Glass TcJ 1 l : Book t- / THE AND ENGINEER'S PRACTICAL GUIDE: CONTAINING A CONCISE TREATISE ON THE NATURE AND APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL FORCES; ACTION OF GRAVITY; THE ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY; RULES AND TABLES FOR CALCULATING THE WORKING EFFECTS OF MACHINERY; OF THE STRENGTH, RESISTANCE, AND PRESSURE OF MATERIALS ? WITH TABLES OF THE WEIGHT AND COHE- . SIVE STRENGTH OF IRON AND OTHER METALS. COMPILED AND ARRANGED BY THOMAS V KELT, OF THE " GLOUCESTER CITY MACHINE COMPANY," N. J. 2To fofjtri) is atftetJ VALUABLE HINTS TO THE YOUNG MECHANIC ON THE CHOICE OF A PROFESSION; MISDIRECTION OF INDUSTRY; INTELLECTUAL CULTIVATION, AND THE STUDIES AND MORALS OF THE MECHANIC, ETC., ETC. BY JOHN FROST, LL. D. BOSTON: CROSBY & AINSWORTH. NEW YORK: OLIVER S. FELT. 1866. . Entered, according to Aet of Congress in the year 1866, by CROSBY & AINSWORTH, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. STEREOTYPED AT THE BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY, 4 SPRING LANI > > • v • ,. ■« CONTENTS, PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. nieorems. Page To erect a perpendicular on a right line, „ 9 To erect a perpendicular at the end of a line, 9 To bisect a given angle, 10 To describe a circle through three given points out of a right line, « 10 To find the centre of a given circle, 11 To fine! the length of any given arc of a circle, 11 To draw a tangent to a circle, 11 To draw lines toward the centre* of a circle, the centre being inaccessible,. 11 To describe the segment of a circle, 12 To describe an ellipse, or oval, 13 To describe an elliptic arch, 13 To describe a parabola, . 14 To measure an intercepted line, 14 To find the distance between two inaccessible objects, . 15 To design a beam of strongest section, 15 • To obtain the distance of an inaccessible object, 16 To find the proper position for the eccentric in a steam- engine, - . . . . 16 To find the length of valve-levers, 16 To define the throw of au eccentric, 17 To describe any regular polygon, 17 To coustruct a square upon a right line, . 18 To form a square equal to a given triangle, 18 To form a square equal to a given rectangle, 18 To form a rectangle equal to a given square, 18 To bisect any given triangle, 19 To describe a circle in a given triangle, 19 To form a rectangle in a given triangle, ......... 19 CONTENTS. DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. Definitions, 20 Reduction, 20 Definitions of Arithmetical Signs, 24 Decimal Approximations, 25 Decimal Equivalents, 26 MENSURATION. Mensuration of Surfaces. To measure the surface of a square, rectangle, and rhomboid, 27 Triangles. Two sides of a triangle given, to find the third,. ... 28 To find the area of a triangle, 29 When only the three sides of a triangle can be given, to find the area, 30 Polygons. Table of polygons, 31 The Circle and its Sections. Observations and definitions, 32 General rules in relation to the circle, 33 To find the diameter of a circle, when any chord and versed sine are given, . . - 34 To find the length of any given arc of a circle, 34 To find the area of the sector of a circle, 35 To find the area of a circular ring, ................... 35 To find the area of an ellipse, • 36 To find the area of a parabola, 36 Mensuration of the Superficies, Solidities, and Capacities of Bodies. To find the solidity or capacity of cubical figures,. ... 37 To find the convex surface and solidity of a cylinder, . . 38 To find the length of any cylindrical heliX; 39 To find the convex surface and solidity of a cone, ... 39 To find the solidity or capacity of any frustum of a cone or pyramid, 40 To find the solid contents of a wedge, 41 To find the convex surface, the solidity, or the capacity, of a sphere or globe, . . . 41 CONTENTS* INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC. Explanation of the Slide Rule, . . ........ 43 Numeration,, 44 To multiply by flie Slide Rule, ................ 44 To divide by the Slide Rule, . 44 ■Proportion, 45 Rule of TJiree inverse,. ................... 45 Square and Cube Roots. To find the geometrical mean proportion between two numbers, .................. 46 Mensuration of Surface. Squares, rectangles, &c, .............. . . 47 Circles, polygons, &c, ................. 47 Tables of Gawge- Points for the Slide Rule, . » 48 Mensuration of Solidity and Capacity, 48 Land Surveying, . .„» ........ . 50 Power of Steam- Engines. Condensing engines, «........»., 50 Non-condensing engines, 50 Of Engine Boilers, 51 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. Definitions, 51 Table of Tenacities, Resistance to Compression, and other Properties of Materials of Construction, ......... 52 Table of Comparative Strength and Weight of Ropes and Chains, 53 Table of Metallic Alloys, .................. M Resistance of Bodies to Lateral Pressure, 54 Table of Practical Data, .................. 54 To find the dimensions of a beam capable of sustain- ing a given weight, 55 « To determine the absolute strength of a rectangular beam of timber, .................... 55 To determine the dimensions of a beam with a given de- gree of deflection, 56 To find the absolute strength of a beam fixed at one end, and loaded at the other, . 57 Cast iron beams of strongest section, 57 Of wooden beams trussed, 58 To find the absolute strength of cast iron beama, . ... 58 1 t> CONTENTS. Table of Dimensions for Cast Iron Beams, ...*,«., y 59 To find the weight of a cast iron beam, 60 Resistance of Bodies to Flexure by Vertical Pressure,. ... 60 To determine the dimensions of a column to bear a given pressure, .................... 61 Table of Dimensions of Cylindrical Columns of Cast Iron, . 62 Resistance of Bodies to Twisting, .............. 6? Relative strength of metals to resist torsion, ...... 64 MECHANICS. Preliminary Remarks, * . . . . 64 The Lever, ......................... 65 The Wheel and Axle, or Crane. To determine the amount of effective power produced from a given power, by a crane, ............ 67 Two parts of a crane given, to find the third, , 68- The Pulley, 6S Table of Inclined Planes, .................. 70 Example of Incline and Velocity, ............ 71 The Wedge, , 72 The Screw, ... ................ . 73- CONTINUOXJS CIRCULAR MOTION. When Time is not taken into Account. To find the number of revolutions of the last, to one of the first, in a train of wheels and pinions,. ...... 75 When Time must he regarded. The distance between the centres and velocities of two wheels given, to find their diameters, ......... 76 To determine the proportion of wheels for screw-cutting by a lathe,. 77 Table of Change- Wheels for Screw-cutting, 80 Table of the Pitch of Small Wheels, ............. 81 Table of the Strength of Teeth of Cast Iron Wheels, .... 81 PRACTICAL PROPERTIES O^ WATER. Effects produced by Water in its natural State, 82 To find the velocity of water issuing a circular orifice at any given depth from the surface, ........... 83 ; CONTENTS. STEAM POWEE. To estimate the amount of advantage gained by using steam expansively in a steam-engine, . 88 Effects produced by Water in an aeriform State, ...... 90 Table of the Elastic Force of Steam, ............ 91 Table of Boiling Points, ....... 93 Elastic Force of Steam in Inches of Mercury, 4 93 Effects produced by Air, . . . . ...... 93 Table of the Expansion of Atmospheric Air by Heat, .... 94 Table of the Quantity of Water in Pumps, . . . . 95 Table of Force and Common Appellations of Winds, . . < . 97 FRICTION*. Laws of Friction, 98 BOILERS MD THE STEAM-ENGINE. Construction of Boilers, 100 To determine the proper quantity of heating surface in a boiler, 101 To determine the proper dimensions for a wagon- shaped boiler, 102 To determine the dimensions for a cylindrical boiler, . 102 Specified Particulars, 103 Heating Powers of Combustible Substances, ........ 103 Tables of Dimensions for Cylinders, 104 PROPERTIES OF BODIES. Tables of the Specific Gravities of Bodies, . .105-107 PRACTICAL TABLES. Weight of Square, Round, and Flat Bar Iron, 110^120 Proportional Breadths for six-sided Nuts for Bolts, . . . . 130 Weights of Sheet Iron, Copper, and Brass, 131 Comparative Weights of different Bodies, 132 Weights of Pipes of various Metals, < 133 Weight of Cast Iron Balls, 134 Mensuration of Timber. Flat or board measure, 135 Cubic or solid measure, 136 O CONTENTS. Cast Metal Cylinders, 137 Cast Iron Pipes, 138 Compositions of Copper, Tin, and Zinc, . . i . * 139 Degrees of Heat, i . . . . ........ i . 139 LOGAKITHMS. Utility of Logarithmic Tables, ♦ * . . . . ; . . 146 To find the logarithm of any whole number under 100, . 147 To find the logarithm of any number between 100 and 1000, 147 To find the number indicated by a logarithm,. ..... 148 Table of Logarithms from 1 to 100, 150 MISCELLANEOUS. Centres, 140 Cohesion,. .......... i ............ i . 141 Case- Hardening, 141 Steam Engines. To estimate the effective power of ah engine, 143 To determine the proper velocity for a piston, 143 Table of approximate velocities for pistons, 144 Parallel motion in a steam-engine, 144 Table of distances for a parallel motion, 145 Table of the Quantity and Weight of Water in Pipes, . . ; 151 Changes induced in the Structure of Iron, 152 Strength of Journals of Shafts, 156 Journals of First Movers, 158 Strength of Wheels, 160 Tables of Circumferences and Areas of Circles, . . . . 163-171 Square and Cube Roots of Numbers, 172 Varnishes, 173 Solders, 176 Capacity of Cisterns, 177 Screws, 177 Weights of various Substances, 178 CONTENTS, PART SECOND. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Choice of a Profession. — Respectability of Mechanical Trades, 179 CHAPTER I. The Mechanic should be Master of his Trade, 186 CHAPTER II. The Mechanic should remain attached to his Trade, .... 193 CHAPTER III. The Mechanic should honor his Trade, 200 CHAPTER IV. The Mechanic should devote his Leisure to the General Interests of his Trade, . 214 CHAPTER V. Misdirection of Industry. — Prejudices against the Me- chanical Trades, 216 CHAPTER VI. Intellectual Cultivation of the Mechanic. — ■ Its Impor- tance, 222 10 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. Means of Intellectual Cultivation accessible to the Me- chanic, 240 CHAPTER VIII. Eewards of Intellectual Cultivation accessible to the Me- chanic, . 247 CHAPTER IX. The Mechanic's Studies, 250 CHAPTER X. The Mechanic's Studies continued, 266 CHAPTER XI. The Mechanic's Studies continued, 329 CHAPTER XII. The Mechanic's Studies continued, 340 CHAPTER XIII. The Mechanic's Studies continued, .....* 359 CHAPTER XIV. The Morals of the Mechanic, 381 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 'PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. X* Geometry is the science which investigates and demonstrates the properties of lines on surfaces and solids ; hence, Practical Geometry is the method of applying the rules of the science to practical pur- poses. 1, From any given point {in a straight line, to erect a perpendicular ; or, to make a line at right angles with a given line. On each side of the point A, from which the line is to be made, take equal distances, as A b, A c ; and from b and c as centres, with any - — ^ — f- distance greater than b A, or c A, h ; c describe arcs cutting each other at d ; then will the line A d be the per- \J^ pendicular required. ' \ 2. When a perpendicular is to be made at or near the end of a given line. With any convenient radius, and with any distance from the given line A 6, describe a portion of a circle, as b A c, cutting the given point in A ; draw, through the centre of the circle n, the line b n c; and a line from the point A, cutting the intersections at c, is the perpendicular required. 10 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, 3. To do the same otherwise. From the given point A, with, any convenient radius, describe the arc deb; from d, cut the arc in c, and from c f cut the arc in b ; also, from c and 6 as centres, describe arcs cutting each other in t ; then will the line A i be the perpen- dicular as required. Note. — ■ When the three sides of a triangle are in the pro- portion of 3, 4, and 5 equal parts, respectively, two of the sides form a right angle ; and observe that in eaeh of these or the preceding problems, the perpendiculars may be con- tinued below the given lines, if necessarily required. 4. To bisect any given angle. From the point A as a centre, with v ^T? any radius less than the extent of the \ ' / angle, describe an arc, as c d ; and \ / from c and d as centres, describe arcs y- J cutting each other at b ; then will °\ / the line A b bisect the angle as re- \ / quired. Nr 5. To Jind the centre of a circle, or radius, thai shall cut any three given points, not in a direct line. From the middle point b as a centre, with any radius, as b c, b d, describe a portion of a circle, as c s d ; and from r and t as centres, with an equal radius, cut the por- tion of the circle in c s and d s ; j draw lines through where the arcs cut each other ; and the intersec- tion of the lines at s is the centre of the circle as required. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 11 6. To find the centre of a given circle. Bisect any cord in the circle, as A B, by a perpendicular, C D ; bi- sect also the diameter E D in /; and the intersection of the lines at f is the centre of the circle re- quired. 7. To find the length of any given arc of a circle. With the radius A C, equal to ^th the length of the chord of the arc A B, A and from A as a centre, cut the arc in c ; also from B as a centre, with equal radius, cut the chord in b ; draw the line C b ; and twice the length of the line is the length of the arc nearly. 8. TJirough any given point, to draw a tangent to a circle. • Let the given point be at A ; draw the line A C, on which describe the semicircle ADC; draw the line A D B, cutting the circumference in D, which is the tangent as required. 9. To draw from or to the circumference of a cir- cle lines tending towards the centre, when the centre is inaccessible. Divide the whole or any given portion of the cir- cumference into the desired number of equal parts ; then, with any radius less than the distance of two 2 12 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. divisions, describe arcs cutting each other, as A 1, B 1, C 2, D 2, &c. ; draw the lines C 1, B 2, D 3, &c, which lead to the centre as required. To dfaw the end lines. As A r, F r, from C describe the arc r, and with the radius C 1, from A or F as centres, cut the former arcs at r, or r, and the lines A r, F r, will tend to the centre as required. 10. To describe an arc, or segment of a circle, of large radii. Of any suitable material, construct a triangle, as A B C ; make A B, B C, each equal in length to the chord of the arc D E, and height, twice that of the arc B b. At each end of the chord D E fix'a pin, and at B, in the triangle, fix a tracer, (as a pencil,) move the triangle along the pins as guides ; and the tracer will describe the arc required. 11. Or otherwise. Draw the chord A C B ; also draw the line H D I, parallel with the chord, and equal to the height of the segment ; bisect the chord in C, and erect the perpen- dicular C D ; join A D, D B ; draw A H perpendicular to A D, and B I perpendicular to B D, erect also the perpendiculars A n, B n ; divide A B and H I into any I 2 3 3> 3 2 n 1 1 W\ ^# 1 L 1 2 3 C 3 2 1 B PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 13 number of equal parts; draw the lines 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, &c. ; likewise divide the lines A n, B n, each into half the number of equal parts ; draw lines to D from each division in the lines An,B n, and, through where they intersect the former lines, describe a curve, which will be the arc or segment required. 12. To describe an ellipse, having the two diameters given. On the intersection of the * two diameters as a centre, with a radius equal to the difference of the semi-diameters, describe the arc a b ; and from b as a centre, with half the chord b c a, describe the arc c d ; from o, as a centre, with the distance o d, T cut the diameters in dr,di ; draw the lines r, s, s, and t, s, s ; then from r and t describe the arcs s, s s s, s ; also from d and d, describe the smaller arcs s, s, s, s, which will complete the ellipse as required. 13. To describe an elliptic arch, the width and rise of span being given. Bisect with a line at right angles the chord or span A . B ; erect the perpendicular A « q, and draw the line q D L equal and parallel to A C ; bisect A C and A q in r and n ; make C I equal to C D, and draw the line I r q ; draw also the line n s D ; bisect s D with a line at right angles, and meeting the line C D in g ; draw the line g q, make C P equal to C k, and draw the line g P i ; then from g as a centre, with the radius g D, describe the arc s T> i ; and from k and P as cen- tres, with the radius A k, describe the arcs A s and B i, which completes the arch as required. Or, 14 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 14. Bisect the chord A B, and fix at right angles any straight guide, as b c ; pre- pare, of any suitable mate- rial, a rod or staff, ecfual to half the chord's length, as d ef; from the end of the staff, equal to the height of the arch, fix a pin e, and at the extremity a tracer f ; move the staff, keeping its end to the guide and the fixed pin to the chord 5 and the tracer will describe one half the arc required. 15. To describe a parabola, the dimensions being given. Let A B equal the length, and C D the breadth of the required parabola ; divide C A, C B into any num- 3 a. 1 a 3 c 8 a I ber of equal parts ; also divide the perpendiculars A a and B b into the same number of equal parts ; then from a and b draw lines meeting each division on the line A C B ; and a curve line drawn through each in- tersection will form the parabola required. 16. To obtain by measurement the length of any direct line, though intercepted by some material object. Suppose the distance be- tween A and B a d *is required, but the right line is intercepted by the object C. On the point d, with any con- PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, 15 venient radius, describe the arc c c, make the arc twice the radius in length, through which draw the line dee, and on e describe another arc equal in length to once the radius, as eff; draw the line efr equal to ef d ; on r describe the arc j j, in length twice the radius ; continue the line through r j, which will be a right line, and d e, or e r, equal the distance between d r by which the distance between A and B is obtained as required; Hi. A round piece of timber being given, out of which to cut a beam of strongest section. Divide into three equal parts any diameter in the circle, as A d, e C ; from d or e, erect a perpendicular meeting the circumference of the circle, as d B ; draw A B- and B C, also A D equal to B C, and D C equal to A B, and the rectangle will be a section of the beam as required. 18. To measure the distance between two objects, both being inaccessible. From any point C draw A any line C c, and bisect it in JD ; take any point E in the prolongation of A C, and draw the line E e, making D e equal to D E ; in like manner take any point F in the prolongation of B C, and make D / equal to F D. Produce A D and e c till they meet in a, and also B D and f c till they meet in b ; then a b equal A B, or the distance between the objects as required. 2* -a*-,.- -,- C ee 00 bo .2 '3 CO «3 n cd X5 .2 OS. & BO .3 II CO & 0> «o CO ed 0) o o o CO o o B? u so a CO 3 no o M cr 3 & DO co u 0> 2 If >- o s? B %, 2 CM cd o -*» 3 o > c/T > c& ed ed 2 o N ^3 o v Ph 2 2 ^3 * £ .gj A -»-> *j 3 3 £-> 0) 1 5 * ^ rf ri tf - s * - 2 TS a T3 53 3 .& R % c" o x M V cr 1 3 PI 1 I c .2 -a ej a Si [3 .2* 2 o .2 h o S s-. OJ H ed t o o j-i (1) ■s 3 DO 05 o CM 90 II O CM II OJ ed CO ?3 P) SB o 4B ->-> tt & o X 1— 1 X % QD ,. iwa 1 o > N + ! X ■1- .y > > 5« ■i > ^ r rtv-i _^ — -.. - -.--.-- — - 25 ^ J -^_ Dt_ ^5i, DECIMAL APPROXIMATIONS, fcOR FACILITATING CALCULATIONS IN MENSURATION* Lineal feet multiplied by -00019 = miles* " yards " •000568 — " Square inches (( •007 ca square feet. u yards (< •000206/ as acres. Gircular inches (( •00546 == square feet. Cylindrical inches (( •0004546 = cubic feet. 11 feet <( •02909 — cubic y ards. Cubic inches II •00058 £± cubic feet. " feet «( •03704 — cubic yards. t< « II 6-232 — imperial gallons* " inches, (< •003607 £= " 14 Cylindrical feet " 4-895 = «« it " inches II •002832 s-s " ii Cubic inches (I •263 = lbs. ars. of cast iron* n 11 " •281 as " wrought iron. ti u II •283 .— . «« steeh it <« is •3225 ss " copper. u << II •3037 = " brass. t< t« ^\~~~^~~~---~---w great advantage in deter- jS \ \ /f\^v^ mining the area of any recti- <*~ \ \ /' / \J^\ lineal figure, as the annexed, \. \ \ / X l and by which the measure- ^y u__ — "^i\/ ment is rendered compara- nL^^^ tively simple. POLYGONS. Polygons, being composed of triangles, may of course be similarly measured ; hence, in regular poly* gons, multiply the length of a side by the perpendicular height to the centre, and by the number of sides, and half the product is the area. MENSURATION* 31 I O TtH © © r* 00 CM © ,_, •N <"1 CO © S6 CO 00 w »o © CO CM e» CO CM oo o CD © 22 a *s* r- Ca CO 00 rH to CO 1— 1 **f O i-i r-< CM CO ^ CO 1- © r-4 ■a T-1 or> e (M t- rH CO «i f— ( 00 CD »o T* CO ■Ssifl ^ CM r— 1 »— I © © S © © K-3 «M » 3 H ' cm 1+1 1— wt) r^ (0 ^H © fi"S 60 CO f-H I— CD © oo CO fcl*- a r- ^ti «— t CO i— © ce «o »o q a> 3 r-t r-t rH 1—1 H-) 3 Is? CO CM © CM ,_, i— CO 00 © 00 00 SO 00 i— CO cy; CN CD 00 00 CD CO © t- CO © CD CM »C 6 6 CD © 00 6 © CM cp ip t^ 00 .8 S o «l»- * 6C-S S © O 00 © on »o © o be a o u .3 3 c X P-. C o T3 n3 >h cr 1 0) o o CU G O EH GG Ph w ffl o £ A P « OZ MENSURATION. Application of the Table. 1. The radius of a circle being 6£ feet, required the side of the greatest heptagon that may be in- scribed therein. •867 X 6'5 s= 5-6355, or 5 feet 7A inches nearly. 2. Each side of a pentagon is required to be 9 feet \ required the radius of circumscribing circle. •852 X9= 7-668, or 7 feet 8 inches. 3. A perpendicular from the centre to either side of an octagon is required to be 12 feet ; what must be the radius of circumscribing circle ? 1-08 X 12 = 12-96, or 12 feet 11£ inches. 4. Each side of a hexagon is 4£ yards ; required its superficial contents. 4J^ X 2-598 = 52*6095 square yards. THE CIRCLE AND ITS SECTIONS. Observations and Definitions. 1. The circle contains a greater area than any other plane figure bounded by the same perimeter or outline. 2. The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters ; any circle twice the diam- eter of another contains four times the area of the other. 3. The radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference, as O B. 4. The diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the centre, and terminated both ways at the circumference, as CO A, 5. A chord is a straight line joining any two poirrt9 of the circumference, as D F. 6. The versed sine is a straight line joining the chord and circumference, as E G. MENSURATION. 3d 7. An arc is any part of the circumference, as C D E. 8. A semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a diameter, as C E A. 9. A segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a chord, as D E F. 10. A sector is a part of a circle cut off by two radii, as A O B. General Rules in Relation to the Circle. 1. Multiply the diameter by 3*1416, the product is the circumference. 2. Multiply the circumference by '31831, the product is the diameter. 3. Multiply the square of the diameter by '7854, the product is the area. 4. Multiply the square root of the area by 1-12837, the product is the diameter. 5. Multiply the diameter by -8862, the product is the side of a square of equal area. 6. Multiply the side of a square by 1*128, the product is the diameter of a circle of equal area. Application of the Rules as to Purposes of Practice. 1. The diameter of a circle being 7 T 8 ¥ inches, re- quired its circumference. 7*1875 X 3*1416 •= 22*58025 inches, the circumference. Or, the diameter being 30-£ feet, required the cir- cumference. 3-1416 X 30*5 = 95*8188 feet, the circumference. 2. A straight line, or the circumference of a circle, being 274*89 inches, required the circle's diameter corresponding thereto. 274*89 X *31831 = 87*5 inches diameter. Or, what is the diameter of a circle, when the cir- cumference is 39 feet ? 31831 X 39 = 12-41409 feet, and -41409 X 12 = 4*96908 inches, or 12 feet 5 inches, very nearly the diameter. 34 MENSURATION. 8. The diameter of a circle is 3| inches ; what is its area in square inches ? 3-75 2 = 14-0625 X '7854 as 11-044, &c„ inches area. Or, suppose the diameter of a circle 25 feet G inches, required the area. 25-5 2 = 650-25 X -7854 = 510-706, &c, feet, the area. 4. What must the diameter of a circle be, to con- tain an area equal to 706-86 square inches ? ^7~0lT8ef= 26-586 x 1-12837 = 29-998 or 30 inches, the diam- eter required. 5. The diameter of a circle is 14^ inches ; what must I make each side of a square, to he equal in area to the given circle ? 14-25 X '8862 = 12-62835 inches, length of side required. Any chord and versed sine of a circle being given, to find the diameter. Bute. — Divide the sum of the squares of the chord and versed sine by the versed sine, the quotient is the diameter of corresponding circle. 1. The chord of a circle A B equal 6-| feet, and the versed sine C D equal 2 feet, required the cir- cle's diameter. 6-5 2 + 2 2 = 46-25 -i- 2 = 23-125 feet, the diameter. 2. In a curve of a railway, I stretched a line 72 feet in length, and the distance from the line to the curve I found to be 1^ ft.; required the radius of the curve. 72 2 +lW=5185-5625, and 5 1 1 ^' 56 ^°=2074-225 ft., the radius. l'Zo X & To find the length of any given arc of a circle. &ule. — From eight times the chord of half the arc subtract the chord of the whole arc, and one third of the remainder is equal the length of the arc. MENSURATION. 35 Required the length of the arc ABC, the chord A B of half the arc being 4 feet 3 inches, and chord A C of the whole arc 8 feet 4 inches. 4-25 X 8 = 34, and 34 — 8-333 =^~ 7 - = 8-555 feet, ' the length of the arc. To find the area of the sector of a circle. Rule. — Multiply the length of the arc by its radius, and half the product is the area. The length of the arc A C B, equal 9^ feet, and the radii F A, F B, equal each 7 feet, required the area. 9-5x7 = 65-5 -^ 2 = 32-75, the area. Note. — The most simple means whereby to find the area of the segment of a circle is, to first find the area of a sector whose arc is equal to that of the given segment ; and if it be less than a semicircle, subtract the area of the triangle formed by the chord of the segment and radii of its extremities ; but if more than a semicircle, add the area of the triangle to the area of the sector, and the remainder, or sum, is the area of the segment. Thus, suppose the area of the segment A C B e is required, and that the length of the arc A C B equal 9| feet, F A and F B each equal 7 feet, and the chord A B equal 8 feet 4 inches, also the perpendicular e F equal 3| feet. 9-75 X 7 = 34-125 feet, the area of the sector. 8-333 X 3-75 15-624 feet, the area of the triangle. And 34-125 — 15-624 = 18-501 feet, the area of the segment. To find the area of the space contained between two concentric circles. Rule. — Multiply the sum of the inside and outside diameters by their difference, and by -7854, the product is the area. 4 86 MENSURATION. 1. Suppose the external circle A B equal 32 inches, and internal circle C D equal 28 inches ; re- quired the area of the space con- tained between them. 32 + 28 - 60, and 32 — 28 - 4, hence 60 X 4 X -7854 = 188-496 in., the area. 2. The exterior diameter of the fly-wheel of a steam engine is 20 feet, and the interior diameter 18^ feet ; required the area of the surface or rim of the wheel. 20 -+- 18-5 - 38-5 and 20 — 18-5 = 1-5, hence 38-5 X 1-5 X '7854 = 45 - 35j &c, feet, the area. To find the area of an ellipsis or oval. Ride. — Multiply the longest diam eter by the shortest, and the product by •7854 ; the result is the area. An oval is 25 inches by 16*5 ; what are its superfi- cial contents ? 25 X 16-5=412-5 x '7854 = 323-9775 inches, the area. Note. — Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, and the product is the circumference of the oval or ellipsis. To find the area of a parabola, or its segment. Rule. — Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and two thirds of the product is the area. What is the area of a parabola whose base is 20 feet and height 12 ? 20 x 12 = 240 3 X2 = 160 feet, the area. Note. — Although the whole of the preceding practical applications or examples are given in measures of feet or inches, these being considered as the most generally familiar, yet the rules are equally applicable to any other unit of measurement whatever, as yards, chains, acres, &c, &c, 8r* MENSURATION. 37 2. MENSURATION OP THE SUPERFICIES, SOLID- ITIES, AND CAPACITIES OP BODIES. To find the solidity or capacity of any figure in the cubical form. Bute. — Multiply the length of any one side by its breadth and by the depth or distance to its opposite side ; the product is the solidity or capacity, in equal terms of measurement. Application of the Rule to practical Purposes. 1. Required the number of cubic inches in a piece of timber 23-| inches long, 7f inches broad, and 3-| inches in thickness. 23-5 X 775 x 3-625 = 660-203 cubic inches. 2. A rectangular cistern is in length 8-^- feet, in breadth o\ feet, and in depth 4 feet ; required its ca- pacity in cubic feet, also its capacity in British impe- rial gallons. 8-5 X 525 X 4 = 178-5 cubic feet, and 178-5 X 6-232 ( see Table of Decimal Approximations, p. 25) = 1112*412 gallons. 3. A rectangular cistern, capable of containing 520 imperial gallons, is to be 7-^ feet in length, and 4-£ feet in width ; it is required to ascertain the necessary depth. 7-25 X 4-5 X 6-232 = 203-318, and f°'!!! = 2 ' 55 7 feet, or 2 feet 6| inches, nearly. 4. A rectangular piece of cast iron, 20 inches long and 6 inches broad, is to be formed of sufficient dimensions to weigh 150 lbs. ; what will be the depth required ? 20 X 6 X -263 (see Table of Decimal Approximations, Cast Iron, p. 25) = 31-96, and gy.gg = 4-69 in., or 4 and 11 in., the thickness required. 38 MENSURATION. To find the convex surface, and solidity or capacity f of a cylinder, Rule 1. — Multiply the circumference of the cylin- der by its length or height ; the product is the convex surface. Rule 2. — Multiply the area of the diameter by the length or height, and the product is the cylinder's solidity or capacity, as may be required. Application of the Rules, 1. The circumference of a cylinder is 37^- inches, and its length 54| inches ; required the convex surface in square feet. 5475 X 37'5 X '007 (see Table of Approximations) = 14-371 square feet. 2. A cylindrical piece of timber is 9 inches diame- ter, and 3 feet 4 inches in length ; required its solidity in cubic inches, and also in cubic feet. 3 feet 4 inches & 40 inches, and 9 9 X 7854 X 40 = 2544-696 cubic inches ; then 2544-696 X . 00058 m 1-4759 cubic feet. 3. Suppose a well to be 4 feet 9 inches diameter, and 16^ feet from the bottom to the surface of the water ; how many imperial gallons are therein contained? 475 2 x 16-5 x 4-895 = 1822-162 gallons. 4. Again, suppose the well's diameter the same, and its entire depth 35 feet ; required the quantity in cubic yards of material excavated in its formation. 4-75 2 X 35 X -02909 = 22-973 cubic yards. 5. I have a cylindrical cistern capable of holding 7068 gallons, and its depth is 10 feet ; now I want to replace it with one of an equal depth, but capable of holding 12,500 gallons ; what must be its diameter? 4-895 X 10 = 48-95, and ^|^° = */?WZ = 15-9687 feet, or 15 feet llf inches. 6. A cylindrical piece of lead is required, 1\ inches MENSURATION. 39 diameter, and 168 lbs. in weight; what must be its length in inches ? 7-52 x -3223 18, and -^ - 9-3 inches. To find the length of a cylindrical helix, or spiral, wound round a cylinder. Rule. — Multiply the circumference of the base by the number of revolutions of the spiral, and to the square of the product add the square of the height ; the square root of the sum is the length of the spiral. Application of the Rule. 1. Required the length of the thread or screw twist- ing round a cylinder 22 inches in circumference 3^ times, and extending along the axis 16 inches. 22 x 3-5 = 77 2 = 5929, and 16 2 = 256, then V5929 + 256 = 78-64 inches. 2. The well of a winding staircase is 5 feet diameter, and height to the top landing 25 feet ; the hand-rail is to make 2\ revolutions ; required its length. 5 feet diameter = 15*7 feet circumference. 15-7 X 2-5 = 39-2 5 2 = 1540-5625, and 25 2 = 625, then a/154'J -f- 625 = 46-5 feet, the length required. To find the convex surface, solidity, or capacity of a cone or pyramid. Rule 1 . — Multiply the circumference of the base by the slant height, and half the product is the slant surface. Rule 2. — Multiply the area of the base by the per- pendicular height, and one third of the product is the solidity or capacity, as may be required. Application of the Rules. 1. Required the area, in square inches, of the slant surface of a cone whose slant height equal 18| inches, and diameter at the base 6^ inches. 6-25 X 3-1416 = 19-635 circumference of the base 19-635x18-75 10 . n _ 01Q . . , ~ = 184-078125 square inches. and 40 MENSURATION. 2. Required the quantity of lead, in square feet sufficient to cover the slant surface of a hexagonal pyr- amid whose slant height is 42 feet, and the breadth of each side at the base 4 feet 9 inches. 4-75 X 42 x 6 sides e = 598*5 square feet. 3. What is the solidity of a cone, in cubic inches, the diameter at the base being 15 inches, and per- pendicular height 32-| inches ? 15 2 X -7854x32-5 1Q1 . ._._ ,. . . - = 1914-4125 cubic inches. o 4. In a square solid pyramid of stone 67 feet in height, and 16^ feet at the base, how many cubic feet? 16-5x16-5x67 cnQAO s u- c * - = 6080-25 cubic feet. o To find the solidity or capacity of any frustum of a cone or pyramid. Rule. — If the base be a circle, add into one sum the two diameters, or, if a regular polygon, the breadth of one side at the top and at the base ; then from the square of the sum subtract the product of these di- ameters or breadths ; multiply the remainder by -7854, if a circle, or by the tabular area (see Table of Poly- gons, p. 31) and by one third of the height; and the product is the content in equal terms of unity. Note. — Where the whole height of the cone or pyramid can be obtained, of which the given frustum forms a part, the most simple method is, first to find the whole contents, then the contents extending beyond the frustum ; and, subtracting the less from the greater, leaves the contents of the frustum required. Application of the Rides. 1. The perpendicular height A B of the frustum of a hexagonal pyra- mid C D E, is 7-| feet, and the breadth of each side at top and base equal 3f and 2-| feet ; required the solid contents of the frustum in cubic feet. MENSURATION. 41 3-75 + 2-5 = 6-25, and 6-25 X 6-25 = 39-0625, then 3-75x2-5 = 9-375, and 39-0625— 9-375 = 29-6875x2-598 (tabular area, p. 31) = 77-138 X 25 or £ of the height = 192-845 cubic feet. 2. Required the solidity of the frustum of a cone, the top diameter of which is 7 inches, the base diame- ter 9-^, and the perpendicular height 12. 7 4-9-5 a = 272-25, and 7x9-5 = 66-5, then 272-25—66-5 = 205-75 X -7854 = 161-576 X 4 or £ of the height = 646-3 cubic inches. 3. A vessel in the form of an in- verted cone, as A B C D, is 5 feet in diameter at the top, 4 feet at the bottom, and 6 feet in depth ; re- quired its capacity in imperial gal- lons. 5 + 4 = 9 2 = 81, and 5 X 4 = 20, hence 81 — 20 = 61 X '7854, and by 2 or £ of the depth = 95*8188 cubic feet, and X 6-232 = 597-1427 gallons. To find the solid contents of a wedge. Rule. — To twice the length of the base add the length of the edge ; multiply the sum by the breadth of the base, and by the perpendicular height from the base, and one sixth of the product is the solid contents. Application of the Rule. Required the solidity of a wedge, in cubic inches, the base ABCD being 9 inches by 3£, the edge E F 7 inches, and the perpendicular height G E 15. = 218-75 cubic inches. 18- + 7 X 3-5 X 15 6 To find the convex surface, the solidity, or the capacity of a sphere or globe. Rule I. — Multiply the square of the diameter by 3*1416 ; the product is the. convex surface. Rule 2. — Multiply the cube of the diameter by 5236 ; the product is the solid contents. 42 MENSURATION. Rule 3. — Multiply the cube of the diameter in feet by 3*263, or in inches by -001888 ; the product is the capacity in imperial gallons. Application of the Rules. 1. Required the convex surface, the solidity, and the weight in cast iron of a sphere or ball 10£ inches in diameter. 10-5 2 X 3-1416 = 346-3614 square inches. 10-5 3 X -5236 = 606-132, &c, cubic inches ; and 606-132 x -263 (see Table of Approximations, p. 25) = 159-4 lbs. 2. A hollow or concave copper ball is required, 8 inches diameter, and in weight just sufficient to sink to its centre in common water ; what is the proper thick- ness of copper of which it must be made ? Weight of a cubic inch of water = -03617 lbs. ) „ co copper = -3225 " \ see P' 63 * 8 3 X -5236 X -03617 A QAQOQ . . , t . ,. , ~ = 4*84828 cub. m. of water to be displaced. 4*84828 And 0OO = 15-0334 cubic inches of copper in the ball. 'oZZo Then 8 2 X 3-1416 = 201-0624, and l5 '-^ 3 ^- = -0747 inches, the 201-0624 ' thickness of copper required. •0747 X 16 = T !g. of an inch full, or 3 lbs. copper to a square foot. 3. What diameter must I make a leaden ball, so as to weigh 72 lbs. ? •5236 X -4103 = -21483308, and . 214 q| 3Q8 = V340 = 6-97 inches, diameter. INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC, UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE* The slide rule is an instrument by which the greater portion of operations in arithmetic and mensuration may be advantageously performed, provided the lines of division and gauge points be made properly correct, and their several values familiarly understood. The lines of division are distinguished by the letters A B C D ; A B and C being each divided alike, and containing what is termed a double radius, or double series of logarithmic numbers, each series being sup- posed to be divided into 1000 equal parts, and dastrib* Uted along the radius in the following manner : — om 1 to 2 contains 301 of those parts, being the log. of 2, 477 602 699 778 845 903 954 1000 being the whole-number* The line D, on the improved rules, consists of only a single radius 5 and although of larger radius, the logarithmic series is the same, and disposed of along the line in a similar proportion, forming exactly a line of square roots to the numbers on the lines B C» 44 INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC. NUMERATION. Numeration teaches us to estimate or properly value the numbers and divisions on the rule in an arithmet- ical form. Their values are all entirely governed by the value set upon the first figure, and, being decimally reckoned, advance tenfold from the commencement to the termi- nation of each radius : thus, suppose 1 at the joint be one, the 1 in the middle of the rule is ten, and 1 at the end one hundred : again, suppose 1 at the joint ten, 1 in the middle is 100, and 1 or 10 at the end is 1000, &c, the intermediate divisions on which complete the whole system of its notation. TO MULTIPLY NUMBERS BY THE RULE. Set 1 on B opposite to the multiplier on A ; and against the number to be multiplied on B is the prod- uct on A. Multiply 6 by 4. Set 1 on B to 4 on A; and against 6 on B is 24 on A. The slide thus set, against 7 on B is 28 on A. 8 << 32 " 9 (< 36 " 10 " 40 " 12 « 48 " 15 « 60 " 25 H 100, &c. &<5 TO DIVIDE NUMBERS UPON THE TtULE. Set the divisor on B to 1 on A ; and against the number to be divided on B is the quotient on A. Divide 63 by 3. Set 3 on B to 1 on A ; and against 63 on B is 21 on A. _*_ — , — - . i , INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC, 45 PROPORTION, OR RULE OF THREE DIRECT. Rule. — Set the first term on B to the second on A ; find against the third upon B is the fourth upon A. 1. If 4 yards of cloth Cost 38 shillings, what will 30 yards cost at the same rate ? Set 4 on B to 38 on A ; and against 30 on B is 285 shil- lings on A. 2. Suppose I pay 31s. 6d. for 3 ewt. of iron; at what rate is that per ton ? 1 ton ss 20 cwt. Set 3 upon B to 31-5 upon A ; and against 20 upon B is 210 upon A. RULE OF THREE INVERSE, Bute. — Invert the slide, and the operation is the same as direct proportion. 1. I know that six men are capable of performing a certain given portion of work in eight days, but I want the same performed in three ; how many men must there be employed ? Set 6 upon C to 8 upon A ; and against 3 upon C is 16 upon A. 2. The lever of a safety valve is 20 inches in length, and 5 inches between the fixed end and centre of the valve ; what weight must there be placed on the end of the lever to equipoise a force or pressure of 40 lbs. tending to raise the valve ? Set 5 upon C to 40 upon A ; and against 20 on C is 10 on A. 3. If 8f yards of cloth, \\ yards in width, be a sufficient quantity, how much will be required of that which is only -|ths in width, to effect the same purpose ? Set 1*5 on C to 8 - 75 on A ; and against "875 upon C is 15 yards upon A. 48 INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC. upon C is 30 SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS. On the engineer's rule, when the lines C and D are equal at both ends, C is a table of squares, and D a table of roots, as — Squares-, 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 on C. Roots, 123 4 5 6 7 8 9 on D. Tojlnd the geometrical mean proportion between two numbers* Set one of the numbers upon C to the same number upon D 5 and against the other number upon C is the mean number or side of an equal square upon D. Required the mean proportion between 20 and 45. Set 20 upon C to 20 upon D ; and against 45 onD. To cube any number, set the number upon C to 1 or 10 upon D ; and against the same number upon D is the cube number upon C. Required the cube of 4. Set 4 upon C to 1 or 10 upon T> ; and against 4 upon D is 64 upon C. To extract the cube root of any number, invert the slide, and set the number upon B to 1 or 10 upon D ; and where two numbers of equal value coincide, on the lines B D, is the root of the given number. Required the cube root of 64. Set 64 upon B to 1 or 10 upon D ; and against 4 upon B is 4 upon D, or root of the given number. On the common rule, when 1 in the middle of the line C is set opposite to 10 on D, then C is a table of squares, and "D a table of roots. To cube any number by this rule, set the number upon C to 10 upon D ; and against the same number upon D is the cube upon C. INSTRUMENTAL MENSURATION. 47 MENSURATION OF SURFACE* 1. Squares, Rectangles, &c. Rule. — When the length is given in feet and the breadth in inches, set the breadth on B to 12 on A ; and against the length on A is the content in square feet on B. If the dimensions are all inches, set the breadth on B to 144 upon A ; and against the length upon A is the number of square feet on B. Required the content of a board 15 inches broad and 14 feet long. Set 15 upon B to 12 upon A ; and against 14 upon A is 17*5 square feet on B. 2. Circles, Polygons, &c. Rule. — Set -7854 upon C to 1 or 10 upon D ; then will the lines C and D be a table of areas and diameters. Areas, 3-14 7.06 12-56 19-63 28*27 38-48 50-26 63-61 upon C. Diam.,2 „S456739 uponD. In the common rule, set -7854 on C to 10 on D ; then C is a line or table of areas, and D of diameters, as before. Set 7 upon B to 22 upon A ; then B and A form or become a table of diameters and circumferences of circles. Cir., 3-14 6-28 9-42 12-56 15-7 18-85 22 25-13 28-27 upon A. Dia.,1 234 56 789 upon B. Polygons from 3 to 12 sides. — Set the gauge-point upon C to 1 or 10 upon D ; and against the length of one side upon D is the area upon C. Sides, 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12. Gauge-points, -433 1-7 2-6 3-63 4-82 6-18 7*69 9-37 11-17 Required the area of an equilateral triangle, each side 12 inches in length. Set -433 upon C to 1 upon D ; and against 12 upon D are 62-5 square inches upon C. 5 f, L - •"- ' — - • — — — - iS JtfSTKTJMENTAL MENSURATION. ; : ! TABLE OF GAUGE-POINTS FOR THE ENGINEER'S RULE. Names'. F,F,F. F,l,l. 83 li I, i* 1728 F.I. 106 I,i. F. i. 121 Cubic inches,, 578 1273 105 : Cubic feet r 1 144 1 1833 22 121 33 Imp* gallons 163 231 277 294 353 306 529 j Water in lbs. 16 23 276 293 352 305 528 \ Gold- 814 1175 141 149 178 155 269 Silver " 15 216 261 276 334 286 5 . Mercury ** 118 169 203 216 258 225 389 Brass M 193 177 333 354 424 369 637 Copper ** 18- 26 319 331 397 345 596 Lead ** 141 203 243 258 31 27 465 Wro'tiron" 207 297 357 338 453 394 682 Cast iron ** 222 32 384 407 489 424 733 | Tin 219 315 378 401 481 419 728 : Steel H 202 292 352 372 448- 385 671 Coal 127 183' 22 33 28 242 42 t Marble " 591 85 102 116 13 113 195 • ' Freestone " 632 915 11 11*2 14 141 21 | 1 FOR THE COMMON SLIDE RULE. ^ Names. F,F,F. 36 F. 1. 1. 518 I, i, I. 624 F.I. 660 1,1. 799 F. I. 113 Cubic inches, 625 Cubic feety 625 9 108 114 133 119 206 Water ,in lbs. 10 144 174 184 22 191 329 Gold 507 735 88 96 118 939 180 Silver " 938 136 157 173 208 173 354 ! Mercury " 738 122 127 132 162 141 242 , t Brass M 12 174 207 221 265 23 397 Copper '• Lead 112 163 196 207 247 214 371 s 880 126 152 162 194 169 289 Wro'tiron" 129 186 222 235 283 247 423 Cast iron " 139 2 241 254 304 265 458 ! Tin " 137 135 235 25 300 261 454 Steel 136 183 22 233 278 239 418 Coal " 795 114 138 146 176 151 262 Marble " 370 53 637 725 81 72 121 ■ Freestone " 394 57 69 728 873 755 132 •■■«" — - — n(. .,.,. .„ — a — ^u- . ,.,. , . . ":■;- &e . • ■-- v.-.-,.,.- INSTRUMENTAL MENSUBATtONi 49 Mensuration of solidity and capacity. General rule. — Set the iength Upon B to the gauge* point Upon A j and against the side of the square, of diameter on D, are the cubic contents^ or weight in lbs. on d 1. Required the cubic contents of a tree 30 feet in length, and 10 inches quarter girt. Set 20 Upon B to 144 (the gauge-point) Upin A 5 and against 10 upon D is 20*75 feet upon C* % In a cylinder 9 inches in length and 1 inches diameter, how many cubic inches ? Set 9 upon B to. 1273 (the gaUge-^polnt) Upon A; and against 7 on D is 846 inches ori d 3. What is the weight of a bar of cast iron 3 inches square, and 6 feet long ? Set 6 upon B to 32 (the gauge-point) upon A 5 and against 3 upon D is 168 lbs* upon C» By the common ruld 4* Required the weight of a cylinder of wrought iron iO inches longj and 5\ diameter* Set 10 upon B to 283 (G. Pt.) upon A \ and against 5£ upon D is 66-65 lbs. on 0. 5* What is the weight of a dry rope 25 yards long, and 4 inches circumference ? Set 25 upon B to 47 (G. Pt.) upoii A ; and against 4 on D is 53-16 lbs. on C. 6. What is the weight of a short-linked chain 3d yards in length, and -j^ths of an inch in diameter ? Set 30 upon B to 52 (G, Pt.) upon A} and against 6 on D is 29-5 lbs. on O, zzi/ Ht«-r/"«ftiif--^"^ ■'v'S: ,■■ t IB,;:', •■ ; f : -7 -V • rs~ r 50 INSTRUMENTAL RULES. LAND SURVEYING. If the dimensions taken are in chains, the gauge- point is 1 or 10 ; if in perches, 160 ; and if in yards, 4840. Rale. — Set the length upon B to the gauge-point on A ; and against the breadth upon A is the content in acres upon B. 1. Required the number of acres or contents of a field 20 chains 50 links in length, and 4 chains 40 links in breadth. Set 20*5 on B to 1 on A ; and against 4-4 on A is 9 acres on B. 2. In a piece of ground 440 yards long, and 44 broad, how many acres? Set 440 upon B to 4840 on A ; and against 44 on A is 4 acres on B. Power of steam-engines. Condensing Engines. •— Rule. Set 3*5 on C to 10 on D ; then t) is a line of diameters for cylinders * and G the corresponding number of horses' power; thus, H.Pr.3£ 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 30 40 50 on C. O; D. 10 in. 10| 12 13£ 15£ 17 18| 2l£ 24 26| 29£ 33| 37| on D. The same is effected on the common rule by setting 5 on C to 12 on D. Non-condensing Engines. — Rule. Set the pressure of steam in lbs. per square inch on B to 4 upon A ; and against the cylinder's diameter on D is the number of horses' power upon C. Required the power of an engine, when the cylinder is 20 inches diameter and steam 30 lbs. per square inch. Set 30 on B to 4 on A ; and against 20 on D is 30 horses' power on C. The same is effected on the common rule by setting the force of the steam on B to 250 on Ai STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 51 OF ENGINE BOILERS. How many superficial feet are contained in a boiler 23 feet in length and 5-| in width ? Set 1 upon B to 23 upon A ; and against 5'5 upon B is 126'5 square feet upon A. If 5 square feet of boiler surface be sufficient for each horse -power, how many horses' power of engine is the boiler equal to ? Set 5 upon B to 126-5 upon A ; and against 1 upon B is 25*5 upon A. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Materials of construction are liable to four differ- ent kinds of strain, viz., stretching, crushing, transverse action, and torsion, or twisting : the first of which de- pends upon the body's tenacity alone ; the second, on its resistance to compression ; the third, on its tenacity and compression combined; and the fourth, on that property by which it opposes any acting force tending to change from a straight line, to that of a spiral direc- tion, the fibres of which the body is composed. In bodies, the power of tenacity and resistance to compression, in the direction of their length, is as the cross section of their area multiplied by the results of experiments on similar bodies, as exhibited in the fol- lowing table. 5* 52 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Table showing the Tenacities, Resistances to Compres- sion, and other Properties of the common Materials of Construction. - Names of Bodies. Absolute. Compared with Cast Iron. Tenacity in lbs. per eq,. inch. Resistance to compres- sion in lbs. per sq. in. Its strength is Its exten- sibility is Its stiffness is Ash, 14130 .... 0-23 2-6 0-089 Beech, 12225 8548 0-15 2-1 0-073 Brass, 17968 10304 0-435 0»9 0-49 Brick, 275 562 ... . . ... Cast Iron, .... 13434 86397 1-000 1-0 1-000 Copper,(wrOught) 33000 Elm, 9720 1033 0-21 2-9 0-073 Fir, or Pine, white 12346 2028 0-23 2-4 0-1 " " " red. 11800 5375 0-3 2-4 0-1 « " " yellow 11835 5445 0-25 2-9 0-087 Granite, Aberdeen . . . 10910 ... . , ... Gun-metal, (cop- per 8, and tin 1.) 35838 .... 0-65 1-25 0-535 Malleable Iron, . 56000 .... 1-12 0-86 1-3 Larch, 12240 5568 0-136 2-3 0-058 Lead, 1824 .... 0-096 2-5 0-0385 Mahogany, Hond. 11475 8000 0-24 2-9 0-487 Marble, 551 6060 . . . . . . . Oak, 11880 9504 • 0-25 2-8 0-093 Rope, (lin.incir.) 200 .... . . . . . . . Steel, 128000 .... . . . . . , . Stone, Bath, . . . 478 .... . . . . . , . " Craigleith, 772 5490 . . . . . . . " Dundee, . 2661 6630 . . . . . . . " Portland, . 857 3729 . . . . . . . Tin, (cast) .... 4736 .... 0-182 0-75 0-25 Zinc, (sheet). . . 9120 .... 0-365 0-5 0-76 L. — — . STRENGTH JOF MATERIALS. 53 COOOOD^JTC5C»Ot^CO. >tt|l- , H» '*3!i-'44» »*-|>— 'colt— ' Circum-of rope in inches. *- CO CR i-* © -a C* ^ to Weight per fathom, in lbs. £k^H roi ^j°^H> O 00 C» . Weight per fathom, in lbs. OD -J © Cs ♦£»• C* bO »-» h-» 1 f 5- Cv-I^t0 05 0iOC5 0i ^&4 • flSCft^OSCOtpwOO Circum. of rope in inches. C5Csi^^WCOWN2W OffiODO(CCQOCOCO Weight per fathom, in lbsu «r «i a «r s£>!-* Biameter of chain, in inches. -t— ' ffi05^0t- , 05 0ffl05 Weight per fathom, in lbs. tO tO IO M H M M M M ^tO©QD©^C0»-»© QDOOODM+^QDOOMO ft! I 3 | A. I ^ & >§ Note. — It must be understood and also borne in mind £hat, in estimating the amount of tensile strain to which a body is subjected, the weight of the body itself must also be taken into account; for according to its position so may it approximate to its whole weight, in tending to produce extension within itself; as in the almost constant applica- tion of ropes and chaias to great depths, considerable heights, &c- * 54 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Alloys that are of greater Tenacity than the Sum of their Constituents, as determined by the Experiments of Muschenbroek. Swedish copper 6 pts„ Malacca tin 1 ; tenacity per sq. inch, 64,000 lbs. Chili copper 6 parts, Malacca tin 1 ; Japan copper 5 parts, Banca tin 1 ; Anglesea copper 6 parts, Cornish tin 1 ; Common block-tin 4, lead 1, Zinc 1 ; Malacca tin 4, regulus of antimony 1 ; Block tin 3, lead I ; Block tin 8, zinc 1 ; Lead 1, zinc 1 ; 60,000 57,000 41,000 13,000 .12,000 10,200 10,000 4,500 RESISTANCE TO LATERAL PRESSURE, OR TRANSVERSE ACTION. The strength of a square or rectangular beam to re- sist lateral pressure, acting in a perpendicular direction to its length, is as the breadth and square of the depth, and inversely as the length; — thus, a beam twice the breadth of another, all other circumstance's being alike, equal twice the strength of the other ; or twice the depth, equal four times the strength, and twice the length, equal only half the strength, &c, according to the rule. Table of Data, containing the Results of Experiments on the Elasticity and Strength of various Species of Timber, by Mr. Barlow. Species of Timber. Value of E. Value of S. Species of Timber. Value of E. Value of S. Teak .... 174-7 2402 Elm .... 50-64 1013 Poona . . . 122-20 2221 Pitch pine . . 88- (IS 1032 English Oak . 105 1072 Red pine . . 133 1341 Canadian do . 155-5 1760 New England fir 158-5- 1102 Dantzic do . 86-2 1457 Riga fir . . . 90 1100 Adriatic do . 70-5 1383 Mar Forest do 63 1200 Ash . . . 119 2026 Larch . . . 70 900 Beech . . . 98 1550 Norway spruce 105-47 1474 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 55 To find the dimensions of a beam capable of sustain- ing a given iveight, with a given degree of deflection, when supported at both ends. Rule. — Multiply the weight to be supported in lbs. by the cube of the length in feet ; divide the product by 32 times the tabular value of E, multiplied into the given deflection in inches ; and the quotient is the breadth multiplied by the cube of the depth in inches. Note 1. — When the beam is intended to be square, then the fourth root of the quotient is the breadth and depth required. Note 2. — If the beam is to be cylindrical, multiply the quotient by 1'7, and the fourth root of the product is the diameter. Ex. The distance between the supports of a beam of Riga fir is 16 feet, and the weight it must be capa- ble of sustaining in the middle of its length is 8000 lbs., with a deflection of not more than £ of an inch ; what must be the depth of the beam, supposing the breadth 8 inches ? H | '^rj- 5 = 15175 -f 8 = Vl89T= 12-35 in., the depth. To determine the absolute strength of a rectangular beam of timber, when supported at both ends, and load- ed in the middle of its length, as beams in general ought to be calculated to, so that they may be rendered capa- ble of withstanding all accidental cases of emergency. Rule. — Multiply the tabular value of S by four times the depth of the beam in inches, and by the area of the cross section in inches ; divide the product by the distance between the supports in inches, and the quotient will be the absolute strength of the beam in lbs. Note 1. — If the beam be not laid horizontally, the-distance between the supports, for calculation, must be the horizontal distance. Note 2. — One fourth of the weight obtained by the rule, is the greatest weight that ought to be applied in practice aa permanent load. oh STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Note 3. — If the load is to be applied at any other point than the middle, then the strength will be as the product of the two distances is to the square of half fche length of the beam between the supports ;-^or, twi^e the distance from one end, multiplied by twice from the other, and divided by the whole length, equal the effective length of the beam. Ex. In a building 18 feet in width, an engine boiler of 54 tons is to be fixed, the centre of which to be 7 feet from the wall $ and having two pieces of red pine, 10 inches by 6, which I can lay across the two walls for the purpose of slinging it at each end, — may I with sufficient confidence apply them, so as to effect this object ? 2240x5-5 c1flA1 , , , j — ^ — ss 6160 lbs. to carry at each end. And 18 feet — 7 = 11, double each, or 14 and 22, then 14 x 22 — ^-— as 17 feet, or 204 inches, effective length of beam. Tabular value of S, red pine, « 1341 X * * 10 X 60 -^ 15776 lbs. the absolute strength of each piece of timber at that point. To determine the dimensions of a rectangular bmni capable of supporting a required weight, with a given degree of defection, when fixed at one end. Rule. — Divide the weight to be supported, in lbs., by the tabular value of E, multiplied by the breadth and deflection, both in inches ; and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied by the length in feet, equal the depth required in inches. Ex, A beam of ash is intended to bear a load of 700 lbs. at its extremity ; its length being 5 feet, its breadth 4 inches, and the deflection not to exceed \ of an inch. Tabular value of E = 119 X 4 X -5^238 the divisor j then 700 -f 238 — Sv^^oTx 5=7*25 in., depth of the beam. -STRENGTH OF MATERIALS* 57 To find the absolute strength of a rectangular bearn^ when fixed at one end, and loaded at the other* Ride, — Multiply the value of S by the depth of the bean), and by the area of its section, both in inches $ divide the product by the leverage in inches, and the quotient equal the absolute strength of the beam in lbs. Ex, A beam of Riga fir, 12 inches by 4^, and pro* jecting 6^ feet from the wall 5 what is the greatest weight it will support at the extremity of its length ? Tabular value of S =s 1100. 12 X 4*5 = 54 sectional area* Then, 1100 X 12 X 54 78 * = 9138-4 lbs. When fracture of a beam is produced by vertical pressure, the fibres of the lower section of fracture are separated by extension, whilst at the same time those of the upper portion are destroyed by compression ; hence exists a point in section where neither the one nor the other takes place, and which is distinguished as the point of neutral axis. Therefore, by the law of fracture thus established, and proper data of tenacity and compression given, as in the table, (p. 52) we are enabled to form metal beams of strongest section with the least possible material. Thus, in cast iron, the resis- tance to compression is nearly as 6£ to 1 of tenacity ; consequently a beam of cast iron, to be of strongest section, must be of the following form, and a parabola in the direction of its length, the quantity of material in the bottom flange being about 6£ times that of the upper. But such is not the case with beams of timber ; for although the tenacity of timber be on an average twice that of its resistance to compression, its flexibility is so great, that any considerable length of beam, where columns cannot be situated to its support, 58 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, requires to be strengthened or trussed by iron rod&, as in the following manner. And these applications of principle not only tend to diminish deflection, but the required purpose is also more effectively attained, and that by lighter pieces of timber. To ascertain the absolute strength of a cast iron beam of the preceding form, or that of strongest section. Rule. — Multiply the sectional area of the bottom flange in inches by the depth of the beam in inches, and divide the product by the distance between the supports, also in inches; and 514 times the quotient equal the absolute strength of the beam in cwts. The strongest form in which any given quantity of matter can be disposed is that of a hollow cylinder ; and it has been demonstrated that the maximum of strength is obtained in cast iron, when the thickness of the annulus, or ring, amounts to \ of the cylinder's external diameter ; the relative strength of a solid to that of a hollow cylinder being as the diameters of their sections. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 59 A Table showing the Weight or Pressure a Beam of Cast Iron, 1 inch in breadth, will sustain, without destroying its elastic force, when it is supported at each end, and loaded in the middle of its length, and also the deflection in the middle which that weight will produce. By Mr. Hodgkinson, Manchester. Length. 6 feet. 7 feet. 8 feet. feet. 10 feet. Depth Weight Defl. Weight in lbs. Defl. Weight Defl. Weight Defl. Weight Defl. in in. in lbs. in in. in in. in lbs. in in. in lbs. in in. in lbs. in in. 3 1278 •24 1089 •33 954 •426 855 •54 765 '66 3i 1739 •205 1482 •28 1298 •365 1104 •46 1041 •57 4 2272 •18 1936 •245 1700 •32 1520 •405 1300 •5 *h 2875 •16 2450 •217 2146 •284 1924 •36 1721 •443 5 3560 •144 3050 •190 2650 •256 2375 •32 2125 •4 6 5112 •12 4356 •163 3816 •213 3420 .27 3000 •33 7 6958 •103 5929 •14 5194 •183 4655 •23 4165 •29 8 9088 •09 7744 •123 6784 •16 6080 •203 5440 •25 9 — — 9801 •109 8586 •142 7695 •18 6885 •22 10 — — 12100 •098 10600 •128 9500 •162 8500 •2 11 — — — — 12826 •117 11495 •15 10285 •182 12 — — — — 15264 •107 13080 •135 12240 •17 13 — — — — — — 16100 •125 14400 •154 14 6 — — — — — — 18600 •115 10700 •143 12 feet. 14 feet. 16 feet. 18 feet. 20 feet. 2548 •48 2184 •65 1912 •85 1699 1-08 1530 1-34 7 3471 •41 2975 •58 2603 •73 2314 •93 2082 1-14 8 4532 •36 3884 •49 3396 •64 3020 •81 2720 1-00 9 5733 •32 4914 •44 4302 •57 3825 •72 3438 •89 10 7083 •28 6071 •39 5312 •51 4722 •64 4250 •8 11 8570 •26 7346 •36 6428 •47 5714 •59 5142 •73 12 10192 •24 8736 •33 7648 •43 6796 •54 6120 •67 13 11971 •22 10260 •31 8978 •39 7980 •49 7182 •61 14 13883 •21 11900 •28 10412 •36 9255 •46 8330 •57 15 15937 •19 13660 •26 11952 •34 10624 •43 9562 •53 16 18128 •18 15536 •24 13584 •32 12080 •40 10880 '5 17 20500 •17 17500 •23 15353 •3 13647 •38 12282 •47 18 22932 •16 19656 •21 17208 •28 15700 •36 13752 •44 Note. — This Table shows the greatest weight that ever ought to be laid upon a beam for permanent load ; and, if there be any liability to jerks, &c, ample allowance must be made ; also, the weight of the beam itself must be included. 6 60 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. To find the weight of a cast iron beam of given dimensions* Rule* — Multiply the sectional area in inches by the length in feet, and by 3»2, the product equal the weight in lbs. Ex. Required the weight of a uniform rectangular beam of cast iron, 16 feet in length, 11 inches in breadth, and 1^ inch in thickness. 11 X 1-5 X 16 X 3-2 a 844 '8 lbs. Resistance of Bodies to Flexure by vertical Pressure. When a piece of timber is employed as a column or support, its tendency to yielding by compression is dif- ferent according to the proportion between its length and area of its cross section ; and supposing the form that of a cylinder whose length is less than seven or eight times its diameter, it is impossible to bend it by miy* force applied longitudinally, as it will be destroyed by splitting before that bending can take place ; but when the length exceeds this, the column will bend under a certain load, and be ultimately destroyed by a similar kind of action to that which has place in the transverse strain. Columns of cast iron and of other bodies are also similarly circumstanced, this law having recently been fully developed by the experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson on columns of different diameters, and of different lengths. When the length of a cast iron column with flat ends equals about thirty times its diameter, fracture will be produced wholly by bending of the material. When of less length, fracture takes place partly by crushing and partly by bending. But, when the col- umn is enlarged in the middle of its length from one and a half to twice its diameter at the ends, by being cast hollow, the strength is greater by ^th than in a solid column containing the same quantity of material. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 61 To determine the dimensions of a support or column to bear, without visible curvature, a given pressure in the direction of its axis. Rule.-**- Multiply the pressure to be supported in lbs. by the square of the column's length in feet, and divide the product by twenty times the tabular value of E ; and the quotient will be equal to the breadth multiplied by the cube of the least thickness, both being expressed in inches. Note 1.— When the pillar or support is a square, its side will be the fourth root of the quotient. 2. If the pillar or column be a cylinder, multiply the tabular value of E by 12, and the fourth root of the quotient equal the diameter. Ex. 1. What should be the least dimensions of an oak support, to bear a weight of 2240 lbs. without sensible flexure, its breadth being 3 inches, and its length 5 feet ? Tabular value ofEs 105, Ex. 2. Required the side of a square piece of Riga fir, 9 feet in length, to bear a permanent weight of 6000 lbs. Tabular value of E = 96, , 6000 X 9 2 4 /nZo- a • i. i and -s 7 r — g^ = W 253 = 4 inches, nearly. _- 62 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. IS '3 .4 u o a o »1 o *o © H^t*Hi>-ion^orofflOW(NOOH(N«iCNCOC COOCDMHOOOi^'-'OO'O'* HH(MW*iOiOCM(DHi(50 HHH(N(Nf5 NC5QOb' =o & * i COW3rtHCOCNi-< rHjpHOOOOOOOO ooooooooo© 9999999999 o o lO CO GM © 00 CD tO tH cq N(N!N(NHHHHt-i^ OOOOOOOOOO 9090909099 o o mhomomh 00 cb .Tt<-OiM00»ON© ©oooooooi— r-r^co t-O WH 00t^lO-*l VO-^rtiTtlTtlTHCOCOCOCO oooooooooo 9999999099 o o ©C0CD<-hOc >o »o rHOOOOOOOOO 0999999999 CO CD CO iO i-l CO to CO -^ CM <-H K5WNNHHHH I-IOOOOOOOO •sua j, 1 ©oooooooo d "plied to any other incline, the amount o vel being known. I- f THE INCLINED PLANE. 71 •Application of the preceding Table. 1. What weight will a tractive power of 150 lbs. draw up an incline of 1 in 340, the resistance on the level being estimated at g-J^th part of the insistent weight ? In a line with 40 in the left-hand column and under 200 is GO!!? Also, in the same line and under 300 is -00294 Added together = 0071 1 Then = 2101)7 lhs. weight drawn up the plane ■00711 2. What weight would a force of 150 lbs. c;aw down the same plane, the friction on the level be7jl£ Ae same as before ? Friction on the level - • -00117 Gravity of the plane =-'00294 subtract = -00:23 And — - — = 121915 lbs. weight dr .wn down the plane. •001-23 Example of Incline when Velocity is taken info Jlccount A power of 280 lhs. at a velocity of 75 feet per min-- ute,i3 to he enployed for moving weights up an inclined plane 12 feet -, n height and 163 feet in length, the least velocity of the weight to De 8 feet per minute ; required the greatest weight that the power is equal to. 230 x 75 x 163 2811750 __ ■ „ ,„ _„ , = = 29288 lbs., or l3-2o tons 12X8 72 MECHANICS. THE INCLINED PLANE. The inclined plane is the representative of the second class of mechanical elements. Its fundamental law of action is that of the composition and resolution of forces. The manner in which the advantage is immediately c.e- rived from it is, therefore, distinct from that of the first class ; there is necessarily a fulcrum, a point round which all the motion takes place, and through which the power acts on the resistance ; whereas, in this class, there is no apparent centre of action. The advantage gained by the inclined plane, when the power acts in a parallel direction to the plane, is as the length to the height or angle of inclination. Hence the rule. Divide the weight by the ratio of inclination, and the quotient equal the power that will just support that weight upon the plane. Or, multiply the weight by the height of the plane, and divide by the length — the quotient is the power. Ex. Required the power or equivalent weight capa ble of supporting a load of 350 lbs. upon a plane of 1 in 12, or 3 feet in height and 3G feet in length. 350 350 X 3 ■ — = 29 16 lbs., or =29*16 lbs. power, as before 12 S6 THE WEDGE. The wedge is a double inclined plane ; consequently, its principles are the same. Hence, when two bodies are forced asunder by means of the wedge, in a direction parallel to its head, multiply the resisting power by half the thickness of the head or back of the wedge, and divide the product by the length of one of its inclined sides ; the quotient is the force equal to the resistance. Ex. The breadth of the back or head of a wedge being 3 inches, its inclined sides each 10 inches, re MECHANICS. 73 quired the power necessary to act upon the wedge so as to separate two substances whose resisting force is equal to 150 lbs L^xi2 = 2 ,.. 51b , 10 A'ote. — When only ore of the bodies is movable, the whole breadth of the wedge is .aken for the multiplier. THE SCREW. The screw is another modification of the inclined plane, and it may be said to remove the same kind of practical inconveniences incidental to the use of the latter, that the pulley does in reference to the simple lever. The lever is very limited in the extent of its action ; so is the inclined plane. But the pulley multi- plies the extent of the action of the lever, by presenting 1 , in effect, a series of levers acting in regular succession; and just such a purpose is effected by the screw. It multiplies the extent of the action of the inclined plane, by presenting, in effect, a continued series of planes. The screw, in principle, is that of an inclined plane wound round a cylinder, which generates a spiral of uniform inclination, each revolution producing a rise or traverse motion equal to the pitch of the screw, or distance between the two consecutive threads, — the pitch being the height or angle of inclination and the circumference the length of the plane. Hence, the me- chanical advantage is, as the circumference of the circle described by the lever where the power acts is to the pitch of the screw, so is the force to the resistance in principle. Ex. Required the effective power obtained by a Bcrew of I inch pitch, and moved by a force equal to 50 lbs. at the extremity of a lever 30 inches in length, 0X2x3- 1416x50 — — -= lft/oO lbs. 87fi 4 MECHANICS. Ex. 2. Required the power necessary to ovjj-crr-tt a resistance equal to 7000 lbs. by a screw of l{ inch piteh and moved by a lever 25 inches in length. 7000x1-25 ; = 5a- /3 lbs. power. 25 x 2 x 3-1416 In the case of a screw acting on the periphery of a toothed wheel, the power is to the resistance as the product of the circle's circumference described by the winch or lever, and radius of the wheel, to the pro- duct of the screw's pitch and radius of the axle or point whence the power is transmitted ; but observe that, if the screw consist of more than one thread, the apparent pitch must be increased so many times as these are threads in the screw. Hence, to find what weight a given power will equipoise, Rule. — Multiply together the radius of the wheel the length of the lever at which the power acts, the magnitude of the power, and the constant number 6-2882 ; divide the product by the radius of the axle into the pitch of the screw, and the quotient is the weight that the power is equal to. Ex. What weight will be sustained in equilibria by a power of 100 lbs. acting at the end of a lever 24 inches in length, the radius of the axle, or point whence the power is transmitted being 8 inches, the radius of the wheel 14 inches, the screw consisting of a double thread, and the apparent pitch equal § of an inch. 14x24x100x6-2832 .„„„.„ t . ' . . = 21111-oo lbs. the power sustained. •625 X «2 X 8 Note. — It is estimated that about one third more power must De added, to overcome the fiiction of the screw when loaded, than is necessary to constitute a balance between power and weight CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR 3IOTION. OF CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION In mechanics, circular motion is transmitted by means of wheels, drums, or pulleys; and accordingly as the driving and driven are of equal or unequal diameters, so are equal or unequal velocities produced. Hence the principle on which the following rules are founded. 1. When Time is not taken info Account. Rule. — Divide the greater diameter, or number of teeth, by the lesser diameter or number of teeth ; and the quotient is the number of revolutions the lesser will make, for one of the greater. Ex. How many revolutions will a pinion of 20 teeth make, for 1 of a wheel with 125? 125 -i- 20= G25 or 6| revolutions. To fnd the number of revolutions of the last, to one if the first, in a train of wheels and pinions. Rule. — Divide the product of all the teeth in the driving by the product of all the teeth in the driven ; and the quotient equal the ratio of velocity required. Ex. 1. Required the ratio of velocity of the last, to 1 of t*he first, in the following train of wheels and pinions; viz., pinions driving, — the first of which contains 10 teeth, the second 15, and third 18. Wheels driven first, 15 teeth, second, 25, and third, 112. 10 x 15 X IB . = 225 of a revolution the wheel will make to 15 X 25 x ->2. one of the pinion. Ex. 2. A wheel of 42 teeth giving motion to one of 12, on ^hich shaft is a pulley of 21 inches diameter 7* 76 CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. driving one of 6 ; required the number of revolutions of the last pulley to one of the first wheel. 4^ v 91 . • ZZJ2-± = 12-25 or 12£ revolutions. 12x6 2. Wlien Time must be regarded. Rule. — Multiply the diameter or number of teeth in tl\3 driver, by its velocity in any given time, and divide the product by the required velocity of the driven ; the quotient equal the number of teeth or diameter of the driven, to produce the velocity required. Ex. 1. If a wheel, containing 84 teeth, makes 20 revolutions per minute, how many must another contain, to work in contact, and make GO revolutions in the same time ? 8 J2^_° = 28 teeth. GO Ex. 2. From a shaft making 45 revolutions per min- ute, and with a pinion 9 inches diameter at the pitch line, I wish to transmit motion at 15 revolutions per minute ; what, at the pitch line, must be the diameter of the wheel. = 27 inches. 15 Ex. 3. Required the diameter of a puhey to make 16 revolutions in the same time as one of 24 inches mak- ing 36. 24x36 : 54 inches. 16 The distance between the centres and velocities of tim wheels being given, to find their proper diameters. Rule. — Divide the greatest velocity by the least; the quotient is the ratio of diameter the wheels must beai {/) each other. CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 7? Hence, divide the distance between the centres by /lie ratio 4- 1 ; the quotient equal the radius of the smaller wheel ; and subtract the radius thus obtained from the distance between the centres; the remainder equal the radius of the other. Ex. 1. The distance of two shafts from centre to centre is 50 inches, and the velocity of the one 25 rev- olutions per minute, the other is to make 80 in the same time ; the proper diameters of the wheels at the pitch lines are required. 50 80 — 25 = 3-2, ratio of velocity, and = 11-9, the radius 3-2+1 of the smaller wheel ; then 50 — 11-9 = 38-1, radius of hrger; their diameters are 11-9 x2 =23-8 and 38-1 x 2 = 76-2 inches. To obtain or diminish an accumulated velocity by means of wheels, pinions, or wheels, pinions, and pulleys, it is necessary that a proportional ratio of velocity should exist, and which is thus attained : multiply the given and required velocities together ; and the square root of the product is the mean or pioportionate velo- city. Ex. Let the given velocity of a wheel containing 54 teeth equal 16 revolutions per minute, and the given diameter of an intermediate pulley equal 25 inches, to obtain a velocity of 81 revolutions in a machine ; re- quired the .number of teeth in the intermediate wheel and diameter of the last pulley. •y/31 x 16 = 36 mean velocity. 51 X 16 nt , 25 = 36 „ , . . = 21 teeth and =11-1 inches, diameter of 36 81 pulley. To determine the proportion of wheels for screw-cut* ting by. a lathe. In a Jathe properly adapted, screws to any degree of oitch, or number of threads in a given length, may he /8 CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. cut by means of a leading screw of any given pitch, ac- companied with change wheels and pinions ; coarse pitches being effected generally by means of one wheel find one pinion with a earner, or intermediate wheel, which cause no variation or change of motion to take place. Hence the following Rvlc. — Divide the number of threads in a given length of the screw which is to be cut, by the number of threads in the same length of the leading screw at- tached to the lathe ; and the quotient is the ratio that the wheel on the end of the screw must bear to that on the end of the lathe spindle. Ex. Let it be required to cut a screw with 5 threads in an inch, the leading screw being of £ inch pitch, or containing 2 threads in an inch; what must be the ratio of wheels applied ? 5 -f- 2 = 2-5, the ratio they must bear to each other. Then suppose a pinion of 40 teeth be fixed upon for the spindle, — 40 X 2-5 = 100 teeth for the wheel on the end of the screw But screws of a greater degree of fineness than about S threads in an inch are more conveniently cut by an additional wheel and pinion, because of the proper de- gree of velocity being more effectively attained; and these, on account of revolving upon a stud, are com- monly designated the stud-wheels, or stud-wheel and pinion ; but the mode of calculation and ratio of screw are the same as in the preceding rule. Hence, all that is further necessary is to fix upon any 3 wheels at pleasure, as those for the spindle and stud-wheels; then multiply the number of teeth in the spindle-wheel by the ratio of the screw, and by the number of teeth in that wheel or pinion which is in contact with the wheel on the end of the screw; divide the product by the stud- wheel in contact with the spindle-wheel ; and the quo- tient is the number of teeth required in the wheel on the end of the leading screw. CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 79 E.i. Suppose a screw is required to be cut containing 25 threads in an inch, the leading screw, as before, having two threads in an inch, and that a wheel of GO teeth is fixed upon for the end of the spindle, 20 for the pinion in contact with the screw-wheel, and 100 for thai in contact with the wheel on the end of the spindle required the number of teeth in the wheel for the end oj* the leading screw. 25-2=12-5, and 6 ° * '- 5x ig = i 5 o tee th. 100 Or suppose the spindle and screw-wheels to be thos? fixed upon, also any one of the stud-wheels, to find the number of teeth in the other. ■ 60 X 12-5 WA GO X 12-5 x 20 IJWk j _ = 20 teeth, or js 100 teeth. 160 x 100 ISO 80 CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION Table of Change Wheels for Screw-culling ; the leading Screw being of 4 inch pilch, or containing 2 threads in an inch. Numb.of Number of Number of e teeth in a en teeth in a CO X! teeth in ?>** ^_j «j "v C "a. i CO O) Si • **& •2 c fil — o> J2 O * » 4> j; c a s^ |s ?- gg B u c _ "2 u 3 « z = (B-g J! II Si B? 5* If is Sz SI £"* % ~ ! 80 40 8* 40 55 20 60 19 50 95 20 J 00 M 80 50 84 90 85 20 90 194. 80 120 20 130 14 80 60 8f 60 70 20 75 20 60 100 20 120 IS 80 70 9.1 90 90 20 95 20£ 40 90 20 90 2 80 90 3* 40 60 20 65 21 80 120 20 140 2* SO 90 10 60 75 20 80 22 60 110 20 120 24 80 100 104 50 70 20 75 224 80 120 20 150 2| 80 110 11 60 55 20 120 22=f 80 130 20 140 3 80 120 12 90 90 20 120 233 40 95 20 100 3* 80 130 12| 60 85 20 90 24 65 120 20 130 3* 80 140 13 90 90 20 130 25 60 100 20 150 3? 80 150 134 60 90 20 90 25* 30 85 20 90 4 40 80 13$ 80 100 20 110 26 70 130 20 140 4* 40 85 14 90 90 20 140 27 40 90 20 120 44 40 90 14* CO 90 20 95 27* 40 100 20 110 43 40 95 15 90 90 20 150 28* 75 140 20 150 5 40 100 16 60 80 20 120 28i 30 90 20 95 54 40 110 16^ 80 100 20 130 3? 70 140 20 150 6 40 120 164' 80 110 20 120 32 30 80 20 120 64 40 130 17 1 45 85 20 90 33 40 110 20 120 7 40 140 174! 80 100 20 140 34 30 85 20 120 74 40 150 18 40 60 20 120 35 60 140 20 150 8 30 120 18| j 80 100 20 150 36 30 90 20 120! CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. Si Table by which to determine the Number of Teeth, 01 Pitch of Small Wheels, by what is commonly called the. Manchester Principle. Diametral Circular Diametral Circular pitch. pitch. pitch. pilch. ~-349~ 3 1-047 9 4 •785 10 •314 5 •628 12 •262 6 •524 14 224 7 449 16 •196 8 •393 20 •157 Ex. 1. Required the number of teeth that a whee. of 10' inches diameter will contain of a 10 pitch. 16 X 10= 160 teeth, and the circular pitch ±=.-314 inch. Ex. 2. What must be the diameter of a wheel, for a 9 pitch of 126 teeth ? 126 — = 14 inches diameter, circular pitcn -349 inch. 9 Note. — The pitch is reckoned on the diameter of the^heel instead of the circumference, and designated wheels of 8 pitch, 12 pitch, &c. Strength of the Teeth of Cast Iron Wheels at a given Velocity. Pitch lif l-Hh Thiclcn-ss of leeth Breadth of l-eth Strpn rth of teeth 1 horse-power at 3 feet per 4 feet per 6 feet per 8 feet per in inches 3-99 in inches. in inches. second. second. secoml. second. 19 7-6 20-57 27-43 41-14 54-85 3-78 1-8 7-2 17-49 23-32 34-98 46-64 3-57 1-7 6-8 14-73 19-65 29-46 39-28 3*36 1-6 6-4 12-28 16*38 24-56 32-74 3-15 1-5 6 1012 13-50 20-21 26-98 ' 2-94 1-4 56 8-22 10-97 16-44 21-92 2-73 1-3- 5'2 6-58 8-78 13-16 17-54 2-52 1-2 ■ 4-8 5-18 6-91 10-36 13-81 » 2-31 1-1 4-4 3-99 5-32 7-98 10-64 . 2-1 1-0 4 3-00 4-00 6-00 8-00 I 1 -89 •9 3-6 2-18 2-91 4-36 5-81 1 63 •8 3-2 1-53 2-04 3-06 3-08 1 1-47 •7 2-8 1-027 1-37 2-04 2-72 • 1-26 •G 2-4 •64 •86 1-38 1-84 , 1-05 •5 2 •375 •50 75 1-00 — 1 82 ritAci (,AL PUBERTIES OF WATER. PRACTICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER By analysis it is ascertained, that water is composed of the gases oxygen and hydrogen in a state of chemical anion ; its distinguishing properties, like that of othei liquids, being nearly incompressible gravity, capability of flowing, and constant tendency to press outwards in every direction ; also that of being easily changed by the absorption of caloric to an aeriform state of any re- quired density or degree of elastic force: hence the principle of the hydraulic press, the water-wheel, the steam engine, &c Effects produced by Water in its natural State. Because of liquids possessing the properties of gravity and capability of flowing freely in every direction, sides of wpsels, flood-gates, sluices, &c, sustain a pressure equal to the product of the area multiplied by half- the depth of the fluid, and by its gravity in equal terms of unity. But when a sluice or opening through which a liquid may issue is under any given continued head, the pres- sure is equal the product of the area multiplied into the height from the centre of the opening to the surface of the fluid. Ex. 1. Required the pressure of water on the sides of a cistern 18 feet in length, 13 in width and 9 in depth. The terms of measurement or unity are in feet, 1 cubic foot o, water = 62-5 lbs.': hence 18 X 9 X 2-J- 13 X 9 X 2 — 558 x 4-5 x 62- 5 = 156937-5 lbs. weight of water on bottom — IS x 13x9 X 02-5= 131625 lbs. Ex. 2. Required the pressure on a sluice 3 feet square, and its centre 30 feet from the surface of the water . 3 X 3 X 30 x 62-5 = 16875 lbs. pressure. PRACTICAL PnOPEx ii'ES OF WATER. 83 The weight of water or other fluid is as the quantity but the pressure exerted is as the vertical height. Hence, us fluids press equally in every direction, any vesseJ containing a fluid sustains a pressure equal to as many times the weight of the column of greatest height of that fluid, as the area of the vessel is to the sectional area of the column. Ex. Let a cubical vessel, whose sides are each 4 square feet, have a tube inserted 1 inch in diameter, and 6 feet in height, and let both vessel and tube be filled with water; required the whole weight of the water therein contained, and also the whole pressure exerted intending to burst the vessel. Cubic contents of the vessel = 8 feet, and each foot = 62-5 lbs. ; then 62-5 x8 = 500 area of pipe's section = -7854 inches, and height 72 inches, also a cubic inch of water = -03617 lbs.; hence/7854 x 72 x -03617 = 2 lbs. + 500 = 502 lbs., total weight of the water. Again ; the whole height of the column = 96 inches ; then -7854 X % X -03617 = 2*33 lbs., pressure of column on an equal in • i i r . a 14 * x 4 x 6 sides area. 144 square inches = 1 square loot, and •7854 = 4100-4 times the area of the pipe's diameter in the whole surface ; therefore, 4400-4 X 2-33 = 10253 lbs., or total amount of pressure exerted. To find the velocity of water issuing a circular orifice at any given depth from the surface. Rule. -Multiply the square root of the height or depth to the centre of the orifice by 8-1 ; and the product is th.i velocity of the issuing fluid in feet per second. Ex. Required the velocity of water issuing through an orifice under a head of 11 feet from the surface. V 11 = 3-3166 X 8-1 = 26-864 feet, velocity per second In the discharge of water by a rectangular aperture in the side of a reservoir, and extending to the surface, the velocity varies nearly as the square root of the height, ana the quantity discharged per second equal frds of Jie velocity due to the mean height, allowing for the 8 L 84 PRACTICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER. "contraction of the fluid according to the form ot tti* opening, which renders the coefficient in this case equal to 5-1 ; whence the following general rules. 1. When the aperture extends to the surface of the fluid. Multiply the area of the opening in feet by the square root of its depth also in feet, and that product by 5-1 ; then will §rds of the last product equal the quantity discharged, in cubic feet, per second. 2. When the aperture is under a given head. Mul- tiply the area of the aperture, in feet, by the square root of the depth, also in feet, and by 5-1 ; the product is the quantity discharged, in cubic feet, per second. Ex. 1. Required the quantity of water in cubic feet per second, discharged through an opening in the side of a dam or weir, the width or length of the opening being 6k feet, and depth 9 inches, or -75 of a foot Square root of -75 = '866. „,, 6-5 X -To x -H6G x 5-1 x 2 %A „ nc>n , . ,. Then =14-3839 cubic feet. Ex. 2. What would be the quantity discharged through the above opening, if under a head of water 4 feet in height ? Square root of 4 = 2, and 2 x 5-1 = 10-2 feet, velocity of the water per second. And 6-5 x 75 x 2 x 5-1 = 49-725 cubic feet discharged in the same time. The combined properties of gravity and fluidity which water possesses, renders it so available as a source of motive power; gravity being the property by which the power is produced, and fluidity that by which it is so commodiously qualified to the various mollifications in which it is employed. Water, it is ascertained, is subject to the same laws of gravity as those of solid bodies, and thereby accumu- lates velocity or effect in an equal ratio when falling \hrough an equal space, or descending from an equal height. Hence, the velocity attained is as the square root of the height of its fall ; and it is xiow quite satis PRACTICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER. 85 factorily decided, that, because of the non-elastic prop- erty of water, its greatest is obtained when acting by gravity througaout its whole height, whether it be ap- plied on a water-wheel, turbine, or other machine through which circular motion is to be the immediate result. In regard to water-wheels, and other machinea through which motion is produced by the effort ot •water, much discrepancy of opinion has, until lately, existed, both as to form and velocity, besides other essential points requisite in gaining a maximum of effect with the least possible strain ; but these doubts are now in a great measure removed through experi- ments by the Franklin Institute in this country, added to those in France by Morin, and the results of a pa tented machine by Whitelaw and Stirrat, Scotland, combined with pertinent observations and remarks by interested parties in this as well as other countries. Hence have been deduced the following demonstrative conclusions : — 1. That, to gain a maximum of effect by a horizontal water-wheel, the water must be laid upon the wheel on the stream side, and the diameter of the wheel so pro- portioned to the height of the fall, that the water may may be laid on about 52f degrees distant from the summit of the wheel, or the height of the fall, being 1 the height or diameter of the wheel equal 1-108. 2. That the periphery of a water-wheel ought to move ai; a velocity equal to about twice the square root of the fall of the water in feet per second, and the number of buckets equal 2-1 times the wheel's diameter in feet; also, that precautionary means be adopted for the escape of the air out of the buckets, either by making the stream of water a few inches narrower than the wheel, 4 or otherwise. 3. That, because of water producing a less efficient power by impulse than gravity, turbines, or machines through which the motion is obtained by reaction, are greatly pnferable to undershot, or low-breast wheels. 86 PRACTICAL PROPERTIES -OF WATER. 4. That a head of water is required sufficient to cause the velocity of its flowing to be as 3 to 2 of the wheel ; i of the wheel's diameter being an approximate height, near enough for practical purposes. 5. That the effective power of a wheel constructed according to these restrictions, is equal to the product of the number of cubic feet and velocity in feet per minute, multiplied into -001325. Example for general Illustration. Suppose a fall of water 25 feet in height, over which is delivered 112 cubic feet per minute; required the various peculiar requisites for a wheel *o be in accord- ance with the preceding rules. 1st. 25 x 1-08 = 27 feet, the wheel's diameter. 2d. V 25 X 2 = 10 feet, velocity of the wheel in feet per second. Also ; 27 X 2-1 = 56-7, say 57 buckets. 3d. 27 — 9 = 3 feet, head of water required. 4th. 112 x 10 X 60 X -001325 = 89 horses' power. The turbine of Fourneyron, in France, and the patented water-mill of Whitelaw and Stirrat, Scotland, have, of late years, attracted a considerable share of public attention ; their simplicity of construction and asserted effects in like situations, being equal to those of the best applied water-wheels. In their manner of construction they differ, but in principle they are the same ; the action of each being created by a centrifugal and tangential force, caused by the weight or impulsion of a column of water whose height or altitude is equal to twice the height of the fall due to the water's velo- city; and in order to produce a maximum of effect in cither the one or the other by the pressure and'eentrif- ugal force of the effluent water, it is necessary thafthe emitting tubes or helical channels of the machine be so curved that the apertures shall be in a right line with the radius of the wheel. STEAM POWER. 87 1. That turbines are equally adapted to great as to small waterfalls. 2. That they are capable of transmitting a useful effect to from 70 to 78 per cent, of the absolute power. 3. That their velocities may vary considerably from the maximum effect, without differing sensibly from it. 4. That they will work nearly as effectually when drowned to the depth of 6 feet as when free, and, consequently, they will make use of the whole of the fall when placed below the level of extreme low water. 5. That they receive variable quantities of water without altering the ratio of the power to the effect. STEAM POWER. There is no application of science to the arts of more importance, and more extensive in i{s effects, than that of the employment of steam for driving all kinds of machinery. It is not my intention to enter into the details of the power of steam or the steam-engine, but to give some practical rules, the utility of which have been tested. Steam is of great utility as a productive source of motive power; in this respect, its properties are, elastic force, expansive force, and reduction by condensation. Elastic signifies the whole urgency or power the steam is capable of exerting with undiminished effect By expansive force is generally understood the amount of diminishing effect of the steam on the piston of a steam-engine, reckoning from that point of the stroke where the steam of uniform elastic force is cut off; but it is more properly the force which steam is capable of exerting, when expanded to a known number of times its original bulk. And condensation, here understood, 8* 88 STEAM POWER is the abstraction or reduction of heat by another body and consequently not properJy a contained property oi the steam, but an effect produced by combined agency in which steam is the principal; because any coldef body will extract the heat and produce condensation, but steam cannot be so beneficially replaced by any other fluid capable of maintaining equal results. The rules formed by experimenters, as corresponding with the results of their experiments on the elastic force of steam at given temperatures, vary, but ap- proximate so closely, that the following rule, because of being simple, may, in practice, be taken in preference to any other. Rule. — To the temperature of the steam, in degrees of Fahrenheit, add 100 ; divide the sum by 177 ; and the 6th power of the quotient equal the force in inches of mercury. Ex. Required the force of steam .corresponding to a temperature of 312°. 312+100 = 2-3277° = 159 inches of mercury. 17« 3 To estimate the amount of advantage gained by using steam exjiansively in a steam-engine. When steam of a uniform elastic force is employed throughout the whole ascent or descent of the piston, the amount of effect produced is as the quantity of steam expended. But let the steam be shut off at any portion of the stroke, — say, for instance, at one-half, — it expands by degrees until the termination of the stroke, and then exerts half its original force ; hence an accumulation of effect in proportion to the quantity of steam, Rule. — Divide the length of the stroke by the dis- tance or space into which the dense steam is admitted, and find the hyperbolic logarithm ot the quotient, to which add 1 ; ,ind the sum is the ratio of the gain. STEAM POWER. Si> Ex. Suppose an engine with a stroke of 6 feet, and »ne steam cut off when the piston has moved through ; required the ratio of gain by uniform and expansive force. <;-^2 = 3; hyperbolic logarithm of 3= 1-0986 + 1 =2-0986, ratio of effect 5 that is, supposing the whole effect of the steam to be 3, the effect by the steam being cut oft at £ = 2-0986. Again ; let the greatest elastic force of steam in the cylinder of an engine equal 48 lbs. per square inch, and let it be cut off from entering the cylinder when the piston has moved 4^ inches, the whole stroke being 18 ; required an equivalent force of the steam through- out the whole stroke. 18 — 4-5 = 4, and 48 — 4= 12. Logarithm of 4+ 1 =2-38629. Then 2-38629 X 12 = 28-635 lbs. per square inch. In regard to the other case of expansion, when the temperature is constant, the bulk is inversely as the pressure; thus, suppose steam at 30 lbs. per square inch, required its bulk to that of original bulk, when expanded so as to retain a pressure equal to that of the atmosphere, or 15 lbs. 15 + 30 15 = 3 times its original bulk. It is because of the latent heat in steam, or water m an aeriform state, that it becomes of such essential service in heating, boiling, drying, &c. In the heating of buildings, its economy, efficiency, and simplicity of application, are alike acknowledged ; the steam, being simply conducted through all the departments by pipes, by extent of circulation condenses, — the latent heat being thus given to the pipes, and diffused by radiatirn. In boiling, its efficiency is considerably increased, if advantage be taken of sufficiently enclosing the fluid, and reducing the pressure on its surface, by means of 90 PRODUCTION OF STEAM. an air-pump. Thus, water in a vacuum boils at about a temperature of ys°; and in sugar-refining, where such means are employed, the sirup is boiled at 150 = Effects produced by Water in an Piriform State. When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire, it readily imbibes the heat, or fluid principle of which the fire is the immediate cause, and, sooner or later, according to the intensity of the heat, attains a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit. If, at this point of temperature, the water be not enclosed, but exposed to atmospheric pressure, ebullition will take place, and steam or vapor will ascend through the water, carrying with it the superabundant heat, or that which the water cannot, under such circumstances of pressure, absorb, to be retained, and to indicate a higher temperature. Water, in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uni- formly confined to the same laws, under every degree of pressure ; but, as the pressure is augmented, so is the indicated temperature proportionately elevated Hence the various densities of steam, and correspond- ing degrees of elastic force. PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 91 Table of the Elastic Force of Steam, and corresponding Temperature of the Water with which it is in Contact. Pressure per Elastic Force in Temperature in Decrees of Volun.e (square inch, atmospheric pressure include*!. of Steam compared with Vol. of Water. Inches of Mercury. Mares of Mercury. Fahr. Reaum. Cent. lbs. 14-7 kilos*. 6-668 30-00 •762 2120 800 1000 1711 15 6-80 30-60 •778 212-8 80-4 100-4 1670 16 7-26 32-64 •829 216-3 81-9 102-4 1573 17 7-71 31-68 •880 219-6 83-3 104-2 1488 18 8-16 36-72 ■932 222-7 84-7 105-9 1411 19 8-62 38-76 •984 225-6 86 107-6 1343 20 907 40-80 J -037 228-5 87-3 109-2 1281 21 9-52 42-84 1-089 231-2 88-5 110-7 1225 22 9-98 44-88 1-140 233-8 89-7 1121 1174 23 10-43 46-92 1-192 236-3 908 113-5 1127 24 10-88 48-96 1-244 238-7 91-9 114-8 1084 25 11-34 51-00 1-296 241-0 930 1161 1044 26 11-79 53.04 1-318 243-3 93-9 117-4 1007 27 12-25 5503 1400 245-5 94-9 118-6 973 28 12-70 57-12 1-452 247-6 95-8 119-3 941 29 1315 59-16 1-503 249-6 96-7 120-9 911 30 13-61 61-21 1-555 251-6 97-6 122-0 883 31 14-06 63-24 1-607 253-6 98-5 1231 857 ' °u 1451 65-23 1659 2doo 99-3 124-2 833 ) 33 14-97 67-32 1-711 257-3 1001 125-2 810 34 15-42 69-36 1-763 259-1 100-9 126-2 788 35 15-87 71-40 1-814 260-9 101-7 127-2 767 36 16-33 73-44 1-866 262-6 102-5 128-1 748 37 16-78 75-48 1918 264-3 103-2 129-1 729 38 17-23 77-52 1-970 265-9 104-0 129-9 712 39 17-69 79-56 2-022 267-5 104-7 130-8 695 40 18-14 81-60 2-074 269-1 105-4 131-7 679 41 18-59 83-64 2-] 26 270-6 106-0 132-6 664 42 1905 85-68 2-178 272-1 106-7 133-4 649 43' 19-50 87-72 i-229 273-6 107-4 131-2 635 44 19-96 89-76 2-281 2750 108-0 135-0 622 45 20-41 91-80 2-333 276-4 108-6 135-8 610 46 20-86 93-84 2-385 277-8 109-2 136-6 598 47 21-32 95-83 2-437 279-2 109-9 137-3 586 48 21-77 97 r »2 2-489 280-5 110-4 138-1 575 49 22-22 99-b6 2-541 281-9 1111 138-8 564 50 22-68 102-00 2-592 283-2 11 If 1396 554 92 PROrLRTIES OF STEAM. The preceding table is peculiarly adapted for esti mating the power of steam engines on the condensing principle, because, in such, the effective force of the Bteam is the difference between the total force and the resisting vapor retained in the condenser. The fol- lowing table is more adapted for estimating the effects of non-condensing engines ; as, in such, the atmos- pheric pressure is not generally taken into account, engines of this principle being supposed to work in a medium; or, the atmospheric pressure on the boilers, to cause a greater density of steam, is equal to the resisting atmosphere which the effluent steam has to contend with, on leaving the cylinder. Steam, independent of the "heat indicated by an im- mersed thermometer, also contains heat that cannot be measured by any instrument at present known, and, in consequence of which, is termed latent or concealed heat ; the only positive proof we have of its existence being that of incontestable results, or effects produced on various bodies. Thus, if one part, by weight of steam at 212°, be mixed with nine parts of water at 62°, the result is water at 178-0° ; therefore, each of the 9 parts of water has received from the steam 116-6° of heat, and consequently, the steam has diffused, or given out, 116-6 X 9 = 1049-4 — 33-4 = 1016° of heat, which it must have contained. Again ; it is ascertained, by experiment, that if one gallon of water be transformed into steam at 212°, and that allowed to mix with water at 52°, the whole will be raised to the boiling point, or 212°. From these and other experiments, k is ascertained that the latent heat in steam varies from 940° to 1044°, the ratio of accumula- tion advancing from 2J2°, as the steam becomes more dense and of greater elastic force. Hence, the severity of a scald by steam to that of boiling water. Water holding impurities in solution tends to retard its attaining the aeriform state, and so impairs the amount of its elastic force at an equal temperature, a* PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 93 exhibited in the following tables. Thus, commoD water boils at 212° Fahrenheit. Name of substance. Proportionate quantity in 100 parts by weight of water. Boiling points. Sails in sea water. 3-03. 213-2° F. Sulphate of soda Sulphate of iron f evasion in such cases fs, to plac*; the working buck?! beneath the surface of \he Ii^utu which s requWi '< *)e raised. / ' ' -s pumps. 95 Table showiiig the Quantity of Water per Lineal Foot in Pumps, or Vertical Pipes of different Diameters. Diameter Numberof Numberof Diameter Numberof Numberof of pump gallons per cubic feet of pump gallons per cubic feet in inches. lineal ft. per tin. ft. in inches. lineal ft. per lin ft. 2 136 •02 i 8 8 2176 •3490 2 X •172 •0276 8i 2 314 •3712 3 •212 •0340 84 2-456 ■3!U0 21 •257 •0412 81 2-603 •4175 3 •306 •0490 9 2-754 •4117 H •359 •0576 n 2-90!) •4666 3| •416 •0668 94 3-068 •4923 31 ■478 •0766 01 3-232 •5184 4 •544 •0872 10 3-400 •5454 4k •614 •0985 m 3-572 5730 44 •688 •1104 104 3-748 •6013 41 •767 •1230 101 3-929 •6302 5 •850 •1363 n 4-114 •6599 H •937 •1503 Hi 4-303 6902 54 1-028 •1649 H4 4-496 •7212 51 1 124 •1803 ill 4-694 •7529 6 1224 •1963 12 4-896 •7853 6| 1-328 •2130 124 5-312 •8521 64 1-436 •2304 13 5 746 •9217 61 1-549 •2489 134 6 196 •9939 7 1-666 •2672 14 6 664 1-0689 H 1-787 •2866 15 7 650 1 2271 74 1-912 •3067 16 8-704 1-3962 n 2-042 •3275 1 18 11-016 1-7670 Examples illustrative of the Utility of the ' Fable. I. Required the quantity of water lifted by each stroke of the bucket of a 94 -inch pump, the length of the stroke being 2£ feet. 3-06S x 2-25=6-903 gallons, each stroke. 2. What length of stroke with a 6-inch pump will ve necessary, to discharge 44 gallons of watei pel 9 96 PROPERTIES OF AIR. minute, the number of strokes being 18 m the given time? 44 = 2 feet, the length of stroke. 1-224 x 18 3. What must be the diameter capable of raising 25 cubic feet of water per minute, the length of the stroke being 2£ feet, and making 1(3 effective strokes per minute ? 25 = -625, or 103 inches, nearly. 2-5 x 16 4 It is by the oxygen of the atmosphere that com- bustion is supported. The common combustibles of nature are chiefly compounds of carbon and hydrogen, which, during combustion, combine with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and are converted into carbonic acid and watery vapor, different species of fuel re- quiring different quantities of oxygen. The quantity required for the combustion of a pound of coal varies from 2 to 3 lbs., according to the quality of the coal. 60 cubic feet of atmospheric air is necessary, to pro- duce 1 lb. of oxygen. The pressure or fluid properties of the atmosphere oppose bodies in passing through it, the opposing re- sistance increasing as the square of the velocity of the body, and the resistance per square foot in lbs. as its velocity in feet per second, multiplied into -002288. Thus, suppose a locomotive engine in a still atmosphere, at a velocity of 25 miles per hour, presents a resisting frontage of 20 feet; required the amount of opposing resistance at that velocity. 25 miles per hour equal 3667 feet per second. Then 36-672 x -002288 x 20 = 61-5 i^ constant opposing force WINDS. 9*5 Table of the Force and common ^Appellations given U Winds at different Velocities. Velocity of the Wind in Feet per second. Miles per hour. 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 80 Force in lbs.; avoirdupois I Common Appellation? per square given to the Wind. foot. 147 •005 2-93 •020 440 •044 5 87 •079 733 123 14-67 •492 22-00 1 107 29-34 1 968 36 67 3075 4401 4-429 51-34 6 027 58-68 7-873 66 01 9-963 73 35 12-300 8802 17 715 117-36 31-490 Hardly perceptible. Just perceptible. Gentle, pleasant wind Pleasant, brisk gale. Very brisk. High winds. Very high. A storm or tempest. A great storm. A hurricane. In order to gain the greatest amount of the wind's impulsive effect, to produce rotary or circular motion by the sails of a wind- mill, the total surface of the saila presented to the wind ought to be about seven-eighths of the circle's surface which is formed by their motion, and each sail angled to the plane of motion as follows, the whip or back being divided into six equal parts: — Distance from centre of motion, 1 2 3 4 5 6 ) Smeato '• ■ nple with plane of motion, 18° 19 18 16 12$ 7 \ rule ■iy G. Forrester, Liverpool, 24° 21 18 H 9 3 98 FRICTION. FRICTION. Friction is an effect produced by bodies nibbing one upon another, which acts as a retarding influence in the motion of all mechanical contrivances, hut might not unfrequently be considerably diminished by a due regard to its iaws, and a proper attention to the selection of those materials on which a uniform smooth surface may he attained, and which, according to experiments, are least liable to tear or become hot, and cause a roughness to arise when in working contact. Several doubts existed, until lately, respecting the laws of friction ; but those are now entirely removed, through the experiments of Mr. G. Rennie, on his own account, and those of M. Morin, acting for, and under the sanction of, the French government, from or by which the -following laws have been fully established : — 1. The friction accompanying the motion of two surfaces, between which no unguent is interposed, bears the same proportion to the force by which those surfaces are pressed together, whatever may be the amount of that force. 2. This friction is independent of the extent of the surfaces of contact. 3. Where unguents are interposed, a distinction is to be made between the case in which the surfaces are simply unctuous and in intimate contact with one another, and the case in which the surfaces are wholly separated from one another by an interposed stratum of the unguent. If the pressure upon a surface of contact of given dimensions be increased beyond a certain limit, the latter of these cases passes into the first; the stratum of unguent being pressed out, and the unctuous , surfaces, which it separated from one FRICTION. 99 mother, being- brought into intimate contact. As long as either of these two states remain, the laws of its friction are not affected by the presence of the unguent, but, in the transition from the one state to the other, an exception is made to the independence of the friction upon the extent of the surface of contact ; for. sup- posing the extent of two surfaces of contact, between which a stratum of unguent is interposed, and which sustain a given pressure, to be continually diminished, it is. evident, that the portions of this pressure which take effect upon each element of the surfaces of con- tact will be continually increased, and that they may thus be so increased as to press out the interposed stratum of unguent, and cause the state of the surfaces to pass into that which is designated as unctuous, thereby changing the coefficient of friction. That law of friction, then, which is known as the law of : : the independence of the surface, is to be received, in the case where a stratum of unguents is interposed, only within certain limits. It will be understood, from what has been said, that there are three states, in respect to friction, into which the surfaces of bodies in contact may be made suc- cessively to pass : one, a state in which no unguent is present; the second, a state in which the surfaces are unctuous, but intimately m contact; the third, a state in which the surfaces are separated by an entire stratum of the interposed unguent. Throughout each of these states, the coefficient ot friction is the same; but it is essentially different in the different states. 4. It is a law common to the friction of all the states of contact of two surfaces, that their friction, when in motion, is altogether independent of the velocity of the motion. M Morin has verified this law, as well in various stites of contact without inter- Dosed fluids, as in the cases where, water, oils, grease, glutinous liquids, sirups, pitch, were interposed in a continuous stratum. 9# t 100 BOILERS. The variety of the circumstances under which these laws obtain in respect to the friction of motion, and the accuracy with which the phenomena of motion accord with them, may be judged of from one example, taken from the first set of experiments of M. Monn upon the friction of surfaces of oak, whose fibres were parallel to the direction of their motion upon one another. He caused the surfaces of contact to vary their dimensions in the ratio of 1 to 84, — from less than 5 square inches to nearly 3 feet square;* the forces Avhich pressed them together he varied from 88 lbs. to 2205 lbs., and their velocities from the slow- est possible to 9-8 feet per second, — causing them to be at one period accelerated motions, at another uni- form, at a third retarded; yet, through all this wide range of variation, he in no instance found the co- efficient of friction to deviate from the same fraction of 0-478 by more than ^ of the amount of the fraction. RULES, TABLES, ETC., RELATIVE TO BOILERS AND THE STEAM-ENGINE. The boiler of a steam-engine may be explained as that portion of the structure in which the vital prin- ciple of the engine is generated ; consequently, its construction is of the utmost importance ; for upon the proper efficiency of the boiler depends, in a great measure, the efficiency of the engine. Boilers not unfrequently, because of unavoidable peculiarities, are necessarily constructed of various forms ; but, for land or stationary engine boilers, if no thwarting circumstances intervene, either the wagon or cylindrical forms are commonl} resorted to; the BOILERS J01 former for those of condensing engines, and the lattel for those of the high-pressure principle. In the construction of boilers, much attention ought to be paid in avoiding thin films of water where the action of the fire is great ; because it is neither con- sistent with safety, nor can there be the proper quan- tities of steam generated, according to the surface exposed, unless under some extraordinary degree of pressure. Also, convex surfaces, exposed to the actior. of the steam, unless properly supported, ought strenu- ously to be avoided. Large water spaces, concave surfaces, or straight plates securely stayed, with ample steam-room, are the chief requisites to U-° attended to. 1. To determine the proper quantity of heating sur- face in a boiler for an engine with a cylinder of a given capacity, and, steam at any density required. Rule. — Multiply 375 times the area of the cylinder in feet by the velocity of the piston in feet per minute, and divide the product by the volume of steam to 1 of water at the density required, (see Table, page 91 ;) and the quotient is the amount of effective heating surface in square feet. Ex. Required the amount of effective heating sur- face in a boiler for an engine whose cylinder is 4£ square feet in area, and the piston's velocity 224 feet per minute, the pressure of the steam to equal 5 lbs. per square inch above the pressure of the atmosphere. 375 x 4-5 x 224 =295 square feet, nearly ; the fire-prate be- 1282 ■ J h ing in accordance with the following rule. Multiply the number of square feet of heating sur- face by 43J the product equal the area of fire-grate in square feet, thus : — 295 x 12 = 35-4 square feet of furnace bar. Note. — By effective heating surface is meant horizontal sur- faces over tire, flame, or heated air; vertical or side surface! requiring about 1$ foet to equal in effrct ' of horizontal su**a< » 02 BOILERS. 2. To determine the proper dimensions for a wagon- »haped boiler, when the amount of effective heating sur* face in square feet is obtained by the preceding ride. 1. The bottom surface equal half the whole surface 2. The length of the boiler equal twice the square root of bottom surface. 3. The width equal one-fourth the length; and 4. The height equal one-third the length. Ex. Required the dimensions for a boiler of the wagon form, that may present an effective heating sur- face of 295 square feet Bottom surface =295 — 2, or 147-5 square feet Length . . . = V147-5 x 2, or 24-26 feet. Width . . . = 24-26 — 4, or 6-06 feet. Height. . . =24-26-|-3 r or 808 feet. Note. — The amount of side or vertical surface equal twice the length of the boiler, added to the width, and multiplied by •75 to obtain that of effective surface } hence, 147-5 x 175 = 4-7 feet, depth of side flue. 24-26 X 2 4- 6-06 3. To determine the dimensions for a cylindriccu boiler. Rule. — Extract the square root of 1-34 times the effective heating surface in square feet, and twice the root equal the boiler's circumference in feet; also, the circumference equal the length. Ex. Let a cylindrical boiler be required with ai effective heating surface of 8(i square feet; what mus be its lensfth and diameter in feet? V86 X 1-34= 10-74 x 2 = 21-48 feet circumference, or b feet 10 inches diameter, and 21-48 feet in length. Note. — When an internal flue is to be inserted in a boilei be external surface of the boiler may be diminished in length I 1 BOILERS I0SN equal to half the exposed surface of the flue Observe, also, that the height of the contained water in boilers generally ought to be about two-thirds the whole height of the boiler Specified Particulars relative to the Boiler and Engine. Diameter of cylinders, . 14 inches. Length of stroke, 18 " Lap of the valve, 1 inch. Diameter of driving wheels, 5^ feet. Length of internal fire-box, . . . 2 feet ll| inches. Width of do. 3 " 5 Length of cylindrical part of boiler, 8 " 8 a Diameter of do., 3 " 4A " Length of tubes, 8 " 11$ " JMumber of tubes, 133, of brass. Interior diameter of do., 1| inches. Diameter of blast-pipe, 4 " About 312 lbs. of coke, consumed in this boiler evaporate 84 gallons of water ; and from 20 to 25 lbs of coke are consumed per mile. Heating Powers of Combustible Substances Species of combustible. lbs. of water heated from 32° to 212°. lbs. of boil- ing water evaporated by 1 lb. of fuel. lbs. of atmospheric air to each lb. of fuel. Wood in its ordinary state Wood charcoal Coal 26 73 60 65 30 64 4-72 13-37 10-90 11-81 5-45 11-63 4-47 11-46 9 26 11-46 j Turf Tu-f charcoal 460 9-86 104 STEAM -ENGINES. Table of Dimensions for Steam-Engine Cylinders by celebrated Makers. St.itionnry Con- dciiMng Engines, by L'oukon & Watt. 81 18 194 21 23| 244 26 27 27^ 28 29 30 324 344 38| 424 Marine Engines, by Mruulsley, Nupier, &e. 10 IS 20 25 30 40 .50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 1.30 200 250 £ S - °J "5 * III & e 1* ■5 o"— ■33 if O ■ 20 2 1 24 2j 2 27 25 3 29J 4 32 3 5 36 3.A 6 40 4 7 43 4 8 464 44 9 4% 44 10 60 4$ 11 53 5 12 554 54 14 57 54 16 60jj fii 18 65 6 20 74^ 6 25 84 b 30 High-Pressure, or Non-Comiensing Engine*, bv various .-hake re. Diameter* of cylinders, the force of the steam being, per square inch, lbs. 40 lbs. 50 lbs The unit of nominal power for steam-engines, or the usual estimate of dynamical effect per minute of a horse, called, by engineers, a horse-power, is 33,000 lbs., at a velocity of 1 foot per minute ; or, the effect of a load of 200 lbs., raised by a horse, for 8 hours a day, at the rate of 24 miles per hour, or 150 lbs. at t'.e rate of 220 feet per minute TROPKHTILS OF BODIES. 10-; •3 •61 O'JS * « r W .£ O o § 4 k •aqno qaui-^j qsma oj pojjnbai suoj, •uoj v u| jaaj sjqno •sq| ui jooj ajqno u jo iqiia^V •iiiABj3 sypadg q — T) 11-. C) -M *■ 1 ©i ©» 'Be •Xijinanp ajqBU:uiB| jo 3]B3s ws 1-1 I r» « I I 00 |<© J 00 J I •Xiiljionp jJUup-ajgAJo 3|uog I 00 English oak 934 58 3^ 11880 100 100 100 Riga do 872 54 12888 93 108 125 Dantzic do 756 47 48 12780 117 107 99 American do 672 42 53 10253 114 86 64 Beech 852 48 45 12225 77 103 138 Alder BOO 4tf 484 55" 9540 63 80 101 Plane 640 40 10935 78 99 108 Sycamore Chestnut 604 38 59 9630 59 81 111 610 38 59 10656 67 89 118 Ash 845 52 43 1413a 89 119 160 Kim 673 42 53 9720 78 82 86 Mahogany, Spanish . " Honduras 800 50 45 7560 73 67 61 637 40 55 11475 93 96 99 Walnut 671 42 53 8800 49 74 111 Teak 750 46 48* 12915 126 im 94 Poona ......... 640 40 55 12350 99 82 African oak 944 59 38 17200 101 138 Poplar 383 34 66 5928 4* CK> 57 Cedar 561 33 68 7420 28 62 106 Riga fir 753 47 48 9540 98 80 6t 546 34 33 66 63 9540 7110 114 55 80 60 56 65 Scotch do 528 Christ. VVht. deal . . . 590 37 60 12346 104 104 104 Amer". white spruce . 551 34 66 10296 72 86 102 Yellow pine 461 28 80 11853 95 99 103 Pitch pine 660 41 54* 9796 73 82 92 Larch 530 31 72 12240 79 103 134 Cork 240 15 149 — — PROPERTIED OF BOD ES. 1U7 LIQUIDS. GA3E3. >; „ c Atmospheric air being the >§' S~ standard of comparison, Names. is -Cra~ or 1000. o • 4 1022-4 1124-6 1226-9 1329-1 1431-4 1533-6 1635-8 1738-1 1840-3 H 1069-5 1176-5 1283-4 1390-4 1497-3 1604-3 1711-2 1818-2 1925-2 5i 51 1117-6 1229-3 1341-1 1452-8 1564-6 1676-3 1788-1 1899-9 2011-6 1160-0 1283-4 1400-1 1516-7 1633-4 1750-1 1866-7 1983-4 2100-1 6 1229 6 1338-3 1460-0 1581-6 1703-3 1825-0 1946-6 2068-3 2190-0 (4 1320-4 1452-4 1584-4 1716-5 1848-6 1980-6 2112-6 2244-7 2376-7 b£ 1428-2 1571-0 1713-8 1856-6 1999-4 2142-2 2285-1 2427-9 2870-7 6* 1540-1 1694-1 1848-1 2002-2 2056-2 2310-2 2464-2 2618-2 j 2772-2 7 1656-3 1822-0 1987-6 2153-2 2318-8 2184-5 2650-1 2815-7 2981-4 7i 1776-7 1954-4 21321 2309-7 2487-4 2665-1 2842-8 3020-4 3198-1 7i 1901-4 2091-5 2281-6 2471-8 2661-9 2852-0 3042-2 3232-3 1 34-22-4 yi 2030-2 2233-3 2436-3 2639-3 2842-3 j 3045-4 3248-4 3451-4 3654-4 8 2163-4 2379-7 2596-0 , 2812-4 3028-7 .3245-0 34CI-4 3677-7 3894-0 84 2300-7 2530-7 2760-8, 2990-9,3220-9 3451-0 3681-1 3911-1 1141-2 fctf 2442-2 2686-4 2930-6 31 74-9 1 341 9- 1| 3663-3 3907-5 4151-7 1396-0 H4 2588-0 2846-8 3105-6 H64-4 3623-2 3882-0 4140-8 4399-6 4658-4 (9 2737-9 3011-7 3285-5 3559-3^33-1 14106-9 13807 4654-5 [4928-3 Ml PRACTICAL TABLES TABLE I. — SQUARE IRON size. in. 2ft. j 3ft. 4ft. 5ft. 6 ft. 7ft 8 ft. lbs. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 289-2 578-4 867-7,1156-9 1446-1 1735-3 2024-5 2313-8 2003-0 305-1 610-1 915-2 1220-2 1525-3 1830-3 2135-4 2440-4 2745-5 91 321-3 642-7 964-0 1285-3 1606-7 1928-0 2249-3 2570-7 2892-3 10 337-9 675-8 1013-8 1351-7 1689-6 2027-5 2365-4 2703-4 3041-0 104 355-1 710-3 1065-4 1420-5 1775-7 2130-8 2486-0 2841-1 3190-2 104 372-7 745-3 1118-0 1490-7 1863-4 2236-0 2008-7 2981-4 3354-0 101 390-6 781-3 1171-9 1562-5 1953-1 2343-8 2734-4 3125-0 3515-7 11 409-0 817-9 1226-9 1635-8 2044-8 2453-8 2862-7 3271-7 3680-6 114 427-8 855-6 1283-4 1711-2 2139-1 2566-9 2994-7 3422-5 3850-3 Hi 447-0 894-0 1341-1 1788-1 2235-1 2682-1 3129-2 3576-2 4023-2 114 466*7 933-4 1400-1 1866-7 2333-4 2800-1 3266-8 3733-5 4200-2 * 486-7 973-3 1460-0 1946-6 2433-3 2919-9 3406-6 3893-2 4379* PRACTICAL TABLES. 115 TABLE 1 — SaUARE IRON. size. 10 ft lift. 12 ft. 13 ft 14 ft 15 ft lGft 17 ft 18 ft inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 0-l 35-1 40-2 45-2 II 6-0 11-9 17-9 23-9 29-9 35-8 41-8 47-8 53-7 l| 7-0 14-0 21-0 28-0 35-1 42-1 49-1 56-1 63-1 U 8-1 16-3 24-4 32-5 40-6 48-8 56-9 65-0 73 2 H 9-3 18-7 28-0 37-3 46-7 56-0 65-3 74-7 84-0 2 10-6 21-2 31-8 42-5 53-1 63-7 74-3 84-9 95-5 2& 12-0 240 36-0 480 59-9 71-9 83-9 95-9 107-9 21 13-5 26-9 40-3 53-8 67-2 80-6 941 107-5 121-0 21 15-0 30-0 44-9 60-0 74-9 89-9 104-8 119-8 134-8 24 16-7 33-4 501 66-8 83-4 100-1 116-8 133-5 150-2 21 18-8 36-6 54-9 73-2 91-5 109-8 128-1 146-3 164 6 21 20-1 40-2 60-2 80-3 100-4 120-5 140-5 160-6 180-7 2i 21-9 43-9 65-8 87-8 109-7 131-7 153-6 175-6 197-5 3 23-9 47-8 71-7 95-6 119-4 143-3 167-2 191 1 215 3J 25-9 51-9 77*8 103-7 129-6 155-6 181-5 207-4 233-3 34 28-0 56-1 84-1 112-2 140-2 168-2 196-3 224-3 253-4 31 30-2 60-5 90-7 121-0 151-2 181-4 211-7 24H 272-2 3i 32-5 65-0 97«5 10-0 162-6 195-1 227-6 260-1 293-6 31 34-9 69-8 104-7 139-5 174-4 209-3 244-9 279-1 314-0 31 37-3 74-7 I'M 149-3 186-7 224-0 261-3 298-7 336-0 Si 39-9 79-7 » 159-5 199-3 239-2 279-0 318-9 358-8 j PRACTICAL TABLES. T^BLE II.-RO"ND IRON. 11/ 1 1 size. 10 ft. lift. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft, 15 ft. 1 16 ft. 17 ft. 18ft. /inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lba. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 4 1-7 1-8 2-0 2-1 2-3 2-5 2-6 2-8 30 1 3-7 4-1 4-5 4-8 5-2 5-6 6-0 6-3 6-7 h 6-6 7-3 8-0 8-6 9-3 9-1 1 10-6 11-3 11-9 I 10-4 11-5 12-5 13-6 14-6 15-6 16-7 i7-3 18-8 1 14-9 16-4 17-9 19-4 20-9 22--? 23-9 25-4 26-9 i 20-3 22-4 24-4 26-4 28-4 30-5 32-5 34-5 366 1 26-5 29-2 31-8 34-5 37-2 39-e 42-5 45-1 47 8 n 33-6 37-0 40-3 43-7 47-0 50-4 53-8 57-1 60 5 14 41-7 45-9 50-1 54-2 58-4 62-6 66-8 70-9 75 1 If 50-2 55-2 60-2 65-2 70-3 75? 80-3 85-3 90-3 H 59-7 65-7 71-7 77-6 83-6 89-6 95-6 101-5 107 5 H 70-1 77-1 84-1 91-1 98- 1 105-2 1 12-2 .19-2 J26 2 11 81-3 89-4 97-5 105-7 113-8 121-9 130-0 138-2 146-3 H 93-3 102-7 112-0 121-3 130-7 140-0 119-3 J 58-7 168 2 106-2 116-8 127-4 138-0 148-6 159-2 169-9 180-5 ! 192 1 2* 119-9 131-9 143-9 155-8 167-8 179-8 181-8 193-8 205-8| 24 134-4 147-8 161-3 174-7 188-2 201-6 215-0 228-5 241-9 21 149-8 164-7 179-7 194-7 209-7 224-6 239-6 254-6 269-6 24 166-9 183-6 200-3 216-9 233-6 250-3 267-0 283-7 300-4 21 i82-9 201-2 219-5 237-8 256-1 274-4 292-7 311-0 329-3 24 JOO-8 220-8 240-9 261-2 281-1 301-1 321-2 341-3 361-4 2i 219-4 241-4 263-4 285-3 307-2 329-2 351-1 373-0 395-0 J ^38-9 262-8 286-7 310-5 334-4 358-3 382-2 406-1 430-0 OJ 259-3 285-2 311-1 337-0 363-0 388-9 414-8 440-7 466-7 34 280-4 308-4 336-5 364-5 392-6 420-6 448-6 476-7 504-7 3| 302-4 332-6 362-9 393-1 423-4 453-6 483-8 514-1 544-3 % 325-1 357-6 390-1 422-7 455-2 487-7 520-2 552-7 585-2 38 348 9 383-7 418-6 453-5 488-4 523-3 558-2 593-1 627-9 M 3733 410-7 448-0 485-3 j 522-6 560-0 597-31 634-6 672-0 ^k 398 6 1 438-5 478-4 1 518-2 1 558-1 598-0, 637-8, 677-7 I 1 717-6 fr~ — 118 PRACTICAL TABLES. TABLE 11. — ROUND IRON size. 1ft. 2ft. 3ft. 4ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7ft. 8ft. 9ft. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 4 42-5 84-9 127-4 169-9 212-3 254-8 297-2 339-7 382-2 4* 45-2 90-3 135-5 180-7 225-9 271-0 316-2 361-4 406-6 4* 48-0 95-9 143-9 191-8 239-8 287-7 335-7 383-6 431-6 4| 50-8 101-6 152-4 203-3 254-1 304-9 355-7 406-5 457-3 44 53-8 107-5 161-3 215-0 268-8 322-6 376-3 430-1 483-8 41 56-8 113-6 170-4 227-2 283-9 340-7 397-5 454-3 511-1 41 60-0 119-8 179-7 239-6 299-5 359-4 419-3 479-2 539-1 4§ 63-1 126-2 189-3 252-4 315-5 378-6 411-7 504-8 567-8 5 66-8 133-5 200-3 267-0 333-8 400-5 467-3 534-0 600-8 51 69-7 139-5 209-2 278-9 348-7 418-4 488-1 557-8 627-6 5* 73-2 146-3 219-5 292-7 365-9 439-0 512-2 585-4 658-5 5i 76-7 153-4 230-1 306-8 383-5 460-2 536-9 613-6 690 3 5£ 80-3 160-6 240-9 321-2 401-5 481-8 562-1 642-4 722-7 5£ 84-0 168-0 252-0 336-0 42O-0 504-0 588-0 672-0 756-0 5| 87-8 175-6 263-3 351-1 438-9 526-7 614-4 702-2 790-0 5J 91-6 183-3 274-9 366-5 458-2 549-8 641-4 733-1 824-7 6 95-6 191-1 286-7 382-2 477-8 573-3 668-9 764-4 860-0 61 103-7 207-4 311-1 414-8 518-5 622-2 725-9 829-6 933-3 6i 112-2 224-3 336-5 448-6 560-8 673-0 785-1 897-3 1009-4 61 121-0 241-9 362-9 483-8 604-8 725-8 846-7 967-6 1088-6 7 130-0 260-1 390-1 520-2 650-2 780-3 910-3 1040-4 1170-4 7i 139-5 279-1 418-6 558-2 697-7 837-3 976-8 1116-4 1255-9 7| 149-3 298-7 448-0 597-3 741-6 896-0 1045-3 1194-6 1344-0 7| 159-5 318-9 478-4 637-8 797-3 956-7 1116-2 1275-6 1435-1 8 169-9 339-7 509-6 679-4 849-3 1019-1 U89-0 1358-8 1528-7 8* 180-7 361-4 542-1 722-8 003-5 1084-2 1264-9 1445-6 1626-3 r s 191-8 383-6 595-4 767-2 959-0 1150-8 1342-6 1534-5 1726-3 8| 203-3 406-5 609-8 813-0 1016-3 1219-6 1422-8 ]£26-l 1829-3 i 9 2150 430-1 > 645-1 860-2 1075-2 1290-2 1505-3 1720-3 1935-4 TRACTICAl Af>,.^S. I ID TABLE II. — ROUND IRON. T- | size. 10 ft. lift. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft 15 ft.' 16 ft 17 ft. is a inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 4 424-6 467-1 509-6 552-0 594-5 637-0' 676-4 721-9 764-4 4$ 451-7 496-9 542-1 587-3 632-4 677-6 J 722-8 7619 813-1 44 479-5 527-5 575-4 623-4 671-3 719-3 767-2 j 815 2 863-1 41 508-2 559-0 J 609-8 660-6 711-4 762-2 813-0 863-9 914-7 U 537-6 591 -4 J 645-1 698-9 752-!) 806-4 860-21 913-9 967-7 4f 567-9 624-7 1 681-5 738-2 795-0 851-8 908-6 1 965-4 1022-2 41 599-0 658-9 718-8 778-7 838-b 898-5, 958-4| 1018-3 1078-2 4& 630-9 694-0 757-1 820-2 883-3 946-4 1009-5 1072-6 1135-7 5 667-5 734-3 801-0 867-8 934-5 1001-3 1068-0 11134-8 1201-5 5| 697-3 767-0 836-8 906-5 976-2 J 046-0 1115-7 1 185-4 1255-2 5* 731-7 804-9 878-1 951-2 1024-4 1097-6 1170-8 1243-9 1317-1 51 767-0 813-7 920-4 997-1 1073-8 1150-5 1227-2 1303-9 1380-6 oh 803-0 883-3 963-6 1044-0 1124-3 1204-6 1284-9 1365-2 1445-5 H 840 924-0 1008-0 1092-0 1176-0 1260-0 1344-0 1428-0 R12-0 53 877-8 965-5 1053-3 1141-1 1228-9 1316-6 1404-4 1492-2 1580-0 916-3 1008-0 1099-6 1191-2 1282-9 1374-5 1466-1 1557-8 1649-4 6 955-5 1051-1 1146-6 1242-2 1337-7 i 1433-3 1528-8 1624-4 1719-9 64 1037-0 1140-7 1244-4 1348-2 1451-9 1555-6 1659-3 1763-0 1866-7 G£ 1121-6 1233-8 1345-9 1458-1 1570-2 1682-4 1794-6 1906-7 2018-0 63 1209-6 1330-6 1451-5 1572-5 1693-4 1814-4 1935-4 1 2056-3 2177-3 7 1300-5 1430-5 1560-6 1690-6 1820-7 1 1950-7 2088-8 2210-8 2340-9 74 1395-4 1535-0 1674-5 1814-1 1953-6 2093-2 2232-7 2372-212511-8 74 1493-3 1642-6 1791-9 1941-3 2090-6 2239-9 2389-2 2538-6 2687-9 73 159-.6 1754-0 1913-5 2072-9 2232-4 2391-8 2551-3 1 2710-8 2870-2 8 1698-6 1868-4 2038-3 2208-1 2378-0 1547-8 2717-7 2887-6 13057-4 84 1809-0 1987-7 2168-4 2349-0 2529-7 2740-4 2891-1 3071-8 3252-5 Sh 1918-1 2109-9 2301-7 2493-5 2685-3 2879-1 3068-9 3260-7 3452-5 83 2032-6 2235-9 2439-1 2642-4 2845-6 3048-9 3252-2 3455-4 3653-7 9 2150-4 2365-4 2580-5 2795-5 3010 6 1 3225-6 3440-6 3655-7 3870-7 11 20 PRACTICAL TABLES. TABLE II. — HOUND IKON. size. 1ft. 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft 5 ft. 6 ft. 7ft 8ft 9ft. inch. lbs. lbs. Ib3. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs 9* 227-2 454-3 681-5 ' 908-6 1135-8 1362-9 15901 1817-2 2044 4 239-6 479-2 718-8: 958-4 1198-0 1437-6 1677-2 1916-8 2156-4 9| 252-4 505-8 757-1 i 1009-5 1261-91 1514-3 1766-6 2019-0 2291-4 10 26G-3 532-6 798-9: 10C5-2 1331-4 1597-7! 1864-0 2130-3 2396-6 104 278-9 557-8 836-8 11 U.-7 1394-6 1673-5| 1952-5 2231-4 2510-3 10* 292-7 585-4 878-1 1 1170-8 1463-4 1756-1 2048-8 2341-5 2634-2 10| 306-8 603-6 920-4 1 1227-2 1534-0 1840-8 2147-6 2454-4 2761-2 11 321-2 642-4 963-6 1284-9 1606-1 1927-3 2248-5 2569-7 2890-9 Hi 336-0 672-0 1008-0 1344-0 1680-0 2016-0 2352*0 2688-0 3024-0 Hi 3511 702-2 1053-3 1404-4 1755-5 2106-6 2457-7 2808-8 3159-9 m 366-5 733-1 1099-6 14-56-1 1832-7 2199-2 2565-8 2932-3 3298-8 12 382-2 764-4 1146-6 1528-8 1911-0 2293-2 2675-5 3057-7 3439-9J PRACTICAL TABLES. 121 TABLE II. — ROUND IRON. size. 10 «. lift. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft. 17 ft. 18 ft. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 94 2271-5 2498-7 2725-8 2953-0 3180-1 3407-3 1 3634-4 3861-6 4088-7 94 2396-0 2635-6 2875-2 3114-8 3354-4 3594-0 3833-6 4073-2 4312-8 m 2523-8 1 2776-1 3028-5 3280-9 3533-3 3785-6 4038-0 4290-4 4512-8 10 2662-9 2929-2 3195-5 3461-7 3728-0 3994-3 4260-6 4526-9 4793-2 10* 2789-2 3068-2 3347-1 3626-0 3904-9 4183-9 4462-8 4741-7 5020-6 10i 2926-9 3219-6 3512-3 3804-9 4097-6 4390-3 4683-0 4975-7 5268-4 101 3068-0 3374-8 3681-6 3988-4 4295-2 4602-0 4908-8 5215-6 5522-4 11 3212-2 3533-4 3854-6 4175-8 4497-0 4818-2 5139-5 5460-7 5781-9 iii 3360-0 3696-0 4032-0 4368-1 4704-1 5040-1 53761 5712-1 6048-1 1U 3511-0 3862-1 4213-2 4564-4 4915-5 5266-6 5619-7 5968-8 6319-9! m 3665-4 4031-9 4398-4 4765-0 5131-5 5498-0 5864-6 62311 6597-6 12 3822-1 4204-3 4586-5 4968-7 5350-915733-1 6115-3 6497-5 6879-7J 22 PRACTICAL TABLES. TABLE III FLAT IRON. Th'k. Wid. 1ft 2ft 3ft 4ft 5ft 6ft 7ft 8ft 9ft inch. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 4 1 0-8 1-7 2-5 3-4 4-2 5-1 5-9 6-8 76 k u 1-1 O. | 3-2 4-2 5-3 6-3 7-4 8-4 9-5 i u 14 2-5 3-8 5-1 6-3 7-6 8-9 10-1 114 I u 1-5 3-0 4-1 5-9 7-4 8-9 10-4 11-8 13-3 i 2 1-7 3-4 5-1 6-8 8-5 10-1 11-8 13-5 15-2 4 24 1-9 3-* 5-7 7-6 9-5 11-4 13-3 15-2 17-1 I 24 2-1 4-2 6-3 8-4 1 10-6 12-7 14-8 16-9 19 k 21 2-3 4-6 7-o 9-:? 11-G 13-9 16-3 18-6 20 9 I 3 2-5 5-1 7-6 10-1 12-7 15-2 17-7 20-3 228 4 34 2-7 5-5 8-2 11-0 13-7 16-5 19-2 22-0 24-7 k 34 3-0 5-9 8-9 11-8 14-8 17-7 20-7 23-7 26-6 4 31 3-2 6-3 9-5 12-7 15-8 19-0 22-2 25-4 28-5 k 4 3-4 6-8 10-1 13-5 16-9 20-3 23-7 27-0 30-4 k 44 3-6 7-2 10-8 14-4 18-0 21-5 25-1 28-7 32-3 k 4i 3-8 7-6 11-4 15-2 19-0 22-8 26-6 30-4 34-2 k 41 4-0 8-0 120 16-1 20-1 24-1 28-1 32-1 36-1 k 5 4-2 8-4 12-7 16-9 211 25-3 29-6 33-8 38-0 k 54 4-4 8-9 13-3 17-7 22-2 26-6 31-1 av5 39-9 k 54 4-6 9-3 13-9 18-6 23-2 27-9 32-5 37-2 41-8 k 51 4-9 9-7 14 6 19-4 24-3 29-2 34-0 38-9 43-7 k 6 5-1 10-1 15-2 20-3 25-3 30-4 35-5 40-6 45-6 I 1 1 § 1 1-3 2-5 3-8 5-1 6-3 7-6 8-9 10*1 11-4 14 U 1-6 3-2 4-8 6-3 7-9 9-5 11-1 12-7 14-3 1-9 3-8 5-7 7-6 9-5 11-4 13-3 15-2 171 u 2-2 4-4 6-7 8-9 111 '«3-3 15-5 17 7 20-0 1 1 2 2-5 51 7-6 10-1 12-7 15*2 17-7 20-3 22-8 24 2-9 5-7 8-3 11-4 14-3 1M 20-0 22-8 25-7 § 24 3-2 6-3 9-5 12-7 15-8 19-0 22-2 25-4 28-5 , PRACTICAL TABLES. 123 TABLE III —FLAT IRON. Th'k. Wid. jlOft lift 1 12ft 13ft 14ft 15ft 16'ft 17ft 18ft Inch. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1 8-5 9-3 10-i 110 11-8 12-7 13-5 14-4 15-2 n 10-6 11*6 12-7 13-7 14-8 15-8 16-9 17-9 19-0 n 12-7 13-9 15-2 16-5 17-7 19-0 20-3 21-5 22-8 if 14-8 16-3 17-7 19-2 20-7 22-2 23-7 25-1 26-6 2 16-9 18-6 20-3 22-0 23-7 25-4 27-0 28-7 30-4 24 19-0 20-9 22-8 24-7 2(5-6 28-5 30-4 32-3 34-2 n 21-1 23-2 25-3 27-5 29-6 31-7 33-8 35-9 38-0 2| 23-2 25-6 27-9 30-2 32-5 34-9 37-2 39-5 41-8 3 2S*3 27-9 30-4 33-0 35-5 38-0 40-6 43-1 45-6 3i 27-5 30-2 33-0 35-7 38-5 41-3 43-9 46-7 49-4 3d 29-6 32-5 35-5 38-5 41-4 44-4 47-3 50-3 53-2 35 31-7 34-9 38-0 41-2 44-4 47-5 50 7 53-9 57-0 4 33-8 37-2 40-6 43-9 47-3 50-7 54-1 57-5 60-8 4i 35-9 39-5 43-1 46-7 50-3 53-9 57-5 61-0 64-6 44 ;>8-o 41-8 45-6 49-4 53-2 57-0 60-8 64-6 68-4 4| 40-1 44-1 48-2 52-2 56-2 60-2 64-2 68-2 72-2 5 42-2 48-5 50-7 54-9 59-1 63-4 65-6 71-8 76-0 5i 44-4 48-8 53-2 57-7 62-1 66-5 71-0 75-4 79-9 •5i 4G-5 51-1 55-8 60-4 65-1 69-7 74-4 79-0 83-C 51 48-6 53-4 58-3 63-2 68-0 72-9 77-7 82-6 87-5 1 6 50-7 55-8 60-8 65-9 70-9 76-0 81-1 86-2 91-2 8 I I 1 1 u 1* 12-7 13-9 15-2 16-5 17-7 19-0 20-3 21-5 22-8 15-8 17-4 19-0 20-6 22-2 23-8 25-3 28-9 28-5 19-0 20-9 22-8 24-7 26-6 28-5 30-4 32-3 34-2 22-2 24-4 26-6 28-8 31-1 33-3 35-5 37-7 39-9! l 1 1 1 2 25-3 27-9 30-4 33-0 35-5 38-0 40-6 43-1 45-6 2| 2£ 28-5 31-4 34-2 37-1 39-9 42-8 45-6 48-5 51-31 31-7 34-9 38-0 41-2 44-4 47-5 50-7 53-9 57-0 1 11* 121 | PRACTICAL TABLES. TABLE /II.-FLAT IRON. Th'k. WwL 1ft 2ft 1 3ft 4ft 5ft 6ft 7ft 8ft 9ft inch. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. § 21 3-5; 7-0 10-5 13-9 17-4 20-9 24-4 27-9 31-4 I 3 . 1 3-8 7-6 11-4 15 2 19-0 22-8 26-6 30-4 31-2 1 3| 4-1 8-2 12-4 16-5 20-6 24-7 28-8 33-0 371 I 3£ 4-4 | 8-9 13-3 17-7 22-2 26-6 31-1 35-5 39-9 I 31 4-8* 9-5 14-3 19-0 23-8 28-5 33-3 38-0 42-» § 4 5-1 10-1 15-2 20-3 25-3 30-4 35-5 40-6 45-6 1 44 5-4 10-8 16-1 21-5 26-9 32-3 37-7 43-1 48-5 1 4£ 5-7 11-4 17-1 22-8 28-5 34-2 39-9 45-6 51-3 1 I 4| 6-0' 12-0 1 18-1 24-1 30-1 3i>l 42-1 48-2 54-2 I 5 6-3 12-7 19-0 25-3 31-7 38-0 44-4 50-7 57-0 f 54 6-7 13-3 20'0 26-6 33-3 39-9 46-6 53-2 59-9 1 H 7-0 13-9 20-9 27-9 34-9 41-8 48-8 55-8 62-7 § 5| 7-3 14-6 1 21-9 29-2 36-4 43-7 51-0 58-3 65-6 I 6 7-6 15-2 22-8 30-4 38-0 45-6 53-2 60-8 G8 I h 1 1-7 3-4 5-1 6-8 8-5 10-1 11-8 13-5 15-2 h 14 2-1 4-2 6-3 8-4 10-6 12-7 14-8 16-9 190 i u 2-5 5-1 7-6 10-1 12-7 15-2 17-7 20-3 22-8 h n 3-0 5-9 | 8-9 11-8 14-8 17-7 20-7 23-7 2G-6 I 2 3-4 6-8 10-1 13-5 16-9 20-3 23-7 27-0 30-4 i 24 3-8 7 6 11-4 15-2 19-0 22-8 26-6 30-4 34-2 * s» 4-2 8-4 12-7 16-9 21-1 25-3 29-6 33-8 38-0 i 21 4-6 9-3 13-9 18-6 23-2 27-9 32-5 37-2 41-8 4 3 5-1 10-1 15-2 20-3 25-3 30-4 35-5 40-6 45-6 4 34 5-5 11-0 16-5 22-0 27-5 32-9 38-4 43-9 49-4 £ 3i 5-9 11-8 17-7 23-7 29-6 35-5 41-4 47-3 534 4 31 6-3 12-7 | 19-0 25-3 31-7 38-0 44-4 50-7 57-0 i 4 6-8 ' 13-5 20-3 27 33-8 40-6 47-3 54-1 fiO-8 PRACTICAL TABLES. 125 TABLE III FLAT IRON. Th'k. inch I Wid. inch 21 3 31 34 31 4 4| 44 41 5 5i 54 55 1 n u n 2 2| 24 21 3 3* 34 31 10ft lift 12ft lbs. 34-9 38-0 41-2 44-4 47-5 50-7 55 53-9 57-0 60-2 63-3 66-5 69' 72-9 76-0 16-9 21-1 25-3 2J-6 33-8 38-0 42-2 46-5 59-2 63-3 lbs 36-3 41-8 45-3 48-8 52-3 59-3 62-7 66-2 72-2 G9-7 73-2 76-7 80-2 83-f 18-( 23-2 27-9 3 37-2 41-8 4G-5 51-1 50-7 55-8 54-9 00-4 65-1 C9-7 lbs. 41-8 45-6 49-4 53-2 57-0 60-8 64-7 68-4 13ft 76-0 79-8 83-7 87-5 91-2 20-3 25-3 30-4 35-5 40-6 45-6 50-7 55-8 60-8 65-9 710 76-0 lbs. 45-3 49-4 53-6 57-7 61-8 65-9 70 70-0 74-2 78-3 82-4 86-5 9CV 91-7 98-9 22-0 27-5 33-0 38-5 43-9 49-4 54-9 60-4 65-9 71-4 76-9 83-4 14ft lbs, 48-8 53-2 57-7 62-1 66-5 75-4 79-9 84-3 88-7 93-1 97-6 102-0 L06-5 23-7 29-6 35-5 41-4 47-3 53-2 59-1 65-1 70-9 7o-9 82-8 88-7 15ft lGi't 67-6| 74-4 84-1 1 87-9 94-6 101-4 108-2 114-9 121-7 lbs. 52-3 57-0 61-8 66-5 71-3 7G-0 80-8 85 90-3 95-0 99-8 104-5 109-3 114-1 25-4 31-7 38-0 44-4 50-7 57-0 63-4 G9-7 7G-0 82-4 88-7 95-0 lbs. 55-8 60-8 65-9 71-0 76-0 81-1 86-2 91-3 96-3 17 A 18ft! lbs. 59-3 G4-6 70-0 75-4 86-2 91-6 97-0 102-3 101-4 107-7 106-5 113-1 111-5 116-6 121-7 27-0 33-8 40-6 47-3 54-1 60-8 65-6 74-4 81-1 87-9 94-6 101-4 118-5 123' 129-3 28-7 35-9 43-1 50-3 57-5 64-6 71-8 79-0 93-3 100-6 107-7 lbs. 68-4 74 79 9 85-5 91-2 97-0 102-7 108-4 114-0 119-8 125-5 131-2 136-9 30-4 38-0 45 53-2 60-8 68-4 76-0 83-6 91-2 98-8 106-5 114-0 /__ i26 ritAOTICAL TABLES. 'ABLE III. — FLAT IRON Th'k. Wid 1ft 2 ft 3ft ft 5 5 ft Gft 7ft 8ft lbs. 9ft lbs. inch. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. h 4* 7-2 14-4 21-5 •28-7 35-9 43-1 50-3 57 4 646 h 44 7-6 15-2 22-8 30-4 38-0 45-6 53-2 60-8 68 4 h 45 8-0 16-1 24-1 32-1 40-1 48-2 56-2 642 722 h 5 8-4 16-9 25-3 33-8 42-2 50-7 59-1 676 76-0 h 5* 8-9 17-7 26-6 35-5 44-4 53-2 62-1 71-0 79-9 h 54 9-3 18-6 27-9 37-2 4G-5 55-8 65-1 74-4 83-7 i 5| 9-7 19-4 29-2 38-9 48-6 58-3 68-0 77-7 87-5 h 6 10-1 20-3 30-4 40-6 50-7 60.8 70-9 81-1 91-2 & 1 2-1 4-2 6-3 8-4 10-6 12-7 14-8 16-9 19-0 § H 2*6 5-3 7-9 10-6 13-2 15-8 18-5 21-1 23-8 I 14 3-2 6-3 9-5 12-7 15-8 19-0 22-2 25-4 28-5 1 If 3-7 7-4 11-1 14-8 18-5 22-2 25-9 29-6 33-3 | 2 4-2 8-4 12-7 16-9 211 25-3 29-9 33-8 38-0 i 2* 4-8 9-5 14-3 19-0 23-8 28-5 33-3 38-0 42-8 1 i 24 5-3 10-6 15-8 2M 26-4 31-7 37-0 42-2 47-5 i 21 5-8 11-6 17-4 23-2 29-0 34-8 40-7 46-5 52-3 § 3 6-3 12-7 19-0 25-3 31-7 38-0 44-4 50-7 57-6 I 3| 6-9 13-7 20-6 27-5 34-3 41*2 48-1 54-9 61-8 8 3£ 7-4 14-8 22-2 29-6 37-0 44-4 51-8 59-2 66-5 § 31 7*9 15-8 23-8 31-7 39-6 47-5 55-5 63-4 71-3 f 4 8-4 16-9 25-3 33-8 42-2 50*7 59-1 67-6 76-0 f 41 9-t) 18-0 26-9 35-9 44-9 53-9 62-9 7l-a 80-8 1 44 9-5 19-0 28-5 38-0 47-5 57-0 G6-5 76-1 8o-C 1 41 lo-o 20-1 30-1 40-1 50-2 60-2 70-2 80-3 90-3 I 5 .0-6 21-1 31-7 42-3 52-8 63-4 73-9 84-5 95-1 t 54 j 1-1 22-2 33-3 44-4 55-5 66-5 77-6 88-7 99-8 1 54 .1-6 23-2 34-9 46-5 58-1 69-7 81-3 92-9 104-6 _J_ 51 12-1 24-3 35-4 48-G 60-7 72-9 85-0 97-2 109-3 - 1 PRACTIC/L TABLES. 12"/ TABLE III.— FLAT IRON Th'k. Wid. 10ft lift 12rt 13ft 14ft 15ft l()ft 17ft 18ft inch. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. i 4J 71-8 79-0 86-2 93-4 100-5 107-7 111-9 2»1 129-3 h 44 76-0 83-6 91-2 98-9 100-5 114-1 121-7 129-3 136-9 4 45 80-3 88-3 96-3 104-3 112-4 120-4 128-4 136-4 144-5 4 5 84-5 92-9 101-4 109-8 118-3 126-7 135-2 143-6 152-1 h 5i 88-7 97-6 106-5 115-4 124-2 133- 1 142-0 150-8 159-7 i 54 93-0 102-2 111-5 120-8 130-1 139-4 148-7 158-0 167-3 4 51 97-2 100-9 116-6 126-3 136-0 145.8 155-5 165-2 174-9 i 6 101-4 111-5 121-7 131-8 141-9 152-1 162-2 172-4 182-5 e 1 21-1 23-2 25-3 27-5 29-6 31-7 1 33-fe | 35-9 38-0 i u 26-4 29-0 31-7 34-3 37-0 39-6 42-21 44-9 47-5 i n 31-7 34-8 38-0 41-2 44-4 47-5 50-7 53-9 57-0 i n 37-0 40-7 44-4 48-1 51-8 55-5 59-2 62-8 66-5 i 2 42-2 46-5 50-7 54 9 60-1 63-4 67-6 71-8 76-0 t »4 47-5 52-3 57-0 51-8 66-5 71-3 76-0 80-8 85-5 t 24 52-8 58-1 63-4 68-6 73-9 79-2 84-5 89-8 95-0 i 25 58-1 63-9 69-7 75-5 81-3 87-1 92-9 98-7 104-5 i i 3 63-3 69-7 76-0 82-4 88-7 95-0 101-4 107-7 114-0 34 68-7 75-5 82-4 89-3 96-1 103-0 109-9 116-7 123-6 i 34 73-9 81-3 88-7 96-1 103-5 110-9 118-3 125-7 133-1 8 3! 79-2 87-1 95-1 103-0 1109 118-8 126-8 134-7 142-C § 4 84-5 92-9 101-4 109-8 118-3 120-7 135-2 143-6 1521 1 44 89-8 98-8 107-8 110-7 125-7 134-7 143-7 152-6 101 6 | 44 95-1 104-6 H4-1 123-6 133-1 142-6 152-1 161-6 171*1 1 4$ 100-3 110-4 120-4 130-4 140-5 150-5 100-5 170-6 180-6 . 1 5 105-6 116-2 126-8 137-3 147-9 158-4 169-0 179-6 190-1 1 54 110-9 122-0 133-1 144-2 155-3 166-4 177-5 188-5 199-6 1 54 116-2 127-8 139-4 151-0 162-6 174-3 185-9 197-5 209-1 1 1 53 121-5 133-0 1 115-7 157-9 170-0 182-2 194-3 200-5 218-6 v- "- 128 j PRACTICAL TABLES. TABLE III. — FLAT IROJS Thk. inch Wid. 1 ft! 2 ft 3ft 4 ftj 5 ft 6ft 7ft 8ft 9 it inch. lbs. Iba. lbs. lbs. lbs. \ lbs. lbs. lbs. lte . 1 6 12-7 25-3 38-0 50-7 63-4 76-0 88-7 101-4 114-1 ' I 1 1 1 2-5 5-1 7-6 10-1 12-7 15-2 17-7 20-3 22-8 u 3-2 6-3 9-5 12-7 15-8 19-0 22-2 25-4 28-5 14 3-8 7-6 11-4 15-2 19-0 22-8 26 6 30-4 24-2 « 4-4 8-9 13-3 17-7 22-2 26-6 | 31-1 35-5 39-9 1 I 1 1 2 5-1 10-1 15-2 20-3 1 25-3 30-4 35-5 40-6 45-6 2| 5-7 11-4 17-1 22-8 28-5 34-2 39-9 45-6 51-3 2i 6-3 12-7 19-0 25-3 31-7! 38-0 44-4 50-7 57 2| 7-0 13-9 20-9 27-9 34-9 1 41-8 i 48-8 55-8 62-7 1 1 1 1 3 7-6 15-2 22-8 30-4 38-0 45-6 53-2 60-9 68-4 3i 8-2 16-5 24-7 33-0 41-2 49-4 57-7 65-9 74-2 3£ 8-9 17-7 26-6 35-5 44-4 53-2 62-1 71-0 79-9 31 9-5 19-0 28-5 38-0 47-5 57-0 66-5 76-1 85-6 1 1 i i 4 44 41 41 10- 1 20-3 304 40-6 50-7 60-8 70-9 8M 91-2 10-8 21-5 32-3 43-1 53-9 64-6 75-4 86-2 97-0 1J-4 22-8 34-2 45-6 57-0 68-4 79-9 91-3 102-7 12-0 24-1 36-1 48-2 60-2 72-2 84-3 96-3 108-4 1 1 I 5 12-7 25-3 38-0 50-7 1 63-4 76-0 88-7 101-4 J14-0 54 54 13-3 26-6 39-9 53-2 66-5 79-8 93-1 106-5 119-8 13-9 27-9 41-8 55-8 69-7 83-7 97-6 111-5 125-5 1 51 14-6 29-1 43-7 58-3 72-9 87-4 102-0 116-6 131-2 I G 15-2 30-4 45 6 60-8 76-0 91-2 10G-5 1217 136-9 • u 5-1 10-1 152 20-3 25-3 30-4 33-5 40-6 456 2 6-8 13-5 20-3 27-0 33-8 40-6 47-8 54-1 60-8 3 10-1 20-3 30-4 40-6 50-7 60-8 70-9 81-1 91-2 4 13-5 270 40-6 64-1 67-6 81-1 94-6 108-1 121-7 5 16-9 33-8 50-7 67-6 84-5 101-4 118-3 135-2 152-1 * 6 20-3 40-6 60 8 81-1 101-4 121-7 141-9 162-21182-5 PRACTICAL TABLES. 12^ TABLE III. — PLAT IRON. Th'k. Wid. 10ft lift 12ft 13ft 14ft 15ft IGft 17ft 18ft inch. inch. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 8 6 126-7 139-4 152-1 164-8 177-4 190-1 202-8 215-4 228 1 1 1 25-3 27-9 30-4 33-0 35-5 38-0 40-6 43-1 45-6 i 14 31-7 34-9 38-0 41-2 44-4 47-5 50-7 53-9 57-0 1 38-0 41-8 45-6 59-4 53-2 57-0 60-8 64-6 . 68-4 I H 44-4 48-8 53-2 57-7 62-1 66-5 71-0 75-4 79-9 1 1 2 50-7 55-8 60-8 65-9 70-9 76-0 81-1 86-2 91-2 24 57-0 62-7 68-4 74-2 79-9 85-5 91-3 97-0 102-7 1 2£ 63-3 69-7 76-0 82-4 88-7 95-0 101-4 107-7 114-0 1 21 69-7 76-7 83-7 90-6 97-6 104-5 111-5 118-5 125-5 1 1 1 3 76-0 83-6 91-2 98-9 106-5 114-1 121-7 129-3 136-9 34 34 82-4 90-6 98-9 107-1 115-3 123-6 131-8 140-0 148-3 88-7 97-6 106-5 115-4 124-2 133-1 142-0 150-8 159-7 1 31 95-1 104-6 114-1 123-6 133-1 142-6 152-1 161-6 171-1 I 4 44 41 101-4 111-5 121-7 131-8 141-9 152-1 162-2 172-4 182-5 107-7 118-5 129-3 140-1 150-8 161-6 172-4 183-2 193-9 1 114-1 125-5 136-9 148-3 159-7 171-1 182-5 193-9 205-3 1 120-4 132-4 144-5 156-5 168-6 180-6 192-6 204-7 2167 1 5 126-7 139-4 152-1 164-8 177-4 190-1 202-8 215-4 228-1 54 5£ 133-1 146-4 159-7 173-0 186-3 199-6 212-9 226-2 239-5 i 139-4 153-3 167-3 181-2 195-2 209-2 223-1 237-0 250-9 1 51 145-7 160-3 174-9 189-5 204-0 218-6 233-2 24 7 -8 269-3 1 f> 152-1 167-3 182-5 197-7 212-9 228-1 243-3 258-5 273-7 1 u 50-7 55-8 60-8 65-9 70-9 76-0 81-1 86-2 91-2 1 2 67-6 74-4 81-1 87-9 94-6 101-4 108-1 114-9 121-7 1 3 101-4 111-5 121-7 131-7 141-9 152-1 162-2 172-4 182-5 1 4 135-2 148-7 162-2 175-7 189-3 202-8 216-7 229-8 243-3 ' 1 5 169-0 185-9 202-8 219-7 230-6 253-5 270-4 287-3 304-2 i 1 6 202-8 .223-1 243-3 '2G3-6 283-9 304-2 324-4 344-7 365-0 130 PRACTICAL TABLE8. The tables are all calculated to the nearest tenih of a pound. To the weights of bars of Wrought Iron, ada T £ v th part for bars of Soft Steel and from the same T? 1 Proportional Breadths for hexagonal or six-sidtd Nut* for Wrought- Iron Bolts. Dia. of bolts. Breadth of nuts. Dia. of bolts. Breadth of nuts f £ inch. H lj-£ inch. i 2 1 " H •2A " k H " if 2f " t ifV " H 2tV '* I H " i| 2J " 1 n - •f 3 Mote, — The thickness of the nut is equal the bolt's diaro WEIGHTS OF IRON, COPTER, ETC. 13' Thickness in parts of an inch. ccj-^ifHco $>■&»**•&« "!« 3°'*+- 3" ^05| U| 3 a *. co o in GO s !3 8 IS § 5 0» ew en 5» to © -i Cn cn cn to cn Thickness by the wire gauge. Cn A. CO 5 w O O 00 *j si cn *. co to M 22 p tO w % "to co cn *. cn cn oa o co cS to db oo » A o -j oo oo © cn -^ -J to A. £ to Cn 3 3 to CO tg d> 1 en en at m «-i 6 A t!i » 6 oo qo to o *? «4 *» i— 6S to CO --I to cn 4k cn o o co w -o to to m cn Cn to to to o ■§ 1 db to © ^- co CO tO *. 05 & oS «J to Cn to 00 ^1 6 e i -j to to © i. C3 1 •4 do «& h- to to oo to Co tb cn 6S db -vl ilk 2 co ~ O •_ "3 O !> co O Note. — No. 1 wire gauge equal -j^ths of an inch. "4 " i " " 7 " j\ .< „ u | " 16 " tV *« 22 " jV " The preat variety of thicknesses into which copper is manufactured, cause in trade the weigh*, to be named whereby to determine the thickness required, the unit 12 .32 COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF BODIES. being- tnat of a common sheet, so designated, viz., i feet by 2 feet, in lbs., thud. — A 70 lb. plate is y 3 ^ths of an inch in thickness. a ^ U u « I « u u u u " 23 u " nh « " 6 « The thickness of lead is also in common determined or understood by the weight ; the unit being that of a square or superficial foot ; thus : — 1 32- 6 11 15 3 COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF DIFFERENT BODIES Bar iron being 1, Cast iron being 1. Cast iron = -95 Bar iron = I 07 Steel = 1-02 Steel = 108 Copper = 1-16 Brass = 116 Brass = 109 Copper = 1-21 Lead = 1-56 Lead = 1-48 J. Suppose 1 have an article of plate iron, the weight of which is 728 lbs., but want the same of copper, and of similar dimensions, what will be its weight? 728 x 1-16 = 844-48 lbs. 2. A model of dry pine, weighing 32£ lbs., and in which the iron for its construction forms no materia, portion of the weight, what may I anticipate its weight to be in cast iron ? 32-5 x 16 = 520 lbs. Ncte. — It frequently occurs, in the formation or construc- tion of models, that neither the quality nor condition of the timber can be properly estimated; and, in such cases, it may be a near enough .ipproximation to reckon 15 lbs. of cast iroi £> each lb. of model. COPPER PIPES, ETC 135 TO ASCERTAIN THE WEIGHTS OF PIPES OF VARIOUS METALS, AND ANY DIAMETER REQUIRED. Thickness ; in parts of ' an inch. Wrought iron. ( opper. Lead. A •3*26 1!£ lb* plate, -38 2 lbs. lead, -483 tV •653 23£ « •76 4 " " -9G7 3 ? 2" •976 35 " « 114 5* u a j-45 i IS 46£ " « I -52 8 " " 1-933 & 1627 53 « " 1-9 9j u u 2-417 t\ 1-95 70 « " 2-23 11 u u 2-9 i? 2-277 80£ « " 2-66 13 « " 3-383 i 2-6 93 " " 3-04 15 « « 3-867 /ftf/e. — To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inches, add the thickness of the metal ; multiply the Bum by the decimal numbers opposite the required thickness, and under the metal's name; also, by the length of the pipe in feet; and the product is the -weight of the pipe in lbs. 1. Required the weight of a copper pipe whose in- terior diameter is 74 inches, its length H{ feet, and the metal | of an inch in thickness. 7-5 + -125 = 7-625 x 152 x 6-25 = 72-4 lbs. 2. What is the weight of a leaden pipe 184 feet in length, 3 inches interior diameter, and the metal i of an inch in thickness ? lb 3 4- -25 = 3-25 x 3-867 X 18-5 = 232-5 lbs. Vote. - Weiebt of a cubic inch of Lead equal •4103 Copper, sheet ** •3225 Brass, do. 3.i 2 6| w 4 j 4 3 « 5.1 4 6:1 23 6J 33 2 04 4', 3 tijf . 1 <••: 1 25 X 44 5 2 11* 2 53 6 6 1 , 3 31 2 103 2 3 1* 4J| 10.5 5 -1 2 o,l 6* 2 5g <0 2| 21 2 3 1 7>, j n 63 2 1 3 3 J 5 4 4 4 «M i ii 4 6 3 ^1 6 3.1 3 9 3i 3 U 41 5 33 5-2 5 6 <*4 o 53 0> <82 33 4 3 2J 2 3 4i 43 4 6 3 9j 1 53 6 4 94 4 2 4 6 V 21 3 4jj 2 6 4* 1 9 .» b 3 2* _ 61 3 7| 2^ 3 11 4', 1 4S OS &4 2 8] 2 fe3 1 10 i 6 r 1 6* 3 11 0) 1 10J 1 4 11} 73 43 5 1 0< 9| hi 53 6 ^ 2 84 | w 54 53 6 81 6 6J 5 9' 5 01 4 5" 3\ 33 4 4 6] 3 9 3 03 a 5 Of 4 9 ?! 4 83 3 71 2.i 23 3 4} 2 6 s 5 4 0° -w 61 3 10,1 «J 2 9 *" 4A 2 £ 53 ? hi ^ 61} 3 4 & 2 1 r~ 43 1 7 -«• 54 2 lOj 7 2 10| 31 1 6jj 5 1 3 CT> S3 2 5', 7.1 2 6 m 3* *i 114 b 2 0^ ? 81 6 8}. 6 «4 9] 34 3} s n 4 9{ 43 5 5 9.1 5 0" 2? 3 10 5 31 3 3 4 4 « Si 4 3.1 g 61 4 7j J 31 2 3? 1 " 4\ 3 33 V 5V 3 81 <£ 63 4 1 ! A 3' ; 1 9* <2 4", ■2 8| *" 53 3 13 Ct 7 3 6J 3 13 3} 1 4} CO 4f 2 2! 2 6 2 8 "-' 7' 4 1 5 1 9j 6', 2 3 7 * 2 8*; 4} 84 5J 1 5', 6* 1 10* ?4 « 4 .i 146 LOGARITHMS. LOGARITHMS. Logarithms literally signify ratios of numbers ; hence Logarithmic Tables may be various, but those in com- mon use for the facilitating of arithmetical operations generally are of the following corresponding progres sions, viz. : — Arithmetical, 0, 1, 2, 3, &c, or series of logarithms. Geometrical, 1, 10, 100, 1000, &c, or ratio of numbers. And thus it may be perceived, that if the log. of J be J, the log. of any number less than 10 must consist wholly of decimals, because increasing by a decimal ratio. Again; if the log. of 100 be 2, the log. of any- intermediate number between 10 and 100 must be 1. with so many decimals annexed ; and in like manner, the log. of any intermediate number between 100 and 1000, must be 2, with decimals annexed proportionally, as before. APPLICATION AND UTILITY OF COMMON LOGA- RITHMIC TABLES. The whole numbers of the series of logarithms, aa 1, 2, 3, &c, are called the indices, or characteristics of the logarithm, and which must be added to the logarithm obtained by the Table, in proportion to the number of figures contained in the given sum. Thus, suppose the logarithm be reqdired for a sum of only two figures, the index is 1 ; if of three figures, the index is 2 and if of four figures, the index is 3, &c. ; being always a number less by unity than the number of figures the given sum contains. LOGARITHMS. 147 Ex. Tl?^ *ndex o\ 8 is 0, because it is less than 10 The index of 80 U; I. because it is less than 100. The index of 800 iv 2, because it is less than 1000. The inde^ of 800l.' is 3, because it is less than 0,000, &c. The index of a decimal is always the number which denotes the significant figure from the decimal point, tnd is marked with the sign, thus, — , to distinguish it frotn a whole number. Ex. The index cf -32549 is — 1, because the first sig- nificant figure is the first decimal. The index of -032541) is — 2, because the first signi- ficant figure is the second decimal. The index of -0032549 is — 3, because the first sig- nificant figure is the third decimal, &c, of any other sum. If the given sum for which the logarithm is required contains or consists of both integers and decimals, the index is determined by the integer part, without having any regard to the other. 1. To find the logarithm of flit/ whole number undei 100. Look for the number under N in the first page of any Logarithmic Table ; then immediately on the right of it is the logarithm required, with ts proper index. Thus the log. of ;: 842-390 5-8491 3 6, 9-4868 4-4814 144 12-0000 5-2414 153 140712 5-8284 37 6-0327 3-332-2 91 9-5393 4-4979 145 12-0415 5-2535 15=9 14-1067 5-8582 33 6 1644 3-3619 9J 9-5916 4-5143 U6 12-0830 5-2656 200 14-1421 5-8430 39 6-2449 3-3912 93 9-6436 4-5306 147 121243 5-2776 201 14-1774 5-8577 40 6-3245 3-4199 91 9-6953 4-5458 MS 12-1655 5-2895 202 14-2126 5-8674 41 6-4031 3-4482 95 9-7-167 4-5629 179 12-2055 5-3014 •203 14-2478 5-8771 42 6-4S07 3-4760 96 9-7979 4-5788 159 12-2474 5-3132 204 14-2828 5-3867 43 6-5574 3-5033 97 S-8483 4-5947 151 12-2832 5-3250 205 14-3178 5-89*3 4-1 6-633' 3 5303 93 9-«994 4-6104 152 12-3238 5-?35ir 205 14-3527 5-9059 45 6-7082 3-55:8 99 9-9(98 4-6260 153 12-3693 5-3484 207 14-3874 5-9154 46 6-7823 3-5830 llill 10-0000 4-6415 15-1 12-4095 5-3601 208 14-4222 5-9249 47 6-3556 3-60s8 »01 10-0498 4-6570 1 55 12-4498 5-3716 209 14-4568 5-9344 43 6-9282 3-6342 102 10-0995 4-6723 156 12-4899 5-3832 210 14-4913 5-9439 49 7-0000 3-6593 1(13 10-1488 4-6875 1.57 12-5299 5-3946 211 14-5258 5-95.33 50 70710 3-6340 104 10-1980 4-7026 158 12-5f,93 5-4061 212 14-5602 5-9627 51 71414 3-7084 105 10-2469 4-7176 159 1 12-6095 5-4175 213 14-5945 5-9720 5'2 7-2111 3-73-2.5 106 10-2956 4 -7326 [160 12-6491 5-4288 214 14-6287 15 9814 53 7-2801 3-7562 107 10-3440 4-7474| 161 i 12-6385 5-4401 215. 14-6628; 5 9907 54 7-3434 3-7797 108 10-3923 4-7622} 162 12-7279 5-4513 215 i 14-6969 6 0000 7'ojlnd the square or cube root of a number consisting of integers and decimals. Rale. — Multiply the difference ketween the root of the integer part of the git-ei sumber, and the root of the next higher number, by the decimal part of the ^t?m Dumber, and add the product to the root of the given integer number; the sum is the »»t required. Ex. Required the square root of 20-321. Square root of 21 «= 4-5825 M •« «« 20=4-472! Diff. — -1104 X -321 + 4-4721 —4-507. Ac, the root reqoired. ■• ■ - VARNISHES. 173 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES VARNISHES. [From Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures J White Spirit Varnish. — Sandarach, 250 parts ; mas tic in tears, 64 ; elemi resin, 32 ; Venice turpentine 64; alcohol of 85 per cent, 1000 parts by measure The turpentine is to be added after the resins are dis- solved. This is a brilliant varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing-. Varnish for the Wood Toys of Spa. — Tender copal, 75 parts ; mastic, 12-5 ; Venice turpentine, 6*5 ; alcohol of 95 per cent, 100 parts by measure ; water, ounces — for example, if the other be taken in ounces. The alcohol must be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a little oil of lavender or camphor, if thought fit ; and, the solution being passed through a liner, cloth, the mastic must be introduced. After it is dissolved, the Venice turpentine, previously melted in a water bafh, should be added. The lower the tem- perature at which these operations are carried on, the more beautiful will the varnish be. This varnish ought to be very white, very drying, and capable of being smoothed with pumice-stone and polished. Varnish for Cabinet-Makers. — Pale shellac, 750 parts ; mastic, 64 ; alcohol of 90 per cent, 1000 parts by measure. The solution is made in the cold, with the aid of frequent stirring. It is always muddy, and \s employed without being filtered. With the saone resins and proof spirit, a varnish is made for the book- binders, to do over their morocco leather. Crystal Varnish. — Procure a bottle of Canada bal- sam, which can be had at any druggist's ; draw out the cork and set the bottle of balsam at a little distance . 74 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. from the fire, turning it round several times, until the heat has thinned it ; then have something that wil} hold as much as double the quantity of balsam ; carry the balsam from the fire, and, while fluid, mix it with the same quantity of good turpentine, and shake them together until they are well incorporated. In a few days, the varnish is fit for use; particularly if it is poured into a half-gallon glass or stone bottle, and kept in a gentle warmth. This varnish is used for maps* prints, charts, drawings, paper ornaments, &c. The Chinese Varnish is obtained from a tree which grows in Cochin-China, China, and Siam. It forms the best of all varnishes. Gold Lacker. — Put into a clean four-gallon tin 1 lb. ground turmeric, ij oz. powdered gamboge, 3£ lbs. powdered gum sandarach, % lb. snellac, and 2 galls, spirits of wine. After being dissolved and strained, add 1 pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed. Red Spirit Lacker. — 2 galls, spirits of wine; 1 lb. dragon's-blood; 3 lbs. Spanish annotto; 3£ lbs. gum sandarach ; 2 pints turpentine ; — made exactly as the gold lacker. The Varnish of JVatin, for Gilded Articles. — Gum lac in grain, 125 parts ; gamboge, 125 ; dragon's-blood, 125; annotto, 125; saffron, 32. Each resin must be dissolved in 1000 parts by measure of alcohol of 90 per cent. Two separate tinctures must be made with the dragon's-blood and annotto, in 1000 parts of such alcohol; and a proper proportion of each should be added to the varnish, according to the shade of golden color wanted. Transfer Varnish. — For fixing engravings or litho- graphs upon wood, a varnish called mordant is used in J^rance, which differs from others chiefly in containing more Venice turpentine, to make it sticky. L consists of sandarach, 250 parts ; mastic in tears, 64 ; rosin^ 125; Venice turpentine, 250; alcohol, 1000 parts by peasure. Common Mastic Varnish. — Put as much gum mastic. VARNISHES. 175 unpicked, into the gum-pot, as may be required ; and to every 2% lbs. of gum, pour in 1 gall, of cold turpen- tine ; set the pot over a very moderate fire, and stir it Be careful, when the steam of the turpentine rises near the mouth of the pot, to cover with a piece of woollen cloth, and carry it out of doors, as the vapor is very ap' to catch fire. A few minutes' low heat will perfectly dissolve 8 lbs. of gum, which will, with 4 galls, of turpentine, produce, when strained, 4.^ galls, of varnish; to which add, while yet hot, 5 pints of pale turpentine varnish, which improves the body and hardness of the mastic varnish. Pale Brass Lacker. — 2 galls, spirits of wine; 3 oz. Cape aloes ; cut small 1 lb. fine pale shellac ; 1 oz. gamboge, cut small; no turpentine; — varnish made exactly as before. But observe, that those who make lackers frequently want some paler and some darker ; and sometimes inclining more to the particular tint of certain of the component ingredients. Therefore, if a 4 oz. phial of a strong solution of each ingredient be prepared, a lacker of any tint can be produced at any time. Iron-Work Black. — Put 48 lbs. asphaltum into an iron pot, and boil for 4 hours ; during the first 2 hours, introduce 7 lbs. litharge, 3 lbs. dried copperas, and 10 galls, boiled ; add 1-eighth lb. run of dark gum, with 2 galls, hot oil. After pouring the oil and gum, con- tinue the boiling 2 hours, or until it will roll into hard pills, like Japan. When cool, thin it off with 30 galls, turpentine, or until it is of proper consistence. This varnish is intended for the iron-work of coaches and other carriages, &c. To make Cloth, Silk, fyc. umlcr-proof. — Mix equal quantities of alum and acetate of lead, and dissolve the mixture in a gallon and a half of boiling water When the solution has cooled, remove the supernatant liquid from the sediment, which consists of sulphate of lead, and it is ready for use. Any article of dress, wnen well saturated in this liquid, and allowed to dry 176 SOLDERS. Blowly, bears the action of boiling water, and does not permit it to pass through, although steam and air pene- trate it freely. Cement for China, Glass, tfc. — To 1 oz. gum mastic add as much spirits of wine as will dissolve it ; soak 1 oz. isinglass in water till it is quite soil, then dis- solve it in pure brandy till of the consistence of glue ; to this add \ oz. gum ammoniac, well rubbed and mixed. Put now the two mixtures together in a vessel over a gentle heat, till properly united, and the cemen' is ready for use. It must be kept in a phial wel stopped ; and, when about to be used, it ought to bi set in boiling water to soften. Preparation for Silver Solution. — Take 1 pint of pure rain or distilled water; add to it 2 oz. cyanide of potassium ; shake them together occasionally, until the latter is entirely dissolved, and allow the liquid to come clear ; then add | oz. oxide of silver, which will very speedily dissolve ; and, after a short time, s clear, transparent solution will be obtained. Preparation of Gold Solution. — Warm a pint of pure rain water, and dissolve in it 2 oz. cyanide of potassium ; then add | oz. oxide of gold ; the solution will at first be yellowish, but will soon subside to white SOLDERS. For Lead. — Melt 1 part of block tin, and, when in a state of fusion, add 2 parts of lead. Resin should be used with this solder. For Tin. — Pewter, 4 parts ; tin, 1 ; bismuth, 1 ; melt them together. Resin is also used with this solder. For Iron. — Tough brass, with a small quantity of borax. SCREWS. 177 CAPACITY OF CISTERNS IN GALLONS. For each 10 Inches in Depth. 2 feet diameter, . 19-5 8 feet diameter, 313-33 U " " 30-6 8£ " . * 353-72 3 « 44-06 9 « . 396-56 3i " " 59-97 H " " . 461-40 4 " . 78-33 10 " « . 489-2C 4£ « 99-14 n « " . 592-4C r « « 12240 12 « . 705- 5A « 145-10 13 « « . 8274 6 5 « 176-25 14 « . 959-6 6i « 206-85 15 " « . 11016 7 3 « . 239-88 20 « " . 19584 7A « « 27540 SCR] 25 " « SWS. . . 3059-9 Table showing the Number of Threads to an Inch in V -thread Screivs. Diim. in inches, . No. of threads, . .20 18 1 A * * f J i i* i* 16 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 7 If 6 Diam. in inches, . No. of threads, . . 6 It 5 1| 1$ 2 2| 2^ 2| 3 3| 5 4 4^ 4 4 3A. 34 3.} 3A 3:1 Diam. in inches, No. of threads, . .31 . 3 4 3 4J 44 4| 5 5| 54 5f 2£ 2| 2| 2| 2f 2$ 2£ 6 The depth of the threads should be half their pitch. The diameter of a screw, to work in the teeth of a wheel, should be such, that the angle of the threads does not exceed 10°. 178 WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. RECAPITULATION OF WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. Names. Cubic foot in lbs. Cubic inch in lbs •2607 •2816 •2834 •321 18 •41015 •3112 •263 •0171 •03721 •03616 Cast iron Wrought iron Steel . . . Copper . . Lead . . . 450-55 486-65 489-8 555- 708-75 537-75 456- 29-56 64-3 62-5 •07529 •03689 Brass . . . Tin .... White pine . Salt water (sea' Fresh water Air .... Steam . . . Cast Iron expands -j ^Wtf of its length for one degree of heat; greatest change in the shade, in this climate, ttV?i or * * ts length » exposed to the sun's rays* Y*r\ny ; shrinks in cooling from ^ to -^ °f i ts length : is crushed by a force of 93,000 lbs. upon a square inch ; will bear, without permanent alteration, 15,300 lbs. upon a square inch, and an extension of tsW oi * i ts length. Weight of modulus of elasticity for a base of an inch square, 18,400,000 lbs.; height of modulus of elasticity, 5,750,000 feet. Wrought Iron expands T ^ n'^^ of its length for out permanent alteration, 17,800 lbs., nnd an extension Dy an increase of one degree of heat. Weight of 2-1,920,000 lbs. ; height of modulus of elasticity 7,550,000 feet PART SECOND. INTRODUCTION. CHOICE OF A PROFESSION: RESPECT AIM LITY OF MECHANICAL TRADES. The choice of a pursuit in life, one of the most important practical questions upon which a young person is ever called to decide, is often determined by the most trifling circumstances, and without the slightest aid from judgment or reflection. One youth becomes a soldier be- cause his great grandfather was at the taking of Cape Breton, or his great uncle signalized himself in Braddock's fight; another studies medicine, and hopes to be almost an infallible doctor, because he is the seventh son of a seventh son ; while a third chooses the profes- sion of the law for no better reason than that his sponsors at the baptismal font, chose to call him William Wirt, or Daniel Webster, or John Sergeant. Surely this is not that practi- cal wisdom which adapts the fittest means to the noblest ends The choice o r a profession IB |§0 INTRODUCTION in life is at least worthy of such a considera- tion as common sense would dictate in any other case, where success in an enterprise de- pends upon fitness for undertaking it. Men do not expect to gather grapes from thorns, nor figs from thistles; yet they expect their sons and daughters to succeed in pursuits for which they are wholly incapacitated by talents, dispo- sition or education ; and what is still more un- reasonable, they expect them to be happy in situations which are totally uncongenial to their nature. One reason why parents and guardians fall so frequently into errors on this point, — errors, too, which they lead those under their charge to embrace, — is the vain imagination that there is a great and essential difference in the respecta bility of those pursuits which are generally admitted to be honest. The respectability of a profession, I suppose it will be admitted, must depend in a great measure on the respectable character of its members, taken collectively, or regarded with reference to the most brilliant examples. If we adopt this standard, it will be found no easy matter to establish a claim to superior respectability in favour of any one COMPARISON OF PROFESSIONS 181 trade or profession, or of any class of trades or professions. If it should be asserted that the learned pro- fessions of law, physic and divinity are more respectable than the pursuits of commerce, me- chanics or agriculture, it might be easily shown that taken collectively, the members of these latter professions or trades possess more wealth, ease and independence than those of the learn- ed ones ; and moreover, that among them as brilliant examples of mental pre-eminence, pa- triotism and public spirit may be pointed out as among those of the more learned professions In fact, in a country like ours, such a claim of superior respectability on behalf of any pro- fession is preposterous ; and yet it is constantly assigned by purse-proud fathers and silly mothers as a reason for determining their chil- dren's pursuits in life. There is a very general impression that a merchant, a clergyman, doc- tor or lawyer stands higher, and should stand higher, in the social scale than a mechanic or tanner. Unt such is not the fact, as a general principle; or, which results in the same thing, it in a particular instance, a particular merchant, for example, stands higher in social estimation man a particular mechanic, it is not on accoun* JQ2 INTRODUCTION. of the respective means by which they earn theii livelihood, but because the merchant in this instance has claims by wealth, family in- fluence or education, which the mechanic has not; and by passing into the next street, and taking another example, you will find the tables completely turned, and the mechanic in the enjoyment of a social position to which the merchant cannot aspire. This fact is sufficient to prove that a ma.n of one trade or profession does not take a lower position in society than another of a different profession, simply on account of the different modes by which they subsist, but by reason of other circumstances which are wholly independent of this conside- ration. Mr. A., who is a merchant, does not, for example, decline an intimate acquaintance and social intercourse with Mr. B., because Mr. B. is a mechanic, but because their favourite topics of conversation, their tastes and pursuits, are different ; and this is clearly apparent from another fact, viz. : — that whenever two persons of totally different professions happen to meet frequently upon some common ground of science or the fine arts, in their leisure hours they immediately recognise each other's natu- ral equality and become familiar companions RESPECTABILITY OF TRADES. IS? They collect plants, or minerals, or perform chemical or philosophical experiments together; they unite in the same pursuits during their leisure hours, and become daily moie and more assimilated in mind and character, as well as in their favourite recreations, until they are bound together by the strictest bonds of friend- ship. There is, therefore, no necessary or e« sential difference in the respectability of differ- ent trades and professions ; and there is no social estrangement between their members, which may not be overcome by precisely the same means which constitute the cause of inti- macy in other circumstances. In our country, therefore, in point of real and essential respect- ability, all trades and professions are equal ; and the social position which a man enjoys, and the degree of respect which he is able to com- mand, depend not upon his trade, but upon his individual character. If, in every part of the United States, the stupid prejudice which would exclude the me- chanic or the farmer from any society to which his intelligence and good manners entitle him, is not thoroughly exploded, the time has cer- tainly arrived when it is no longer to be avowed ov well bred people. In fact, the rule which 16* 1S4 INTRODUCTION. would exclude a man from any drawing-room in the land, on the simple ground of his bein^ a mechanic, would have excluded from the same drawing-room such men as Nathaniel Bowditch, who was a mariner by trade ; Roger Sherman, who was a shoemaker by trade ; Ben- jamin Franklin, late ambassador to the Court of Versailles, who was a printer by trade ; and George Washington, a very respectable man oi the last century, who was a surveyor by trade But the imaginary respectability which a man may happen to enjoy from his position in so- ciety, is not by any means the first and most im^rtant thing to be considered in the choice of a profession. It should not be the leading motive in determining the choice of the parent ; neither should it be the main consideration in the mind of the young person himself. There is another, and a much more important poir. 4 - which claims and should receive the prece- dence. Every parent in making choice of a profession for his son, and every son in making the same choice for himself, should seriously and deliberately inquire, what profession affords the best chance for happiness ; — happiness, in the noblest and broadest sense — happiness which consists in contentment, independence RESPECTABILITY OF TRADES. Iga Biul real usefulness — happiness, which begins in the conscientious and successful discharge of duty on earth, and reaches forward to the unerring retribution of a future world. The inquiry which is thus presented is a very extensive one. It admits of whole years of investigation — whole volumes of disquisi- tion to treat it at large, and apply it to any considerable portion of the cases that might arise. In order, therefore, to avoid running into useless generalities, I shall devote the short space which is allotted to me on the present occasion, to a very small part of this great sub- ject, and shall consider that part in a single point of view. I propose, in the outset of the present work, to inquire what opportunities are afforded for usefulness, happiness, and real re- spectability by the mechanical trades — in other words, to inquire how a mechanic may be use- ful, happy and respectable. In the succeeding chapter I shall consider the first branch of tha subject 186 THE YOUNG MF.P.HANIC CHAPTER I. l'HE MECHANIC SHOULD BE MASTEK OF HIS TRADE. In order to become useful, respectable, and nappy, it appears to me to be necessary, in the first place, that the mechanic should be- come a thorough master of his trade. Having made a deliberate choice of that pursuit, by which he is to gain his livelihood, it is a mat- ter of the utmost importance that he should devote the energies of his mind to the business unreservedly, until he has mastered all its prin- ciples and details. It is by this means only that he can use it with ease and satisfaction as the instrument of success in the world. .The incapable, or half taught mechanic, always works at a ruinous disadvantage. He can neither command the highest prices for the pro- ducts of his art, nor superintend with intelli- gence and authority the workmen under his care. He is in constant danger of failure in his business, or of abandoning it, through sheer disgust, only to take up some other pursuit for which he is totally unfitted by education. I< APPRENTICESHIP. JS"? is a laudable ambition, therefore, which makes him aspire to be first among his fellows. Aid Casar aut null us — a master mechanic, or no mechanic at all — should be his motto. 1. In order to render himself a thorough proficient in his trade, the mechanic should serve out his complete apprenticeship. Justice to himself, as well as to his master, dictates this course. Nor is it less a matter of policy than of moral duty. Even if he should deem him- self capable of undertaking the management of business for himself before he has half com- pleted his apprenticeship, it is a much safer and wiser course to remain in a subordinate capa- city till he has attained the age of manhood, than to rush upon the heavy duties anJ iearful responsibilities of active life before his judg- ment is matured, his understanding ripened, and his nerves hardened for the rough encoun- ter of conflicting interests and unforeseen emer- gencies. 2. At the same time that I counsel the ap- p-entice to serve out his whole time, 1 would strenuously urge upon him the importance of devoting any leisure moments that he may have at his command, each day, to the cultivation of his mind. The parent or guardian, in becoming jgg THE \OUNG MECHANIC. a party to indentures, should be careful to have a clause inserted by which a certain portion of time shall be sec. red to the apprentice for men- tal cultivation , and when this is done the ap- prentice should regularly conseci ite this time to its legitimate purpose.*- In our large cities facilities for this purpose are judiciously afford- ed by the beneficent provisions of Mechanics' Institutes, Lyceums and Libraries ; but even in situations where such opportunities are not af- forded, we know by many illustrious examples that knowledge may be pursued and attained under the most discouraging difficulties. Where that good seed, the love of science, has been once implanted, it will spring up and grow and flourish, though pelted by storms of adversity, and chilled by the coldness of neglect. It is this consideration which encourages the teacher who has the future apprentice under his care, to instil into his opening mind the most liberal and exalted views of the real beauty, as well as utility, of science and literature. But why, it may be inquired, should the me- chanic be inspired with the love of science and literature? I answer, that the mechanic should learn to love these intellectual pursuits for two MENTAL CULTIVATION. \Q$ reasons: — First, because he is a mechanic; and secondly, because he is a man. If the physician, the lawyer, the statesman, and the divine avail themselves of the assist- ance of science and literature in their several professions, the mechanic has still stronger in- ducements for doing the same thing; for to none of these professions are the results of science so directly applicable, and for none of them are the recreations of literature so appro- priate or gratifying. By making himself mas- ter of those principles of science which are most intimately connected with his trade, the mechanic, while he is satisfying a libera! cu- riosity, may possibly be approaching some brilliant discovery, which will speedily conducf him to fortune and fame; and if the lighter reading, generally termed literature, promises no such result, it affords him the most dignified and innocent means of amusement, and pre- serves the vigour and increases the brightness of his intellect. He should, therefore, learn to appreciate such pursuits, because they are fitting and proper to him as a mechanic. Pie may also claim them as his own, upon the broad principle, that wherever there is a human intellect to be cultivated, there is a na- 190 THE YOUNG MECHANIC tural and indefeasible right to the brightest de* grree of cultivation which it can attain. I remark, in the next place, that the mechanic, in order to render himself a complete mastel of his trade, should possess himself of new discoveries in science which are applicable to his purposes, and should actually apply them to the improvement of his trade. There never was a time since Lord Bacon first placed in the hands of philosophy the right instrument of investigation, when men of science were more actively and successfully engaged in developing the materials and pro- cesses directly applicable to the advancement of the mechanic arts, than the present. The forest and the mountain, the mine and the river, the deep bosom of the ocean itself — all are literally ransacked by the ardent devotees of science, in pursuit of new substances which may minister to the sustenance or pleasure of man, or may open to the gaze of liberal cu- riosity the wonders of creative power. The pcientinc traveller brings home the products of distant lands to be naturalized in his own coun- try, and thus supply new materials for the use- ful arts; the mechanical philosopher is con- stantly adding to the number of known motive USE OF LEISURE TIME. JO, powers ; the chemist is discovering new sub- stances, and making new developements and combinations of the powers of those already known; while the press, by means of the ait preservative of all arts, is bringing the result of all these labours and inquiries u home to the bosoms and business of men." At such a time it becomes not the mechanic to be an idle or regardless spectator of all this activity. In the leisure moments which, by an ordinary arrangement of his labours, every man may redeem, he should direct his attention to the progress of discovery in chemistry, me- chanical philosophy and natural history, which have a direct bearing on his trade. He should attach himself to that mechanics' institute or lyceum which affords him the best means of improvement by its lectures, experiments, and library. He should cultivate the acquaintance of those scientific men who have the good sense to appreciate the society of intelligent practical mechanics, and he should apply the results of his inquiries, so far as it may be ju- diciously done, to the perfecting of his own manufactures. In recommending such a course Jo the young mechanic, I know that I am not urging upon him vain speculations in visionary 17 192 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. schema. That such a course is precisely the one best calculated to improve and develope the mechanical arts, is clearly apparent when- ever an exhibition of the products of American industry is opened by any one of the societies constituted and supported by mechanics for this very purpose. A single exhibition of the Franklin Institute establishes with more cer- tainty than a whole volume of arguments, the soundness of that policy which leads the me- chanic to devote his winter evenings to scientific pursuits, and to apply the result of bis study to the improvement of his own trade. ADHERENCE TO TRADE. \Q$ CHAPTER II. THE MECHANIC SHOULD REMAIN AT TACHED TO HIS TRADE. This is not all that is requisite for the use- fulness, happiness, and respectability of the mechanic. In order to secure these objects fully, I maintain, in the second place, that it is neces- sary for him to remain attached to his trade. Recent events in this country have, I think, sufficiently demonstrated the pernicious ten- dency of that ambitious restlessness which has lately pervaded all classes of people, and made almost every man regard his business whatever it happened to be, as merely the stepping stone to something apparently higher. Apparently, I say, for we have seen in many instances that mechanics, who were slowly and surely ac- quiring the means of independence and com- fort, have dashed into wild speculations, in hopes to rise to some imaginary height of wealth and importance ; but when the glittering bauble was almost within their reach, have found it suddenly elude their grasp and leave 194 THE YOU NG MECHANIC. them to regret the loss of all which they had been toiling for years to acquire. Contentment, like every other Christian duty, has a great many excellent uses. It is good for the mind, for the body, and for the estate of every man. It tranquillizes the spirit, it pre- serves the health, and it promotes that steady economy which leads to competency ; often to affluence. The man who is satisfied with the position which Providence has assigned him, and endeavours to make himself useful in that position, presents a vastly more respectable figure than one who is constantly struggling to place himself in a different position. The fruits of this struggle are harassing cares, jealous heart-burnings, hazardous enterprises, and often debt and ruin. There is an old and homely saying, applicable to every one who has been brought up to a regular trade or profession — a saying full of practical wisdom, which many have hitherto disregarded, but which will be better observed in years to come — " Keep your shop, and your shop will keep you." This saying, as 1 have already intimated, is a whole- some one for any man who labours for his subsistence, whether it be with his head or hit KEEP YOUR SHOP. J95 hands ; but for the mechanic it is the ark of safety. In some foieign countries it is the custom for mechanics to form associations, of which one of the leading objects is to retain all the mem- bers of each trade in the trade to which he belongs. For this purpose they not only aid all their brethren who are in distress, but they use every exertion to retain within their circle all the talent and all the wealth which has originated among them. Their public institu- tions, libraries and lecture rooms, their scienti- fic collections, their pictures and models, afford the means of gratifying the most refined taste ; and these and the tone which is imparted to their circle of society by this noble esprit de corps, make it wholly unnecessary for the most imbitious person to leave the trade in pursuit of any of these objects. Any one may see that under such circumstances it is a nobler ob- ject of ambition to be highly respected in the trade, than can be attained by means of any position out of it. The same principle holds good under all circumstances. If a man has surrounded himself with all the elegancies and luxuries which affluence can purchase by dili- gence and industry in his trade, he should 17* 19g THE YOUNG MECHANIC. never a6andon it under the impression that ha will thus elevate himself in the estimation of his fellow citizens, by putting on a finer coat, and appearing in a different character. Such a course calls down a torrent of invidious remarks, not from his brethren of the trade, who are content, for the most part, to regret the deser- tion in silence, but the rest of that little world by whose Argus eyes the movements of each individual in society is watched. On the othei hand, the mechanic who remains attached to his trade, when it is no longer absolutely ne- cessary for his support, is universally respected for this mark of steadiness, constancy and good sense. In connection with this part of my subject, I am strongly reminded of an old ac- quaintance of my own, in the old common- wealth of Massachusetts, who evidently takes an honest pride in his adherence to that trade which has long since given him the most ample means of luxury and ease. This gentleman is referred to by Governor Everett, in one of his recent public addresses, in the following terms : " I scarce know if I may venture to adduce an instance, nearer home, of the most praise- worthy and successful cultivation of useful knowledge, on the part of an individual with- THE ENLIGHTENED MECHANIC. 19/ out education, busily employed in mechanical industry. I have the pleasure to be acquainted, in one of the neighbouring towns, with a person, who was brought up to the trade of a leather-dresser, and has all his life work- ed, and still works, at this business. He has devoted his leisure hours, and a portion of his honourable earnings, to the cultivation of useful and elegant learning. Under the same roof, which covers his store and work- shop, he has the most excellent library of Eng- lish books, for its size, with which I am ac- quainted. The books have been selected with a good judgment, which would do credit to the most accomplished scholar, and have been im- ported from England by himself. What is more important than having the books, their proprietor is well acquainted with their contents. Among them are several volumes of the most costly and magnificent engravings. Connected with his library, is an exceedingly interesting series of paintings, in water-colours, which a fortunate accident placed in his possession, and several valuable pictures, purchased by himself. Tin: whole form a treasure of taste and know- ledge, not surpassed, if equalled, by any thing of its kind in the country." d. 198 THE YOUNG MECHANIC Governor Everett might have added thai the leading traits in Mr. Bowse's character are sound sense and good taste ; and no more de- cisive proof of these characteristics could be given than his steady adherence to his original business. In the same address from which th* above paragraph is quoted, the eloquent orator urges upon his hearers that every working man should cultivate his mind to the utmost of his ability ; and he quotes examples of many who have thus raised themselves to conspicuous offices and honours. I would urge upon all working men the same duty of mental cultiva- tion, not as affording the opportunity of aban- doning their trade; but as giving them the means of dignifying and embellishing it. Lo- renzo de Medicis by commerce raised his family to princely rank — they were the merchant kings of their age. The American mechanic has no occasion to seek any advancement of this sort, for every voter in our country is something greater than a king; by virtue of the elective franchise he is a maker of kings. When I speak of adhering to one's trade, 1 would by no means be understood to lay down a rule without exceptions. Emergencies may occur which shall render it a paramount duty to entei DUTY OF WORKING MEN. \ upon a new and difficult profession. The me chanic, like any other citizen, may be suddenly called upon to shoulder his musket and defend his country from invasion, as happened in the case of General Greene ; or he may be required to aid the same great cause by his wisdom in council, as in the case of Sherman and Frank lin. When a country is to be saved by valour or wisdom, it becomes a matter of absolute necessity that the working men should contri- bute a large contingent towards the grand army of defence as well as the council of the nation. For a time, at least, a new course of life must then be embraced. But the greatest, and most celebrated among those who have been detach- ed from their trade in this or in any other way, have always shown an honest pride in their original calling. Girard wrote himself mariner in his will ; and Franklin called himself printei in his epitaph. 200 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. CHAPTER III. THE MECHANIC SHOCJLD HONOUR HIS TRADE. I have already insisted that the mechanic in order to be useful, happy and respectable, should become a thorough master of his trade, and should remain attached to it. 1 would in the next place urge upon him the duty and policy which dictate that he should honour his trade. There are two ways in which this ma) 7 be done : first, by seeking distinction in it ; and secondly, by adorning it with intellectual re- creations. The love of distinction is common to nearly all men ; and the most remarkable and conspi cuous diversities of character are produced by the different modes in which this favourite ob ject is pursued. One man seeks it by brillian/ deeds in the public service, another by munifi cent institutions. Here we see distinction courted by eloquence, and there by learning Some hope to become distinguished by then literary efforts, or their scientific discoveries, while others, with a less laudable, but not les* LOVE OF DISTINCTION 2(h aniesl ambition, seek to attract public atten- tion by mere eccentricity of character or extra- vagance in conduct, dress or equipage. Doubt- less this passion, so generally prevalent among men, has been implanted in the human breast for a wise and useful purpose ; and it is there- fore right to allow it a field for action, provided that field be a safe and honourable one. If this postulate be granted, I would ask what could afford a fairer and nobler field for any man's ambition, than the pursuit of distinction by ex- traordinary excellence in his trade or profes- sion. Each of the mechanical trades affords ample room for the exercise of ingenuity in the improvement of its processes, and the con- sequent improvement of its products ; and the free institutions and abundant resources of our country, and the ease with which the workman may support himself, has already enabled Ame- rican industry and invention in many instances to claim the admiration of the world. It must be a proud reflection to the American mechanic, that one of his class has exacted the most un- equivocal homage to the genius of our country from the proud Sultan of the East, by his won- derful skill as a naval constructor; and every Philadelphian may justly entertain a feeling o\ 202 THE YOUNG MECHANIC exultation when he remembers that a mechanic of one of our cities is at this moment furnishing locomotive engines, acknowledged to be supe- rior to all others, for the use of British and Austrian rail road companies. Such distinction as this we must acknowledge to be fairly and honourably won. It is true that all may not hope to rise so high in the world's estimation as to attract applause from foreign countries. But every one may reap the reward of diligence, ingenuity and devotion to his business, in the applause of that valued circle, Vhich is, in a certain sense, all the world to him — the circle of his associates and friends. Again, the mechanic may honour his trade by adorning it with intellectual recreations. It is not desirable, in fact it is not possible for a man to devote every moment of his time to the business by which he lives. Such intense ap- plication is injurious both to the body and the mind. It destroys health, racks the brain, and ruins the temper. The repose of the domestic circle, the quiet hour for reading or music, ot relaxation of some other kind, seems absolutely necessary for the preservation of that greatest of earthly blessings — a sound mind in a healthy body. The business of the mechanic is pre* EXAMPLE OF CHARLES LAMB. 203 eisely that which renders it most expedient foi him to give his recreations an intellectual cast ; and it is owing to the circumstance that the alternation of mental and bodily labour is best suited to the human constitution, that some of the most beautiful and brilliant productions of the human intellect have proceeded from those persons who were compelled, for many hours of each day, to labour at a business which was purely mechanical. Cast your eye over the whole field of English literature, and see who it is that has brought the art of essay writing to its greatest perfection. Of course you in- stantly answer, Charles Lamb. He is univer- sally acknowledged to be in this department inimitable, unrivalled, unapproachable. The best critics say that we can never hope to see such essays produced by any other writer. Yet these beautiful productions were the work of leisure evenings. The composition of them served as a relaxation, after severe labour through the day at the India House in copy- ing commercial papers, which to him must have been a perfectly mechanical operation. Never- theless, he had the good sense to adhere to this, his trade, long after he was one of the most famous writers in Kngland, and in fact until hi* IS 204 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. age and services entitled him to a retiring pen sion. I will not weary your patience by citing other examples, although there are thousands at hand, in proof of my position that intellectual recreations are particularly appropriate for the mechanic, and that they form the proper and legitimate ornament of his trade. Coleridge, an author by profession, tells* us in plain terms that it is necessary, in order to be successful in works of imagination, to have some profession or trade which is to a certain extent mechanical, and he affectionately exhorts all young people to avoid his own profession if they would be useful and happy. I cite his observations, which are as remarkable as they are just. u An interest in the welfare of those who, at the present time, may be in circumstances not dissimilar to my own at my rirst entrance into life, has been the constant accompaniment, and, (as it were,) the under-song of all my feelings. Whitehead, exerting the prerogative of his lau- reateship, addressed to youthful poets a poetic charge, which is perhaps the best, and certainly the most interesting of his works. With no other privilege than that of sympathy and sin- cere good wishes. I would address an affectionate TRADE OF AUTHORSHIP. 20b exhortation to the youthful literati, grounded on my own experience. Jt will be but short; for the beginning, middle, and end, converge to one charge: Never pursue literature as a trade. With the exception of one extraordinary man, I have never known an individual, least of all, an individual of genius, healthy or happy without a profession, i. e. some regular employment which does not depend on the will of the mo- ment, and which can be carried on so far me- chanically, that an average quantum only of health, spirits, and intellectual exertion, are requisite to its faithful discharge. Three hours of leisure, unannoyed by any alien anxiety, and looked forward to with a delight as a change and recreation, will suffice to realize in literature, a larger product of what is truly genial, than weeks of compulsion. Money and immediate reputation, form only an arbitrary and accidental end of literary labour. The hope of increasing them, by any given exertion, will often prove a stimulant to industry ; but the necessity of acquiring them will, in all works of genius, convert the stimulant into a narcotic. Motives by excess reverse their very nature, and, instead of exciting, stun and stu- pify the mind. For it is one contradistinction 206 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. of genius from talent, that its predominant end is always compromised in the means ; and this is one of the many points which establish an analogy between genius and virtue. Now, though talents may exist without genius, yet, as genius cannot exist, certainly not manifest itself, without talents, I would advise every scholar who feels the genial power working within him, so far to make a division between the two, that he should devote his talents to the acquirement of competence in some known trade or profession, and his genius to objects of his tranquil and unbiassed choice ; while fl\u consciousness of being actuated in both alike by the sincere desire to perform his duty, will alike ennoble both. My dear young friend, (I would say,) ' suppose yourself established in any honourable occupation. From the manu- factory, or counting-house, from the law court, or from having visited your last patient, you return at evening — Dear tranquil time, when the sweet sense of home Is sweetest — to your family, prepared for its social enjoy- ments, with the very countenances of your wife and children brightened, and their voice ol welcome made doubly welcome by the know- TRADE OF AUTHORSHIP. 20? ledge that, as far as they are concerned, you have satisfied the demands of the day, by the labour of the day. Then when you retire into your study, in the books on your shelves you revisit so many venerable friends with whom you can converse. Your own spirit, scarcely less free from personal anxieties than the great minds that, in those books, are still living for you ! Even your writing desk with its blank paper, and all its other implements, will appear as a chain of flowers, capable of linking your feelings, as well as thoughts, to events and cha- racters past or to come ; not a chain of iron, which binds you down to think of the future, and the remote, by recalling the claims and feelings of the preremptory present. But why should F say retire f The habits of active life and daily intercourse with the stir of the world, will tend to give you such self-command, that the presence of your family will be no inter- ruption. Nay, the social silence or undisturb- ing voices of a wife or sister, will be like a restorative atmosphere, or soft music, which moulds a dream without becoming its object If facts are required, to prove the possibility of combining weighty performances in literature with lull and independent employment, the 16* 208 THE VOTING MECHANIC. works of Cicero and Xenophon among the ancients, of Sir Thomas More, Bacon, Baxter, or, to refer, at once, to later and contemporary instances, Darwin and Roscoe, are at once dec i- sive of the question. " Whatever be the profession or trade chosen, the advantages are many and important, com- pared with the state of a mere literary man, who, in any degree, depends on the sale of his works for the necessaries and comforts of life. In the former, a man lives in sympathy with the world in which he lives. At least, he ac- quires a better and quicker tact for the know- ledge of that with which men in general can sympathize. He learns to manage his genius more prudently and efficaciously. His powers and acquirements gain him likewise more real admiration, for they surpass the legitimate ex- pectation of others. He is something besides an author and is not therefore considered merely as an author. The hearts of men are open to him, as to one of their own class ; and whether h^ exerts himself or not in the con versational circles of his acquaintance, his silence is not attributed to pride, nor his com- municativeness to vanity. To these advantages I will venture tc add a superior chance of hap- TRADE OF AUTHORSHIP. 20*b piness in domestic life, were it only that it is as natural for the man to be out of the circle of his household during the day, as it is merito- rious for the woman to remain for the most part within it. But this subject involves points of consideration so numerous and so delicate, and would not only permit, but require such ample documents from the biography of literary men, that I now merely allude to it in transitu. When the same circumstance has occurred at very different times to very different persons, ill of whom have some one thing in common, there is reason to suppose that such circum- stance is not merely attributable to the persons concerned, but is in some measure occasion- ed by the one point in common to them all. Instead of the vehement and almost slanderous dehortation from marriage, which the ' Miso- gyne Boccaccio' ( Vita e Costumi di Dante, p. 12. 16) addresses to literary men, 1 would substitute the simple advice : be not merely a man of letters ! Let literature be an honour- able augmentation to your arms, but not con- stitute the coat, or fill the escutcheon ! " It would be a s->rt of irreligion, and scarce- ly less than a libel on human nature, to believe that there is any established and reputable pro- 210 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. fession or employment, in which a man niaj not continue to act with honesty and honour ; and, doubtless, there is likewise none which may not at times present temptations to the contrary. But wofully will that man find him- self mistaken, who imagines that the profession of literature, or (to speak more plainly) the trade of authorship, besets its members with fewer or with less insidious temptations, than the church, the law, or the different branches of commerce.' " Charles Lamb himself subscribes to this opinion of Coleridge, and urges it upon one of his friends with great force ; and Herder is quoted by Coleridge in support of his own opinion, as follows : Translation. — " With the greatest possible solicitude avoid authorship. Too early, or im- moderately employed, it makes the head waste and the heart empty, even were there no other worse consequences. A person who reads only to print, in all probability reads amiss ; and he who sends away through the pen and the press, every thought, the moment it occurs to him, will in a short time have sent all away, and will become a mere journeyman of the printing office, a compositor." NECESSITY OF A TRADE. L>1 So much for the opinion of great authors on rt.e character of their trade. In all these observations you find it distinctly admitted that the fancy, the imagination, the creative powers of the mind are not to be taxed for the purposes of mere support. They say it is better to work for a living at some business which is mechanical, by way of a regular trade or profession, and to give the genius free pky in the hours of recreation. That such a dis- tribution of one's time may produce the hap- piest effect is abundantly apparent from the experience of all ages. Without adverting to the busy life led by Cicero and Quinctilian, whom I esteem among the best authors of an- cient times, we may come down at once to the moderns. Bacon, the prince of philosophers, was a lawyer laboriously active in his profes- sion during the greater part of his life ; Shaks- peare, the most admirable of all writers, was a player and manager, and was obliged to work hard at the mechanical part of these laborious employments ; Raleigh was a soldier and states- man, one of the most active of his age ; Cla- rendon was a busy statesman and lawyer; Addi- son was secretary of state while he .vas writing the Spectator; Walter Scott was a writer for 212 THE YOUNG MECHANIC the signet, and sheriff of the county ; and it i9 a curious fact that this writei, the most prolific as well as the best of our century, passed his days in bodily labour, riding about the county or working at his profession. It was remarked that nobody could conjecture when it was that he found time to write his voluminous works. If we come to our own country, the exam- ples are more numerous. All our best authors are working men. Prescott is a lawyer ; Ban- croft, a teacher for some years, and afterwards collector of the port of Boston ; Charles Sprague is a bank clerk ; Halleck collects Mr. Astor's rents ; Dana is a lawyer; Longfellow, a teacher. In fact, with us, authorship is seldom a profes- sion. Most of our literature has been produced in the leisure hours rescued from laborious oc- cupations. Our scientific and useful inventions too have generally resulted from the very course which I am desirous to recommend to the mechanic, viz. : that of honouring his trade by adorning it with intellectual recreations. Fulton was a portrait painter, who amused himself in his idle hours with experiments on steam power ; Whit- ney, the inventor of the cotton gin, was a ma- chinist, whose judicious employment of his AMERICAN AUTHORS. 215 leisure moments led him to an invention which has trebled the value of cotton lands at the South ; Whittemore, of West Cambridge, who invented the machinery for the manufacture of cards, was, if 1 recollect right, a cabinet maker.. The case of Franklin is familiar to all. All these examples tend to establish the same truth, — that a mechanical business, a life of acti- vity and labour, is far from being unfavourable to the highest operations of the intellect; and that relaxation from active labours is most ap- propriately found in mental recreation*. L 214 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. CHAPTER IV THE MECHANIC SHOULD DEVOTE HIS LEI- SURE TO THE GENERAL INTERESTS OF HIS TRADE. # One more duty I would urge upon the me- chanic, in order to the finishing of his charac- ter of a useful, happy and respectable man. Having attained wealth at the time of life when it is desirable to cease from active labour, I would have him devote himself to the genera interests of his trade. There are many ways in which the wealthy mechanic may promote the general interests of his trade, when he has retired from all partici- pation in its labours or profits. He may give a tone to its society by exer- cising a refined and judicious hospitality. Ht may make his house the resort of kindred spi- rits, who will unite with him in their endeavours to retain men of talent and influence in the trade. He may assist young men who are en- teiing upon business for themselves with money, credit and good advice. He may save many a br >ther from ruin by interposing a friendlv FRANKLIN. 215 voice, and a helping hand at the critical moment when they are most needed. He may become in his old age the Mecaenas, as well as the Nestor of his fraternity, by patronizing the in- tellectual efforts of their leisure hours. Such was the course of Franklin ; and his munificent aid ceased not with his life. In his will a permanent fund was established for aiding the young mechanics of his native place by loans of money. The example of his life, however, has been of more value than a legacy of millions. He was a mechanic who fulfilled the several conditions which we have been considering as necessary to happiness, usefulness and respect- ability. He made himself a thorough master of his trade ; he adhered to it till the impera- tive call of his suffering country compelled him to relinquish it; and he honoured his trade by seeking distinction in it, and by adorning it with intellectual recreations. Long may his example be imitated by his countrymen — long may his race live and flourish in the land. Such mechanics are the bulwark of our free institutions. While we have men of the Frank- lin stamp among us, we shall never want a supply of heroes and statesmen to perform great and brilliant actions, or poets, historians and orators to celebrate them. 19 216 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. CHAPTER V. MISDIRECTION OF INDUSTRY— PREJUDICES AGAINST THE MECHANICAL TRADES. Among the many causes which have led t . the present depressed state of affairs in 0111 country, there is one which appears to me an efficient one, although it has been in a great measure overlooked. This is the misdirection of industry — of productive labour. All obser- vers readily perceive that capital has been thrown away ; few take notice of the fact tliat hands and heads have been employed on works that are now known to be utterly useless. Railroads, for example, have been constructed, which can never, by any possibility, be re- quired for the public accommodation to such an extent as to pay the expense of keeping them in repair and employing lines of cars upon them. Mines have been opened and wrought in situations where no veins of metal existed, although the imaginations of the stork- holders, aided by the fine stories of some cun- ning Dousterswivel, had made each of the re MISAPPLICATION OF TIME AND TALENTS. OJ7 fious a perfect El Dorado. Even agriculture labour has been misapplied ; for trees have been planted and nursed with the greatest care, un- der the impression that their leaves were to be converted into silks which should rival the fabrics of Lyons and Benares ; and yet these very trees have subsequently been cut down as cumberers of the ground. The productive industry of this country migh just as well have been employed in the con stmction of pyramids, like those of the ancient Egyptians, as on works of this nature. It is literally labour, time, and talents thrown away. But these are not the only ways in which labour, time and talent have been misdirected. Thousands of our young men have entered the learned professions when they were already crowded, and are consequently wasting their lives in vain hopes; and other thousands have devoted themselves to the pursuits of com- merce without capital, prudence, or intelligence sufficient to avoid the dangers of commercial enterprize ; and these men are now either bank- rupts, or involved in a series of embarrassments vvhich may last through their whole lives. An error in the choice of one's profession is one which a followed by painful consequences, as 21S THE, YOUNG MECHANIC. many have found to their cost. In this coun- try we are apt to be too ambitious and restless. The freedom of our institutions, instead of im- pressing upon us the wholesome lesson that ail men are naturally equal in dignity, and that consequently every trade and profession may be ennobled by the personal merit of its mem- bers, leads men to aspire to certain professions which they esteem genteel ; and to high oflices which the constitution has made attainable by citizens of all classes. This is wrong. An American should respect himself. A citizen of this republic should deem himself a peer of the world — one of nature's noblemen. He should consider that the cir- cumstance of his being an American citizen is sufficient to adorn with all proper dignity any trade or profession which he may adopt. Having settled this point with himself, he is left at perfect liberty to look around with an unprejudiced mind, upon the different modes of obtaining subsistence and making himself useful to the community ; and he can make his choice upon the same principles that should govern him in deciding any practical question. In taking a survey of some large community with reference to the success which has aUend MECHANICS AND MERCHANTS. 219 $(] the exertions of other men, in order to aid his judgment in the choice of a profession, the youth or his adviser may peradventure, arrive at some results which he did not anticipate. Suppose, for example, that he should examine the comparative success of those men whom we know to have devoted themselves to me- chanical trades, and those who have become merchants. Would it not be apparent that where one mechanic has failed and caused extensive losses to his friends and the community, ten merchants have done the same thing ? On the other hand, would it not appear that where one merchant had acquired a competent fortune and retired from business in the decline of life, se- veral mechanics have done the same thing? If we were to run over the list of persons taxed for real estate, should we not find more me- chanics than merchants living in their own houses, and deriving a handsome income from tl^eir rents r If it be said that this not a fair test of com- parative success, let another be resorted to Take the whole number of persons employed in mechanical trades, and the whole number of persons employed in commerce, say for the last twenty years; then calculate what per centals 19* *>20 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC. of each class lias failed, what per centage hris gained a decent subsistence without failing. ano what per centage has arrived at what is called independence. The result of such an inquiry would satisfy the inquirer that it is a safei course to become a mechanic than to be a merchant. The prejudice against the mechanical trades is a relic of feudalism unworthy of our free country. Considered with reference to those old feudal prejudices, all the pursuits by which bread is earned in our country are equally base. Considered in the light of republican philosophy, they are all equally honourable. The baron of the middle ages, who could not read or write, looked down upon the merchant, the mechanic, and the lawyer with equal con- tempt ; and the baron of modern days, who cannot even wield a lance, considers himself superior to the greatest, wisest, and best of those who were born commoners. These old feudal prejudices are ridiculous. But when we call one profession respectable^ and another less respectable, do we not adopt them ? When we talk of degrading ourselves by making tradesmen of our sons, do we not give sanc- tion to the stupid and exploded notions of the FEUDAL PREJUDICES. 221 ' dark ages ? When we admit that any citizen may lose caste by associating with any other honest and honourable man, do we not submit to a barbarism worse than Gothic — the bar- barism of Hindostan and China ? Such notions should be laid aside witli other useless lumber, as unlit for an age and a coun- try where common sense gives law to society, nd where real merit stamps the seal of respect- ability. It is but fighting shadows to offer ar- guments in opposition to such views. I gladly turn therefore from this to the more agreeable task of continuing the subject of my last lec- ture — the mechanic. 222 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC. CHAPTER VI. INTELLECTUAL CULTIVATION OF THE MECHANIC— ITS IMPORTANCE. I propose now to offer a few remarks on the intellectual cultivation of the mechanic, its im- portance, its means, and its rewards. That intellectual cultivation, as a means of moral and social elevation, is as important to the mechanic as it is to any other citizen, is a truth so obvious as not to require argument or illustration for its support. But this is not all He has stronger reasons for study than most other men. His very livelihood may depend in a great measure on a degree of skill in his art which cannot be acquired without a know- ledge of the scientific principles and natural laws on which the arts are founded. The whole system of mechanics' institutes, lyceums, lectures, and collections of specimens and machines, is nothing more nor less than an open confession made by the mechanics them- selves, that intellectual cultivation has become absolutely necessary, in order that they maf COMPETITION. 22^ keep pace with the spirit of the age — an ac- knowledgment that the time has come when science and art shall be firmly united, and this head and the hands shall work together. Competition imposes upon the mechanic oi the present day the necessity of study. Unless he keeps pace with the intelligence of the times, he will speedily find himself working at a ruinous disadvantage. While the workman who is content to remain stationary in scien tific intelligence, neglects the opportunities of information afforded by the institute, the read- ing room, and a constant social intercourse with the most intelligent of his trade; his neighbour, availing himself of these advantages, may possess himself of new processes, new materials, or new facts, which will enable hire to reduce his prices, and in a great measure tc carry off the custom of the place. It was not always thus. Monopoly and pre- scription formerly exerted an influence as inju- rious to the arts as that which is now exerted by competition is beneficial. Indeed, as has been ably shown by a learned authority,* much mischief has been occasioned Governor Everett. Oration, p. 232. 224 TIIE tfOUNG MECHANIC. in past times by the ignorance of artizans lie says : — "The history of the progress oi the human mind shows us, that for want of a d illusion of scientific knowledge among practical men, great evils have resulted, both to science and practice. Before the invention of the art of printing, the means of acquiring and circulating knowledge were few and ineffectual. The phi- losopher was, in consequence, exclusively a man of study, who, by living in a monastic seclusion, and by delving into the few books which time had spared, — particularly the works of Aristotle and his commentators, — succeeded in mastering the learning of the day ; learning, mostly of an abstract and metaphysical nature. Thus, living in a world not of practice, but speculation, never bringing his theories to the vest of observation, his studies assumed a vi- sionary character. Hence the projects for the transmutation of metals ; a nation not origi- nating in any observation of the qualities ol the different kinds of metals, but in reasoning i priori, on their supposed identity of sub stance. " So deep rooted was this delusion, thai \ great part of the natural science of the mid- dle ages consisted in projects to convert th« EVILS OF IGNORANCE. 22A baser metals into gold. It is plain, that such a project would no more have been countenances by intelligent, well-informed persons, pracfi- rally conversant with the nature of the metals, than a project to transmute pine into oak, or fish into flesh. " In like manner, by giving science wholly up to the philosophers, and making the practical arts of life merely a matter of traditionary repel i- tion from one generation to another of uninform- ed artists, much evil of an opposite kind was occasioned. Accident, of course, could be the only source of improvement ; and for want of acquaintance with the leading principles of mechanical philosophy, the chances were inde- finitely multiplied against these accidental im- provements. For want of the diffusion of in formation among practical men, the principles prevailing in an art in one place were unknown in other places *j and processes existing at one period were liable to be forgotten in the lapse of time. Secrets and mysteries, easily kept in such a state of things, and cherished by their possessor as a source of monopoly, were so common, that mystery is still occasionally usee as synonymous with trade. This also contri- buted to the loss of arts once brought to per 226 THE ^OUNG MECHANIC fe^tion, such as that of staining glass, as prac- tised in the middle ages. Complicated inn- chinery was out of the question ; for it requites, for its invention and improvement, the union of scientific knowledge and practical skill. The manner was left to creep along the coast, while the astronomer was casting nativities ; and the miner was reduced to the most laborious and purely mechanical processes, to extract the precious metals from the ores that really con- tained them, while the chemist, who ought to have taught him the method of amalgamation, could find no use for mercury, but as a men- struum, by which baser metals could be turned into gold. " At the present day, this state of things is certainly changed. A variety of popular trea- tises and works of reference have made the great principles of natural science generally accessible. It certainly is in the power of al- most every one, by pains and time properly bestowed, to acquire a decent knowledge ol every branch of practical philosophy. But still, it would appear, that, even now, this part of education is not on the right footing. Gene- rally speaking, even now, all actual instruction in the principles of natural science is confined EDUCATION OF MECHANICS. 22> to the colleges ; and the colleges are, for the most part, frequented only by those intended for professional life. The elementary know- ledge of science which is communicated at the colleges, is indeed useful in any and every calling ; but it does not seem right that none but those intended for the pulpit, the bar, or the profession of medicine, should receive in- struction in those principles which regulate the operation of the mechanical powers, and lie at the foundation of complicated machinery; which relate to the navigation of the seas, the smelting and refining of metals, the composi tion and improvement of soils, the reduction to a uniform whiteness of the vegetable fibre, the mixture and application of colours, the motion and pressure of fluids in large masses, the nature of light and heat, the laws of mag- netism, electricity, and galvanism. It would seem that this kind of knowledge was more immediately requisite for those who are to con- struct or make use of labour-saving machinery, who are to traverse the ocean, to lay out and direct the excavation of canals, to build steam engines and hydraulic presses, to work mines, and to conduct large agricultural and manufac String establishments. Hitherto, with somt 20 228 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. partial exceptions, little has been done, syste. matically, to afford to those engaged in those pursuits, that knowledge which, however con* venient to others, would seem essential to them. There has been scarce any thing, which could be called education for practical life ; and those persons who, in the pursuit of any of the use ful arts, have signalized themselves by the em ployment of scientific principles for the inven- tion of new processes, or the improvement of the old, have been self-educated men." It is argued, in opposition to this view of the matter, that the greatest discoveries and inven- tions have Deen produced by self-taught men, or by accidental circumstances, and that educa- tion is therefore unnecessary for the mechanic. The fact, is indisputable ; but the argument founded on it against the intellectual cultiva- tion of working men, is not sound. Another fact will sufficiently refute it. Before education became generally diffused among mechanics, useful discoveries and inventions were much rarer Uan they are at present. When the great mass of mechanics could neither read nor write, the progress of invention was exceedingly Blow. Now it is astonishingly rapid. In the middle ages great discoveries in the arts wer« A LIFE OF LABOUR. 229 made at the rate of about one in a hundred years. Now they are made almost every year. Within the range of our own recollection two great motive powers, unknown before, have been rendered available in the arts of life, and scarcely a month passes without the announce- ment of some new contrivance for economizing the labour of man. This fact not only an- swers the argument already cited, but acts with tremendous power on the opposite side : thus, The increase of education among mechanics increases the number of discoveries and im- provements in the arts, by which human labour is abridged. This increase of power is an in- crease of happiness. It elevates the mechanic in the scale of social being, and adds to the comfort — the essential happiness of society. By means of the recent improvements in the arts effected by ingenious and educated mecha- nics, the amount of severe bodily labour pre- viously imposed on that class of men is greatly diminished ; and this is no small gain. " We read," says a shrewd writer, u we read in many authors great encomiums on a life of labour, and of the superior blessings of peasants and hard-working men, whose temperate and abstemious lives n rt .mly make them enjoy an 230 THE YOUNG MEChAWlC. uninterrupted state of health, but throw a crimson on their cheeks, and give a vigour to their bodies, the sons of wealth and affluence, they tell us, may in vain sigh for. This sounds well ; but I own I am doubtful of the fact " If I compare the working part of mankind, who fare hard, with those who eat and drink of the i good things of the earth,' I think I can discern better complexions, choicer animal spi- rits, and stronger bodies in the latter than in the former. Incessant labour and coarse and scanty food, have certainly a tendency to weaken the bodies of mankind, and wear them out be- fore their time ; and this we see is the case. What becomes then of the fine-spun theories of visionary authors who so greatly extol a laborious life ? Why, they are destroyed, like other cobweb systems, that will not bear hand- ling." Education multiplies the inventions which lighten bodily labour. Education among me- chanics is, therefore, a great blessing ; and it should be a settled policy with this large and influential class of citizens, to encourage in every possible way the intellectual cultivation of all who compose their body. The kind of education which is suitable for APPLICATION OF SCIENCE TO ART. 231 b mechanic is that which is best accommodated to his circumstances. It should be liberal, — not minute. To learn the practical application of every science to every art, is not in the power of any single individual ; but the me- chanic, as well as the professed scholar, may learn the general laws and principles of science; and subsequently carry out to any degree which may seem expedient for him, those details which are particularly applicable to his own trade. His general acquaintance with the physical laws will enlarge his sphere of usefulness, and in- crease his chances of success in any particular art. There are many good reasons why the Ame- rican mechanics, more than those of any other nation, should cultivate science. One reason of this is the exalted station in society which he enjoys here, compared with that assigned to the same class of men in other countries. In this connexion, I will again quote the au- thority of Governor Everett. And first, he says, it is beyond all ques- tion, that what are called the mechanical trader of this country are on a much more liberal footing than they are in Europe. This circum- stance not only ought to encourage those whe 20* 232 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. pursue them, to take an honest pride in im provernent, but it makes it their incumbent duty to do so. In almost every country of Europe, various restraints are imposed on the mecha- nics, which almost amount to slavery. A good deal of censure has been lately thrown on the journeymen printers of Paris, for entering into combinations not to. work for their employers, and for breaking up the power presses, which were used by the great employing printers. 1 certainly shall not undertake to justify any acts of illegal violence, and the destruction of pro- perty. But when you consider that no man can be a master printer in France without a license, and that only eighty licenses were granted in Paris, it is by no means wonderful that the journeymen, forbidden by law to set up for themselves, and prevented by the power presses from getting work from others, should be disposed, after having carried through one revolution for the government, to undertake another for themselves. Of what consequence is it to a man, forbidden by the law to work for his living, whether Charles X. or Louis Philip is king ? In England, it is exceedingly difficult tor a mechanic to obtain a settlement in *pv town CONDITION OF FOREIGN MECHANICS. 23^ except that in which he was born, or where he served his apprenticeship. The object of impos- ing these restrictions is, of course, to enforce on each parish the maintenance of its native poor ; and the resort of mechanics from place to place is permitted only on conditions with which many of them are unable to comply. The con- sequence is, they are obliged to stay where they were born ; where, perhaps, there are already more hands than can find work ; and, from the decline of the place, even the established arti- sans want employment. Chained to such a spot, where chance and necessity have bound him, the young man feels himself but half free. He is thwarted in his choice of a pursuit for life, and obliged to take up with an employment against his preference, because there is no opening in any other. He is depressed in his own estimation, because he finds himself unprotected in society. The least evil likely to befall him is, that he drags along a discouraged and unproductive existence. He more naturally falls into dissi- pation and vice, or enlists in the army or navy ; while the place of his nativity is gradually be- coming a decayed, and finally a rotten borough, and, as such, enables some rich nobleman to 234 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. send two members to parliament, to make laws against combinations of wcrkmen. In other countries singular institutions exist, imposing oppressive burdens on the mechanical classes. 1 refer now more particularly to the corporations, guilds, or crafts, as they are called, that is, to the companies formed by the mem- bers of a particular trade. These exist, with great privileges, in every part of Europe ; in Germany, there are some features in the insti- tution, as it seems to me, peculiarly oppressive. The different crafts in that country are incor- porations recognized by law, governed by usages of great antiquity, with funds to defray the corporate expenses, and in each consider- able town, a house of entertainment is selected, as the house of call (or harbour, as it is styled,) of each particular craft. No one is allowed to set up as a master workman, in any trade, un- less he is admitted as a freeman, or member of the craft ; and such is the stationary condition of most parts of Germany, that I understand that no person is admitted as a master work- man in any trade, except to supply the place ©f some one deceased or retired from business. When such a vacancy occurs, all those desirous of being permitted to nil it, present a piece of CONDITION OF FOREIGN MECHANICS. O;^ work, which is called their master-piece, bei»>g offered to obtain the place of a master work- man. Nominally, the best workman gets the place; but you will easily conceive, that, in reality, some kind of favouritism must generally decide it. Thus is every man obliged to sub- mit to ail the chances of a popular election, whether he shall be allowed to work for his bread ; and that too, in a country where the people are not permitted to have any agency in choosing their rulers. But the restraints od journeymen, in that country, are still more op- pressive. As soon as the years of apprentice- ship have expired the young mechanic is obliged, in the phrase of the country, to wander for three years. For this purpose he is furnish- ed by the master of the craft in which he has served his apprenticeship, with a duly authen- ticated wandering book, with which he goes forth to seek employment. In whatever city he arrives, on presenting himself, with this cre- dential, at the house of call, or harbour, of the craft in which he has served his time, he is al- lowed, gratis, a day's food and a night's lodging. If he wishes to get employment in that place, he is assisted in procuring it. If he does not 236 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC wish to, or fails in the attempt, he must pursue his wandering ; and this lasts for three years, before he can be any where admitted as a mas- ter. I have heard it argued, that this system had the advantage of circulating knowledge from place to place, and imparting to the young artisan the fruits of travel and intercourse with the world. But however beneficial travelling may be, when undertaken by those who have the capacity to profit by it, I cannot but think that to compel every young man, who has just served out his time, to leave his home, in the manner I have described, must bring his habits and morals into peril, and be regarded rathei as a hardship than as an advantage. There is no sanctuary of virtue like home. You will see, from these few hints, the na- ture of some of the restraints and oppressions to which the mechanical industry of Europe is subjected. Wherever governments and corpo- rations thus interfere with private industry, the spring of personal enterprise is unbent. Men are depressed with a consciousness of living under control. They cease to feel a respon- sibility for themselves, and, encountering ob- stacles whenever they step from the beaten path, they give up improvement as hopeless. I netiJ CONDITION OF FOREIUN MECHANICS. 23"; not remark on the total difference of tilings m America. We are apt to think, that the only thing in which we have improved on other countries, is our political constitution, whereby we choose our rulers, instead of recognizing their heredi- tary rights. But a mi ch more important differ- ence between us an I foreign countries is wrought into the very texture of our society ; it is that generally pervading freedom from re- straint, in matters like those I have just speci- fied. In England, it is said that forty days undisturbed residence in a parish gives a jour- neyman mechanic a settlement, and consequent- ly entitles him, should he need it, to support from the poor rates of that parish. To obviate this effect, the magistrates are on the alert, and instantly r q,el a new comer from their limits, who d' js not possess means of giving security, such as few young mechanics command. A duress like this, environing the young man, on his entering into life, upon every side, and con- demning him to imprisonment for life on the spot where he was born, converts the govern- ment of the country, — whatever be its name,— - into a despotism. Such is the condition of mechanics abroad ; web, thanks to our free institutions and the 238 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. bounty of a good Providence, is not the condi- tion of mechanics here. They may — in fad they must neglect the cultivation of their minds ; but the American mechanic is inexcus- able if he neglects the great privileges which distinguish him from the less fortunate Euro- pean. Another reason why the American mechanic should cultivate his intellectual powers as far as possible, is the vastly wider field which is opened to him by the extent and the resources of his country, and the ever active enterprize of its citizens. The European mechanic is hedged in on every side by restriction, and by competitors without number. All the trades there are full. In our country we see the re- verse. Here we have not men enoi, ^h to per- form the work required. The demana for me- chanical industry has never been fully met, and cannot be, for a long time to come. The im- mense amount of our land, the preponderance of agricultural industry, and the increasing de- mands of commerce, open an unlimited field to mechanical enterprise. We may infer what may yet be done from what has already been done. The service which the mechanical in- genuity of Americans has already rendered to TRIUMPHS OF AMERICAN INGENUITY. £3^ ilie country is at once a source of pride and of hope. Take, for example, the service rendered to the cotton growing interest by Whitney's invention of the saw-gin ; or that rendered to internal commerce and to agriculture by Ful- ton's introduction of the steamboat into general use ; or that rendered to every consumer in the country by inventors and manufacturers con cerned in the production of cotton and woollen fabrics. These inventions and improveme by increasing the resources of the country, haye greatly increased the demand for mechanical products. Whether, therefore, the 'American mechanic addresses himself to increasing the quantity or improving the quality of his manu- factures, the field before him is wide enough for his greatest powers and his most unwearied activity, in entering upon this field, let him remember that knowledge is power, and he will neglect no opportunity of impr ing his mind. 21 240 THE YOUNG MECHANIC CHAPTER VII. MEANS OF INTELLECTUAL CULTIVATION ACCESSIBLE TO THE MECHANIC. Supposing that the reasons why an American mechanic should be well educated are suffi- ciently established, let us next consider the means which are at his disposal or may be brought within his reach. 1. Of course the first and most important means of intellectual cultivation are the schools ; and those to the improvement of which the efforts of mechanics as a body can be most serviceably directed are the public schools. Wherever a system of public schools exists, it is the interest of the mechanic, in common with all other citizens, to aid in rendering it as perfect as possible. I believe that it is essen- tial to the perfection of a system of public schools, that not only elementary instruction should be dispensed to the children of all citi- zens who require it; but that schools of a higher order should be placed within the reach of all pupils whose parents mav wish to obtair SCHOOLS. 24\ the advantages of higher instruction for their oilspring. Experience shows that it is not a difficult matter to create a supply of this highei instruction equal to the demand, even where the provision of primary instruction is most abundant. In Boston, where the population is over eighty thousand, and the primary and grammar schools are sufficient to accommodate every applicant for admission without delay, the Higli School for twenty years has averaged only ninety pupils ; this being the whole mim ber of qualified candidates offered for admis sion. In Philadelphia the supply has certainly been hitherto equal to the demand, as all applicants for admission to the High School who were qualified for the higher studies at the time of their examination have been admitted. I be lieve that the number of scholars who will •eave the school every year to enter upon the active business of life, will always be found equal to those who shall be qualified for admis- sion and shall present themselves for exami- nation. The advantages resulting from High Schools are not confined to the pupils who re- ceive instruction at those schools. The stimu- lus afTo-ded by the hope of attaining admission 242 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC. to them arts upon all the other schools, pro- ducing greater exertion and a more rapid pro- gress in learning. In fact the whole system is not only improved, but greatly extended, by the existence of higher classes of schools This is apparent in this city,* where a greater number of primary and grammar schools have been created since the erection of the High School than at any previous period of the same length. The High School furnishes to the future mechanic precisely the liberal kind of instruction which will be most available to him in his trade ; and in some instances gives mi- nute practical information directly applicable to the arts ; as for example, in the mathematical and drawing lossons, and the lessons, lectures and experiments on chemistry, natural philosophy and natural history ; other parts of the course of instruction, as the training in logic, rhetoric a write every thing which can be said on any subject, they may write to eternity. Hence it is that a man of sense and erudition need but open a single page of many a modern volume to lay it aside forever. It is said of Didymus, an ancient grammarian, that he had written so much that he knew not his own productions, and having once abused a work for its absurdity, it was found to be his owi. I fear the race of Didymus is not extinct.* To read all books on all subjects would re- quire an uninterrupted attention during the longest life, even of an antediluvian. To read only the most celebrated, written in a few lan- guages, is an employment sufficient lo fill up every hour of laborious application. For the * Northmore. CHOICE OF BOOKS. 25. Rake then of saving time, and of directing the judgment of the inexperienced, it becomes an useful attempt to suggest some general hints, which may tend to facilitate selection. One rule of the greatest consequence is, to read only, or chiefly, the original treatises in all the various departments of science or of literature. Nearly the same space of time, though not the same degree of attention, is necessary to peruse the faint copies of imitative industry, as would appropriate to the student the solid productions of native genius. This rule is more particu- larly to be observed on the first entrance on study. The foundation must be laid deeply, and formed of solid materials. The superstruc- ture will often admit slight and superficial ap- pendages. When we have studied the fine relics of those who have lived before us, we may derive much pleasure from attending to the additional labours of contemporary genius. But to begin with these is to found, like the fool recorded in the gospel, an edifice in the sand.* Tp* merit of a book consists in, 1, New facts ; 2. New inferences from established facts : * Knox's Essays. 22 252 THE YOUNG MECIIAN C. 3. A better arrangement ; 4. A more complete collection of facts ; 5. Information. When a book is destitute of these requisites, it may be condemned, without mercy, as of no use what- ever, and immediately sold by weight to the cheesemonger, or consigned to any othei base or more ignoble purpose. When it is not des- titute of these, it should be reprieved, acquitted, or applauded, according to the requisites which it possesses.* On the choice of books, most excellent ad- vice is given by Dr. Watts, from whom, and other authors, has been compiled a pocket volume u on the Improvement of the Mind," in which various interesting matter relating to books, reading, conversation, study, 8cc. are treated of. Happy are they, says Fenelon, who being disgusted with all violent pleasures, know how to content themselves with the sweets of an innocent life. Happy are they, who are diverted, at the same time that they are instructed, and please themselves by en liching their minds with knowledge. Where- ever they may be thrown by adverse fortune, they will carry their own entertaii ment with • Dr. Moslev. CHOICE OF BOOKS. 253 them; and the uneasiness, which preys on others, even in the midst of their pleasures, is unknown to those who can employ themselves in reading. Happy are they who love books and are not deprived of them. Among the other improvements of the pre- sent age, the art of puffing appears to have arrived at such perfection that it is impossible to select books by their titles, or from some of our booksellers' account of them in their ad- vertisements. A person who would make a preference and choose the best, must read much beyond the title page. From a hand bill which accidentally lies on the compiler's desk, the following encomiums are bestowed on very unmethodical and inferior works. " A fasci nating introduction, superior to every preceding attempt of the kind, and deserving of universal preference." " The most approved and gene- rally adopted book ever published, and un- doubtedly the best extant." Such parade of applause may pass with those who do not compare and discriminate, and their number is unfortunately not small. Mr. Pratt ingeniously laments the strange circumstance, that authors themselves have been the most bitter detractors of the talents 254 THE YOUNG MECHAN/C. and reputations or each othei. A grievance far more disgraceful, if not more injurious, to the literary character, than any other species of criticism. Indeed it would be difficult to find any set of enemies among men, any per- sons, whose passions and interests are at va- riance, so full of acerbity, of open violence, or of concealed malice, as the most eminent writers have proved themselves to each other, in their contentions of rivalry. The " republic of let- ters" is a very common expression among Eu- ropeans, and yet, when applied to the learned of Europe, is the most absurd which can be imagined, since nothing is more unlike a repub- lic, than the society which goes by that name In truth, almost every member of this fancied commonwealth is desirous of governing, and none willing to obey : each looks upon his fellow as a rival, not an assistant in the same pursuit. They calumniate, they injure, they despise, they riuicule, they worry, and assas- sinate each other. If one man write a book which pleases, others write books to show that he might have given still greater pleasure, or should not have attempted to please. If one happen to hit upon something new, numbers are ready to assure the public that all this was CHOICE OF BOOK3. 255 no novelty to them or the learned ; that Car- tlanus, or Brunus, or some other author, too dull to be generally read, had anticipated the discovery. Their jarring constitution, instead of being styled the republic of letters, should be entitled the anarchy of literature. It is true, there are some of superior abilities, who reve- rence and esteem each other ; but their mutual admiration is not sufficient to shield off the contempt of the crowd. The wise are but few, and they praise with a feeble voice ; the vulgar many, and roar in reproaches. The truly grrat seldom unite in societies, have few meetings, and no cabals : the dunces hunt in full cry, till they have run down a reputation, and then snarl and fight with each other about dividing the spoil." No task would be more easy to the most superficial observer, than that of producing numerous instances of glaring partiality in the journals of several of our cri- tics by profession. It appears sometimes from their neglect in reading with care the book which they undertake to criticize, so as to comprehend the author's views ; sometimes the narrowness of party spirit warps their decisions, m open contempt of the power of genius and originality. Sometimes a publisher's name on 22* 256 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. the cover, connected with the imprint of the book, is a clue by which neglect, injustice, narrow-minded selfishness, and misrepresenta- tion, may be unravelled; and sometimes the critic's private jjique, as a contemporary author, is obvious. Poetic compositions, whether in ancient or modern languages, may be read at vacant hours, with some advantage, because many passages contain practical rules relating to moral econo- my and religion. Many elegant and ingenious sentiments and descriptions may also be found among the writings of poets, well worth com- mitting to memory ; and the measure of verse greatly assists recollection. The mere art of rhetoric never yet formed an English orator. It is one of those artificial assistances of genius, which genius wants not, and of which dullness can little avail itself. But as excellent books have been written on this subject, the general scholar will not fail to pay it some attention. Let him then read Cicero on the Orator, and Quintilian's Insti- tutes, and he need not trouble himself with those meagre treatises which give a hard name to natural modes of expression, and teach us Uiat, like FJudibras, we cannot open our mouthy ELOCUTION AND RHETORIC. 251 but out there flies a trope.* So much of rheto- ric as teaches the art of speaking and writing with elegance and dignity, in order to instruct, persuade and please, is certainly most valuable Grammar teaches only propriety ; but rhetoric raises upon it purity and clearness of language, elegant thoughts, variety of expression, and lively figures. The duty of the orator is to stats interesting truths with such probability and evidence as may gain belief, and with such force and simplicity as may produce conviction. He must be able to demonstrate, to delight, and to work on the passions. Probably nothing has contributed more to generate apposite habits of mind than the early taste for reading. Books gratify and excite our curiosity in innumerable ways. They force us to reflect. They hurry us from point to point. They present direct ideas of various kinds, and they suggest indirect ones. In a well written book we are presented with the maturest re- flections, or the happiest flights, of a mind of uncommon excellence. It is impossible tl»a< we can be much accustomed to such compa nions, without attaining some resemblance o. * Dr. KnoA. 258 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. them. He who revels in a well chosen library* has innumerable dishes, and all of admirable flavour. His taste is rendered so acute, as to distinguish the nicest shades of difference. His mind becomes ductile, susceptible to every im- pression, and gains new refinement from each. His varieties of thinking baffle calculation, and his powers, whether of reason or imagination, become eminently vigorous.* Exclusive of all regard to interest, and of preparation for the exercise of any art or pro- fession, says Dr. Knox, a taste for pleasing books is surely eligible, if it were only for the sake of enabling an ingenious man to pass his days innocently, calmly, and pleasurably. The pleasures of letters are certainly great to those who have been early devoted to them, and they are of all others the easiest to be obtained. For with respect to books we may say, " These are friends, no one of whom ever denies him- self to him who calls ; no one takes leave of his visitor till he has rendered him happier and more pleased with himself. The conversation of no one of these is dangerous, neither is the respect to be paid to him attended with expense • Godwin's Enquirer ON A TASTE FOR READING. ^5^ If on may take what you please from them. What happiness, what a glorious old age awaits him who is placed under the protection of such friends ! He will have those whom he may con- sult on the most important, and the most trifling matter, whose advice he may daily ask concern- ing himself; from whom he may hear the truth without insult, praise without adulation, and to whose similitude he may conform himself."* As soon as we have obtained, by reading, a competent knowledge of a book or particular subject, it will contribute greatly to animate us in proceeding still farther, if we talk of it either with our equals in attainments, or with the learned and experienced. In such conversation we venture to advance an opinion; our self- love renders us solicitous to maintain it, we seek the book as an auxiliary, we therefore read it with eager attention. In this manner an attachment to books and literary employ- ments is gradually formed, and what began in labour or necessity, becomes a choice, and con- stitutes the most agreeable pleasure. There is no study so dry, but by fixing oui attention upon it, we may at last find it capa* * Seneca. 2(30 THE YOUNG MECHANIC ble of affording great delight. Metaphysics and mathematics, even in their abstrusest parts are known to give the attentive student a very exalted satisfaction. Those parts, then, of hu- man learning, which in their nature are more entertaining, cannot fail of being beloved in a high degree, when the mind is closely and con- stantly applied to them. In order to acquire the power and habit of fixing the attention, it will be first necessary to summon a very considerable degree of resolu- tion. In beginning the study of a new language, or any book of science, which presents ideas totally strange, the mind cannot but feel some degree of reluctance or disgust. But let the student persevere; and in a very short time the disgust will vanish, and he will be reward- ed with entertainment. Till this takes place, let him make it an inviolable rule, however disagreeable, to read a certain quantity, or for a certain time, and he will infallibly find, that what he entered upon as a task, he will conti- nue as his best amusement. A due degree of variety will contribute great- ly to render reading agreeable. For though it be true that not more than one or two books should be read at once; yet, when finished, it ON A TASTE FOR READING. OQ j will be proper, if any weariness be felt, to take up an author who writes in a different style, or on a different subject ; to change from poetry to prose, and from prose to poetry ; to inter- mix the moderns with the ancients ; alternately to lay down the book and take up the pen ; and sometimes to lay them both down, and enter with alacrity into agreeable company and pub lie diversions. The mind, after a little cessa- tion, returns to books with all the voracious eagerness of a literary hunger. But the inter- missions must not be long, or frequent enough to form a habit of idleness or dissipation. The morning has been universally approved as the best time for study ; but at all hours and in all seasons, if we can restrain the licentious rovings of imagination; soothe the passion of the heart, and command our attention, so as to concentre it on the subject we examine, we shall find it amply rewarded. Attend closely; and close attention to any worthy subject will always prove solid satisfaction. But particu- larly in reading it may be depended on as ap- proved truth, that the degree of profit as well as pleasure, derived from it, will ever be pro- portioned to the degree of attention.* * Knn's Essays, No. 82. 262 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. There are some mechanic aids in leading, which may prove of great utility. Montaigne placed at the end of the book which he intend- ed not to reperuse, the time he had read it, with a concise decision on its merits. He has obliged hie admirers with giving several of these annotations. The striking passages in a book may be noted on a blank leaf, and the pages referred to with a word of criticism. Seneca, in sending some volumes to his friend Lucilius, accompanied them with notes on particular passages, that, as he observes, you who only aim at the useful, may be spared the trouble of examining them entirely. I have seen books noted by Voltaire with a word of censure or approbation on the page itself, which was his usual practice ; and these volumes are precious to every man of taste.* I would have every one try to form an opinion of an author himself, though mo- desty may restrain him from mentioning it. Many are so anxious to have the reputation of taste, that they only praise the authors whose merit is indisputable. 1 am weary of hearing of the sublimity of Milton, the elegance and * D'lsraeli's Miscellanies. ON A TASTE FOR READING. 26ri harmony of Tope, and of the original, untaugh. genius of Shakspeare. Such hackneyed re marks are made by those who know nothing of nature, and can neither enter into the spirit of those authors, nor understand them * Temperance in eating and drinking, will con- tribute more to improve the natural force or abilities of the mind, than any art or any ap- plication. It is related of the unfortunate young Chatterton, that he was remarkably abstemious, and that it was a frequent and favourite maxim with him, that a man might arrive at any height of improvpment, or effect the most arduous un- dertaking, by dint of industry and abstinence. lie practised what he thought; and this in some degree accounts for his uncommon attainments and productions, at an age when the full-fed heir can scarcely read and write. I recommend to all students the perusal of Dr. Cheney's Medical Advice; or I will give it to them in a few words. "Take the least and the lightest food, under which you can be easy." Your so*d will thus feel fresh vigour, your life will be longer and happier, and your conduct wiser.f The neglect of writing in early life is the Mai j Wotlstonecraft, fDr. Knox. 23 264 THE YOUNG ME( HANIC. reason that almost every line of our scholars and gentry (who seem to pride themselves in their bad penmanship) stands in need of an in- terpreter. As this art is purely mechanical, and perfected by practice only, it is foreign from my purpose to prescribe rules for its attain ment. I will venture however to assert, that a plain, upright hand, resembling the round ro- man print is preferable to the ridiculous flour- ishes and slopes of writing-masters ; and my opinion is founded on a very simple reason, i f is more legible* Plain writing, says Dr. Gregory, clear of flourishes, and very upright, is certainly the most proper for every station of life, and will remain intelligible longer than any other. It may be learned with less time and trouble, and may be written more expeditiously. 1 have long been of this opinion, and was happy to find it countenanced by the authority of Dr. Knox, and Dr. Beattie. Their popularity may perhaps be of weight in correcting the whimsi- cal and unintelligible mode of writing, which has been introduced by ignorant schoolmasters \ perfectly agree with the latter, that the writing * Yorke. ON THE ART OF WRITING. 265 which approaches nearest the Roman printea character, is the completest. Pope was taught to write by imitating and copying the Roman character of printed books, in which kind of writing b mans, in their moat polished and flourishing times, cultivated their own tongues. We know how much study both the French and the Ita- lians have bestowed on theirs. Whatever know- ledge may be acquired by the study of other languages, it can never be communicated with advantage, unless by such as can write and speak their own language well. Let the matter of an author be ever so good and useful, his compositions will always suffer in the public esteem, if his expression be deficient in purity and propriety. At the same time, the attain- ment of a correct and elegant style, is an ob- ject which demands application and labour. If any imagine they can catch it merely by the ear, or acquire it by a slight perusal of some of our good authors, they will find themselves much disappointed. The many errors, even in point of grammar, the many offences against purity of language, which are committed by writers who are far from being contemptible, demonstrate, that a careful study of the lan- guage is previously requisite, in all who aim tt writing it properly.* The application of a child to a dead Ian- *Dr Blair. 278 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. guage, before he be acquainted with his own, is a lamentable waste of time, and highly de- trimental to the improvement of his mind. The general principles of grammar are common to all languages ; a noun is the same in English, French, Latin, Greek, &c. The varieties of languages are easily acquired by observation and practice, when a preliminary knowledge of our own grammar is obtained, But, the com- prehension of our native tongue, is not t\it only good preparative for the study of other languages. Some previous acqaintance with the general nature of things is necessary to the accomplishment of this end, in order that our literary progress may not be obstructed merely by words. For, although it be useful to leave some, difficulties in the way of a child, that he may exercise his mind in overcoming them, yet he must not be disgusted by too many or too great impediments. Our whole attention should consist in proportioning the difficulties to his powers, and in offering them to his considera- tion individually. If Latin were made the pri mary object of a child's lesson, he would lose a vast portion of time in the study of grammar ; he would be incapable of perceiving the beau- ties of that language, because he would 1101 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 27^ frtve acquired any previous knowledge. ~No benefit therefore could possibly accrue, from reading in the Latin tongue subjects which he could not understand in his own. But, by his becoming well acquainted with our best poets and prose writers, he will easily learn, inde- pendently • of the number of ideas which he will gain thereby, the general rules of gram- mar : several examples will unfold them, and a proper application of others may be soon made without difficulty. Besides, he will acquire taste and judgment, and be well prepared to feel the beauties of a foreign tongue, when he begins to feel the beauties of his own. His knowledge being also extended and diversified, it will be found that the sole difficulty attendant on the study of Latin, consists in learning words ; so that to obtain a just knowledge of things he must apply himself to such Latin authors only as are within the reach of his capacity, and whose writings he can compre- hend with the same facility as if they were written in his native language. By this plan, he will easily acquire the Latin tcngue, trea- sure up fresh knowledge as he advances, and jxperience no disgusts in the study of it. Nothing can be more useless than to fatigue a 24* 9§0 THE YOUNG MECHANIC child, by filling his memory with the rules of a language which he does not yet understand. For. of what advantage is the knowledge of ita rules, if he be unable to apply them ? We should wait, therefore, until reading has gradu- ally enlightened his mind, and the task becomes not irksome to him. When he has studied his own language, we should anticipate the princi- pal difference between the Latin and English syntax. His surprise in perceiving an unex- pected difference, will excite his curiosity, and effectually remove all distaste. After this, and not before, we may devote a part of each day to Latin ; but it ought never to be the first ob- ject of his studies.* The best English Gram mar for the purpose of self instruction is Frost's Practical Grammar, published by Thomas, Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. The Latin authors are possessed of uncom- mon excellence. One kind of excellence they possess which is not found in an equal degree ;n the writers of any other country : an exqui- site skill in the use of language ; a happy se- lection of words ; a beautiful structure of phrase ; a transparency of style ; a precision • H. R. Yorke. THE LATIN LANGUAGE. gg] by which they communicate the strongest sen- timents in the directest form ; in a word, every thing which relates to the most admirable polish of manner. Other writers have taken more licentious nights, and produced greater astonishment in their readers. Other writers have, ventured more fearlessly into unexplored -egions, and cropped those beauties which hang over the brink of the precipice of deformity. But it is the appropriate praise of the best Ro- man authors, that they scarcely present us with one idle and excrescent clause, that they con tinually convey their meaning in the choicest words. Their lines dwell upon our memory ; their sentences have the force of maxims, every part vigorous, and seldom any thing which can be changed but for the worse. We wander in a scene where every thing is luxuriant, yet every thing vivid, graceful and correct. It is commonly said, that you may read the works of foreign authors in translations. But the excellencies above enumerated are incapa- ble of being transfused. A diffuse and volumi- nous author, whose merit consists chiefly in his thoughts, and little in the manner of attiring them, may be translated. But who can trans- late Horace ? who endure to read the trans la- 282 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. tion ? 1 et who is there, acquainted with him only through this medium, but listens with astonishment and incredulity to the encomiums he has received from the hour his poems were produced ? The Roman historians are the best which ever existed. The dramatic merit and the eloquence of Livy ; the profound philoso- phy of Sallust ; the rich and solemn pencil of Tacitus, all ages of the world will admire. Add to this, that the best ages of Rome afford the purest models 'of virtue which are any where to be met with. Mankind are too much inclined to lose sight of all which is heroic, magnanimous and public spirited. Modern ages have formed to themselves virtue, rather oolished than sublime, which consists in petty courtesies, rather than in the tranquil grandeur of an elevated mind. It is by turning to Fabri- cius, and men like Fabricius,that we are brought to recollect what human nature is. Left to ourselves, we are apt to sink into effeminacy and apathy. It is by comparison only that we can enter into the philosophy of language. It is by comparison only that we can separate ideas, and the words by which those ideas are ordinarily conveyed. It is by collating one language with another that we detect all the THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 28: shades of meaning through the various inflec- tions of sense which the same word suffers, as it shall happen to be connected with different topics. He who is acquainted witli only one Ian guage, will probably always remain in some degree the slave of language. From the im- perfectness of his knowledge, he will feel him- self at one time seduced to say what he did not mean, and at another time will fall into errors of this sort without being aware of it. It is impossible he should understand the full force of words. He will sometimes produce ridicule where he intended to produce passion. He will search in vain for the hidden treasures of his native tongue. He will never be able to smploy it in the most advantageous manner. He cannot be well acquainted with its strength ; and weakness. He is uninformed respecting its true genius and discriminating characteris- tics. But the man who is competent to, and exercised in the comparison of languages, has attained to his proper elevation. Language is not his master, but he is the master of language. Things hold their just order in his mind ; ideas, first, and then words. Words therefore are used by him as the means of communicating 284 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. or giving permanence to his sentiments ; and the whole magazine of his native tongue is sub- jected at his feet. Latin is a language which will furnisli us with the etymology of many of our own words ; but it has perhaps peculiar recommen- dations as a praxis in the habits of investiga- tion and analysis. Its words undergo an un- common number of variations and inflexions. These inflections are more philosophically ap- propriated, and more distinct in their meaning, than the inflections of any language of a more ancient date. As the words in Latin composi- tion are not arranged in a philosophical or na- tural order, the mind is obliged to exert itself to disentangle the chaos, and is compelled to yield an unintermitted attention to the inflec- tions. It is therefore probable that the philoso- phy of language is best acquired by studying this language. Practice is superior to theory ; and this science will perhaps be more success- fully learned, and more deeply imprinted, by the perusal of Virgil and Horace, than by read ing a thousand treatises on universal grammar. Examples seem to correspond to what is here stated. Few men have written English with force and propriety, who have been wholly THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 285 unacquainted with the learned languages Our finest writers and speakers have been men who amused themselves during the whole of their lives with the perusal of the classics. Nothing is generally more easy than to discover by his style whether a man has been deprived of the advantages of a literary education. He who has not been accustomed to refine on words, and discriminate their shades of meaning, will think and reason after a very inaccurate and slovenly manner. Two qualities are especially necessarv *o any considerable improvement of humai* un- derstanding ; an ardent temper, and a habit of thinking with precision and order. The study of the Latin language is particularly conducive to the production of the last of these qualities. In this respect the study of Latin and geometry might perhaps be recommended for a similar reason. In the study of language and its in- flections, all is in order. Every thing is sub- jected to the most inflexible laws. The mind therefore which is accustomed to it, acquires habits of order, and of regarding things in a state of clearness, discrimination, and arrange- ment. The discipline of mind, here described, is 2S6 THE YOUNG MECHANIC of inestimable value. He who is not initiated in the practice of close investigation is con- stantly exposed to the danger of being deceived. His opinions have no standard, but are entirely at the mercy of his age, his country, the books he chances to read, or the company he happens to frequent. His mind is a wilderness. It may contain excellent materials, but they are of no use. He is unable to regulate his mind, and sails at the mercy of every breath of accident or caprice. Such a person is ordinarily found incapable of application or perseverance. All talent may perhaps be affirmed to consist o( analysis and dissection, the turning a thing on all sides, and examining it in all its variety oi views. An ordinary man sees an object just as it happens to be presented to him, and sees no more. But a man of genius takes it to pieces, inquires into its cause and effects, remarks its internal structure, and considers what would have been the result, if its members had been combined in a different way, or subjected to different influences. The man of genius gains whole magazine of thoughts, where the ordi nary man has received one idea ; and hit powers are multiplied in proportion to the number of ideas on which they are to be era- THE LATIN LANGUAGE. O57 ployed. Now there is perhaps nothing whici contributes more eminently to this subtilizing and multiplication of mind, than an attention to the structure of language. Let it be taken for granted that the above ar- guments sufficiently establish the utility o^ classical learning ; it remains to be determined whether it be necessary that it should form a part of the education of youth. It may be alleged, that, if it be a desirable acquisition, it may with more propriety be made when a per- son is arrived at years of discretion; that it will then be made with less expense of labour and time, that the period of youth ought not to be burdened with so vexatious a task, and that our early years may be more advantageously spent in acquiring the knowledge of things, than of words. In answer to these objections it may be remarked, that it is not certain that, if the acquisition of the rudiments of classical learning be deferred to our riper years, it will ever be made. It will require strong inclina- tion and considerable leisure. A few active and determined, spirits will surmount the difficulty ; but many who w r ould derive great benefit from the acquisition, will certainly never arrive at it. The age of youth seems particularly adapted 25 2S8 1IIE YOUNG MECHANIC to the learning of words. The judgment is then small, but the memory is retentive. In our riper years we remember passions, facts, and arguments ; but it is for the most part in youth that we retain the very words in which they are conveyed. Youth easily contents itself with this employment, especially where it is not enforced with particular severity. Acquisi- tions which are disgustful in riper years, art often found to afford young persons no con Cemptible amusement. It is not perhaps true that, in teaching languages to youth, we are :mposing on them an unnecessary burden. U we would produce right habits in the mind, it must be employed. Our early years must not be spent in lethargic indolence. An active ma- turity must be preceded by a busy childhood. It has often been said that classical learning is an excellent accomplishment in men devoted to letters, but that it is ridiculous, in parents whose children are destined to more ordinary occupations, to desire to give them a superficial acquaintance with Latin, which in the sequel will infallibly fall into neglect. A conclusion opposite to this is dictated by the preceding reflections. We can never foresee the fuftore destination, and propensities of our children; THE LATIN LANGUAGE g8S> yet, no portion of classical instruction, however small, need be wholly lost. Some refinement of mind, some clearness of thinking, will al- most certainly result from grammatical studies. Though the language itself should ever after bo neglected, some portion of a general science has thus been acquired, which can scarcely be forgotten. Though our children should be destined to the humblest occupation, that does not seem to be a sufficient reason for our de- nying them the acquisition of some of the most fundamental documents of human understand- ing.* The following method of teaching Latin, re- commended by R. L. Edgeworth, F. R. S., ap- pears exceedingly simple, natural, and pleasing, and furnishes useful hints for those who desire to teach themselves. " When children have by gentle degrees, and by short and clear conver- sations, been initiated in general grammar, and familiarized to its technical terms, the first page of tremulous Lilly will lose much of its horror. It is taken for granted, that the pupil can read and understand English, and that he has been eccustomed to employ a dictionary. He may * Godwin's Enquirer. 290 T IIE YOUNG MECHANIC. now proceed to translate from some easy book. a few short sentences : the first word will pro- bably be an adverb or conjunction ; either of them may be readily found in the Latin dic- tionary, and the young scholar will exult in having translated one word of Latin ; but the next word, a substantive or verb, perhaps will elude his search. Now the grammar may be produced, and something of the various termi- nations of a noun may be explained. If musam be searched for in the dictionary, it cannot be found, but musa catches the eye, and with the assistance of the grammar it may be shown, that the meaning of words may be discovered by the united helps of the dictionary and gram- mar. After some days' patient continuation of this exercise, the use of the grammar, and of its uncouth collection of words and syllables, will be apparent to the pupil ; he will perceive that the grammar is a sort of appendix to the dictionary. The grammatical formula? may then, by gentle degrees, be committed to me- mory ; and when once got by heart, they should be assiduously preserved in the recollection After the preparation which we have recom mended, the singular number of a declension will be learnt in a few minutes, by a child ol TriE LATIN LANGUAGE. 29 \ oidinary capacity, and after two or three days' repetition, the plural number may be added. The whole of the first declension shoald be well fixed in the memory before a second be attempted. During this process a few words at every lesson may be translated from Latin to English, and such nouns as are of the first de- clension may be compared with musa, and may be declined according to the same form. Te- dious as this method may appear, it will in the end be found expeditious. Omitting some of the theoretic or didactic part of the grammar, which should only be read, and which may be explained with care and patience, the whole of the declensions, pronouns, conjugations, the list of prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, some adverbs, the concords, the common rules of syntax, may be comprised with sufficient repetitions in about two or three hundred les- sons of ten minutes each : that is to say, ten minutes' application of the scholar in the pre- sence of the teacher. A young boy should never be set to learn a lesson by heart when alone. Forty hours ! Is this tedious ? If you are afraid of losing time, begin a few months earlier ; but begin when you will, forty hours « surely no great waste of time ; th* whole, or 25* 292 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC even half of this short time, is not spent in the labour of getting jargon by rote; each day some slight advance is made in the knowledge of tneir combinations. What we insist on is. that nothing be done to disgust the pupil : steady perseverance, with uniform gentleness, will in- duce habit, and nothing should ever interrupt the regular return of the daily lesson. II' ab- sence, business, illness, or any other cause, pre- vent the attendance of the teacher, a substitute must be appointed ; the idea of relaxation on Sunday, or a holiday, should never be permitted. In most public seminaries above one third, in some nearly one half, of the year is permitted to idleness : it is the comparison between severe labour and dissipation which renders learning hateful. Johnson is made to say, by one of his female biographers, that no child loves the per- son who teaches him Latin ; yet the writei would not take all the doctor's fame, and all the lady's wit and riches, in exchange for the hourly, unfeigned, unremitting friendship which he enjoys with a son who had no other master than his father. So far from being laborious or troublesome, he has found it an agreeable em- ployment to instruct his children in grammai and the learned languages. In the midst &f a THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 093 variety of other occupations, hall' an hoir every morning for many years, during the time of dressing, has been allotted to the instruction of boys of different ages in languages, and no other time has been spent in this employment." It has been objected, that a classical educa- tion loses time in acquiring words only, when ideas ought to be acquired. This objection (though in a great measure unjust] would cer- tainly be without any colour of reason, if a plan could be proposed for uniting both these purposes ; if by a proper choice of books we could contrive to store the mmd at different periods with such useful, moral ideas as are adapted to its capacity. The first branch of sci- ence which youth is capable of comprehending appears to be history. On the knowledge of facts, all moral reasoning must depend; and facts learned in youth are certainly better re- tained than those which are acquired at any succeeding period. Young boys are not inte- rested in narrative (indeed there is hardly any other kind of composition which can engage them ;) and I have generally found them more delighted with true history and biography, if not prolix, than with poetry or novels. The tales of love, and the minutiae of private life 294 rHE YOUNG MECHANIC. do not arrest their attention so much as the ad- ventures of heroes, and the vicissitudes of war. Now although learning be a business rathei than an amusement, certainly the more accept- able it can be made to the pupils, the better. On these principles, therefore, 1 would venture to deviate a little from the common order of school books, which schoolmasters are more anxious to select for the purity of the Latin, than for any real instruction or entertainment they contain. I would not be understood to insinuate, that the acquisition of the language, in the most perfect manner, is not a primary object; but I am of opinion " that at a time when books are read only to exemplify gram- matical rules, purity and elegance are not so much required, as when the scholar is more advanced." The initiatory books, I apprehend, have little influence in forming the taste ; before that effect can take place it is necessary to be master of the rudiments, to read the language with ease, and to be able to consider it with something of a critical eye. It may please the vanity of a parent to be told, that his boy is reading Virgil or Ovid ; and it may answer the master's own purpose, in a pecuniary view, to encourage this absurd vanity; bat in the mean THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 29a time the real interest of the pupil is sacrificed For what can be more ridiculous, than to in volve a child, who is yet unacquainted with the lite ral meaning - of words, in all the obscurities of figurative and poetic diction ; and, before he lias acquired any ideas on common things, to expect that he should feel and admire the high- est efforts of the human imagination ? The books which I would recommend as proper to initiate children in the learned lan- guages, should be plain prose, simple, easy to be construed, and dispensing such knowledge as is adapted to their capacities. I would lead them by just gradations from unadorned lan- guage, and plain fact, to elegance of style, ele- vation of thought, and more abstract sentiment. After some very easy Latin, just sufficient to show them the nature of construing, I think Eutropius the most proper book. It is an abridgement of perhaps the most important series of events which the annals of the globe I can produce ; it is one of the easiest books to read, and the style is clear and perspicuous. After Eutropius, the young scholar may have an excellent taste of biography in the lives of Cornelius Nepos, which, in point of difficulty is properly the next step above Eutropius 296 THE YC«.rG MECHANIC Justin may be read with the greatest advantage after thp other two: he is not remarkable for the beauty or elegance of his style; but l w collects so many useful tacts in the history .i mankind, and is, as ( can testify from expe- rience, so delightful a book to boys, that the advantages to be derived from the perusal of him infinitely counterbalances this objection. If the pupils caitnot go through the whole of these authors, the parts which they read may bp chosen so as to connect together, and afford them a general view of the progress and termi- nation of the principal states of antiquity. Let them next read the most interesting parts ol Caesar and Sallust, and some of Cicero's ora t:ons. A good set of the ancient maps oughi to be made use of while they are reading his- tory ; and thus Geography will be insensibly acquired, and more firmly implanted, than by any otner process. Until they can constiiie such Latin as Caesar's Commentaries tolerably fluently, without the aid of a dictionary, and have gone at least on c through a set of the common school exercises such as Bailey's, no other language, not even Greek, should interfere with the Latin ; other- wise the memory will be confused by the dif- THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 29? ferent grammars. But by the time they have finished the course of reading already specified. it is presumed they will be capable of under- standing the study of Greek. Their minds also will now be matured, and sufficiently cultivated to relish the charms of poetry, of which the iEneid is the chastest and most captivating spe- cimen. To the discretion of the master it may be left, how much of the ifoieki can be read at school with advantage. Somn of the moral Odes, all the unexceptionable Satires, and Epis- tles of Horace may follow, and a few of the Satires of Juvfcial ; varying occasionally ihe course of their studies by an oration of TuJly, the Cato Major, the Laelius, or the Offices. Ovid and Terence 1 will venture to proscribe* the former, because he inculcates licentious ness ; the latter, knavery. 1 know no spirit sooner caught by boys, than that little tricking disposition, that spirit of low cunning, which may be learned from some parts of this author. In the Comedies of Terence, the father is often i\ fantastic or an avaricious fool ; the son a pro- fligate ; and the servant, who is the cream of the jest, a complete villain. The purity of hia Latin, and the delicacy of his style, will not, in my estmiation, compensate for tiie danger which 298 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. is incurred by the imitative faculties of youth. As for Ovid, there is another objection against him, for he corrupts the taste as well as the morals ; some part of the Metamorphoses may, however, be read with advantage.* Boys ought to read prose well before they meddle with the poets. The former has visibly so much the advantage of the latter, with re- spect to perspicuity and plainness of style, that I cannot but wonder how the latter came to take place of the former, in the common method of the schools. This looks something like teaching young children to stfnd upon their hands, before they know how to make use of their legs. Prose is necessary to teach them a proper Latin style ; for the reading of the poets can do them no kindness in this respect, but rather much hurt, if they be not first well ac- quainted with prose. The style of poetry is so remote from the ordinary manner of expres- sion, that to imitate it in prose, would be the most ridiculous thing in the world; and he would be sure to excite laughter, who should pretend to write a history in the strain of Vir- gil's /Eueid, or Horace's Lyrics. To preven • Gregory's Essays- 1HE LATIN LANGUAGE. 29%, (herefore their confounding those two different Btyles, it will be necessary to make them read the historians well in the first place : by so doing, they will learn the genuine and proper signification of words, and use them accord- ingly : they will not be misled by the figurative use of words, phraseology, and forms of con- struction proper only for poetry ; nor need they fear to imitate the language of their authors ; whereas, in the reading of the poets, the case would be otherwise ; there they could borrow nothing, without rendering their style very bombastic and ridiculous.* The author of " Stemmata Latinitatis" has conferred an essential service on the public ; but still there is wanting a dictionary for schools, in which elegant and proper English might be substituted for the barbarous translations now in use. Such a dictionary could not be com- piled, we think, without an attention to the course of books which are most commonly used in schools. The first meanings given in the dictionary should suit the first authors which a boy reads; this may probably be a remote or metaphoric meaning : then the radical Clarke's Essay on Education, 1731). 26 300 TUB YOUNG MECHANIC. word should be mentioned, and it would noi cost a master any great trouble to trace the genealogy of words to the parent stock. Cordery is a collection of such mean sen- tences, and uninstructive dialogue, as to be totally unfit for boys. Commenius's " Visible World Displayed" is far superior, and might, with proper alterations and better prints, be- come a valuable English school book. Both these works were intended for countries where the Latin language was commonly spoken, and consequently they are filled with the terms ne- cessary for domestic life and conversation : for this very reason they are not good introduc- tions to the classics. Selections from Bailey's Phcedrus will be proper for young beginners on account of the glossary. We prefer this mode of assisting them with glossaries to the use of translations, because they do not induce indo- lent habits, and yet they prevent the pupil from having unnecessary labour. Translations always give the pupil more trouble in the end, than they save in the beginning. The glossary to Bailey's Phcedrus, which we have just mention- ed, needs much to be modernized, and the lan- guage requires to be improved. Mr. Valpy's Select Sentences would be far more useful i/ THE LATIN LANGUAGE 30: they had a glossary annexed. As they are, they will however be useful after Phcedrus. Ovid's Metamorphoses, with all its monstrous faults, appears to be the best introduction to the Latin classics, and to heathen mythology. Norris's Ovid may be safely put into the hands of children, as it is a selection of the least ex ceptionable fables. Cornelius Nepos, a crab- bed book, but useful from its brevity, and from its being a proper introduction to Grecian and Roman history, may be read nearly at the same time with Ovid's Metamorphoses. After Ovid the pupil may begin Virgil, postponing some of the Eclogues, and all the Georgics.* To write exercises in Latin appears essential- ly necessary to grammatical perfection, and should commence as soon as the pupil has gone through the syntax. I do not feel con- vinced of the propriety or advantage of com- posing in verse. That several excellent writers had been accustomed to write Latin verses in their youth, is far from amounting to a proof in Its favour, because there is great probability, that those men would have excelled, whether they had written verses at school or not. That • Mr. K. L. Edgeworth. 302 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC. to write in verse facilitates and improves oui prose, I think admits of dispute. I am sure it cannot answer the end of accustoming the stu- dent to perspicuity and precision, or of perfect- ing him in grammar ; end I apprehend it will rather serve to induce a loose and vicious mode of composition, and lead him to attend more to sound than sense. It cannot be denied, that this practice takes up much more time than a common exercise ; and if it answer no particu- lar purpose, why waste that time, which might be more usefully employed in the acquisition of ideas ? The very mention of stringing words together without order or meaning, which is always the commencement, and too often the conclusion, of school versification, implies something ridiculous if not pernicious. But I will grant that a genius for poetry may receive some improvement from composing in verse when young ; whether that be a desirable con- sequence or not, those who are parents must determine. How few poets are so happy as to succeed ! and even when successful, how bar- ren, how uncertain are the rewards of genius ! The enthusiasm of poetry incapacitates us for most other employments, nor is the unsuccess- ful adventurer easily reduced to his sobei THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 303 senses : lie contends in the face of poverty, ac- companied with contempt ; and pursues his itch of scribbling through innumerable disappoint- ments, without even the airy premium of ap- plause. I have heard it urged further, in de- fence of these poetic exercises, that they teacli boys quantity and pronunciation. But surely they never can be necessary on this account, if the master be careful from the first to accustom the learner to a right pronunciation ; and were not this sufficient, the end would be fully an- swered by a practice, which I think as salutary as the other is pernicious ; I mean that of com- mitting to memory some of the moral passages of Virgil, Horace, and the best of the poets. This will serve at once to furnish the mind with words and with ideas ; and will implant pre- cepts in the heart, which may be useful through all the different periods of life. If it cannot im- part, taste, it will improve it. It will infix in the mind the best rules of grammar in indelible characters.* It was with much regret that the compiler met with the following illiberal reflections b) the enlightened and ingenious Doctor Knox * Gregory's Essays 26* 304 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC. " Some writers on the subject of educati )n have expressed themselves against the genera! practice of composing Latin verse at school^ with a degree of acrimony, which has led their readers to conclude, that they themselves were ignorant of the art, and without a taste for its beauties. I imagine too, that some of them never had a truly classical education at a public school, or were members of either English university." Liberal Education, page 65, edit. 1783. Again, "Such objections appear very plausible to illiterate persons, and those very many who know not what a classical education means, or what advantages it tends to produce !'* Page 68. In the same work, page 284, Dr. Knox acknowledges, that Mr. Locke, who wrote decidedly against boys making verses at school, was a student of Christ Church College, Ox- ford ; and wrote there some Latin verses ad- dressed to Cromwell. But he also remarks, that " Locke was led to differ from others on Ihe subject of education from a warmth of re- forming spirit." Those assertions do not ap- pear well founded, for Locke produced his "Thoughts on Education" at the age of fifty - eight. It might therefore be said witli greater plausibility, that his decisions on this subject, THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 305 were the result of much experience, mature judgment, and cool discrimination. The assertion will not perhaps be liable to be controverted by those, who are best ac- quainted with such subjects, and are best qua- lified to make extensive and just comparisons, if it be said that the Greek claims the supe- riority over all other languages. In its nume- rous mod-es of expression there is precision without obscurity, and copiousness without redundance. It owes the former to the various and diversified inflections of its words, and the latter to its great number of derivatives. In its general structure and formation, a pioper re- gard is paid to the ear, as well as to the under- standing ; for its energy and strength are not more striking than its harmony. The strict- ness of its rules does not impose too much re- straint upon its expressions, and its grammati- cal system is in every part exact and complete.* From a short view of its history and cha- racteristics, it will be evident, that this language deserves to be held up as a perfect model of expression, and that it fully justifies the praise of those scholars and critics, who have cele- * See Lord Monboddo on the Origin c c Language, vol *. page 25. 306 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. orated its excellence in proportion as theyhavfe enjoyed its beauties, and derived taste, improve- ment, and pleasure, from the perusal of its in- comparable writers.* Greek is worth the pains of learning, merely as a language ; and I question whether any man can be an adequate judge of the structure, force, and harmony of language, who is totally igno- rant of it. The true principles of taste are to be imbibed in their greatest perfection from the Greek writers, whose chastity, perspicuity, and elegance, have never been excelled, and very seldom equalled. In teaching Greek, the most proper book to commence with is certainly one of the Gospels. I would prefer St. Matthew's, because I think it written in a more agreeable and entertaining manner than that of St. John, which is usually the first book. Of the New Testament, Matthew and Luke will be quite sufficient. After these I would recommend some easy prose ; perhaps the Pictures of Cebes would not be found too difficult. A few of the Odes of Anacreon, if selected with judgment, may be read. My predilection for History inclines me to recommend as much of Herodotus as may •Mr. Kett's Elements of General Knowledge. THE GREEK LANGUAGE 307 fionveniently be read. It is the most entertain- ing book I am acquainted with ; and much solici instruction may, on the whole, be collected from it. The style is simple and beautiful, with this additional circumstance in its favour, thai it is the best introduction to Homer. Some schoolmasters may prefer the Cyropeedia of Xenophon, which is an excellent book, if the boys do not think it prolix. It is almost need- less to mention, that the Anabasis is the best of all that author's works. After as much of Homer as may be thought expedient, it may be of use to dip a little into the Orations of Iso- crates, as introductory to Demosthenes, who must by no means be neglected. Of the Manual of Epictetus the master may, if he pleases, make considerable advantage, by taking occa sion to explain from it the moral philosophy of the Stoics. Thucydides, as well as Livy and Tacitus, the higher poets and philosophers, must, I fear, be reserved for the university ; as no school class can be expected to go through a greater number of books than those which I have already specified. By pursuing this plan of reading, I am persuaded the student would •eap much more useful knowledge, than by the tumbled, unsystematic method commonly pur- SOS THE YOUNG MECHANIC. sued in schools. What, perhaps, he would he. most deficient in, would be the heathen mytho- logy, of the great advantage of which I must confess myself ignorant. In return, he would be master of all the leading facts in the history of mankind ; and if history be to ethics what experiment is to physics, he would have laid the best foundation of moral reasoning. None of the advantages of classical learning, in re- spect to the improvement of taste, would be lost by this course of study ; and perhaps the style which would be formed from the authors I have recommended, would be preferable to the prettinesses which is acquired from reading poetry; being formed on the best models of that manly eloquence, which is the proper as- sociate and embellishment of virtuous princi- ples. I have omitted entering into a detail of the manner in which I would have the rudi- ments taught, because I do not in this respect, materially differ from the common practice of schools. Before a boy be put to construe, he should be well grounded in the Accidence, per- fectly master of the declensions of nouns and verbs, as well as the rules for determining the genders, and the formation of the tenses. Bu< 1 do not think there is an absolute necessity THE GRE K LANGUAGE. 3QC\ previous to the reading of any author, to over charge his memory with a multitude of syntax rules, of the use and application of which he must be totally ignorant. The concords, and a few of the principal rules, will be quite enough for him when he begins to construe. He must afterwards continue to get off a portion of the other rules every day, and must be well exer- cised in the grammar during the whole of his progress. I agree with Mr. Knox, that to teach wholly by translations is pernicious. But I must ob- serve, that if with the first and second books which a child is put to construe, no translation be made use of, the master himself must be in place of a translation ; or the pupil must, at the expense of some of his pocket money, apply to his school-fellows. It is impossible, on the first efforts to construe, to proceed without some guide ; or to use a dictionary with that ease and dexterity which are essential to profit. To allow them the assistance of a translation at first, and before they have acquired a little stock of words, is more suitable to the progressive powers of the human mind. I grant there will be some difficulty to be surmounted when they Jirst lay aside the translation ; but this will bd 310 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC. nothing like so discouraging as the gloomy prospect of entering on a language totally un known, and being obliged to consult a die* tionary for every word.* The modern practice of teaching Greek through the medium of Latin appears to me highly erroneous. It not only retards the pro- gress of a scholar, but it renders the idioms of both languages confused ; and the beauty of the article, and some of the tenses, independent of other considerations, is thus entirely lost. The labours of literary men cannot be directed to a more useful purpose, than the compilation of dictionaries and grammars in the Greek and vernacular tongues.f To the objection that too much time is lost in learning the words of the sentiments which we might obtain by means of translations, this plain answer may be given, that a person can never learn a language, without adding to the stock of his ideas ; and that the better the lan- guage is, (and where shall we find any equal to the Greek and Latin ?) the more correct will be the judgment, and the more vigorous the per- ceptions of the learner. The learned tonguei * Gregory's Essays. f Northmore- CLASSICAL LEARNING. 3^ form at once, even considered merely in then structure, the best code of laws for taste, and (he best models for logical reasoning and argu- ment. No one who can read the classics would exchange the fruit of the time spent upon them for any other attainment which his earlier years could have made.* The Earl of Chatham says to his nephew, u I rejoice to hear that you have begun Homer's Iliad ; and have made great progress in Virgil ; I hope you taste and love these authors parti- cularly. You cannot read them too much , they are not only the two greatest poets, but they contain the finest lessons for your age to imbibe : lessons of honour, courage, disinte- restedness, love of truth, command of temper, gentleness of behaviour, humanity, and in one word, virtue, in its true signification. Go on, my dear nephew, and drink as deep as you can of these divine springs : the pleasure of the draught is equal at least to the prodigious ad- vantages of it to the heart and morals."}* There is yet wanting in different languages, says Stevenson, initiatory books, containing • Edinburgh Review, iii. 351. -j- Letters to T. Pitt, Esq., afterwards Lord Camelford, page 6. 27 312 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. physical facts, none of which would be dry and uninteresting. Natural History and Philosophy, in all their branches, even though they were superficial, would be of much greater use in every situation in life, than an intimacy with poetic flights of imagination, and all the lumber of the heathen mythology, the perusal of which affords but selfish, momentary, and insulated pleasure. Young people remember facts much more readily than sublime metaphor, or labour- ed sentiment.* Though I particularly recommend classical learning, says Dr. Knox, I do not recommend it exclusively. I think it ought to claim the earliest attention, and to form the foundation ; because no other learning contributes so much to open and to polish the mind. After this polish and expansion are acquired, and this foundation laid, 1 recommend an attention to the sciences, to natural history and experimental philosophy, to botany, to chemistry, to paint- ing, to architecture, to mechanical works, and in general to all the productions of human in- genuity. A capacious mind will view the uni- rerse and all which it contains, as one vast • Remarks on the inferior utility of Classical Lewning MATHEMATICS. ^Id volume laid before it for perusal. Philology alone is comparatively a confined, though ele- gant attainment. MATHEMATICS. Arithmetic may now be considered as having advanced to a degree of perfection which in former times could scarcely have been con- ceived, and to be one of those few sciences which have left little room for farther improve- rnsnt. It is, however, a serious and almost general complaint, that few children, while at school, make any tolerable progress in arith- metic ; and that the generality, after having spent several years under the tuition of a mas- ter, are incapable of applying the few rules which they have learned, to the useful purposes of life. A few elementary principles are ac- quired by rote, and therefore quickly forgotten ; because the most essential particulars, namely, the reasons on which these rules are founded, and their extensive use in the various concerns of society are generally omitted.* So much of the science of numbers as is in common use, as the numeration, subtraction, * Dom. Encyclopaedia. 314 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. multiplication, and division of money, should be learnt with accuracy; to which should be added the rule of three and decimal fractions ; which will abundantly repay the labour of ac- quiring them by the pleasure and utility which will perpetually result from the knowledge of them through life.* The only sciences which can be denominated pure are the Mathematics. Of these, every mechanic and labourer should be made ac- quainted with Euclid, particularly the first six books ; also algebra ; the properties of the conic sections ; and the doctrine of fluxions. Owing to the very little attention which is paid to these sciences at present, it may appear to many, that their study is attended with great difficulty, and little advantage. Neither of these prejudices Dorders on the confines of truth. In order that those sciences may become capable of gra- tifying the desire which children entertain foi the acquisition of truth and knowledge, i„ is absolutely necessary that they be rendered as clear and evident as possible, and also that their application and utility be made apparent. Nothing more seems wanting to render the study of mathematics pleasant and agreeable, * Dr. Darwin. MATHEMATICS. 21i than to apply them to those purposes wnieb must make their utility and perfection clear striking, and interesting. The time in which mathematics should be studied, must succeed that of literature. To comprehend abstract and general truth, some energy and comprehension of mind are requisite. To point out the pre- cise period when the study of mathematical science should commence, is attended with some difficulty. It must evidently vary, according to the progress which the mind may have made towards maturity and perfection.* I agree with Mr. Locke, that there is no study better fitted to exercise and strengthen the rea- soning powers, than that of the mathematical sciences, for two reasons ; first, because there is no other branch of science which gives such scope to long and accurate trains of reasoning , and, secondly, because in mathematics there is no room for authority, nor for prejudice of any kind, which may give a false bias to the judg- ment. When a youth of moderate parts begins to study Euclid, every thing at first is new to him. His apprehension is unsteady; his judg« ment is feeble, and rests partly upon the evi« dence of the thing, and partly upon the authority 27* * Dr - Covvan - 316 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. of his teacher. But every time he goes ovei the definitions, the axioms, the elementary pro- positions, more light breai^ in upon him : the language becomes familiar^ and conveys clear and steady conceptions ; the judgment is con- firmed; he begins to see what demonstration is ; and it is impossible to see it without being charmed with it. He perceives it to be a kind of evidence which has no need of authority to strengthen it. He finds himself emancipated from that bondage ; and exults so much in this new state of independence, that he spurns at authority, and would have demonstration for every thing ; until experience teaches him, that this is a kind of evidence which cannot be had in most things ; and that in his most important concerns, he must rest contented with probabi- lity. As he goes on in mathematics, the road of demonstration becomes smooth and easy ; he can walk in it firmly, and take wider steps : and at last he acquires the habit, not only ol understanding a demonstration, but of discover- ing and demonstratirT mathematical truths. Thus, a man, without uiles of logic, may ac- quire a habit of reasoning justly in mathema tics ; and, I believe he may, by like means, ac- quire a nabit of reasoning justly in mechanics, logic. 317 in jurisprudence, in politics, or in any other science. LOGIC. Good sense, good examples and assiduous exercise, may bring a man to reason justly and acutely in his own profession, without rules. But if any man think, that from this concession he may infer the inutility of logic, he betrays a great want of that art by this inference : for it is no better reasoning than this, that because a man may go from Edinburgh to London by the way of Paris, therefore any other road is use- less. There is perhaps no mechanic art which may not be acquired, in a very considerable de- gree, by example and practice, without reducing it to rules. But practice, joined with rules, may carry a man on in his art farther and more quickly, than practice without rules. Every ingenious artist knows the utility of having his art reduced to rules, and by that means made a science. He is thereby enlightened in his prac- tice, and works with paore assurance. By rules, he sometimes corrects his own errors, and often detects the errors of others : he finds them of great use to confirm his judgment, to justify what is right, and to condemn what is wrong 318 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. Is it of no use in reasoning, to be well acquainted with the various powers of the human under- standing, by which we reason ? Is it of no use, to resolve the various kinds of reasoning into their simple elements ; and to discover, as far as we are able, the rules by which these elements are combined in judging and in rea- soning ? Is it of no use, to mark the various fallacies in reasoning, by which even the most ingenious men have been led into error ? It must surely betray great want of understanding, to think these things useless or unimportant. These are the things which logicians have at- tempted, and which they have executed ; not indeed so completely as to leave no room for improvement, but in such a manner as to give very considerable aid to our reasoning powers. That the principles laid down with regard to definition and division, with regard to the con- version and opposition of propositions and the general rules of reasoning, are not without use, is sufficiently apparent from the blunders com* mitted by those who disdain any acquaintance with them.* Geometry should always form a part of a * Lor J Kaimes' Sketches. LOGIC 3j£ iberal course of studies. Jt has its direct uses and its indirect. It is of great importance foi the improvement of mechanics and the arts of life. It is essential to the just mastery of as- tronomy and various other eminent sciences But its indirect uses are perhaps of more worth than its direct. It cultivates the powers of the mind, and generates the most excellent habits. It eminently conduces to the making man a rational being, accustoms him to a closeness of deduction, which is not easily made the dupe of ambiguity, and carries on an eternal war against prejudice and imposition.* But geome- try is not a competent guide to the art of rea- soning without the study of logic. It is a very great error to suppose that logic consists only in those formal debates and ver- bal disputations, in which the schoolmen and their fo lowers consumed so much time in the dark agts, previous to the revival of classical learning. It is equally a mistake to imagine, that it is merely intended to teach the method of disputing by rules, and to instruct a person to converse, not from a love of truth, but a desire of victory. As there is nothing more • Godwin's Enquirei. 320 THE VOUNG MECHANIC. disingenuous than such a conduct as this, no thing more unbecoming a rationable being, than to oppose sophistry to good sense, and evasion to sound argument, the logician disclaims this abuse of the principles of his art, and vindi- cates its rights by displaying its true and propei office. It is in reality capable of affording the most important assistance to the understanding in its inquiries after truth ; it is eminently use- ful in the common affairs of life, and renders the greatest service to science, learning, virtue, and religion. Logic is the art of forming correct ideas, and of deducing right inferences from them ; or it may be said to constitute the knowledge of the human mind, inasmuch as it traces the progress of all our information, from our first and most simple conception of things, to those numerous conclusions which result from comparing them together. It teaches us in what order our thoughts succeed each other, and it instructs ua in the relation which subsists between our ideas, and the terms in which we express them It distinguishes their different kinds, and points out their properties ; discovers the sources of our intellectual mistakes, and shows how we may correct and prevent them. It displays logic. 321 those principles and rules, which we follow, although imperceptibly, whenever we think in a manner conformable to truth. The faculty of reason is the pre-eminent quality, by which mankind are distinguished from all other animals ; but still we are far from finding that they possess it in the same degree. There is indeed as great an inequality in this respect in different persons, as there is in their strength and agility of body. Nor ought this disproportion to be wholly ascribed to the original constitution of the minds of men, or the difference of their natural endowments ; for, if we take a survey of the nations of the world, we shall find that some are immersed in igno- rance and barbarity, others enlightened by learning and science ; and, what is still more remarkable, the people of the same nation have been in various ages distinguished by these very opposite characters. It is, therefore, by due cultivation, and proper diligence, that we increase the vigour of our minds, and cairy reason to perfection. Where this method is followed, the intellect acquires strength, and knowledge is enlarged in every direction ; where it is neglected, we remain ignorant of the value M' our own powers; and those faculties, by 322 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. which we are qualified to survey the vast fabric of the world, to contemplate the whole face of nature, to investigate the causes of things and to arrive at the most important conclusions as to our welfare and happiness, remain buried in daikncss and obscurity. No branc i of science therefore affords us a fairer prospect i f improve- ment, than that which relates to the understand- ing, defines its powers, and shows the method by which it acquires the stock of ks ideas, and accumulates general knowledge.* C©MPOSITION. When we are employed after a proper man- ner, in the study of composition, we are culti- vating season itself. True rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly allied. The study of ar- ranging and expressing our thoughts with pro- priety, teaches us to think, as well as to speak, accurately. By putting our sentiments into words we always conceive them more distinctly. Every one who has the slightest acquaintance with composition knows, that when he ex- presses himself ill on any subject, when his arrangement is loose, and his sentences become * Mr. Rett's Elements. composition 323 feeble, the defects of his style can, almost on every occasion, be traced back to his indistinct conception of the subject : so close is the con- nection between thoughts and the words in which they are clothed. The study of com- position, important in itself at all times, has acquired additional importance from the taste and manners of the present age ; an age wherein improvements, in every part of science, have been prosecuted with ardour. To all the libe- ral arts much attention has been paid ; and to none more than to the beauty of language, and the grace and elegance of every kind of writing. The public ear is become refined. It will not easily bear what is slovenly and incorrect. Every one who writes must aspire to some merit in expression, as well as in sentiment, if he would not incur the danger of being neglected and despised. I will not deny that the love of minute elegance, and attention to inferior orna- ments of composition, may have engrossed too great a degree of the public regard. It is in- deed my opinion, that we lean to this extreme ; often more careful of polished style, than of storing it with thought. Yet hence arises a new reason for the study of just and proper composition. If it be requisite *io f to be den- 28 324 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. cient ill elegance and ornament, in times when they are in such high estimation, it is still more requisite to attain the power of distinguishing false ornament from true, in order to prevent our being carried away by that torrent of false and frivolous taste, which never fails, when it is prevalent, to sweep along with it the raw and the ignorant. They who have never studied eloquence in its principles, nor have been trained *o attend to the genuine and manly beauties of good writing, are always ready to be caught by the mere glare of language ; and when they come to speak in public, or to compose, have no other standard on which to form themselves, except what chances to be fashionable and po- pular, how corrupted soever and erroneous that may be.* Though I have advised the pupil to exercise himself in composition, yet I will also caution him against the itch of scribbling. Let him never take the pen in hand, nor place the paper before him, till he has bestowed much time and deep thought on the subject. To the want of this previous attention we owe the numerous productions which disgrace letters, and which die almost as soon as they are brought forth ; * Dr. Blair's Lectures. IMPROVEMENT OF MEMORY. 305 tvhicii, like weeds in a garden, spring- up luxu- riantly without cultivation, which are useless or noisome, and which only serve to impede the growth of salutary plants and pleasant flowers. Pretenders arise in every department, and disgrace it. Let the liberal and solid scholar attend to the circumstances of time and place, in the modest display of his attainments. It is unmanly timidity to conceal them on proper occasions ; it is ridiculous arrogance to intrude on unwilling and injudicious observers. Mo- desty is the characteristic of real merit ; and firmness, of conscious dignity. The man of sense will be diffident, but at the same time will have spirit enough to repel the insolent attacks of ignorance and envy.* IMPROVEMENT OF THE MEMORY. The following observations, if attended to, may greatly assist those more advanced in life, in strengthening the memory. 1. Let the stu- dent never quit any branch of study till he be perfectly master of it, and can comprehend it as a whole, as well as in parts. 2. Endeavour to link and connect the leading ideas, to class facts, and arrange them under different heads ; ♦Dr Knox. 326 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. so that the mind shall be able at one view to recall the outlines of the whole science, and af- terwards to pa^ss to the inferior branches, or sub- divisions. The ancients formed their memories almost entirely by this method; and indeed memory can never be useful without system 3. Never commit mere words to memory as substitutes for true knowledge. Many a young person forgets what he has been taught because he never understood it. This is the true reason why boys make so wretched a proficiency in attaining the Latin language, unde/ masters who give them page after page of old Lilly to com- mit to memory, without the occurrence of a question or an explanation. In this manner they are also taught their catechisms, the ideas in which are infinitely above their comprehen- sion. The first thing which strikes us, in looking over Dr. Franklin's works, is the variety of his observations on different subjects. We might imagine, that a very tenacious and powerful memory was necessary to register them ; but Dr. Franklin informs us, that it was his con- stant practice to note down every thing as it occurred to him : he urges his friends to do the same ; he observes, that there is scarcely a day IMPROVEMENT OF MEMORY. 22\ passes without our hearing or seeing something, which, if properly attended to, might lead to useful discoveries. By thus committing his ideas to writing, his mind was left at liberty to think. No extraordinary effort of memory was, even on the greatest occasions, requisite.* On the whole, the most effectual way to ac- quire a good memory is by constant and mo- derate exercises of it ; for the memory, like other habits, is strengthened and improved by daily use. It is scarcely credible to what a de- gree both active and passive memory may be improved by long practice. ScaHger reports of himself that in his youth he could repeat above one hundred verses, having but once read them ; and Boethius declares, that he wrote his comment on Claudian without consulting the text. The extraordinary memory of Ma- gliabechi is well known. That of Jediah Bux- ton was of a peculiar kind ; so long was it habituated to numbers, that it could fix on nothing else. To hope, however, for such de- grees of memory as these, would be equally vain as to hope for the strength of Hercules, or the swiftness of Achilles. There are clergy* * Chiefly by Miss Edgeworth. 28* 328 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. men who can get a sermon by heart in tw« hours, though their memory when they began to exercise it, was rather weak than strong : and pleaders, with other orators, who can speak in public extempore, often discover, in calling in- stantly to mind all the knowledge necessary on the present occasion, and every thing of im- portance which may have been advanced in the course of a long debate, such powers of reten- tion and recollection as, to the man who has never been obliged to exert himself in the same manner, are altogether astonishing. As habits, in order to be strong, must be formed in early life, the memories of children should therefore be constantly exercised ; but to oblige them to commit to memory what they do not under* stand, prevents their faculties, and gives them a dislike to learning. In a word, those who have most occasion for memory, as orators and pub- lic speakers, should not suffer it to lie idle, but constantly employ it in treasuring up and fre~ quently reviving such things as may be of most importance to them ; for by these means, it will be more at their command, and they may place greater confidence in it on any emergency.* * The Idler. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. £29 CHAPTER XI. THE MECHANIC'S STUDIES CONTINUED. Natural Philosophy is commonly defined to be that art or science which considers the powers and properties of natural bodies, and their mutual action on each other. Moral Philosophy relates to whatever concerns the mind and intellect; Natural Philosophy, on the other hand, is only concerned with the material part of the creation. The moralist's business is to inquire into the nature of virtue, the causes and effects of vice, to propose remedies for it, and to point out the mode of attaining happiness. The naturalist, on the contrary, has nothing to do with spirit ; his business is confined to body or matter. The first and principal part of this science is to collect all the manifest and sensible appearances of things, and reduce them into a body of Natural History. Natural Philosophy differs from Natural History in its appropriated sense, the business of the latter is only to observe the appearance of natural bodies separately, and from these 330 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. appearances to class them with other bodies to which they are allied. Natural Philosophy goes farther, and recites the action of two 01 more bodies upon each other ; and though it can neither investigate nor point out the causes of those effects, whatever they be, yet from mathematical reasoning combined with expe- rience, it can be demonstrated, that in such cir- cumstances such effects must always take place Natural Philosophy, till lately, has been di- vided into four parts, commonly called the fom branches, viz. — 1. Mechanics ; 2. Hydrostatics ; 3. Optics ; and 4. Astronomy ; and these again subdivided into many parts. Modern discove- ries have added, however, two more parts, viz., 1. Magnetism; 2. Electricity and Galvanism. Every one is acquainted with the benefits derived from the sciences of Mechanics, Hydrostatics, and Hydraulics, to which we are indebted for many useful inventions. Among these are wind and water mills, aqueducts, pumps, fire engines, steam engines, &c, &c. Pneumatics supply, even to a superficial en- quirer, much instruction and amusement. Sure- ly all are interested in the nature and properties of a fluid which is necessary to every moment of our existence. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 33 How great would have been the surprise of the ancients, could they have conceived the effects which are now produced by the reflection and refraction of light ! By a skilful management of these properties, telescopes, and various optical instruments are constructed. Objects too remote to be perceived by the naked eye, are enlarged and rendered visible. The satel- lites of Jupiter and Saturn, the mountains and cavities in the moon, and the changes which take place on the sun's disc, are thus discover- ed, and afford subject for admiration and in- quiry. Neither is the delightful scene of Optics confined to the contemplation of distant objects. Minute animals, the vessels of plants, and, in short, a new world in miniature is disclosed to our view by the microscope, and an inexhaus- tible fund of rational entertainment and know- ledge is brought within the spere of our senses. Of all the sciences to which geometry im- parts the solidity of its principles, and the clearness of its proofs, the most beautiful and the most sublime is Astronomy. This is per- haps the most exact and most definite part of natural philosophy : for it rectifies the errors of sight, with respect to the apparent motions of the planets ; explains the just dimensions, 332 THE YOUi\G MECHANIC relative distances, due order, and exact propor- tions of the spherical bodies, which compose the solar system. Nor is it even confined to these great objects of nature, since it opens the stupendous prospect of other suns, and other systems of planets, scattered over the bound- less fields of space, and moving in obedience to their respective laws. It marks out their particular places, assigns their various names, and classes all the systems of worlds in their respective constellations. The calculations of astronomy prove the certainty of the future phenomena of the heavenly bodies, when the eccentric comet will reappear, after having tra- versed the most distant regions of the heavens, or at what point of time the bright luminaries of day and night will be immersed in the par- tial, or total darkness of an eclipse. CHEMISTRY. As soon as man begins to think, and to rea- son, the different objects which surround him on all sides naturally engage his attention. \fter being astonished at the wonders of the atmospheric and higher regions, he cannot fail -o be struck with the number, diversity, and oeauty of those on earth, and naturally feels a CHEMISTRY 335 desire to be better acquainted with their proper- ties and uses. If he reflect also, that he him- self is altogether dependent on these objects, not merely for his pleasures and comforts, but for his very existence, this desire must become irresistible. Hence that curiosity, that eager thirst for knowledge, which animates and dis- tinguishes generous minds. As a science, chemistry is intimately con- nected with all the phenomena of nature ; the causes of rain, snow, hail, dew, wind, earth- quakes ; even the changes of the seasons can never be explored with any chance of success while we are ignorant of chemistry : and the vegetation of plants, and some of thfl most im- portant functions of animals, have received all their illustration from the same source. No study can give us more exalted ideas of the wisdom and goodness of the eternal cause than this. As an art, it is intimately connected with all our manufactures : the glass-blower, the potter, the smith, and every other worker in metals ; the tanner, the soap-maker, the dyer, the bleacher, are practical chemists ; and the most essential improvements have been intro- duced into all these arts by the progress which chemistry has made as a science. Agriculture 334 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. can only be improved rationally, and certainly by calling in the assistance of chemistry ; and the advantages which medicine has derived from the same source, are too obvious to be pointed out.* NATURAL HISTORY. I am convinced, says Rousseau, that at all times of life, the study of nature abates the taste for frivolous amusements, prevents the tumult of the passions, and provides the mind with a nourishment which is salutary, by filling t with objects most worthy of its contempla tion. Of all the studies in which the minds o? youth may be employed, none, perhaps, deservi more strongly to be recommended, than thos* of natural history and physics. The object* on which they are occupied being such as com' under the cognizance of our senses, they ar v more easily comprehended by the juvenile up derstanding, than the refinements of grammar o! the abstract ideas of moral philosophy : ?• the same time, they afford an inexhaustible tunc' i\' entertainment; and their great utility rr * Thomson's Chemistry. NATURAL HISTORY. 33s sivery situation in life is universally acknow ledged.* It is the glorious privilege of man, while other animals are confined within the limits which instinct has prescribed, to carry his servationa beyond his own immediate wai and to contemplate the universe at large. He extends his inquiries to all the objects which sin round him; exercises his judgment, and in- forms his understanding, by ascertaining their nature, properties, and uses. In the various branches of mathematics, in the abstract specu- lations of metaphysics, or in searching the re- cords of history, he is solely intent on the opera- tions of his own mind, or the actions of him- self and his fellow creatures : but in the study of nature, he examines every object presented to his senses, and takes a general survey of the wide and interesting prospect of the creation. The earth he treads, the ocean he crosses, the air he breathes, the starry heavens on which he gazes, the mines and caverns he explores, all present to him abundant materials for his ic- searches. And, when thus employed, he is engaged in a manner peculiarly suitable to his * Preface to Pleasinir Pieccptor. 29 336 sG MECHANIC. faculties, since he alone is capable of know- ledge, he alone is distingiflshed by the power of admiration, and exalted by the faculty of reason. The terraqueous globe presents a most glorious and most sublime prospect, equally worthy of the capacity of man to contemplate, and beautiful to his eye to behold. And the treasures of nature, which this prospect com- prehends, are so rich and inexhaustible, that they may furnish employment for his greatest di- ligence, stimulated by the most ardent curiosity and assisted by the most favourable opportuni- ties. At the same time that she solicits him to follow her, not only in her open walks, but likewise to explore her secret recesses, she fails not to reward him with the purest gratifications of the mind, because at every step he takes, new instances of beauty, variety, and perfection are unfolded to his view. The study of the works of nature is in itself capable of affording the most refined pleasure, and the most edifying instruction. All the ob- jects with which we are surrounded, the small- est as well as the greatest, teach us some useful lesson. All of them speak a language directed to man, and to man alone. Their evident ten- dency to some determined cjh!, marks the de NATURAL HISTORY. 337 sign of a great Creator. The volume of crea- tion contains the objects of arts, science, and philosophy, and is open to the inspection of all the inhabitants of the globe.- Nature speaks by her works an universal language, the rudi- ments of which are peculiarly adapted to the inclination and capacity of the young, whose curiosity may be gratiiied and excited by turns ; but more profound and extensive inquiries are suitable to the contemplation of persons of every age ; and no subjects can be more worthy of their attentive observation.* A walk in the fields, after reading a little in natural history, may furnish opportunities of important instruction. The hills, the dales, and quarries afford matter of speculation on their formation, use, and beauty. And this may be rendered intelligible to a child, by a person who really understands the subject, and is not a mere pedant who has only committed techni- cal words to memory. So in all probability may every branch of real knowledge. Those branches which are now lost to common sense by calculations and mathematical processes, are not always, if they be ever understood by those * Mr. Kelt's Elements. 338 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. who profess to understand them. Every tiling which is not applicable to use, and the applica- tion of which cannot be made obvious to com- mon sense, is gothic jargon, and not science , and people who glory in such acquisitions have not a clear and good idea of what constitutes real knowledge. This explains the problem, why, in the present state of learning, there are no plain, intelligible, and easy methods of teach- ing the sciences, and so few good elementary books. The reason is, that the sciences are not generally and thoroughly understood. Every man can easily teach another what he perfectly understands himself. But if half his terms be merely technical, and he can give no definitions of them which convey ideas, it is no wonder that learning is difficult, as it is always painful to commit to memory words which have no meaning j and all the progress made upon such foundations is ever attended with that anxiety and anguish, which have so strongly marked the countenances of our philosophers. In the same manner as the general truths ot natural history might be occasionally exemplified in the fields, many of the mathematic, astronomic, and particularly the mechanic problems, migh* be examined in a walk. This would not onl) NATURAL HISTORY. ►39 6e ^esent instruction, but bring the pupil into a habit of having an object and a view in every action. He would not then experience the common unhappiness of not knowing what to do with himself; or when he has determined on a walk or a ride, be miserable for want of being able to determine where to g A or witii what object to engage his thoughts * 340 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. CHAPTER XII. THE MECHANIC'S STUDIES CONTINUED HISTORY. Curiosity is one of the strongest and mosl active principles of human nature. Through- out the successive stages of life, it seeks with avidity for those gratifications, which are con- genial with the different faculties of the mind. The child, as soon as the imagination begins to open, eagerly listens to the tales of his nurse : the youth, at a time of life, when the love of wliat is new and uncommon is quickened by sensibility, is enchanted by the magic of ro- mances and novels : the man, whose mature judgment inclines him to the pursuit of truth, applies to genuine history, which even in old age continues to be a favourite object of his at- tention ; since his desire to be acquainted witli the transactions of others has nearly an equal power over his mind with the propensity to relate what has happened to himself History, considered with respect to the nature v,f its subjects, may be divided into general and HISTORY. 34] particular; and with respect to time, into an- cient and modern. Ancient history commences with the creation, and extends to the reign of Charlemagne, in the year of our Lord 800. Modern history, beginning with that period, readies down to the present times. General history relates to nations and public affairs, and may be subdivided into sacred, ecclesiastical, and profane. Biography, memoirs, and letters, constitute particular history. Statistics refer to the present condition of nations. Geography and Chronology are important aids, and give order, regularity and clearness to them all. To draw the line of proper distinction be- tween authentic and fabulous history, is the first object of the discerning reader. Let him not burden his memory with events which ought perhaps to pass for fables; let him not fatigue his attention with the progress of em- pires, or the succession of kings, which are thrown back into the remotest ages. He will find that little dependence is to be placed upon the relations of those affairs in the Pagan woild, which precede the invention of letters, and were built upon mere oral tradition. Let him leave the dynasties of the Egyptian kings, the expeditions of Sesostris, Bacchus, and Jason, 342 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. and the exploits of Hercules and Theseus, foT poets to embellish, or chronologists to arrange. The fabulous accounts of these heroes of anti- quity may remind him of the sandy deserts, lofty mountains, and frozen oceans, which arc laid down in the maps of the ancient geogra- phers, to conceal their ignorance of remote countries. Let him hasten to firm ground, where he may safely stand, and behold the striking events, and memorable actions, which the light of authentic records display to his view. They alone are amply sufficient to en- rich his memory, and to point out to him well attested examples of all that is magnanimous, as well as of all that is vile ; of all that debases, and all that ennobles mankind.* Unfortunately the study of history is not without its dangers and inconveniences of va- rious kinds. It is a very difficult matter to place one's self in such a point of view as to be able to judge equitably of our fellow crea- tures. It is one of the common vices of his- tory to paint man in a disadvantageous rather than in a favourable light. Revolutions and fatal catastrophes being most interesting, so long as a people have continued to increase and * Mr. Rett's Elements. HISTORY 34! prosper in the calm of a peaceab.e government history has remained silent ; it speaks of na- tions only when, growing insupportable to themselves, they begin to interfere with their neighbours, 01 to suffer their neighbours to in- terfere with them. We are favoured with very exact accounts of those nations which verge towards destruction ; but of those which have been flourishing, we have no history ; they have been so wise and happy as to furnish no events worth recording. The historical rela- tions of facts which we meet with, are by no means accurate delineations ; they change their aspect in the brain of the historian, they bend to his interest, and are tinctured by his preju- dices. What historian ever brought his reader to the scene of action, and laid the event cir cumstantially as it happened ? Ignorance and partiality disguise every thing. How easy it is to give a thousand varied appearances to the same facts, merely by a difference in the repre- sentation of circumstances. Exhibit an object in different points of view, and we scarcely be- lieve it to be the same, and yet nothing is changed, except the eye of the spectator. How often has it happened that a few trees, a hill on some of the most important events recorded in history, the reformation of religion, and the establishment of the Batavian republic. Mr. no 348 THE VOUNG MECHANIC Wraxall has filled up a chasm on the historical shelf, by his agreeable history of France; yet the student should not satisfy himself with that author's account of the age of Henry the Great, but inspect for himself the interesting and un- blemished pages of Sully ; and there are few scholars who will not find exquisite pleasure in the general history of the correct De Thou Yertot's Revolutions of Sweden and of Portu- gal, are both of them animated narratives of important events. Voltaire's Age of Louis the fourteenth and fifteenth, may be classed among original histories, though not of the first rank ; his Charles the Twelfth borders much on the romance. Dr. Robertson's History of America is a much admired composition. After such a course of reading, the student will not be ill prepared for the history of his own country. Hume's History is a bad compilation. Hume is, moreover, the avowed enemy of the two principles which conduce most to the happiness of mankind, leligion ana liberty; and he who makes hir.i the standard of his historical faith, will embrace numerous errors, arising not merely from design but from negligence. As a general history, Rapin's is preferable ; and if the state papers be passed over, it will not be HISTORY. 349 bund more voluminous than Hume. Perhaps better course of English historical reading would be to take Dr. Henry's History for the early periods ; from the conclusion of which he may proceed with Rapin to the date of Cla- rendon's History ; and, for the affairs of Scot- land, having recourse to the classical narrative of George Buchannan, and the elegant history of Queen Mary, by the accomplished Robert- son. Clarendon's History, with his life, are invaluable records ; but his statements will, in some instances, be corrected by Whitlock's Memorials, which every student of history ought to read, and by the plain and manly, but interesting Memoirs of the ill-treated Ludlow. Though Bishop Burnet's egotisms have been ridiculed by Pope, Arbuthnot and Swift, yet he will continue to be read by every one who wishes to inform himself correctly of the man- ners and circumstances of the times in which that excellent prelate and really candid writer lived. Mrs. Macaulay's history evidently fa- vours republicanism, but her narrative is pure, and she is scrupulously exact in producing evi- dence and authority for all her facts. The student of history should always read with a map of the country before him. A good 350 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. Biographical Dictionary is also an useful corn* panion in the study of history. Various plans have been recommended for connecting history with chronology in the mind ; the best method is perhaps to endeavour to fix in the memory the dates of some of the most remarkable events. The intermediate transactions will generally be found to have some link of association with the great events, and it will not be difficult to decide nearly on the date of any of them. There is, however, no better aid to the memo- ry than Dr. Priestley's Historical Chart.* On English History, the late Earl of Chatham thus wrote to his nephew. " If you have finished the abridgment of English History and of Burnet's History of the Reformation, I recommend to you next, before any other read- ing of history, Oldcastle's Remarks on the His- tory of England, by Lord Bolingbroke. Let me apprise you of one thing before you read them, and that is, that the author has bent some passages to make them invidious parallels to the times he wrote in ; therefore be aware of that, and depend, in general, on finding the truest constitutional doctrines; and that the •Mon. Mas. May, 1797. HISTORY. 35 facts of history, though warped, are no where falsified. I also recommend Nathaniel Bacon's Historical and F olitical Observations ; it is without exception, the best and most instruc- tive book we have on matters of that kind They are both to be read with attention, ana twice over ; Oldcastle s Remarks to be studied and almost got by heart, for the inimitable beauty of the style, as well as the matter. Ba- con for the matter chiefly, the style being un- couth, but the expression forcible and striking. " I desired you sometime since to read Cla- rendon's History of the Civil Wars. I have lately read a much honester and more instruc- tive book, of the same period of history; it is the History of the Parliament, by Thomas May, Esq. If you have not read Burnet's His- tory of his Own Times, 1 beg you will. " I suppose you are going through the bio- graphers, from Edward the Fourth downwards, nor intending to stop till you reach to the con- tinuator of honest Kapin. There is a little book which 1 never mentioned, Wei wood's Me- moirs ; I recommend it. Davis's Ireland must not on any account be omitted ; it is a great performance, a masterly work, and contains much depth and extensive knowledge in state 352 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. matters, and settling of countries, in a very short compass. I have met with a scheme of chronology by Blair, showing all contemporaiy historical characters, through all ages : it is of great use to consult frequently, in order to fir periods, and throw collateral light upon any- particular branch you are reading.*" 1 * Such is the recommendation of i hatham, a first rate authority. Among the historical works produced in our own country, Bancroft's History of the United States, 3 vols. 8vo., is entertaining and carefully written ; but it only brings the history down to a period shortly before the commencement of the Revolution. Frost's History of the United States, written for schools, brings it down to the year 1836. Prescott's Ferdinand and Isa- bella, and Irving's Columbus are delightful to read, and of the highest authority. BIOGRAPHY. Biography is a highly important branch of history. The biographer, by his accurate re- searches, supplies the deficiencies of the histo- rian. What the latter gives us only in outlines * Letters, passim. BIOGRAPHY. 353 and sketches, the former presents in more com- plete and highly finished portraits. Their pro- vince does not merely extend to those who have acted upon the great theatre of the world, as sovereigns, statesmen, and warriors ; but to all who have improved human life by theii useful discoveries, adorned it by their works of genius, and edified mankind by their exam- ples. With what pleasure do we select a Ba- con, a Boyle, a Newton, an Addison, a Locke, a RadclifTe, a Howard and a Hanway, from the multitudes which surround them, and become acquainted with their particular characters and conduct ! To contemplate such men, not in- flamed by vain ambition, or courting empty popularity, but seeking retirement, and giving dignity to the walks of private life by the efforts of genius, and the exertions of philanthropy, is a high gratification to the mind, and inspires it witli an admiration and a love of those vir- tues, which come within the reach of general imitation. No species of writing gives a more perfect insight into the minds of men, than their let- ters. We observe them as they thought in their retired moments, when, withdrawn from the bustle of the world, they o ave free scope to 354 T,IE YOUNG MECHANIC. their unrestrained opinions, and poured them without reserve, into the bosom of their friends. Among the numerous instances, which might be selected of epistolary excellence, we distin- guish the letters of Cicero, which display the sentiments of a vigorous mind, and give an in- sight into the eminent characters of his event- ful times. Pliny, in letters remarkable for neat- ness and precision of thought, expresses the dictates of a cultivated and generous mind. If we turn our attention to the epistolary litera- ture of our own country, we shall find that the piety and affection of Lady Russel, the quaint- ness and pleasantry of Howel, the manliness and political sagacity of Stafford, the philoso- phical exactness and cool judgment of Locke, the simplicity of Rundle, the moralizing vein of Johnson, and the taste and elegance of Gray, mark their respective letters with the strongest characters of originality, and give us the most pleasing pictures of their minds.* Besides the names above enumerated by Mr. Kett, the following may be added, as justly celebrated letter writers, viz. : Pope, Swift, Ad dison, Steele, Arbuthnot, Gay, Shenstone, Sterne, • Mr. Rett's Elements. BIOGRAPHY. 35,% Lyttleton, Lady Mary Wortley Montague, Rich- ardson, Chesterfield, Cowper, Sevigny, Mainte non, Burns, Lord Byron, and Horace Walpole Biography is, in general, a most pleasing as well as instructive branch of literature. When faithfully written it unveils man to man ; dis- covers the virtues and vices, the nobleness and meanness of which he is capable; and shows how the original sameness of human nature is varied by the operation of external causes into ten thousand different shapes, and assumes as many shades and hues. Man. to be known, must be viewed in every situation ; and when- ever he is fairly exhibited, whatever may have been his rank, station, or circumstances of birth or fortune, a valuable addition is made to sci ence. Whether the record respects the strug- gles of talents and worth through the chilling regions of obscurity and penury, up to the glittering eminences of fame and reward ; or whether it details the operations of pride and ambition on minds born to wealth and power; it presents an useful lesson, which those who are disposed to exertion and virtue will nol lead in vain.* * Mon. Rev. 30* 356 TIIE YOUNG MECHANIC. J would begin the study of the human heart, says Rousseau, by reading the lives of particu- lar men ; for there the hero conceals not him- self for a moment. The biographer pursues him into the most secret recesses, and exposes him to the piercing eye of the spectator ; he is best known when he believes himself most concealed. I confess the genius of a people is very different from that of man considered as an individual, and that we shall be imperfectly acquainted with mankind if we neglect the study of the multitude ; but it is also true, that we must begin by studying man in order to know mankind ; and that if we know the pro- pensities of each individual it will not be diffi- cult to foresee their effects when combined in the body of the people. The lives of kings may be written and rewritten, but we shall never see another Suetonius. Plutarch's excel- lence consists chiefly in those very minutiae into which we dare not enter. There is an inimitable gracefulness in his manner of paint- ing great men engaged in trivial employments, ard he is so happy in the choice of his inci- dents, that frequently a single word, a smile, a gesture, is sufficient to characterize his hero. Marshal Turenne was incontestably oj»e of the BIOGRAPHY. 357 greatest men of the age in which he lived. The writer of his life has had the resolution to ren- der it interesting by relating some minute par ticulars which make his hero known and be loved ; but how many was he obliged to sup- press, which would have taught us Co know and love him still more! I shall instance one which I had from good authority, and which Plutarch would by no means have omitted, but which Ramsay, if he had known it, would not have dared to relate. The Marshal happened, one hot day, to be looking out at the window of his anlichamber in a white waistcoat and night cap. A servant entering the room, was deceived by his dress, and mistook him for one of his under cooks. He crept softly behind him, and gave him a violent slap on the breech. The Marshal instantly turned about, and the fellow, frightened out of his senses, beheld the face of his master : down he fell on his knees. " Oh ! my lord ! I thought it was George !" " And suppose it had been George," replied the Marshal, rubbing his back, " you ought not to have struck quite so hard." There are few people capable of conceiving the effect which reading, thus directed, would have on young minds. 53 T1IJ3 YOUNG MECHANIC. The i% American Biography" of Mr Sparks, in ten volumes, is a work of great merit. It foims a part of Harper's School Library in which may be found many other biographical works jf our own countrymen as well as o/ distinguished foreigner*. ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN GENERAL 359 CHAPTER XIII. THE MECHANIC'S STUDIES CONTINUED ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN GENERAL. A proper degree of attention should always oe paid to what are called the accomplishments of life, but they should never supersede for a moment more useful studies. Every occupa- tion should be estimated according to its future utility, and as those points which are deemed essential to the demeanour of a gentleman should not be neglected, and demand but a small portion of time to acquire, a pupil should be early and properly attended by the best masters in the several departments of drawing, music, horsemanship, and dancing. These ac- complishments, and the art of swimming, give a suppleness to the limbs, a grace of action, and an elegance of address and fine taste which always obtain the favourable preposses- sion of the company to whom a person may be introduced ; but talents and virtues complete the conquest of affection, and convert the pass- 360 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. mg applause of the human race into a solid and durable esteem. A copious selection, says Mr. Yorke, from the excellent letters of Lord Chesterfield to his son, are always before my pupil, which inspire him with a laudable desire of uniting to the character of a man of knowledge, the accom- plishments of a gentleman. The object of in- struction is to make men better, not to embrute them. Whatever, therefore, is deemed auxiliary to such a disposition, should be encouraged. No evil can arise from an easy address, or from agreeable manners. Politeness is the handmaid of civilization ; perhaps it may be shown to be the attendant on virtue. Whatever means, therefore, are judged expedient to furnish the opportunity of exhibiting this amiable quality, are commendable, and ought to be adopted. ] allude, in this instance, to genuine politeness, not to that false affectation of good manners, which consists in foppery and a servile imitation of die servile manners of the great, and of men of honour, as, by a strange perversion of lan- guage, they are improperly called. The term great man, is so equivocal, says Dr. Beattie, that I will have nothing to do with it. The yilest scoundrel on earth, if possessed of a ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN GENERAL. 3(3 \ crown or a title, immediately commences great man, when he has with impunity perpetrated any extraordinary act of wickedness ; murder- ed fifty thousand men, robbed all the houses in half a dozen provinces, or dexterously plun- dered his own country to defray the expense of a ruinous war, formed to satiate his avarice. The term honour is also of dubious import. According to the notions of the present times, a man may sell his country, murder his friend, pick the pocket of his fellow sharper, and em- ploy his whole life in seducing others to vice and perdition, and yet be accounted a man of honour; provided he be accustomed to speak certain words, wear certain clothes, and haunt certain company. To the pernicious influence of this unnatural law of honour the just senti- ments of Archdeacon Paley may be applied. tt It is a law," says he, " which, being consti- tuted by men occupied in the pursuit of plea- sure, and for the mutual convenience of such men, will be found, as might be expected from the character and design of the law makers, to be, in most instances, favourable to the licen- tious indulgence of the natural passions. Thus ; it allows of fornication, adultery, drunkenness, prodigality, duelling, and revenge in the *x- 3(}2 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. treme ; and lays no stress upon the virtues op- posite to these." If any additional supports were necessary in behalf of the argument that bodily accom- plishments may be considered as a component part of the happiness and perfection of man, we might introduce the powerful authorities of Mr. Locke and Dr. Watts, who have applauded this mode of instruction, when limited to such views. The latter was a man of singular piety, modesty, and uprightness ; the former was as much distinguished for the elegance of his manners, as for his knowledge of the world, and his deep insight into the powers of the human mind. TASTE. Taste is that power, which the mind pos^ sesses, of relishing the beauties found in the works of nature and art. Say what is Taste, but the internal powers, Active and strong, and feelingly alive To each fine impulse 1 a discerning sense, Of decent and sublime, with quick disgust From th : lgs deform'd. It has been alleged that Taste is a natural talent as independent of art as strong eyes, or a deb TASTE. 363 cate sense of smelling ; and, without all doubt, the principal ingredient in the composition of taste is a natural sensibility, without which it cannot exist; but it differs from the senses in this particular, that they are finished by nature ; whereas taste cannot be brought to perfection without proper cultivation : for taste pretends to judge not only of nature, but also of art; and that judgment is founded upon observation and comparison. Though nature should have done her part, by implanting the seeds of taste, great pains must be taken, and great skill exerted, in raising them to a proper pitch of vegetation. The judicious tutor must gradually and tenderly unfold the mental faculties of the youth com- mitted to his charge. He must cherish his delicate perception ; store his mind with proper ideas ; point out the different channels of ob- servation ; teach him to compare objects ; to establish the limits of right and wrong, of truth and falsehood ; to distinguish beauty from tin- sel, and grace from affcctatioa \ in a word, to Strengthen and improve by culture, experience, and instruction, those natural powers of sensi- bility and sagacity, which constitute the faculty 31 361 THE YC TJNG MECHANIC called taste, and enable the possessor to enjoy the delights of elegant learning.* I do not call taste a species of judgment, although it be actually that part of judgment, whose objects are the sublime, beautiful and affecting; because this kind of judgment is not the result of reason and comparison, like a mathematical inference, but is perceived instan- taneously, and obtruded on the mind, like sweet and bitter on the sense, from which analogy it has borrowed the name of taste.f Taste presides with supreme authority over all the elegant arts. There are none so low in their subserviency to the uses of mankind, as not to afford subjects for its decisions. It ex- tends its influence to dress, furniture, and equip- age ; but presides, as in its most distinguished and eminent provinces, over poetry, eloquence, painting, architecture, sculpture, and music ; because among them genius takes its unbound- ed range, and exerts its fullest power. Taste is derived from the concurrent voices of men of various ages and nations, possessed of en- larged and cultivated understandings, who have iurveyed the works of genius with close atten * Goldsmith. -J- Usher's Clio. TASTE. 36 5 tion, and have recorded in animated descriptions the impressions made upon their minds. This authority has stamped its approbation upon works which have obtained the general ap- plause of all ages and countries, and must still continue to produce a similar effect, so long as the intellectual powers of man remain the same ; so long as his imagination and sensibility are capable of being affected by all which is beau tiful, pathethic and sublime. The advance of national taste is similar to the progress of taste from childhood to man- hood. When the attention of an unpolished people is first directed to works of art, they are captivated by mere novelty ; and the rudest paintings and most unpolished verses obtain their applause. In proportion as superior efforts of genius are made, the opinion of the judi- cious part of the public, at least, becomes more correct; and what at first delighted is finally rejected with disapprobation. As soon as comparisons are made between different pro- ductions of the same kind, true taste is brought into action, its decisions are called for, and the justness of its discriminations is universally acknowledged. The polished contemporaries of Horace blushed at the praises which then 3R6 THE YOUNG MECHANIC. ancestors had bestowed on the rude dialogues of Plautus, and were charmed with the polite and elegant comedies of Terence. The lower orders of society are disqualified from deciding on the merits of the fine arts ; and the department of taste is consequently confined to persons enlightened by education, and conversant with the world, whose views of nature, art, and mankind, are enlarged by an extensive range of observation, and elevated far above gross ignorance ^and vulgar prejudice.* The general rudiments of taste are to be ac- quired first by reading books, which treat pro- fessedly on the subject. Secondly, by select- ing and explaining beautiful passages in Shaks- peare, Johnson, Sterne, Sec. And lastly, by exhi- biting and explaining prints of beautiful objects, or casts of the best antique gems and meda- lions. Authors have divided the objects of taste into the sublime, the beautiful, and the new; but another sect of inquirers into this subject have lately added the picturesque ; which is supposed to differ from the beautiful by its want of smoothness, and from the sublime, from its want of size.f ♦ Mr. H. KetL f See Essay on the Picturesque, by U. Price, Es^. TASTE. ^g") Others have endeavoured to make a distinc lion between beauty and grace, and have e» teemed them a kind of rivals for the possession of the human heart. By grace may be defined beauty in action ; for a sleeping beauty cannot be called graceful, in whatever attitude she may recline ; the muscles must be in action to pro duce a graceful attitude, and the limbs to pro- duce a graceful motion.* Taste, says Lord Kaimes, is one of our facu 1 ties which is the slowest in its progress toward, maturity ; and yet may receive some improve ment during the course of domestic education Compare with your pupils two poems on the same subject, or two passages. Take the lead in pointing out beauties and blemishes, in the sim- plest manner. Aft^r s