TX 560 .B8 US Copy 1 BREAD-THE VITAL FOOD Illustrated with Plates on Copper from Authentic Sources including a Glossary of Bread Terms, also a selected list of General and Historical References to Bread. SIGN OF THE BAKER. (Pompeii, a.d. 70.) Price 10 Cents Copyright 1920 liy CLAUDIA Q. MURPHY PUBLISHEk CONSULTANT IN HOME ECONOMICS 41 Union Square West New York, N.Y. -n For Description, See Page 31. e)C!.A604607 .r. ,„._^ ^^ .'^ ^ D BREAD - - THE VITAL FOOD By CLAUDIA QUIGLEY MURPHY PART I THE VITAL FOOD. "Give us this day our daily bread," the most direct and heartfelt prayer in all ages, has become the most vital appeal in all tongues and by all peoples. The recent war with its chaos in trade and transportation has made the subject of bread of worldwide significance. We are dependent for happiness and even peace on the bread supply of the world. It is the staff of life, indeed, and today nations are made or wrecked, because of their wheat supply, not by ''self-determination." FOOD HABITS. Studies of the food habits of warring peoples, show the importance of the bread supply in the feeding of a nation. They have shown that 60% of the total heat units, of the diet of the French, comes from the breads, and in Italy during the war 90% came from the bread stuffs. England increased her use of bread until it counted for half her food units. The danger of bread riots compelled all these nations to subsi- dize the "Wheaten loaf," charging the loss to the cost of the war. We in the United States, have never used bread as the basis of our diet. At most it has furnished only about 35% of the heat units required by man in his daily food. "There is no reason whatever why the bread consumption in this country should not rise to 50%. The small quantity of bread consumed here is due to the fact that very large wages are paid and that the people purchase the most expensive foods," says Dr. Graham Lusk, of Cornell Medical College, in a recent letter. That bread is recognized as the master builder of physical, intellectual strength is indicated in the many bulletins and pamphlets which have been written regarding the composition and proper combination of foods. In these we have learned to talk about "dietetic value," "cal- ories," "heat units," "well-balanced meals" and similar expressions unknown to the people of day before yesterday. Today, however, the price of food is uppermost in the minds of everyone, not the cost of raw materials, but the cost of nutrition, is the important thing! How much body building material and energy-giving fuel can we buy for the least money is the question. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD e C b This is answered by Dr. Harvey W. Wiley's statement that "there is more energy in a pound of bread than in a pound of meat. Measured by actual nutritive power, there is no other complete ration which, in economy, can compare with bread." Sherman, of Columbia University, states that nine-tenths of th'i muscle building food in man's diet may well come from either wheat or oats. Two-thirds of the total heat units may come from bread. The addition of milk forms a balanced diet. There is no animal food, and, but few cooked vegetable foods of which this can be said. It possesses also the quality of permanent palatability, because it can be made into a light loaf, because of the elastic nature of its combined proteins. PROTEIN SUPPLY. Dr. Alonzo E. Taylor, who made an important contribution during the war, as a member of the United States Food Administration and the War Trade Board, says : ' ' There is no mystical property in wheat as a food. . . It must be clearly realized that the quality in wheat, that we prize most, lies in the peculiarities of its protein, the gluten that makes the bread the most convenient form in which our use of cereals can be maintained." Dr. C. F. Langworthy, of the office of Home Economics, Department of Agriculture, maintains that cereal grains constitute one of the most important food groups, and although we do not think of them in any way as akin to meat or usable in place of it, it is nevertheless true, that we depend upon them to supply a great deal of the protein of our diet. "In a large number of American families, meat, fish, dairy products, eggs and legumes furnish approximately 50 per cent of the total protein, and cereal foods furnish about 43 per cent, besides contributing in a very important way to the mineral and starch requirements of the body." BREAD ECONOMICS "Bread is our most efficient food. For this is true — life is continued in steps and the body is built in sequence so we have first the soil, then the plant; from which we get food, through which the animal and, finally, the human is nourished and life sustained." {Ward's Bread HOOK.) Study wheat and the resultant nutrition from it. The human system "jconverts 90% into nutrition value. But if the bushel of wheat is used Wn the production of animal food we read that the cow converts 80% Joi its grain into milk food; the pig 15% into pork food; chickens return But if the bushel of wheat is used in the production of animal food we read that the cow converts SO /c ot it.s grain into milk food; the pig \h% into pork food ; chickens return 5. 1 % of their grain in the production of e''gs with 4 2% in the production of flesh; while the steer only turns less than A 7o into beet. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD So to quote Dr. Alonzo Taylor, of the University of Pennsylvania, "Bread is our cheapest food, for it gives us one-third more caloric value at one-tenth the cost." From a dietetic point of view the use of more bread in the diet is of value — it gives most calories at least cost. From an economic point of view it is imperative, for we can cut grocery bills by using an abvmdance of bread. There is no other way through which such instant r^esult can be had. More, there is the agricultural side to be included in our study of bread, for the prosperity of our farms is largely based on the active consumption of the breadstuffs produced. Through using bread more freely, we utilize our supply of wheat and other grains; we create a more active home market, which instantly gives our great agricultural interests ready funds for next year's crops. There is no question confronting us in our national life more impera- tive than the creation of a demand for more bread in our diet — for the utilization of our breadstuffs is our bulwark against economic, industrial, agricultural and social if not national disaster. RELATIVE AND ECONOMIC VALUE. The following comparison indicates the relative economic value of other foods with bread. Using the prevailing price in your own locality, you may complete the following table, which will tell the story more accurately than selected price data which are subject to change. Cost Protein Total Use Local Kind of Food Calories Calories Prices 1 pound bread (white) (miscellaneous) 168.72 1174 ? 1 pound beef (round) A.P 353.80 652 ? 1 pound beef (round) E.P 386.48 709 ? 1 pound milk (1 pint) (whole) 59.84 314 ? 1 pound lamb chops (loin) A.P 290.32 1274 ? 1 pound lamb chops (loin) E.P 339.28 1495 ? 1 pound oysters (solids) A.P 108.88 222 ? 1 pound oysters (in shell) E.P 112.56 229 ? 1 pound chicken (broilers) A.P 232.24 289 ? 1 poimd chicken (broilers) E.P 390.40 492 ? A.P.— As Purchased. E. P.— Edible Portion. Adapted from Laboratory Dietetics by Dr. Mary S. Rose. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD Bread furnishes a high percentage of calories from protein, as well as total calories for the amount of money expended. The use of more bread in the diet, will lower meat and grocery bills, it will also lower the price of other commodities through a lessened demand. Bread and milk is justified not only by experience, but by long experimental study in which these foods alone furnished an adequate diet. No mother needs to worry about the children who eat plenty of bread and butter, or bread and milk. CONCERNING OBESITY. "I can't eat bread, it's too fattening," says one who by overeating and underexercising is adding to her weight, but Dr. Graham Lusk says: "There is no food which can really be considered fattening. The ques- tion of obesity is simply a question of overeating. Potatoes have been defined as being fattening as well as bread. If carbohydrate food is taken in quantity, sufficient to maintain life, a person needs very little meat. ' ' DIET FOR HEALTH. Prof. E. V. McCollum, Professor of Chemical Hygiene, Johns Hopkins University, in his recent book "The American Home Diet," makes this statement: "Accidents, damaged products and ruined machinery, as well as physical discomfort and mental sufferings, are the price which society is paying for living in such a way as to foster the early degener- ation of the body tissues and consequently early loss of youth. They are the causes of inaccuracy, lack of efficiency, and lack of success. The records show that the mortality from old age diseases, has increased nearly 100% in thirty years. There can no longer be any doubt that faulty nutrition is one of the most important factors contributing to this condition." "Early ageing is manifested not only in the ways just mentioned, but is reflected in the character of much of the advertising matter in our newspapers and periodicals. "It is time to present to our children, in practical form, the best advice possible in the light of modern nutrition, studies, concerning how to live so as to promote health and vigor, and to preserve as long as possible the characteristics of youth. One of the most important means of preventing the deterioration of the body is through proper nutrition." BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD Bread is not ouly the MASTER BUILDER of energetic bodies, but is the most efficient ECOMOMllST of money, time, labor. Contrasting its preparation witli tliat of otlier food, from tlie standpoint of time, strengtli and satisfaction, we tuid tliat it is the strongest labor-saving ally of the housekeeper. Today the bread mixer plays as important a part in the kitchen equipment as the typewriter does in the office equip- ment. The modern housewife making her bread by the quick method, puts the ingredients iii the bread mixer, turns the crank until a smooth batter is formed, then adds Hour, gradually, until a soft dough is formed ; she then sets it aside to rise until the bulk is doubled, then kneads it, shapes it into loaves, lets it rise again, and bakes it in a hot oven. In a few hours the deed is done. HOME MADE BREAD— OLD AND MODERN. She need not revert to the old eighteenth century method of making uncertain yeast, laboriously mixing and kneading dough in a huge tray, and then engaging the time and work of the entire family in preparing the brick oven for baking ; for the use of scientifically prepared, reliable yeast, the bread mixer, the thermometer, ovens heated by gas, electricity or oil, reduce the labor of bread making to child's play, in contrast to old rule of thumb methods and antiquated appliances. The method of preparation of bread is simple and the time consumed in baking very short in comparison with the preparation of many other foods. With the usual measure of yeast, the dough will become light in about three hours ; with twice the yeast the dough will rise sufficiently OLD DOUGH BOX AND PADDLE (Early 18th century) in one hour. We need not fear that the excess of yeast will be harmful. Today yeast is taken in milk, or alone, as one of the most helpful sources of the vitamin, which is essential in keeping the nerves in good condition. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD Using yeast freely to save time, in two to three hours we may prepare sufficient bread to last several days. Nutritious, appetizing, crusty, good-looking loaves fill the bread box. The housekeeper smiles with pride and satisfaction as she thinks, "Well, that's food fit for a king and it cannot all be eaten up in one meal ! ' ' Even the hot rolls, than which nothing is more delicious and appreci- ated for breakfast, luncheon, dinner or supper, may be prepared days before and kept in the dough for immediate use. The recipe for Denver or Everlasting Biscuit, will enable the busy housekeeper to introduce them as a delightful surprise with but little effort at any desired time, or bread dough may be enriched with sugar and any sweet fat, more flour added and used as basis for all manner of fancy rolls. DENVER BISCUITS. 1 qt. milk — scalded and cooled. 1 cup potatoes — mashed. 1 cup sugar. 1 cup lard. 1 cake compressed yeast, in >4 cup warm water. 2 teaspoons baking powder. 1 teaspoon soda. 1 teaspoon salt. Into the quart of milk — scalded and cooled, add the cup of potatoes, boiled and mashed, the sugar, the melted lard, and a cake of compressed yeast that has been dissolved in i/o cup of warm water. Add the baking powder, soda and salt to the flour, thoroughly inter- mixing it. Use flour enough for soft batter ; let the batter or sponge rise until it bubbles; then add sufficient flour for a stiff dough and put it in the ice-box or refrigerator for use. When wanted to bake, pinch off sufficient dough to make into the desired amount of biscuits ; let rise one hour, then bake. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD BREAD THRIFT. To have food ready for instant use is proof of good providing; with good bread in the bread box and an emergency shelf in the pantry, the housekeeper is fortified against all surprises of the unexpected guest. Properly made bread has excellent keeping qualities if placed in a clean bread box. The importance of washing, scalding and drying the bread box, at least twice a week, is sometimes overlooked. While leaving the bread in its wrapper helps to keep it moist, if it is left very long the bread tends to become musty. Watch the bread box as carefully as you do the refrigerator ; both may be sources of uneconomic expenditure through useless spoilage of food. The supply of home-made bread which is made so easily by modern methods, pays maximum profits for minimum investment — greatest of all is the ease of mind which it gives to the planner of meals and con- server of health. If bread is not perfectly fresh, it may be freshened by dipping, for a second, in cold water or milk and rebaking in a rather cool oven ; there- fore the large baking is an economy of labor. Steamed bread is palatable and affords variety ; the section of a loaf or single slices, or rolls placed over rapidly boiling water and closely covered soon soften, ready for use. Delicious bread crisps are made of stale bread, by breaking into small rough pieces; dipping each in milk quickly, placing on buttered tin, putting in a cool oven and leaving until the crisps are quite dry. These are good in soup or hot milk. Croutons made from stale bread are acceptable substitutes for crackers to serve with soup. Cinnamon toast is always welcomed with tea, coffee or cocoa, hot or iced. What is better on a hot day than ice cold milk and good bread, or on a cold day than hot milk with good bread ! A recent survey covering 9,614 farm homes, in the thirty-three northern and western states, made by the United States Department of Agricul- ture, State Relation Service, Office of Extension Work North and West, shows that 94 per cent of the women make all or part of the family' 10 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD bread. In the cities, about 60 per cent of the bread used is made in the home. The remaining 40 per cent is largely produced and city consumed. THE MODERN BAKE SHOP The commercial bakery is distributing daily, millions of loaves of machine-made bread throughout the towns of the United States. This probably constitutes the best and most efficient bread supply the world has ever known. A trip through a modern bakery would probably be a revealer of secrets, an "eye-opener," to the majority of housewives and would be time profitably and pleasurably spent. In the baker's laboratories, the materials used are submitted to a critical, scientific test ; the formulas or recipes utilized are the result of careful trial and analysis ; the ingredients are accurately weighed, not measured ; the machinery is modernized as often as necessary, to produce perfect results ; the dough is kept at exactly the right temperature from beginning to end ; and the heat of the oven through which the loaves travel, is regulated at the top and bottom of the loaf, to produce the well baked crumb and attractive golden crust. As the loaves emerge from the oven and tumble into cooling racks they are as perfect as the baker knows how to make them. Nothing is left to chance. There is no dust, there are no odors, there are no flies, the bread is not touched by human hands from the time it begins its journey as flour, yeast, fat, sugar and liquid until it appears on the sorting table to be machine wrapped in paper, in preparation for the market. Do like conditions prevail in the home kitchen? The business of the commercial yeast manufacturer and baker, is to produce the best possible loaf, under the most ideal conditions, it is possible for him to create. Baker's bread is wholesome, sanitary, scienti- fically made bread. Applied chemistry has made great contribution to our daily br^^ad. One of our greatest chemists gave years of research time, to the study of breaC. Today his discoveries are used by the bakers to improve their product. What standard does the housewife apply to her brmd? Is it the standard of habit or custom, or is it based on actu il comparison and knowledge ? BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 11 Since the war, the demand in the United States for bread made from fine white flour has increased. The addition of whole wheat or oatmeal to the bread may be advisable, especially for children whose diet consists chiefly of bread and milk. It is well for inexperienced housekeepers to ask for expert advice regarding their bread, in order that they may be able to set up an intelligent standard. Opportunities for judging or scoring breads are often given at fairs, and the home demonstration agents sent out by the State College of Agriculture, are always ready and willing to give such assistance. BREAD SCORING. It is highly desirable and advantageous that the bread-maker learn to score her own bread, in order that she may be a competent judge of good and bad methods. William Jago, in his valuable book "The Technology of Bread Making, ' ' has a chapter entitled ' ' Bread Analysis, ' ' which will be helpful to the scientific student. Many State Experiment Stations have pub- lished excellent bulletins on flour and bread standards. Score cards for judging bread differ somewhat, but the one used by the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, for the ordinary yeast raised, white bread, is a good guide. / Shape 5 General appearance J Smoothness of crust 5 ( Depth and evenness of color 5 2. Lightness • • . . 10 ( Quality (crispness and elasticity) 5 3. Crust - Thickness 5 ( Color 10 4. Crumb, Texture (size and uniformity of cells, thinness of cell walls)... 15 Elasticity, softness and springiness 15 5. Flavor, Taste and odor 25 Total • • 100 What is the fate of bread on our table ? Is it all used, every crumb, or is part of it relegated to the garbage pail ? Is bread, just bread, used as an accessory, or is it made the important article of diet? 12 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD BODY BUILDING AN ESSENTIAL. The woman who feeds her family intelligently, is a builder using fore- sight not only for today, but for the week, the year, the generation. As home manager, she spends nine-tenths of the income. The wise women spends a liberal amount of it for the tested and tried body building material — bread. She secures variety in the bill of fare through use of many types of bread stuffs. Very often one hears the housekeeper exclaim, "I wish I knew some- thing new. I get so tired of having the same old things. ' ' Many good, appetizing dishes may be prepared of bread, which will add variety and pleasure to the meal. A week's, "EAT MORE BREAD," dinner menus are suggested, which may be used in whole or part. Resolve to eat more bread, resolve to give more of this health-building, muscle-making food to your children. Make BREAD the MASTER BUILDER in the HOME. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 13 DAILY BREAD MENUS. I. BREAD SOUP. Baked Fish with lii-ead Stuffing Ilollandaise Sauce Tomato Salad Cheese Balls Bread and Butter Coffee Bon Bons II. Vegetable Souj) Bread Sticks Creamed Eggs and Peas in Bread Cases Any Green Salad French Dressing Peach Pudding — Layers of toasted bread and peaches III. Tomato Soujp Croutons Loin of Veal Bread Stuft'ing Gravy Eolls Cauliflower au gratin Caramel Bread Pudding with Caramel Sauce Coffee IV. Clear Soup Bread Sticks Tuna Fish in Bread cases Pimento Sauce Kidney Bean Salad Bread and Butter Crackers and Cheese Coffee Fruit V. Fruit Cocktail Bread Fingers Savor^r Stew Bread Dumplings Head Lettuce Salad Russian Dressing Preserves Cheese Bread Coffee VI. Broiled Chicken Bread Sauce Potato Croquettes Peas Eomaine Salad Cheese Bread Coffee VII. Cream of Celery Soup Croutons Beef Loaf Tomato or Mushroom Sauce Mashed Potato Celery Fruit Salad Bread and Butter Sandwiches Coffee 14 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD PART II HISTORICAL FACTS CONCERNING BREAD Bread stands as a definite token or expression of the civilization of a country. Looking backward many interesting pictures present themselves. White bread or Manchet was first used in church service and represented "The Body of Christ." Then the clergy allowed some of the uncon- secrated church bread to be sold to the nobility; then as wealth de- veloped, the middle classes were able to purchase it. Then later, the baking of white bread was removed from the convents, where the nuns baked it, or from the monasteries, when it was sometimes baked by the friars, to the homes of the rich when bake ovens were installed. Chete bread is constantly referred to in all old books dealing with the foods of the people of the centuries up to the eighteenth. It was used by the middle classes just as the brown or black bread was used by the peasantry. In the pages of Country Contentments by G. M. (or Gervaise Mark- ham) is found an interesting resume of bread making and barm pre- paring of that period. The copy from which these plates were made was published in London in 1623, and is a rare example of early house- hold literature. The pages are reproduced photographically on copper for class use. The housewife of that day was a busy and a most efficient person. She ordered her household constructively and diligently. Not only did the type of bread used indicate the social standing of the family, but in the homes of the nobility we read that the condition of the bread also had the same bearing, for the royal family had the fresh baked bread — the nobility used it when it was one day old; the gentry when it was two days; the scholars or friars when three days old ; and the peasantry the four day old bread. For remember, bread was baked in early days in the ovens of the Manor, the homes of the peasants not including such appliances. The word Lady means loaf giver — for one of the definite duties of the lady was to distribute the loaves as above described to the classes indicated. Then followed strict rules and regulations for bread, its production and use. The care in making, the skill in baking — each had its set form of regulation. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 15 OLD YEAST POT Barm was the old name for what we now call yeast. It was kept as wholesome as possible, but was usually over-fermented. There was no understanding of yeast growth, for there was no knowledge of bacteriological conditions. But certain facts insisted upon recognition — so that the unskilled became more proficient through many failures to have sweet nutty bread. Out of this has developed the carefully con- ducted and skillfully handled yeast indus- try of today, which replaces the happy-go- lucky, hit or miss methods of yesterday, which gave us barm, then slop yeast, then brewers ' yeast, followed by home or factory made dry yeast, and now the highly concen- trated, most efficient, active compressed yeast of today, rich in vitamines and potential energy. There was a wide variation of breads, between the highest type and "all-sorts" or similar appellation, known as "black-bread." This was made of various kinds of other grain added to wheat, and was consumed by the poorest classes. It was analagous to the present black bread of Europe. The bakeries were very closely in- spected and rigid regulations were en- forced. This caused bread making to become a fine art and made standardiza- tion possible. Even today the poorest families throughout Europe buy their bread, as they realize that they cannot produce as good a product in their own homes. The little French girl who through shot and shell stayed and baked the village bread, was equally hero and winner of the croix de guerre with the soldier who went "over the top" to victory. Without their daily bread the village people would have starved. American soldiers pay high tribute to French village hvead. (Continued to Page 18.) e/W our ^'£ J**« facjimileSijndtureV'* \ YEAST J= -, V ^CONTAINING J^ i MODERN FORM OP YEAST 16 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD l?4- 0»I>ISASCES MA»E AT RtTHAJi .,. «p T&zu To» rsi rum 0« A FLESH DAT. "Dyanzt. Suppei. BriTj 2:U A!c, <- f V' - ' ''* K-^n;u3cr la Ticw or cap , i VcnnoT, in hrcai' .« n uit , I Pcfl«ll$ 01 R«eJ IXcre « Muroo, ,. , . -> * Arm' wrcrJ. J S»s3ne,;rOol.c.S:orVe 01 1 ConTCs ot ff, FnaoJcts, bilifd C^T?, • Cui'.jrv'. girCJilic^'. ' cc f nnck, ' Cheat Brc»<3indM»o;kn-. : • Bccrc ar«i Aic, n.-^ \V,.-r. • ""• - KkC-. • - '•' Ch.. • Gicco'sof Monwor'-'fui- 1 ton.ft,jppeJ • lib Ckwo. J Coovrto; f'. '' l-hc^iOJ, Hcr:>e. S«»»e- 1 brJ. „ , J Cocks. Pl SccoodCoorfc- jdlT, Ipocm, Cnxaxei "! , „^ g Alootxit, J rhciunt,H«m,Baten«,J , j ^ PirtTicges, QMfles or 1 , j Cocki, PVoTtn or Gii.les, ^ » Lirkcs or Rabbets, Snvtcrs PuIWm or ChKktts, i > ■ VeijiibBinfeaepafti J ^^ Taitj, Blaok-mogt « ««»>" **■ ' KtiW, Lan be oj Pcjocs, • PilTTK^C or QuJtiCT, ' GoJ^i « Ertitz", « or Tci'.ts, Polteru.Chic' pip'i 'Rabbens or Laiki, 1 Tane, . « Fruitc, » BorKr an] Efnv Venifoo or qdicr Baked 1 ^ Kea:a, j A collection of Ordinam-e.^; ft)r the lloyal Househokl of England from King Edward III to William and Mary ; published in London. 1790. Two pages are here shown indicating the exactness with which each person BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 17 _ , mtflcs. Frfner. , Tiwr wirb pow()(^ro^ pifards, i Sua bj the Da/ 3!. 5». ©?■_ Ok A FISH DAT. Ch«t Brca,* and Manchctt, 16 i.iT. 8, OR. '■ . 9 Hcrnrg. PctJ^c. 1 3 8 OrgjiKrLyng, 1 Poudral b^ks or LimprOEJu" I II Cjitcr Salmon, 1 I 3 6 Whjriini;, 16 H^ddoik., MullcttJ, or Baft, r 16 PUrte ..rGurijir.l. I Sc4 iiicamir ot baallej. b i& txjngerj. Door I. 16 Porjjolf, Scale, t 3 4- C»rpc, 1 roiiic. » CmUbs, Lolificrs, % xz Cuiti'd, 't Ralalk or Flage, > Taj-tt doled. 1 12 Fryner, 8 FniKCy SccoBii Courfc. t SecooJ Pmt.igc, t 4 Sturgion pr' v; 1 r' I 3 ♦ Byn or mhcr rcy> roft, Chynes ot Salmon btoyltd^ tacTca Shrympc* iji the hoii.'chold ^vas icd in the clays of Henry Vlll. Note the Chete aiifl IMaiK-hett s])ecified, the portion of meat, and also the absence of vegetables even on fish or fast days. 18 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD The development of bread making illustrates industrial, social and economic progress in a very striking way. Bread Street in London, where Milton was born, was so named from a market in which bread formerly was sold. In 1302 the bakers of London were forbidden to sell bread elsewhere. The Baker's Guild of London was established in 1307, denoting that in the fourteenth century in England, bread making was a recognized craft. All through Europe for centuries, the bread supply has been furnished through bakeries. Rich and poor alike buy their bread. Formerly in England, the type of bread eaten denoted the class, as money and estates do today. The bread consumed by those of highest rank and in the most affluent cir- cumstances, was the finest and whitest simnel-bread, "manchet" or "pain-demayn ;" so called from the figure of our Saviour, or the Virgin Mary impressed upon each round flat cake. We possess less knowledge of the bread of non-warring countries, such as Spain, but this excerpt from a recent letter shows how it is regarded there. "In Spain a great deal of bread is eaten because it is so good. The Spaniard eats much of it with his meals, and when he comes to the United States and sees the small quantity and thin slices that are served with meals here, it is a great surprise to him. The Spaniard needs much more because it has come to be his preferred form of food." "In Spain there are many fiestas during the year and families invite each other to meals with great frequency. The care that the receiving family has, is to prepare the table with a large amount of bread, taking care to buy it at the favored bakery. It would be considered very lacking in etiquette to serve bread made at home. "In the homes of the rich there are always guests and much bread is served with the great variety of other things. * * The bread is so well made that many people prefer it to other food. The working men often breakfast on a large portion of bread. "In Spain the bakeries are an essential factor of life. It can be said that they are artists in making bread." After one has eaten bread in European countries, one understands why it constitutes so large a part of the daily food. It is always good. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 19 With appreciation and wisdom we have adapted many of the manners and customs of Europe. We may profitably add their habit of making the wholesome loaf the major part of every meal. It will greatly simplify living, give time for high thinking, increase good health and multiply the bank account. A ROYAL PARTY OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY In the illustration of a dinner scene at court, a rare print from the fifteenth century, notice that the "Nappe'" or cloth is duly laid and upon it are seen the saltcellar, which must first be placed upon it; then the bread and then the cups. Knives are wanting-, for most people carried their own, and for those who failed, the servant is seen with one at his side. Forks had not yet been invented. The bread is in small round loaves. 20 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD BREAD TERMS AND THEIR MEANING. Apple Bread (Eng.) — A sweet, light bread made of flour, apple juice and leaven. Apple Cake — Biscuit dougli, enriched with egg, covered with sliced apple, sugar, and cinnamon, raised and baked. Serve with coffee at breakfast or lunch. Banbury Cakes — Eich dough, with filling of currants, chopped candied peel, sugar. Serve with luncheon or tea. Black Bread (Eng. J — Bread made from wheat and other flours, usually barley. Bran Bread or Muffins — Bread to which bran is added. Used to increase mineral matter and bulk in the diet. Bread Sticks (Ita'l.) — Bread dough shaped, in thin sticks eig'ht inches long. Baked. Serve with soup or salads. Brioche (Fr.) — Sweetened biscuit dough enriched with eggs and formed into shapes, often twisted and coiled. Brush with sugar solution after baking. Brown Bread — Bread in which barley, rye or wheat-flour and peas were used with malt, in making the dough. CaraiDay Bread (Ger.J — Rye bread containing caraway seed. Cheat (Old Eng.) — All wheat bread served to all but those of high estate. Similar to bread from flour grouu'l to 85% of the wheat. Cheese Sticks — Finger rolls with fresh grated cheese added, just before rolls are taken from oven. Serve with salads. Cinnamon Rolls — Biscuit doiigh, rolled thin, spread with butter, sugar, cinna- mon, washed currants ; formed into cylinder, cut into inch sections, raised and baked. Serve at luncheons. Clover Leaf Biscuits — Biscuit dough shaped into marble-shaped balls. Baked in threes in muffin pan. Cocket (Early Eng.) — Bread cf inferior quality, so called probably, as meaning seal. Coffee Cake — Biscuit dough, enriched with egg, cox^ered with chopped nuts, sugar and cinnamon, and bread crumb mixture ; raised and baked. Serve with coffee at breakfast or lunch. Crescents — Bread dough rolled thin, cut in four-inch squares, buttered, rolled tightly, adding butter as rolled, curved into crescent-shape, raised and baked. Croutons — Tiny cubes of stale bread, either browned in fat, or in an oven. Serve w^ith soup. Crumpets or Muffins (Eng.) — Thick batter, baked in muffin rings on hot griddle, until brown crust is formed. Serve for breakfast or luncheon. Doughnuts — Biscuit dough made sweeter with added sugar, raised, kneaded, rolled and cut in squares ; or cut in strips, twisted, like a rope, again raised and fried in deep fat. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 21 Fluttes, "Pistolets" or Dinner Rolls — Dough made as for French bread. Shaped four and one-half inches long with round pointed ends, with three diagonal incisions on top. Serve as dinner or luncheon rolls. Graham — Yeast batter made sweet with molasses and thickened with Graham flour and white flour in ratio to please the maker — 1 part Graham to 2 parts white flour is excellent. Hot Cross Buns — Biscuit dough containing raisins or currants. Cross may be formed by cut of sharp knife, or made with ornamental frosting. Served on Good Friday. Horse Bread (Early Eng.) — Principal ingredients, beans and peas. "Hutscl Bread" (Ger.) — Raised bread made with pear and prune juice for liquid, sugar, fat, fruit, eggs, raisins, nuts, lemon peel, spice and anise seed added to raised sponge. Baked in loaves. Used in place of fruit cake. Manchett (Old Eng.) — Bread made with fine white flour. First used in church service, later used by nobility and gentry. Moravian Bread — Light bread made with potatoes in sponges, eggs and shorten- ing added to raised sponge, then turn into dripping pan. When light, brush with melted butter. Make parallel rows of depressions on top of bread with forefinger. Fill with butter and brown sugar. Poppy Seed Braids — Bread dough braided. ^Mien nearly baked, brush with beaten egg yolk, powdered sugar and sprinkle with poppy seeds. Potato Bread — Potato water and mashed potatoes used in the bread sponge. "Pulled Bread" — Small finger lengths of the crumb of bread, heated until golden brown. Rasped Rolls — Remove crust with grater, return to oven, and bake for five m.inutes. Rusks (Eng.) — Bread dough baked in long, fiat rolls, \^^len cold, cut in slices and brown in oven. Rusks (Ger.) — Bread dough made rich with sugar, fat and eggs. Shaped into tall biscuit and baked slowlj\ Rye Bread (Polish) — Raised bread made of potato, yeast, seasoning, whole- ground rye flour, and white-bread flour. Caraway seed sometimes added. Baked in loaves. Saffron Bread (Eng.) — Type of raised bread colored with saffron, flavored with caraway seed. Sally Lunn (Eng.) — Biscuit dough, enriched with eggs, made into round cakes, baked slightly and quickly. Salt Rising Bread — Sponge made with warm liquid, salt and cornmeal. Natural fermentation develoj^js characteristic flavor, due to bacteria. "Starter" sold in open market is composed of bacteria. Short Bread (Scotch) — Very rich, sweetened bread rolled oval or round, candied orange or lemon peel on top. 22 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD Swedish Rolls — Eich biscuit dough, one-fourth inch thick, spread with butter, cinnamon, sugar, finely chopped raisins and citron. Shape like jelly roll, cut in slices. After baking, glaze with beaten egg white. May also be shaped for Tea Bread or Tea Eing. Swedish Wreaths — Any bread dough enriched with fat, shaped into rings, upper surface covered with chopped almond. Serve with afternoon tea or dinner salad. Tea Scones (Scotch) — Eich biscuit dough cut in three inch squares. Press into triangles, after adding melted butter and chopped raisins. Brush tops with milk and bake in hot oven. Serve with tea. Tourte (Early Eng.) — Bread made of unbolted meal. In common use among the humbler classes. Turnip Bread (Ancient Eng.) — Turnip pulp, flour, yeast, caraway seed. Twisted Sticks — Eich biscuit dough, rolled one-fourth inch thick, spread with butter, folded in three layers. Strips cut one inch wide and six inches long, and then twisted. When baked, spread with confectioner's frosting. Wastel Bread (Old Eng.) — Light wheat bread, used by more luxurious and wealthy middle class of England. Yorkshire Cake — Biscuit dough, made into cakes. WTien raised make hole in center before baking. WTien baked rub with melted butter. Yule Cakes — Very rich, sweetened, raised biscuit dough, to which is added nutmeg, currants, candied lemon peel and eggs. Serve at Christmas time. Zwieback (Ger.) — Eusks cut in slices and browned in slow oven. SELECTED REFERENCES ON BREAD HISTORIC. Chambers, E.— The Book of Days, pp. 119-21, Vol. 1, W. & E. Chambers, Ltd., London. Farley, John — London Art of Cookery 1789 Glasse, Mrs. Hannah — Art of Cookery 1746 Hazlitt, W. C. — Old Cookery Books and Ancient Cuisine, London 1893 Kitchener, W.— The Cook's Oracle 1829 Markham, Gebvaise — English Housewife 1683 MoxoN, Elizabeth — English Housewifery 1785 Murray, A. H. — Oxford English Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford.... 1903 NoTT, John — Cook's Dictionary 1723 Ordinances & Eegulations, for the Government of the Eoyal Household.. 1790 Eaffald, Elizabeth — The Experienced English Housekeeper 1786 Spon — Spons' Household Manual, E. & N. Spon, London N.D. The Queen's Closet Opened, London 1679 Whole Duty of Woman, a Guide from Sixteen to Sixty, London. . . . 1712 Ude, Louis— The French Book 1813 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 23 GENERAL. Composition — Food Values — Place in Diet. Bailey, E. H. L. — Source, Chemistry and Composition of Foods, P. Blakiston & Sons, Co., Philadelphia. Chapin, How — Teaching of Nutrition may effect the Nation's Welfare, Tour, Aug-. 7, 1920, American Medical Ass'n. Harcourt — The Nutritive Value of White and Brown Bread, Bakers' Weekly, Nov. 25, 1916. HiNBEDS — The Effect of Food Restrictions — Tour, American Medical Ass'n. Feb. 7, 1920. Holmes — Digestibility of "\^lieat Bran, Bulletin No. 751, Div. of Publications, Wash., D. C. Jagg — The Technology of Bread Making, Bakers Helper Co., 1911, (Out of Print.) McCann— The Famishing World, Doran, 1918. McCoLLTJM^ — Newer Knowledge of Nutrition, MacMillan, 1918. Mendell — Changes in the Food Supply, Yale University Press. Osborne & IMendell — Nutritive Value of Proteins of Cereals; J. Biol, Chem., March, 1920. Rose, Mary Swartz — Feeding the Family, MacMillan. Sherman — Food Products, MacMillan. Sherman — Protein Requirements and Nutritive Efficiency of Bread Protein, .Tan., 1920, J. Biol, Chem. Snyder — The Indigestibility of ^^^^ole ^Mieat FloTir ; Northwestern Miller, July 23, 1919. State Bulletins — Send to State Agricultural Colleges for Bulletins on Wheat or Bread. (Kentucky, Kansas, etc.) COOK BOOKS. Beecher, C. E. — Domestic Recipe Book, 1848. Beeton (Mrs.) — International Cookery (Reprint), Piatt & Peck Co., N. Y. Campbell, Helen — In Foreign Kitchens, 1893. Corson, Juliet — Practical American Cookery, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1885. Earle, a. M. — Colonial Dames and Good Wives, 1895. Farmer — The Boston Cooking School, Cook Book (Revised Ed.), Little, Brown & Co., 1920. Farmer — A New Book of Cookery, Little, Brown & Co., 1912. FiLiPPiNO — The International Cook Book, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1906. 24 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD IIarland, Marion J. — Complete Cook Book, Bobbs Mei-rill Co., 1905. Home Life in Many Lands, series published by the MacMillan Co., 1911-14. IvjiNCOLN — The Boston Cook Book, Little, Brown & Co., 1904. Pocumtuc Housewife, E-eprint, Deerfield, Mass., 1907. EoEER (Mrs.) — Bread and Bread Making, Arnold & Co., Philadelphia, 1900. RoRER (Mrs.)- — New Cook Book, Arnold & Co., Philadelphia, 1903. Thomas, Edith M. — INIary at the Farm and Book of Recipes, John Hartenstine, Norristown, Pa., 1915. BULLETINS. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Div. of Pub. (Send for Lists.) State Agricultural College Bulletins, Especially, Illinois, New York, Wisconsin SUBJECTS FOR DEMONSTRATION. Flour Testing— A Home Art. Many Breads From Same Dough. Ancient and Honorable Feast — Breads. Tea and Coffee Breads in All Lands. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 25 COVNTRE Contentments, OR ThcEnglifli Hu&vife. CONTAINING The inward and outward Vertues which ought to be in z complcatc Woman. fiA'shen^U mThj/ic{e, Surgerie^ Exlraclion ofOyles, Banqticciiig-ftuffc, Ordering of grcit Feafts, Prefcruing of aii forrs of Wines , Conceited Scorers , JDfJtiilMtons, Perfumes,er(imngofW&0U, fkmpc^-^ ffjx, makJngCloth, Dying, the knowledge of D'tv-;,:'; office of Mahtnf, OKs,theirexcellent k ia a Family, Brewing, Baking, and a.'i Other things belonging t» ttiHoofliold. Workc gcncr.jily approucd,and now much ai!gnicntcd,purccd '^■"d made raoft profitable and neccffarie for alfmcn^.ind Dt" dicared to th« Honour of the Noble Houfe of Excctcr, and the general! good ofthis Kingdome. By G. (Jli. fiintcinxLoKdmhy I.'SforR.l4ckiof$,md:itctobc folJathislltop nccrcFIcct-fti'cetc Conduct. i6ii» n fl n Gervaise Markham, 1623, wrote several books, two at least on Housewifery and one on the care of horses and animals. In his books is a most disorderly but engrossing sequence of facts that were essential to the varied activities of the mistress of the household, who served as physician, spinner, brewer, weaver and gardener for her family. Brewing as well as baking required her constant attention. 26 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD The Sngiifh Houf-mfes Booke i. CfSah Ofd-rifig cf thcmtbioughabaggcothairc-doth, tunBevpthc faT«c after it harh becnca littlr fctlcd into HogPheadSj Barrels and other clofc vcfTcIs. Nowahci yeuhaucprcftalljvou {liaiifiiuc that winch is within the hairc cloth bjg€e,aod puffing it into feuetai vdtclsjpui a pretty quantity of water thcrcanto, andafr tcr it hath ftood a day or rwc, and hatii bcenc wdJ ftirred togchcrjprdrcit.ouerah"oagainCjfor this will makcjt, fmall pen y or cidcr^aDd muft be fpeiit firft.Xow of your beft fider that which you make of your ftmmer or fwecc fruice,you flwll caij {uramcr or fwcet cider or pcrrie,and that you ihall fpcnd firft alfo ; and that which you make ofthe winter and hard friiice, you fhsli call winrci- and fowrc cJder,orpcfry^and chat you may fpend !ift,fo!:' icvvilicn dure the longtrft. Thus after our EngliOi Hufwife is cxperienc'r in the brewing of thefc (euerall drinkcs^fhc Ihall then lookc into her Btk'>houfe, and to the baking of all forts of bread, cither for MafterSjSeruarKS, or Hiads, and to be orde- ring 2nd compounding of the raealcfor each fcucraUvfe- Tofpeake then firft of meales for brcad,rhey arc either fimple or compound,iimplc,a$ Whcarcand R, iCjOr com* pound.ns Ricand W,hcatcm!xtrogether,orR.:e,\\'heate and Barley mixc rogetheri«nd of thefe the oldcft meakii cucr the bcl},and ycddeth moft foit.befweet and vntain. ted, for the prcfornation whcrof,it is n\^?rthat you dcnfc your mcalc wcllfrom thcbrannc, and then kccpc it ia "{ Vcci vc'flcls. Now for tlie baking ofbrcad of your Cmple rreatcs, yoi:r bcfl and principal! bread {% manchet^\vhich you CImI b.kcin rhis manner- firft your mealcbcin!^ ground vpOfi ' '' " . ^ifirbepafnblCjVrhichmakj? the'whitcn; ..Iced throu2h the" focfl bbuking cloth , yoa Here the ordering of flour under the name of meale is discussed for the baking of all sorts of Bread for "Masters, Servants or Hinds." Simple and mixed flours seem to have been used. BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 27 Bookei, Sisiiimbn'mmgand bakery, 231 you Hiall put it mio a clean KimneJjSnd opening the flowT cr hollow in the mitlft, put into it of the bcft Alebarmc fie quantity oi three pints to a buflicil of m«lc,with fom iaktofcafonitwith.-thcnpiirifi your liquor rcafonable %vavmc and kneade It very well together with both your hmds and through the brake.or for war^ thereof, fold ftrnadorh^and with yoiirfecte tread ira good fpacc to- |^ahcr,thcn letting it lie an howre or thereabouts to fwell takcitfoorth aw! mold it into nianchcts,rous)d,andl1ar, fcotcha'bout the waft to gincir Icauc to rife, and prick k mkh your fetiifc in tile toji^aiKlIb put it itKo the Oucn, aiidbake it with a gentle hca^c, 1 o bake the belt cheatc bread, which k alio (Imply of ^*^^n,? .'whe.irc oncfy^you flial! afteryoor mc,i!c i% dreft^ind boifb '*^''^^^''*''*'^ t«d rhsotjgh -a inore courfc boulter tlicn was vfedfor ^^ourmsicTserSjandpiitalfcrnfoaclean tub, trough, or iimncI^tsAcafowreleau'-'njlsa: s.- 1.-;\ c.-^'r, h \ f elea- mess hx^d from t foTinec hvc it>bidvptoib\r^- •'. '•* "' m iroM pecce^ Which5oaeiiEi.iKr .4 'iaithfemidft of vor j#r«fjcdh. ItfifeHowcj csrike barter,! htss v <., ; -iiealhharsii !-* ' ■.oftlicmra' watei,barj5, , , i>u.sj> v.! Ieai..ti,{bffcj«ii H. .-; - ihmknead i if,as wasl>eforcj".ddsnthc m.mchc's, -:u 10 ;:..,..;.; kvp In reafbrtiblcbigge loaneSj.md thcs bake it with an indif- ferent cood heat .^and thus accoi ding to thefe two exam- •,>i?akc •hen firaimr if, '.v.« before ft id 't rOHT?" voui Note the use of ale barm in making- ?>Ianchetts and read how Chete bread was prepared. Flour was then spelled Flower — and the old "s" is present. 28 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD The Sngii(lo Houf-m/es Booke i. vnleaucnd whatfocucr, whether it be fimple come, as VVhcatcorRicoficfcIfc, or compound gi^ine aswhcai and rie,or wheat and barky , or ric and barley, or any other mix: white cornc^only becaufc Rie is a little ftron* gcr graincthenwhcate, it flwil be good for you to pot your watei a little hotter then you did to your whcatd" SAlh-,^ of For youi browne bread,or bread ior yor.r hindc*fcr- ireirn htil uants, which is the courfcft bread for mans vfe, you {hall take of barly two bu{hels,of pc-afc two pecks, ot wht at or Ric a pccke,a pcckof makithefcyou llwll grind altoge- ther and drcfic it through amealcfiuCjthenputting it In- to a fowcr trough fet liquor on the fire, and when itboiis let one put on the water,and another wiih a mafli-rudder fl ir fomc of the flower with it after it hath been feaforied with lalt,and fo let it be till the next day,and then putting to the rtft of the flower, workcitvpintoftifFcleaucn, then mould it and bake it into great loaucs with a very fironghcatc: now if your trough be not fower enough to fower your leaucn,then you Ihall cithe? let it lie longer in tkc trough,or clfe take the helpc of a fowcr leauen with your boiling water: for you muft vndcrftand,that the hotter your liquor is,theleffc will the fn^ell or rankndTc of the peafe be recciucd. And thus much for the baking ofany kinde of bre^, which our Eifgli(h Httfmfe flialJ hau c occafion to vfe for the maintcn;ince of her family. CentrAll As for the generall obferuations tobe rcfijedcd in the ohprHAUoHS BreW'houfcorBakc-houfe,theybethcfc:farft,th3t youi VI thi brcv- ]5j-cvvhoufc bc featcd in fo conucnient a part of the houfe, ^*H' V^r ^ ^^^ ^^^ fmokc may not annoic your other more pWuate BA\t-ho(*jt, j,QQj^^^5. fi^ejj fi^m; yQyj. furnace bee made clofe and hol- low for fauing fcwcll , and with a vent for the paflagc of fmoakelcaft it taint your liquor ) then that you prefcrre a copper before a lead, next that your M^it-fat be cucr Bccrsft Above are the rules for baking the brown or Hinds bread and the conclusion. "And this much for the baking of any kind of bread, which the English House- wife shall have occasion to use for the maintainance of her family." BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD 29 Bl ^^~T^^^'''*" " " " " * ' ' iiiM« ' i i mi oQfeg X* ^^liin kewing and Sa^ng. nscrcft to your lcac!e,your cooler nefcren your Maihfx andyoarGuilfacvndefyourcoolcr,&adioiningtothem all leucralcleanctubstorecciue your worts & liquors- then in your Bake houfcyou fiuU hauc a faire boulring houfe with large Pipes to boukraealc in, faire troughes toiaiclcauccin,andfwccr fafcsto rcceiueyour branne: you ftall haue boulters, fearfcs, raunges and mealc fiucs of allforis bo'h Bnc & courfc. you /hall hsuc fairc tables to mould on, largeouens to bake In the foales thereof ra- thcrofone or tvvojntirc nones then of many bricks,and the moudi made narrow, fquarc and ea/Jc to he clofe co* ucrcd ; asfor your pedes, colc-rakcs, maukinsand fuch j!ke,though they be necefliry yer they are of fuch general vfe they need no farther relation. And thus much for a ful fatisfa«fiiont03ll the Husbands andHufwifesofthis kmgdome touching Brewing , Baking, and all what elfe appertaincth to cither of tnciroffices. FINIS. m Here are the general observations for the care of the bake-house, with the conclusion. "z\nd thus, much for a full satisfaction to all husbands and housewives of this Kingdom touching baking- and all what else appertains to either of their offices." Gervaise Mark HAM (1633). 30 BREAD— THE VITAL FOOD VARIATIONS KUSKS— Bread dough en- riched with sugar, shortening and eggs. Shape into tall bis- cuit. Bake slowly. For breakfast. SCONES— Rich dough as above pressed into triangles after add- ing melted butter and chopped raisins. Brush tops with but- ter. Bake in hot oven. Serve with tea. YULE CAKES— Egg enriched dough, very sweet, to Which is added nut- meg, currants and candied lemon peel. Serve at Christmas. PARKER HOUSE ROLLS- Shortened dough, spread with butter rolled into pocket book shape and baked. BREAD DOUGH WHITE BREAD 2 cakes compressed yeast. 1 qt. lukewarm water. 2 tablespoonfuls lard or butter, melted. 2 tablespoonfuls sugar. 3 qts. sifted flour. 1 tablespoonful salt. Dissolve yeast and sugar in luke- warm water, add lard or butter, and half the flour. Beat until smooth, then add salt and balance of the flour, or enough to make dough that can be handled. Knead until smooth and elastic. Place in greased bowl, cover and set aside in a moderately warm place, free from draft, until light — about one and one-half hours. Mould into loaves. Place in well- greased bread pans, filling them half full. Cover and let rise one hour, or until double in bulk. Bake forty-five to sixty minutes. If a rich loaf is desired, use milk in place of part or all of the water. VARIATIONS APPLE CAKE— Bread dough en- riched with egg — shortening, flavored with cinnamon, cov- ered with cinnamon and sugar and sliced apple. Serve with coffee for breakfast or lunch. BANBURY CAKES— Ilich dough as above, filled with minced raisins, or- ange peel and sugar. Serve with tea. HOT CROSS BUNS — For Good Friday or Church days. Dough with currants or raisins, cross cut with knife just be- fore you put them in the oven. CINNAMON ROLLS— Shortened roiled thin, with butter, cinnamon, currants, rolled and baked then sliced. dough spread sugar. BREAD SOUP 17th Century Take the crninb of two stale rolls or two thick slices of stale bread, add to it three pints of fresh skimmed milk, three onions, and half a head of celery. Boil it very g-ently in a double boiler, till the bread is dissolved ; then pass it through a sieve. Beat a few sweet almonds in a mortar or run through grinder till they become a paste ; then stir them into the soup with a little salt, and give it a boil over the fire — it is fit to serve up. Remove the onions before you pass the soup throug'h the sieve. It requires gentle simmering to dissolve the bread entirely. THE FRONTISPIECE The illustration iu the frontispiece is taken from the London and Country Cook, or, "Accomplished House- wife," prepared by Charles Carter, "Cook to his Grace the Duke of Argyle,'- published in London, in 1749, who took the plate from Thomas Dawson's "Good House Wifes Jewell," published London, 1610. The upper left-hand corner shows a woman making butler, with a uiaid milking a cow at her right. * The picture in the upper riglit-hand corner shows the old process of laundry work. * The center picture shows the lady in the kitchen, gathered around her the utensils required. In the background are the hives and the bees making honey ; hanging suspended from the ceiling the herbs that have been gathered for flavoring and spices. At the left, the distil latories in which wines and simples were made for family use. * The lower left-hand corner shows the kitchen and the preparation of fish. Evidently meat is being cooked in the kettle, suspended above the floor, on the s^iit at the lower part of the plate is a fowl being roasted, and at the left a maid is preparing fish. Above here are shown plates and below jars, and an amiable cat is walking across the floor, evidently enticed by the odor of the fish. * The most important is at the lower right, showing tlie old bake oven, the fire beneath it, and the dome above it, in which the bread is baked, the shovel at the left, with which the bread is withdrawn. At the right are loaves of bread in various processes of raising. This picture is one of the very few definite illustra- tions of the old bake house, to which reference is made in the illustrations in the back part of the Bulletin from "Markham's Country Housewife." LIBRARY OF CONGRESS