Practical 
 
 School 
 Problems 
 
 jMarcb 
 1902 
 
Practical School Problems 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 JOSEPH S. TAYLOR, Pd.D. 
 
 Principal Public School ig, Manhattan Borough, New York City 
 
 Vol. L, Part i. 
 
 y^ PUBLISHED BY THE 
 
 Society for the Study of Practical School Problems 
 
 New York, March, 1902 
 
THE Ltl»l»A«Y #r 
 
 Two OopiM Receive* 
 
 APR. 22' >y^2 
 
 CorYHi««r enTH* 
 CLASS O^XXa N;.. 
 
 COPY a 
 
 .T7 
 
 Copyright, 1902, by 
 THE SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The papers published in the following pages all deal with the 
 problem of English in the elementary school. Dr. Maxwell's 
 masterly treatment of several phases of composition writing has 
 already stimulated to better methods the hundreds of principals and 
 teachers who heard its oral delivery before the Society for the Study 
 of Practical School Problems. Its publication herewith is destined 
 to influence for good every school within the borders of the Greater 
 City and, we trust, many schools outside those limits. 
 
 Superintendent Meleney's exposition of the English in our 
 Course of Study will be welcomed by every progressive principal 
 in the city of New York. 
 
 Miss Arnold is an acknowledged authority on English-teaching. 
 The contents of her paper were delivered as an extemporaneous 
 lecture before the Society, and are here printed from stenographic 
 notes made by our Recording Secretary. The reader will be par- 
 ticularly interested in Miss Arnold's insistence upon oral drill as a 
 necessary preparation for written work. Equally valuable is her 
 suggestion that only the more flagrant errors of form be corrected 
 in each class, and that these be selected from conversations and com- 
 positions, rather than from books. 
 
 The outline on Grammar has been in use in Public School 19 
 (Manhattan) for three years, and in a limited number of other 
 schools for the same time. It has not hitherto been available, 
 although many teachers and principals have applied for copies. At 
 their request the Society is reprinting the paper in the present form. 
 
 J. S. T. 
 
 Public School 19, 344 East Fourteenth Street, 
 New York, February 15, 1902. 
 
OFFICERS 
 
 President, John Dwyer. 
 
 First Vice-President, Hannah W. DeMilt. 
 
 Second Vice-President, Mary A. Magovern. 
 
 Recording Secretary, I. Edwin Goldwasser. 
 
 Corresponding Secretary, Edward D. Stryker. 
 
 Treasurer, Joseph S. Taylor. 
 
 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 
 
 The Six Officers, ex officio. 
 
 Edwin A. Daniels. 
 
 William F. O'Callaghan. 
 
 Edward W. Stitt. 
 
 Mary R. Davis. 
 
 William C. Hess. 
 
 George H. Chatfield. 
 
 Josephine E. Rogers. 
 
 Thomas J. Boyle. 
 
 Elijah D. Clark. 
 
 MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE 
 
 Joseph S. Taylor. 
 
 Mary A. Magovern. 
 
 John P. Conroy. 
 
 James M. Kieran. 
 
 Alida S. Williams. 
 
 Martha Adler. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Composition 9 
 
 William H. Maxwell, Ph.D., 
 Superintendent of Schools, New York City. 
 
 Language-Teaching 17 
 
 Clarence E. Meleney, 
 District Superintendent of Schools, Manhattan Borough. 
 
 The Various Phases of Language-Teaching . • S^ 
 Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston. 
 
 Analysis of Course in Sentence-Study and GraM" 
 
 mar for Graded Schools 61 
 
 Joseph S. Taylor, Pd.D., 
 
 Principal P. S. 19, Manhattan Borough. 
 
COMPOSITION* 
 
 By William H. Maxwell, Ph.D., 
 
 Superintendent of Schools, Ne-w York City 
 
 The discussion is concerned chiefly with two points : 
 
 {a) The use of models in the seventh and eighth years; 
 
 {b) The correction of children's compositions. 
 
 But, by way of introduction to these main topics, it is necessary 
 to run over very briefly the kind of work to be done during the first 
 six years. 
 
 L ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 Oral composition is the natural beginning of the subject. This 
 may take the following forms: 
 
 {a) All answers to questions in the class room should be required 
 
 in complete statements. If the question is, "How many are five 
 
 and three ? " do not take "eight" for an answer, but insist on, 
 
 "Five and three are eight." If the question is, "What is the 
 
 capital of New York ? " the answer must be, "The capital of 
 
 New York is Albany." The use of a complete sentence as the 
 
 * The following is an abstract written by the Editor from long-hand notes 
 
 taken by himself during the delivery of Dr. Maxwell's address. Our Recording 
 
 Secretary took stenographic notes of it, from which he has written a complete 
 
 report. This has been for some time in the Superintendent's hands for revision, 
 
 but, owing to the enormous pressure of work incident to the inauguration of the 
 
 new Educational Charter, he has been unable to undertake this editorial work. 
 
 In order that the publication of the pamphlet may be no longer delayed, the Editor 
 
 has assumed the responsibility of publishing this authorized abstract. In the 
 
 next issue of " Practical School Problems" we hope to print the complete address, 
 
 properly revised by the author. 
 
 J. S. T. 
 
lo PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 expression of a thought should be taught from the first day of school. 
 In our adult life we properly abbreviate sentences to save time and 
 effort; but in language training the case is different. Here w^e 
 must insist upon the complete form so that the pupil may have it 
 thoroughly impressed upon his mind. Moreover, English is to many 
 of our children a foreign language, and every good teacher of a 
 foreign language insists upon complete statements. 
 
 {b) Another subject for oral composition is the contents of the 
 reading lesson. 
 
 (c) A third form is the telling or reading of fairy tales and 
 stories. The gift of story telling is one of priceless value to a 
 teacher. Children should be trained to give back such stories in 
 an abridged form (abstract). 
 
 (d^ Another valuable exercise is the description of processes in 
 arithmetic and manual training. Such descriptions should be brief 
 and informal, and must not in any case be allowed to degenerate 
 into formulas committed to memory; for when this is the case, 
 children are no longer composing, but reciting parrot-fashion. 
 
 {e) A very valuable exercise is found in the separation of sen- 
 tences from the grade reading into complete subjects and complete 
 predicates. We need not necessarily use these terms, but from the 
 third year upward all children should get constant practice in this 
 exercise. In this way is formed the habit of judging sentences by 
 the standard of their essential parts, and children will then be able 
 to criticise their own compositions. 
 
 (y) Another drill in oral composition is the recitation of good 
 prose and poetry. Teachers are prone to limit their selections to 
 poetry, but for the language side of these drills prose is as essential 
 as poetry. 
 
 (^) Finally, a good drill in oral composition is afforded by exer- 
 cises in explaining the meaning of words. The teacher should 
 remember that putting words into sentences is not a method of 
 
COMPOSITION 1 1 
 
 teaching the meaning of words, but a method of determining 
 whether the meaning of a word is known. (Read Bain's "Science 
 of Education.") 
 
 In all these conversations the aim must be to find easy subject- 
 matter, confined within the limit of the child's experience. Con- 
 stant watchfulness is required to keep children from falling into the 
 '*and" habit, the most dreadful malady to which young writers 
 and speakers are subject. 
 
 n. WRITTEN COMPOSITION 
 
 (a) The first and simplest form of composition is the old-fash- 
 ioned but much neglected exercise in copying out of the reader. If 
 this is done with absolute accuracy as to spelling, punctuation, 
 capitals, etc., it is good language training. 
 
 (^) Dictation. This is a test of something previously taught. 
 Hence, whatever is dictated should first have been copied or other- 
 wise studied. Never dictate an entirely new selection. The chief 
 use of this exercise is drill in mental alertness, spelling, capitals, 
 and punctuation. Be careful not to dictate too rapidly, nor yet too 
 slov/ly. If the time allowed is too long, no alertness is cultivated. 
 If the time is too short, failure and discouragement are the result. 
 
 (f) A third form of written composition is the formation of 
 sentences. The models upon which such sentences should be based 
 were formulated by the Germans. The following list is found to 
 exhaust the possibilities of construction in the simple sentence : 
 
 (i) What things do. The dog barks. 
 
 (2) What is done to a thing. The tree is shaken. 
 
 (3) Of what quality things are. The rose is red. 
 
 (4) What things are. Baseball is a game. 
 
 (5) What things do to things. The cow eats grass. 
 
 Infinite variety may be introduced, as, for instance, by changing 
 
12 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 the noun to the singular or plural; by the use of the pronoun; by 
 changing the present tense to the past, future, etc. In the sixth 
 year a good course of old-fashioned grammar should be introduced, 
 and in this the children should have a thorough drill, both of the 
 analytic and synthetic kind. 
 
 (</) The fourth form of written composition consists of stories, 
 descriptions, and narratives, based chiefly on observation. 
 
 m. THE USE OF MODELS IN SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS 
 
 The normal conditions of writing are these : 
 
 {a) The writer has something he wishes to say. 
 
 (/») He assumes that some one is interested in what he writes. 
 
 In the class room these conditions are naturally not present. 
 Hence the teacher must create them. This he can do — 
 
 {a) By limiting the composition to subjects that children know. 
 
 (^) By finding something in literature that shows how common 
 things may be made interesting by the way they are treated. 
 
 If, for instance, we take a game played by the children, they 
 see nothing particularly interesting in it for a composition. But if 
 we read some great writer's description of such a game, they are 
 intensely interested, and by skillful handling one can arouse in them 
 the feeling, "I have something to say, and some one would like to 
 hear it." This audience is the class itself, and it may be made a 
 powerful educative force in many ways. 
 
 Biography is full of examples of the value of imitation in learn- 
 ing to acquire a style. Johnson recommended the style of Addison 
 for this purpose. Franklin followed Johnson's advice. Stevenson 
 acknowledges that he employed a similar method. 
 
 (J) How to Select a Model 
 
 (a) The first requisite is that it must possess literary value. 
 Teachers should not, as a rule, undertake to manufacture models. 
 
COMPOSITION 13 
 
 (b) Each model should be in itself complete. 
 
 {c) Models should not be too long ; five hundred words should 
 be the maximum. 
 
 {d) The model should appeal directly to the child's interest 
 and knowledge. 
 
 (e) It must illustrate either exposition, description, or narration. 
 
 (2) How to Use the Model 
 
 (a) Every pupil must himself read the model. Even a black- 
 board copy is not near enough to the child. He should hold it in 
 his hand, so that he may study it at close range. 
 
 {b) By some way we must get the pupil to appreciate the merit 
 of the model. 
 
 (c) Each model is to be selected for one special characteristic. 
 This point is to be impressed upon the pupil. Not more than one 
 characteristic is to be looked for in any one specimen. Among 
 the things to look for are clearness, choice of words, and in every 
 instance the plan that was in the writer's mind (outline). 
 
 (3) How to Imitate the Model 
 
 (a) After studying the model, put it aside, and let the children 
 reproduce it (not paraphrase it) as nearly as they can. 
 
 (b) Let each write an imitation of it on a kindred subject. If 
 the model describes a man, the imitation will describe another man. 
 If the model is a fable, let the class invent a similar fable. If the 
 letter is the model, a similar one is written, or the model is an- 
 swered in the appropriate way. 
 
 Here Dr. Maxwell read from the " Hoosier Schoolboy" a 
 description of a game, and then he read a number of children's 
 compositions describing other games after the manner of the model. 
 
14 
 
 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 The study of this description resulted in the discovery that it is so 
 clear that one who never heard of the game could play it after 
 reading what the author wrote. Clearness is the excellence to be 
 imitated. The plan was discovered to include — 
 (i) An introduction. 
 
 (2) A body ; namely, the description. 
 
 (3) A conclusion ; why the game is interesting. 
 
 A Christmas letter from Phillips Brooks revealed the fact that 
 one must constantly keep in mind, when writing a letter, the 
 person to whom the letter is addressed. The children were then 
 requested to write a suitable answer to the letter, drawing upon 
 their imagination for the materials. 
 
 The fable of " The Wolf and the Lamb " was used to show 
 what the teacher can do to assist children to get the most value 
 out of a model. Point out the nature of a fable; also the moral. 
 Invent similar fables; as, "The Hen and the Worm," "The Cat 
 and the Bird." The teacher may make an imitation to assist the 
 class. A very clever one was read. 
 
 IV. PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN CORRECTING 
 COMPOSITIONS 
 
 In correcting compositions three principles are to be borne 
 in mind : 
 
 (a) Children should learn to correct their own errors. That 
 is one aim of the lesson. 
 
 {b) They are to learn to correct errors, not in a mechanical 
 way, but by using their intelligence. 
 
 (f) They are to look for one thing at a time. 
 
 Children should write often to get the necessary practice. Use 
 fifteen minutes to compose and fifteen to correct. The following 
 general plan of correcting was suggested : 
 
COMPOSITION 15 
 
 (i) First have them read for the paragraph structure. 
 
 (2) Then read again for sentence structure. Here refer to 
 the grammar; apply the test of subject and predicate; look for 
 concords — subject and predicate, pronoun and antecedent, etc. 
 
 (3) Finally examine every word for spelling. 
 
LANGUAGE- TEACHING 
 
 By Clarence E. Meleney 
 
 Associate Superintendent 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 At a meeting of the Society for the Study of Practical School 
 Problems, held in May, 1900, Associate Superintendent C. E. 
 Meleney gave an address on " The Content in Language-Teach- 
 ing." This was followed, at the succeeding meeting, by another 
 address on " Language as a Means of Expression." At this time, 
 for want of the original notes, it is impossible to reproduce those 
 papers. The subject was taken up by the Superintendent and 
 the principals of the group of schools over which he had super- 
 vision, with an outline as a basis for the practical working out of 
 a graded course in language for the schools of the group. Com- 
 mittees of principals spent several months in the formulation and 
 discussion of the proposed work in the several grades of the ele- 
 mentary schools. Each committee presented the results of its 
 study in conferences of the whole; and the reports were formu- 
 lated into a general scheme, consisting of an introduction and a 
 graded outline of suggested work in language on the expression side. 
 The object was to have in these schools a uniform graded work- 
 ing-basis for language-teaching, that each principal could use, so 
 far as the needs of his school might require. 
 
 Almost a year has elapsed since this was accomplished, and 
 
1 8 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 typewritten copies of this outline for language-teaching have been 
 in the hands of the principals. After much solicitation on the 
 part of the officers of this Society, the Superintendent and the prin- 
 cipals of the group of schools have consented to the printing of 
 a limited number of copies of the scheme, with the understanding 
 that it is not official, not authoritative, but is to be viewed only as 
 a contribution to the general discussion of the subject of Language- 
 Teaching in our schools — a subject which has occupied so much 
 of the thought and study of this Society. 
 
LANGUAGE -TEACHING 
 
 The work in language must be considered with a view to the 
 two uses of language; viz., as a means of getting information, 
 and as a means of giving information. 
 
 I. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF GETTING INFORMATION 
 
 {. Association. — Pupils must become familiar with the words 
 that stand for ideas, so that the sight or hearing of the word will 
 instantly call up the idea, and the idea will find expression in 
 words. All names of objects, actions, and qualities; all phrases 
 and sentences expressing relations, facts, conditions, etc., must be 
 taught in connection with the objects, actions, etc. At first all 
 these must be objective — present to the senses, perceptive. The 
 second set of ideas must be apperceptive; that is, readily under- 
 stood by reference to known ideas. 
 
 In the first-year grades the following analysis might be ob- 
 served : 
 
 Words, phrases, and sentences representing objects, and rela- 
 tions of place, time, manner, and cause, observed through — 
 
 {a) The eye. Also qualities of color, size, and material. 
 {b) The ear; as sounds, tones, and movements. 
 {c) The touch; as hardness and roughness. 
 Later ideas derived from — 
 
 {d ) The senses of taste and smell. 
 All these ideas are to be perceived by actual experience; and 
 
20 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 the words, phrases, and sentences should be taught at the time of 
 such experience. Comparison of objects, qualities, etc., should 
 also be made. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 Teachers should make a careful selection of material from the 
 child's own environment. This might be classified under (i) hu- 
 man relations, and (2) natural relations. 
 
 They should then prepare a progressive course of lessons deal- 
 ing with the above studies. It is not wise to depend always upon 
 published charts and reading-books, as the subject-matter may not 
 be close to the child's life. When books are introduced, care 
 should be taken that all the new ideas contained in the lessons be 
 made conscious to the child before the words and sentences are 
 used. After words, phrases, and sentences have been properly 
 presented, and the association established, it will be necessary to 
 institute drill-work for practice in thinking and in pronunciation. 
 All words, phrases, and many short sentences should be presented 
 on teachers' charts and cards, to be placed before the class for 
 drill. Familiarity will come from oral exercises from the charts, 
 and from frequent copying by the pupils. Children should be 
 trained to recognize these forms at a glance, to hold them in the 
 mind, and to recite them without looking on the written or printed 
 form. 
 
 While this work in association is going on, children should 
 commit to memory rhymes and poems. The main object of this 
 is to supply words that the children will love to say over and over 
 again for the pleasure of the rhythm ; and they will thus acquire 
 facility in correct pronunciation. It is not necessary here to make 
 this association. The thousands of foreign-speaking children need 
 this to aid them in mastering English sounds and words. Some 
 verses of this kind should be written on charts or on the board, 
 after the first few months of school, for practice in making the 
 association between the oral and the written expression. 
 
 2. Memory. — The memory is strengthened by exercises simi- 
 lar to those above mentioned, by reproducing orally the words, the 
 phrases and rhymes, and by frequent copying. Teachers will ask 
 questions about facts and stories told and read. Exercises in 
 repeating whole sentences from the reading-lesson, after silent 
 study of the same, should be given constantly. 
 
LANG UAGE- TEACHING 2 1 
 
 3* Imagination* — This power must be cultivated by — 
 
 {a) Stories and fables treating of persons, places, things, 
 and events that come within the range of the 
 child's experience; of home life; of good con- 
 duct; of happy relations with society and life. 
 The selection should be made from the best authors 
 and with great care. 
 {b) Reference to best authors; as. Miss Poulsson's " In 
 the Child's World," Miss Badlam's "Lan- 
 guage and Reading," Hans Christian Andersen's 
 " Stories," yEsop's " Fables," etc. 
 4. Ear-Training. — After a good beginning has been made in 
 teaching the children to get simple ideas and stories, attention 
 should be directed to cultivating correct hearing. Teachers should 
 pronounce clearly and deliberately each word, phrase, sentence, 
 and the elementary sounds of words. The charts above referred 
 to may be used for these exercises. Teachers should read with 
 deliberation and good natural expression, but be careful not to 
 indulge in dramatic or overdrawn inflection or artificial voice-tones. 
 Acute and accurate ear-perception is essential to correct speech. 
 Criticism of incorrect pronunciation should be avoided. Children 
 will learn better by imitation of correct models; and teachers 
 should be careful always to use pure and correct English. The 
 exercises under this division of the work are — 
 
 (a) Pronouncing clearly and slowly words, phrases, and 
 
 short sentences, followed by individual and class 
 drill. 
 
 (b) Careful phrasing of sentences. 
 {c) Natural tone and inflection. 
 {d^ Simple questions and answers, 
 (e) Colloquial expressions. 
 (/")Easy conversation. 
 
22 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 {A Model reading by teacher. 
 
 {h) Recitation of rhymes and poetry. 
 
 It) Reading of stories by the teacher for the purpose of 
 
 giving information and of affording pleasure. 
 5. Eye-Training. — Children should be trained to — 
 
 (a) Recognize instantly words, phrases, and sentences 
 
 from board, charts, cards, and books. Words, in 
 
 columns, should be arranged in subject-groups and 
 
 in phonetic-groups. 
 {f) Read silently whole sentences, 
 (r) See the syllables and letters of a word quickly, so as 
 
 to write the word as a whole. 
 
 n. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF GIVING INFORMATION 
 
 X* Spoken Language* — Correct oral speech is more important 
 than written language as a means of conveying thought, because — 
 (a) It is more generally employed. 
 (^) It prepares for written expression. 
 The first object to be attained is fluency, with readiness and 
 willingness to speak. 
 
 The second object is the correct form of words and sentences. 
 The exercises employed for the development of correct speech 
 
 are- 
 
 (a) Those used in connection with ear and eye training, 
 above mentioned, to cultivate correct articulation. 
 
 (h) Speaking in sentences the thoughts derived from hear- 
 ing, seeing, feeling, and imagination. 
 
 (c) Repeating fluently and naturally sentences from a 
 reading-lesson. 
 
 (^) Telling the facts of a paragraph or story. 
 
 (e) Reciting from memory poetry or prose. 
 
 (y) Conversation. 
 
LANG VAGE- TEACHING 23 
 
 2. Written Langfuage. — The ends to be kept in view are — 
 
 (a) Readiness in writing, willingness to write, and enjoy- 
 
 ment of writing. 
 
 (b) Correctness of form, including correct spelling; cor- 
 
 rectness of phrase and sentence forms in all par- 
 ticulars; and legibility of penmanship. 
 The exercises to be employed are — 
 
 (a) Copying (eye and hand training) words, phrases, 
 and sentences from board, charts, cards, and 
 books (copy-books or readers). This should begin 
 when the teacher writes the first word on the 
 board, and should continue throughout the pri- 
 mary grades and as long as new forms are taught. 
 From the first, children should use the blackboard, 
 and write with the arm movement, in large, plain 
 forms. 
 
 (b\ Dictation (ear, thought, and hand training) of words, 
 phrases, and sentences which have been written 
 previously, during study. 
 
 Method 
 
 After preparation by study and copying — 
 
 1. Teacher should read the words, phrase, or sentence as a 
 unit. 
 
 2. Children should repeat mentally. 
 
 3. Pupils should write. 
 
 The unit should be read but once or twice by the teacher. 
 Dictation exercises may begin during the second-year grade (2a), 
 and should be given daily throughout the elementary course. 
 
 {c) Writing from Memory (thought and hand training) 
 words, phrases, and sentences in the words of the 
 author. 
 
24 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 Method 
 
 Pupils should — 
 
 1. Read the selections, and commit them to memory. 
 
 2. Repeat mentally. 
 
 3. Write. 
 
 These exercises should be commenced in the second year, and 
 continue throughout the course. 
 
 Sugfgfestions 
 
 Dictation and memory exercises should be short and interest- 
 ing, and should be done quickly and neatly. Children should be 
 taught to correct their own errors, and to rewrite, if necessary. 
 Few of the exercises should be preserved. The end is accom- 
 plished when the work is well done. Whole sets may be kept for 
 the purpose of enabling the pupils to note their own progress from 
 month to month. Teachers should make more comments on good 
 work than on errors to be criticised. All new words and gram- 
 matical forms should be taught by copying, and tested by dictation 
 and memory writing. 
 
 (d\ Writing from Outline^ composition, in language of 
 the pupils or authors, the substance of the sen- 
 tence, the paragraph, and, in higher grades, the 
 story. 
 
 Method 
 
 1. Teacher should read or narrate, or pupils should read silently 
 or orally. 
 
 2. Teacher and class should agree upon points to be written 
 on board. 
 
 3. Pupils should compose a sentence on each point mentally. 
 
 4. Pupils should write in complete sentences. 
 
 5. Some pupils should read their sentences. 
 
 6. Suggestions and comments should be made by pupils and 
 teacher. 
 
 7. Pupils should correct errors. 
 
LANG UAGE- TEACHING 25 
 
 Sugfgestions 
 
 The subject-matter should be interesting, thoroughly under- 
 stood, and written under the impulse aroused by interest when fresh 
 in the mind. It is not supposed that all errors in a given exercise 
 should be corrected. Pupils should be encouraged to improve any 
 exercise. The teacher should give praise rather for the thought 
 expressed and the naturalness and spirit of the expression than for 
 the form. This work may begin in the third year, and should be 
 continued throughout the course. The basis may be a reading- 
 lesson, a fable or story, a picture, natural objects, or the child's 
 experience. 
 
 (e) Original Compositions. The nature of these may be as 
 follows : 
 
 (i) Narrative^ based upon events of a story, cir- 
 cumstances in a person's life, or circum- 
 stances of a child's experience. The 
 proper sequence of events should be ob- 
 served. 
 
 (2) Descriptive^ based upon study of objects in 
 
 nature; of objects in a city, as buildings 
 or works of construction ; of actions ; or 
 of processes. Comparison of qualities or 
 characteristics may be made. 
 
 (3) Imaginative^ either narrative or descriptive. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 The subject-matter of all compositions should be selected from 
 the child's knowledge, preferably from subjects in the course of 
 study. The aim should be to use well-known facts and to help fix 
 those facts by giving expression to them. The compositions 
 should be short, and should be written when the subject is fresh in 
 the mind. The writing of compositions should be begun by the 
 third year, and should be continued throughout the course. There 
 should be very little criticising, and much appreciation of effort. 
 
26 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 The following gives the plan of work in written language by 
 grades, so far as it relates to form. 
 
 TYPES OF WRITTEN FORMS BY GRADES 
 
 Grade \a, 
 
 J. Punctuation and Capitals. — i. The period and the ques- 
 tion-mark. 2. Capitals — at the beginning of a sentence, the pro- 
 noun " I," the initial letters of persons' names. 
 
 2. Word Forms. — Words learned in the reading-lessons, singu- 
 lar and plural nouns, simple sentences. 
 
 3. Letter Forms. — Attention should be directed to those forms 
 that present difficulty when words are written. 
 
 Grade Jb 
 
 \* Punctuation and Capitals. — The same as in Grade la. 
 
 2. Word Forms. — The same as in Grade la; also personal 
 pronouns, singular and plural; forms of the verb "to be" and 
 other common verbs in agreement with singular and plural subjects ; 
 use of " a " and " an " ; possessive form of singular nouns. 
 
 3. Letter Forms. — All the small letters and such of the capitals 
 as are in common use by children of this grade. 
 
 Grade 2a 
 
 J. Punctuation and Capitals. — i. First use of comma. 2. Cap- 
 itals in days of week, in names of months, and in names of places. 
 
 2. Word Forms. — Abbreviations observed in reading-lessons, 
 as, Mr., Mrs. ; the use of prepositions in phrases. 
 
 3. Letter Forms. — All the capital letters found in lessdhs. 
 
LANGUAGE-TEJCHING 27 
 
 Grade 2b 
 
 J. Punctuation and Capitals. — i. Use of comma continued. 
 2. Capitals used in poetry. 
 
 2. Word Forms. — Irregular plurals, as, ' ' feet, " " teeth ' * ; the 
 past tense of common verbs; the use of adverbs. 
 
 3. Letter Forms* — All capital letters. 
 
 Grade 3a 
 
 Observe in the reading-lessons the technical forms mentioned 
 below. Pupils should become familiar with them, and acquire the 
 habit of using them correctly. To acquire this habit, they should 
 copy them, write them from memory and from dictation, and use 
 them in their own compositions. 
 
 J. Capitals. — At the beginning of a sentence; at the beginning 
 of each line of poetry; the pronoun "I"; initials of persons' 
 names ; initials of names of places, days of week, and months of 
 the year; the first letter of the word beginning a direct quotation. 
 
 2. Punctuation. — Period or question-mark at end of sentence, 
 period after abbreviation, quotation-marks in undivided quotations, 
 comma with quotation. 
 
 3. Abbreviations. — Mr., Mrs., title with teacher's name, street, 
 avenue, New York. 
 
 4. W^ord Forms. — Singular nouns; plurals in "s"; a few 
 common plurals, like " teeth," " feet " ; singular possessive forms; 
 verb forms in common use, as, " is, are," " was, were," " has, 
 have," in agreement with subjects. 
 
 5. Letter Forms. — All small and capital letters in common use. 
 
 6. The Sentence. — Pupils should recognize the complete sen- 
 tence, and write it as a whole. 
 
 7. The Paragraph* — Pupils should recognize paragraphs in 
 
28 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 reading-lessons ; they should observe the relation of the sentences, 
 and should write a paragraph. 
 
 8. A Letter. — Observe and study a model letter, copy it, and 
 write it from dictation and from memory. 
 
 The reading-lessons will furnish all the models of form above 
 mentioned. 
 
 Method 
 
 1. Study the model as to punctuation, spelling of words, and 
 agreement of subject and predicate (without using these technical 
 terms). 
 
 2. Memorize it by repetition orally. 
 
 3. Memorize it by copying, 
 
 4. Write it from dictation. 
 
 5. Write it from memory. 
 
 6. Compare it with the original, and correct any mistakes. 
 
 It is not expected that the reading-lesson is to be interrupted 
 by study of the sentences. After each reading-lesson the teacher 
 should select one or more easy sentences that illustrate one or more 
 of the forms that need to be taught. By using one, or at most 
 a few, each day, all the forms will be easily taught, and the habit 
 of using them correctly will become established. 
 
 Grade 3b 
 
 Note the items mentioned for the previous grade, 
 \* Capitals. — The same as in Grade 3a, 
 
 2. Punctuation. — The same as in Grade 3a ; the use of the 
 comma in separating parts of the sentence. 
 
 3. Abbreviations. — A.M.; P.M.; abbreviations of names of 
 months in dates. 
 
 4. Contfactions. — "I'm," "you're," as found in reading- 
 lessons. 
 
 5. Word Forms. — Plurals in " es " and " ies " ; some com- 
 mon irregular plurals as they occur in reading-lessons; also the 
 apostrophe in singular possessives and in contractions ; pronouns in 
 
LJNG UAGE- TEACHING. 29 
 
 common use ; agreement of common verbs, in singular and plural, 
 with their subjects. 
 
 6. Typical Fofms. — Paragraph, letter, and composition, to be 
 copied, and written from memory and from dictation. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 The above technical forms of written language are mentioned 
 as studies of forms which the pupils will find in reading-lessons, and 
 which they will acquire the habit of writing correctly in this grade. 
 
 A few good examples, as they occur in reading-lessons, should 
 be studied and written each day. The children should be led to 
 see why each example has been selected; that is, what it is to 
 illustrate. Some examples might be written on charts, for ready 
 reference. This study of form must not be made too exacting. 
 The most important language-work should be directed to getting 
 thought from the book by silent and oral reading, and by reproduc- 
 ing readily and fluently in speech, and occasionally in writing. 
 All written efforts of this kind should be very brief. There should 
 be very little criticism as to the technical forms, the object being 
 to induce freedom of expression. 
 
 Grade 4a 
 
 In this and the following grades simple compositions and letters 
 are to be written with the aid of outlines. 
 
 J. Informal Compositions should be written almost every day, 
 immediately following some interesting lesson on history, geog- 
 raphy, literature, or picture-study. Not more than ten minutes 
 should be allowed. The teacher should suggest the subject; but 
 the pupils should be free to write on anything that has impressed 
 them favorably. The objects should be (i) reproduction as to 
 facts; (2) proper sequence; (3) grammatical form. The method 
 should be (i) oral statement of facts in sentences; (2) comments 
 and commendation; (3) written sentences; (4) reading by individ- 
 ual pupils; (5) comments by teacher or pupil.* 
 
 * These remarks apply equally and progressively to all subsequent grades. 
 
30 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 2. The Stated Gjmposition of the Month should be short. 
 Criticisms should be directed to one class of errors at a time. 
 
 3, Technical Forms should be reviewed, and new ones taught 
 by the graded plan employed in previous grades. Tvpical exam- 
 ples of form may be found in reading-lessons. After each reading- 
 lesson, one or two good examples should be studied and copied, 
 and the pupils should be tested by dictation and memory exercises. 
 Reference to the models should be made, when errors are found in 
 compositions. 
 
 In this grade the following forms should receive careful atten- 
 tion : 
 
 J» Capitals* — Initial letter of proper names, of days of week, 
 and of names of months; first letter in quotation j first letter of line 
 of poetry. 
 
 2. Punctuation. — Period, interrogation-point, exclamation-point, 
 comma, apostrophe, quotation-marks. 
 
 3. Abbreviations. — As they occur in names, in titles, in arith- 
 metic, and in geography. 
 
 4. Contractions. — Such simple ones as occur in reading-lessons. 
 
 5. Word Forms. 
 
 (a) Spelling of singular nouns; plurals in " s," " es," 
 " ies " ; irregular plurals; as, "men," "chil- 
 dren," etc. 
 
 {j?) Spelling of personal pronouns; as, " he, him," " she, 
 her," " they, them." 
 
 (r) Common verbs (as, " run, runs," " walk, walks," 
 etc.) in agreement with their subjects. 
 
 6. The Sentence. — Pupils should acquire the idea of what a 
 sentence is, and should know when it ends, and when another may 
 begin. 
 
LANG UAGE- TEACHING 31 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 As examples are studied and copied, pupils should understand 
 what forms are being illustrated. Pupils may also learn to select 
 from the reading-lesson good illustrations of form. When errors 
 occur in compositions, the pupils making them should be referred 
 to the models, and be allowed to make their own corrections. 
 
 Grade 4b 
 
 Teachers will find, in any reading-lesson, examples of forms 
 that may be used for purposes of study, by close examination, by 
 discussion, and by copying. These may be used also for dictation 
 and for memory writing. Some such study should be made each 
 day. These forms, by the constant use of models, will become 
 strongly impressed upon the minds of the children, who will acquire 
 the habit of using them correctly in their compositions. Errors in 
 the use of these forms, in compositions, should be noticed by the 
 teachers, and the pupils should make their own corrections. 
 
 In this grade, attention should be given to the following forms: 
 
 (* Capitals* 
 
 (a) Beginning a sentence. 
 
 (b) Initial letters of names. 
 
 {c) Initial letters of all proper nouns. 
 {d) Initial letter of each line of poetry. 
 (e) In titles of composition. 
 
 2. Punctuation. 
 
 (a) Period whenever used. 
 
 (^) Interrogation-point, 
 
 {c) Comma, when separating parts of a sentence, when 
 
 used with a quotation, and when used between 
 
 words in series. 
 
 3. Abbreviations and Contractions. — Those found in reading- 
 lessons, in arithmetic, and in geography. 
 
32 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 4. Word Forms. 
 
 {a) Plurals of nouns ending in " s," *' es," and " ies " ; 
 
 common irregular plurals. 
 (^) Modifications of the personal pronouns, 
 (r) Singular possessive of nouns. 
 (^) Singular and plural of common verbs in agreement 
 
 with subject in the present tense. 
 
 5. The Sentence* — Pupils should realize the essential feature 
 of a sentence. 
 
 6* The Paragraph. — Pupils should learn the essential principle 
 of a paragraph — that there should be relation in thought between 
 the sentences of a paragraph. Each sentence should be distinct. 
 
 Grade 5a 
 
 L COMPOSITION 
 J. Narrative. 
 
 {a\ Study of model. Select a simple narrative from read- 
 ing-lesson or supplementary reader, historical or 
 biographical. Call attention to number of sub- 
 topics and paragraphs ; to the sequence of events 
 or facts stated ; to the conditions, environment, or 
 place of the story; to the characters mentioned. 
 Discuss them briefly and to the point. Write 
 headings on board. 
 
 {F) Pupils tell the story orally, following the outline. 
 
 (c) Pupils write the story in brief sentences, paragraph- 
 ing according to sub-heads. 
 
 (^) Some pupils read their compositions for comment. 
 2. Descriptive. 
 
 {a) Study of a good model of description, testing all of 
 the points by examination of the object, if possi- 
 ble. Such model may have been written by the 
 
LANG VAGE- TEACHING 
 
 3^ 
 
 teacher, after examination and discussion of the 
 object. 
 
 {b\ Study of an object, with note of points to be men- 
 tioned in the description. Write points on board. 
 
 (c) Pupils describe orally the object, following the outline 
 on board. 
 
 {d^ Pupils write the description, according to outline, in 
 short sentences, observing the paragraphing. 
 
 {e) Some pupils read their compositions for comment and 
 discussion. 
 3. Letter- Writingf. 
 
 {a) Study of a good model in reading-book, in language 
 text-book, or of one prepared by the teacher. 
 Note and discuss heading, address, salutation, sig- 
 nature, body of letter, subject-matter, sequence of 
 points mentioned. 
 
 {l>\ Pupils copy the model. 
 
 (c) Pupils write the model from memory or from dicta- 
 tion. 
 
 {d^ Pupils write original letters, after good models have 
 been successfully taught. 
 
 {e) Pupils fold letter-paper, and address envelopes. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 Any of the parts of a letter, or the address on envelope, may 
 be used as copying and dictation exercises. 
 
 n. SENTENCE-STUDY 
 I. Typical Sentences* 
 
 {ci) Study of a model sentence. Observe and discuss the 
 essential parts — the subject and predicate j discuss 
 also sentences containing an object. 
 
^4 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 (b) Pupils copy the model sentences. Observe the capi- 
 
 tals and punctuation, and note whether the sen- 
 tence is declarative or interrogative. 
 
 (c) Pupils write models from memory and from dictation. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 Occasionally select good simple models from the reading-lesson 
 for study, calling attention (i) to what the sentence is about, and 
 (2) to what is affirmed or asked. If the essential features are 
 noticed, no other parts need be mentioned. Occasionally, longer 
 or more difficult sentences may be studied to find the subject, predi- 
 cate, and object. 
 
 Select suitable models to be used for review and tests. When 
 errors in sentences occur in compositions, pupils should be referred 
 to models, and directed to correct their errors by such reference. 
 While pupils are learning to write in complete sentences, other 
 technicalities should be deferred until the appropriate time. 
 
 2. Capitals and Punctuation. — By this time, pupils should be 
 able to use capitals and simple punctuation correctly. Examina- 
 tion of dictation, memory, and composition exercises will reveal 
 prevailing errors. Such errors should call for typical models 3 for 
 example, the use of the comma, interrogation-points, etc., which 
 should be given as copy, or as memory or dictation exercises, until 
 the correct use is mastered. 
 3* Word-Study. 
 
 (a) Spelling of nouns in singular and plural ; spelling of 
 nouns in common use, especially those ending in 
 J, jr, z, shy and soft ch and y. 
 (F) Spelling of verbs in singular and plural in agreement 
 with their subjects. 
 
 (c) Spelling of possessives in singular and plural j use of 
 
 apostrophe. 
 
 (d) Spelling of proper names ; use of capitals. 
 
LANGUAGE-TEACHING 35 
 
 (e) Study of prefixes and suffixes. 
 
 (y) Study of meaning of words from their connection. 
 This study should be confined to words in com- 
 mon use. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 Teachers should call attention to good models when found in 
 reading-lessons. It would be well to keep models of all type forms 
 on charts, for ready reference when pupils are writing compositions, 
 or correcting their errors. Words studied under these heads should 
 be in sentences or phrases. 
 
 In this grade and in 5b the object should be to have the pupils 
 become so familiar with the common use of words studied, that 
 they will use them correctly. The use of synonyms and definitions 
 should be deferred to later grades. Teachers should be satisfied if 
 pupils use correctly the words and phrases of the author, and should 
 not insist on the children substituting their own words to express 
 the same idea. Choice new words and phrases should be incor- 
 porated into the conversation of teacher and pupils until the habit 
 of using them becomes established. The oral use will be acquired 
 before the written use, and in greater measure; but the written use 
 should also be encouraged. 
 
 Teachers should note prevailing colloquial errors made by the 
 pupils in speech and in writing. The correct forms of such expres- 
 sions should be written on charts, and these should be in view of 
 the pupils in the class-room, as models for correct speaking and 
 writing, until their habitual use has become established. Pupils 
 will be interested to see how soon these charts may be stored away 
 as having been mastered. 
 
 Grade 5b 
 
 The outline and suggestions given for Grade 5a may be used 
 also by teachers in Grade 5b. The work will be the same in kind. 
 Some addition to the technical forms used may be made. 
 
 I. COMPOSITION 
 
 J. Narrative. — Stories from reader and from elementary his- 
 tories; fables about animals, and others told by the teacher. The 
 selection of stories should be carefully made. 
 
36 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 2. Descriptive. — Accounts of animals; beasts, birds, fishes, etc., 
 or pictures of the same. 
 
 3. Letter- Writing;. — Personal letters, and letters relating the 
 experience of pupils. 
 
 Method 
 
 {a) Study of models in respect to form, content, and 
 
 sequence of points. 
 (h) Copy of models. 
 {/) Dictation or memory writing. 
 (d) Writing from outline, based upon models used. 
 ((?) Corrections by pupils, by reference to models and 
 
 to type forms. 
 
 n. SENTENCE-STUDY 
 
 J, Typical Sentences. — Simple sentences, declarative and inter- 
 rogative; subject; predicate; object; attribute; chief word of each 
 part; modifiers, adjective and adverb. 
 
 (a) Study of the model. Observe and discuss each part. 
 (^) Copy of model. 
 
 (c) Write from memory and from dictation. 
 (^) Write original sentences to illustrate. 
 {e) Find and discuss sentences in reading-lessons, with 
 ' reference only to the parts indicated above, and 
 for the sense rather than for the grammatical form. 
 
 2. Capitals and Punctuation. — As in previous grades. 
 
 3. Word-Study. 
 
 (d\ Spelling (as in Grade 5a); also some plurals without s ; 
 as, "men," "women," "children," "oxen,'* 
 "mice." 
 
 (b) Verbs as modified by tense; as, " run, ran," "go, 
 
 went," "jump, jumped," etc., always in sen- 
 tences, 
 (f) Possessives, singular and plural. 
 
LAI^G VAGE- TEACHING 37 
 
 (d) Personal pronouns in the nominative, objective, and 
 possessive cases; as, "I, me, my," "he, him, 
 his," etc., always in sentences. 
 
 (e\ Adjectives and corresponding adverbs, always in sen- 
 tences. 
 
 (/") Prefixes and suffixes. 
 
 Suggfestions 
 
 These word-studies are to be taken as parts of sentences, and 
 are not to be classed as parts of speech. Teachers should keep 
 models on charts, for ready reference. As these words occur very 
 often in compositions, and are more frequently misspelled than 
 other words, frequent tests of typical phrases and sentences should 
 be made. 
 
 Grade 6a 
 
 I. COMPOSITION 
 J. Subject-Matter. 
 
 (a) Biography. A typical biographical sketch should be 
 
 studied and written. 
 {b) History. 
 
 (c) Geography, descriptive of places and people studied. 
 (^) Literature. Good subjects for study and reproduc- 
 tion may be selected from reading-lessons. 
 • (e) Current events, one or more subjects of public inter- 
 est. 
 2. Letter-Writing. — Business, social, and personal letters. At- 
 tention should be given to (i) heading, (2) address, (3) salutation, 
 (4) ending, (5) body of letter, (6) folding, (7) address on en- 
 velope. 
 
 Method 
 
 {a) Study of good models. Attention in composition 
 should be given to (i) title, (2) outline, (3) para- 
 graphs. 
 
38 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 (b) Copying of models. 
 
 (f) Writing from dictation and from memory. 
 
 (d) Writing similar original composition or letter. 
 
 (e) Correction by pupils, by comparison with model. 
 
 n. LANGUAGE-FORMS 
 
 J. Sources of Language-Forms 
 
 (a) Reading-books. Models of form of paragraphs, of 
 
 sentences, of punctuation, of parts of sentences, 
 of parts of speech, of modifications of word forms, 
 may be found in daily reading-lessons. 
 
 (h) Language text-books. The language-books on the 
 supply-list for teachers' use contain all the neces- 
 sary progressive language-forms to be used. One 
 author should be followed throughout a department. 
 
 (f) Pupils' compositions. The teacher will always find 
 in the compositions written by the pupils errors 
 that will suggest the forms that need to be taught. 
 2. Forms to be Mastered. 
 
 (tf) Paragraph — the subject, the related sentences on the 
 subject. 
 
 (b) Sentences — a simple sentence, subject, predicate, ob- 
 
 ject, attribute, word-modifiers; a compound sen- 
 tence — its parts, connecting words; punctuation. 
 
 (c) Parts of speech: (i) nouns, proper and common, sin- 
 
 gular and plural, possessives; (2) verbs, singular 
 and plural, in agreement with subject; (3) adjec- 
 tives; (4) adverbs, how formed from adjectives; 
 (5) conjunctions; (6) pronouns, personal, singular 
 and plural, nominative, objective, and possessive 
 cases. 
 (</) Word-study. Same as in previous grade. 
 
LANG UJGE- TEACHING 
 
 Method 
 
 39 
 
 {a\ Study of model, examination and discussion of model 
 
 in print or on blackboard, analysis of form. 
 {h) Copy of model, 
 (f) Write from dictation. 
 
 (d) Write from memory, or compose similar forms. 
 
 (e) Use in composition; remember to write it correctly. 
 (_/*) Corrections by comparison with model. 
 
 DL MEANING AND USE OF WORDS 
 
 Words taught under the title "Meaning and Use" are not to 
 be assigned as a lesson until the pupils have become familiar, by 
 reading or study, with such words in their proper relation. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 New words should be taught from the text in which they are 
 found, or, if they occur in the instruction and are presented by the 
 teacher, they should be written on the board in phrases or in sen- 
 tences. Pupils should acquire the common use of new words, and 
 should avoid unusual meanings. Encourage the incorporation of 
 new words into daily conversation. 
 
 Grade 6b 
 I. COMPOSITION AND LETTER-WRITING 
 
 \* Subject-Matter* 
 
 {a) Events of current interest. 
 
 {b\ Impressions of books read ; characters. 
 
 (f) Interpretations of stories or poems. 
 
 (d\ Incidents and characters in the War of the Revolu- 
 tion and in the War of 1812. 
 
 {e) Subjects descriptive of geographical features related 
 to the grade. 
 
 (f) Personal experiences. 
 
40 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 Method 
 
 (a) Study of the subject-matter by reading and discus- 
 
 sion. A story or poem might be read to the class 
 by teacher or a pupil, or read silently by the class, 
 pupils making notes of points to be used in com- 
 position. Pupils should be encouraged to make 
 notes of the story or of characters in books read. 
 Subjects in history, after recitation and discussion, 
 may be used. 
 
 {If) Teacher and pupils should discuss the outlines or 
 notes presented by pupils; they should also mod- 
 ify, rearrange, etc., and agree upon class outline. 
 
 (c) Pupils should express orally, in sentences, thoughts 
 upon the outline. 
 
 (^) Pupils should write the composition or letter. 
 
 {e) Teacher and pupils should correct errors. 
 
 IL MEANING, USE, AND SPELLING OF NEW WORDS 
 
 J. Subject-Matter. 
 
 {a) Reading-lessons of the grade. 
 
 (b) Subjects in course of study. 
 
 (c) Compositions of the pupils. 
 
 Method 
 
 {d\ Study new words in the text; discuss meanings and 
 derivations; construct orally sentences showing 
 similar use; spell orally; use the dictionary. 
 Continue word-study as in previous grades, also 
 the study of prefixes and suffixes. Begin study 
 of root-stems. 
 
 (F) Write from dictation and from memory. 
 
 (c) Use in conversation and composition. 
 
 m. GRAMMAR 
 J. Subject-Matter. 
 
 (a) Typical sentences; simple and easy compound and 
 complex sentences — 
 
 I. Selected and written on blackboard. 
 
LANGUAGE-TEACHING 41 
 
 2. As found in text-book on language. 
 
 3. As found in reading-lessons. 
 
 4. As found in pupils' compositions. 
 
 (b) Parts of sentence — subject, predicate, object, attri- 
 bute, adjective modifiers, adverbial modifiers, vv^ord, 
 phrase and clause modifiers. 
 
 {c) Parts of speech — 
 
 1. Noun, as common or proper; as in nomina- 
 
 tive, possessive, or objective case. 
 
 2. Personal pronoun in nominative, possessive, 
 
 and objective case; interrogative pronoun 
 in nominative, possessive, and objective 
 case; relative pronoun. 
 
 3. Verbs, in agreement with singular and plural 
 
 subjects; in present, past, and future; as 
 active, transitive, and intransitive. 
 
 4. Adjectives, qualifying and limiting; used as 
 
 modifiers or attributes. 
 
 5. Adverbs, of manner, time, and place; their 
 
 relation to verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 
 
 6. Prepositions, as introducing phrases. 
 
 7. Conjunctions. 
 
 Method 
 
 (a) Study of typical forms; oral analysis; analysis by 
 diagrams; logical analysis of more difficult sen- 
 tences in prose and poetry, to determine the larger 
 subjects, predicates, objects, etc. 
 
 (h) Sentence-building, to illustrate typical parts; enlarge- 
 ment of sentences by addition of modifiers, etc. 
 
 (f) Tests of construction by dictation and memory 
 writing. 
 
 (<;/) Correction of compositions by reference to model 
 sentences and by analysis. 
 
42 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 Sugfgfestions 
 
 As in all grades, there should be daily exercises in dictation, 
 memory, or composition writing. Most of the work should be 
 brief and spontaneous, inspired by interest in the subject-matter. 
 The complete composition to be written weekly should aim to de- 
 velop and encourage readiness in writing and a love of expression. 
 Criticism on the formal side should be subordinated. The monthly 
 set of compositions to be criticised by the teacher should call for 
 the application of the formal language-lessons of the grade. The 
 grammar exercises should bear the brunt of the formal criticisms. 
 
 Grade 7a 
 L COMPOSITION AND LETTER-WRITING 
 
 J. Subject-Matter* 
 
 {a) Subjects of current interest in the city. 
 
 (^) Subjects from the literary reading of the grade, as 
 characters, events, descriptions. 
 
 (r) Events in lives of Americans prominent as states- 
 men, or as leaders in business life, during the 
 period covered by course of study in history; his- 
 torical subjects of importance in our national 
 history. 
 
 {d^ Subjects from the industrial and commercial geog- 
 raphy of the grade. 
 
 Method 
 
 {a) Study of the subject-matter by reading, by examina- 
 tion of illustrations, and by recitation or dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 Qf) Preparation of outlines from notes taken by pupils 
 during reading and discussion. 
 
 (c) Oral composition from outlines. 
 
 {d^ Written composition or letter from outlines. 
 
 {e) Criticism and correction. 
 
 (j") Rewriting, when necessary. 
 
LANGUAGE-TEACHING 43 
 
 n. MEANING, USE, AND SPELLING OF WORDS 
 
 t« Subject-Matter. 
 
 {a\ From reading-lessons of the grade. 
 {V) From subjects of the course of study. 
 (<:) From newspaper reports of current events. 
 {d^ From pupils' compositions. 
 
 Method 
 
 (a) Study words in the text; discuss meaning and use, 
 derivation and formation ; consult the dictionary ; 
 follow plan of word-study as in previous grades; 
 trace origin of common words to other languages, 
 as Latin and German; compare synonyms as to 
 meaning and use; compare words of similar mean- 
 ing; compare words of opposite meaning. 
 
 (h) Write from dictation and from memory. 
 
 \c) Compare sentences to illustrate. 
 
 (^) Incorporate words and phrases into conversation and 
 compositions; study figures of speech, as, simile, 
 metaphor, personification. 
 
 m. GRAMMAR 
 I. Sobject-Matter. 
 
 {a) Typical sentences; simple, compound, and com- 
 plex — 
 
 1. Written on board by teacher. 
 
 2. From language text-book. 
 
 3. From reading-lessons, prose and verse. 
 
 4. From compositions of the pupils. 
 
 (h) Parts of sentences; subjects, simple and compound; 
 predicates, simple and compound; objects, simple 
 and compound; attributes, predicate nouns and 
 adjectives; modifiers, words, phrases, clauses; 
 parts of phrases and of clauses ; relation of clauses. 
 
44 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 (f) Parts of speech — 
 
 1. Nouns, proper, common, abstract; case; 
 
 number; gender. 
 
 2. Pronouns, personal, interrogative, relative; 
 
 modifiers of gender; number; case. 
 
 3. Verbs, regular, irregular; transitive, intransi- 
 
 tive, neuter; active, passive; present, 
 past, and future tense; all modes; par- 
 ticiples. 
 
 4. Adjectives, qualifying, limiting, numeral; 
 
 modifications of degree and opposites. 
 
 5. Adverbs, of manner, place, time, degree. 
 
 6. Prepositions. 
 
 7. Conjunctions. 
 
 8. Interjections. 
 
 Method 
 
 {a) Study of typical forms; oral analysis; analysis by 
 diagrams; logical analysis of more difficult sen- 
 tences in prose and poetry, to determine the larger 
 subjects, predicates, objects, etc. 
 
 (b) Sentence-building, to illustrate typical parts ; enlarge- 
 ment of sentences by addition of modifiers, etc. 
 
 (f) Tests of construction by dictation and memory 
 writing. 
 
 {d) Correction of compositions by reference to model sen- 
 tences and by analysis. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 As in all grades, there should be daily exercises in dictation, 
 reproduction from memory, or composition writing. Most of the 
 work should be brief and spontaneous, inspired by interest in the 
 subject-matter. The complete composition to be written weekly 
 should aim to develop and encourage readiness in writing and a love 
 of expression. The monthly set of compositions to be criticised 
 
LANG UAGE- TEACHING 45 
 
 bv the" teacher should call for the application of the formaU^"" 
 auacre^essons of the grade. Criticism on the formal side should 
 be subordinated. The grammar exercises should bear the brunt ot 
 the formal criticisms. There should be daily work on progressive 
 models of form illustrating the construction of sentences and parts 
 of sentences. 
 
 Grade 7b 
 I. COMPOSITION AND LETTER-WRITING 
 
 J. Sobject-Mattef. 
 
 (a) Events pf current interest found in general news. 
 
 (b) Subjects from literary reading. 
 
 {c) Topics from history, geography, and science. 
 {d) Business correspondence. 
 
 Method 
 
 {a) Study of subject-matter, with note-taking ; discussion. 
 
 {b) Preparation of outline for narrative, descriptive, and 
 imaginative writing. 
 
 (c) Writing of brief compositions on informative sub- 
 jects, with special reference to the thought to be 
 expressed. One complete essay, at least, should 
 be written each month. 
 
 {d) Criticism and writing. 
 
 n. MEANING, USE, AND SPELLING OF WORDS 
 
 J. Subject-Matter, 
 
 {a) From reading-lessons of the grade. 
 
 (b) From subjects of the course of study. 
 
 (c) From newspaper reports of current events. 
 {d) From pupils' compositions. 
 
 {e) From text-book on language. 
 
46 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 Method 
 
 {a) Study words in the text; discuss meaning and use, 
 derivation and formation-, consult the dictionary; 
 continue word-study as in previous grades ; con- 
 struct words j trace roots of English words to other 
 languages, and make careful comparison of English 
 and foreign languages ; compare synonyms as to 
 meaning and use; compare words of similar mean- 
 ing; compare words of opposite meaning. 
 
 Oi\ Study figures of speech; as, hyperbole, apostrophe, 
 allegory, metonymy. Pupils should copy in note- 
 books or on charts, and commit to memory, good 
 examples of figures of speech, when found in lit- 
 erature. 
 
 (c) Write from dictation and from memory. 
 
 (^) Compare sentences to illustrate. 
 
 {e) Incorporate words and phrases into conversation and 
 compositions. 
 
 m. GRAMMAR 
 J. Subject-Matter. 
 
 (a) Typical sentences; simple, compound, and complex — 
 
 1. Written on board by teacher. 
 
 2. From language text-book. 
 
 3. From reading-lessons, prose and verse. 
 
 4. From compositions of the pupils. 
 
 (^) Parts of sentences; subjects, simple and compound; 
 predicates, simple and compound; objects, simple 
 and compound; attributes, predicate nouns and 
 adjectives; modifiers, words, phrases, clauses; 
 . parts of phrases and of clauses; relation of clauses; 
 phrases and clauses used as subject, object, or 
 attribute of sentence, 
 (c) Parts of speech — 
 
 I. Nouns, proper, common, abstract; case; 
 number; gender. 
 
LANG UAGE- TEACHING 
 
 47 
 
 2. Pronouns, personal, interrogative, relative; 
 
 modifiers of gender; number; case. 
 
 3. Verbs, regular, irregular; transitive, intransi- 
 
 tive, neuter; active, passive; complete 
 tenses; complete modes; participles. 
 
 4. Adjectives, qualifying, limiting, numeral; 
 
 modifications of degree and opposites. 
 
 5. Adverbs, of manner, place, time, degree. 
 
 6. Prepositions. 
 
 7. Conjunctions. 
 
 8. Interjections. 
 
 Method 
 
 {a) Study of typical forms; oral analysis; analysis by 
 diagrams; logical analysis of more difficult sen- 
 tences in prose and poetry, to determine the larger 
 subjects, predicates, objects, etc. 
 
 {b) Sentence-building, to illustrate typical parts; enlarge- 
 ment of sentences by addition of modifiers, etc. 
 
 (f) Tests of construction by dictation and memory writing. 
 
 (d) Correction of compositions by reference to model 
 sentences and by analysis. 
 
 {e) Selection of passages from literature to illustrate ap- 
 plication of rules of syntax. 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 As in all grades, there should be daily exercises in dictation, 
 reproduction from memory, or composition wanting. Most of the 
 work should be brief and spontaneous, inspired by interest in the 
 subject-matter. The complete composition to be written weekly 
 should aim to develop and encourage readiness in writing and a love of 
 expression. The monthly set of compositions to be criticised by the 
 teacher should call for the application of the formal language-lessons 
 of the grade. Criticism on the formal side should be subordinated. 
 The grammar exercises should bear the brunt of the formal criticisms. 
 There should be daily work on progressive models of form illustrat- 
 ing the construction of sentences and parts of sentences. 
 
48 
 
 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 The following scheme of study in word-building was prepared 
 by a committee of principals. 
 
 Grade 4a 
 
 Prefixes 
 re return 
 
 semi semicircle 
 
 ante antedate 
 
 dis dishonest 
 
 Suffixes 
 y honesty 
 
 er, or builder, collector 
 
 age bondage 
 
 ful truthful 
 
 Grade 4b 
 
 un unjust 
 
 ad, ac, ag, etc. adjoin, accede 
 
 con consent 
 
 inter interrupt 
 
 mis misjudge 
 
 an, ian republican 
 
 dom kingdom 
 
 ent, ant president, attendant 
 
 ly friendly 
 
 ship clerkship 
 
 Grade 5a 
 
 a, ab, abs avert, absent 
 
 sub suspend 
 
 in inaction 
 
 ex, e except, eject 
 
 trans transfer 
 
 anti antislavery 
 
 less hopeless 
 
 let ringlet 
 
 en wooden 
 
 al social 
 
 fy certify 
 
 ion protection 
 
 Grade 5b 
 
 de deduct 
 
 circum circumscribe 
 
 under underrate 
 
 pre present 
 
 pro protect 
 
 able, ible blamable, contempti- 
 ble 
 ic, ical gigantic, cubical 
 ate delegate 
 ance, ancy ignorance, constancy 
 ise, ize criticise, fertilize 
 
LANG UAGE- TEACHING 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 Grade 6a 
 
 
 
 Review of all previous grades 
 
 Prefixes 
 
 
 
 Suffixes 
 
 super 
 
 superfine 
 
 
 ery, ry 
 
 scenery, pantry 
 
 be 
 
 benumb 
 
 
 some 
 
 gladsome 
 
 bis, bi 
 
 biped 
 
 
 ness 
 
 tenderness 
 
 syn, syl, sym 
 
 synopsis, 
 
 sylla- 
 
 hood 
 
 childhood 
 
 
 ble, sympathy 
 
 
 
 Grade 6b 
 Review of previous grades with the following roots 
 
 cap, 
 
 capt, cip, cept 
 
 
 ced, 
 
 cess, 
 
 
 claud. 
 
 claus, clud 
 
 Grade 7a 
 
 
 corp. 
 
 corpo 
 
 jac, ject 
 
 diet 
 
 
 leg, lect 
 
 fact 
 
 Grade 7t> 
 
 frans, fract 
 
 met. 
 
 miss 
 
 scrib 
 
 mov. 
 
 mot 
 
 tract 
 
 rupt 
 
 
 tend, tens, or tent 
 
THE VARIOUS PHASES OF LAN- 
 GUAGE-rEACHING 
 
 By Sarah Louise Arnold 
 
 Language has a double task to perform. It enables us to ex- 
 press our own thoughts and feelings, and by its aid the thoughts 
 and feelings of others are communicated to us. Training in lan- 
 guage, therefore, involves two essential lines of work — teaching 
 pupils to express their own thoughts, and training them to interpret 
 the language of others. 
 
 There are various means and methods by which this training 
 may be accomplished. A clear recognition of the main purpose will 
 enable the teacher to secure the right proportion of the different 
 phases of study and practice which help to make up this complex 
 training. Teaching in language may be as simple and definite as 
 teaching in arithmetic, if the desired results are clearly compre- 
 hended by the teacher, and lessons are assigned with a view to 
 securing definite knowledge or special training. 
 
 In discussing the courses of study in language, we must sepa- 
 rate the two phases of the work, although in practice they can 
 never be entirely distinct. The pupil, while learning to express 
 himself more clearly, also gains in interpreting the language of 
 others ; and a careful study of the words of another reacts upon his 
 own power in the use of language. The two types of work 
 really proceed hand in hand in a well-balanced course. 
 
 Training in the expression of thought by means of language 
 
52 
 
 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 necessarily assumes several different phases. Among these may be 
 enumerated: first, getting thought to express; second, practice in 
 free oral expression for the sake of facility; third, imitating the 
 correct forms of expression in order that they may become hab- 
 itual; fourth, exercises to increase the vocabulary (i) through gain- 
 ing new ideas, and (2) through exercises which give practice in 
 expressing these ideas, and therefore bring into use the new words; 
 fifth, the development of taste through the study of pleasing and 
 appropriate types of expression. All these phases are essential to 
 proper training in oral expression. 
 
 It is obvious that the essential element in the language-lesson 
 is, that the child should have something to say. Much language- 
 teaching is fruitless because this foundation is omitted. Every 
 child comes to school with a certain outfit; he knows something, 
 little or much. He has certain interests, certain tendencies, and, 
 if he were entirely free to express himself in his own language, 
 would have some facility in telling what he knows. It is essential 
 that the teacher should know her pupils well enough to discover 
 their individual fund of knowledge, because she must build upon 
 this individual experience. 
 
 The children are already prepared to talk about that which they 
 know, but they cannot be left here; they must be led on to know 
 more and better things. Therefore, the teacher must not merely 
 know the individual experience of the children; but she must also 
 be able to estimate the knowledge which is common to the class, 
 " the average attainment," if we may use the term, so that she 
 may be able to lead the class to a new and common experience 
 which can be added to the old. For example, the children by the 
 seashore are ready to talk about the sea, but do not know of the 
 mountains. The children in the mountain district know of the 
 life of the farmer, of the woodsman, of the hunter, but are not 
 familiar with the life of the fisherman. The child in the city is 
 
THE VARIOUS PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING 53 
 
 familiar with the streets, the brick pavement, the towering build- 
 ings, the shops, the fire-alarm, the police-patrol, but has little 
 notion of trees and fields, of brooks and birds. 
 
 The child's vocabulary is that which expresses his experience; 
 it is a key to his experience. Increase and modification of the 
 vocabulary mean introduction of a new experience. Observation- 
 lessons, field-lessons, study of pictures, story-telling, conversations 
 about familiar places and things — all these disclose the child's pres- 
 ent fund of knowledge, and lead him into a wider field. He visits 
 the blacksmith's shop, and adds to his vocabulary the words which 
 express the new ideas which he has gained. A ride into the coun- 
 try ; a trip across the ferry ; a visit to the baker ; observation of the 
 canary, the English sparrow, or the dove; a lesson upon the fruits 
 or vegetables displayed in the market; the study of the picture 
 which portrays another type of life than his own — these exercises, 
 familiar in every school under the name of " object-lessons, " are 
 really the essential language-lessons. It is idle to expect the chil- 
 dren to understand the words of the reading-book, the geography, 
 or the history, which describe a foreign experience, until they have 
 been led by such steps as these into the larger world which is por- 
 trayed for them in these pages. 
 
 Similar objective teaching is also essential to the interpretation 
 of the language of another. It should not be forgotten that the 
 child interprets and understands that which, in some degree, is akin 
 to his own experience. If he has never seen snow or ice, he will 
 hardly understand the description of a glacier. If he has spent his 
 little life cooped up in a city street, and hemmed in by brick walls, 
 he will have little conception of the green meadows, the fertile 
 valleys, or the wide prairies which the poet paints, or which the 
 simpler pages of his geography describe. The art of interpretation, 
 as well as the art of expression, requires us to lead the children to 
 new knowledge through widening their experience. 
 
54 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 There is this difference, however, between the two phases of 
 the work. In one, the object appeals to the child, and presents to 
 him the new idea which demands expression. The order is, ob- 
 ject, then word. In the other, the word appears before him with 
 its mystic meaning, and the object is called into his experience in 
 order that he may understand the word. We say that we explain 
 the meaning of the word, the sentence, or the paragraph, when we 
 tell the child what it means to us. We really explain, only when 
 we introduce into his experience the unfamiliar idea for which the 
 word stands. This objective teaching is indispensable as an ele- 
 ment of language-training; and where the experience of the child 
 is limited, and the home teaching has been meagre, this element 
 must predominate in the primary language course. In order to 
 secure even the mastery of the word, the idea must be made a part 
 of the experience of the child. It is the word which is continually 
 employed which is remembered. The form that is necessarily used 
 in the expression of the child's own thought becomes his habitual 
 tool. The presentation of new thoughts and new things should 
 go hand in hand with the presentation of new words. The child 
 should not be expected to master a vocabulary, without being led 
 to the experience which necessitates the use of this vocabulary. 
 
 The essential element — the something to say — having been 
 secured, facility in expression is the next desideratum. This is 
 secured through practice under such conditions as will lead to con- 
 fidence and ease. The desire to say something should be present 
 in this exercise. The teacher's work in this phase of her teaching 
 is to provide the occasion for expression and to arouse the child's 
 desire to express his thought. These exercises may be associated 
 with the first lessons which have been described. The recital of 
 past experience, the description of an object which is present dur- 
 ing the exercise, the study of a picture, story-telling — all these 
 afford opportunity for developing ease and readiness in expression. 
 
THE VARIOUS PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING 55 
 
 It should be remembered that the exercise is for the purpose of 
 training the children in expression, and that the teacher should, 
 therefore, do as little talking as possible; the monopoly of the 
 practice being given to the child. Unfortunately the opposite ten- 
 dency is too common in our schools. As a rule, talking is mo- 
 nopolized by the teachers rather than by the children. This is fatal 
 to development of language-power from the child's side. It is the 
 one w^ho talks, not the one who listens, that gains facility in 
 expression. 
 
 While freedom in expression may be facilitated by simple con- 
 versational exercises, the practice should not be limited to mere 
 conversation. Definite and logical questions written upon the 
 board, or upon individual cards, should suggest to the child the 
 order of recitation ; and he should be required to recite or tell his 
 story without assistance from the teacher, depending mainly upon 
 the outline. The habit of complete and orderly narration and 
 description may thus be encouraged. This habit, formed in the 
 lower grades, will secure the facility which is too often lacking in 
 the "original compositions" of the grammar and high school. 
 The place for developing this power is in the oral exercises of the 
 lower grades. 
 
 The development of correct habits of speech is the third end to 
 be secured in language-teaching. Correctness in speech is secured 
 purely by imitation. The child repeats the form of expression 
 which he has been accustomed to hear. Wrong forms are fixed in 
 this way as inevitably as the right ones. The ordinary pupils in 
 our public schools have become accustomed to both right and 
 wrong fashions of speech. Here, again, the teacher must study 
 the children. She will waste no time or energy in fixing habits 
 which are already secured, or undoing those which really do not 
 exist, if, instead of consulting the pages of a text-book for incor- 
 rect expressions, she will make note of those which are habitual 
 
56 ' PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 with her pupils. Armed with this knowledge, she will direct her 
 attention to fixing the forms of speech which the children have not 
 yet mastered. There is one method, and one alone, which must 
 be followed in this training: the correct form must be set before 
 the children as a pattern, and innumerable exercises must be pro- 
 vided in which the children are obliged to repeat this form. In 
 a word, the teacher presents the pattern and occasions for practice. 
 These exercises will be effective in proportion as they are natural 
 and simple. If the child finds it necessary to use the correct form 
 in the expression of his own thought, he will readily master it. 
 If, on the other hand, this exercise is confined to text-book drill in 
 the expression of other people's thoughts, his progress will be slow 
 and difficult. Oral games which involve the repetition of a correct 
 form of speech are most effective in primary grades, and even in 
 the fourth and fifth years. A game which necessitates the repetition 
 of the correct form a hundred times over is much more effective 
 than the mechanical filling of blanks. 
 
 The ordinary errors of speech are not so manifold as is com- 
 monly supposed. They are confined to a few flagrant sins of 
 commission — failure to make the verb agree with its subject (an 
 error which is liable to occur in the third person singular of the 
 present tense and very frequently with the auxiliaries ;V, are^ and 
 were) ; mistakes in the use of the tense form of verbs (liable to 
 occur only with a few strong verbs in common use); the double 
 negative; the case form of the pronouns. Against these we must 
 make war; but the correction of the minor mistakes in English we 
 may leave until the pupil comes to the years of discretion, when 
 the study of English grammar and rhetoric is introduced. If we 
 overcome these common faults in the lower grades, we shall do 
 well; and we shall readily overcome them, if we confine our work 
 to correction of the graver faults. Point out the errors, and pre- 
 sent the correct fashion. Afford natural and simple occasions for 
 
THE VARIOm PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHINGS 57 
 
 correcting the common errors, brighten the practice with occasional 
 games, and the work is done. 
 
 The fixing of the correct form in written work must proceed on 
 the same principle and along the same lines. It presents more 
 difficulties, because spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and man- 
 agement of pen, paper, and ink — all must be remembered by the 
 child. It is wise, therefore, to secure some facility in oral expres- 
 sion before the added difficulty of writing is presented, and to 
 acquire the mastery of the customs of writing by degrees, instead 
 of imposing many tasks at once. The presentation of a correct 
 pattern, and abundant practice in copying, ought to result in good 
 written work; but the pupil's active cooperation in the work 
 should be secured first of all. Show him that it is worth while to 
 know how to write a letter; that no one can communicate his 
 thoughts to an absent friend without this power; that certain cus- 
 toms are followed in writing, for the sake of convenience; that 
 every one who writes learns to follow these customs; that a little 
 careful practice will make him master of these forms, so that he 
 need not think about them in writing any more than he thinks 
 when he lifts his hat in greeti'ng a friend. Having aroused his 
 desire to do the work, having shown him that the practice is really 
 of use to him, then secure earnest attention and accurate copying. 
 A correct pattern, accurate seeing, a perfect copy, and patient prac- 
 tice — these are the essential elements. By such means, children 
 in the first grade should master the use of the capital at the begin- 
 ning of a sentence, of the period at the end, and of the interroga- 
 tion-point. The second grade should add the use of the apostrophe 
 in contractions and perhaps in singular possessives, of capitals in 
 proper names, and the beginning of letter-writing in easy informal 
 notes. The third grade should continue the practice with capitals, 
 periods, interrogation-points, apostrophe, and simple, childlike, 
 friendly letters written in imitation of a model, and neatly ad- 
 
58 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 dressed. The use of the quotation-mark, even, in unbroken quota, 
 tions, may be introduced. In the fourth grade the use of the text- 
 book gathers together and reviews the practice of the primary 
 grades, increases letter-writing, calls for original paragraphs and 
 the writing of poems from memory, and fixes the use of the quota- 
 tion-mark. The use of the exclamation-point may be added in the 
 fifth grade, and the use of the comma in series; the study of the 
 paragraph may begin; and stories or descriptions may be written 
 from outline. 
 
 Success in the work will depend not so much upon the quantity 
 of the practice as upon its character. If the pupil's interest is 
 awakened, and the habits of painstaking, care, and attentive work 
 are developed, all will go well. 
 
 More can be gained by correcting one point at a time than by 
 covering the pupil's page with blue pencil-marks so that the orig- 
 inal form is obscured, and setting the pupil to copy corrections 
 which the teacher has made. The teacher who leads the child to 
 correct a single error by his own efFort has done more for him 
 than if she had marked and corrected a hundred mistakes herself. 
 He must participate in the work, recognize the fault, and learn to 
 apply the remedy. If we work for one thing at a time, we shall 
 secure something. We never do master twenty things at once. 
 
 The work in language thus far outlined has included the 
 thought-getting, the increase of vocabulary, the development of 
 correct habits of speech and of writing, and there is left but one 
 thing more to be presented; that is, the development of taste in 
 the choice of words and in the fashion of expression. 
 
 Having something to say, and speaking with all due reference 
 to the rules of grammar, we may yet say nothing which is pleasing 
 to our hearers. A sentence of Shakespeare's, a proverb of com- 
 mon speech, is handed down from generation to generation, simply 
 because it says something worth while and in the best possible 
 
THE VARIOVS PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING 
 
 S9 
 
 way. Our speech betrayeth us. It not only carries our message 
 to our hearers, but it tells them something of the thoughts we think 
 and the atmosphere in which we live. Culture, or the lack of it, 
 is betokened by the use of language more readily than in any other 
 way. How often our eyes have admired until our ears have heard 
 the uncouth word or the crude expression ! If it is true that the 
 teacher's work in reading is not merely to teach the child to read, 
 but to love to read good books, then it is also true that her work 
 in language should be, not merely to teach the child to speak cor- 
 rectly and to have something to say, but to express his thoughts in 
 the most fitting language and to appreciate and enjoy that which is 
 most beautiful in expression. The child who instinctively turns 
 to " Snowbound," " The Ancient Mariner," or a play of Shake- 
 speare's, if you please, instead of to the dime novel, has in his pos- 
 session a gift which the schools may well be proud to bestow. His 
 life is enriched by his love of the beautiful and the good. It is the 
 task and the privilege of the teacher of language, rather the teacher 
 of children, to lead them to love the fitting expression and the 
 beautiful thought. The development of taste in language means 
 the development of the child; for his words express him. 
 
 As an aid to such development, exercises which familiarize the 
 children with good literature should accompany the more formal 
 work in language. Good stories, fables, poems, should be read to 
 the children, and made the subject of conversation ; should be 
 recited by them; should appear again and again in reading-lesson 
 and in language-lesson, until they are able to read good books for 
 themselves. Then good books should be placed within their reach, 
 and opportunity for reading should be afforded, in order that they 
 may love good literature, and instinctively choose it, by the time 
 they are left to independent choice. The atmosphere of good 
 books should be about them. The stories which are the heritage 
 of the world should be shared by them. We shall know that our 
 
6o PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 work has been effective when allusions to the story or the poem, 
 or to chance phrases from the book which has just been read, 
 appear in the conversation of the children. This will mean, not 
 simply that words have been added to their vocabulary, but that 
 their thoughts have grown, and their taste as well. 
 
 These are the phases of language-teaching which must appear 
 in every well-ordered course of study. For device and detail, the 
 teacher should be left absolutely independent, so long as she does 
 not transgress the main principle of her art. " Shall she teach 
 this poem, or that ? " That depends upon the history of her class, 
 upon her own interest, taste, or liking. There are so many good 
 things, she may well be left free to choose among them, so long 
 as she gives the children material suited to them, and leads them 
 by definite and thoughtful steps along the right path. 
 
 No one part of this training can be substituted for another. 
 We cannot say, " I will teach words instead of things," and thus 
 succeed in teaching words. We cannot say, " I will teach form 
 without reference to the child's experience," for the form will not 
 be mastered. Even the formal one will be wanting, if the work is 
 thus dismembered. We cannot say, " I will secure facility in ex- 
 pression, and disregard form " ; customs cannot be thus disregarded 
 in the social world. The training in language is effective only 
 when the various types here presented appear in their right propor- 
 tion in the training of the pupils. The work is indeed complex, 
 for it deals with the varied experience of the life of the child ; but 
 it is more than a work with words. Our speech betrayeth us. 
 We must not forget that we are teaching, not language, but chil- 
 dren. 
 
ANALYSIS OF COURSE IN SEN- 
 TENCE-SrUDT AND GRAMMAR 
 FOR GRADED SCHOOLS* 
 
 By Joseph S. Taylor, Pd.D., 
 
 Principal P. S. ig. New Tort City {Manhattan) 
 
 5a— Fifth Year, First Half 
 
 Sentence-Study — Structure of easy sentences ; subject, predicate, 
 
 and object of the sentence ; the chief word or words 
 
 of each part. — By-Laws, Sec. 77 
 
 Sentences 
 
 I. What a sentence can do. 
 
 (a) Declare. — The door is locked (declarative). 
 
 (b) Command. — Ring the bell (imperative). 
 
 (c) Ask. — Did you read the letter (interrogative) ? 
 
 (d) Exclaim. — How beautiful this poem is (exclam- 
 
 atory) ! 
 Drill on the above. Give one form of sentence; let children 
 convert it into other forms until the distinction is well understood 
 and firmly fixed. 
 
 * This article is an exposition of the course of study now in use in the 
 Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, New York City ; but it is hoped that 
 teachers outside of these boroughs may find in it material equally valuable to 
 themselves. All rights reserved. Copyright, 1899, by Joseph S. Taylor. 
 
62 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 2. Two essential parts : 
 
 {a) Subject. — Something to tell or ask or exclaim 
 
 about. 
 {b) Predicate. — Something told, asked, or com- 
 manded. Much drill on this twofold divi- 
 sion. 
 Analytic Exercises: Hyde, pp.34, 35;* name subjects 
 
 and predicates in reader. 
 Synthetic Exercises: Give subject, pupil supply predi- 
 cate; give predicate, pupil supply subject. 
 
 3. Chief word of subject = Noun, 
 
 {a) Drill on nouns: common and proper. Rule 
 for capital. 
 
 (b) Exercises: Hyde, pp. 6, 7. 
 
 (c) From reader make lists of common and proper 
 
 nouns. 
 (^) Write sentences containing common and proper 
 nouns. 
 
 4. Chief word of predicate = Verb. 
 
 Drill on verbs : 
 
 (a) Exercises : Hyde, pp. 34, 35. 
 (/>) Exercises in reader, name verbs, 
 (f) Give verbs, make sentences. 
 (^) Give nouns, supply verbs. 
 
 (i) Kinds of verbs : transitive and intransitive. 
 Exercises: Hyde, pp. 36, 37. 
 
 5. Object = Noun. 
 
 Exercises on objects: reader; written. 
 
 * The book referred to in this article is Practical Lessons in the Use of Eng- 
 lish. Second Book. By Mary P. Hyde. D. C. Heath & Co. 1892. It is not 
 intended that the volume be in the hands of children. Reference is made to it 
 here because if teachers use its lessons as models of presentation, they will be saved 
 from the folly of teaching grammar by the method of definition and " memoriter " 
 recitation, into which teachers of grammar are so prone to slip. 
 
SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR (,} 
 
 6. Active and passive forms of sentences. 
 
 Exercises: Hyde, 37-39. 
 
 7. Simple and compound sentences. 
 
 Exercises: Hyde, 69—71. 
 Drill thoroughly on all of the preceding, using all kinds of sen- 
 tences; to wit, declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory, 
 active, passive; prose, poetry; w^ritten, oral. 
 
 5b— Fifth Year, Second Half 
 
 Sentence-Study — Structure of easy sentences ; subject, predicate, 
 
 and attribute of sentence; the chief word or words of 
 
 each part and their modifiers. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 
 
 J. Review 5a. 
 
 1. What a sentence is. 
 
 2. What a sentence does: declares, asks, commands, 
 
 exclaims. 
 
 3. Two essential parts : subj. ; pred. 
 
 4. Chief word of subj. = noun: common; proper. 
 
 5. Chief word of pred. = verb: transitive; intransitive. 
 
 6. Object = noun. 
 
 7. Active and passive forms. 
 
 2. New. 
 
 1. Modifiers of nouns = Adjectives. Exercises: 
 
 Hyde, 23-26. 
 
 {a) Oral and written drill on sentences with adjec- 
 tive modifiers of subject and object. 
 {h) Comparison of adjectives. Hyde, 27—29. 
 
 2. Adjectives that complete predicates = Adjective 
 
 Attributes. 
 
 {a) Hyde, 39, 40 ; drill, oral and written ; reader. 
 Supply adjectives, use them as att. ; supply 
 predicate with att., give subject, etc. 
 
64 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 3. Nouns that complete predicates = Noun Attributes. 
 
 (a) Drill as in preceding. Hyde, 40, 41. 
 
 4. Adverbs: Hyde, 47-49. 
 
 («) Drill: find in reader; construct sentences. 
 (h) Affirmative and negative. Hyde, 50. 
 (c) What adverbs modify : verbs^ adj., adv. 
 Drill. 
 
 5. Analysis of sentences embodying all the preceding: 
 
 subj., pred., obj., att., adj. and adv. modifiers. 
 Use all kinds of sentences: dec, int., imp., ex- 
 clam. 
 Abundance of drill and thorough review. 
 
 6a— Sixth Year, First Half 
 
 Sentence-Study — Structure and classification of easy sentences; 
 the parts of speech completed. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 
 
 J. Review 5a and 5b. 
 
 1. What a sentence is. 
 
 2. What it does: declares, asks, commands, exclaims. 
 
 3. Two essential parts : subj.; pred. 
 
 4. Chief word of subj. = noun : common ; proper. 
 
 5. Chief word of pred. = verb: transitive; intransitive. 
 
 6. Object = noun. 
 
 7. Active and passive forms. 
 
 8. Modifiers of nouns = adjectives: comparison. 
 
 (fl) Adjectives that complete a pred. = adj. attri- 
 butes. 
 (^) Nouns that complete a pred. = noun attributes. 
 
 9. Adverbs: affirmative; negative. 
 
 (a) What adverbs modify: verbs, adj., adv. 
 10. Simple and compound sentences. 
 
SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 65 
 
 II. Analysis of sentences embodying all the preceding: 
 subj., pred., obj., att., adj., and adv. mod.; all 
 kinds of sentences — dec, int., imp., exclam. 
 
 2. New, 
 
 1. Articles — the, an, a. 
 
 2. Prepositions. Hyde, 63. 
 
 3. Conjunctions. Hyde, 66. 
 
 4. Interjections. Hyde, 68. 
 
 5. Pronouns (personal). Hyde, 22, 23. 
 
 (a) Drill, oral and written; analytic, synthetic. 
 
 6. Singular and plural of nouns. Hyde, 74. 
 
 7. Possessive of nouns. Hyde, 75. 
 
 8. Masculine and feminine of nouns. Hyde, 78. 
 
 9. Gender forms of pronouns. Hyde, 83. 
 
 10. Nominative forms of pronouns. Hyde, 85. 
 
 11. Objective forms of pronouns. Hyde, 86. 
 
 12. Possessive forms of pronouns. Hyde, 87. 
 
 13. Adjective pronouns. Hyde, 89. 
 
 {a) Drill: Let pupils learn complete list; make it 
 very plain that these words may be adjectives 
 or pronouns. 
 
 14. Regular and irregular verbs. Hyde, 102. 
 
 15. Participles. Hyde, 103. 
 
 16. Infinitives. Hyde, 139. 
 
 17. Relative pronouns. Hyde, 146. 
 
 18. Interrogative pronouns. Hyde, 149. 
 
 19. Phrases. Hyde, 140-143; 291 +. 
 
 20. Clauses. Hyde, 145; 301 +. 
 
 21. Complex sentences. Hyde, 305. 
 
 Analysis of sentences ; also construction of original 
 sentences; introducing each new feature as it is 
 taught. 
 
66 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 6b — ^Sfxth Year, Second Half 
 
 English Grammar (with text-book) — Analysis and classification 
 of easy sentences; classification of the parts of 
 speech. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 
 
 J. Review 5a, 5b, and 6a. 
 
 1. The sentence: simple, compound, complex; dec, 
 
 int., imp., exc. 
 
 2. Two essential parts: subj. ; pred. 
 
 3. Chief word of subj. = noun: common; proper. 
 
 4. Chief word of pred. = verb : trans. ; intrans. 
 
 5. Object = noun. 
 
 6. Active and passive forms of verbs. 
 
 7. Modifiers of nouns = adjectives. 
 
 («) Comparison. 
 
 8. Words that complete pred. 
 
 (a) Adjective attributes. 
 (h) Noun attributes. 
 
 9. Adverbs. 
 
 (a) Affirmative and negative. 
 
 (Zi) What adv. modify: verbs, adj., adv. 
 
 10. Simple and compound sentences. 
 
 11. Analysis of sentences embodying all the preceding: 
 
 subj., pred., obj., att., adj., and adv. modifiers, 
 all kinds of sentences: dec, int., imp., exc. 
 
 12. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections. 
 
 13. Personal pronouns. 
 
 14. Singular and plural nouns. 
 
 15. Possessive of nouns. 
 
 16. Masculine and feminine of nouns. 
 
 1 7 . Gender forms of pronouns. 
 
 18. Nominative forms of pronouns. 
 
 !LofC. 
 
SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 67 
 
 19. Objective forms of pronouns. 
 
 20. Possessive forms of pronouns. 
 
 21. Adjective pronouns (or pron. adj.): complete list. 
 
 22. Regular and irregular verbs. 
 
 23. Participles, infinitives. 
 
 24. Relative and interrogative pronouns. 
 
 25. Phrases and clauses. 
 
 26. Complex sentences. 
 
 27. Analysis of sentences embodying above. 
 
 2. New. 
 
 1. Nouns: proper, common = verbal, abstract, collective. 
 
 {a) Drill on classification of nouns in reader. 
 
 (^) Case forms and rules that apply to subject, in- 
 dependent, possessive, object of trans, verb 
 and prep. 
 
 2. Pronouns : personal, relative, interrogative. 
 
 (a) A complete list of each class. 
 (y) As is a relative vv^hen it follovv^s such^ many., or same. 
 (i) Take such as you like. 
 
 (2) Take as many as you like. 
 
 (3) These are the same as yours rare!, 
 (f) Arrange w^ith number, gender, and case forms 
 
 = declension . 
 
 {d^ Give also compound forms of each pronoun. 
 
 {e) Agreement of pronoun with antecedent in gen- 
 der, person, number, 
 
 (i) Much drill on above, oral and written. 
 
 3. Adjectives: common, proper, numeral, pronominal, 
 
 participial, compound (what these classes are will 
 
 depend upon the text-book employed). 
 
 {a) List of each kind. 
 
 {h) Drill on classification, oral and written. 
 
68 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 (c) Comparison of classes that admit comparison: 
 two methods. 
 
 4. Adverbs: time, place, degree, manner. 
 
 (a) Short list of each. 
 
 (^) Comparison of adverbs. 
 
 Drill. 
 
 5. Verbs: (a"^ As to form = reg., irreg., red., defec. ; 
 
 (^) as to use = act. -trans., act.-intrans., passive, 
 neuter (here again the classes will vary with differ- 
 ent authors). • 
 
 (i) Much drill; ofal and written. 
 
 (2) Number of verb ; person of verb. 
 
 (3) Agreement of verb with subject. 
 
 6. Participles (great variation is found in the classifica- 
 
 tion of various authors ; hardly two agree) : 
 
 Active Passive 
 
 Present, striking, being struck. 
 
 Past, struck. 
 
 Past perfect, having struck, having been struck. 
 {a) Note that the past has no active. 
 (^) Note that intransitive verbs can have no passive 
 participles, because only transitive verbs can 
 be passive. 
 (<r) Drill on writing and naming participles of many 
 verbs until the subject is thoroughly under- 
 stood. 
 (^/) Use of participles as nouns and adj. ; as subj., 
 
 obj., att., etc. 
 Drill. 
 
 7. Conjunctions: coordinate, subordinate. 
 
 {a) Show that coordinates join members of com- 
 pound sentences. 
 
SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 69 
 
 {b^ Show that subordinates join members of com- 
 plex sentences. 
 {c) Lists of each ; drill. 
 
 8. Prepositions : list. 
 
 9. Phrases: (a) as to form: prep., inf., part.; (b) as to 
 
 use: subj., obj., adj., att., adv., explan., ind. 
 Drill on writing and recognizing. 
 
 10. Clauses: subj., obj., att., adv., explan., ind. Drill. 
 
 11. Pupils to be trained to say all they know of a sen- 
 
 tence or word without being questioned. 
 
 7a — Seventh Year, First Half 
 
 English Grammar — Analysis and classification of simple, com- 
 pound, and complex sentences; classification and modi- 
 fication of the parts of speech ; the rules of syntax 
 in connection with the criticism and correction 
 of compositions. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 
 
 1. Review 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b. 
 
 1. The sentence: classes as to form, 3; as to use, 4. 
 
 2. Two essential parts: subj., pred. 
 
 3. Chief word subj. = noun: classification of nouns. 
 
 4. Chief word of pred. = verb : classification of verbs : 
 
 {a) As to form, 4; as to use, 4. 
 (^) Agreement of verbs. 
 
 5. Object = noun or pronoun; word, phrase, or clause. 
 
 6. Modifiers of nouns = adj. -word, phrase, clause. 
 
 (a) Adj. att. (to complete pred.). 
 
 7. Nouns that complete pred. = noun. att. 
 
 8. Adverbs: classes, 4; comparison. 
 
 9. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions (2 classes); in- 
 
 terjec. 
 
70 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 10. Pronouns: 3 classes; list of each, with declension 
 
 and compounds (see 6b on " as "). 
 {a) Number, gender, and case forms. 
 (Ji) Agreement. 
 
 11. Number, gender, and case of nouns. 
 
 12. Participles: complete classification (see 6b); used as 
 
 nouns and adjectives; subj., obj., att., etc. 
 
 13. Infinitives. 
 
 14. Phrases: 7 kinds. 
 
 15. Clauses: 7 kinds. 
 
 16. Adjectives: 6 classes; lists; comparison. 
 
 17. Prepositions: list. 
 
 18. Articles. 
 
 19. Conjunctions: 2 kinds = coordinate; subordinate. 
 
 Pupils trained to tell all that they know of a word 
 or sentence without being questioned. 
 2. New. 
 
 1. Nouns: classification. 
 
 (<?) Modifications. 
 
 (i) Gender, 3; dif. between gender and 
 sex ; 3 ways of indicating sex. 
 Drill. 
 
 (2) Person, 3. 
 
 (3) Number, 2; rules for forming plural. 
 Drill. 
 
 (4) Case, 3 ; declension. 
 
 2. Adjectives : review classes and comp. ; rules for comp. 
 
 3. Pronouns: review classes and lists. 
 
 («) Modifications = gender, person, number, case. 
 (^) Declension; compounds (review). 
 
 4. Verbs: review classes. 
 
 (a) Modifications = mood, tense, person, number. 
 
SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 
 
 71 
 
 (^) Conjugation. 
 (<r) List of irregular verbs. 
 
 (^) Drill on progressive, passive, negative, and in- 
 terrogative forms of conjugation. 
 {e) Drill on synopsis of verb forms. 
 
 5. Review of participles and infinitives : classes and useSc 
 
 6. Adverbs: review classes, lists, comparison. 
 
 7. Conjunctions : review classes and lists. 
 
 8. Prepositions: extend list. 
 
 9. Interjections. 
 
 10. Rules of Syntax : 
 
 (a) Relation. 
 
 (hi) Agreement. 
 
 (f) Government. — Explain these terms. 
 
 11. Parsing; analysis of all kinds of sentences. 
 
 12. Construction of sentences of all kinds. 
 
 7b — Seventh Year, Second Half 
 
 English Grammar — The analysis and synthesis of simple, com- 
 plex, and compound sentences j the classification and modi- 
 fication of the parts of speech completed; the rules of 
 syntax in connection with selected passages from 
 the reading of the grade. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 
 
 In general the work of this grade is a review of the 7a grade, 
 with more attention to detail, and a consideration of the more fre- 
 quent idiomatic forms of expression, many of which embody 
 troublesome exceptions to the rules of syntax and etymology. 
 The course of grammar, as laid down in an ordinary text-book, 
 should be completed. 
 
 There is, however, a difference in the directions of the two 
 grades of the seventh year, which cannot be regarded as acciden- 
 
APh 
 
 •72 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 
 
 tal. In 7a the rules of syntax are to be taught " in connection 
 with the criticism and correction of compositions," while in 7b 
 the same rules are considered in relation to " selected passages from 
 the reading of the grade." While this is an apparent violation of 
 the pedagogical order, which demands analysis before synthesis, it 
 is not to be assumed that either method is to be used to the exclu- 
 sion of the other. In the grammatical work of all the grades, the 
 concrete examples of the rule are shown first; then the pupil is 
 asked to find other examples in the reading of the grade; and 
 finally he is encouraged to embody what he has learned into his 
 own compositions. To stop with mere analysis in any case is to 
 make your instruction a matter of memory; the pedagogic circle 
 is incomplete unless the pupil be required immediately to put his 
 knowledge to the test in synthetic work. This is only another 
 way of saying that impression and expression must go hand in hand. 
 
 FORMS OF PARSING AND ANALYSIS 
 
 The mere forms of parsing and analysis are in one respect in- 
 significant in comparison with the processes themselves. Some- 
 times they become, however, very important, chiefly in a harmful 
 way. If the pupil is required to bestow a large amount of con- 
 sciousness upon the form of his thought, the vigor of the thought 
 itself will suffer in proportion. Let a child say what he knows 
 about a sentence in his own way. A recitation ceases to be a 
 vehicle of self-expression if it has imposed upon it forms which 
 embarrass the pupil. 
 
 In written parsing and analysis, however, some set form is 
 demanded. This should be as simple and direct as possible, and 
 uniform in all the grades. Otherwise much time will inevitably 
 be wasted on forms which should be devoted to the study oi grammar. 
 
Copies of this pamphlet may be obtained for 
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