut School Law 116 Conservatory 52 Conveniences in School Rooms 32 Cooking Rooms 54, 230 Cooking Room Details 230 Corridors, General Character 39 Doors of 38 Lighting of 39 Width of 39 316 INDEX-Continued, D Danger in Poorly Designed Buildings 80,84 Dark Rooms 53 Demonstration Tables, Details 232,236,237 Dining Rooms 53 Direct Heating 89, 90 Direct-Indirect Heating 93 Director's Rooms 53 Domestic Economy Rooms 54 Domestic Economy 54 Domestic Art 54 Doors 32 Drainage 68 Drawing Rooms 54 Drawing Rooms, Details 229 Dressing Rooms 35, 73, 250 Drinking Fountains 75, 241-2 Ducts — Heat and Vent, Size and Location 98-99 E Eight Room Model Fireproof School Building — First Floor Plan 284 Perspective View 285 Second Floor Plan 286 Emergency Rooms, See Hospital 63 Emergency Stairs 85 Engine Room 55 Entrances 38-39 Equipment Details 222-252 Erasmus Hall High School, New York 294 Ethics, Code Amer. Inst. Architects 215 Exhaust Ventilation 106 Exits 38, 86 Expert Service, Necessity 7-14 Extinguishers 84 317 INDEX-Continued. F Fan Room 56 Fan System, Heating and Ventilating— View of Apparatus 252, 253 Fees of Architects, Schedule 217 Filtering Air for Ventilation 112 Fire Extinguishers 84 Fireproofing, Importance and Cost 79 Fireproof School Buildings 79-82 Fire, Protection Against 83 Five Room School, Model Fireproof. 282 Floors, Materials and Design — Attic 41 Cove Moulding at Base 41, 42 Sound Proofing 42 Toilet Rooms 77 Foundations 36 Furnaces, Heating by 90-91 Furnace Room 56 G Graeme Stewart School, Chicago — Basement Plan 264 Perspective View 265 First Floor Plan 266 Gravity System of Heating 91 Gravity System of Ventilation 102-103 Goshen, N. Y., High School- Basement Plan „ „ 295 First Floor Plan 296 Perspective View 297 Second Floor Plan 298 Grounds — Location, Size, Drainage, etc 34-35 Gymnasium 56 Equipment 192 Running Track 57 318 INDEX- Continued. H Hand Rails 40, 41 Hardware 87, 88 Heating 90 Direct 89 Direct-Indirect 93 Fan System 104, 106 Hot Air 89 Indirect ' . . 92 By Rotation 109 Heating Coils — View of Apparatus ........ 253 Heating Devices 90-91 Heating and Ventilating, Edward Wyman School at St. Louis 251 Height of School Rooms 26 Hose for Fire Protection 83 Hospital or Rest Room 63 Hot Air Furnaces 90-91 Humidity of Air 105, 111 I Indirect Heating 92 Inlets, Hot Air — Location and Size 98-99 J Janitor's Room 58 K Kansas School Law 118 Kindergarten Room 58 Kitchen 58 L Laboratories 49, 51, 62, 224 Laboratory Equipment Details 224-238 Landings 39j 40 Lane Technical High School, Chicago 277-279 319 INDEX-ContinuecL .Latrines 71 Lavatories 74, 249 Laws of States 115 Lecture Room, High School; Plan of 223 Length of School Rooms 26, 27 Library 59 Light- Direction 28 Importance 27-28 Quantity 28 Lockers 59 Lunch Rooms 60 M Manual Training Rooms 60 Manual Training, Details 231 Maple Flooring 41 Massachusetts School Law 121 Mather School, Dorchester, Mass. — Perspective View 287 First Floor Plan 288 Second Floor Plan 289 Mechanical Ventilation 104 Minnesota School Law 124 Morris High School, New York — Perspective View 267 First Floor Plan 268 Second Floor 269 Museum 61 Music Room 61 N New Hampshire School Law 125 New Jersey School Law 126 New York School Law 129 North Dakota School Law 132 Number of Pupils per Class Room 26-27 320 IXDEX-Continued. o Observatory 47,61 Ohio, New State Code 141 Oil Colors for Walls 31 Organic Matter in Air 97 Ornament Undesirable 34 Outlets, Vent, etc 98 P Painting — Inside Walls 31 Panic — Proofing 84 Pennsylvania School Law 133 Physics Laboratory 62 Physics Laboratory — Equipment Details 227 Plan of School Rooms 27 Plastering — Smooth Finish 42 Platforms for Teachers 33 Playgrounds 35 Play Rooms 62 Plenum Fan System 106, 107 Plumbing 69 Plumbing, Details and Fixtures... 70, 233, 234, 241 to 250 Principal's Office 63 Principles of Ventilation 95 Program of Competitions 203 Pittsburg High School — Main Floor Plan 304 Front Elevation 305 Third Floor Plan 306 Pupils, Number per Class Room 26, 27 Pupils' Table for Laboratories 227-230, 235, 23S, 241 R Recitation Rooms 63 Rest Rooms, See Hospitals .... 63 Risers in Stairs, Fleight 39, 40 Roofs 37, 82 321 IXDEX-Continucd. S Sanitation .... 57 School Rooms 26 Arrangement of Desks 27 Color Walls 31 Cubic Feet per Pupil 26 Dimensions 26-27 Direction of Light 28 Lighting 26-27 Openings for Flues 110 Walls, Finish and Color 31, 42 Windows, Size and Design 26 Window Shades 31 School Building Codes — City of Boston 165 Ohio Code 141 Schedule of Fees, Amer. Inst. Architects 217 School Building Laws of States 115 Science Lecture Room 64 Science Lecture Room — Equipment 223, 232, 237 Sewerage and Drainage 68 Sewing Rooms 54 Shops — (Manual Training) . 60 Shower Baths 250 Shower Bath Stalls . 250 Site for School Building 34 Six Room Model Fireproof School Building 282 Sixteen Room Model Fireproof School Building — Basement Plan 270 First Floor Plan 272 Perspective View 271 Second Floor Plan 273 Slate for Blackboards and Partitions 31, ?33, 246 Soldan High School, St. Louis — Perspective Views 307, 312 Basement Plan 308 First Floor Plan 309 Second Floor Plan 310 Third Floor Plan 311 322 INDEX- Continued. Sound Proofing Floors .... 42 South Dakota School Law .... 134 Specialist — Necessity For 11 Special Rooms 47 Sprinkler System 83 St. Marys (R. C.) School, Marion, O 283 Stage 64 Stairways — General Design 39-41, 86 Model Plan For 40 Rails 85, 87 Risers and Treads 41 Width 40 Lighting of 39 Stall Partitions for Toilets, etc .283, 246 Stand Pipes for Fire Hose 83 State School Laws 115 Study Rooms .... 64 Stuyvesant High School, New York 291-293 Superintendent's Office 64 T Teachers' Rooms 63, 171 Teachers' Toilets 76, 171 Teachers' Platforms 33 Temperature, Automatic Control 109 Tempering Coils . 106, 107 Tempering Coils — View of Apparatus 253 Ten Room Model Fireproof School Building 280-281 Toilet Rooms, Location and Design 65, 76 Toilet Room Ventilation 76 Transoms Objectionable 29 Treads of Stairs 39, 40 U Urinals 73, 234, 243, 244, 245 Urinals, Number per male pupil 74 Utah School Law 134 Utility Chamber 72, 248 323 INDEX-Continued. V Vacuum Cleaning .- 78 Vault ..:;... 65 Velocity of Air in School Rooms 108 Vent Ducts — Location and Size 110-111 Ventilation — General Principles 05 Ventilation — Natural Methods . 102 Ventilation — Systems of 101 Gravity System 102-3 Fan System 104 Quantity of Ventilation 108 Automatic Control 109 Ventilation of Toilets and Closets.. 75,76,247-249 Vermont School Law 137 Vestibules 38-39 Virginia School Law 139 W Wainscoting 42 Walls, Decoration 30 Walls, Plastered Smooth 30, 31, 67 Wardrobes, or Coat Rooms 42-44 Wardrobe Fittings, Details 222 Washing Air 112 Water, Drinking Fountains 75, 241, 242 Water Closets 71, 247 Number per Male Pupil 71 Number per Female Pupil 71 Ventilated Automatic Closets 247-249 Water Closet Stalls 70, 75, 233, 246 Width of School Rooms 26-27 Winding Steps Objectionable 39 Windows — Arrangement and Design 2S-30 Glass Surface Kind of Glass 27 Height above Floor of Sills 27-28-29 In Halls 39 Mullions 28 Position in School Room 28-30 Direction of Light 28 Window Shades 31 Woodside School, Newark, O. — Perspective View 259 Floor Plans 260 324