Author 
 
 
 "AW.*'! 
 
 Title 
 
 Imprint 
 
 16—47372-3 
 
 '■A. 
 

 
THE 
 
 SCHOOL METHODS 
 
 BOOK 
 
 Methods, Aids, Devices, Material 
 
 for the Help of Teachers of 
 
 Elementary School 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Publisher: 
 
 Geo. W. Jones, Publisher School Century 
 
 Oak Park, Illinois. 
 
 Copyright applied for 
 August, 1917 
 
t. , 
 
 -v 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 AUG -6 1917 
 
 ©CU47;j(;58 
 
MAKING THE SCHOOL PROGRAM 
 
 Christiana Mount, Grade Critic Teacher, New Jersey 
 
 It is somewhat surprising, in dealing with teachers of that may be easily performed by the pupils, i. e., distri- 
 
 graded schools, to find how little interest they take in bution of materials, cleaning the boards, etc. 
 
 the work of grades other than their own. The country 8. The program should be hung in some conspicuous 
 
 teacher, with every grade from the first to the eighth to place or it should have a place on the blackboard, 
 
 teach, altho at some disadvantage, is able to view the 9. Children in- the first grade (beginners) should not 
 
 child's school career as a whole and to form a more just be confined in school longer than four hours, two and 
 
 estimate of the importance of this or that portion of it. one-half hours in the forenoon and one and one-half 
 
 The grade teacher, whose whole outlook is focused on hours in the afternoon. They should be dismissed 
 
 the fifth year or the third year, is liable to have ex- earlier. 
 
 aggerated sense of its importance, if she does not indeed, Five hours will be sufficient for children in the second 
 
 regard it as the only period in the whole school course and third grades. The good received in any day by 
 
 when the cliild has chance to learn something. school children is determined by the amount of, and 
 
 She should change her grade whenever she can in quality of efTort they can put into their work. This 
 
 order to get a broader outlook of her work, and she amount and quality of effort are limited by their power of 
 
 should at least know the work of the grade above and mental and physical endurance under the restraints of 
 
 below, school life. It is questionable whether a school day of 
 
 No invariable rules can be laid down for the making of ^l"" ^°."" f Profitable for. children of any age unless 
 
 a program for a school with several grades. The particu- ^''"'^ '^ ^ '"^^ amount of manual work, unless all of 
 
 lar program must be made in view of the particular con- "^? preparation work is done m school, 
 
 ditions that each such school presents. Some general ^.^ '^ ^ good plan to devote the last twenty minutes to 
 
 principles mav be stated, however, that mav be us^eful as '^'"'' ''"'^y- ^^" ™'" '^'^'J^ concentration, 
 
 guides . ■ n • , FIRST DAY 
 
 . . Be in the room ready to receive pupils. 
 
 1. Few recitations should be given as little as ten jf ^ pj^t Grade, have a couple of older pupils to take 
 minutes of actual recitation time. In subjects that re- ^^g g^^j ]^^„„ wraps 
 
 quire discussion, particularly in the upper grades, twenty Learning 'pupils' names. 
 
 to thirty minutes should De assigned tor a recitation. jf ^^^^ ^^ district does not supply cards, have ready 
 
 This would mean ample provi.sion for seat work for the ^^^,-,^ ^i^nks arranged as follows: 
 
 other grades. Name 
 
 2. In making out a program, provide tor "between Age — -■- 
 
 times." Do not have the program assign ten minutes to Address >. 
 
 an exercise when five minutes of this time are regularly Parents' name .— 
 
 taken in going to and from class, in looking over the Date of birth 
 
 work of other pupils, etc. When vaccinated 
 
 3. In an ungraded school more liberal allowance These cards may be used for calling upon the pupils 
 should be made for "between times" to properly super- until the teacher is sure of their names. 
 
 vise the work being done by the pupils who arc studying. If first grade, where pupils come alone, cards may be 
 
 In fact, a ten minute period may profitably be devoted sent home to parents to fill out. 
 
 two or three times a day to such oversiglu and assist- Second grade may fill out a part of card. 
 
 ance. Third and grades above should be able to supply in- 
 
 4. The program should be workable and rigidly ad- formation. 
 
 hered to. The most valuable habits that a school can 1. Make a plan of room. Write pupils' names in 
 
 and should establish are the habits of promptness and proper places. 
 
 regularity in the doing of v.ork. School should begin 2. Write names on small slips. 
 
 promptly on time, close promptly on time, if possible, 3. Pin slips on pupils (if you need such aid in learn- 
 
 and the schedule for the day should be regularly carried ing names of pupils). 
 
 out. Supervisors may be of great help here in advising 4. Or write names on paper and paste on desk. 
 
 Avith the teacher to the end that a workable program be Make a beginning the first day. This gives the pupils 
 
 arranged. a sense of obligation. 
 
 5. The program should be planned so that the work Have morning exercises no matter how late — makes 
 of the school may go deliberately, without hurry, and an impression. 
 
 in a businesslike way. This can only be accomplished Always begin with "Good morning, children," a simple 
 
 by making a careful plan, and by selecting all materials act of courtesy. • 
 
 before school, and drilling in quick distribution or rapid Teach your own name. 
 
 passing of necessary materials. Require pupils to say "Yes Miss , No. 
 
 6. If the school day is five hours in length, the Miss " Sir and Ma'am are used when 
 
 teacher should arrange to be at her desk 'one-half or the name of the person addressed is unknown, 
 
 three-quarters of an hour before the opening of the If the use of the Bible is pcrrhitted in the school, read 
 
 school to make preparation for the day's work and to from it, preferably the Old Testament. A Bible story 
 
 give individual assistance. It is a good custom to dis- is best of all — Schaefcr's or Baldwin's or Felix Adler's 
 
 miss occasionally those who do not need help" one-half Moral Instruction (D. C. Applelon Co., N. Y.) will lie 
 
 hour earlier in the afternoon and give extra help to of great assistance. 
 
 those who need it. Many teachers require the older Recite The Lord's Prayer or the poem, "Father ^\'c 
 
 pupils to attend earlier,' so that they may receive the ' Thank Thee." 
 
 necessary attention when their minds are more plastic. If the pupils are new repeat the w^ords of some simple 
 
 7. The care of the register and other clerical work song, then have the music played for them once or twice 
 should not be done in school hours. so that they get the air. Tell them they are to have 
 
 The teacher should not perform any mechanical work words and music next day. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 MORNING TALK FOR SEPTEMBER 
 
 Subjects — Never be ashamed of your work if it is hon- 
 est; be ashamed of the way you do your work. 
 
 Or cleanliness. 
 
 Cleanliness — A person lacks respect towards school 
 and others when he is dirty. In the yard. In the lava- 
 tory. 
 
 A memory gem — 
 
 The clock's quiet voice says 
 Tick, tick, tick, 
 
 Do what you're told 
 And be quick, quick, quick. 
 OTHER SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Cut numbers from calendar and paste one beside each 
 hook in closet and on each desk. 
 
 First grade pupils may not recognize these numbers 
 at first, but will soon learn. 
 
 Pupils should be told to use their own lavatories be- 
 fore coming to school. This lessens the need for fre- 
 quent leaving room. To use the school lavatories at 
 recess. 
 
 Show them their proper stations in yard. 
 
 Have a calendar on an unused board with a quotation. 
 
 Ask pupils to note the weather each day. Make a 
 sun for clear weather. 
 
 Umbrella — rain. 
 
 Mittens — cold. 
 
 Snowflakes — snow. 
 
 Raindrops — rain. 
 
 Kite — wind. 
 
 Older pupils may observe the wind and temperature. 
 
 U. S. Weather bureau will send cloud pictures on 
 application. 
 
 MONITORS 
 
 Little pupils like to be busy and taking charge of 
 something gives a sense of responsibility. Need watch- 
 ing as they are untrained. 
 
 Take monitors from alphabetical list. This does away 
 with favoritism and gives every one a chance. 
 
 Change once a month. 
 
 Deprive naughty pupils of the privilege. 
 
 The teacher should never do any work which the pupils 
 can be trained to do, i. e., distributing papers, erasing 
 boards, etc. 
 
 Paper Monitors. 
 
 Pencil and Pens — Each pencil numbered. 
 
 Do not allow pencils to be sharpened during school 
 hours. Each pupil should have two. 
 
 Keep a box of pencils on the desk. 
 
 If pupils' pencils should becomti worn or broken ex- 
 change for one from the box. It is an easy matter to 
 sterilize by some disinfectant beforf returning to box. 
 
 Waste Basket Monitors. 
 
 Ink-monitor — Ink wells half full of ink. Add a few 
 drops of water each day. Wash on Friday. Fill on Mon- 
 day. 
 
 Book Monitor — Distributes, collects, examines books, 
 reports those who have defaced then.. 
 
 Older pupils attend to ventilation and take tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 MAKING THE SCHOOL PLAN 
 
 Christiana Mount, Grade 
 
 _ There are five formal steps in teaching; the prepara- 
 tion, presentation, generalization, summary and applica- 
 tion. 
 
 _ The making of the plan is the first step in the prepara- 
 tion work of the teacher. Many teachers do not believe 
 in a plan. They have a program of the day's work and 
 follow it mechanically. The architect or engineer who 
 attempted a piece of work without carefully planning it 
 would meet with poor results. The average teacher does 
 not know how to make a plan. She confuses a program 
 with a plan. The magazines say very little about it. 
 If_ there is nothing new in material or method, teaching 
 will lack interest to the pupil and teacher. Old plans 
 cannot be used as the subject matter grows, e. g. history; 
 it changes because of new discoveries, wars, develop- 
 ments of countries. The children's experiences vary. 
 Some classes have excellent home conditions; others 
 have_ only apologies for a home. The class that is poor 
 in arithmetic needs twice as much time for that particular 
 subject; children in foreign districts need more time for 
 language and reading. 
 
 Some one has said that "Dirt is misplaced matter." If 
 that be so, disorder is misplaced activity. A well ar- 
 ranged plan is a foe to disorder. The teacher who plans 
 her work is less mechanical. She saves time, for she 
 knows exactly what she is to do. She knows what 
 materials she needs, and selects them before school. 
 She passes from one lesson to another without loss of 
 time; nothing is omitted. She has confidence in herself 
 and her pupils have confidence in her. The plan is of 
 the greatest value to the substitute. It enables her to 
 continue the teacher's work and aids in controlling the 
 children, as they soon learn that she requires the regular 
 work from them. The best teacher feels the necessity 
 of a daily plan. 
 
 There is a great difference between the program, the 
 plan and the progress book. 
 
 The program is a brief arrangement of the day's work, 
 with the time. For example: 
 
 (This program is for a class in a graded school. For 
 
 Critic Teacher, New Jersey 
 
 an ungraded rural school there will be more recitations 
 and shorter periods for recitations.) 
 
 9-9: IS — Morning Exercises. 
 
 9: 15-9: 45 — Arithmetic. 
 
 9:45-9:55— Physical Training. 
 
 9:55-10: IS— Reading, etc., etc. 
 THE PLAN 
 
 9-9: 15 — Morning Exercises. 
 
 Bible (Old Testament) — Adam and Eve. 
 
 Morning Talk — Adam and Eve blamed each other. We 
 often blame others for our sins. No one can make us 
 do wrong but ourselves. 
 
 Memory Gem — "I am the Captain of myself." 
 
 Song — "September." 
 
 Arithmetic — Concrete problems, oral development, 
 read, find known, unknown, process, statement, analysis. 
 
 The plan continues in this way, stating manner of 
 presenting work and material needed. 
 
 The progress book states the amount of work covered 
 up to date. 
 
 It is not safe to trust to a sudden inspiration instead 
 of a carefully prepared plan. The teacher must prepare 
 her questions, decide upon the materials to be used, and 
 obtain the necessary references. 
 
 The elements of a plan include a thoro knowledge of 
 the subject, the difficulties to be encountered, organiza- 
 tion and collection of materials to arouse thought, pro- 
 vide for good questions. Provision should be made for 
 the assignment of the next lesson. 
 
 The foundation of the plan is the course of study. 
 It presents the work of all grades, the amount of ground 
 to be covered, the arrangement of subjects and relations 
 between them. 
 
 The term plan states the amount, xjrder and time limit 
 of each study. 
 
 The daily plan gives the date, name of recitation, time, 
 aim, association, method of presentation and states 
 whether the work is to be oral or written. 
 
 The purpose of the plan gives the first preparation, 
 i. e., the manner of studying. It selects the main and 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 difficult points and decides upon the way in which these 
 are to be presented to the pupils. 
 
 The Recitation — This provides for a review, presenta- 
 tion of new matter, and drill. 
 
 It is impossible to set a time limit for the first days 
 of school, but definite work should be planned. 
 
 It is well to take the oral, the new, the difficult work 
 first, as the mind is receptive during the first hours of 
 the day. Lessons such as writing and the collection of 
 materia! should be given before recess or dismissal. The 
 work should be so planned that there is a change of 
 position, thus bringing different sets of muscles into 
 play. Oral work requires sitting and standing, therefore 
 the next lesson should be a written one. There should 
 be a rest period between each lesson. This may consist 
 of physical training, deep breathing, a song, motion 
 poem, recitation or simple rising and stretching. The 
 ideal way is for the pupils to leave the room at the 
 close of each hour. This gives an opportunity for a 
 thoro ventilation of the room, serves as a rest for the 
 pupils, and enables them to attack their studies with 
 renewed vigor. 
 
 Ventilation — The room should be ventilated thoroly 
 before the pupils enter. The air. in a room thus ven- 
 tilated remains purer longer than in a room ventilated 
 after the pupils enter. All windows opened a little from 
 the top and bottom, with the additional ventilating 
 boards, in the cold months, will provide purer air than 
 one window open all the way. 
 
 Seat Work — There should be ample seat work pro- 
 vided for the pupils, so that they may begin work as 
 soon as they enter the room. This lessens the necessity 
 for discipline and affords ample opportunity for drill. 
 Care should be taken that this seat work prepares for the 
 new lesson, drills on the old, or promotes mental devel- 
 opment. 
 
 In every healthy child there is an immense fund of 
 energy. If this is not directed into proper channels, it 
 will overflow into endless forms of mischief. Work 
 that is assigned with no purpose beyond keeping pupils 
 out of mischief is worse than useless. It wastes the time 
 and effort of the pupils. A child busy with legitimate 
 work becomes interested and learns habits of mental 
 discipline. 
 
 For the beginners the seat work may consist of match- 
 ing colors, words or sticks of same length, serving, 
 laying patterns, measuring. 
 
 The older pupils may build words by associating 
 phonograms with key letters, as sing, wring, thing, etc., 
 or drilling on the difficult combinations of addition, mul- 
 tiplication and subtraction. Present these in as many 
 ways as possible. 
 
 The First Month — In making a plan for the first 
 
 month, at least one-third of the work of the grade below 
 should be reviewed. This serves to recall the work to 
 the pupils, forms a basis for the new work, and assists 
 pupils who have come from other schools. 
 
 Correlate whenever possible. Every lesson should be 
 a language lesson. If a pupil is required to make a 
 complete statement each time he recites, his vocabulary 
 will be enlarged and correct habits of speech performed. 
 History, geography and reading should be associated. 
 
 In the rural school, hygiene, drawing and writing may 
 be given to the whole school at once. Written spelling 
 of several grades may also be given together. 
 
 Games — Simple games at recess serve to beget a 
 friendly feeling. In planning for these games, there 
 should be some educational principle, as for instance the 
 game "I saw." This provides for imitation, correct Eng- 
 lish, rapidity of action. All attempts at cheating should 
 be thoroly discouraged. The child who persists should 
 be barred from the game. Depriving of a privilege is 
 worth more to some children than a reproof. The re- 
 proof should be administered and the reason for it given, 
 but it is not always a sufficient deterrent. Many children 
 come from homes where cheating is regarded as a clever 
 act. These children need more than reproof. 
 
 Suggestions — There should be a tentative program the 
 first day. This begets a feeling of responsibility and 
 obligation. No matter how late it is, there should be 
 an opening exercise. 
 
 It should consist of a Bible reading, preferably the 
 Old Testament, as this will not give olifense to any 
 religious organization. Religion did not cease growing 
 two thousand years ago. The characters in the Bible 
 may be made to appeal to the average child. Adam and 
 Eve blamed others and ran away. We do that to-day. 
 Abraham was brave in starting on a journey to an un- 
 known country. He was courteous and useful towards 
 Lot. We may be like him. Joseph was trustworthy, 
 etc. 
 
 This may be followed by the prayer, a song and the 
 morning talk. The morning talk may be upon the Bible 
 lesson, or if that is tabooed there is an excellent syllabus 
 for morning talks in White's "School Management," pub- 
 lished by the American Book Company. This morning 
 talk is most important, as thru it pupils receive the moral 
 instruction so essential to the American child. Teaching 
 means culture, character and citizenship, besides the reg- 
 ular instruction. 
 
 Some schools have quotation day each week. The 
 main trouble with this is the selecting of quotations 
 which are not beyond the comprehension of the average 
 child. Sometimes the morning talk consists of an article 
 from the newspaper on some act of heroism — not always 
 a rescue from a fire or from beneath a trolley, but some 
 act of self-sacrifice. 
 
 SEAT OCCUPATION— BUSY WORK FOR PRIMARY CLASSES 
 
 Hazel L. Augustine 
 
 At the beginning of the year, especially, primary 
 teachers are always looking for good seatwork sugges- 
 tions; something that gives good, profitable occupation 
 and not mere busy work, for a child may be kept busy 
 and at the same time get no particular good from the 
 exercise. The seatwork should correlate with the work 
 in reading, phonics, number, literature and other sub- 
 jects to be of practical use. It must be simple, within 
 the child's power, but must be difficult enough to re- 
 quire some thought, for just as soon as it is reduced 
 to a matter of habit the device should give way to 
 one more difficult. The seatwork period should have 
 an end in view; the child should have the end in mind 
 while he' is working and work to that end. Insist that 
 each child has his work right. Examine it. Let the 
 children examine each other's work. They are more 
 keen in observing than grown-ups, often. 
 
 I shall offer a few suggestions which may be help- 
 ful for teachers of first grade. 
 
 SEATWORK IN READING 
 
 1. Make hektograph copies of objects, writing the 
 word under the corresponding object. Let the children 
 cut the words apart from the picture. (I always use 
 sightwords.) 
 
 2. Have the children match the word with the cor- 
 responding picture, laying them on their desks. 
 
 3. Hektograph cards, showing the object and the 
 words in script and print. Let the children cut the words 
 apart and match them with the picture. 
 
 4. Give each child a word and have the children 
 draw a picture with his crayons of the object. If the 
 word is an action word, let them draw a picture that 
 will suggest it. 
 
 5. Hektograph little stories that have been composed 
 by the children. Have the children cut apart the words 
 and match them on their desks from a copy on the 
 board. Give each child an envelope to keep his story in. 
 
 6. Write a word on a paper for each child and have 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 him draw a picture the word suggests. 
 
 7. To teach the initial consonant sounds, liektograph 
 an object which suggests the plionogram. Write the 
 consonant in script and print below the picture. Have 
 the children cut the letters apart and match with the 
 picture. 
 
 8. Supply each child with hektographed copies of 
 short sentences. Have the children cut the words apart 
 and then build up the sentences from a copy on the 
 board. 
 
 SEATWORK IN PHONICS 
 
 1. Make pictures suggested , by consonant sounds. 
 Hektograph them and let the children cut the letter 
 from the picture. 
 
 2. Have the children match the picture with the let- 
 ter. 
 
 3. After a phonogram is studied let the children use 
 anagrams in building up words which belong to that 
 familv, for example: t in, p in, etc. 
 
 SEATWORK IN LITERATURE 
 L Have the children illustrate such stories as "The 
 Three Pigs" and "The Three Bears," with colored cray- 
 ons. Let them use their originality, no matter how- 
 crude the picture may be. 
 
 2. Make paper cuttings to illustrate the same stories. 
 
 3. Give the children colored pegs to illustrate stories. 
 Literature offers a good opportunity for seatwork 
 
 suggestions, original ones, too, on the part of the 
 children. So much is planned for the children, but liter- 
 ature gives them a chance to use their originality, some- 
 thing which is not encouraged enough among our 
 children. We all admire a child who is original. Do 
 not discourage his originality, but rather encourage it. 
 The child's results may be crude, but what is the dififer- 
 ence if he gets the idea. If he draws the moon bigger 
 than the cow, when he is illustrating the rhyme, let It 
 alone, for all things are possible in a child's imagina- 
 tion. 
 
 After a story has been studied in class for enjoyment, 
 as all literary selections should be, for the joy they give 
 the reader, ask the children to reproduce orally the part 
 that appealed to them; then let them illustrate that 
 part in crayon or by cutting. Show work to the other 
 children. 
 
 SEATWORK IN NATURE STUDY 
 
 L Conversation lessons on nature may be followed 
 by tracing leaves and coloring for blackboard borders. 
 
 2. Vegetables such as tomatoes, parsnips, beets, pep- 
 pers, and potatoes are good in mass drawings in color. 
 
 3. Booklets may be made using vegetable illustra- 
 tions. Short sentences composed by the children may 
 be written underneath the drawings. 
 
 SEATWORK IN NUMBERS 
 L Give each child a square of colored paper and a 
 one-inch pasteboard circle. Trace and cut out several 
 circles. The teacher may use these in making flash 
 cards. 
 
 Hektogrpp'i 
 
 f-11,^,. 
 
 .rO^ 
 
 / GryiJ^ on e. 
 
 X tu/-Gr t 
 
 WO 
 
 (56 6 d> tluuiju t\\y 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 ee 
 
 OXJiY 
 
 Cut apart and match from a copy on the board. 
 3. Make cards similar to the one below to teach the 
 numbers. 
 
 "1 he figures and words may be cut from the picture 
 and then matched with the picture. I always have a 
 coyiy on tlie board at first. 
 
 4. Make the following: 
 
 3 _ill_ iu 5 
 
 A^ 1 
 
 xiy 
 
 kJ. 
 
 ^Ay 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ © 
 
 ^ V ^Jl 
 
 Jl^ 
 
 tig. 3. 
 
 S. Distribute colored pegs to the children. Lay them 
 according to directions that are wfitten on the board, 
 thus: 
 
 3 blue 4 orange 6 purple 
 
 2 yellow S green 2 red 
 
 \. To teach the numbers, hektograph on manila 
 paper a group of objects with the number in figures, 
 then the number in script and in print if desired. Cut 
 the numbers apart and match. Then cut the script num- 
 ber apart and match. And lastly, the number in print 
 may be cut apart and matched. After this is done, , the 
 entire card may be put together. 
 
 2. The children may lay pegs according to direc- 
 tions written on the board, the color of chalk to sug- 
 gest the color of tlic peg. Thus: 3. blue; 2, red; 4, 
 orange. 
 
 3. Lay numbers on desk, from one to ten. Place 
 corresponding number of pegs beside the numbers. 
 
 SEATWORK IN DRAWING 
 
 1. Make mass drawings in color of apples, pumpkins, 
 and other fruits and vegetables. 
 
 2. Trace, color and cut leaves. Arrange promis- 
 cuously on the blackboard, they make an effective 
 border. 
 
 3. Distribute daisy petal patterns, also a leaf pat- 
 tern. Trace, cut out and color. Mount on drawing 
 paper, so as to form a daisy. Draw a brown center. 
 Draw the stem and mount the leaf on the stem. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 METHODS IN PRIMARY READING 
 
 The Word Drill in Reading 
 
 Hazel L. Augustine 
 
 An essential part of every reading lesson in the 
 primary grades, especially should be the word drill. Un- 
 , less this necessary part of the lesson is not slighted, 
 the supposed known words drop out of the children's 
 minds. The first live or ten minutes of the reading les- 
 son, if there is no other set time for word study, is a 
 good time to devote to a drill on words that have ap- 
 peared in previous lessons. The greater part of the 
 first grade child's stock of words he has learned to 
 recognize at sight, very much as we learn to recognize 
 our friends by their features. It is necessary, there- 
 fore, that the words of the reading lessons be drilled 
 on, over and over, in order that they become fixed 
 in the little minds. 
 
 The word drill, to be effective, must be short and 
 snappy, or it will lag in interest. The words must 
 be difficult enough to require some thought. When 
 they are learned, new ones can take their place. It is 
 not a good plan to have too many words in the drill. 
 I find that ten to fifteen are plenty for the first grade. 
 
 The teacher must introduce variety into the word 
 drill. Children, like grownups, only to a more marked 
 degree, tire of the same thing over and over again. 
 When they tire of one device, try another. Do not con- 
 tinue a device until it gets old. Leave it and try a new 
 one. 
 
 WORD DEVICES 
 
 I shall suggest a few effective word devices I have 
 used in the teaching of first grade reading. 
 
 Provide yourselves with 4^^ by 6-inch manila cards. 
 
 Write the words, one on a card, in a clear, large round 
 
 I hand, with brush and color, or what is better, a wax 
 
 crayon. There is a variety of devices for using these 
 
 cards, a few of which I shall mention. 
 
 1. Hold the pack of cards before the cliildren. Have 
 them tell the words in concert as the teacher brings 
 different cards into view. (The teacher should stand at 
 the corner of the class, so all the children can see 
 the words.) 
 
 2. Have the children tell words, one for each child, 
 as the teacher changes the position of the cards. To 
 add variety to the drill, have each child stand when 
 he tells his word and remain standing. When all the 
 class is standing have each tell his word and sit. 
 
 3. Flash cards before the class. Tell the children 
 to stand when a certain word, selected by the teach- 
 er, comes into view. Tell them to sit when another 
 word comes to their view. 
 
 4. Let children dramatize words that are suitable. 
 For instance, "clap" is in the pack. Tell the children 
 to perform the act when they see the card flashed. 
 
 5. ■ Lay a card, face-side down, on each child's desk. 
 Beginning with the child in the first seat, have each 
 child stand, turn his card over, come to the front of 
 the room, tell his word and run to his seat wTth the 
 card, or it may be returned to the teacher, as she pre- 
 fers. If the child fails to tell his word, the class may 
 help him. 
 
 6. Select two children who come before the class. 
 Flash cards before them. The child who tells the word 
 first receives the card. The one who has the most cards 
 wins the race. 
 
 7. Lay cards on the blackboard ledge. Have the 
 children, one at a time, run and get a card, hold it be- 
 fore the class, tell it and run with it to his seat. When 
 each child has a card the teacher may call them in 
 thus: "Bring me 'run,' 'pretty,'" etc. 
 
 BLACKBOARD DiEVICES 
 There are several devices in which the blackboard 
 can be used. A few of them are given below: 
 
 1. Write words on board in a column. Have children 
 tell all the words they know. 
 
 2. Have a child leave the room. Another child 
 chooses a word, points to it, and all the children tell 
 it. The first child enters, takes the pointer and tries 
 to find the word. For instance, he asks, "Is it brown?" 
 If it is, the children say, "Yes, it is brown?" 
 
 3. The teacher tells children to shut eyes. She writes 
 a word on the board. Upon the signal, "Open eyes," 
 they wake up and tell the word. 
 
 4. Have different children erase certain words se- 
 lected by the teacher. 
 
 5. The postman game is good. Write the words in 
 rectangles. Tell the children they are names on mail 
 boxes. The good postman is the one who can read 
 all the names. 
 
 6. Climbing the ladder is another good device. Draw 
 a ladder. On each round write a word. Have the chil- 
 dren climb up and down. 
 
 Lesson Plan in Primary Reading 
 
 It is in the third grade in most schools that the 
 definiteness of the first two grades in reading gives 
 place to the indefiniteness that characterizes the read- 
 ing of the grammar grades. This indefiniten.ess is in 
 matters of purpose, method and quantity. While teach- 
 ers must wait for the working out of scientifically estab- 
 lished standards in this and the following grades — and 
 it will be some years before such standards can be 
 ■worked out — yet, they may put more definiteness into 
 the reading lessons than is now generally found in 
 them. 
 
 Vocabulary 
 
 The third grade teacher should realize that by the 
 end of this year pupils of ordinary ability should be 
 able to read nearly everything within the range of their 
 individual experiences. This would mean that they 
 should have a reading vocabulary of about one thou- 
 sand words and an ability to read intelligently much 
 that contains scattered words outside of their reading 
 vocabulary, i. e., they should be able to read silently 
 and give the "gist" of reading matter within the range 
 
 of their experience, even tho the meaning of some of 
 the words must be inferred. 
 
 Phonics 
 
 By this time all the work in phonics needed as a 
 help in reading should have been covered. This year 
 pupils should become skilful in applying their knowl- 
 edge. To become thus skilful, constant, purposeful drill 
 on previous work should be continued. 
 
 When a new word is met with give the meaning first, 
 then teach the word as a whole, without phonetic 
 analysis. Let pupils see the word in syllables and apply 
 their knowledge of phonics as it may be found help- 
 ful. 
 
 Quality in Reading 
 
 Careful training should be given, so that pupils may 
 habitually read groups of words, rather than one word 
 at a time. This habit does not form itself; not only 
 must it be taught, but drill, i. e., training, must be 
 given to establish the habit, which is fundamental to 
 good reading. 
 
 There should be little, if any, reading of isolated sen- 
 
8 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 tences. In order to train in the habit of looking for 
 the thought, of weighing and judging the relative values 
 of thoughts in a selection, the general procedure should 
 be: (1) to read the entire selection, (2) to read its parts, 
 i. e., groups of paragraphs, or single paragraphs; (3) 
 if there is a reason for it, to read groups of sentences 
 or single sentences. 
 
 The following "type lesson" is taken from Public 
 School Methods: 
 
 Each teacher will have her own plans, and her own 
 way of leading pupils to interpret and enjoy literary 
 selections. The chief purpose of this lesson is to show 
 what facts must be established before the children can 
 understand the author's meaning, and this must be 
 clearly perceived by the teacher before the lesson is 
 given. A study of the poem which is used as the basis 
 of this illustrative lesson shows that the author's pur- 
 pose was to express the longing of the child for things 
 he has not seen, and his effort to satisfy this long- 
 ing. 
 
 Foreign Lands 
 
 Up into the cherry tree. 
 
 Who should climb but little me? 
 
 I held the trunk with both my hands 
 
 And looked abroad on foreign lands. 
 
 I saw the next-door garden lie. 
 Adorned with flowers before my eye. 
 And many pleasant places more 
 That I had never seen before. 
 
 I saw the dimpling river pass 
 And be the sky's blue looking-glass; 
 The dusty roads go up and down 
 With people tramping into town. 
 
 If I could find a higher tree, 
 Farther and farther I should see. 
 To where the grown-up river slips 
 Into the sea among the ships; 
 
 To where the roads on either hand 
 Lead onward into fairy land. 
 Where all the children dine at five, 
 And all the playthings come alive. 
 
 — Robert Louis Stevenson. 
 
 Teacher — Our lesson today is about foreign lands. 
 That expression is a little hard for me to understand. 
 Who can explain it to me? Can you, John? 
 
 John — I think it means far-away lands or places we 
 have not seen. 
 
 Teacher — Good. Who can name a foreign land? Kate. 
 
 Kate— Italy. 
 
 Teacher — That's right; another, Mary. 
 
 Mary — Germany. 
 
 Teacher — Right. If we were to visit a foreign coun- 
 try, what do you think we should see, Howard? 
 
 Howard — We should see the ocean and big cities, 
 and the people would be strange. Maybe we should 
 see high mountains. 
 
 Teacher — Good. Now let us look at our lesson. 
 Read the first stanza to yourselves. Who was it in 
 our story who saw foreign lands, Rob? 
 
 Rob — It was a boy. 
 
 Teacher — How did he see these lands, Helen? 
 
 Helen — He climbed a tree. 
 
 Teacher — Good. That was an easy way to take a 
 journey, wasn't it? Now read the stanza for us, Edna. 
 
 (Edna reads.) 
 
 Teacher — That was well read. Read the second stanza 
 silently and tell me what the little boy saw. The first 
 word of the second line is hard. Does anyone know 
 it? It is "adorned" (teacher pronounces it). Pronounce 
 it, class. Give it again, Rob. Again, Helen. Once 
 more, class. It means made beautiful. What was 
 adorned? 
 
 Class — The next-door garden. 
 
 Teacher — Right. What adorned the garden, Kate? 
 
 Kate — Flowers. 
 
 Teacher — Now tell me what the boy saw, John? 
 
 John — He saw the flowers in the garden next door. 
 
 Teacher — Why do you think he had not seen that 
 garden before, class? 
 
 Henry — Maybe there was a high fence around it. 
 
 Tom — Maybe there were tall trees in front of it. 
 
 Teacher — What do you think, Mary? 
 
 Mary — There might have been a little hill in front of 
 the garden. 
 
 Teacher — Yes, that may have been true. Read this 
 stanza for us, John. (John reads.) 
 
 Teacher — I should like to hear you read it, too, Kate. 
 (Kate reads.) 
 
 Teacher — Look at the next stanza, class. What is this 
 word, d-i-m-p-1-i-n-g, Edna? 
 
 (Edna pronounces the word.) 
 
 Teacher — Right. What is a dimple, Howard? 
 
 Howard — It is a little hollow in a baby's cheek when 
 it laughs. 
 
 Teacher — That is good. What could make a river 
 have dimples, Helen? 
 
 Helen — The wind might blow it. 
 
 Teacher — Surely. What do we say of the river when 
 the wind blows it? 
 
 Helen — We say it has little waves. 
 
 Teacher — Right. Now shut your eyes and see whether 
 you can see the river covered with little waves. What 
 color are the waves you see, Howard? 
 
 Howard — Some of them are white and shiny, some 
 are blue and some are dark. 
 
 Teacher — That is a pretty river you see. Let us call it 
 the dimpling river. What is it, class? 
 
 Class — The dimpling river. 
 
 Teacher — Open your eyes now, and tell me what the 
 boy saw in the river. 
 
 Edna — I think he saw the blue clouds. 
 
 Teacher— Why, Edna? 
 
 Edna — Because it says the river was the sky's blue 
 looking-glass. 
 
 Teacher — That's a good thought. Have you ever seen 
 blue and white clouds pictured in the water? Are they 
 pretty? Yes, they are beautiful. What else did the 
 child see, Rob? 
 
 Rob — He saw the dusty roads with the people walk- 
 ing up and down them. 
 
 Teacher — Read this stanza, Mary. 
 
 (Mary reads.) 
 
 Teacher — Read it again for us, Helen, and try to make 
 us see that blue looking-glass. 
 
 (Helen reads.) 
 
 Teacher — That was well read. I shall remember that 
 pretty river. Shall you, class? Read the next stanza 
 to yourselves. What did the child vrish he could do, 
 Rob? 
 
 Rob — Find a higher tree. 
 
 Teacher— Why? 
 
 Rob — He wished to see farther. 
 
 Teacher — What did he think he could see if he were 
 in a higher tree, Helen? 
 
 Helen — The river slip into the sea. 
 
 Teacher — What is a grown-up river, class? 
 
 Class — It's a big one. 
 
 Teacher — Good. What helps a river to grow up, 
 Edna? 
 
 Edna — Little rivers run into it and make it bigger. 
 
 Teacher — That is a good answer. What kind of ships 
 should we see on the ocean, Howard? 
 
 Howard — Big ones. 
 
 Teacher — That is right. What is it the grown-up river 
 does, Rob? 
 
 Rob — Slips into the sea among the ships. 
 
 Teacher — Tell me that together, class. (Class repeats.) 
 Tell it again, Kate. (Kate answers.) Now read the 
 whole stanza, Rob. 
 
 (Rob reads.) 
 
 Teacher — Read it once more, John. 
 
 (John reads.) 
 
 Teacher — Should you like to see the river slipping into 
 the sea among the ships? If you could do that, what 
 should you like to do next, Rob? 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Rob — Get into a boat and sail away. 
 
 Teacher — What fun that would be! Let us see how 
 far this little boy would like to see. Who is ready to 
 read the last stanza? Tell me, first, what the last line 
 means, John. .^ 
 
 John — It means that our rocking-horses, our tin sol- 
 diers and engines would all be real ones and not make- 
 believe ones. 
 
 Teacher — Read the stanza, Howard. 
 
 (Howard reads.) 
 
 Teacher — Now let us look at the picture a moment. 
 Why did this little boy climb the tree, Mary? 
 
 Mary — He wished to see something new and pretty. 
 
 Teacher — Mary thinks well. Why did he climb the 
 cherry tree, Rob? 
 
 Rob — Because it was the highest one he could find. 
 
 Teacher — W'hat do you think was the prettiest thing 
 he saw while in the tree, Helen? 
 
 Helen — The flowers in the next-door garden. 
 
 Teacher — They must have been pretty. What do you 
 think, Edna? 
 
 Edna — I think the dimpling river and the sky. 
 
 Teacher — Yes, they were pretty. What do yOu think 
 the boy liked best, John? 
 
 John — The sea and the ships. 
 
 Teacher— -John, did he really see those things? Look 
 at the fourth stanza. 
 
 John — No, he just wished to see them. 
 
 Teacher — Now let us read the whole poem, just to 
 help us remember the beautiful things the child saw. 
 Read the first two stanzas, Kate; the third one, Howard; 
 the last two, Edna. Read the whole poem, Helen. — 
 Bulletin of State Department of Education, N. J. 
 
 Stories and Poems for Reading, Language and 
 
 Seat Work 
 
 Miss Hazel Dysart 
 
 PLANS FOR A MONTH 
 
 FIRST WEEK 
 Monday. Read or recite the following poem: 
 The Duel 
 The gingham dog and the calico cat 
 Side by side on the table sat. 
 
 'Twas half- past twelve, and (what do you think!) 
 Nor one nor t'other had slept a wink. 
 The old Dutch clock and the Chinese plate 
 Appeared to know as sure as fate 
 There was going to be a terrible spat. 
 (I wasn't there; I simply state 
 What was told me by the Chinese plate!) 
 
 The gingham dog went "Bow-wow-wow!" 
 
 And the calico cat replied "Mee-ow!" 
 
 The air was littered an hour or so, 
 
 With bits of gingham and calico, 
 
 While the old Dutch clock in the chimney place 
 
 Up with its hands before its face. 
 
 For it always dreaded a family row! 
 (Now mind; I'm only telling you 
 What the old Dutch clock declares is true!) 
 
 The Chinese plate looked very blue 
 And wailed, "Oh, dear! what shall we do!" 
 But the gingham dog and the calico cat 
 Wallowed this way and tumbled that. 
 Employing every tooth and claw 
 In the awfullest war you ever saw — 
 And oh! how the gingham and calico flew! 
 (Don't fancy I exaggerate — 
 I got my news from the Chinese plate!) 
 
 Next morning where the two had sat 
 They found no trace or dog or cat; 
 And some folks think unto this day 
 That burglars stole that pair away! 
 But the truth about the cat and pup 
 Is this: they ate each other up! 
 Now what do you really think of that! 
 
 (The old Dutch clock it told me so. 
 
 And that is how I came to know.) 
 
 — Eugene Field. 
 
 Have the children copy the poem from the board. 
 
 Tuesday: Oral reproduction. Have the children tell 
 the story to you. This is a good story for a drill on 
 expression and dramatic emphasis. 
 
 Wednesday: Seat work: Illustrate with cut-outs or 
 water color drawings the first two stanzas of the poem. 
 The children may make the table, the cat and dog on it. 
 
 the Dutch clock and the Chinese plate. Show a picture 
 of a Dutch clock or draw one on the board. 
 
 Thursday: Write sentences answering the following 
 questions: 
 
 Where were the cat and dog? 
 
 What time w-as it? 
 
 What did the gingham dog say? 
 
 What did the calico cat answer? 
 
 Then what happened? 
 
 What did the Dutch clock do? 
 
 What became of the cat and dog? 
 
 What did the people think had happened? 
 
 Friday: Have the children pick out the name words, 
 such as dog, cat, plate, clock, and write a sentence about 
 each. 
 
 SECOND WEEK 
 
 Monday: Story for reproduction: 
 
 The Flowers' Jewels 
 
 One lovely day in May Lady Spring decided to give 
 a Ball. She sent invitations to all the flowers. Of 
 course, the flowers wanted to wear their loveliest dresses. 
 But their dresses were soiled. So they whispered to 
 Mother Earth, "Dear Mother, we want new, clean 
 dresses." Mother Earth sent a message to Madame 
 Cloud and she sent a host of Raindrop Fairies to wash 
 the gay dresses of the flowers. 
 
 They looked very fine in their new, clean dresses. But 
 the Ball was to be the very finest of all the year, and 
 the clean dresses did not satisfy the flowers. They 
 wanted to wear jewels. So again they whispered to 
 Mother Earth, "Dear Mother, can you not get jewels 
 for us to wear to the Ball?" So kind Mother Earth 
 spoke to the jeweler, Mr. Dew, and he promised that 
 all her children should have jewels for Lady Spring's 
 Ball. Mr. Dew visited the flowers that evening and 
 gave sparkling jewels to each one. How happy the 
 flowers were! Garlands, necklaces, crowns; they glit- 
 tered with precious gems. 
 
 The Sweet Grass wore a string of emeralds. Butter- 
 cup was decked in rare topaz gems. The proud Rose 
 was studded with rubies red. Diamonds gleamed on 
 the Daisy, and amethysts shone pale on Miss Violet. 
 The Blue-bell twins wore turquoises. The purple Pansy 
 wore a brilliant sapphire. Delicate pearls gleamed on 
 the Lily. 
 
 The flowers danced in the moonlight and the Moon- 
 beams were their partners. Their jewels were the love- 
 liest at the Ball. Do you not think they were happy? 
 
 Put the names of the jewels and their colors on the 
 board. Have the children copy them. 
 
 Tuesday: Seat-work: Give the children slips of paper 
 on which are written the names of the flowers and the 
 jewels. Have the children match them properly, such 
 as "Buttercup — topaz." 
 
10 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Wednesday: Have the children tell the story of "The 
 Flowers' Jewels" to you. 
 
 Thursday: Have tlic children write six sentences 
 about the jewels, such as "The emerald is green," etc. 
 
 Friday: Show a chart of the spectrum. These are 
 the Rainbow colors. Have the children identify them, 
 red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Name 
 a flower that is red, one that is orange (black-eyed 
 Susan, for instance), etc. 
 
 THIRD WEEK 
 Monday: Have the following poem copied, to be com- 
 mitted to memory: 
 
 Where Go the Boats? 
 Dark brown is the river. 
 
 Golden is the sand. 
 It flows along forever, 
 With trees on either hand. 
 
 Green leaves a-floating 
 
 Castles of the foam. 
 Boats of mine a-boating — 
 
 Where will all come home? 
 
 On past the river 
 
 And out past the mill. 
 Away down the valley. 
 Away down the hill. 
 
 Away down the river, 
 
 A htmdred miles or more. 
 Other little children 
 
 Shall bring my boats ashore. 
 
 — Robert Louis Stevenson. 
 
 Commit the first two stanzas. 
 
 Tuesday: Commit the last two stanzas. 
 
 Wednesday: Illustrate the poem in water colors, fol- 
 lowing the colors as given in the poem. 
 
 Thursday Have the children cut out boats with sails. 
 Have them fold paper into boats, with a toothpick for 
 a mast and a paper sail. 
 
 Friday: Talk about boats. Have you been on a boat? 
 What was it like? One must sit very still in a small 
 boat. Never rock a boat from side to side, for that is 
 the way many people get drowned. Name as many 
 different kinds of boats as you can — canoe, rowboat, 
 sailboat, steamboat, etc. Tell the children about fishing 
 boats and how the fishermen use the seines. 
 FOURTH WEEK 
 
 Monday: Story for reproduction: 
 The Little Leaf 
 
 One day a little bud peeped out of his little brown 
 cradle. 
 
 "Oh, the world is lovely! I do not want to stay in 
 my cradle!" he cried. 
 
 "Then," said Mother Tree, "you must drink deep ol 
 the sweet sap which your brothers, the Roots, send to 
 you and turn your face up to the sun. Then you will 
 soon grow to be a big leaf." 
 
 So every day the little Leaf drank as much sap as he 
 could and held his face straight up toward the sun. The 
 sun was so warm and bright that the little Leaf tried 
 to reach it. He stretched up and up toward the friendly 
 sun every day.' Almost before he knew it he was a full, 
 big, beautiful green Leaf. 
 
 That summer the Leaf and some of his brothers and 
 sisters formed a roof for a dear little bird home. What 
 pride they took in sheltering the tiny fledglings! How- 
 sad the little Leaf was when the birdies learned to fly! 
 He said to Mother Tree: 
 
 "Oh, Mother, why cannot I fly, too? 
 
 "Some day soon you will fly away, my dear," said 
 Mother Tree. "You will put on a different dress and 
 flutter away." 
 
 The little Leaf was glad and daily watched for his 
 new dress. At last Jack Frost came and the ne-xt day 
 the little Leaf found that Jack Frost had given him a 
 new gold and brown dress. He was so joyous that 
 when the Breeze came by our Leaf said: 
 
 "Oh, take me with you, kind Breeze." 
 
 So the Breeze lifted him gently from his home on the 
 tree and circled him around thru the air for a while. 
 In the air he danced with other leaves until he was 
 tired. Then he settled down on the warm earth to rest. 
 He found he was close by the root of Mother Tree. 
 
 "Dear Root brothers," he whispered, "you fed me with 
 sweet sap all spring and summer. Is there nothing I 
 can do for you?" 
 
 "Yes, you can help form a soft, warm blanket about 
 us so we may sleep snugly until next spring," said the 
 Root brothers. 
 
 This made the little Leaf very happy. 
 
 Tuesday: Have the children tell this story to you. 
 
 Wednesday: Talk about trees. Name different kinds. 
 Tell what they are good for. Name all the products of 
 trees you can think of. Talk of conservation and the 
 necessity of preserving our forests from fires. 
 
 Thursday: Write five sentences about trees. Name 
 five trees which have flowers and fruit. This is to be 
 written work. Insist upon complete sentences. 
 
 Friday: Tell the children about one or two curious 
 products of trees, such as rubber, camphor, quinine, 
 cocoa, cinnamon. Make an interesting and instructive 
 story about it. 
 
 A Method for Reading, Dramatizing and Illustrating 
 
 a Story 
 
 Ruth O. Dyer, Training School Supervisor 
 
 THE UTTLE MOUSE 
 
 [/Esop's Fables in their original form are not well 
 suited for dramatization, but when they are retold and a 
 great deal of action is put into them they make excel- 
 lent material for dramatic interpretation. The fables 
 are very suggestive of illustrations of paper cuttings as 
 shov^fn in the accompanying pictures.] 
 
 THE STORY 
 
 In a little hole in a haystack lived a very little mouse 
 with his mother. 
 
 "Mother," he said one morning, "I want to go out for 
 a walk." 
 
 "Oh, no," said his mother; "you are far too small. 
 Something will catch you." 
 
 "But," said the little mouse, fretfully, "I may as well 
 begin to learn the ways of the world. So I am going." 
 
 "Well," said the mother, "if you will, you will; but I 
 shall be uneasy until you return." 
 
 So the little mouse frisked away out into the wide, 
 wide world. 
 
 He had not gone far before he heard a soft "Purr- 
 purr-pur-rr." And then he was so close to a soft, white 
 creature that he could touch her. 
 
 "Oh, what a beautiful thing!" said the little mouse. 
 "What soft eyes and what /velvet paws!" And she came 
 very close. "I shall make friends with her." But just 
 then the little mouse heard a loud "Cock-a-doo-dle- 
 doo-doo!" 
 
 "My, my!" said the little mouse. "What a queer noise! 
 I'll go nearer." But when he came nearer he was more 
 frightened than ever. "Oh, what a great creature! 
 What qieer feathers he has, and whoever saw such yel- 
 low legs? What a gay red cap he weais on his head! 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS 
 
 Surely he is a queer fellow! See how he blinks his 
 eyes! I'll get away. This is no place for a little mouse. 
 I'd better scamper home." And he ran so fast that he 
 ran right into his mother, who was standing outside her 
 door looking for him. 
 
 "Oh, mother!" he said. "I have had such a fright. .K 
 great tall creature with a coat of feathers and two long 
 
 BOOK 
 
 Tlic 
 
 11 
 
 mother is busy making the nest 
 
 in the haystack, 
 tidy.) 
 
 Little Mouse (stopping his play) — Mother, I want to 
 go out for a walk. 
 
 Mother (looking surprised) — You are far too small. 
 Something will catch you. 
 
 Little Mouse (fretfully) — But I may as well begin to 
 
 yellow legs and a gay red cap on his head frightened me 
 so. I was just ready to make friends with a soft white 
 thing which said 'Purr-purr-purr' as I looked at her, 
 when this funny old ugly creature screamed 'Cock-a- 
 doo-dle-doo-doo!' I was so frightened that I ran until 
 I am out of breath." 
 
 "Oh, my dear child!" said the mother, catching the 
 little mouse in her arms. "You must be thankful that 
 the dreadful thing did frighten you, for that soft purring" 
 creature which you liked so much is the worst enemy 
 you have in the world, and had you stayed near by she 
 would have eaten you alive." 
 
 "Why, mother! she was the gentle purring creature." 
 said the little mouse. 
 
 "Why, she was the cat," said the mother. 
 
 "And who was that who said 'Cock-a-doo-dle-doo'?" 
 
 "That," said the mother, "was the rooster. He 
 wouldn't hurt you at all." 
 
 "Well, well," said the little mouse; "this is a queer 
 world, and one hard to trust. I think I'll stay in my 
 hole in the haystack." 
 
 DRAMATIZATION OF THE STORY 
 
 (The little mouse is first seen frisking about in its hole 
 
 learn the ways of the world. (Starts toward door.) So 
 I'm going. 
 
 Mother (following little mouse to door) — If you will 
 go, you will: but I shall be uneasy until you return. 
 
 (Little mouse frisks away. Mother looks after him 
 thoughtfully for a while, then returns to her work.) 
 
 Cat (looking at little mouse) — Purr-purr-purr-rr! 
 
 Little Mouse (stopping in front of cat) — Oh, what a 
 beautiful thing! What soft eyes and what velvet paws! 
 (Comes closer.) I shall make friends with her. 
 
 Rooster (coming up behind mouse) — Cock-a-doo-dle- 
 doo. 
 
 Little Mouse (jumps up as if startled) — My! My! 
 ^\'hat a queer noise! (Turns and goes nearer rooster.) 
 I'll go nearer. Oh, what a queer creature! What queer 
 feathers he has, and who ever saw such yellow legs? 
 What a gay red cap he wears on his head! Surely he 
 is a queer fellow! See how he blinks his eyes. I'll get 
 away. This is no place for a little mouse. I'd better 
 scamper home. 
 
 (Mouse runs very fast toward his home. Mother 
 comes out and stands, shading her eyes, looking for 
 little mouse.) 
 
12 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Little Mouse (running into his mother) — Oh, mother, 
 I, have had such a fright! A great tall creature with a 
 coat of feathers and two long yellow legs and a gay red 
 cap on his head frightened me so! I was just ready to 
 make friends with a soft, white thing that said "Purr- 
 purr-purr" as I looked at her, when this funny old ugly 
 creature screamed "Cock-a-doo-dle-doo!" I was so 
 frightened I ran until I am out of breath. 
 
 Mother (catching little mouse in her arms) — Oh, my 
 dear child! You must be thankful that the dreadful 
 thing did frighten you, for that soft purring creature 
 which you liked so much is the worst enemy you have in 
 
 the world, and had you stayed near by she would have 
 eaten you alive. 
 
 Little Mouse (looking surprised as he frees himself 
 from his mother's arms) — Why, mother, who was the 
 gentle, purring creature? 
 
 Mother — Why, that was the cat. 
 
 Little Mouse — And who was that who said "Cock-a- 
 doo-dle-doo?'' 
 
 Mother — That was the rooster. He wouldn't hurt you 
 at all. 
 
 Little Mouse — Well, well! This is a queer world and 
 one hard to trust! I think I'll stay in my hole in the 
 haystack. 
 
 READING IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES 
 
 Methods of Teaching 
 
 William H. Elson, Auther Elson Readers 
 
 ASSIGNING THE LESSONS 
 
 The importance of the lesson-assignment is usually 
 underestimated by teachers. It is one of the big factors 
 in efifective teaching and should be made with care. 
 Indeed, the teacher of reading should come to class 
 fully prepared to make assignment for the next day's 
 lesson. She should take adequate time to go into de- 
 tail with pupils in regard to the assignment. No better 
 use of time can be made. Mistakes in assignment are 
 usually due to haste and unpreparedness on the teach- 
 er's part. Too often it is set aside with the words, 
 "Take the next two pages," etc. 
 
 The text-assignment should represent a thought-unit — • 
 a natural division of the selection. The directions for 
 pupils' preparation should be definite. Some things 
 pupils can do in their individual study of a reading les- 
 son, while there are some things they cannot do, hence 
 the assignment should be specific. "Take the next two 
 pages" does not inean much to pupils, and when children 
 are given nothing to do they do nothing; and they make 
 progress accordingly. 
 
 WHAT PREPARATION PUPILS CAN MAKE 
 
 What are some of the things pupils can do by way 
 of preparing a reading lesson? (1) They can read care- 
 fully the text of the thought-unit assigned. (2) They 
 can learn the correct pronunciation of certain words 
 which the teacher recognizes as difficult or likely to be 
 pronounced incorrectly, and which she has assigned 
 them. (3 They can write the definition of certain words 
 and phrases, giving the meaning they think apt from its 
 use in the context. Then in a parallel column they can 
 verify this list, correcting by reference to the glossary 
 in the back of the book. This method has no equal 
 for developing power of pupils to "sense" the meaning 
 from the text and of noting the finer shades of distinc- 
 tions. (4) They can, in like manner, write their own 
 interpretation of certain allusions and comparisons, as- 
 signed by the teacher, using the explanatory notes found 
 in the book for purposes of verifying and correcting. 
 (5) They can prepare their own opinion upon ques- 
 tions, assigned by, the teacher, designed to stimulate 
 attention, interest, and observation by calling for per- 
 sonal opinion or preference relative to certain word-pic- 
 tures in the text under consideration, and certain lines 
 or stanzas which express beauty of melody, of fancy, 
 or of thought. Also questions that call out experience 
 which the children have had similar to those described 
 in the selection. The pupil has seen the same objects, 
 or objects similar to those which the person in the poem 
 saw, and he can report this experience. 
 TYPE QUESTIONS 
 
 The following type-questions will serve to illustrate: 
 What picture does the first line (stanza) make you see? 
 What lines give you the picture which you see most 
 clearly? Which picture do you like best? Which line 
 do you like best? 
 
 Applying this general outline to Whittier's "Bare- 
 foot Boy," we would have such questions as these: What 
 picture of the barefoot boy does the first stanza give 
 you? Find lines that tell how the barefoot boy got the 
 knowledge which the poet tells about. Find lines that 
 describe simt>le things in poetic ways, as in this ex- 
 ample : 
 
 "... the blackberry cone, 
 Purpled over hedge and stone." 
 A GLOSSARY NECESSARY 
 
 Enough is here given to indicate the nature of the 
 assignment and the character of the pupils' preparation. 
 It will be noted that a glossary for pronunciation and 
 meaning of words, and explanatory and suggestive notes 
 are presupposed as a part of the working formula of 
 every book on literature intended for school use, whether 
 reader or classic. These necessary working tools should 
 be provided in any book intended for young readers. 
 Pupils should form the habit of using reference material 
 as a part of their daily preparation. But if they are 
 so fortunate as to own a dictionary, most of them are 
 not, pupils in the grades are unable to use it effectively. 
 They are hardly ready for so complex a tool, for they 
 cannot grope their way among so large a list of words 
 as the dictionary holds, nor can they choose with cer- 
 tainty the particular definition that applied in the case 
 in hand. A glossary, however, has a smaller list of 
 words and the difficulties involved in finding readily the 
 word in question are greatly minimized. Better still, 
 the definition is simple and is the one that corresponds 
 to the use of the word in the context. A dictionary 
 which defines a word by giving another, equally un- 
 familiar to the pupil, renders no service. A carefully 
 prepared glossary furnishes the immediate help that 
 pupils so much need; at the same time it establishes the 
 dictionary habit, and is a distinct preparation for using 
 the more_ complex tool at a later period. 
 
 EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE NOTES 
 
 Similarly, a reader or a classic intended for school 
 use should have notes — explanatory and suggestive — 
 without which pupils cannot interpret the allusions, 
 idioms, or other data found in the selection. Moreover, 
 a few suggestive questions which will stimulate the 
 imagination and lead pupils into habits of observation 
 should form a part of the pupils' help material in any 
 school text in literature. The only reason these helps 
 have not been provided in the past is that teachers and 
 school superintendents have not insisted on having them. 
 The fact that grammar-grade reading has not until in 
 recent years been studied as a distinct and separate 
 school problem, as has high school reading, accounts 
 for the meager results which elementary schools have 
 to show for the time devoted to reading in grades above 
 the third. In arithmetic and geography pupils have 
 been given definite assignments — specific problems to 
 solve — and they have in consequence made preparation. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 13 
 
 and their growth has been evident. But in reading our 
 assignments have been indefinite, and, given nothing to 
 do, pupils have done little or nothing. We have read and 
 read, but we have not been touched by the spirit of 
 what we have read, because not understood or appreci- 
 ated. A new day is dawning for children in the ele- 
 mentary school — a day in which they are to have their 
 inheritance of literary possessions to show for each 
 year's work in the elementary school. 
 TEACHERS' HELPS 
 In addition to the helps for pupils, a teachers' man- 
 ual should accompany every reader or classic intended 
 for use in elementary schools. Such a manual should 
 place at the service of the busy teacher, lesson plans, 
 suggestions for analysis and interpretation of the text, 
 and data concerning mythological and other allusions 
 for which the school has no adequate reference sources. 
 It should furnish necessary historical and biographical 
 data, should cite literary references and cross-refer- 
 
 ences for the comparative study of selections grouped 
 according to the criteria of theme. The manual should 
 gather and arrange in orderly fashion helpful data which 
 the teacher cannot under the conditions incident to a 
 congested program which requires her to teach a dozen 
 different subjects daily. For a teacher to make the re- 
 quisite preparation for teaching reading well would oc- 
 cupy all her available time for daily preparation, leav- 
 ing no time for preparing upon other studies which she 
 is compelled to teach. 
 
 For years the high school teacher, who has fewer 
 classes and decidedly fewer studies to teach, has had 
 the aid of such manuals. High school reading has been 
 approached as a single problem, the material has been 
 standardized, and manuals with helps accompany the 
 texts. Moreover, the high school teacher lays claim to 
 a more adequate training in English than has the teach- 
 er in grades below the high school, and has therefore 
 correspondingly less need for such helps. 
 
 The Place of Memorizing in Reading 
 
 William H. Elson, Author Elson Readers 
 
 At the elementary school age, children learn by heart 
 with great ease and rapidity. It is the golden age for 
 memorizing — a time to store the mind with beautiful 
 pictures and with the choicest treasures of poetry and 
 dramatic prose. 
 
 In fact-giving studies, the memorizing of forms is 
 not regarded as good practice. The aim is to gain facts 
 and to train to the use of this data in reaching con- 
 clusions and in solving problems. In short, the aim is to 
 develop the power to think and to express one's thoughts 
 with clearness and effectiveness. To memorize the words 
 of the text is to put the emphasis in the wrong place, 
 and indeed to hinder the attainment of the ends sought. 
 With a knowledge of the facts and principles involved 
 in any given case and with the ability to think in an 
 orderly fashion, pupils are expected to express them- 
 selves in a mold of their own making. Tliey are urged 
 to tell what they think and know in their own words. 
 
 In literature, however, which is not a fact-giving 
 study but a study which seeks aesthetic beauty as an 
 end — beauty of language, beauty of thought, and beauty 
 of imagery — memorizing is justly held in high favor. 
 For by it pupils grow both in power to appreciate and 
 in power to express. The art of poetry lies not alone 
 in the thought it embodies but in the apt words, the 
 choice figures, and in the rhyme and rhythem of the 
 verse. The beauty of the form in which the fancy or 
 the thought is expressed is one of the distinct aims of 
 poetry, hence the memorizing of artistic creations of this 
 kind is of supreme importance. 
 
 Not only poetry, but also dramatic prose is worthy of 
 being learned in the exact form in which it is expressed. 
 Orations and patriotic selections, lofty in style and fer- 
 vid in sentiment, satisfy a requirement of upper-grade 
 pupils and furnish excellent material for cultivating 
 good expression. Patrick Henry, Rienzi, Marco Boz- 
 zaris, Regulus and the rest have largely disappeared 
 from modern school readers, greatly to the disadvantage 
 of the pupils in our schools. We need a revival of in- 
 terest in the best forms of dramatic prose. 
 
 POETRY IS MANY-SIDED 
 
 But poetry is essentially artistic, both in form and 
 fancy. It is many-sided in its appeal, addressing itself 
 to the ear as well as to the eye, and must be read aloud 
 to yield the full measure of its beauty. Pupils should 
 memorize and recite many of the shorter poems, es- 
 pecially those having beauty of rhyme, or rhythm, of 
 fancy, or of thought. 
 
 Children delight in the melodious sounds of verse. 
 They find pleasure in the recurrence of similar sounds 
 and in pointing out the words that rhyme. They take 
 interest in distinguishing the perfect rhymes from the 
 imperfect, and in finding the rhyme-scheme which the 
 
 poet has employed. For example, they observe that in 
 "The Daffodils," Wordsworth created a structure in which 
 the first and third lines rhyme; also, the second and 
 fourth; and the last two lines. They note that in "The 
 Chambered Nautilus," Holmes' rhyme-scheme makes the 
 first and second lines rhyme; also the third, fourth, and 
 fifth; and the last two lines. 
 
 Similarly, children find pleasure in the softness and 
 beauty which the poet creates by means of frequent ap- 
 peals to the ear with a similar sound at the beginning 
 of words in a line. 
 
 For example, these lines from Lanier's "Song of the 
 Chattahooche" show the softening effects of alliteration: 
 
 The wilful water-weeds held me thrall, 
 
 The laving laurel turned me tidal. 
 
 The ferns and the fondling grass said, "Stay," 
 
 And the dewberry dipped for to work delay. 
 Again, pupils delight to find examples of pleasing 
 vowel sounds such as the famous line from Poe's "Anna- 
 bel Lee" contains: 
 "For the moon never beams without bringing me 
 
 dreams." 
 Pupils should be led to find and enjoy these features 
 which give to poetry so much of its beauty and charm. 
 Having their attention called to them and having con- 
 sciously observed them, pupils will appreciate them more 
 fully when the poem is memorized and recited. 
 
 Moreover, when poetry is read aloud children notice 
 a rhythm — an orderly recurrence of accented syllables. 
 The poet makes use of this rhythm to give beauty and 
 swing to his lines. As in the study of rhymes, pupils 
 are interested in the rhythm-scheme which the poet has 
 employed — that is, in finding where the accented 
 syllables regularly fall. While it is not desirable that 
 pupils learn the names of the different rhythm-schemes, 
 it is worth while for them to feel the measured flow of 
 the lines. They have an added sour.ce of beauty and 
 pleasure, if in the study of Stevenson's "Farewell to 
 the Farm," pupils scan the lines to find where the ac- 
 cented syllables recur: 
 
 The coach / is at / the door / at last; 
 The ea / ger chil / dren mount / ing fast 
 And kiss / ing hands / in cho / rus sing; 
 Good-bye / good-bye / to ev / 'ry thing! 
 
 When pupils are able to account for the melody of 
 the poetry which they read, can distinguish the meter, 
 and point out the pleasing combinations of sounds which 
 the poet has wrought, they are prepared to appreciate 
 and enjoy poetry when read aloud or recited. In ad- 
 dition, they are acquiring standards by which to measure 
 values among poetic creations, in the same manner that 
 the cultivated ear determines these values. 
 
14 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Similarly, the study of the fancies and the figures of 
 poetry enables pupils to appreciate apt concepts and 
 comparisons by which a poet dresses up and gives 
 beauty to the homely objects of everyday life. 
 HOW TO MEMORIZE 
 
 Obviously, there should be a memorizing and recit- 
 ing of thoughts, not merely of words. This means that 
 the poem must first be studied and understood; that 
 the mental pictures must be vivid; indeed, the first step 
 is to get the meaning; memorizing then becomes an 
 easy problem. In learning by heart, pupils should be 
 guided by the thought-structure rather than by the arbi- 
 trary memory of words. They should be led to recall 
 lines and stanzas by the steps in the development of 
 thought. Teachers wisely present the poem as a whole 
 first, that is, they read it thru without stopping to ex- 
 plain details. In this way the central thought is set 
 out clearly. 
 
 Since hearing is the child's natural way of learning, 
 the teacher reads aloud to the pupils the lines or stanzas 
 to be memorized, the children repeating after her. Pic- 
 ture-making is easier and the pictures are more vivid 
 when pupils acquire by ear rather than by eye. .\ good 
 reader in the class may be chosen to read instead of 
 the teacher. Poems memorized in one grade should 
 be kept alive in succeeding grades, particularly those 
 that are favorites with the children. 
 
 WHAT SHALL BE MEMORIZED 
 
 It goes without saying that only peoms should be 
 chosen for memorizing that are entirely worthy as poet- 
 ry and are within the comprehension of the pupils. The 
 requirements of seasonal and festival occasions and of 
 variety and humor furnish abundant motives for learn- 
 ing and reciting poems of Nature, of fancy and of fun, 
 of patriotism and of lofty ideals. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING LAN- 
 GUAGE IN PRIMARY CLASSES 
 
 First Grade Language Lessons — Aims and Methods 
 
 Supt. Charles S. Foos 
 
 The primary object of language in the first grade is 
 to teach pupils to tell about things or events. They 
 should learn not only to talk, but to talk fluently, dis- 
 tinctly, correctly, and interestingly. They should learn 
 to give oral expression to the thought and the emotion 
 that make up their conscious lives. To this end, the 
 teacher's first task is to arouse the pupil, to adapt him 
 to his new environment, to gain his attention, so that 
 she may stimulate thought and arouse the emotions. The 
 most cogent factor to accomplish these ends is story- 
 telling. Tell simple stories that children may under- 
 stand and appreciate, and you will not only gain atten- 
 tion and arouse interest, but you will get the confidence 
 of your pupils. Encourage them to talk. Gradually 
 their diffidence and hostility will disappear, and sucess 
 will attend your efiforts. To be sure, story-telling is 
 no easy task. Because one has not the natural giit 
 is no reason not to make the attempt. One can learn 
 to tell stories. Begin. Don't whine; don't complain. 
 Plunge in. Take a short story. You may fail, but 
 plunge in again. Make up your mind to succeed. Of 
 course, you must know your story and you must know 
 it well. You must understand the plot and the spirit 
 of your story; you must understand it in all its details; 
 you must enter into its emotional element; you must 
 appreciate its aim; you must relish its humor; you must 
 adapt yourself to the story. The story, so to .speak, 
 must be a part of yourself — your eyes, your hands, your 
 feet, your head. 
 
 In telling stories keep in mind your aim; gauge your 
 listeners; hit upon the psychological moment. Be 
 natural, simple, brief, and direct. Tell stories; discuss 
 them by means of questions; have pupils tell and re-tell 
 
 them; illustrate them with pictures, when possible; 
 dramatize or play the story; write the story on the black- 
 board and have pupils read it. As the stock grows 
 assign special stories to special pupils. 
 
 Tell, rather than read, the story. The book is often 
 a barrier between the child and the teacher. The pupils 
 thus learn the liabit of self-reliance and acquire the 
 power to tell about things and events. Illustrate stories 
 with pictures when possible. Thus the story of the 
 Indian may not only be thrillingly told, but impressed 
 by means of pictures and drawings of the Indian, the 
 wigwam, bows, arrows, etc. At first the work will be 
 fragmentary and discouraging, but child after child will 
 tell more and more, until shyness will disappear and 
 most of them will talk easily. Thus, by means of the 
 picture and the story, pupils may become familiar with 
 two of the principal types of English composition — 
 description and narration. 
 
 In the selection of stories be guided by your judg- 
 ment and your estimate of the capacity of your pupils. 
 The stock of stories now published is immense, and 
 there is no law to prevent you from making up your 
 own. The old rhymes that have come down thru the 
 years furnish an excellent basis for this work. Fairy 
 and folk-lore tales, nature stories, and historical stories 
 for special days, are helpful. 
 
 The story also helps to build a vocabulary and to 
 cultivate the reading habit. It broaden the child-mind 
 and stimulates the imagination and sympathies. It has, 
 too, an unconscious ethical value. Children draw their 
 own deductions of propriety in the conduct of characters, 
 and a teacher may thus have a helpful weapon to 
 gauge her pupils and to impress proper life conduct. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 15 
 
 First Year Language, 
 
 Supt. M. 
 
 CONVERSATIONS WITH THE CHILD 
 
 In the following work the suggestive problem is the 
 prominent point. Something to be worked out from the 
 experiences of the child. 
 
 The experiences of the child organized into larger 
 wholes. 
 
 The relations existing between experiences discovered. 
 The thought process must be kept prominent and the 
 child must be kept in an attitude of discovery. This 
 thought process must lead to an expression of thought 
 upon the part of the child; a crystallization of thought 
 in a clean cut sentence. The sentences should be written 
 upon the board by the teacher, worked over by the 
 children until the best expression is secured and then 
 copied into their oral "reading books" for review read- 
 ings as the subject develops. 
 
 (1) About Home Industries and Activities 
 The home environment, the home interest, the home 
 industries. What are the activities of home? What 
 are the problems of the home in which the ^hild may 
 be interested? 
 
 Mother. Her work. Home making; providing the 
 food; making the clothing; caring for the children, 
 for father, grandmother, grandfather. 
 
 Father. His work. Purpose of his work. Place ol 
 his work. How he does his work. Why he needs to 
 work. 
 
 My Work. (The child.) Place of the child in the 
 home. Work he or she can do. Why he or she should 
 love to do it. 
 
 School Work. Why we work in school. Teacher's 
 part. Pupil's part. 
 
 All Work. Work is an honor. Only the weak, sick 
 and inefficient do not work. -Work a badge of honor. 
 Helpfulness a motto. Service is loving aid to those who 
 need it. 
 
 (2) The Play Attitude 
 The real expression of the child is perhaps better 
 obtained thru his plays than in any other way. There- 
 fore, the plays of the children should enter largely into 
 the subject matter of the year. Controlled (suggested) 
 school plays should be encouraged. From play should 
 come much rich language expression. 
 (3) Literature 
 In connection with these studies of home environ- 
 ment, home industries and plays, correlate such literature 
 as may be found upon the subject that is of value and 
 may be within the class understanding. For example: A 
 class in the last half of the first year might find use for 
 Stevenson's "The Swing" in the study of the play 
 attitude. 
 
 Today is a bright day. 
 It is warm and pleasant. 
 The sun is shining merrily. 
 The grass is green. 
 The roses are in blossom. 
 The birds are singing. 
 Evervthing is happy. 
 What shall I do? 
 I will play in mama's garden. 
 I will listen to the birds. 
 I will smell the roses. , 
 
 I will lie on the grass under the old apple tree. 
 I have a swing in the old apple tree. 
 I like to swing. 
 The air is fresh. 
 I can feel it rush past me. 
 Up I go! Up to the blue sky! 
 I play I am a bird. 
 Back and forth, up and down, I fly. 
 I see the fields. 
 [ can see over the walls. 
 
 I see in the tree tops, and over the roofs, and away 
 over the country. 
 
 Rivers' and trees and cattle, I ' see. 
 
 Material and Methods 
 
 G. Clark 
 
 Don't you like to swing? 
 
 I think it is the pleasantest thing a child can do in 
 summer. 
 
 I will sing a song as I swing. 
 
 It is a beautiful song. 
 
 Robert Louis Stevenson wrote it for children. 
 
 I think he wrote it for me. 
 
 "How do you like to go up in a swing. 
 
 Up in tlie air so blue? 
 Oh, I do think it the pleasantest thing 
 Ever a child can do! 
 
 Up in the air and over the wall. 
 
 Till I can see so wide. 
 Rivers and trees and cattle, and all — ■ 
 
 Over the countryside — 
 
 Till I look down on the garden green. 
 
 Down on the roof so brown — - 
 Up in the air I go flying again, 
 
 Up in the air and dow-n!" 
 
 (4) The Home Environment and Industries of Other 
 
 Peoples 
 
 To enlarge the horizon of the child and to furnish 
 problems within the experience and capability of the 
 first year is one of the important duties of the teacher. 
 To this end introduce the study of the home life and 
 industries of the Indian. To solve the problems of 
 these peoples from their own standpoint is the work 
 to be undertaken. These problems should be worked 
 out before the child is allowed to read of these peoples 
 from the text book. Given the conditions of primitive 
 life and the child has within himself the experience from 
 which to work out their solutions. The teacher is only 
 to direct, to keep the conditions clear, to encourage 
 and to place herself in the attitude of honest investiga- 
 tion. The teacher's atttitude will accomplish more than 
 anything else in this work. 
 
 Material: 
 
 The Fox Indian Primer for the child 
 
 Hiawatha Primer in teacher's hands. 
 
 (5) The Real Inspirational Work of- the Year Is Prac- 
 
 tically All Oral 
 
 The written work at best is mostly copy work; copy- 
 ing the sentences that have been worked out and written 
 upon the board; copying from their readers paragraphs 
 that they have read and enjoyed. This may lead, pos- 
 sibly in the latter half of the year, to the writing of 
 sentences directly upon their paper that they have 
 worked out in their language conversations.- 
 
 During the last half year the pupil should have a 
 blank book into which he can copy these language exer- 
 cises. This should be kept as an "oral reading book'' 
 from which the pupils may rapidly review and read at 
 sight the work they have developed during the year. 
 
 Technical words should be taught for such expres- 
 sions as the child is able to comprehend. Use sentence 
 in its correct meaning, not story. 
 
 (6) Use 'Various Means of Expression 
 
 The manual, esthetic and ethical expression ought not 
 to be a thing unto itself. Language furnishes a medium 
 thru which all these activities may be organized. The 
 thought of the language lesson should be worked out 
 in clay, charcoal, water color or paper cutting. Make 
 a special point of the illustrated language paper, choos- 
 ing such illustrations as will lend effectiveness both to 
 thought and paper appearance. 
 
 (7) Technical Work 
 
 Technical work should be developed incidentally. It 
 should be developed no less thoroly, however. It 
 should never take such a part in the work of the year 
 as to give the pupil the idea that it is the important 
 thing in the year's work or that it is the real language 
 work. Let it come during the year, first, from the 
 observation- of the teacher's sentences upon the board, 
 then from observations from the book in their hands 
 
16 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 and after the principle is thoroly established, formulate 
 it into a rule. But few rules are necessary for the first 
 year's work, but they should be so thoroly understood 
 as to need little further effort in following years. 
 
 a. Begin every sentence with a capital letter. 
 
 b. Telling sentences should end with a period. 
 
 c. Asking sentences should end with a question mark. 
 
 d. Names of persons should begin with a capital. 
 
 e. I, meaning myself, should always be written with 
 a capital. 
 
 f. A margin should be kept at the left of a written 
 page. 
 
 Reproduction of Short Stories as an Exercise in 
 
 Primary English 
 
 Supt. M. G. Clark 
 
 This work is valuable for three reasons: 
 
 1. It is an aid in language organization. 
 
 2. It should aid the child to get thought and to 
 
 repeat it in his own language but with accuracy 
 of content. 
 
 3. Its first value, however, is found not in the writ- 
 
 ten reproduction, but in the oral reproduction. 
 Here is the teacher's opportunity for work 
 that shall lead the child: 
 
 a. To think upon his feet. 
 
 b. To stand erect, in good position, and for- 
 
 get self in telling his story. 
 
 c. To avoid the use of "why," "and," etc., 
 
 in his simple direct expression. 
 
 d. To tell well a simple experience. To real- 
 
 ize that to tell such an experience re- 
 quires the use of simple, direct lan- 
 guage. 
 
 In all reproductions we should be very careful that 
 we do not let the content of our work degenerate into 
 a matter of mere technique. Too often reproductions 
 are only drills in technique. 
 
 Again, if the reproduction is to be used for oral lan- 
 guage purposes, the story should be told to the chil- 
 dren by the teacher, not read from the book. The chil- 
 dren will then get their "oral" ideas from the teacher; 
 her position while telling the story, her facial and bodily 
 expressions, her gestures, her habit of interest as shown 
 in all these things. Thus thru their unconscious imita- 
 tions they will grow into a good oral style. The teacher 
 will readily see the need of making her oral work of the 
 highest possible class. 
 
 The following papers are given as examples of the 
 written reproductions which follow the oral story-telling 
 of the child: 
 
 (a) The Lion and the Mouse 
 
 Once upon a time a lion was sleeping in his den. A 
 little mouse went up on his face. Just then the lion 
 woke up and seized the mouse. He said, "Please let 
 me go, for I might help you some time." Then the lion 
 let him go. Some time after that the lion was tied to 
 a tree by some hunters. The little mouse soon came 
 along. He asked, "Are you the lion who let me go?" 
 "Yes," said he. So the mouse gnawed the rope and the 
 lion was let free. The lion said, "The smallest animals 
 are the bravest ones." 
 
 (b) The Lion and the Mouse 
 
 One day a mouse ran over the face of a sleeping lion 
 and awakened him. The lion seized the httle mouse in 
 his paws and the mouse said, "Please let me go." So 
 the lion let him go. Then the mouse said, "Perhaps I 
 can do something for you some time." The lion said, 
 "A mouse doing something for me." One night the 
 lion was caught in a trap by some hunters and tied to 
 a tree, and he roared and tried to break the cord that 
 held him. The mouse heard the lion and went to see 
 what it was. Then he saw that the lion had been trapped 
 by the hunters. He said, "Are you the lion that was 
 kind to me?" Then the lion said, "Yes." Then the 
 mouse began to gnaw the rope that held the lion. The 
 mouse said, "Was I not right when I said that I might 
 do something for you?" "Yes," said the lion; "I have 
 learned that little friends may become great friends." 
 (c) The Lion and the Mouse" 
 
 One day a little mouse ran over the nose of a sleep- 
 ing lion and awoke him. The lion grabbed the mouse 
 
 and held it tightly in his paw. "Please let me go," said 
 the mouse; "perhaps I will be of some use to you some 
 day." The lion laughed, but he let it go. Not long 
 after the lion was caught in a trap made of rope. That 
 niglit the mouse came out of his hole and saw the lion 
 and asked him if he were the one who was so kind to 
 him. "Yes," said the lion. So the mouse began to 
 gnaw the rope. I have found out that small friends 
 become great friends. 
 
 (d) The Lion and the Mouse 
 
 One dajy a little mouse who was very hungry ran over 
 the face of a sleeping lion. The lion seized the mouse 
 with his paw. "Oh, dear!" cried the mouse, "please let 
 me go, and I might be a help to you some time." The 
 lion laughed at the thought of the mouse helping him, 
 but let him go anyway. One day after that the lion 
 was caught in a trap by some hunters near the mouse's 
 home. The lion tried to get out but could not, and as he 
 failed he bit and roared with rage. The little mouse 
 came out to see what was the matter. When he saw 
 the lion was caught he said, "Are you the lion that let 
 me go when you caught me under your paws?" The 
 lion said, "Yes." Then the mouse began to gnaw the 
 rope and very soon the lion was set free. Then the 
 mouse said, "Did not I- say I might help you some 
 time when you were in trouble?" "Yes," said the lion. 
 "I have found that small friends become great friends." 
 
 (e) The Lion and the Mouse 
 
 One day a little mouse ran over the head of a sleep- 
 ing lion. The lion seized the mouse with his paw. "Oh! 
 let me go and I will never forget your kindness. Per- 
 haps I will do something for you some time." The lion 
 laughed at the thought of a little mouse doing anything 
 for him, but let him go. Not long after the lion was 
 caught in a trap by some hunters. They tied him to a 
 trefe while they went to call for help to take him away. 
 That night the little mouse came out -to get something 
 to eat. The mouse saw the lion and asked him if he 
 were the same lion that caught him in his paws one day 
 and then let him go. Then the lion said, "I guess I 
 am." The little mouse started to gnaw at the rope. 
 Then the rope broke and the lion was free once more. 
 The lion said a little friend sometimes makes a great 
 
 friend. •. 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 Threb little words you often see 
 
 Are articles a, an and the. 
 
 A noun's the name of anything. 
 
 As house or garden, hoop or swing. 
 
 Instead of nouns the pronouns stand — 
 
 Her head, your face, his arm, my hand. 
 
 Adjectives tell the kind of noun, 
 
 As great, small, pretty, white or brown. 
 
 Verbs tell something to be done — 
 
 To read, count, sing, laugh or run. 
 
 How things are done the adverbs tell. 
 
 As slowly, quickly, ill or well. 
 
 Conjunctions join the words together, 
 
 As men and women, wind or weather. 
 
 The preposition stands before 
 
 A noun, as in or thru a door. 
 
 The interjection shows surprise, 
 
 As oh! how pretty, ah! how wise. 
 
 The whole are called nine parts of speech. 
 
 Which reading, writing, speaking teach. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 17 
 
 Type of Model Lesson in English for Fourth 
 
 Grade Classes 
 
 Supt. J. H. Harris 
 
 Among the numerous reasons which may be assigned 
 for not attaining desired results in our English work is 
 the lack of careful development and of exact presenta- 
 tion. As a corollary to this we have crude development, 
 unstudied and hasty presentation, and a consequent 
 failure in securing results. 
 
 The lesson on "The Dove and the Ant" herewith ap- 
 pended is a type or model lesson in English adapted 
 to the fourth grade and has been presented by the writer, 
 in almost exact detail, to hundreds of fourth grade chil- 
 dren. As indicated in the outline I have first told the 
 story to the children — not read it — and have then re- 
 viewed it orally with the class as a whole by the ques- 
 tion and answer method detailed in the outline. Fol- 
 lowing, this class review or reproduction, I have had 
 individual oral reproductions, taking part of the story 
 at a time. For instance, the fable here given divides 
 itself naturally into two parts — and in consequence into 
 two paragraphs. The first part tells how the dove 
 saved the ant's life; the second part how the ant saved 
 the dove's life. After having oral reproductions of each 
 part separately, I call for oral reproductions of the entire 
 fable. In the oral work attention is given, not only to 
 the continuity of the narrative, but also to the choice 
 of the right words, to sentence-making, to pronuncia- 
 tion, — especially guarding against "git," "jest," etc., to 
 the proper use of words, saw for seen, don't for doesn't, 
 etc. 
 
 After the oral work has been carried on a sufficient 
 length of time the written reproduction will be in order. 
 This should be done, at first at least, by outline; either 
 a skeleton outline as given in the model lesson, or an 
 outline by questions. For instance, instead of the out- 
 line given in the model lesson, I sometimes use the 
 following: 
 
 1. Where was the ant and what was he doing? What 
 happened to him? How was he saved? 
 
 2. Where was the dove and who was pursuing him? 
 How was he saved? 
 
 Before setting the children to writing I ask some one 
 to tell me what he is going to say first and how he is 
 going to say it. Then I ask the class if anyone has 
 a better way of stating the first sentence. Several will 
 perhaps volunteer. Working together we reject the 
 poorly constructed sentences; we accept two or three of 
 the best, or at least determine what should and what 
 should not be included in our first statement. 
 
 The children then proceed to their written work. 
 After the fable has been written the teacher will collect 
 the papers, and before the next lesson-period, will cor- 
 rect them, or at least indicate the errors. The next 
 lesson-period will be devoted to the class correction of 
 these exercises. The mis-spelled words will be taken 
 up and the correct forms written upon the board. Errors 
 in punctuation, capitalization, use of quotation marks, 
 abbreviations and contractions should be taken up and 
 corrected on the blackboard. Poorly constructed sen- 
 tences should be written on the blackboard and worked 
 over to a correct construction. The choice of words 
 for the expression of a given idea should be considered 
 and the sense of word-taste and discrimination be culti- 
 vated. Finally, the fable, in the best form in which it 
 has been written, may be written on the blackboard, 
 that the children may, if thought necessary or advisable, 
 copy it, and deepen upon their minds the sense' of cor- 
 rect form, of good sentence structure, of choice words, 
 of simple paragraphing. 
 
 An exercise of this kind will lay the foundation of a 
 better language response to every phase of environment, 
 and if carried out with enthusiasm, judgment and stead- 
 fastness, will prove very effective in developing the 
 child's power of adequate expression. 
 
 The Fable 
 
 An ant, being very thirsty, went to a spring to drink; 
 but, going too far into the water, she was carried away 
 by the current. A dove saw her, and, taking pity on her, 
 pulled a leaf from a tree near by and dropped it into the 
 water. 
 
 The ant, climbing upon the leaf, sailed away down 
 stream till the leaf drifted to the bank of the brook. 
 Then, with a slight spring, the ant jumped safe to shore. 
 
 Not long after, a bird catcher was out in the woods, 
 and tried to catch this dovje. He crept close up to her, 
 without being seen by the bird; but the ant was watching 
 him, and just as the hunter was about to seize the dove, 
 the ant bit his leg. The bite made him give a sudden 
 start which stirred the leaves. The dove heard the noise 
 and flew away safe. 
 
 Moral r An act of friendship is generally reciprocated. 
 The Lesson 
 
 I. Teacher tells the story to the pupils. 
 
 IL Develop by question and answer with the entire 
 class, the outline and continuity of the fable. For 
 example: 
 
 Teacher: What is the first thing told us in the story? 
 
 Class: A thirsty ant goes to a stream to get a drink. 
 
 Teacher: What happened to the ant? 
 
 Class: It went too far into the water and was carried 
 away by the current. 
 
 Teacher: Who came to the ant's rescue? 
 
 Class: A dove. 
 
 Teacher: What did the dove do? 
 
 Class: It pulled a leaf from a tree and dropped it 
 into the water. 
 
 Teacher: What did the ant do? 
 
 Class: It climbed on the leaf, drifted down stream till 
 it struck the bank, then jumped safe ttf shore. 
 
 Teacher: Did tlie ant ever repay the dove for its act 
 of friendship? 
 
 Class: Yes, by saving its life in turn. 
 
 Teacher: How was this done? 
 
 Class: A bird-catcher one day tried to catch the dove 
 and was about to do so when the ant bit his leg. This 
 caused him to jump, and in doing so, he stirred the 
 leaves. The dove heard the noise and flew away safe. 
 
 III. Teacher will now review orally, and quickly, the 
 plot of the story, and then place outline on the black- 
 board. For example: 
 
 1. Ant falls into stream. Carried away. Dove sees 
 
 ant. Drops leaf into water. Ant saved. 
 
 2. Bird-catcher and dove. Ant sees the hunter. 
 
 Bites his leg. Saves dove's life. 
 
 IV. Teacher will now call for oral reproductions of 
 the fable from seven or eight of the pupils. She should 
 seek to get, (1) a connected narrative; (2) complete and 
 well-worded sentences. When a statement is not well- 
 made, call for volunteers who think they can express 
 the idea a little better. 
 
 V. The next step will be the written reproduction 
 of the fable. The children should do this from memory 
 guided by the blackboard outline given above. 
 
 VI. Teacher collects papers and corrects them. A 
 separate class exercise should be given to reading, com- 
 menting upon, and criticising the pupils' work. In this 
 work, always commend whatever is praiseworthy — even 
 llio it be but little. Place common errors in speliin'j, 
 etc., on the blackboard. Talk over particular individual 
 errors witii the individual child. Special class exercises 
 on common and more patent errors. Have regard, in 
 the work in criticism, to spelling, sentence-making, capi- 
 talization, punctuation, and use of quotation marks, if 
 involved. Some attention, too, may be paid to the choice 
 of words, but only in a simple and elementary way. 
 
18 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Originality in method or form of presenting the stoiy 
 should always be noted and encouraged. 
 
 VII. Sometimes it may be advisable, after the class 
 and individual criticism indicated above, to have the 
 fable or story rewritten, to see if the children have 
 profited by the criticisms and suggestions. The teacher 
 should be guided, however, in the matter of a second 
 writing, by the character of the first exercise and by the 
 interest of the children. If the first written reproduction 
 was generally unsatisfactory, I should have a second; 
 otherwise not. Again, if the children's interest was be- 
 ginning to lag, I should not, in general, have a second 
 reproduction. One may determine from a new fable or 
 story, as well perhaps as from the old one, whether the 
 pupils are profiting by the work that is being done or 
 not. In fine, let circumstances and the teacher's judg- 
 ment determine whether a second reproduction is wise 
 or not. 
 
 Note: The presentation, development, class work and 
 
 criticism outlined above should occupy probably three 
 lesson-periods. An exercise of this kind may well be 
 given about once in three or four weeks. 
 
 Fables Suggested for Fourth Grade Reproduction 
 
 1. The Lion and the Mouse. 
 
 2. The Donkey in the Lion's Skin. 
 
 3. The Fox and the Grapes. 
 
 4. The Ant and the Grasshopper. 
 
 5. The Crow and the Pitcher. 
 
 6. The Arab and the Pearls. 
 
 7. The Fox and the Crow. 
 
 8. The Jackdaw and the Pigeons. 
 
 9. The Lion, the Donkey, and the Fox 
 
 10. The Fly and the Ox. 
 
 11. The Lion, the Tiger, and the Fox. 
 
 12. The Fox and the Sick Lion. 
 
 13. The Mother Crab and the Young Crab. 
 
 14. The Dog in the Manger. 
 
 15. The Hare and the Tortoise. 
 
 Stories for Retelling in Primary Language Classes 
 
 (Helena Meisel) 
 APPLE BLOSSOMS 
 
 The frost was out of the ground, the warm winds were 
 blowing and the sap was creeping to the very tips of 
 the twigs of the old apple tree. 
 
 The little buds began to swell. The soft rain washed 
 them and the bright sun coaxed them till they unclosed 
 their lovely pink and white faces to the sky and poured 
 their sweetness on the air. 
 
 Little Alice looked up into the tree and said, "I wish 
 I had an apple blossom dress." 
 
 Then merry breezes plucked the petals and tossed 
 them down upon her. 
 
 When she saw how kind the winds were, she played 
 she was the good queen of the orchard and called, 
 "Busy bees, come to my trees and get as much honey 
 as you please." 
 
 THE LOST CHICK 
 
 "Peep, peep," called a little yellow chick from among 
 the grasses. He lifted his baby head and listened, but 
 no cluck could he hear. 
 
 "Peep, peep, peep," he cried again, as he ran here and 
 there, not knowing which way to go. 
 
 He had chased a little bug until he lost it, and now 
 he was so far from mother hen that he could not find 
 her. 
 
 Just then a black cloud rolled above him and pelted 
 him with raindrops, so that he had to hide under a bush. 
 
 Mary was walking about under a big umbrella when 
 she heard the sad cries of the wet little chick. 
 
 "You dear little thing," she said as she picked him up; 
 "I shall keep you for my own." 
 
 Then she ran into the house and cried, "Mother, see 
 what I found. May I have him for a pet?" 
 
 "Yes," said her mother, "if you will take good care 
 of him." 
 
 "He will have the best care," replied, happy Mary. 
 "I shall call him Fluff." 
 
 FLUFF VISITS THE CHICKENS 
 
 The little chick. Fluff, grew very fond of kind Mary. 
 He soon lost his pretty yellow feathers and put on a 
 coat of white. 
 
 One day he followed Mary into the park when she 
 fed the chickens. He heard an old hen call her young 
 and saw her scatter the meal about as they greedily 
 picked it up. One plump little fellow stretched his neck 
 and took a mouthful from off her beak. 
 
 Fluff thought it would be great fun to join them, so 
 he crowded in and began to eat, too. But Mrs. Hen did 
 not want any strangers in her family, and she pecked 
 him till Mary came to his rescue. 
 
 "You naughty old hen, scolded Mary, "you should 
 be polite to visitors." 
 
 THE WORM 
 
 Joe and Tom were plaj'ing near a bush when Tom 
 
 cried, "O look at that ugly green worm! Kill it, Joe." 
 
 "Let us show it to Dora first," Joe replied, as he let 
 it crawl upon a stick. 
 
 While Dora looked at it she said, "Why, that is a 
 caterpillar. H you will bring it leaves to eat, I'll keep 
 it in a glass and let j'ou see what happens." 
 
 The boys brought fresh leaves and a little twig upon 
 which the caterpillar rested. The next day it began to 
 move its head back and forth, back and forth, until it 
 had spun a brown case that was wrapped all about it. 
 
 "Isn't that strange?" said Tom. "I am glad that we 
 didn't kill it. What will it do now?" 
 
 "Wait and see," said Dora; "but this time you must 
 wait till winter has come and gone. 
 
 "Will he not die in that shell?" asked Joe. 
 
 "No," Dora answered, "he will only take a long rest 
 in the cocoon. That is what the case is called." Then 
 she put the glass away on a shelf. 
 
 THE CHANGED WORM 
 
 One djay in spring Dora brought out the glass with 
 the cocoon in it and set it in the window. When Joe 
 and Tom looked at it they were disappointed. 
 
 "The cocoon hasn't changed at all," said Joe. "I 
 thought it would grow." 
 
 "It will change," remarked Dora, "and we must watch 
 it every day now." 
 
 A few mornings later while Joe was looking into the 
 glass he shouted, "The worm is moving." 
 
 The others came quickly and Dora tipped the glass 
 on its side. A little head was pushing out of the case. 
 It drew back, and the next time it came forward four 
 furry little legs came with it. 
 
 "Ugh!" said Tom. "What is it?" 
 
 The creature drew back once more and then jumped 
 out on the window sill. Tom jumped, too. 
 
 "It is a brown worm with little wings," cried Joe. 
 
 Dora just said, "Let us watch." 
 
 It crawled up the side of the window frame, then 
 stopped. As the three watched, the wings grew larger 
 and the body smaller till not much more than wings 
 could be seen. When Dora pushed a sheet of paper 
 under it, the wings spread out, and there it was, a beau- 
 tiful butterfly. 
 
 THOUGHTFUL FLOWERS 
 
 "Jane is to come out into the garden today," nodded 
 the big lilac bush. 
 
 "She has had to stay in the house a whole month," 
 said the little forget-me-not. "What shall we do to 
 show her that we are pleased to see her?" 
 
 "We cannot run to greet her," murmured the pink. 
 
 "No," said the rose, "but we each can do best that 
 which we know how to do. I shall give her all the per- 
 fume I can hold." 
 
 "That will make her glad, I know," said the purple 
 
THE SCHOOL 
 
 pansy. "I shall smile up into her face and look as big 
 and velvety as I can." 
 
 "Let us open wide," the pinks called to each other, 
 "and make this the prettiest border she ever saw." 
 
 Pale little Jane walked out slowly. Her face shone 
 with delight when she saw the bright blossoms. She 
 touched the rose with her lips and breathed its fra- 
 grance. She smiled down at the pansy. She passed her 
 hand lovingly over the pinks. Then she picked a forget- 
 me-not and pinned it on her dress. 
 
 "Flowers, you make me very happy," she said. "I 
 thank you for your beauty and for your sweetness." 
 
 (Supt. G. W. Frazier) 
 THE BIG BEAR AND THE LITTLE BEAR 
 
 Two bears were walking in a great forest. One was 
 a little baby bear that had only been out of his den 
 once before. The other one was the biggest and ugliest 
 bear in the forest. He had eyes that were large and 
 fierce. His mouth was large enough to swallow you in 
 one bite. His teeth were as long as your arm. The 
 big, ugly bear said, "Don't you wish that you were as 
 big and ugly as I am? When I show my teeth all the 
 other bears run. When I growl they all tremble. I can 
 kill any bear in the forest. I could eat you if I wanted 
 to. You will never be any good, because you are too 
 small." 
 
 Two hunters were going thru the forest, and when 
 they saw the two bears one of them said, "Just see that 
 big bear. His skin will make a fine coat." They both 
 shot at the big bear and killed him. The little bear ran 
 home to his den and he was glad that he was just a 
 little bear. 
 
 JOHNNIE COTTONTAIL 
 Johnnie Cottontail was the fuzziest and the prettiest 
 rabbit in the whole family. He had five little brothers, 
 but he was the very nicest one in the nest. They lived 
 in a fine, deep home in a very large forest. Mother 
 and father rabbit went out every day to get them things 
 to eat. One day they were gone all day and did not 
 come back when night time came. A little boy had 
 caught them in a big, ugly trap and killed them. The 
 little rabbits had to stay alone all night. They were 
 very scared because they could hear a dog bark. Next 
 morning Johnnie Cottontail went out all alone to find 
 his father and mother. He wandered all over the forest 
 but could not find them. He came home at night all 
 tired and hungry. That night Mrs. Fuzzy, a rabbit that 
 lived on the other side of the great oak, came over to 
 see them. When she found them alone she took them 
 home. She gave them some good things to eat and 
 kept them until they grew up to be big rabbits. 
 
 THE CIRCUS BEAR 
 
 Mary was only six years old. She had never seen a 
 circus. Last week a show came to town and they had 
 the funniest bear that anybody ever saw. Mary went 
 down to the show with her mother. The bear was tied 
 to a long chain beside one of the tents. The bear's 
 name was Jerry. He had the funniest pointed nose 
 and little squinty eyes. He came just as close to Mary 
 as his chain would let him. A man had some candy 
 and when he held it up the bear would stand on his hind 
 legs and open his mouth and catch the candy. The 
 man that owned him said that he would not bite, and 
 that he liked little girls. He said that the bear would 
 take little girls up in his arms and rock them. Mary 
 told her mother that she would not like to have a bear 
 hold her for fear he would eat her up. 
 
 THE STORY OF AN ACORN 
 
 A big acorn family lived in a giant oak tree. The 
 
 : tree was very proud of his family and held his branches 
 
 away up so everybody could see them. They had lived 
 
 happily together all summer, but when the autumn 
 
 METHODS BOOK 19 
 
 winds began to blow they became very restless. One 
 day while they were quietly talking together old West 
 Wind, the strongest of giants, came rushing down over 
 the hills to where the acorn elves lived. He grasped 
 the tree and made it shake its arms around and gave the 
 little brown family an awful scare. When old West 
 Wind had passed the acorns heard the tiny voice of 
 one of their family coming up from below. When they 
 looked down, there on the ground was one of the little 
 elves still wearing his little brown coat and his tight- 
 fitting jacket. He was very proud to think that he was 
 the only one on the ground. Old brown squirrel came 
 frisking along thru the fields and when he saw that 
 acorn he said, "Ho, here is a supper for me." Then he 
 sat down on his bushy tail and picked up the acorn. 
 First he took ofif his thick brown coat, and then his 
 tight-fitting jacket, and that was the end of the little 
 acorn. 
 
 "JOE" 
 
 Most pet crows have the name "Jim," but my little 
 black pet is named "Joe." Joe's mother and father 
 were wild crows and their home was away up in a 
 great, big oak tree. When Joe was a very small crow 
 he fell out of his nest on the ground. I was coming 
 home from school and found him. He tried to get 
 away, but he could not run as fast as I could, and he 
 could not fly because one of his wings was broken. 
 When I caught him I took him home. I bound up his 
 broken wing and it became well and strong. Joe is a 
 big crow now. He runs all around the house and 
 garden. He likes to take things out of the house and 
 hide them. This morning he took one of mother's 
 rings and put it in an empty water pail. Joe likes his 
 home here and never tries to fly away. Some day I 
 will tell you some more things that Joe does. 
 
 THE RED BAT THAT WON A GAME 
 
 Tom's father had just come back from the city and 
 he had brought Tom a new baseball bat. It was a very 
 fine bat. It was red with black rings around it, and 
 there was a trade-mark on it. Tom was very proud of 
 his bat and took it to school with him the next day. 
 After school the third grade boys played a game against 
 some fourth grade boys, and Tom played first base for 
 the third grade. The third grade had three runs and 
 the fourth had three when Wallace James came to bat. 
 Wallace was the best batter in the team, but he did not 
 have a good bat. "Let me use your bat, Tom," said 
 Wallace. Tom did not want any one else to use his 
 new bat and he thought for a long while and then he 
 gave it to Wallace and told him to use it. Wallace 
 hit the ball hard and broke the bat, but he made a 
 home run. That night when his father came home 
 Tom told him about the broken bat. His father asked 
 him why he let another boy use his bat. Tom said, 
 "I would rather have a broken bat than lose a game 
 because I was selfish." The next time Tom's father 
 went to the city he bought Tom a new bat and ball. 
 
 HAROLD'S LESSON 
 
 Harold was playing in the back yard. He was build- 
 ing a barn out of sticks that he had found behind the 
 barn where his father was building a chicken house. 
 Harold loved to build little barns, and was so interested 
 that he did not hear his mother call. She called three 
 times before Harold heard her. Now Harold thought 
 that his mother wanted him to carry in wood, so he 
 did not answer. He kept very still and his mother 
 thought he was playing with Carl. When dinner time 
 came and they were all eating, Harold's mother said, 
 "Harold, I called for you this morning, but I guess you 
 were away. I was baking cookies and wanted you to 
 have a hot one." Now when Harold's mother calls he 
 always answers, "Yes, mother, I am coming." And that 
 is the way all good boys should. 
 
PICTURE LESSONS FOR LANGUAGE STORIES 
 
 Marie A. Shepherd 
 
 This work may be easily adapted to any class of pupils from Third grade to Sixth grade, for oral or written 
 language stories, according to the ability of the pupils. The pictures with accompanying lessons each may be 
 cut out and pasted on heavy paper or stiff cardboard and given to the pupils. After the pupils have examined 
 their pictures for a few moments they each may be required to tell an oral story, with or without the help of 
 the outline, and pupils advanced enough to do so should then write the story on paper. A variety of ways may 
 be devised for using the pictures to advantage. 
 
 AN OLD-FASHIONED COSTUME 
 Suggestive Outline 
 
 Such a queer, old-fashioned dress! And such a queer, 
 queer bonnet. Where could they have come from? How 
 does this girl happen to wear them now? 
 
 I do not know her, where she lives, or what she may 
 be fond of doing at school or at home. 
 
 The spinning wheel — where did that come from, and 
 how does it happen to be here? 
 
 Has she dressed to look like some one's picture — I 
 ask because I just noticed her large bouquet. Whose 
 picture could it have been? 
 
 Or perhaps she is going to have her picture taken. 
 
 Have the Pilgrims and Long Ago Tales made her 
 think of doing this? Is she doing it for her own amuse- 
 ment or because some one wishes her to? 
 
 What is the story you see in the picture? 
 
 WHAT CAN THE TROUBLE BE? 
 Suggestive Outline 
 
 A cozy gratefire, a kitten, a dog and a boy. Do the 
 kitten and dog seem to be waiting for something? What 
 can they be waiting for? Perhaps it is for some person. 
 Do you think it may be the boy? < 
 
 Who is the boy? Do these pets belong to him? Why 
 are they all right in front of the bright warm fire just 
 at this time? 
 
 What is the boy doing, and why does he keep them 
 waiting such a long, long time? 
 
 May we hear the entire story from you, please? 
 
 \ 
 
 \i\P<;r^^ 
 
 '\ " \ 
 
 '< Y 
 
 \( '>\\\\i=i< 
 
 FRIEND OR FOE? 
 Suggestive Outline 
 
 Do you know this boy? Can you tell me his name, 
 where he lives, and all about him, please? 
 
 From a train window I just happened to see what I 
 have shown you here. I could not stay to see what 
 might happen ne.xt, for the train whizzed by. 
 
 Did the boy have a sack of something on the other 
 side of the fence? What does he do, and what happens 
 to the nice, fat turkey? 
 
 I would like to know a great deal about the turkey, 
 too. 
 
 They both looked so happy, I thought. I do hope I 
 was not mistaken. 
 
 May I hear your story, please? 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 21 
 
 THE PLEASANT SEARCH 
 
 Does this picture suggest a story to you? 
 Below is a list of words that may be helpful in writ- 
 ing a story: 
 
 tall younger pleased 
 
 late children cap 
 
 afternoon family coat 
 
 found happy home 
 
 right shouted hide 
 
 shape Hurrah! surprise 
 
 Few cousin 
 
 days Sidney 
 
 before hatchet 
 
 Christmas woods 
 
 Ralph small 
 
 tree size 
 
 GOODIES FOR THANKSGIVING OR 
 CHRISTMAS? 
 
 What time of day can it be? \ 
 
 What day is it? 
 
 Where do we find these children? 
 
 Who are they? 
 
 What are they doing now? 
 
 They have already done what work? 
 
 Their plans are to do what next? 
 
 For what purpose or person are they doing this? 
 
 Will they do this again? 
 
 When? And why? 
 
 AN APRIL FOOL 
 
 Two parts to this story. 
 
 First — The boy's story of what happened: 
 
 1. Why he came here. 
 
 2. What he intended doing. 
 
 3. What his plans for the day were. 
 
 4. How his plans were developing. 
 
 5. When— 
 
 6. And then what change there was in the plans. 
 
 7. How his experience ended. 
 Second — ^The fish's story of himself: 
 
 1. What family he belongs to. 
 
 2. How long a time he had lived here. 
 
 3. What he was doing at this particular time. 
 
 4. What sudden and dreadful thing seemed to happen? 
 
 5. When— 
 
 6. And then what did the fish do? 
 
 7. Where did he go? 
 
22 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 BEGINNING ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 Supt. G. B. Coffman 
 
 The child should have a rich experience in the use 
 of the English language before he commences to ana- 
 lyze the English sentence. This is why he should 
 study carefully the English as it is used. His experi- 
 ence in the English expression should be rich and 
 varied. The child's analytical attitude toward the Eng- 
 lish sentence comes later than most any other thing. 
 Early in life he wishes to tear up and analyze whatever 
 he can. He wants to know how his toys are made and 
 he tears them up. But the English sentence he cares 
 nothing about, early in life. There is a reason for this, 
 because when he begins to analyze the English sen- 
 tence he is really analyzing thought back of the sen- 
 tence. He must do this if he analyzes the sentence. 
 Words just as words have no meaning. He must 
 study the effect of one mental image upon another. 
 The study of English grammar, then, is the study of 
 one mental image upon another mental image as they 
 are carried up in the mind by experience or by words 
 of another. It is this fact that makes the study of Eng- 
 lish grammar so hard for the pupil. He must learn to 
 get behind the sentence and analyze the thought instead 
 of the mere words. It is this reason that so many 
 pupils never get anything out of the study of grammar. 
 They never get any farther than the words in the sen- 
 tence. How familiar to the teacher is the guessing 
 child in the grammar lesson. They guess that is a 
 verb and then they guess that it is an adverb, never 
 thinking why, or in other words, never looking for the 
 image back of the sentence. 
 
 This is an important beginning. That is the study of 
 grammar. If at the beginning the pupil is shown how 
 to get back of the sentence and see the mental image 
 acting on another mental image it would not be hard 
 to keep him going in that way. The pupil should never 
 guess in grammar. It puts the child in a very dangerous 
 attitude towards the things about him. 
 FIRST STEPS 
 
 To begin the study of grammar ask your pupils to 
 close their eyes and tell you what they see when you 
 mention the word "wagon." In the first instance very 
 few of them will see anj'thing. Try it again and keep 
 trying it till most of the pupils have learned to call 
 the image to their minds. Take up other objects and 
 get them used to seeing the mental image. The teacher 
 must remember that this is no easy task. It means 
 that the mind must be turned in upon itself and watch 
 its own operation. When you have the children able 
 to do this call up in their minds objects which are 
 likely to be stationary. Say a tree. As they hold the 
 object follow the name of the object with a word of 
 motion as "the tree moves." After a number of such 
 trials they will get in their minds that there is a class 
 of words which call up the image of objects, and 
 there is another class of words which call up the image 
 which put the object in motion. At ifhis stage the 
 teacher must be careful to use very simple ideas or 
 it will be hard for the pupil to follow. The simple 
 should come first and the teacher can easily spoil it 
 all by making it too complex. 
 
 SIMPLE DEFINITIONS 
 
 When this is accomplished the teacher has started 
 the child to seeing the two great divisions of the Eng- 
 lish sentence and they have an intelligent basis for the 
 definition of each. The simple definition is simple and 
 intelligent to them. Do not spoil it with a book defini- 
 tion. It may take several days'to accomplish the above, 
 but when you have accomplished it you have a basis for 
 the entire grammar work of the grades. 
 
 ENLARGING THE MENTAL IMAGE 
 
 After the pupils have learned what the subject and 
 
 the predicate of the sentence 'are, go back to the same 
 
 thing again and have them call up some image again 
 
 in their m'inds, say "miner." As he holds the image 
 
 insert some word before it which will likely change 
 some feature of the image, such as the word "clean." 
 The general idea that the child has of the miner is that 
 he has a soiled face, black hands and dirty clothes. The 
 word placed before the "miner" will change the image 
 decidedly. This is what you want. The eflfect of the 
 word "clean" before the word "miner" is a very marked 
 one. Take up other words of similar nature. The pupils 
 will soon learn that there is another set of words 
 which change the characteristic of the object images in 
 the mind. After he has been thoroly grounded in .the 
 idea you may give him the name»of the class of words. 
 If this is worked up well the pupils will have but little 
 trouble of knowing the adjective. From the same teach- 
 ing the pupil may be carried to the adjective phrase, 
 and the adjective clause. 
 
 The adverb may be treated in a similar manner. 
 TEACHING THE PREPOSITION 
 
 In all this work, the teacher should not fail to get 
 the mental image fixed on the mind of the pupil. Once 
 fixed there it will not be hard to get him to see the 
 different phases of the subject at hand. Once more, 
 let us take up another subject. Let it be the preposi- 
 tion this time. Ask the pupil to see what change in 
 the relation of the objects takes places when you say 
 "the book is on the table," and when you say "the 
 book is under the table," but be' careful to have him 
 work with images and not objects. Repeat the experi- 
 ment with other similar sentences, only be sure to 
 make them simple. The pupil will soon see that the 
 only change in the sentences is the change of the rela- 
 tion of the objects to one another. The only word 
 changed is the word that expresses the relation. The 
 definition will be entirely clear to the pupil. He can 
 make a definition that will have meaning to him. He 
 will know that such words which show such relations 
 are called prepositions. From such work he will be 
 inclined to say that the preposition always shows the 
 relation between two objects, and the teacher should 
 think twice before she disputes it. 
 
 PHRASES AND CLAUSES 
 
 Phrases and clauses should be handled in the same 
 way. The teacher will find no difficulty in doing this 
 unless she makes it for the pupil. Always, at first, 
 use simple illustrations so as not to confuse the child. 
 
 It is a splendid way to handle complements to verbs 
 and complements in general. The child can easily see 
 that the image is incomplete and proceeds to fill it 
 with something. He sees that there must be a com- 
 plementing image, and this image is expressed by a 
 word called the complement. 
 
 THE COPULA 
 
 Teachers always have trouble to get the pupils to 
 understand the copula. It is hard for them to grasp 
 it from the definition given by the books. The child 
 looks and guesses. If the mental image is brought 
 before the pupil in the way that the subject, the predi- 
 cate and the adjective, as set forth in these papers, it 
 will not be hard for him. Let us think for a moment 
 on this subject. If I say the word "soldier," the pupil 
 is apt to call up the image of a man dressed in uni- 
 form, wearing a cap and certain style of clothes. Again 
 if I say the word "boy" he will likely see any ordinary 
 boy on the streets, perhaps of his own age. If I say 
 "the boy struck the soldier," the two images remain 
 distinct, but are brought together thru activity of 
 striking. Here we have a typical case of the object 
 complement. Suppose I say "the boy is a soldier," you 
 do not have two distinct images. The two have been 
 fused into one by the use of the word "is." Here we 
 have the office of the copula. The pupils can readily 
 see this and they will be able to form a working defini- 
 tion for the copula. It may be that the teacher will 
 have to take several similar illustrations before all the 
 
THE SCHOOL 
 
 pupils will see it. But it will pay to I'lx this once for 
 all. They will tell you that the office of the copula is 
 to bring two images together into one image and the 
 second of the images is the complement of the other. 
 
 OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 The other parts of speech may be handled in the 
 same way. As you go into the more delicate distinc- 
 tions and shades of meaning, the ideas will not be so 
 clear, but you must remember that the pupil is gaining 
 strength all the time and will be able to see farther 
 behind the sentence, ^\'hen we once get the pupils to 
 looking for tlie images behind the sentences we have 
 
 METHODS BOOK 23 
 
 them on safe ground. Unless we do get them to think- 
 ing in this way, we will teach them but little grammar. 
 The old plan of analyzing sentences by the different 
 methods and looking only to the words of the sen- 
 tences, going not back to the image behind the sen- 
 tence, will teach the child but little grammar. Of course 
 he will get something in spite of the method. The 
 schools have been taking years in the teaching of 
 grammar and at the end of the years many of the pupils 
 know but little grammar. I have known of many such 
 Iiupils who scarcely could recognize the parts of speech. 
 This goes to show that much of our teaching goes for 
 nolliing. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 
 
 A Plan for More Successful Teaching of Geography 
 
 Supt. G. B. 
 
 There is much time and energy wasted in the study 
 of geography. When the teacher completes a subject, 
 or when she thinks she has completed it, she gives a 
 test and finds that the pupils fall far short of what they 
 should know of the subject. If she is a wise teacher 
 slie will search for the cause. Something is the matter 
 with the plan, or the way she presents the subject mat- 
 ter. Or it may be that she has not followed the lessons 
 up with sufficient drill. 
 
 For a few years I have been giving tests in gcograi)hy 
 to find out where the energy is wasted and what can be 
 done to correct the teaching, and I believe I'have found 
 out in part what it is. In the study of the United 
 States, where the pupils are studying the states by 
 groups, most teachers are unable to distinguish between 
 the essential and the non-essential. It is all taught with 
 equal value. Too much material is brought before the 
 class which crowds out the cause and effect in geog- 
 raphy. All the material that is in the textbook is used. 
 The result is, nothing is accomplished well. No par- 
 ticular object is in view in hearing the lesson and in 
 the assignment. Thus, nothing definite is done. 
 
 Let us take, for example, the Southern States. The 
 whole group of Southern States should be taken. The 
 work should be planned so that the study should cluster 
 around about four plants cultivated. They should be 
 taken up, one by one, and carefully studied. The pupil 
 should know how the plant grows, where it grows and 
 how it is harvested. He should see the cotton crop as 
 it grows in the different states. He should know about 
 how much cotton is grown. In finding this out he will 
 have to know the states, the surface and the soil. He 
 will also have to know something about the rainfall and 
 the seasons. 
 
 When the crop is harvested the pupil will have to 
 know something about the centers of commerce. This 
 will lead him to a study of the ways of commerce and 
 the large cities. He will see New Orleans and the sur- 
 rounding country, and from the surrounding country he 
 will discover why New Orleans is the place of 
 market. He will see also the other great centers. This 
 will lead him to the places where the cotton is manu- 
 factured into clothing, etc. He will doubtless take a 
 trip back up to the New England States to some of 
 the commercial centers and thus review the work pre- 
 viously studied. He should see some of this cotton 
 going to Europe. He may be curious enough to ask 
 whether the ships come back from England empty. The 
 pupil will note, if he does his work well, that mills are 
 being erected in the South for the manufacturing of 
 the cotton. He will find out where, if he has the right 
 kind of books. This very thing will lead him still fur- 
 ther in the study of geography. He will discover that 
 these mills are near the coal fields of the mountains. 
 The student will be glad to explore these coal fields if 
 he is directed the right way. 
 
 Thus from day to day the student is exploring the 
 section of states until he has all the great centers of 
 trade for the cotton, and in this exploration he has dis- 
 
 Coffman 
 
 covered many other things which are used in connec- 
 tion with the cotton. In this study he will get many 
 of the southern ways and habits of living. 
 
 Before leaving the cotton the pupil should have a 
 clear view of the entire cotton fields. He should see 
 llie centers of trade of the cotton, and he should know 
 the ways of transportation. He should know it so well 
 that he is able to fill in an outline map, placing in it 
 these places. The map should always be before him. 
 When a place is studied, the pupil should know just 
 where it is. A good plan is to have a large outline wall 
 map before the class and, as these things are studied, 
 fdl them in the map. This will fix the image. 
 
 After the cotton is thoroly studied, take up the study 
 of the sugar cane. Treat it the same way. Fix it defi- 
 nitely on the ininds of the children. This will not take 
 so long as it did to study the cotton, because the chil- 
 dren are now familiar with many of the locations, the 
 soil, rainfall, etc. They can proceed more rapidly. One 
 or two other productions of the section should be 
 studied. At the close of the work some of the impor- 
 tant facts, places, rivers, railroads, mountains, etc., 
 should be enumerated, and the children be required to 
 know them. Some weeks after, they should review 
 them. Even some months after they should review 
 them. These things will be landmarks by which the 
 future geography will be learned. Day by day facts 
 will be added to the store of knowledge. The reading 
 of history and the study of the Civil War will add 
 much. Stories and articles in the magazines and daily 
 papers will increase the knowledge of geography, pro- 
 viding these fundamental facts are well fixed. 
 
 Too many teachers are teaching geographical facts as 
 isolated facts. They are teaching them as existing in 
 some place, but in the mind of the child they have but 
 little connection with anything else. So many of them 
 are like the beginning of the story, "Once upon a time, 
 long, long ago," etc. 
 
 After the study of the section of states, the section 
 should be connected up with the sections previously 
 studied. In the case of the Southern States, there is 
 not very much in common with the states previously 
 studied; that is, if the Northeast section was studied 
 first. However, the mining industry extends all along 
 the mountains, as do the fisheries on the coast. Some 
 comparison can be made of the forests. This compari- 
 son should always be made. 
 
 When the study of the United States is complete, all 
 the sections should be reviewed and connected up as a 
 whole. Outline maps should be filled in, showing the 
 extent of the principal subjects emphasized thruout the 
 work. The pupils should have an image of all the fish- 
 ing industries of the United States. He should see 
 the wheat fields, the corn fields, the cotton fields, the 
 forests, the coal fields, etc. Such a study of the United 
 States will give the pupils a foundation for this work 
 that in all his future study he will continue to learn 
 geography. 
 
24 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 A Plan for the Study of a Continent 
 
 Supt G. B. Coffman 
 
 The earth is the home of man. He lives and moves 
 on its surface. His energies are prompted and influ- 
 enced by it. He must adapt himself to its physical laws 
 and conditions which govern it. In this way man learns 
 to understand the laws, he learns to respect the condi- 
 tions, and to adjust the earth's resources, so far as he 
 can, to meet his needs. Therefore, to understand the 
 earth we must consider the life and work of mankind. 
 A study of the earth without this would be dry indeed. 
 
 li the above is true, we must select from the material 
 in the geographies that which seems to bear most di- 
 rectly on the economic and social life of the people. We 
 must also determine the essential minimum which every 
 pupil should possess. And again the order and arrange- 
 ment of this minimum must be so that it becomes a 
 permanent possession. 
 
 In the study of a continent this minimum essential 
 must be clearly marked out. Without this the pupil will 
 grope in the dark and waste much energy in his study. 
 If this minimum essentia! is based on the economical 
 and social life of man it becomes interesting, and ques- 
 tions will grow out of it which will attract the atten- 
 tion of the pupils. These questions will become live 
 issues and much interest will arise. 
 
 Here are some of the minimum essentials in the study 
 of a continent: 
 
 1 . Location 
 
 Favorable or not favorable to be used to man's ad- 
 vantage. Is it in the hot region or the cold? How will 
 this afifect man's energies? How does the location com- 
 pare with other continents? It is understood that the 
 pupil has had a general study of the globe. 
 
 2. Coastline 
 
 Much depends on this if we study it in its relation to 
 man. The harbors and the coastline determine largely 
 the trade relations with other countries. Compare the 
 coastline with other continents. Compare the harbors. 
 Name and locate the principal harbors. How are they 
 related to other harbors? 
 
 3. Surface 
 
 Here the pupil must get a complete image of the 
 general surface of the continent. He must see it as a 
 whole and not in parts. This surely is one of the es- 
 sential minimums. The mountain ranges must be 
 imaged, the valleys must be seen and the large rivers 
 draining these valleys must be clearly marked out. The 
 pupil should have a bird's-eye view of the whole conti- 
 nent. Here is the height of land and from this place 
 the rivers drain the country in every direction. This 
 must become a permanent possession. Compare them 
 with other continents studied. Compare the rivers, the 
 mountains, etc. 
 
 4. Drainage 
 
 Take up the large rivers and study them as to the 
 effect on the development of the continent. Are they 
 interrupted by falls and rapids? Study the general di- 
 rections and note how they affect the commerce of the 
 continent. Note the lakes and their effect on the com- 
 merce of the continent. Compare their importance with 
 other lakes of the world. 
 
 5. Climate — Temperature 
 
 How does the heat afifect the development of the 
 country? What effect does it have on the people? 
 Study the isothermal maps. Note the rainfall. Note 
 how this affects the habitation of the continent. Some 
 places too much rain falls; other places too little. Note 
 the wind belts to find out why the rainfall is as it is. 
 Why is it that certain parts of the continent are barren? 
 Get a general idea of the rainfall of the entire conti- 
 nent. Much depends on the rainfall and this should be 
 carefully studied. Pupils should understand the wind 
 belts, the prevailing winds and just where the rainfall 
 is great and where it is little. Note the jungle and the 
 desert and know the reasons for them. 
 
 The above work must be arranged in such a way that 
 there will be a problem to solve. The problem in the 
 study of one continent may be altogether different from 
 that of another. In the study of Africa the question 
 or problem might be, Why has the development of 
 Africa been much slower than that of the other conti- 
 nents? The five points above should be worked thru 
 to prove this statement. ' 
 
 In the study of Europe the problem would be alto- 
 gether different. The problem may be put in one ques- 
 tion or it may be in a series of questions. The general 
 question for Europe might be. Importance in the prog- 
 ress of the world. If the outline given above is studied 
 with special reference to the question, the minimum 
 essentials will be developed. Or we might put three 
 questions, as follows: Why is Russia called the land of 
 silence? Why is Great Britain or the United Kingdom 
 the greatest exporter of manufactured goods? Prove 
 that Switzerland is the playground of Europe as well as 
 the workshop of the Swiss. 
 
 If the pupils will solve the questions they will gain 
 a working knowledge of the physical, the industrial, 
 commercial and descriptive aspects of the continent. 
 This way of studying a continent will develop system 
 and will cause the pupil to get the right conception of 
 geography. He will learn not to take mere statements 
 but will learn to search for the cause. 
 
 It is very necessary to have a wall map or a relief 
 map always before the pupils. Things talked about 
 should be definitely located. Much energy is wasted in 
 geography teaching by talking about and reading about 
 things, places, etc., that the pupils have no idea where 
 they are. They are away, somewhere, they know not 
 where. Such teaching will have no good effect. It will 
 leave the pupil in less time than it took to study it. In 
 the study of the continent the location of all parts 
 studied should be fixed. Drill should follow the study. 
 These essential minimum facts must be fixed and fixed 
 well. 
 
 If these facts are not fixed, the teaching of the con- 
 tinent in detail later will have but little effect. Much 
 energy will be wasted, for the pupil will not know what 
 he is reading because he has no related facts to com- 
 pare it with. The study of the political divisions will 
 largely be memory work if the minimum essentials are 
 not well founded. 
 
 Plans for Efficiency in Teaching History 
 
 Supt. G. B. Coffman 
 
 The greatest factor in the recitation is the teacher. I 
 am aware that teachers spend most of the time in their 
 meetings, discussing the course of study or school legis- 
 lation. These are minor points compared with the 
 teacher. What we need is more teachers of character, 
 teachers full of enthusiasm for the subject of history, 
 teachers who are trained to investigate and to think, 
 
 and teachers who know the best methods of presenting 
 the subject to the children. 
 
 The Teacher's Preparation 
 
 The teacher should come to her class well prepared, 
 
 and have something definite to give her class. She needs 
 
 to continue to read on the subject matter and keep in 
 
 close touch with the economic, the social and political 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 25 
 
 thought of the day. Above all, she needs to study her 
 class-room methods and the methods of othei teachers. 
 This is essential to all growing teachers. 
 Equipment 
 
 The teacher must see that the room is permeated with 
 the historical atmosphere. It takes a skillful teacher to 
 do this. If the school does not furnish what is desired 
 to create such atmosphere, she must use her ingenuity 
 to supply it. There must be maps, pamphlets, pictures, 
 diagrams, charts and bulletins. These are just as neces- 
 sary as a laboratory for chemistry or physics. With 
 such an equipped room, pupils will become interested. 
 Planning the Work 
 
 No teacher can be successful unless she plans her work. 
 She should know before school begins just what she 
 hopes to accomplish. There must be a purpose running 
 thru the entire course, and each lesson must be so 
 planned to help accomplish this aim. There are three 
 great currents running thru all history. (1) The in- 
 dividuality of the people which deals with the social and 
 economical side. (2) The people acting as a whole, as 
 a unit. This brings in the forms and practices of the 
 rulers or governments in expressing their united wills. 
 (3) The relations with other peoples or nations. 
 
 Many times these currents flow together but they can 
 be studied as tho they were separate. The teacher 
 should always hold these in mind and so plan the lessons 
 so that each lesson will contribute to the general plan 
 of the term's work. Some subjects are largely economic 
 or social, others may be political or pertain to foreign 
 aflfairs. Whatever they may be, the plans should be such 
 that the lesson will bring the class near to the goal, the 
 plan for the term. No subject in history should be 
 studied for itself alone. It should help some on the 
 genera! plan. At this point is where history teachers 
 fail. They, many of them, fail to make connection. The 
 story was interesting but it was away, somewhere, no 
 one knows. It is soon forgotten because it is not con- 
 nected up with the main line. The teacher nor the pupil 
 sees anything in the story, so far as the development of 
 the nation is concerned. 
 
 Condncting the Recitation 
 
 Much depends on the way of conducting the recitation. 
 Many teachers do the most of the reciting. Take your 
 bearing and see if you are doing it. How many times 
 the pupils are restless under such recitations. Such reci- 
 tations are failures. The pupils must be living over again 
 the history; they must be feeling and acting as did the 
 people of whom they are studying. Reverse the recita- 
 tion. Have the pupils to ask questions. The recitation 
 should be a conference between the pupils and the 
 teacher. One should ask as many questions as the other. 
 Of course the teacher must be the leader and should 
 guide and hold the thought along the lines so planned. 
 Have pupils ask a series of questions on some subject 
 and have them direct the questions to the class or the 
 teacher. Under such guidance watch the interest grow. 
 Note how the pupils will come prepared for such work. 
 Step out of the class and permit, occasionally, some pupil 
 to conduct the class. They may be a little noisier than 
 when you are there. In time, under such guidance, the 
 pupils will become methodical. 
 
 Assigning the Lesson 
 
 I should always assign the lesson for the next day at 
 the beginning of the recitation. The average time for 
 such assignment is about one-fifth of the time of the 
 recitation. The plans for the students should carefully 
 be laid down. No skillful teacher will assign by page. 
 Yet how many history teachers never get beyond this 
 kind of assignment. The assignment should point out 
 the difficulties and should point out the essentials and 
 the non-essentials. Problems of thought should be given, 
 and tests should be pointed out which the pupils can 
 apply to themselves. Pupils should not be permitted 
 to take the assignment on scraps of paper. Have a note 
 book for the purpose. They should copy the assign- 
 ment in this book. Occasionally, pupils themselves may 
 make the assignment. They can anticipate what is to 
 come and it is a good lesson for them to make the 
 
 assignment. But, remember, not as so many teachers 
 do it, by the page. An example of this where pupils 
 may be asked to make the assignment would be at the 
 close of the civil war. The situation would reveal to 
 them the return of the soldiers to peaceful conditions 
 and the restoration or the handling of the seceded states 
 and the settlement of the slave question. 
 Definite Types of Recitations 
 
 The history teacher should have definite types of reci- 
 tations and should develop them and hold to them as 
 near as possible. Reproduction is the simplest type. 
 Some history should be reproduced by memorizing. 
 Examples of this, some sections of the constitution 
 should be memorized word for word. History teachers 
 should not decry this value. 
 
 Committing Dates 
 
 The pupils should be trained in the time value. There 
 is much in fixing the relation of events. Teachers used 
 to put too much time on dates and of late years, too 
 little. Pupils should be trained to commit dates and 
 to have a conception of the time. Teachers should work 
 out devices to teach time relations. 
 The Map Work 
 
 The teacher of history must not forget the map work. 
 This is essential because many of the pupils have but 
 little conception of location. History to mean some-" 
 thing must be localized. Too often, France, Italy or 
 Holland means somewhere in Europe to many of the 
 pupils. Cincinnati, St. Louis or Chicago means out west 
 some place. The place should be located. Geographical 
 conditions should be reviewed. Outline maps may be 
 used to excellent advantage. 
 
 Getting Clear Statements of Facts 
 
 Accurate and clear statements are hard to get from 
 students. This fault lies at the door of all the teachers. 
 We are too eager to get over the ground and we are 
 apt to correct the statement for the pupil. It is much 
 easier to do this than to have the pupil do it himself. 
 Often bad language is used, language that is not clear 
 in its meaning. In most cases the subject matter is 
 just as hazy as the language and the teacher should take 
 the time to see that the pupil makes the recitation in a 
 clear, logical way. It may be necessary for the pupil 
 to refresh his memory. In the long run you will be 
 rewarded if time and attention are given to this all along 
 the line of teaching. Pupils will learn that it must be 
 done that way and they will seek to do it that way the 
 first time. Get a clear statement of the facts and have 
 the paragraphs well worked out. 
 
 CmnulatiTe Reviews 
 
 There is much need of cumulative review. It may be 
 hard for the class to do this. But to follow the plan 
 for the term, it is very necessary. This review should 
 be carefully planned. I do not mean miscellaneous re- 
 views. An example of this review might be as follows: 
 Each new tariff bill studied, have the class review the 
 previous bills studied. Each new law studied concerning 
 banking, have the pupils review the previous laws on 
 this subject. The same should be of slavery, reciprocity, 
 etc. At the close of the term the pupils will know the 
 trend of the subject thru the entire history of the period. 
 Written Tests 
 
 There is much value in written tests. These tests 
 should be short, five or ten minutes. This gives the 
 pupil a chance to arrange the thought and to express it 
 on paper. The pupils should do the work. They should 
 grade the papers and make the estimates of the worth 
 of the papers. They should have the privilege of chal- 
 lenging the work of any critic. Reasons should be 
 given. Questions may be asked. Often the pupils should 
 make their own questions, with the understanding that 
 they are to cover certain fields. Very thoughtful ques- 
 tions will often be asked. The fact that they are to ask 
 questions will cause a very careful examination of the 
 subject matter. 
 
 Using the Blackboard 
 
 Another type of recitation is the use of the blackboard. 
 How many teachers fail to use the board. So many 
 things may be placed before the eyes of the pupils. 
 
26 
 
 such'as outlines, maps, etc. The pupils should have the 
 privilege of placing outlines, maps and answers on the 
 board for inspection and criticism. It is a means of 
 learning thru sight as well as hearing. 
 
 Reciting With Open Books 
 
 I once visited a teacher where the recitation was con- 
 ducted with the open books. I noticed that the teacher 
 was directing the questions in such a way that pupils 
 could not repeat language of the book and answer them. 
 The type of questions must compel criticism of facts, 
 comparison of events, judgment on the action of men 
 and inferences based on the written word. If the teacher 
 has the ability to conduct such a recitation it becomes 
 valuable to the pupils. 
 
 Getting the Thought 
 
 The real object is to have pupils assimilate. It is very 
 hard sometimes to distinguish whether the pupil is recit- 
 ing the author or the subject. Sometimes he remembers 
 phrases and even paragraphs and is able to recite them, 
 . knowingly. But when questioned, he fails to have the 
 
 u — — 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 facts. He docs not understand. With some pupils it 
 is easier to commit language than it is to learn the mean- 
 ing of that language. Pupils will usually take the easiest 
 way to satisfy the teacher. The teacher should conduct 
 the recitation so that the pupils will not be tempted to 
 commit language where he should be getting thought. 
 Mental Images of Places and Events 
 It is hard to get the mental image fixed. Much of 
 the teaching gets no further than the symbols. What 
 the teacher wants to do, is to transport the pupils to the 
 time and place of the event. Let them see and hear the 
 people as they were. Let them know the manners, 
 the customs. Let them reproduce the mental, moral 
 and physical conditions under which the actors lived. 
 Let us remove the prejudice and sophistications as near 
 as possible carried down to the present limes. Let us 
 attempt to make the pupils feel that they are living 
 the lives of those people. When they know their prob- 
 lems, they will be able to judge much better. Such 
 teaching will be real history to them. Let us strive for 
 such tcacliing. 
 
 History for Children Applied 
 
 Supt. G. B. Coffman 
 
 There is a great temptation on 'the part of the teacher 
 and the text book maker to build the past on exceptional 
 characters. Only the very fortunate or the very unfortu- 
 nate characters are used in history. The thoughts and 
 feelings of the common people are not taken in con- 
 sideration. The great Napoleon is considered but the 
 thoughts and feeling of the common French people are 
 not taken in consideration. It is only the ambition of 
 the great general. The journalism of the present day 
 is typical of this fact. Only the exciting things, such 
 as a murder, scandal, etc., excites the public. The 
 thoughts and feelings of the masses are not spoken of 
 in the journals. If they are they are only noticed by a 
 select class of people. We should look for facts that 
 are characteristic of former times, and thru these charac- 
 teristic facts seek the really characteristic elements. 
 
 Local History 
 
 We must seek at first the local elements, that which 
 pertains to local history. Thru these local elements we 
 must compare the present with the past. At first the 
 units must be small. It may be an old fashioned house 
 or a fence. It may be thru pictures or casts that we 
 can lead the children to compare the past with the pres- 
 ent. If the child cannot be made to sec in detail how 
 the people lived, if he cannot understand how they 
 worked and what they worked with, it is impossible for 
 him to know their thoughts and feeUngs. He cannot 
 reason intelligently on the forces which caused the peo- 
 ple to do as they did. If we could cause the child to 
 visualize a few of the conditions under which the men 
 of former times did their work we would provide a be- 
 ginning for history teaching. The visualization of the 
 past should begin early. The fiUing in of this back- 
 ground of history is very essential. It is much better 
 than disembodied acts or sentiments. There are too many 
 of historical characters taught without this background. 
 Without this background they become just characters 
 and not real living men. 
 
 Making History Real 
 
 History from the beginning should be based in realities. 
 There is need of constant concrete illustrations. We 
 need to lead the children to house-building, cooking, 
 sewing, weaving, etc. Those things which will cause 
 them to live thru the same age we are trying to teach. 
 While we are doing this we must remember that all 
 children do not know about fishing, hunting or sailing in 
 a canoe. We must also remember that what a police- 
 man does in a modern city is not typical of an Indian 
 village. We must also remember that the child can see 
 the past only thru the present. This being true we must 
 build on what the child knows. We must often turn to 
 
 words for impressions for what men did in the past. 
 These words must call to mind something that is fa- 
 miliar to the child so that he can compare it with that 
 of the past. Every eflfort should be made to tell the 
 story concretely. The constant aim should be to 
 strengthen the sense of reality. 
 
 Many of the biographies in history are representative 
 characters; but there are many that are not. Too often 
 the exceptional is given and the pupil does not get the 
 real thoughts and feelings of the masses. There is too 
 much in the histories that give the impression that all 
 good men are dead. The reason of this is we do not 
 visualize enough; we see only the popular side. It is 
 in the early stage of history that the pupil should begin 
 to look at the background, this will lead him early to be- 
 gin to generalize for himself. He will also make sum- 
 maries. There is a place even for picture? painted in 
 generalizations. 
 
 Just as soon as wc commence to visualize the past 
 to the child, he commences to judge what the thoughts 
 and feelings of the people were. The more clearly a 
 particular man in a particular act in a particular situ- 
 ation is depicted the more readily can we represent to 
 ourselves his mental state. It is not so much to think 
 the past as present, but the problem is to think of the 
 past as past. It would be a difficult thing to have "The 
 Little Puritan Boy" to live in this age and in Massachu- 
 setts, the same place he lived many years ago. He would 
 appear out of place. What we want is to get back to 
 the time when he lived, how he lived, and the problems 
 that he had to solve in his every-day life. The nearer 
 we can see him engaged in the problems of his time, the 
 better we will understand the history of that time. Here 
 is where the history teacher fails. We are too often 
 contented to give the time, place, number and a few 
 other general statements which mean absolutely nothing 
 to the child unless he sees the backgrourid. unless he 
 visualizes some particular acts. 
 
 As I said, historians are too fond of giving the spec- 
 tacular. It is quite interesting to write a glowing de- 
 scription of the battle of Lexington. It is quite interest- 
 ing to see the progress of the battle. But the question 
 is, do the children identify themselves with the thoughts 
 and feelings which prompted the battle? Is it not true 
 that most of the children see only the clash of arms? 
 How different it would if they had been given the back- 
 ground of the history. That is, if we had caused them 
 to live thru the struggle between the colonies before the 
 battle, the things we commonly teach as the causes of 
 the war. Some text books and most teachers give but 
 a few lessons on the causes and then proceed to give 
 five times as much time to the war. It is far more 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 27 
 
 important for the pupil to know the thoughts and the 
 feelings of the people than it is to see the fight. To 
 know these thoughts and feelings, they must be led into 
 the homes of the common people and must see them as 
 they live. This life must be visualized. After this is 
 done the rest is easy. It will almost do itself. 
 
 How to Help Children to Visualize the Past 
 
 But the problem of the teacher is how to visualize 
 this life and fill in the background of history. It takes 
 time to do this, and it should be begun early. The first 
 year of school is not too soon. There are many things 
 in the reading, in the language and the expression work 
 in the lower grades that will strengthen this work if it 
 is put before the child in the right way. 
 
 There are many plans proposed and used for the pur- 
 pose of causing the children to live thru the past. Some 
 get good results by dramatization. This will cause the 
 children to search for particular things, it will cause them 
 to visualize specific acts under certain conditions. If 
 well done, this plan will make many pictures on the 
 minds of the children which will be useful 
 
 Another plan is to have children write letters, repre- 
 senting themselves as living in that time. Let them tell 
 why they like to live where they are supposed to live. 
 Or let them write a short history of the time. Or let 
 them have a debate on some question of the times, say, 
 on the trouble that Bacon had in the Virginia colony 
 or the question that brought on the French and Indian 
 war. In this work have them bring out the common 
 every-day life of the common people. 
 
 Historv for children should be a succession of con- 
 
 crete examples. This is much better than a body of 
 generalized knowledge. This generalization will find its 
 way into the mind of the child in time. 
 
 THE MUM FAMILY 
 
 There is a funny family, 
 
 Of which I often hear. 
 In which the difference in size 
 
 To me seems very queer. 
 The family, I judge, is small — 
 
 Two seems to be the sum — 
 And Minnie Mum the one is called; 
 
 The other, Max I. Mum. 
 
 Now Minnie Mum is always shown 
 
 To be exceeding small. 
 While Max I. Mum a giant is, 
 
 So very large and tall. 
 But hand in hand they march about 
 
 As fond as fond can be 
 And proud they are to let the world 
 
 Their striking contrast see. 
 
 This thought' I might have given you 
 
 In one short rhyming verse. 
 And that would be the minimum. 
 
 Or, what would be much worse. 
 Thru stanzas something like a score 
 
 My muse I might let hum 
 To tell the same, and that, you see, 
 
 Would be the maximum. 
 
 ■ — Arthur J. Burdick. 
 
 *i !•«»«, I 
 
 METHODS IN PRIMARY ARITHMETIC 
 
 Devices for Developing Skill in the Use of Numbers 
 
 Mary A. Br 
 
 The work of acquiring skill and facility in the use of 
 numbers, especially with pupils in the lower grades, is 
 two-fold. First, the child must, by dealing with con- 
 crete things, solve his own little problems. That is, he 
 learns that 5 and 6 are 11. How does he learn it? Prob- 
 ably by counting out 5 sticks in one group, 6 in an- 
 other, and then counting the entire number. He learns 
 that one-half of 6 is 3 by dividing the given number 
 of blocks or sticks into two equal groups. All these 
 number facts that he in time acquires he finds out him- 
 self by reasoning and by working with the given num- 
 ber of concrete objects. 
 
 Thus far the teacher's task is easy for the child inter- 
 ested so long as he is active and can employ his hands 
 in his work, but the work is by no means complete. 
 He has found out that 5 sticks and 6 sticks are 11 sticks, 
 that one-half of 6 sticks are 3 sticks, but these facts 
 must be so drilled upon that he can give the answers 
 without an instant's hesitation and with no thought of 
 sticks or blocks. When he can do this the task is com- 
 plete. 
 
 But to complete it. to accomplish the task of making 
 the required combinations in the second grade mechan- 
 ical, takes a vast amount of drill, and how uninteresting 
 this drill becomes to the child if the teacher is not in- 
 genious enough to employ many devices with the aim 
 of relieving the monotony and giving the little people 
 something definite to work for. It must be put in such 
 a way that it arouses competition among the members 
 of the class and in a manner calculated to hold the at- 
 tention of everyone. 
 
 In securing the desired results in addition, the fol- 
 lowing little game has been found very successful. 
 
 With little drill the children will add by tens. To 
 add nine or eleven to a number appears to be quite a 
 problem, and in your class some little fellow is sure 
 to be laboriously counting it up on his fingers, but if 
 
 he becomes interested in winning the game he will be- 
 gin to use your method and in a short time he will not 
 hesitate in adding nine or eleven to any number. It 
 has become purely mechanical and the child's task has 
 been made an easy one. 
 
 Suppose "nines" are being added. The child can al- 
 ready add ten to any number. The next step is to 
 subtract one, thus adding nine instead of ten. In a short 
 time the process becomes mechanical and the mind is 
 able to omit the addition of ten and give the correct re- 
 sult immediately. Other numbers may be drilled upon 
 in the same manner. ' To enliven the drill and to make 
 the pupil accurate and rapid, play the game of, We will 
 say, "nines." 
 
 Send the children to the board and give a number, 
 say six, and the first child is to add nine to it and to 
 put only the result on the board. As soon as the re- 
 sult is written the next child adds nine to it and puts 
 the result on the board. This goes rapidly around the 
 entire class. Any mistake made is left until some child 
 corrects it, then the one who made the mistake and all 
 those who allowed it to pass uncorrected take their 
 seats and the game goes on. The one who remains long- 
 est at the board wins the game. 
 
 Because each child is eager to correct a mistake and 
 to hold his place, you have gained for the children three 
 important things, concentrated attention, accuracy and 
 rapidity. After they have learned to add quickly and 
 accurately give them the following drill that the num- 
 ber facts may become fixed in their memories. 
 
 On cards 3 by 9 inches, either paste or print num- 
 bers, one number on each card. Arrange the cards in 
 front of the class on the blackboard ledge. Name a 
 sum, for example, IS. The child goes to the front and 
 takes the cards having 7 and 8 on them, faces the class, 
 and makes the statement, "7 and 8 are IS." As soon 
 as the statement is given, some child at his seat is ready 
 
28 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 with a concrete example, as "I have 7 cents, my mother 
 gives nic 8 cents more; I then have 15 cents." These 
 examples should be as varied as possible. As soon as 
 the concrete example is given correctly the child hold- 
 ing the cards should place them on the teacher's table 
 and pass to his seat. The work is continued in this 
 way until all the different combinations have been taken 
 from the blackboard ledge. 
 
 If the teacher cannot obtain printed flash cards she 
 can easily make them herself by pasting numbers from 
 a calendar on pasteboard in the manner shown: 
 
 Flash these before the class, allowing only an instant 
 for their answer. In this way a large number of com- 
 binations may be mastered in a ■ very short time. 
 
 The use of these cards may be so varied by the in- 
 genious teacher that the children will always look for- 
 
 ward with eagerness to the rapid drill at the close of 
 class. 
 
 To vary the review and to develop speed and ac- 
 curacy, the teacher should prepare for the work by se- 
 lecting the problems and combinations she wishes to re- 
 view, having the answers ready. She also prepares a 
 sheet of paper with the children's names and a blank 
 space opposite each name. The entire room's attention 
 is obtained, the problem is read distinctly once and the 
 children are to solve it as quickly as possible. 
 
 As a child finishes a problem he runs to the front 
 and places his paper on the teacher's desk. She cor- 
 rects them as fast as they come in, grading the first 
 correct solution 100, and placing the grade on the paper 
 opposite the child's name. The second paper is graded 
 95, the third 90, and so on down. Incorrect papers are 
 merely checked and returned. 
 
 To avoid confusion each child returns to his seat by 
 running along the side of the room and down to his 
 seat. 
 
 Two children may choose sides for this and the side 
 averaging the highest wins, or each pupil's markings 
 may be averaged separately. 
 
 Teaching^ Primary Number Combinations 
 
 Hazel 
 
 Second grade children should have learned the forty- 
 five number combinations by the end of the school year. 
 They should have them so well learned that the result 
 of a given combination can be given quickly. If this 
 necessary part of numbers is mastered the more formal 
 side of arithmetic can receive its share of attention in 
 the third grade. 
 
 In teaching second grade numbers ' a large part of 
 the work is concrete. This is good and it must be kept 
 up thruout the grades. But this concrete work must 
 be a means toward fixing the abstract facts. There 
 comes a time when we expect these facts to be auto- 
 matic. The sight of a given combination should sug- 
 gest the result. 
 
 To render the combination automatic, the suggestions 
 which follow may be helpful. In teaching the odd com- 
 binations like 
 
 4 6 7 8 
 
 +3 +5 +6 +7 
 
 etc., there is nothing better than associating them with 
 the even combinations 
 
 3 5 6 7 
 
 -f3 +5 +6 +7 
 
 etc. The children learn them quicker than when they 
 are ta-ught separately. 
 
 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 
 
 +2 +2 +3 +3 +4 +4 +5 +5 
 
 In the above problems the children can easily be led 
 to see that the two combinations of each group are 
 similar, except that the result of the odd combination 
 is one more than the result of the even combination. 
 We do not expect second grade children to do much 
 reasoning, but such logical thinking as is required in 
 the above is not beyond their comprehension. 
 
 Not much written work should be given as the children 
 are given a chance to return to that primitive way of 
 counting on their fingers. Rapid oral work is the best. 
 When the combinations are mastered simple addition. 
 
 Augustine , 
 
 in which there is nothing to carry, may be given oc- 
 casionally. The problem may be written on the board 
 before the children and some child be asked to write 
 the answer on the board at once, without giving him 
 time to "work out" the combination. 
 
 If the addition facts are mastered, subtraction takes 
 care of itself. The process of subtraction is nothing 
 
 17 
 more than the addition process. — 8 is nothing more 
 
 than a problem in addition involving the combination 
 
 9 
 -f8. In working this problem the child may say, "8" 
 
 (pointing to 8) "and 9" (writing 9) "are 17" (pointing 
 to 17). It is surprising how quickly children learn to 
 subtract in this way. This method, which is known as 
 the "Austrian Method," is very popular, as it is really 
 simpler than the borrowing process. Simple subtrac- 
 tion problems similar to 
 
 18 15 38 58 
 
 —7 —9 —24 —35 
 
 may be given for quick board work. 
 
 There is nothing like rapid drill work to "fix" the 
 combinations. Five minutes devoted to a snappy drill 
 is not time lost. It ought to be a part of every second 
 grade lesson. A list of combinations similar to the fol- 
 lowing might be placed on the board. 
 
 3 2 6 4 7 
 
 -1-3 +3 +2 +4 +6 
 
 and the children be asked to begin at the left and name 
 the results in rapid order. Stating the problem and 
 result are good, but not in this stage of the work where 
 rapid work is required. To make an appeal to the play 
 instinct, call the starting place "Chicago" or some other 
 city and the place at the right "St. Louis" or some other 
 city suggested by the children. Then have a child travel 
 from one place to the other naming the results in order. 
 Another child who has a watch counts the seconds. 
 
 Addition Drills 
 
 Ida Evans Roger 
 
 Abstract drills upon addition facts of the type 
 14 75 76 84 
 5 7 6 3 etc. 
 
 may be quickly developed by subdividing into the fol- 
 lowing four drills: 
 
 Drill I 
 
 Does units' column exceed nine? 
 
 Work upon this step alone, drilling for rapid answers 
 to the question, not for the reply which indicates the 
 exact number of units. A quick drill response for this 
 continued work is "More" or "Not More." The pur- 
 pose of this drill must be recognized by the teacher; 
 
THE SCHOOL 
 
 that rapid inspection to base work of second step upon 
 is all that is here required. Continue thru sufficient 
 illustrations to establish automatic results. 
 Drill II 
 
 Is tens' column to be increased? 
 
 A quick drill response to this second drill is "Change" 
 or "Not Changed." Step two is now drilled upon as 
 the initial step. The power gained in Drill I to be the 
 child's silent basis of response to this drill; i. e., the 
 child silently inspects units' column to decide whether 
 results there will change the figure in tens" place. Child 
 need not yet decide the exact sum of units' column. 
 If child fails in Drill II, let him work aloud thru Step 
 I, and then see the need of changing his reply; this re- 
 turn to Drill I will be often necessary in dealing with 
 weak pupils, who should be brought to correct their 
 own work, instead of expecting the question to be passed 
 on to a brighter pupil. 
 
 Drill III 
 
 Name tens' column of final result. 
 
 ■ Response will be "teen" or "seventy" or "forty," etc. 
 Here the child's basis for reply is the power gained in 
 previous drill. This, as previous drill, must become 
 
 METHODS BOOK 29 
 
 automatic before final result is called for. Mistake is 
 often made in not impressing a step by sufficient drill. 
 If errors occur during this exercise, halt drill with child 
 who fails, throw hmi back to Drill II, if necessary re- 
 turning to Drill I. Insist on pupil judging and not add- 
 ing at this place, or pupil will be atteinpting to decide 
 units' place before determining the result to announce 
 for tens' column. 
 
 Drill IV 
 
 Give final result. Pupil here names tens' place, and 
 while announcing that result is able to decide the figure 
 for units' place. 
 
 Upon each of the above steps sufficient drill must be 
 given, and a succeeding step must not be attempted 
 until previous step or steps have resulted satisfactorily. 
 Speed in determining first steps is well worth the neces- 
 sary time spent in developing. To call for Drill IV 
 when child has no reckoning basis is not saving the 
 time of the previous drills; it is simply throwing the 
 child back into the old habit of adding units' column 
 and carrying result — instead of developing power to 
 quickly inspect and automatically name the changed 
 figures. 
 
 Reviewing Difficult Facts and Processes in Primary 
 
 im 
 
 Nui 
 
 Mary A. 
 
 One of the most essential things to do in complet- 
 ing the number work in the second grade, is to make 
 a careful review of any difficult facts and processes 
 from the work of the first grade, using objects when- 
 ever necessary. This review so essential in every sub- 
 ject, is especially valuable to the work at this time, since 
 it helps the regular work of the grade by enabling the 
 pupils to learn their new number facts by comparison 
 with known facts, and to make much use of old facts 
 in new relations. The work in this grade must now 
 be marked by greater precision and accuracy. The 
 drawings in construction work must be more accurate 
 and the measurements more exact. 
 
 Long before this, the teacher will have observed that 
 the parts of odd numbers are much more difficult to 
 learn than the parts of even numbers. Frequent re- 
 view and drill exercises are necessary. The principle 
 of comparison must be constantly employed. Teach 
 these odd numbers and their parts by comparison with 
 even numbers. One of the simplest, easiest and com- 
 monest ways to do this is by placing them side by side 
 or one above the other. For illustration, "Since 9 plus 
 9 equals 18, 9 plus 10 must be 19; 7 plus 7 equals 14, 
 then 7 plus 6 equals 13." 
 
 In all of this work, both written and oral, problems 
 in great variety must be given, and all the relations 
 must be stated in correct language. The children must 
 begin to learn the language peculiar to this subject. 
 They should also be taught a number of little things 
 that will add interest to their work, as that c. is the 
 abbreviation for cents; that $ should be placed before 
 any number of dollars, and the number in a pair, a set, 
 a dozen, a score, etc. The writing and reading of num- 
 bers to 1,000 will delight them. 
 
 In most schools whether rural or urban, tl;e compass 
 of the work thus far in the second grade, consists in 
 a mastery of the number relations from 10 to 20 in- 
 clusive. The pupils must be taught the application of 
 these facts in every way possible. The work in draw- 
 ing, the work in construction and the problems arising 
 in their every day affairs must be made use of. 
 
 In addition to this work with the numbers from 10 
 to 20, the adding and subtracting of two-place numbers 
 where no reduction is needed, should be taught, as, 
 24 22 39 48 57 
 
 +32 +47 +20 +11 +22 
 
 bers 
 
 Bronson 
 
 The tables of 2's and 3's should be taught also. The 
 work of this month completes the presentation of new 
 facts included in 'the work of this grade. This leaves 
 some time for drill. 
 
 After trying numerous plans and devices, all of which 
 have been given value or discarded according to the 
 results attained by their use, the following order of tak- 
 ing up the work has been found as good as any. It has 
 seemed the most teachable, since in taking up the work 
 with the number 20, the pupils will readily discover 
 many facts without help, as a result of the work upon 
 the numbers below 20. 
 
 Let the following be some of the facts to be learned. 
 These may be added to at will. 
 
 10+10=20 
 20—10=10 
 2 10's=20 
 i/2of20=10 
 20-H10= 2 
 10 2's =20 
 20H-2 =10 
 
 10th'sof20 
 
 4 5th's=20 
 20-H5 = 4 
 4th's of 20 
 
 5 4's =20 
 20^4 = 5 
 Sth's of 20 
 
 75 
 -23 
 
 96 
 -34 
 
 87 
 
 68 
 —31 
 
 59 
 —27 
 
 To obtain the first facts the children are asked for 
 as many plus of addition facts as they can give with- 
 out the aid of squares or cubes. Such facts as 10 plus 
 10, 19 plus 1, 15 plus 5, will be given readily. Then ask 
 for minus or subtraction facts, and such combinations as 
 20 — 10, 20 — 5, 20 — 1, will be given almost as quickly. 
 
 Note the facts which cannot be obtained in this way 
 and let the children work them out with squares or 
 blocks. The teacher should write all combinations in 
 some conspicuous place on the board as they are given 
 and should leave them there that the children may fre- 
 quently look at and review them. As with all previous 
 numbers, these number facts should be drilled upon 
 rapidly every day. Insist upon rapidity in answers. 
 
 Since the unequal parts of 20 are less familiar and 
 less easily connected with previous knowledge, it may 
 be well to use the objects and discover all the facts by 
 actual count. 
 
 If the tenths of 20 are to be learned for one lesson 
 the procedure is as follows: Each child is asked to count 
 out 20 squares. When all have 20 squares arranged in 
 good order on the desk they are led to think 20 squares 
 a unit by the question "How many squares have you, 
 Mary?" "How many have you, George?" "Julia?" etc., 
 until 20 squares is fixed in the mind of every pupil. In 
 every case the answer should be a complete statement. 
 
 For the next step the teacher directs; "Divide your 
 20 squares into ten equal groups." "How many have 
 
30 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 you in each group, Hazel?" "Mabel?" "Frank?" "Every 
 one hold up one group." "Every one put one of the 
 groups in the upper right hand corner." "What part 
 of your groups is that, Martin?" "What part of yours 
 is that, Charles?" "James?" etc. "Then one-tenth of 
 
 20 is , Arthur?" "You may tell us what one-tenth 
 
 of 20 is, Harold?" Frank?" "Think how you would write 
 one-tenth of 20 on the blackboard. "You may write it, 
 Carrie, Frances, and Donald." 
 
 When the teacher is satisfied they have this, she may 
 proceed in the same manner to help the pupils to find 
 and write all the tenths of 20. Soon they will be happy 
 to discover that they can 'go to the board and write 
 all the ten facts thus, 1/10 of 20 is 2, 2/10 of 20 are 
 4; 3/10 of 20 are 6; 4/10 of 20 are 8; etc. 
 
 The odd numbers such as 17 and 19 are the most diffi- 
 cult for the children, and the use of objects is more 
 necessary when teaching the facts about them than when 
 teaching the even numbers, partly because fewer op- 
 portunities arise for making practical use of them. These 
 facts should be constantly drilled upon. Concrete prob- 
 lems involving the parts of odd numbers should be given 
 by the teacher and the pupils should become accustomed 
 to making problems of their own. 
 
 Such problems as the following may be written on 
 the board. How many 2's in 19? How many left over? 
 How many S's in 19? How many left over? The chil- 
 dren should read the problems, solve and answer with a 
 complete statement, thus, "There are 9 2's and 1 over 
 in 19. There are 3 S's and 4 over in 19." 
 
 Much drill on the table of 3's should be given this 
 month. Write the multiplication table on the black- 
 board and let the children read it thru carefully to 
 themselves. Then erase the products. Let the pupils 
 give the products rapidly in turn around the class, the 
 teacher writing them as given. When completed thus, 
 the teacher will erase all statements, one at a time, the 
 pupils repeating each statement just as it is erased. 
 
 The teacher will then write the column of answers 
 only, saying "Tell me how many 3's are 15." Erase 
 quickly. "In 18," "In 30," etc., the pupils answering' in 
 complete statements each time, as 5 3's are 15, 6 3's are 
 18, etc. This work must be spirited thruout the entire 
 drill. 
 
 For further review, or to vary the drill, the teacher 
 might say, "Now, you may tell me any fact you wish 
 to write on the board." The first pupil might give 6x3 
 equals 18; the second, 4x3 equals 12; the third, 7x3 equals 
 21, and so on, until the entire table of 3's is complete. 
 When complete, the table should be written in columns 
 thus: 
 
 4X3=12 7X3=21 
 
 6X3=18 9X3=27 
 
 When this is done, the first column is erased, leaving 
 the work stand as: 
 
 X3=12 X3=21 
 
 X3=18 X3=27 
 
 The members of the class then step quickly to the 
 blackboard and put in the correct numbers to whichever 
 statements they choose, until the table is again com- 
 plete. Another rapid drill may be had by erasing the 
 last column and filling in answers rapidly in the same 
 manner. 
 
 The pupils then take pencil and paper and write ans- 
 wers only to statements as directed by the teacher. For 
 illustration, the teacher says, "7y.2i" and the pupils write 
 21; "9x3" and they write 27. When the table is com- 
 pleted the teacher reads the statements complete and 
 the pupils check work. "How many had all right?" 
 "How many missed one?" "How many missed two?" 
 
 Some of the following devices may be useful for rapid 
 drill when drawn on the blackboard. The pupil begins 
 with any number and goes around the figure. 
 
 Problems 
 
 A few problems are suggested: 
 
 There are 20 apples in a box. A boy buys a dozen, 
 a girl buys half-dozen. How many are left? 
 
 How many 5-inch pieces of ribbon can I cut from a 
 strip 20 inches long? How much will be left? 
 
 How many yards of lace in a piece 18 feet toBg? 
 
 A Simple Number Table and Its Uses 
 
 Mary 
 Altho there is much difference of opinion in regard 
 to whether arithmetic should be put in the first grade 
 as a regular part of the course, all who have worked 
 with little children know that there are many things 
 related to arithmetic that they can and that they will 
 do, and take a pleasure in doing. In fact, they cannot 
 escape the arithmetic; for just as language tho made 
 a separate subject, vitally enters into every other study, 
 so arithmetic is a phase of all topics in the course, and, 
 besides, is involved in many ways in the management 
 of the school. 
 
 Children take up counting before the school age, and 
 after entering school, they may soon be brought thru 
 simple games and incidental exercises, to get the se- 
 quence of numbers to 100. Interest in the figures mark- 
 ing the pages, the writing on the board of the figures 
 expressing the numbers of girls and boys present in 
 the class, and the various other devices employed by 
 first primary teachers, soon lead to the association of 
 number, name and figure. Now the children are ready 
 to write or make the figures. 
 
 This should not be left to the child's own impulsive, 
 
 D. Bradford 
 undirected efforts. He should be taught to make the 
 figures right and to make them rightly. Right notions 
 of form come from seeing right or perfect forms, and 
 from seeing these forms executed by the teacher. When 
 the learner has the figure-images in mind, then he fixes 
 them permanently by making them himself. He should 
 be taught, from the first attempt, to make the figures 
 rightly, that is to move his hand in the customary or 
 right way. A teacher may put a perfect copy of the 
 figures at the top of the blackboard; but if she pays 
 no attention to how the children's hands move in copy- 
 ing them, or if she does not many times let the children 
 see her hand move in making them, habits may be 
 started that are difficult to break; as when a child draws 
 a 5 beginning at the lower point, and ending with the 
 top stroke, or makes 7 or 2 after the same fashion — 
 peculiarities often observed among upper grade children. 
 When a child can count and can make the figures 
 then he should be encouraged to express his counting 
 as far as he knows. At first he is allowed to write the 
 figures in columns as best he can, and the jumble that 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 31 
 
 results is familiar to all observers of children's eiTorts. 
 But after he is familiar with the sequence and has skill 
 in figure-making, then he can be taught to arrange his 
 work as is shown in accompanying illustration. 
 
 All teachers have observed how children love to put 
 lines about anything they have drawn or written. They 
 fence in the words they have written or the little draw- 
 ing they have made. The making of this table seems 
 to appeal to the same apparently instinctive thing. 
 
 The teacher should make a similar table on nianila 
 paper, having the figures large and black, and as beau- 
 tifully made as they can be drawn. This hung in view 
 will do its' own silent work of establishing ideals of 
 form, and will furnish a ready means for effective criti- 
 cism and correction. 
 
 There is not a grade from first to eighth that may 
 not find this table helpful for drill purposes. In the 
 second grade, or wherever the course directs that addi- 
 tion and subtraction shall centralize effort, this chart 
 and the pointer of the teacher furnish the drill exer- 
 cise. Example: "Add 2 to every number I point to." 
 By increasing tlie addend as power in succeeding grades 
 increases, the means is at hand for the practice by which 
 alone facility and accuracy may be maintained. Ex- 
 amples: "Add 21 to every number I point to." "Sub- 
 tract 12," etc., for higher grades. 
 
 One reason why long division is considered so diffi- 
 cult is that pupils have not been trained to perform, as 
 independent operations, the different processes in the 
 longer more complicated one. .\sk an average class to 
 perform on paper a problem in long division, and direct 
 theiji to do all the "figuring" necessary on the same 
 sheet of paper and to hand it in just as it was done. 
 The paper will be found spattered over with multipli- 
 cations of the divisor by various integers, showing that 
 the pupils have not fieen taught from the start the use 
 of trial divisor and trial dividend, and that they need 
 drill in multiplying a two-place, or tlirce-place number 
 by an integer and holding the product in mind instead 
 of finding it by the written process. 
 
 The number table is a handy means to such a drill, 
 and by its use, pupils soon become able to give promptly 
 the product of any two-place number by any integer. 
 
 When pupils have been tauglit from the start to 
 use trial-divisor and trial-dividend, they are never con- 
 fronted by a *l3roblem more difficult than determining 
 the quotient of a two-place number by an integer; be- 
 cause the' trial-divisor is the number expressed by the 
 left-hand figure of the divisor, or that number plus one, 
 
 A Simple Fraction 
 
 Mary D 
 
 "It seems to be the experience of teachers generally 
 that a little mental work, rapid, spirited, perhaps with 
 some healthy, generous rivalry to add spice to the ex- 
 ercise, should form prrrt of every recitation thruout the 
 course in arithmetic." — David Eugene Smith in Teach- 
 ers' College Record for January, 1909. 
 
 This quotation is my authority for introducing to your 
 attention another table, which has proved helpful as a 
 means to "rapid, spirited" mental work — this time in 
 fractions. 
 
 A few words by way of introduction seem appropri- 
 ate. We no longer have a stated time for "beginning 
 fractions," after the fundamental operations, "properties 
 of numbers," etc., have been mastered. Children use 
 fractions almost from the start of their work in num- 
 bers as they do in life. The finding of one IVilf of an 
 object, by breaking or cutting it in two, is a familiar 
 experience: they also know ho<v' to divide a number of 
 objects into two equal groups. While the half and the 
 fourth arc probably the most familiar fraction ideas, on 
 account of their frequent recurrence in the activities of 
 home and playground, the third and the fifth are easily 
 understood. Pupils are early taught how to express 
 these ideas, and to use them regularlyin the_ partition 
 process; as J4 of 6 apples equals 3 apples. 
 
 The classic lament of the arithmetic stricken child, 
 
 as 2 when the divisor is 23, or 4, when the divisor is 
 41, and 3 when the divisor is 29, or 5, when the divisor 
 is 47, etc. The trial dividend is always the number ex- 
 pressed by the left-hand, or the left-hand figures of the 
 dividend and partial dividends. 
 
 Hence the ability to give readily the quotient and 
 remainder of every fiund^er in the table by every in- 
 
 Tc? b le o-f IVu KK) b e i"5 . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 /O 
 
 QO 
 
 30 
 
 ^0 
 
 6-6 
 
 LO 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 Jil 
 
 3 1 
 
 ^/ 
 
 SI 
 
 6>/ 
 
 7/ 
 
 ?/ 
 
 9 / 
 
 p. 
 
 JZ 
 
 .2 5 
 
 3S 
 
 ^?. 
 
 S2 
 
 6,2 
 
 7S 
 
 7:2 
 
 92 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 "rS 
 
 6-3 
 
 6S 
 
 73 
 
 h-3 
 
 93 
 
 ^ 
 
 >i 
 
 Zi 
 
 3 i 
 
 ^V 
 
 S-'r 
 
 6y 
 
 79 
 
 s-9 
 
 9^ 
 
 A' 
 
 16- 
 
 Zir 
 
 3i- 
 
 '^i 
 
 S'6- 
 
 ^6- 
 
 76- 
 
 ?5' 
 
 96- 
 
 C 
 
 u 
 
 2& 
 
 at 
 
 V6 
 
 Sc 
 
 LL 
 
 7C 
 
 ?<J 
 
 9L 
 
 y 
 
 17 
 
 Z7 
 
 37 
 
 ^7 
 
 S-7 
 
 G7 
 
 7 7 
 
 ?7 
 
 97 
 
 f 
 
 \i 
 
 2? 
 
 3^ 
 
 Y^ 
 
 S^ 
 
 Li 
 
 y^ 
 
 ^f 
 
 9^ 
 
 9 
 
 If 
 
 5f 
 
 39 
 
 V9\ff 
 
 &9 
 
 79 
 
 ?9 
 
 99 
 
 t_-£_, 1 
 
 teger, covers the entire field of cases that can come to 
 any one in working division. If drill work in both the 
 lines mentioned has been carried on for weeks before 
 long division is attempted, the difficulties are greatly 
 reduced, the pupil needing only to learn the form, and 
 piece together processes of which he has a mastery. 
 
 In fractions the chart may be used for drill and for 
 assignment; as, "Find 2/3 of all even numbers above 
 .iO," or "Find how many times 2y2 is contained in all 
 odd numbers between 20 and 50." 
 
 !ln the teaching of factors and multiples, of prime 
 and composite numbers, the pointer may dictate more 
 rapidly than the teacher's voice, the numbers to be dealt 
 with. 
 
 So thi^ simple piece of apparatus is reconnnended as 
 a help in dealing with one aspect of arithmetic work, 
 the formal aspect, wherein children have to do with 
 pure numbers, their combination and manipulation. 
 
 Good teaching of arithmetic demands, besides the 
 mechanical manipulations involved in formal arithmetic, 
 that children shall be able to reason unerringly the 
 various steps required to solve problems. 
 
 Table and Its Uses 
 
 Bradford 
 
 which you will remember, ended in the doleful climax, 
 "and fractions drives me mad," need never be heard 
 in these days of enlightened pedagogy, even when more 
 formal work in fractions is later undertaken. 
 
 Somewhere in the intermediate grades pupils should 
 be given a systematic view of fractions, involving all 
 operations in fractions and much application. There are 
 two phases or stages of the systematic presentation of 
 fractions, preferably given, respectively in the fifth and 
 sixth grades. 
 
 1. The objective phase, using fractions with denom- 
 inators not exceeding 12. 
 
 Here every operation is taught objectively; that is, 
 is experienced by the pupils, and no formal processes 
 arc used unless discovered by the pupil. They are not 
 needed. 
 
 2. Tiie formal phase, involving fractions of larger 
 denominations. Here each process is approached thru 
 the corresponding easy phase; then increased in diffi- 
 culty until the formal processes, like least common 
 multiple, cancellation and inverted divisor, are seen to 
 lie needed as a means to greater facility and ease in 
 computation. 
 
 The following suggestions are offered as to method 
 in first phase: 
 
 1. If necessary, make clear the idea of the fraction 
 
32 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 by means of objects. Paper folding and cutting is the 
 neatest device, and one easily used as a class exercise. 
 2. With halves, fourths and eights introduce the 
 pupil systematically to all operations of fractions. By 
 selecting these most familiar fraction-notions, atten- 
 tion can be centered in the new things to be done with 
 
 Drill Tible 
 
 I n 
 
 Tr 
 
 r^c± I. ons. 
 
 
 c 
 
 /-? 
 
 ? 
 
 (. 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 
 2' 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 V 
 
 
 / 
 
 F 
 
 V 
 
 6- 
 
 y 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 3, 
 2. 
 
 J: 
 .z 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 6- 
 
 v 
 
 7 
 5, 
 
 _2 
 5 
 
 (0 
 
 9 
 
 1. 
 z 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 /o 
 
 y 
 
 i- 
 
 z 
 
 /o 
 
 iti 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 
 r 
 
 6- 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 5- 
 
 t 
 
 a. 
 
 2- 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 10 
 
 2, 
 
 S 
 
 ? 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 them. A list is given here of all these operations, as 
 commonly found in arithmetics which list, even tho not 
 formally announced to the pupils, should be in the plan 
 of the teacher to give order and progressiveness to her 
 work. 
 
 1. Reduction of fractions to higher and lower terms. 
 
 2. Reduction of fractions to a common denominator. 
 
 3. Reduction of mixed numbers to improper frac- 
 tions. 
 
 4. Reduction of improper fractions to whole or 
 mixed numbers. 
 
 5. Addition of fractions and of mixed numbers. 
 
 6. Subtraction of fractions and of mixed numbers. 
 
 7. Multiplication of fractions by integers. 
 
 8. Multiplication of an integer by a fraction, and of 
 a fraction by a fraction. 
 
 9. Division of a fraction by an integer. 
 
 10. Division of an integer by a fraction and of a 
 fraction by a fraction. 
 
 In introducing these operations the teacher should 
 make sure that the pupil has the correct interpreta- 
 tion of the formal expression. Let him see, for example, 
 that process "7" (above) is not new, 6x^ being no dif- 
 ferent from 6x3 apples in meaning; that (8) is simply 
 partition expressed in another way, ^x6 meaning i/^ of 
 6, into which latter expression it should always be in- 
 terpreted to be imaged or thought clearly, since "Yi 
 times 6" is nonsense; that process (9) is another ex- 
 pression for partition, 3/4H-3, meaning 1/3 of 3/4, the 
 only thing it can mean, or, rather, the only meaning 
 that need be put into it at this stage; that process (10) 
 is measurement of one number by another 3 -^ 2/3 
 meaning, how many 2/3's are there in 3, or 9/3? 
 
 After teaching any of the above operations, mental 
 
 work, and drill are needed to give ease and skill in their 
 use. Here the following table may come in to save 
 much of the teacher's time and energy, and to furnish 
 a means for more rapid dictation than teachers are able 
 to give extemporaneously. 
 
 The following suggestions will show how the table 
 may be used for drill, in the operations listed above; 
 but these by no means exhaust the possibilities of the 
 scheme. 
 
 (1.) Beginning at upper left-hand corner name all 
 fractions not in lowest terms and reduce them. 
 
 (2.) Change all the halves and fourths to eighths. 
 
 (3.) Make mixed numbers of the top row by think- 
 ing the 2 before each proper fraction, and reduce these 
 mixed numbers to improper fractions. Over fifty mixed 
 numbers can be thus made out of the table. 
 
 (4.) Find all the improper fractions in the table and 
 reduce them to whole or mixed numbers. 
 
 (5.) Add the fractions that are in opposite sides of 
 the line that my pointer touches. 
 
 (6.) Find the difference between the fractions on op- 
 opposite sides of the line that my pointer touches. 
 Teacher touches the line between 1/2 and 3/8, and pupil 
 responds with 7/8; or between 1/2 and 1/4, and pupil 
 responds with 3/4. 
 
 For process (7) in list, that of multiplying a frac- 
 tion by an integer, the numbers outside can be used. 
 
 To adapt it for mental work in process (8), multipli- 
 cation of an integer by a fraction, change the outer 
 numbers to multiples of 8. Point to any one of these 
 multiples and the pupil is to give the series of results 
 obtained by using the fractions in the column or row 
 in which the multiple occurs. Thus if 8 at the left in 
 above table is pointed to, the pupil will give 12, 6, 4, 
 1, 20, 20, as the successive results. \ \ 
 
 For process (9) division of a fraction by an integer, 
 the limit for this series at this stage is the divisor 2, 
 or finding 1/2 of the fraction as arranged. 
 
 For process (10), the last and hardest of the formal 
 process, the table can be used as given. To point to 
 4 at the right, for instance, means the raising of that 
 series of questions: "How many times is one-fourth 
 contained in 4?" How many times are twelve-fourths 
 contained in 4? Are two-halves in 4? etc. 
 
 After this series has been thoroly,, worked, and 
 thru it the pupil introduced to the different processes, 
 the next series, one-third, one-sixth, one-twelfth, may 
 be arranged in a similar chart, and used for similar 
 drill. A third series is one-half, one-fifth, one-tenth, 
 a fourth is one-third and one-ninth. 
 
 (By leaving these tables upon the board material is al- 
 ways ready for drill in rapid mental work in fractions. 
 A change here and there will keep it from the danger 
 of sequence memorization. The four charts put on large 
 sheets of paper and fastened together make a most 
 valuable piece of intermediate school apparatus, and 
 profitable for review even in grammar grades. Facility 
 in addition and subtraction of business fractions, so apt 
 to decline when pupils become absorbed in the formal 
 written processes, may be kept up by bringing out oc- 
 casionally the charts for drill. 
 
 Try grammar grade pupils upon the ready giving of 
 the sum of any two simple fractions, such as those in 
 the chart, and it will be found that there is need of 
 such drill as here recommended. The complaint of 
 business men that pupils from our schools are too de- 
 pendent upon paper and pencil, are slow, and inaccurate, 
 is a criticism that makes us thoughtful about means for 
 its removal. Let us endeavor to make the old phrase, 
 practical arithmetic, really mean what it pretends to. 
 
 Seat Work in Primary Arithmetic 
 
 Donzilla R. Mackey 
 
 FIRST GRADE 
 
 StringiiiK and Laying Seeds 
 
 Soak watermelon and cantaloupe seeds or corn in 
 water until they are soft. Then let some of the older 
 pupils punch holes in them with large darning needles. 
 When they are dry, dye them different colors with egg 
 
 dyes. For seat work let the pupils string diflferent num- 
 bers of different colors. Buttons may be made to answer 
 the same purpose. 
 
 Lay seeds, buttons, sticks and pebbles in groups of 
 five or more on the desks. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 33 
 
 STICK LAYING 
 
 Dye a supply of toothpicks with egg dyes and use 
 them for stick laying. The pupils may lay them in 
 groups of various numbers or in squares and oblongs 
 with a certain number on each side. 
 
 PAPER CUTTING AND COLORING 
 
 Out of the pieces of thick paper you have saved, cut 
 cards 3 by 6 inches. Then, from scraps of colored 
 paper, cut pieces 1}4 by 3 inches. From these pieces 
 of colored paper allow the pupil to cut any object his 
 fancy dictates, a circle, square, heart, man, teddy bear, 
 etc. When the objects are cut, let him arrange the 
 three best, five best or whatever number the teacher 
 wishes in a group on one of the cards and paste. These 
 cards are afterward useful to hold quickly before the 
 class, requiring them to tell at sight how many objects 
 are on the card. 
 
 Have pupils cut and color five little girls in a fashion 
 magazine, or ten flowers from a flower catalogue or 
 seven stoves in a Montgomery Ward catalog. 
 
 Let them make daisy chains from colored wrapping 
 paper. During one period of seat work, they can cut 
 the paper into strips like the pattern given them by 
 the teacher. During another period, they can paste 
 them together. Pasting two or three of the same color 
 together, then two or three of a contrasting color. 
 
 If you cannot afford to buy paste, teach pupils to 
 make paste of flour and water. If you buy library 
 paste, put it into a glass jar and mix it thoroly with an 
 equal amount of water. This makes a better paste for 
 little folks and is a great economy. A good way to 
 avoid the disagreeable dirt of paste is to give each pupil 
 a 3 inch square oil cloth to keep his paste on while 
 working. These may be wiped off with a damp cloth 
 at the end of the lesson. Butter plates may be used 
 in place of oil cloth. The large department stores are 
 glad to give away their old oil cloth sample books and 
 some of these, which are very tiny, may be used with- 
 out cutting for paste mats. 
 
 WEAVING 
 
 The larger oil cloth sample books may be cut into 
 mats for weaving. Both the drawing and the cutting 
 can be done by children in the third grade and the 
 weaving is a great help to the first grade children in 
 learning how to weave and count. When they have 
 learned to weave with the oil cloth give thein mats, made 
 in the same way from wall paper. When the weaving 
 of these is finished the strips may be pasted in place 
 to make the finished mat. 
 
 PEG BOARDS 
 
 If you teach in a country school and have some large 
 boys, they will gladly hunt up some blocks of wood 
 6 by 6 inches. In these have them bore tiny holes one 
 inch apart. The shoemaker will give you all the pegs 
 you need. Dye these different colors with egg dyes 
 and you will have good peg boards and pegs. (Peg 
 boards and pegs may be purchased of the Thos. Charles 
 Co., Chicago, 111.) Have your pupils fill all the holes 
 with pegs and count the pegs. Let them put a row 
 of red ones around the outside and count them. Have 
 them put in another row of green and count them. 
 Have them put ten yellow pegs, four green pegs and 
 eight blue pegs into the board. Have them make a 
 square of red pegs, using four pegs on each side or an 
 oblong, using four on the ends and six on the sides. 
 Have them make a triangle, using six red pegs for one 
 side, five blue pegs for another and four yellow pegs 
 for another. 
 
 BLACKBOARD WORK 
 
 Have them count all tlie boys in the room, the girls, 
 the seatSj the eyes, the hands, the feet, etc., and write 
 the number five times on the blackboard. 
 
 Around the bottom of your blackboard make a border, 
 four inches high of one-inch squares. Let the pupils 
 color these squares with colored chalk, every other one 
 of a contrasting color, such as blue and orange, red 
 and green, etc. If this is neatly done it gives the ef- 
 
 fect of tiles. If you have no colored chalk it can be 
 easily made from the ordinary soft chalk. Dissolve the 
 Diamond dyes for wool in hot water. Put crayons in 
 for ten minutes. Then dry in a warm place. 
 
 PAPER CUTTING NUMBER LESSONS 
 
 Let the older pupils rule four-inch squares of wrap- 
 ping paper into half-inch squares. Let your first-grade 
 pupils color them with contrasting colors. These little 
 papers make a pretty border for some corner. 
 
 Make for each child a pattern of an overall boy, sun- 
 bonnet baby or brownie. Tell him to cut and color 
 five more just like it. These make good borders. 
 PICTURE NUMBER STORIES 
 
 Make simple little addition problems with pictures, 
 as 2 boys + 1 boy = 3 boys, 3 eggs -|- 2 eggs = 5 eggs. 
 The pictures may be drawn with colored pencils, cut 
 from colored paper or from advertisements in old mag- 
 azines. 
 
 Let them draw pictures of 5 smiling boys and 3 frown- 
 ing boys. 
 
 Draw an apple tree, hang on it six red apples and four 
 yellow apples. How many apples are there all together? 
 Write the figure 10 ten times. Write the word ten 
 ten times. Write the Roman numeral X ten times. 
 
 Write 6 in three different ways. 
 
 Copy from your readers all the words that contain 
 three letters. 
 
 CUT-UP PICTURE STORIES 
 
 Save all your picture postals and have every child 
 cut a postal into twelve pieces. He may write the same 
 figure on the back of each piece and on the back of the 
 envelope in which he is to keep the pieces. The puzzle 
 pictures are most useful in providing entertainment for 
 the pupils on stormy days when recesses must be spent 
 indoors. 
 
 ILLUSTRATING IN DRAWINGS 
 
 Have pupils draw and cut out of colored paper as 
 many circles as there are children in the room. 
 
 Have them draw pictures of ten round things in the 
 schoolroom; of eight toys they would like to have. 
 
 Let them pretend their papers are flower gardens 
 which are to be filled with 3 blue, 4 yellow, 8 red and 6 
 orange flowers. 
 
 SECOND GRADE 
 
 WRITING AND DRAWING 
 
 Have pupils write numbers from to lOO; from 100 
 to 0; by 2's, 3's, 4's, S's, lO's and ll's to 100. 
 
 Have them write all the numbers from 1 to 100 in 
 three ways, thus: 1, one, I. 
 
 Have them draw pictures of as many girls as there are 
 in the room, as many bovs, and write the total ten times. 
 PAPER CUTTING 
 
 Pupils may cut 7 strips of paper 1 inch wide by 6 
 inches long. Fold each strip into one-inch squares. 
 How many squares are there on one strip, on three 
 strips, on five strips? i 
 
 They may cut from wrapping paper a four-inch square 
 and rule it into one-inch squares. How many one-inch 
 squares are there on the paper? What is its area? How 
 many one-inch squares are there around the edge? What 
 is its perimeter? Have your pupils compute the area 
 and perimeter of their desks, books, assigned spaces 
 of blackboard, etc. 
 
 COLOR WORK 
 
 On an eight-inch square of wrapping paper let them 
 color 4 one-inch squares green, 8 squares red, 12 squares 
 yellow, 9 squares blue, 20 squares orange. How many 
 squares have you colored? How many afe left uncol- 
 ored? How many squares are there all together? How 
 many red and green squares are there? How many 
 green and yellow? 
 
 CONSTRUCTION WORK 
 
 Let them bring to school beans, corn or wheat for 
 bean bags. Get some bed ticking to make the bags of 
 and allow your' children to make the bags in school. 
 These bags are useful for many number games and are 
 enjoyed by the children all the more because they have 
 made them themselves. 
 
34 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Collect all the large calendars you can lay hands on. 
 Then cut colored cardboard into cards 5x3 inches. The 
 pupils may cut the figures carefully from the calendars 
 and paste two, one over the other, on each card. These 
 cards are excellent material for quick work with the 
 combinations. 
 
 EXERCISE IN ADDING 
 
 On long strips of paper, 1x6 inches, <|)iave the children 
 write five figures under 10 in a neat row. Each child 
 may make five strips, which he may pass to one of his 
 neighbors. The other child may copy the figures care- 
 fully on his number paper and add them. 
 MAKING TOY MONEY 
 
 Trace patterns for toy money on pasteboard enough to 
 give every child several patterns. With these patterns 
 and thick paper they can make a large quantity of paper 
 money. Or the money can be made from ordinary 
 wrapping paper by laying it over real money and taking 
 ofif the impression. When enough money has been 
 made let each child make for himself a large brown 
 paper envelope in which to keep his money. Give each 
 one an equal number of dollars, dimes, etc. Then he 
 may do such problems as these: 
 
 How many dollars have you? 
 
 How many cents in 4 dollars? 
 
 How many dimes in 4 dollars? 
 
 How many nickels in 1 dollar? 
 
 How many nickels have you? 
 
 How many cents is that? 
 
 CUTTING AND COLORING 
 
 Let your pupils cut and color apples, potatoes, boxes 
 of breakfast food, etc., with which to play store. Then 
 with their toy money they may purchase the goods 
 and learn to make change. 
 
 WRITTEN NUMBER EXERCISES 
 
 Let them write all the numbers in certain number 
 families in this way: Write all the numbers in the 
 S + 4 family. They write: 
 
 5 + 4 = 9 
 4 + 5 = 9 
 9 — 5 = 4 
 9 — 4=5 
 3 + 6 = 9 
 
 Another way is to write all the 9 family. They will 
 write: 
 
 4 + 5 = 9 9_5 = 4 
 
 5 + 4 = 9 9 — 4 = 5 
 3+6=9 9—6 
 6+3=9 9—3 
 2+7=9 9—7 
 7 + 2 = 9 9 
 8+1=9 9 — 
 
 Have them do exercises like this: 
 
 How many eggs in a dozen? 
 
 How many in a dozen and 4? 
 
 How many in a dozen less 3? 
 
 How many days in a week? 
 
 How many in a week and 3 days? 
 
 How many in a week less 2 days? 
 
 How many m.onths in a year? 
 
 How many in a year less 5 months? 
 
 CONCRETE EXERCISES 
 
 Let them cut pictures of pint, quart and gallon meas- 
 ures, to illustrate problems involving these measures. 
 
 Get old order books from the grocery and on these 
 write out simple bills of goods. These may be used 
 again and again. Have the children rule their papers 
 like the order books, copy the bill carefully and add 
 it up. 
 
 Let them draw the face of a clock and make watches 
 for themselves when they begin to learn to tell time. 
 Later, let them draw the clock face when it is 3 o'clock, 
 a quarter past 1, etc. 
 
 MAKING A SET OF ADDITION PROBLEMS 
 
 This device will make you several evenings of work, 
 but I think it pays. Have the children bring you call- 
 ing cards, election cards sent out by candidates, etc. 
 They will probably deluge you with cards. Out of these 
 make a set of addition problems. I made 50, putting 
 
 3 
 6 
 2 
 
 2 = 7 
 = 1, etc. 
 
 two on each card and making three of each kind. Num- 
 ber each problem and in some convenient notebook 
 write the answers. Mix the cards thoroly and pass 
 them out, five to each child. Each one copies his prob- 
 lems, being careful to number them as they were num- 
 bered on the cards. With her hst of answers, these 
 papers may easily be corrected by the teacher, and there 
 can be no cheating among the children. 
 MAKING DOMINOES 
 
 From pieces of cardboard 2.x4 inches and scraps of 
 colored paper, let the children make dominoes. These 
 are very useful for quick work with the combinations. 
 The children may also draw dominoes on the black- 
 board and write the combinations they represent under- 
 neath. 
 
 With scraps of cardboard and colored crayon, let 
 them make dominoes of the regulation size. Each child 
 may make for himself an envelope containing a com- 
 plete set of dominoes. They can play dominoes before 
 school and at recess, and sometimes, as a special treat, 
 in school. This game is a great help in teaching them 
 to add and subtract. 
 
 GAME OF FIFTEEN 
 
 Another game wliich they can make for seat work is 
 the old-fashioned game of "Fifteen." To make this 
 game, rule a four-inch square of cardboard or paste- 
 board into one-inch squares. Number each square from 
 1 to 16. Cut small pieces of cardboard into round tab- 
 lets — fifteen of them — and number from 1 to 15. These 
 tablets are to be placed on the squares of the board at 
 random. They can then be moved across or up and 
 down, never cornerways, until each tablet is on the 
 square which bears its number. 
 
 THIRD GRADE 
 
 MAKING NUMBER CARDS 
 
 Make sets of problems on the backs of election cards 
 like those described in the second grade work. Make a 
 set in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. 
 Paste the leaves of old calendars on large sheets of 
 pasteboard. Give each child a leaf. Have him copy it 
 and add it down and across. 
 
 Make cards from colored cardboard and the figures 
 cut from old calendars like those described in the sec- 
 ond grade work. Use these for sight work in addi- 
 tion, multiplication and subtraction. 
 
 If the pupils are studying on one particular multipli- 
 cation table, have them write it in all these ways: 
 4X1=4 1X4=4 4-M=4 4-f-4=l 
 
 4X2=8 2X4=8 8-^2=4 8^4=2 
 
 One four is 4. Four ones are 4. 
 
 Four twos are 8. 
 
 Two fours are 8. 
 
 There is 1 four in 4. 
 
 There are 2 fours in 8. 
 12 4 4 
 
 4 4 12 
 
 1)4 
 
 4 
 2)8 
 
 4)4 
 
 1 
 4)8 
 
 4 2 
 
 DRAWING PICTURES OF NUMBER TABLES 
 
 Have them draw pictures of their tables in this way: 
 4X2=8. After the eight draw eight dots in groups of 
 four. 
 
 In teaching fractions, let pupils draw and cut circles 
 cut up to represent the fractional parts named in the 
 problems. 
 
 THE NUMBER CIRCLE 
 
 Have them draw a circle or oblong with 4X in the 
 center. Around the inside write the figures from 1 to 12. 
 Around the outside 4, 8, 12. 16 and so on to 12X4, 48. 
 PROVING THE ANSWERS 
 
 Teach your pupils how to prove the answers to their 
 problems. When they have learned, the exercise makes 
 the very best kind of scat work. 
 
 MEASURING 
 
 Have them measure as much as possible in their con- 
 struction work and as often as possible, have them do 
 independent construction work from written directions. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 35 
 
 SOMETHING FOR PUPILS TO DO 
 
 Drawing, Paper Cutting, Construction Work 
 
 Making Things for the Farm 
 
 At this time of year the children 
 are keenly interested in the grow- 
 ing life about them. The trees and an- 
 imals in the woods and on the farms 
 ought to suggest abundant material 
 for work in construction, especially 
 in the lower grades. 
 
 For illustration work either in 
 drawing or paper cutting such sub- 
 jects as, The New Brood of Chick- 
 ens, Planting Potatoes, Picking Flow- 
 ers, etc., suggest themselves. 
 
 Rakes, like the one in the diagram, 
 made by kindergarten children, 
 proved very successful in their gar- 
 dening. A stick one inch square and 
 four feet long, and seven three-inch 
 nails were used beside hammers and 
 saws. The children drove the nails 
 in one end of the long strip and 
 then sawed of? that part and fastened 
 it with a nail to the end of the long 
 stick. In this way one child held 
 the stick, leaving the second one free 
 to drive nails. Not one pounded his 
 fingers. 
 
 Wagons of various kinds may be 
 made, as in figure 2, after the con- 
 struction of the simple box shape is 
 understood. This involves a simple 
 problem in measuring. The wheels 
 ought to be a double thickness of 
 paper and fastened to the box by 
 paper pasted to the bottom of the 
 cart and drawn thru the center of the 
 wheel. The children ought to have 
 a chance to use their inventiveness. 
 Children always enjoy sand-table 
 work, because it afifords free means 
 of expression, both motor and men- 
 tal. In illustrating a barnyard and 
 pasture scene, for instance, the chil- 
 dren have a chance in their paper 
 cutting to study the characteristic 
 outlines of the different kinds of 
 trees and the different farm animals. 
 They can observe these differences 
 in nature, but a simple outline draw- 
 ing on the blackboard will help them. 
 The construction of the barn is based 
 upon a square folded into sixteen 
 smaller squares. Then cut one square 
 deep on the three folds on two op- 
 posite sides. These cut ends make 
 the ends of the barn and can be 
 pasted or pinned to stay in place. 
 The children might each make a barn 
 out of a square of drawing paper, 
 and then let the one who made the 
 best one make a larger barn out of 
 heavier paper. The projecting roof 
 is made by a separate piece of paper 
 pasted on. The arms of the wind- 
 mill are made as a pin wheel is from 
 a square of paper with four cuts, one 
 on each side running toward the cen- 
 ter and the alternate points caught 
 to the center. 
 
 The third or fourth grade might 
 enjoy making a bird house of paper. 
 
 Margaret B. Spencer 
 
 The square paper is first folded into shingles nailed together. The hole in 
 
 sixty-four smaller squares and the the paper house was made with a 
 
 lines to be cut drawn along the folds, punch. A weather vane whittled from 
 
 Some of the more energetic boys wood is also a good problem for the 
 
 might make a similar bird house of boys. 
 
 A Bird liou6e 
 Toctde jroTT) a, "3" or 12.' jquare ol 
 
 rnaviila bab«r. iolA. 
 
 — cutr 
 
 NX'hittlecl out aj. a sKin^'e 
 
36 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 f^rrn U)e or, +Ke 
 
 The educational possibilities of the Sand Table are legion, and the rural and village schools especially 
 are favorably situated for making use of it for occupational and busy work for the little folks. 
 
 
 Steady like the star, 
 
 That shines afar, 
 
 Without haste 
 
 And without rest. 
 
 Let each man wheel with steady sway 
 
 Round the task that rules the day. 
 
 And do his best. 
 
 — Goethe. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 37 
 
 '=^tfc^ 
 
 7 ^ 
 
 October and Hallowe'en Work 
 
 Margaret 
 
 The fall coloring attracts attention to the trees and 
 outdoors. A study of tree types is especially oppor- 
 tune this month. Begin with paper cuttings or silhouettes 
 of black paint of the common trees. Study the char- 
 acteristics of each type of tree. When the children 
 know the difference between an elm, maple, poplar and 
 spruce, then we are ready for a lesson in color. One 
 of the simplest methods is to cover a quarter sheet of 
 manila paper with a wash of orange paint. While this 
 is drying, on another quarter sheet paint a spruce tree 
 with black paint for practice. Then make a better one 
 on the first sheet of paper. This ought to give the 
 effect of the tree against a bright sunset sky. In the 
 seventh or eighth grade let the children try the reflec- 
 tions too. For the spruce tree make the brush strokes 
 horizontally. 
 
 On a warm day in October, when the children become 
 restless, take them outdoors for the drawing period. 
 They can draw only the outlines of trees they see, or 
 with crayons paint in the autumn colors. Trees seen 
 from a distance are simpler than if they are close by. 
 
 From these sketches, or from pictures of trees in the 
 next lesson, make a decorative study of a tree. Ask the 
 children where they have seen trees used in a decorative 
 way, as on book covers, magazine covers and in adver- 
 tisements. Make the outline of the tree heavy and uni- 
 form in width. If you wish to add color put it on in 
 a flat tone. Add a horizon line and a line of distant 
 trees to break up the background space. The tree should 
 touch at least two margin lines. 
 
 B. Spencer 
 
 HALLOWE'EN SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Black paper, orange tissue paper, paste and scissors 
 are necessary to make the window transparencies and 
 favors. A piece of black paper about 3x6 inches, folded 
 crosswise, will be good for the favors. Start cutting 
 from the folded edge and leave about an inch for the 
 standard uncut. Punch or cut holes for the faces. Be- 
 tween the two thicknesses of black paper paste a little 
 orange paper. Paste the two black halves together and 
 bend out the uncut part for the standard. 
 
 The window transparencies are very effective for the 
 schoolroom windows. All sorts of Hallowe'en ideas can 
 be cut out. Care must be taken to leave the witch or 
 cat, etc., attached to the border, so that it will not fall 
 to pieces. Paste orange paper on the back side and hang 
 it in the window. 
 
 The spirit of fun and harmless pranks which the 
 brownies exemplify rather than that of destroying prop- 
 erty goes back to more of the original idea of Hallow- 
 e'en. The primary children will have fun turning them- 
 selves into brownies by putting on a magic cap. If each 
 one brings a paper bag large enough to slip over his 
 head to school you have your material ready. Make 
 a crease down the middle of one side of the bag. From 
 a double piece of paper cut a nose, paste the flaps to 
 the bag. Paste on ears. Measure the distance between 
 the eyes, so that the slits won't be too far apart. Cray- 
 ons will add a touch of color to the cheeks. Slip on 
 the cap and the children are transformed into fun loving 
 brownies. 
 
 
 Use ai)a"f tone of color 
 in a clecora'Ui/ei bfudy- 
 
38 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 ^)«L 
 
 ncxUowQjz \y TestiN/iTi € s 
 
 "hxvSrs o| (jIacK Qr>c' oran^ bobcr 
 
 v/i^cloW Transl^arcnucs 
 
 
 ^V'.. 
 
 -N ^ 
 
 OGM® ® 
 
 ? 
 
 i 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Making Rope and Raffia Baskets 
 
 Ethel Everhard 
 
 39 
 
 Baskets appeal to children. They love to make them, 
 and I am going to tell you of some the children in the 
 Sheboygan schools made this year out of rope and raffia, 
 two of the cheapest and most easily obtainable materials 
 to be had. Rope is much easier to work with and I 
 think it makes more attractive baskets than reed when 
 covered with raffia. Also it is much cheaper. Common 
 wash line is all right to use. This comes in coils of 
 fifty feet, sells from eight to ten cents per coil, and one 
 coil will make two baskets. 
 
 Unravel the end of the rope and cut off one strand 
 one inch from the end, another strand two inches from 
 the end. Then tie on the raffia. See Fig. 1. Wind the 
 
 raffia to the end of the rope, coil this into a loop, sew 
 round the loop. See Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Coil and 
 sew the rope into a mat. Wind the raffia around the 
 rope three times, then catch into the rope beside it, 
 etc. When the bottom of the basket is large enough 
 turn up the sides. See Fig. 7 to find out how to put 
 in the design. Use common string and darn in Hke 
 the spokes of a wheel to mark the basket off for the 
 design. Use two needles, one to sew with the colored 
 raffia for the design, the other to sew with the natural 
 raffia. When sewing with one carry the other along. 
 Work baskets, baskets to put flower pots in or vases 
 of flowers, porch baskets, collar and cuff cases, etc., can 
 be made. 
 
 ^i<)7. 
 
 "^■fl 7. 
 
40 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Thanksgiving Paper Cutting and Construction Work 
 
 Margaret B. 
 
 "The work of the child's hands must express the liv- 
 ing interest of the child." — Felix Adler. 
 
 The thought of November seems to center around 
 the stories of the coming of the Puritans to America; 
 of the hard winter followed by the more hopeful sum- 
 
 mer and bountiful fall, and of the Indian life with which 
 they came in contact. Upon this the construction wor 
 in the primary grades may be based. 
 
 The sand table should be a busy place, representing 
 each day the progress of the Puritans in their jourm 
 to this country and the building of their new home. 
 One end of the sand table could represent Holland and 
 England and the other America, between them the bare 
 zinc for the ocean. Some one would delight in making 
 a tiny Mayflower. The first log common house could 
 be made of branches of the same size or of paper col- 
 
 Spencer 
 
 ored to represent logs. The older boys might prefer 
 whittling the notches to fit the logs together. Some 
 of the others might gather rushes for the thatched roof.. 
 Later Leiden Street might be built, with its row of log 
 houses. A good connected story which would be help- 
 ful is "Pilgrim Stories," by Margaret Humphrey. 
 
 Indian life could be worked out by showing a group 
 of wigwams near a lake upon which were some canoes. 
 Pine trees cut from stiff paper would do for the forest or 
 branches of trees thrust into the sand. 
 
 After the stories are read to the children, let each 
 one choose a picture he remembered to illustrate wit*" 
 paper cuttings. For instance, the story of the first 
 Thanksgiving tells how Squanto helped the boys gather 
 nuts, the men brought in wild turkeys, the housewive- 
 cooked and baked and corn was hung from the rafter^ 
 to dry. Each one of these could be easily illustrated. 
 Pictures or drawings upon the blackboard will help the 
 children in cutting the right form of objects. If the 
 children make several illustrations they could make a 
 book of them. Fruit and vegetables of paper make a 
 good border for the top of the blackboard. 
 
 A Thanksgiving lantern which covers an electric light 
 bulb could be made by fifth or sixth grade children. 
 The construction is simple. Cut a pattern for one side 
 of the lantern from stifT paper. Mark around it on the 
 wrong side of some dark cover paper for the first panel. 
 Move the pattern along, so that the four and a part of 
 the fifth panel for a flap are marked out. Mark out the 
 top with its flaps. Take the paper pattern and mark 
 a line one-half inch from the edge. Cut out all inside 
 this line. On the cover paper trace this inner panel. 
 This gives the boundary line of the design. Any Thanks- 
 giving subject or landscape may be chosen for the de- 
 sign. It is more effective if in cutting away part of it 
 the background shapes be cut. The design must fill 
 the space sufficiently to make a strong stencil, yet te 
 cut enough to let the light thru. When the stencils 
 are cut paste orange or green tissue paper on the in- 
 side. Paste the top and side together. The bulb will 
 need to be unscrewed and slipped under the lantern 
 to fasten it in place. 
 
 If you wish to make a lantern lit by a candle leave 
 oflf the top and add a base which has a standard for the 
 candle made of paper pasted at right angles to the base 
 by means of flaps. Then cords may be fastened to the 
 top for hanging the lantern. 
 
 Place cards and nut boxes make a table look festive. 
 The place card shown here has the leaves turned back 
 which makes the pumpkin stand upright. The nut box 
 is made from a four-inch square of paper folded into 
 sixteen smaller squares. The corner squares are each 
 cut on one side for flaps. The pumpkins were cut from 
 an eight-inch strip of paper one inch and one-quarter 
 wide, folded four times, so the pumpkins made a con- 
 tinuous border around the box. Crayons or water colors 
 add a finishing touch. 
 
f LECTRIC LIQliT 
 
 Ja^Dt AND 
 PATTERN 
 
 View of a Pilgrim Home 
 
42 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Picture Cut-out of Santa Claus 
 
 Estella E. Smith 
 
 
 SANTA 
 CLAUS 
 
 PATTERIN FOR 
 THE HECTOGRAPH. 
 
 COLOR AMD 
 •^ITH BRASS \ 
 
 
 <^'/f«(( 
 
 '*' ( Uv^V^'^'^^'^^^ Vvvvvvv"* 
 
 o.-^" 
 
 ■'steUa. "K Sttw' 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Making Valentines 
 
 EsteUa E. Smith 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 i.rr.i ^.zc^ 
 
44 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Easter-Time Drawing, Cutting and Coloring 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 h-^ 
 
 -:^ " 
 
 +R^-Y\ culI ovjL-t aJ\ci colored 
 "bs^ iKe cKkJcl-re-n , proVes t 
 be eo-v inie-restmci lesson, 
 
 \ 
 
 E-STEULA E: smith 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 45 
 
 Hints for Spring Drawing and Construction Work 
 
 Margaret B. Spencer 
 
 People are realizing the economic value of birds. If 
 the birds are leaving your community, can't you arouse 
 some interest among your school children toward keep- 
 ing them? A town in a farming district gave prizes 
 to the children making the best bird houses, because 
 they knew that they would attract the birds. 
 
 Here is an outline of some lessons a second grade 
 teacher gave. First, there was a general discussion re- 
 garding the value of birds to a community and ways 
 of attracting birds, as bird baths, feeding cars, and bird 
 houses. Then the kind of house suited to different birds 
 was talked about, looking at some in the room. The 
 teacher asked them if they would like to plan a bird 
 house that they could build. Then what materials they 
 would need to make their plans. They suggested paper, 
 pencil, rulers and scissors, which they at once proceeded 
 to use. Some of them took their own measurements 
 from the bird houses in the room. One boy said, "I 
 know how to plan the front, but I don't know how to 
 fasten the sides on." The teacher asked for sugges- 
 tions. One boy said, "Leave an extra piece for a flap, 
 so you can pin it together." Another boy didn't know 
 how to write one-quarter inch. So some one else had 
 to help him. It was a real workshop, each one work- 
 ing out his own problem, sometimes asking the advice 
 of his neighbor. Wasn't that training for real life out- 
 side of school hours? Then with their patterns made 
 they traced out their plans on this wood, cutting out 
 the parts with fret saws. The results were crude, but 
 with a little paint the children felt as tho they had ac- 
 complished something worth while. 
 
 A dainty Easter card is made by coloring a butter- 
 
 fly on both sides, then cutting it out and pasting just 
 the body to the card with the wings tilted up. The rab- 
 bit place cards stand up. It is fun to make the rabbit 
 "coming" and "going." A little variety in Easter cards 
 may be made by turning over a flap which is a little 
 more or less than half the length of the card, for good 
 proportion's sake. In drawing chickens draw an egg 
 first, then add -the head and feet. 
 
 Some borders of paper cuttings, especially if you use 
 colored papers, will help make your room look gay and 
 springlike. 
 
 Before the leaves come out in the spring the long, 
 slender shoots of willow are as pliable as the best reed 
 for baskets. Test the dififerent kinds by bending them. 
 Some will snap more quickly than others. You may 
 not find enough material for a class problem, but sug- 
 gest it to some of the ingenious children and to the 
 ones who love the woods. Tell them to choose eight 
 pieces, eighteen inches long, and one nine inches long 
 for spokes. Arrange these as in the diagram, with the 
 horizontal group in front of the vertical group. Lay 
 the end of the weaver on top of the horizontal group 
 and let it encircle the vertical group, binding its own 
 end to the spokes. Go around twice over and under 
 each group of four or five. Then divide the spokes 
 in groups of twos, except where there are five in one 
 group, which is to be divided into three parts to make 
 an uneven number of spokes. Continue this until the 
 basket is two or three inches in diameter, then weave 
 over and under each spoke. Shape up around a tumbler 
 
 or jelly glass. Turn in the spokes at the top. If the 
 
 willow becomes a little dry soak it. 
 
 CUT BOftDEW 
 AMD AM APPU- 
 CATlon 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Ja Jfi* jujLJU 
 
 APRIL 
 FLOWElW 
 
 A FLOWLR BA6KLT UOVEn 
 OVER, ATUnBLER,. riATUR^t 
 FUllMlSliLS VOU ThL riATEWAL. 
 
46 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 EA5TER, 
 
 <^^ 
 
 A PLACC CARD 
 
 A JOYFUL 
 
 EA6TL(l. 
 
 TO MOTHE-R 
 
 3= 
 
 A JBLUEDIW^ 
 hOU6L 
 
 AVI^m UKELS 
 
 A mha\riG hou6il 
 
 ANQThER. WAY OF 
 
 rA6TEnino it to 
 
 A TREE OR WM-L 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Paper Cutting and Coloring 
 
 May B. Moulton 
 
 47 
 
 he ro\u\\ 
 
 -Paper cultiiig. (plor v^/itl) cMyoiis or wcilei- colors. 
 
 Paper Cutting, Black, White and Gray 
 
50 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 THE STUDY OF BIRDS 
 
 The following studies of our common birds are re- 
 published by special permission of the National Asso- 
 ciation of Audubon Societies. They have been prepared by 
 writers who have first hand expert knowledge of the 
 birds. TJiey are re-published from the Audubon Leaflets 
 because of their reliability in their statements of fact 
 
 and description. The studies are valuable also because 
 of their emphasis of the economic uses of the birds to 
 farmers and gardeners. Teachers will find this collec- 
 tion of Bird Studies a superior Bird Study Textbook 
 for teaching the subject in school. 
 
 The Blue Jay 
 
 William Dutcher 
 
 "And startle from his ashen spray, 
 Across the glen, the screaming Jay." 
 It certainly is a tyro in bird study who does not know 
 this noisy braggart fellow with his inquisitive waj's. 
 Such characteristics usually repel, but in the case of 
 the Blue Jay they rather attract, and no one' can help 
 admiring this conspicuous member of the Corvine fam- 
 ily. He has all the cunning of his somber-hued cousins, 
 the Crows, but not their sedateness; he is life and 
 activity personified. 
 
 Another member of this family, the Magpie, attracted 
 the notice of both Aristotle and Pliny, the former of 
 
 Blue Jay 
 
 whom says, "The Pica oftentimes changes its notes, 
 for almost every day it utters different cries. When 
 acorns grow scarce, it gathers them and keeps them 
 hidden in store." The first statement refers undoubtedly 
 to the power that the Magpies and Jays have of imitat- 
 ing the notes of other birds. The habit of storing food 
 is also practiced by the American members of the 
 family. , 
 
 Pliny says, "not only do they learn, but they delight 
 to talk, and, meditating carefully and thoughtfully within 
 themselves, hide not their earnestness. They are known 
 to have died when overcome by difficulty in a word, 
 and, should they not hear the. same things constantlj', 
 to have failed in their memory, and while recalling 
 them to be cheered up in wondrous wise, if meanwhile 
 they have heard that word. Nor is their beauty of an 
 ordinary sort, tho not considerable to the eye; for them 
 it is enough honor to have a kind of human speech. 
 However, people deny that others arc able to learn, save 
 
 those belonging to the group which lives on acorns — 
 and of these again those with the greatest ease which 
 have five toes upon each of their feet; nor even they 
 except during the first two years of life." 
 
 These two curious and interesting bits of ancient 
 natural history show conclusively that the present inter- 
 est in nature is by no means new. 
 
 Audubon, altho he admired the beauty of the Blue 
 Jay, did not give him a good reputation as the following 
 pen picture shows: "Reader, look at the plate on which 
 are represented three individuals of this beautiful species 
 — -rogues tho they be, and thieves, as I would call them, 
 were it fit for me to pass judgment on their actions. 
 See how each is enjoying the fruits of his knavery, 
 sucking the egg which he has pilfered from the nest of 
 some innocent Dove or harmless Partridge. Who could 
 imagine that a form so graceful, arrayed by Nature in 
 a garb so resplendent, should harbor so much mischief; — 
 that selfishness, duplicity and malice should form the 
 moral accompaniments of so much physical perfection! 
 Yet so it is, and how like beings of a much higher 
 order, are these gay deceivers. Aye, I could write you 
 a whole chapter on this subject, were not my task of a 
 different nature." 
 
 Alexander Wilson esteemed the Blue Jay a frivolous 
 fellow: "This elegant bird is distinguished as a kind of 
 beau among the feathered tenants of our woods, by the 
 brilliancy of his dress; and, like most other coxcombs, 
 makes himself still more conspicuous by his loquacity, 
 and the oddness of his tones and gestures. In the charm- 
 ing season of spring, when every thicket pours forth 
 harmony, the part performed by the Jay always catches 
 the ear. He appears to be, among his fellow-musicians, 
 what the trumpeter is in a band, some of his notes 
 having no distant resemblance to the tones of that in- 
 strument. These he has the faculty of changing thru 
 a great variety of modulations, according to the par- 
 ticular humor he happens to be in. When disposed for 
 ridicule, there is scarce a bird whose peculiarities of 
 song he cannot tune his notes to. When engaged in the 
 blandishments of love they resemble the soft chatter- 
 ings of a Duck; and, while he nestles among the thick 
 branches of the cedar, are scarce heard at a few paces 
 distance; but no sooner does he discover your approach 
 than he sets up a sudden and vehement outcry, flying 
 off and screaming with all his might, as if he called 
 the whole feathered tribes of the neighborhood to wit- 
 ness some outrageous usage he had received. When he 
 liops undisturbed among the high branches of the oak 
 and hickory, they become soft and musical; and his call 
 of the female, a stranger would readily mistake for the 
 repeated creakings of an ungreased wheelbarrow. All 
 these he accomnanies with various nods, jerks and other 
 gesticulations, for which the whole tribe of Jays is so 
 remarkable,; that, with some other peculiarities, they 
 might have very well justified the great Svyedish na- 
 turalist in fprming them into a separate genus by them- 
 selves." V •; 
 
 Of the more rriodern writers on the life-history of the 
 Blue Jay, the late Major Bendire says: "Few of our 
 native birds compare in beauty of plumage and general 
 bearing with the Blue Jay, and, while one cannot help 
 admiring him on account of amusing and interesting 
 traits, still even his best friends cannot say much in 
 his favor, and, tho I have never caught one actually in 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 51 
 
 mischief, so many close observers have done so, that 
 one cannot very well, even if so inclined, disprove the 
 principal charge brought against this handsome free- 
 booter." 
 
 It is an unfortunate fact that if a bad name is attached 
 to a person or a bird it is hard work to live it down, 
 even tho the bearer has been condemned on hearsay 
 evidence. The story of guilt may have been started 
 on the most trivial evidence, but every time it is repeated 
 it gains in strength and is soon magnified into huge 
 proportions; and what might have been easily explained 
 at the outset, by a careful examination into the facts, 
 casts a lifelong slur on the character of an innocent 
 victim. 
 
 Even so careful and exact a writer as the late Major 
 Bendire is compelled to add, from his strict sense of 
 justice, that he had "never caught a Blue Jay in mis- 
 chief.'.' The writer's experience with this bird is exactly 
 parallel with that ci Major Bendire, and he is therefore 
 loth to believ^ all the bad stories that have been printed 
 about the noisy, handsome Jay. In every village there 
 is some boy who is not bad at heart, but is so full of 
 animal spirits and life that whenever an act of harmless 
 mischief is perpetrated it is immediately charged to him. 
 This is very much the case with the Jay, "whose obtru- 
 sive actions attract attention when other birds, equally 
 abundant, remain unnoticed." 
 
 Probably the most accurate brief respecting the Blue 
 Jay's feeding habits that has ever been written is by 
 Mr. F. E. L. Beal. A few extracts will show that much 
 that has been written will not bear the scrutiny of 
 exact scientific research. After citing three cases of 
 field observers who saw Blue Jays in the act of sucking 
 eggs or taking young birds, Mr. Beal adds: "In view 
 of such explicit testimony from observers whose accur- 
 acy cannot be impeached, special pains have been taken 
 to ascertain how far the charges were sustained by a 
 study of the bird's food. An examination was made of 
 292 stomachs collected in every month of the year from 
 22 states, the District of Columbia and Canada. The 
 real food is composed of 24.3 per cent of animal matter 
 and 75.7 per cent of vegetable matter. The animal 
 food is chiefly made up of insects, with a few spiders, 
 myriapods, snails and small vertebrates, such as fish, 
 salamanders, tree-frogs, mice and birds. Everything 
 was carefully examined which might by any possibility 
 indicate that birds or eggs had been eaten, but remains 
 of birds were found only in two, and the shells of 
 small birds' eggs in three of the 292 stomachs. One of 
 these, taken on February 10, contained the bones, claws, 
 and a little skin of a bird's foot. Another, taken on 
 June 24, contained remains of a young bird. The three 
 stomachs with birds' eggs were collected in June, Aug- 
 ust and October. The shell eaten in October belonged 
 to the egg of some larger bird like the Ruffled Grouse, 
 and, considering the time of the year, was undoubtedly 
 merely an empty shell from an old nest. Shells of eggs 
 which were identified as those of domestic fowls, or 
 some bird of equal size, were found in 11 stomachs 
 collected at irregular times during the year. This evi- 
 dence would seem to show that more eggs of domestic 
 fowls than of wild birds are destroyed, but it is much 
 more probable that these shells were obtained from the 
 refuse heaps about farmhouses. 
 
 To reconcile such contradictory evidence is certainly 
 
 difticult,^ but it seems evident that these nest-robbing 
 propensities are not so general as has been heretofore 
 supposed. If this habit were as prevalent as some 
 writers have asserted, and if it were true that eggs 
 and young of smaller birds constitute the chief food 
 of the Blue Jay during the breeding season, the small 
 birds of any section where Jays are fairly abundant 
 would be in danger of extermination. Insects are eaten 
 in every month of the year. The great bulk consists 
 of beetles, grasshoppers and caterpillars. The average 
 for the year is 23 per cent, but in August it reaches 66 
 per cent. Three-fourths of the Blue Jay's food consists 
 of vegetable matter, 42 per cent of which consists of 
 "mast," under which are grouped large seeds of trees 
 and shrubs, such as acorns, chestnuts, beechnuts, chin- 
 quapins, and some others. Blue Jays perfer mast to 
 corn, or indeed any other vegetable food, for they eat 
 the greatest amount at a time when fruit, grain and 
 other things are most abundant. The Blue Jay gathers 
 its fruit from Natures orchard and vineyard, and not 
 from man's; corn is the only vegetable food for which 
 the farmer sufifers any loss, and here the damage is 
 small. In fact the ex''amination of nearly 300 stomachs 
 shows that the Blue Jay certainly does far more good 
 than harm. 
 
 The Blue Jay has an extensive range, being found in 
 eastern North America as far north as latitude 52, and, 
 casually, a little further; it extends westward to aboi^t 
 100 west longitude, in Assiniboia, and south to about 9/ 
 west longitude in northern Texas. It breeds thruout 
 its range, but in winter most northern birds move 
 southward. In Florida, and along the Gulf coast to 
 southeastern Texas there is a slightly smaller race, but 
 the ordinary observer will not be able to note any dif- 
 ference. The nesting places vary very greatly as to kind 
 of trees selected and position in the tree. Sites may 
 be found in conifers and also in deciduous trees, and 
 even in shrubbery. The nest is usually bulky, but 
 compactly built of twigs, bark, moss, leaves and various 
 other materials. A set of eggs varies from 4 to 6; the 
 color is greenish or buffy, irregularly spotted with 
 shades of brown or lavender. 
 
 As parents. Blue Jays are patterns. Whatever may 
 be their reputation regarding the young of other birds, 
 there is no question regarding their extreme solicitude 
 for their own offspring. 
 
 Do not form your opinion about the Blue Jay from 
 printed stories, but study this fascinating fellow for 
 yourself and you will surely be captivated by his drollery 
 and intelligence. There is certainly no more picturesque 
 sight in bird life than to see a flock of Jays in the fall 
 of the year flying with outspread tails, from one nut 
 tree to another, screaming and calling to each other at 
 the tops of their voices, or darting here and there among 
 the gorgeously tinted foliage. 
 
 Questions for Teachers and Students 
 
 Is the Blue Jay found in your locality during tlie entire 
 year? If not, when does it arrive? When does it leave 
 in the fall? Give your opinion of the habits of the 
 Blue Jay — this must be the results pf your own observa- 
 tions of the live bird. How many different kinds of 
 trees have you found Blue Jays nesting in? Give loca- 
 tion of each nest and materials used in construction. 
 Tell what you have personally observed about the food 
 of Blue Jays. Who was Linnaeus? What made him 
 famous? 
 
 The Meadow Lark 
 
 B. S. Bowdish 
 
 The prominent place that the Meadowlark is entitled 
 to occupy in the bird world is attested by Mr. Frank M. 
 Chapman. Anent a discussion as to a choice for a 
 national bird, he says: 
 
 "Including under this name all the forms of this spe- 
 cies, we have a breeding range reaching from northern 
 South America to Canada, from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific, and thruout this vast area the bird is gener- 
 ally distributed and sufficiently abundant to be well 
 
 known. As a songster the Meadowlark needs no praise; 
 some writers, in fact, give the western form first place 
 among our song-birds; his Americanism is so far be- 
 yond dispute that he cannot claim even family relation- 
 ship outside of this hemisphere; while in form and 
 coloration he is equally distinguished. Hail, then, to 
 the Meadowlark! He has our vote." 
 Permanent Resident 
 Over much of its range the Meadowlark is found 
 
52 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 in winter as well as summer, and at all seasons its 
 pleasing whistle may often be heard ringing across the 
 fields. 
 
 "The cheerless remnant of the snow-drift lies 
 Along the fields, and there are wintry skies 
 Whose chilling blasts assail thee, Meadowlark. 
 I know not how you find svibsistence here, 
 Among the withered herbs of yester-year: 
 I grieve for your uncertain days — but hark! 
 I hear your brave note calling, loud and clear." 
 
 — Edward R. Ford. 
 Song and Call 
 
 The Meadowlark's song is a clear, plaintive, double- 
 syllabled whistle, varying more or less individually, and 
 decidedly in the geographical races. As is common 
 with many birds, singing is commenced very early in 
 the morning and is often continued for long periods 
 without pause. The male sings between trips while 
 bringing food to the young and greets his mate with 
 melody. It has been recorded as soaring and singing 
 after the manner of the European Skylark. The ordi- 
 nary call note of the Meadowlarji is a "harsh sputter or 
 chatter," quite suggestive of the note of the Kingbird. 
 Its Food 
 
 Being remarkably terrestrial in habits, the Meadow- 
 lark gathers its food from the ground. This consists 
 for the entire year of almost 75 per cent insects, over 
 12 per cent weed-seed and 15 per cent grain. The grain 
 is almost entirely taken during December, January, Feb- 
 ruary, March and April and is waste gathered from 
 stubble fields. Therefore it is clear that the economic 
 status of the Meadowlark is of the highest order. 
 Grasshoppers are an important part of this bird's bill 
 of fare. Over thirty of these insects have been found 
 in a single stomach. As a grasshopper eats several 
 times its own weight of hay or grain in a day, it is at 
 once apparent how valuable a bird to the farmer is the 
 Meadowlark. 
 
 Crickets, which are as destructive as grasshoppers, 
 form an important item in the bill of fare, as do weevils, 
 curculio, and click-beetles, these latter during the larval 
 stage being known as wireworms, when they often de- 
 stroy seed before it has germinated, thus ruining fields 
 of corn and grain at the outset. Meadowlarks also de- 
 stroy cutworms, army-worms and numbers of the pest 
 known as the chinch bug. This latter pest has de- 
 stroyed in the United States during the last half cen- 
 tury grain to the value of over $330,000,000. 
 
 On account of alleged injury to grapes, corn and 
 grain, attempts have repeatedly been made to remove 
 legal protection from the Western Meadowlark in Cali- 
 fornia. Careful scientific investigation resulted in es- 
 tablishing the fact that damage to grapes was slight, 
 the stomachs of practically all the Meadowlarks taken 
 in vineyards being filled with insects. Considerable 
 damage to sprouting grain is conceded thru the birds 
 boring down beside the sprout and pulling the kernel. 
 However, many fields which showed damage at sprout- 
 ing time did not show such damage at harvest, and a 
 certain amount of- thinning appeared to be a benefit. 
 Moreover the boring resulted in the birds obtaining 
 such highly injurious insects as cutworms and wire- 
 worms. Only 31 per cent of the food for the entire 
 year is grain and a very large part of this is waste, 
 taken during winter months. Sprouted grain forms less 
 than 1 per cent. 
 
 Natural Enemies 
 
 In common with all ground-nesting birds, the 
 Meadowlark is peculiarly subject to the; attacks of 
 many natural enemies. Cats, dogs, skunks, minks, 
 weasels and other predaceous animals and snakes find 
 eggs and young a conveniently obtained food and doubt- 
 less often pounce on the adult birds as well. Hawks, 
 beating the fields for rodents, must not infrequently pick 
 up Meadowlarks. 
 
 Their Destruction 
 
 Notwithstanding the high value of the Meadowlark as 
 a bird of the farm, it was formerly ranked as a game 
 bird thruout the country and still is in some states. 
 
 In such states as New Jersey, where it receives legal 
 protection at all times, "periodical efforts are made to 
 restore it to the game bird list and permit shooting 
 it during open seasons. Even more inexcusable than 
 the desire to kill Meadowlarks for sport is the igno- 
 rant effort to exterminate them on the ground of al- 
 leged injury to crops. This is strikingly illustrated in 
 the following item from a Georgia newspaper; "Way- 
 cross, Ga., March 15 (1911).— A total of 11,231 Larks, 
 enemies of corn, were killed in a contest originated by 
 farmers living about Manor, this county. The contest 
 opened February 1 and closed today. The first prize, 
 a purse of gold, which farmers raised among them- 
 selves, was divided among Dan Henderson, Tom James 
 and W. D. James. They killed 1,586." 
 
 The novice with the gun and the small boy find the 
 Meadowlark an attractive victim, owing to the slow, 
 steady sailing of the bird at a height of a few feet. Its 
 size and striking color pattern tend to increase its pop- 
 ularity as a target. 
 
 Nesting Habits 
 
 The Meadowlark commences its housekeeping activ- 
 ities early in May. The site chosen is usually the scene 
 
 The Meadowlark 
 
 of the major part of the bird's life, in the meadows. 
 Sometimes the nest may be placed in a corn or grain 
 field. It is most likely to be under the overhanging 
 edge of a clump of grass or weeds and in addition to 
 this concealment it is frequently provided with a roof 
 or dome, entrance being had at one side. There is 
 usually one, sometimes several, well-defined paths ex- 
 tending for several feet from the entrance, and in- 
 stances are recorded of covered passageways from one to 
 several feet in length. Apparently the birds never 
 alight at or fly directly from the nest (unless suddenly 
 frightened), but walk to and from it a short distance 
 after alighting or before taking flight. 
 
 The nests are constructed chiefly of dead grasses with 
 sometimes a little horsehair in the lining. From four 
 to six eggs are laid, white spotted and speckled with 
 reddish brown. A second brood of young sometimes 
 occupies the attention of the parents till into August. 
 
 While nesting, the birds are usually very wary. Some- 
 times a closely sitting female may be flushed from the 
 nest, but often the male, constantly on guard, warns 
 his mate of the aproach of an intruder and she leaves 
 the nest long before the visitor reaches it. The Meadow- 
 lark's home is, therefore, usually difficult to find and 
 even where the birds are abundant the nests are com- 
 paratively seldom observed. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 The Robin 
 
 Gilbert Pearson 
 
 53 
 
 No bird holds so prominent a place in the minds of 
 the American people as the Robin. It is distinctively a 
 companion of man, and wherever his hand has cleared 
 the wilderness the Robin has followed. From Mexico 
 to Yukon the traveler meets it, and the residents will 
 tell him of its coming and going. It has passed into 
 the literature of the country, and one reads of it in the 
 books of science and romance. Poets weave its image 
 into their witchery of rhyme, lovers fondly spy upon 
 its wooing, and by the fireside of every household chil- 
 dren lisp its name when stories are told in the twilight. 
 In Spring 
 
 Heedless indeed is the ear that does not harken when 
 the Robin sings. Loud and clear it calls at dawn, and 
 sweet are the childhood memories it brings of fresh 
 green fields swept by gentle winds and apple blossoms 
 filled with dew. 
 
 One spring a pair built their nest on the limb of a 
 
 Robin 
 
 balsam standing beside a much used walk near my home. 
 In gathering the material for the nest, the greatest care 
 was exercised to work at those hours when there was the 
 least chance of being observed. Thus, the greater part 
 was done in the early morning, when few people were 
 astir. Perhaps one reason for this was that the blades 
 of dead grass, twigs, and other nesting material were 
 then damp and pliable from the dew of the night, and 
 were much more easily woven into position than after 
 they had become dry and brittle. Only during the last 
 few days of construction did I detect the birds working 
 in the afternoon. The mud for their nest was found by 
 a little pool at the end of a leaky horse-trough. 
 
 On April 18 the nest appeared to be completed, for no 
 more materials were brought. On the 22d the female 
 began sitting. I could see her tail extending over one 
 side of the nest, her bill pointing upward at a sharp 
 angle from the other. She flew off the first day when 
 the half-hundred boys who frequented the walk came 
 along on their way to dinner. But she soon became ac- 
 
 customed to them, and would sit quietly, altho numer- 
 ous heads passed within five or six feet. No one dis- 
 turbed the nest with its four blue eggs, and on May 6 
 I saw her feeding the young. Four days after this 
 event I noticed the heads of the younglings bobbing 
 over the rim of the nest. They were gaining strength 
 rapidly. 
 
 The morning of May 17 was cool, and a drizzling rain 
 had been falling for some hours. This dreary morning 
 happened to come on the day when the young Robins 
 desired to leave the nest. Rain could neither dampen 
 their desire nor check their plans. At 7 o'clock three of 
 them were found sitting motionless, a foot or more from 
 the nest, on the limb which Iicld it. Each had gathered 
 itself into as small a space as possible, and with head 
 drawn close, seemed waiting for something to happen. 
 But their eyes were bright as they looked out over the 
 vast expanse of the lawn before them — that trackless 
 region, to explore which they dared not yet trust their 
 strength. The fourth one could not be found. The next 
 two days two others disappeared, after spending some 
 hours of joyous, happy life on the grass and in the 
 shrubbery. I strongly suspected the academy cat knew 
 where they had gone. 
 
 Knowing that the family would never return to the 
 nest, I removed it from the limb, for I wanted to see 
 how the wonderful structure was put together. In its 
 building, a framework of slender balsam twigs had first 
 been used. There were sixty-three of these, some of 
 which were as much as a foot in length. Intertwined 
 with them were twenty fragments of weed stalks and 
 grass stems. The yellow clay cup, which came next 
 inside, varied in thickness from a quarter of an inch at 
 the rim to an inch at the bottom. Grass worked in 
 with the clay while it was yet soft aided in holding it 
 together, and now, last of all, came the smooth, dry 
 carpet of fine grass. The whole structure measured 
 eight inches across the top; inside it was three inches in 
 width and one and a half deep. It was one of those 
 wonderful objects which is made for a purpose, and it 
 had served that purpose well. 
 
 In Winter 
 
 It is good to watch the Robins when a touch of au- 
 tumn is in the air and the wanderlust is strong upon 
 them. On rapidly beating wings they drive swiftly 
 across the fields, or pause on the topmost spray of a 
 roadside tree and look eagerly away to the southward. 
 Their calls are sharp and inquisitive. Clearly, the un- 
 suppressed excitement of starting on a long journey 
 pervades their nature. In a little while they will be 
 gone. 
 
 Later you may find them in their winter home, feed- 
 ing on the black gum trees in a Carolina swamp, the 
 berries of the China tree in Georgia, or the fruit of the 
 cabbage palmetto in Florida. But their whole nature 
 seems to have sufifered change. No cheerful notes o'f 
 song await you, no gathering food from the grass on 
 the lawn, no drinking from the cup on the window-sill, 
 none of the confiding intimacies so dear to their friends 
 at the North. We see them in flocks, wild and suspi- 
 cious. Often they gather to feed on the great pine 
 barrens far from the abode of man. They grow fat from 
 much eating, and are hunted for the table. Recently I 
 found strings of them in the markets of Raleigh, N. C, 
 and was told they were worth 60 cents a dozen, the 
 highest price I had ever been asked for them. 
 A Tennessee Robin Roost 
 
 Robins in winter sometimes congregate by thousands 
 to roost at a favorite spot, and here the hunters often 
 come to take them, in the manner which, Audubon tells 
 us, people destroyed so many Wild Pigeofls during the 
 last century. Stories of their killing creep into the pub- 
 lic press, and over their coffee men marvel at the 
 slaughter of birds that goes on, sometimes in their im- 
 mediate neighborhood. Here is an authentic account 
 
54 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 of the raiding of one such roost, given the writer by 
 Dr. P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation. He was familiar with many of the details, and 
 will vouch for the truthfulness of the facts here set forth. 
 He says: "The roost to" which I refer was situated in 
 what is locally known as a 'cedar glade,' near Fosterville, 
 Bedford county, Tenn. This is a great cedar country, 
 and Robins used to come in immense numbers during 
 the winter months, to feed on the berries. By the mid- 
 dle of a winter's afternoon the birds would begin com- 
 ing by our house in enormous flocks, which would fol- 
 low one another like great waves moving on .in the 
 direction of the roost. They would continue to pass un- 
 til night. We lived fifteen miles from the roost, and it 
 ■was a matter of common observation that the birds 
 <:ame in this manner from all quarters. 
 
 "The spot which the roOst occupied was not unlike 
 numerous others that might have been selected. The 
 trees grew to a height of from five to thirty feet, and 
 for a mile square these were literally loaded at night 
 with Robins. Hunting them while they roosted was a 
 favorite sport. A man would climb a cedar tree with a 
 torch, while his companions, with poles and clubs, dis- 
 turbed the sleeping hundreds on the adjacent trees. 
 Blinded by the light, the suddenly awakened birds flew 
 to the torchbearer, who, as he seized each one, would 
 quickly pull off its head, and drop it into a sack sus- 
 pended from his shoulder. 
 
 "The capture of three or four hundred birds was an 
 ordinary night's work for any hunter. Men and boys 
 would come in wagons from all the adjoining counties 
 and camp near the roost for the purpose of killing 
 Robins. Many times, one hundred or more hunters, 
 with torches and clubs, would be at work in a single 
 night. For three years this tremendous slaughter con- 
 tinued in winter, and then the survivors deserted the 
 roost." 
 
 These are almost the identical methods employed in 
 killing untold numbers of Wild Pigeons, which today 
 are probably extinct birds in America. 
 His Food 
 
 That protection should be extended to the Robin be- 
 
 cause of its economic value as a destroyer of injurious 
 insects many observers unite in stating, despite the-ob- 
 jection sometimes raised regarding its fondness for 
 small fruits. The United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture, which looks so carefully into various subjects of 
 vital importance to our country, sent Mr. W. L. McAtee, 
 an expert naturalist, to Louisiana one winter, and he 
 made many observations on the feeding habits of these 
 birds. Under date of February 20, 1910, he reported: 
 
 "I collected twelve Robins near here yesterday, and 
 got the following results from an examination of their 
 gizzards: Eight had eaten nothing but insects, the other 
 four had taken, respectively, 95, 80, 65 and per cent 
 of insects and other invertebrates. The insects eaten in- 
 cluded grasshoppers, bugs, beetles, weevils, bill bugs 
 and carabids, wireworms and others, caterpillars, in- 
 cluding cutworms. Another day I collected three other 
 Robins which had eaten insects, including larvas of 
 crane flies, which are sometimes known as leather-jack- 
 ets. The larvae feed on the roots of grasses, including 
 grain crops and other plants, and are sometimes quite 
 injurious. Each of the three birds had eaten one or 
 more specimens of a leaf beetle, a plant feeder, and in- 
 jurious. On a basis of the eighteen stomachs I have 
 examined this month, I consider the Robin to be essen- 
 tially an insectivorous bird in Louisiana in February. 
 I notice that great numbers of the Robins feed in open, 
 grassy fields, where their diet must consist largely of 
 animal matter, as the birds do not eat weed seeds." 
 
 Classification and Distribution 
 
 The Robin belongs to the Thrush family. It ranges 
 thruout North America from the southern end of the 
 Mexican tableland northward to the limit of trees in 
 Labrador and Alaska. In this great area it is repre- 
 sented by three geographical races: the Eastern Robin, 
 the male of which is shown in the accompanying plate; 
 the Western Robin, which is like the Eastern bird, but 
 has little or no white in the tail and no black markings 
 on the back; and the Southern Robin, which, in the 
 mountains, breeds as far south as northern Georgia, and 
 is smaller and paler than the Northern bird. 
 
 The Bluebird 
 
 Mabel Osgood Wright 
 
 Description. — Adult Male — LenRth 7 inches. Upper parts, wings 
 and tail bright blue; breast and sides rusty, reddish brown, belly 
 white. Adujt Female — Similar to the male, but upper parts, except 
 the upper tail coverts, duller, gray or brownish blue, the breas- 
 and sides paler. 
 
 Who dares write of the Bluebird, thinking to add 
 a fresher tint to his plumage, a new tone to his inelod- 
 ious voice, or a word of praise to his gentle life, that is 
 as much a part of our human heritage and blended witli 
 our memories as any other attribute of home? 
 
 Not I, surely, for I know him too well and each year 
 feel myself more spellbound and mute by the memories 
 he awakens. Yet I would repeat his brief biography, 
 lest there be any who, being absorbed by living inward, 
 have not yet looked outward and upward to this poet 
 of the sky and earth and the fullness and goodness 
 thereof. 
 
 The. Bluebird's Country 
 
 For the Bluebird was the first of all poets — even be- 
 fore man had blazed' a trail in the wilderness or set up 
 the sign of his habitation and tamed his thoughts to 
 wear harness and travel to measure.- And so he came 
 to inherit the earth before man, and this, our country, is 
 all the Bluebird's country, for at some time of the year 
 he roves about it from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
 and from Mexico to Nova Scotia, tho westward, after 
 he passes the range of the Rocky Mountains, he wears 
 a different dress and bears other longer names. 
 The Bluebird's Travels 
 
 In spite of the fact that our eastern Bluebird is a 
 home-body, loving his nesting haunt and returning to it 
 year after year, he is an adventurous traveler. Ranging 
 all over the eastern United States at some time in the 
 
 season, this bird has its nesting haunts at the very 
 edge of the Gulf States and upward, as far north as 
 Manitoba and Nova Scotia. 
 
 When the breeding season is over, the birds travel 
 sometimes in family groups and sometimes in Wrge 
 flocks, moving southward little by little, according to 
 season and food-supply, some journeying as far as 
 Mexico, others lingering thru the middle and southern 
 states. The Bluebirds that live in our orchards in sum- 
 mer are very unlikely to be those that we see in the 
 same place in winter days. Next to the breeding impulse, 
 the migrating instinct seems to be the strongest factor 
 in bird life. When the life of the home is over, Nature 
 whispers, "To wing, up and on!" So a few of the Blue- 
 birds who have nested in Massachusetts may be those 
 who linger in New Jersey, while those whose breeding 
 haunts were in Nova Scotia drift downward to fill their 
 places in Massachusetts. But the great mass of even 
 those birds we call winter residents go to the more 
 southern parts of their range every winter, those who 
 do not being but a handful in comparison. 
 
 "What does this great downward journey of autumn 
 mean?" you ask. What is the necessity for migration 
 among a class of birds that are able to find food in 
 fully half of their annual range? Why do birds seek 
 extremes for nesting sites? This is a question about 
 which the wise men have many theories, but they are 
 still groping. One theory is that once the whole country 
 had a more even climate and that many species of birds 
 lived all the year in places that are now unsuitable for 
 a permanent residence. Therefore, the home instinct 
 being so strong, tho they were driven from their nest- 
 ing sites by scarcity of food and stress of weather, 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 55 
 
 their instinct led them back as soon as the return of 
 spring made it possible. 
 
 Thus the hereditary love of the place where they were 
 given life may underlie the great subject of migration 
 in general and that of the Bluebird's home in particular. 
 The Bluebird at Home 
 
 Before more than the first notes of the spring song 
 have sounded in the distance, Bluebirds are to be seen 
 by twos and threes about the edge of old orchards along 
 open roads, where the skirting trees have crumbled or 
 decaying knot-holes have left tempting nooks for the 
 tree-trunk birds, with whom the Bluebird may be 
 classed. For, tho he takes kindly to a bird-box, or a 
 convenient hole in fencepost, telegraph pole or out- 
 building, a tree hole must have been his first home and 
 consequently he has a strong feeling in its favor. 
 
 As with many other species of migrant birds, the 
 male is the first to arrive; and he does not seem to be 
 particularly interested in house-hunting until the arrival 
 of the female, when the courtship begins without delay, 
 and the delicate purling song with the refrain, "Dear, 
 dear, think of it, think of it," and the low two-syllabled 
 answer of the female is heard in every orchard. The 
 building of the nest is not an important function — 
 
 Bluebirds 
 
 merely the gathering of a few wisps and straws, with 
 some chance feathers for lining. It seems to be shared 
 by both parents, as are the duties of hatching and feed- 
 ing the young. The eggs vary in number, six being the 
 maximum, and they are not especially attractive, being 
 of so pale a blue that it is better to call them bluish 
 white. Two broods are usually raised each year, tho 
 
 three are said to be not uncommon; for Bluebirds are 
 active during a long season, and, while the first nest 
 is made before the middle of April, last year a brood left 
 the box over my rose arbor September 12, tho I do 
 not know whether this was a belated or a prolonged 
 family arrangement. 
 
 As parents the Bluebirds are tireless, both in supplying 
 the nest with insect food and attending to its sanitation; 
 the wastage being taken away and dropped at a distance 
 from the nest at almost unbelievably short intervals, 
 proving the wonderful rapidity of digestion and the 
 immense amount of labor required to supply the mill 
 inside the little speckled throats with grist. 
 
 The young Bluebirds are spotted thickly on the throat 
 and back, after the manner of the throat of their cousins, 
 the Robin; or, rather, the back feathers are spotted, the 
 breast feathers having dusky edges, giving a speckled 
 effect. 
 
 The study of the graduations of plumage of almost 
 any brightly colored male bird from its first clothing 
 until the perfectly matured feather of its breeding sea- 
 son, is, in itsef, a science and a subject about which 
 there are many theories and differences of opinion by 
 equally distinguished men. 
 
 The Food of the Bluebird 
 
 The food of the nestling Bluebird is insectivorous, or, 
 rather, to be more exact, I should say animal; but the 
 adult birds vary their diet at all seasons by eating 
 berries and small fruits. In autumn and early winter, 
 cedar and honeysuckle berries, the grape-like cluster 
 of fruit of the poison ivy, bittersweet and catbrier berries 
 are all consumed according to their needs. 
 
 Professor Beal, of the Department of Agriculture, 
 writes, after a prolonged study, that 76 per cent of the 
 Bluebird's food "consists of insects and their allies, while 
 the other 24 per cent is made up of various vegetable 
 substances, found mostly in stomaches taken in winter. 
 Beetles constitute 28 per cent of the whole food, grass- 
 hoppers 22, caterpillars 11, and various insects, including 
 quite a number of spiders, comprise the remainder of 
 the insect diet. All these are more or less harmful, 
 except a few pred^iceous beetles, which amount to 8 per 
 cent, but in view of the large consumption of grass- 
 hoppers and caterpillars, we can at least condone this 
 offense, if such it may be called. The destruction of 
 grasshoppers is very noticeable in the months of Aug- 
 ust and September, when these insects form more than 
 60 per cent of the diet." 
 
 It is not easy to tempt Bluebirds to an artificial feed- 
 ing-place, such as I keep supplied with food for Juncos, 
 Chickadees, Woodpeckers, Nuthatches, Jays, etc.; tho 
 in winter they will eat dried currants and make their 
 own selection from mill sweepings if scattered about 
 the trees of their haunts. For, above all things, the 
 .Bluebird, tho friendly and seeking borderland between 
 the wild and the tame, never becomes familiar, and 
 never does he lose the half-remote individuality that is 
 one of his great charms. 
 
 Bob-White 
 
 Edward Howe Forbush 
 
 The cheery interrogative call of Bob-white was one 
 of the first distinctive sounds of the open field that, as 
 a child, I knew and loved among the hills of New Eng- 
 land. It was as well known as the morning carol of 
 the Robin in the orchard, the drumming of the Rufifed 
 Grouse in the woods, or the reiterated plaint of the 
 Whip-poor-will on the moonlit door-stone. Bob-white 
 was ever an optimist, for even if, as the farniers stoutly 
 maintained, his call sometimes presaged a storm, the 
 prophecy "more wet" was delivered in such a cheerful 
 frame of mind, and in such a joyous, happy tone, as to 
 make rain seem the most desirable thing in life. 
 
 Perhaps there is no bird to which the, American people 
 are more deeply indebted for esthetic and material 
 benefits. He is the most democratic and ubiquitous of 
 all our game birds. He is not a bird of desert, wilder- 
 
 ness or mountain peak, that one must go far to seek. 
 He is a bird of the home, the farm, garden and field; 
 the friend and companion of mankind; a much-needed 
 helper on the farm; a destroyer of insect pests and 
 weeds. He is called Quail in the North and Partridge 
 in the South, but he has named himself Bob-white. 
 Range 
 When America was first settled, Bob-white was found 
 from Maine and southern Canada to the coast of the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Being a sociable and domestic species, 
 it followed -settlement, and now inhabits suitable lo- 
 calities in much of the United States, from the Rocky 
 Mountains to the Atlantic. It has been introduced into 
 the island of Jamaica and into South Dakota, Utah, 
 Colorado, California, Oregon and Washington, and has, 
 flourished in most of these places. A smaller race in- 
 
56 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 habits southern Florida, another lives in Texas; while 
 closely allied, but distinct species, occupy Arizona and 
 Mexico. 
 
 Character 
 
 Bob-white is cheerful, active, industrious, brave (but 
 quick to learn caution where caution is necessary), and 
 good-natured, altho, in the rivalries of the mating sea- 
 son, the males become quarrelsome. Both sexes are 
 devoted parents, and the male often takes his place 
 on the nest. In captivity, he has been known to hatch, 
 brood and care for the young. The birds of a covey 
 are very affectionate toward one another. They con- 
 verse together in a variety of tender, low, twittering 
 tones; sleep side by side in a circular group on the 
 ground, with heads out; and, if scattered soon begin 
 to call and seek one another, and never rest until all 
 the surviving members of their little company are to- 
 gether again. ' 
 
 Nest and Eggs 
 
 A mere cavity is hollowed from the soil under a bush 
 or fence, or, if in the woods, under a decaying- log. 
 Sometimes the nest is made in a cotton row in the 
 southern states. It is usually well lined and concealed 
 with grass or stubble. If in the field or by the road- 
 side, it is often placed within a thick tuft of grass, or 
 under a shrub, being commonly covered and open at 
 one side, somewhat like the Oven-bird's nest. If situ- 
 
 Bob-White 
 
 ated in the edge of the woods, it is made mainly of 
 leaves, and the female, while laying, covers the eggs 
 with leaves when she leaves the nest. If the nest is 
 disturbed by man or animals, she is likely to desert 
 it; but Dr. Hatch found that when he removed the 
 covering carefully with forceps, and replaced it just 
 as he found it, the bird did not abandon its home. 
 
 From eight to eighteen eggs are deposited, and nests 
 have been found with from thirty-two to thirty-seven 
 eggs. These are probably the product of two females. 
 The eggs are a brilliant, glossy white, sharply pointed 
 at one end. They are packed closely in the nest with 
 the points downward. There is evidence that some- 
 times two broods are reared in a season, but usually 
 the so-called second brood is reared only when the 
 first has been destroyed. 
 
 The Young 
 
 The young are hatched after about twenty-four days' 
 incubation, and no birds are more precocious. They 
 usually remain in the nest until the plumage has dried, 
 but most observers agree that they are able to run 
 about at once. Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright saw one 
 of three young hatch from the egg, when all immedi- 
 ately left the nest at the warning cry of the mother. 
 
 The tiny little ones resemble somewhat a diminutive 
 
 young brown Leghorn chicken. On the least alarm, 
 they squat close to the ground, where the eye can 
 hardly detect them. The driver of my heavy farm 
 team once saw a mother Quail fluttering in the road be- 
 fore him, and stopped for fear of crushing the young 
 which were hiding in the road; but the wheels of the 
 farm wagon had already killed two, which had stead- 
 fastly maintained their position in the deep rut until 
 the wheels had passed over them. 
 Self Protection 
 
 This bird is an adept at concealment. A covey will 
 squat on the ground and become practically invisible. 
 Years ago in the South, I stood talking with a hunter, 
 when my eye caught a slight movement on the ground, 
 and there sat an entire flock of Bob-whites in a little 
 circle almost beneath my feet, and scarcely concealed 
 by the scanty shrubbery. As the eye found them, they 
 burst up between us with an explosive roar of wings 
 like a "feathered bomb-shell," and went whirring away. 
 Habits 
 
 Bob-white seldom migrates except for short distances 
 when in search of food; but there is considerable evi- 
 dence that, at times migrations of some length toward 
 the South take place in the fall. This has never come 
 within my observation, as all the coveys that I have 
 watched have remained thruout the year in the same 
 locality, unless exterminated by a severe winter or by 
 the hunter. It is a well known fact that in the South 
 a covey has been seen, year after year in a favorite 
 locality for more than a quarter of a century. There 
 they increase so fast that they are able to maintain 
 themselves for years, in spite of their numerous enemies; 
 but in the North they succumb to the rigors of severe 
 winters. 
 
 Bob-white feeds almost entirely on the ground, ex- 
 cept when driven by deep snows to seek berries and 
 seeds from the shrubbery. Feeding by preference in 
 the open, the birds usually keep within a short dis- 
 tance of the cover afforded by thickets, swamps or rank 
 grain. They usually sleep in the open, where flight in 
 all directions is unobstructed. 
 
 Economic Value 
 
 Probably something like 400,000 sportsmen now go 
 out from the cities of this country each year to hunt 
 Bob-white. This bird has a cash value to the farmer 
 and land owner, for he can demand and obtain from 
 the sportsman a fair price for the birds killed on his 
 property. The annual Quail crop, if judiciously handled, 
 is worth millions of dollars to the farmers of this coun- 
 try. In many cases, shooting rentals more than pay 
 the taxes of the farm, without detracting in any way 
 from its value for agricultural purposes. Bob-white 
 pays the greatest part of the tax in many school districts, 
 thus paying for the education of the children. Many 
 thousands of dollars are spent in many states in leas- 
 ing land and in holding field trials of dogs. In these 
 trials no shooting is done, the dogs merely pointing 
 the birds. 
 
 On the farm, Bob-white comes into closer contact 
 with the crops, year after year, than any other bird, 
 yet rarely appreciably injures any grain or fruit. Thru 
 the investigations of the Bureau of Biological Survey 
 of the United States Department of Agriculture, it is 
 now well known that Bob-white ranks very high as a 
 destroyer of many of the most destructive insect pests. 
 Among those eaten are potato beetles, cucumber beetles, 
 wire worms, weevils, including the Mexican cotton-boll 
 weevil, locusts, grasshoppers, chinch bugs, squash bugs 
 and caterpillars. Many of these insects are de- 
 stroyed by scores and hundreds. Mrs. Margaret 
 Morse Nice, of Clark University, gives the following 
 as eaten by captive birds. Each number given repre- 
 sents the insects eaten during a single meal bj' one 
 bird: Chinch bugs, 100; squash bugs, 12; plant-lice, 
 2,326; grasshoppers, 39; cut-worms, 12; army worms, 
 12; mosquitos, 568; potato beetles, 101; white grubs, 8. 
 
 The following records are taken from a list which 
 she gives to show the number of insects eaten by Bob- 
 white in a day: Chrysanthemum black-flies, 5,000; flies, 
 1,350; rose-slugs, 1,286; miscellaneous insects, 700, of 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 57 
 
 which 30O were grasshoppers; and insects 1,532, of 
 which 1,000 were grasshoppers. Mrs. Nice gives a list 
 of 141 species of insects eaten by the Quail, nearly 
 all of which are injurious, and Dr. C. F. Hodge re- 
 marks that a bird which eats so many injurious insects 
 is welcome to the beneficial ones as well; for, apparent- 
 ly, if we could have enough Bob-whites, they would 
 leave nothing for the useful insects to do. 
 
 As a destroyer of weeds. Bob-white stands pre-emi- 
 nent. Mrs. Nice gives a. list of 129 weeds, the seeds 
 of which are eaten by this little gleaner. These seeds 
 are digested and the germs thus destroyed. 
 
 Methods of Protection and Propagation 
 
 Thus far, the principal method of protecting the Bob- 
 white has been the passage of laws forbidding market- 
 hunting, or export, restricting the shooting season to 
 one or two months in the year, and limiting the num- 
 ber of birds that the sportsman is allowed to take. In 
 the South, however, and in some localities in the North 
 and West, the birds are protected and increased on 
 preserves. Bob-white has been numerous for years in 
 
 North Carolina, where the system of game preserves 
 has been brought to greater perfection than in any other 
 part of the country. 
 
 Recent experiments show that Bob-white can be 
 reared in captivity and absolutely domesticated. Dr. 
 C. F. Hodge, of Clark University, at Worcester, Mass., 
 has reared flocks of young birds under their parents, 
 under hens, and with incubators, and has demonstrated 
 that they may be given their liberty and will return 
 to the hand when called. The Massachusetts Commis- 
 sioners on Fisheries and Game reared about four 
 hundred Bob-whites in confinement, in 1910. They 
 used incubators and brooders, as well as the natural 
 method. This work, now in the experimental stage, 
 requires only experience and a knowledge of the meth- 
 ods of controlling the diseases of these birds to make 
 it practicable on a large scale. Eventually it will be 
 possible to raise Bob-whites in large numbers on game 
 farms, and to keep a stock over winter in captivity, 
 with which to replenish the coveys whenever severe 
 winters deplete them. 
 
 The American Goldfinch 
 
 William Dutcher 
 
 The Goldfinch, whicli is also known as the Yellow 
 Bird, Wild Canary, Lettuce Bird and Thistle Bird, has 
 been selected as the first of the series of birds to be 
 shown in natural colors. Presentation in this way ren- 
 ders unnecessary a detailed description of its plumage. 
 The English name of the Goldfinch is well chosen, as 
 the bright yellow of the male when in breeding plum- 
 age is like burnished gold. The Latin generic name 
 of the Goldfinch has reference to prickly plants, while 
 its specific name, tristis, sad, refers to its rather plain- 
 tive flight note. The female Goldfinch is more modestly 
 dressed than her mate. 
 
 The changes in plumage of the male are very inter- 
 esting and, to the novice, somewhat puzzling. Until 
 the student becomes acquainted with this bird he may 
 wonder why he sees no males during the winter. The 
 truth is at this season the flocks of supposed female 
 Goldfinches are really of both sexes, the male bird hav- 
 ing assumed in the previous fall, usually by the end 
 of October, a plumage closely resembling that of the 
 female and young bird of the year. 
 
 The male retains this inconspicuous dress until late 
 in February, when one can notice a gradual change tak- 
 ing place in some of the birds. This molt, or renewal 
 of feathers is actively continued thru March and April, 
 and by the first of May our resplendent bird is with 
 us again. The change from yellow to brownish and 
 back again to yellow can be noted by the student in the 
 field, who with a good opera-glass will find that the 
 variations in plumage between the two extremes are 
 without number. 
 
 The song period with the male Goldfinch continues 
 as long as he wears his gold and black livery, for it 
 commences as early as the middle of March and ends 
 late in August. 
 
 Goldfinches are wee birds, some four and one-half 
 inches in length, but what they lack in size they make 
 up in admirable qualities, one of the chief of which is 
 their gregarious mode of life. Except during the short 
 season devoted to domestic duties, they associate in 
 flocks, and live a happy, nomadic existence. Their un- 
 dulating mode of flight seems to express joy and ex- 
 altation, and when they add song, it is the very aban- 
 don of happiness. Even in winter, when the fields are 
 brown and the trees are bare, a flock of Goldfinches 
 adds the charm of life to an otherwise dead outlook. 
 
 The Goldfinch migrates, but not to the extent that 
 the truly migratory species do. The Warblers, for in- 
 stance, desert their summer homes and, after making 
 long journeys southward, spend the winter beyond the 
 limits of the United States; the Goldfinches, on the 
 contrary, gradually move southward as far as the Gulf 
 States and in winter are found from the Gulf coast 
 
 as far north as the latitude of central New York. Their 
 breeding range is from the Carolinas westward to the 
 Rocky Mountains and northward to the British Prov- 
 inces and southern Labrador; consequently, they are 
 permanent residents in a large part of the United 
 States, where their migratory and breeding ranges over- 
 
 American Goldfinch 
 
 lap. There are several closely related forms of sub- 
 species of the Goldfinch found in the West and on the 
 Mexican border, which are so much like the American 
 Goldfinch that it may be said Goldfinches are found in 
 a large part of North America. 
 
58 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Goldfinches are very cleanly in their habits and in- 
 dulge in frequent baths; indeed, the border of a shal- 
 low pool is an excellent place to study this species, as 
 it is not an uncommon sight to see a number of the 
 brightly colored males gathered there. During the 
 breeding season the parent birds seem to have a well 
 defined route from the nest to a common watering 
 place. 
 
 The nesting site may be in an evergreen or deciduous 
 bush or tree, and the nest may be built only a few 
 feet from the ground or at considerable height, where 
 it is saddled on or attached to a forked twig. The nest 
 itself is an exquisite piece of -bird architecture, com- 
 pactly built of dried grasses, leaves and shreds of bark, 
 the outside being embellished with lichens, which Audu- 
 bon says are attached by saliva. The inside of the 
 nest is lined with the softest plant-down. The mother- 
 bird is the builder of this tasteful home, her handsome 
 consort, during the nest-building time, devoting most 
 of his efforts to singing to cheer his industrious mate. 
 After the four to six bluish white eggs have been laid 
 the singing partner has more work to do, for he has 
 to feed his brooding wife. His frequent visits are al- 
 ways announced with a sweet conversational song, which 
 he seems to be able to give, even tho his bill is filled 
 with seeds. 
 
 These leaflets are published to induce the boj's and 
 girls of the country to keep their eyes wide open and 
 see things out of doors. One of the things we want 
 to know about the Goldfinch is why he begins to nest 
 so late in the season, often long after most birds are 
 thru with domestic duties for the year. August is the 
 time he chooses. Surely it seems a strange month for 
 nestbuilding and the care of young. Does he select 
 it because before that date nature has not provided food 
 suited to the needs of the young Goldfinches? 
 
 The Goldfinch belongs to the thick-billed, seed-eating 
 
 class of birds and is extremely fond of the seeds of 
 thistles, a most noxious weed. Does he postpone house- 
 keeping until the thistle seeds are ripe enough to eat? 
 
 The agriculturist shoyld be interested in this bird. 
 Every thistle along the highway is a prolific source of 
 future trouble, but when you see it ornamented with 
 an animated bit of gold and black, you may know that 
 Nature is interposing one of her potent checks to the 
 too rapid increase of weed pests. Every Goldfinch 
 saves the farmer much har4 work by destroying weed 
 seeds, which form the bulk of its food supply, altho 
 during the breeding season it gives its young consider- 
 able animal food, consisting of insects of various kinds. 
 Questions for Teachers and Students 
 
 What is the local name of the Goldfinch in your local- 
 ity? Describe the plumage worn by the male bird in 
 summer, also at other seasons; how do the plumages 
 of the male and female birds differ? When does the 
 male bird begin to assume the summer or breeding 
 dress? When the winter dress? How long does it take 
 to make the change? Is there any change in the plum- 
 age of the female bird? What is a molt? Do any birds 
 change the color of their plumage without molting? 
 What is such process called? Describe the plumage 
 of young birds at the time they leave the nest. De- 
 scriptions should be based on observations made in the 
 field from the living birds, when possible. When does 
 the song period commence? How long does it con- 
 tinue? Does the female have a song? What is the 
 alarm note? The flight note? Give size of Goldfinch, 
 shape of body, wings, tail, bill, feet. What are the 
 habits during different seasons of the year? Whkt is 
 meant by gregarious? By nomadic? Are there any 
 peculiarities of flight? During what portion of the year 
 are Goldfinches found in your locality? Do they breed 
 in your locality? Describe the nest in detail, materials 
 used, size, etc. 
 
 The Flicker 
 
 William Dutcher 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 The male bird of the species of the Flicker which in- 
 habits the region of North America east of the Rocky 
 
 The Flicker 
 
 Mountains has the upper parts brown barred with bla(ck; 
 the tip of head is a slaty grey; there is a band of red 
 at back of head; the rump is white and conspicuous 
 when flying; the tail is black above and bright yellow 
 below except tips which arc black; the throat and sides 
 of head are pinkish brown; there is a black mustache 
 from base of bill and a broad black crescent on upper 
 chest. Under parts from crescent to the tail are brown- 
 ish-yellowish white profusely spotted with black; under 
 sides of wings are bright yellow; the length of the bird 
 from tip of bill to end of tail is about twelve inches. The 
 female bird is exactly like the male except in lacking 
 the black mustache. 
 
 Nest and Eggs 
 
 The Flicker builds its nest in an excavation which it 
 chisels in a dead stump or live tree trunk. Usually it 
 builds its nest at any height from two to seventy feet 
 above the ground. Occasionally the bird makes a hole 
 for its nest in a post, telegraph pole, dwelling or bank. 
 Apple orchards are especially favored as nesting sites. 
 The eggs are white and glossy and the number varies 
 from four to ten. 
 
 The Economic Value of the Flicker 
 
 No other bird takes a more prominent part in the 
 well-known and favorite pastoral play of "Spring" than 
 the flicker. With his robust voice, rollicking and varied 
 calls and grotesque actions, he is the clown of the play 
 who season after season announces his presence with 
 the oft repeated, familiar, but none the less welcome 
 cry of "Well! here we are again." Altho the flicker is 
 a woodpecker, yet it is quite as terrestrial as arboreal 
 in its habits and is as fond of taking a dust bath as 
 are the gallinaceous birds. Wherever the flicker is found 
 it has so impressed itself upon its human neighbors 
 that it has been given the names expressing characters 
 or individual traits of the bird, one compiler having 
 collected no less than 124 of these vernacular names. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 59 
 
 While the flicker is to a certain extent frugivorous in 
 its food habits, yet by far the larger percentage of its 
 yearly food is insects. Of these, ants form the prin- 
 cipal diet. This apparently has been the case for so 
 long a period that the tongue of the flicker has be- 
 come specialized in order that its favorite food may be 
 obtained with the least trouble. 
 
 Food for the Year 
 
 An examination of the stomachs of a, large number 
 of flickers collected in 28 states, has revealed that the 
 greater part of its food consists of insect pests. If the 
 flicker had no other valuable economic quality it would 
 deserve protection because it is the enemy of the ant 
 family, about SO per cent of its food for the year being 
 these insect pests. Ants besides being wood-borers care 
 for and perpetuate plant-lice which infest and are very 
 destructive to vegetation in all parts of the country to 
 the very serious loss of agricultural interests. 
 
 Flickers also destroy quite a large percentage of 
 beetles, moths, and miscellaneous insects and thus do 
 much good. While the flickers are fruit-eating to some 
 
 extent, yet cultivated fruit and grain are taken in so 
 small an amount that the flickers can be considered en-- 
 tirely beneficial. Only one per cent of the food found 
 in 394 stomachs examined was cultivated grain and a 
 like percentage was cultivated fruit. The fruit however, 
 was mostly confined to blackberries and raspberries, 
 which might have been and probably were wild rather 
 than cultivated. 
 
 The nighthawk, dove, meadow-lark and robin are the 
 only species of birds which are not strictly game birds 
 that have suffered more than the flicker from boys and 
 budding sportsmen. In the fall of the year when the 
 first frosty nights start the southward migration and 
 when the wild fruits and berries attract the flickers 
 to the well-laden branches, they sufifer most from the 
 gunners. It is not sport nor does it require skill to sit 
 hidden under a tree and when a flicker flies in to pot 
 it. Every land owner in the country — especially the 
 Gulf States — should see that on his premises this style 
 of hunting is stopped, and thus help to preserve one 
 of the most valuable birds. 
 
 The Red-Headed Woodpecker 
 
 Florence Merriam Bailey 
 
 The woodpeckers are a band of foresters most of 
 whom spend their lives saving trees. Many of them 
 do their work hidden in the dark forests, but the Red- 
 heads hunt largely out in plain sight of passers-by. 
 Why? Because, while they devour enough enemies of 
 the trees to deserve the name of foresters, they are 
 particularly fond of vegetable foods and large beetles 
 found in the open. 
 
 Watch one of the handsome red-headed birds on a 
 fence. Down he drops to pick up an ant or a grass- 
 hopper from the ground; then up he shoots to catch 
 a wasp or beetle in the air. Nor does he stop with 
 fly-catching. Nutting — beechnutting — is one of his favor- 
 ite pastimes; while berries, fruits and seeds are all to 
 his taste. If, in his appreciation of the good thing that 
 man oflfers, the Redhead on rare occasions takes a bit 
 more cultivated fruit or berries than his rightful share, 
 his attention should be diverted by planting some of 
 his favorite wild fruits, such as dogwood, mulberry, 
 elderberry, chokeberry, or wild black cherry. 
 
 But, in judging of what is a bird's fair share of man's 
 crops, many things should be considered. Food is 
 bought for the canary and other house pets; and many 
 people who do not care for caged pets buy food for 
 the wild birds summer and winter, to bring them to 
 their houses. Flowers cost something, too. But with- 
 out birds and flowers, what would the country be? Be- 
 fore raising his hand against a bird, a man should think 
 of many things. A man who is unfair to a bird is un- 
 fair to himself. 
 
 Feeding Habits 
 
 It would be a stingy man, indeed who would be- 
 grudge the woodpeckers their acorns and beechnuts. 
 While the leaves are still green on the trees, the red- 
 heads discover the beechnuts and go to work. "It is 
 a truly beautiful sight," Dr. Merriam says, "to watch 
 these magnificent birds creeping about after the man- 
 ner of warblers, among the small branches and twigs, 
 which bend low with their weight, while picking and 
 husking the tender nuts." 
 
 The nuts are not always eaten on the spot, for, like 
 their famous California cousins, the redheads store up 
 food for winter use. All sorts of odd nooks and cran- 
 nies serve the redheads for storehouses — knot-holes, 
 pockets under patches of raised bark, cracks between 
 shingles, and in fences, and even railroad ties. Some- 
 times, instead of nuts, grasshoppers and other eatables 
 are put away in storage. The wise birds at times make 
 real caches, concealing their stores by hammering down 
 pieces of wood or bark over them. 
 
 Beechnuts are such a large part of the fall and win- 
 ter food of the redheads in some localities that, like 
 the gray squirrels, the birds are common in good beech- 
 
 nut winters and absent in others. Cold and snow do 
 not trouble them, if they have plenty to eat, for, as 
 Major Bendire says, many of them "winter along our 
 northern border, in certain years, when they can find 
 an abundant supply of food." In fact, in the greater 
 part of the eastern states the redhead is "a rather regu- 
 lar resident," but in the western part of its range "it 
 appears to migrate pretty regularly," so that it is rare 
 to see one "north of latitude 40 degrees in winter." The 
 
 Red-headed Woodpecker 
 
 western boundary of the redhead's range is the Rocky 
 mountains, but east of the mountains it breeds from 
 Manitoba and northern New York south to the Gulf 
 of Mexico; tho it is a rare bird in eastern New Eng- 
 land. 
 
60 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Migration 
 
 In sections where this erratic woodpecker migrates, 
 it leaves its nesting grounds early in October, and re- 
 turns the latter part of April or the beginning of May. 
 Before too much taken up with the serious business of 
 life, the redhead goes gaily about, as Major Bendire 
 says, "frolicking and playing hide-and-seek with its 
 mate, and when not so engaged, amusing itself by drum- 
 ming on some resonant dead limb, or on the roof and 
 sides of houses, barns, etc." For tho, like other drum- 
 mers, the woodpeckers are not found in the front ranks 
 of the orchestra, they beat a royal tattoo that may well 
 express many fine feelings. 
 
 Nest 
 
 When the musical spring holiday is over and the 
 birds have chosert a tree for the nest, they hew out a 
 , pocket in a trunk or branch, anywhere from eight to 
 eighty feet from the ground. When the young hatch, 
 there comes a happy day for the looker-on who, by 
 kind intent and unobtrusive way, has earned the right 
 to watch the lovely birds flying back and forth, caring 
 for their brood. 
 
 And then, at last, come the days when the gray-headed 
 youngsters, from hanging out of the window, boldly 
 open their wings and launch into the air. Anxious 
 times these are for old birds — times when the watcher's 
 admiration may be roused by heroic deeds of parental 
 love; for many a parent bird fairly flaunts in the face 
 of the enemy, as if trying to say, "Kill me; spare iny 
 
 young 
 
 The striking tricolor makes the redheads such good 
 targets that they are in especial danger from human 
 enemies and need loyal, valiant defenders wherever 
 they live. And what a privilege it is to have birds of 
 such interesting habits and beautiful plumage in your 
 neighborhood! How the long country roads are en- 
 livened, how the green fields are lit up, as one of the 
 brilliant birds rises from a fence-post and flies over 
 them! In the city, it is rare good luck, inde'ed, to have 
 
 a pair nest in an oak where you can watch them; and 
 even a passing glimpse or an occasional visit is some- 
 thing to be thankful for. 
 
 "There's the redhead!" you exclaim exultantly, when 
 a loud tattoo beats on your city roof in spring. And 
 "There's the redhead!" you cry with delight, as a soft 
 "kikarik'' comes from a leafless oak you are passing 
 in winter; and the city street, so dull and uninterest- 
 ing before, is suddenly illuminated by the sight. 
 Questions for Teachers and Students 
 
 What is conservation? How do woodpeckers help 
 the United States in the conservation of its forests? 
 What do red-headed woodpeckers eat? Is there enough 
 wild food birds in your neighborhood? Why do people 
 feed birds? What is it to play fair? To be just to 
 birds? How about the golden goose? What nuts have you 
 seen redheads eat? Do woodpeckers and squirrels quar- 
 rel over nuts? Where have you seen redheads store 
 beechnuts? What is a cache? What birds and animals 
 cache food? What have you found cached in the 
 woods? How do redheads open beechnuts? Acorns? 
 What can the old hunters tell you about good nut or 
 acorn winters and redheads? If the woodpeckers go 
 south in winter, where you live, at what times do they 
 go and return? What different calls have the redheads? 
 Have you ever heard a tree-toad answer one by mis- 
 take? What are the redheads' favorite drumming-places? 
 Where do the woodpeckers nest near you? Do both 
 old birds brood the eggs and feed the young? Do they 
 feed by regurgitation? How long do the old birds feed 
 the young after they leave the nest? Do the old birds 
 use the same nest year after year? Why? How far 
 can a woodpecker see an insect? Are the redheads' 
 colors always conspicuous? Why? Does their color 
 pattern make them more or less conspicuous? Draw 
 the flight of a redhead fly-catching. Draw his 
 position in hunting. Why is it particularly interest- 
 ing to have redheads in your neighborhood? How can 
 you prevent their being killed? 
 
 Red- Winged Blackbird 
 
 Mabel Osgood Wright 
 
 "Among all the birds that return to us in April, The Redwing's Personality 
 
 which is the most striking and most compels atten- In point of coloring the Redwing is faultlessly plumed 
 
 tion?" asked a bird-lover of a group of kindred spirits. — glossy back with epaulets of scarlet edged with gold — 
 
 "The Fox Sparrow," said one who lived on the edge the uniform of a soldier, and this, coupled with the 
 of a village where sheltered wild fields stretched up three martial notes that serve him as a song, would 
 
 hill to the woodlands. "Every morning when I open 
 my window I can hear them almost without listen- 
 ing." 
 
 "The Phoebe," said another, who was the owner of 
 a pretty home, where many rambling sheds broke the 
 way from cow-barn to pasture. 
 
 "The Whippoorwill," answered a third, a dweller in 
 a remote colony of artists in a picturesque spot of 
 cleared woodland, where the ground dropped quickly 
 to a stream. 
 
 "No, the Woodcock," said the nearest neighbor, a 
 man whose cottage was upon the upper edge of these 
 same woods, where they were margined by moist mead- 
 ows and soft bottomlands — a man who spent much time 
 out-of-doors at dawn and twilight studying sky effects. 
 
 "And I think it's Red-winged Blackbirds," cried the 
 ten-year-old son of the latter, "for when I go out up 
 back of the trout brook by the little path along the 
 alders near the squashy place where the cattails grow 
 in summer, you've just got to hear them. You can't 
 listen to them as you do to real singing birds, for they 
 make too much noise, and when you listen for a bird 
 it's got to be still at least in the beginning. Sometimes 
 they go it all together down in the bushes out of sight, 
 then a few will walk out up to the dry Meadowlark's 
 field with Cowbirds, or maybe it's their wives, and then 
 one or two will lift up and shoot over the marsh back 
 again, calling out just like juicy sky-rockets. Ah, they're 
 it in April before the leaves comes out." And, in spite 
 of difference of viewpoint, the group finally acknowl- 
 edged that the boy was right. 
 
 make one expect to find in him all the manly and mili- 
 tar}r virtues. But aside from the superficial matter of 
 personal appearance, the Redwing is lacking in many of 
 the qualities that endear the feathered tribe to us and 
 make us judge them, perhaps too much by human stand- 
 ards. 
 
 When Redwings live in colonies it is often difficult 
 to estimate the exact relationship existing between the 
 members, tho it is apparent that the sober brown, 
 striped females outnumber the males; but in places 
 where the birds are uncommon and only one or two 
 male birds can be found, it is easily seen that the house- 
 hold of the male consists of from three to five nests, 
 each presided over by a watchful female, and when dan- 
 ger arises this feathered Mormon shows equal anxiety 
 for each nest, and circles screaming about the general 
 location. In colony life the males oftentimes act in 
 concert as a general guard, being diverted oftentimes 
 from the main issue, it must be confessed, to indulge 
 in duels and pitched battles among themselves. 
 His Family 
 
 The Redwing belongs to a notable family — that of 
 the Blackbirds and Orioles — and, in spite of the struc- 
 tural semblances that group them together, the differ- 
 ences of plumage, voice and breeding habits are very 
 great. 
 
 The Cowbird, the Redwing's next of kin, even lacks 
 the rich liquid call note of the latter and the lack of 
 marital fidelity on the part of the male is met in a truly 
 progressive spirit by the female, who, shirking all do- 
 mestic responsibility, drops her eggs craftily m the 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 61 
 
 nests of other and usually smaller birds, who can not 
 easily resent the imposition. Tho a strong proof of 
 the unconscious aflinity of race lies in the fact that these 
 young foundling Covvbirds invariably join their parent 
 flocks in autumn instead of continuing with their foster 
 mothers. 
 
 The Meadowlark with the true spring song, who hides 
 his nest in the dry grass of old fields, is also kin to 
 the Redwing and the Bobolink too, the vocal harlequin 
 of the meadows and hillside pastures. The Orchard 
 and Baltimore Orioles, also next of kin, are skilled 
 musicians and model husbands. 
 
 Still another plane is to be found in the Redwing's 
 dismal cousins, the Crackles — Purple, Rusty, Bronzed 
 and Boat-tailed — all harsh of voice and furtive in ac- 
 tion, as if a Crow fairy had been present at their creat- 
 ing and, endowing them with ready wits, had, at the 
 same time, deprived them of all sense of humor and 
 cast a shadow upon their happiness. For a Crackle is 
 gloomy, even during the absurd gyrations of his court- 
 ship, and when, in autumn, the great flocks settle on 
 lawns and fields and solemnly walk about, as they for- 
 age they seem like a party of feathered mutes waiting 
 to attend the funeral of the year; and this trait some- 
 what tinctures the disposition of the Redwing before 
 and after the breeding season. 
 
 His Country 
 
 The Redwing, in one of his many subspecific forms, 
 and masquerading under many names — Red-shouldered 
 Blackbird, American Starling and Swamp Blackbird — 
 lives in North America from Nova Scotia and Creat 
 Slave Lake southward to Costa Rica. The Redwing, 
 as known to us of middle and eastern North America, 
 breeds in all parts of the United States and Canadian 
 range, tho it is more numerous by far in the great 
 prairies of the upper Mississippi valley, with their 
 countless backwater sloughs, than anywhere else. It 
 is in regions of this sort that the great flocks turn both 
 to the fall-sown grain, as well as that of the crop in 
 the ear, causing the farmers the loss that puts a black 
 mark against the Redwings. Yet those that dwell east 
 of this area, owing to the draining and ditching of their 
 swampy haunts being in much reduced numbers, are 
 comparatively harmless. 
 
 His Travels 
 
 During the winter months the Redwings are dis- 
 tributed thruout the South, tho stragglers may be oc- 
 , casionally seen in many parts of their summer range. 
 Exactly why they begin the southward migration in 
 September and end it with the falling of the leaves in 
 late October, it is not easy to guess; for the food sup- 
 ply is not at an end and they do not dread moderate 
 cold, else why should they be in the front rank of spring 
 migrants? 
 
 The last of February will bring a few individuals of 
 the advance guard of males. In early March their calls 
 are heard often before the ice has melted and the 
 hylas found voice; yet, in spite of this hurried return, 
 the nesting season does not begin until the middle of 
 May; and so for two months and more the flock life 
 continues, and foraging, fighting and general courting 
 serve to kill time until the remote marshes show enough 
 green drapery to hide the nests. 
 His Nest 
 
 As a nest-builder the Redwing shows much of the 
 weaver's skill of its Oriole cousins, tho the material 
 they work with is of coarser texture, being fastened 
 firmly to low bushes or reeds and woven of grass and 
 the split leaves of reeds and flags, all nicely lined with 
 soft grasses and various vegetable fibers. Often, like 
 that of the Marsh Wren, the nest will be suspended 
 between three or four reeds and so firmly knit that it 
 resembles one of the four-legged work-baskets that be- 
 longed to the "mother's room" of our youth. The pale 
 blue eggs of the Redwing are particularly noticeable 
 from the character of the markings that thickly cover 
 the larger end, for they seem the work of a sharp 
 scratching pen dipped in purplish black ink and held 
 
 by an aimless human hand, rather than the distribu- 
 tion of natural pigment. 
 
 His Food 
 An eater of grain tho the Redwing is, and a menace 
 to the farmer in certain regions. Professor Beal con- 
 cedes to him a liberal diet of weed seeds and animal 
 food, itself injurious to vegetation. Dr. B. H. Warren, 
 who has made a wide study of the food habits of this 
 
 Red-winged blackbird 
 (Upper figure, male; lower figure, female) 
 
 Blackbird, says: "The Redwing destroys large numbers 
 of 'cutworms.' I have taken from the stomach of a 
 single swamp Blackbird as many as twenty-eight 'cut- 
 worms.' In addition to the insects, etc., mentioned 
 above, these birds also, during their residence with us, 
 feed on earthworms, grasshoppers, crickets, plant-lice 
 and various larvae, so destructive at times in the field 
 and garden. During the summer season fruits of the 
 blackberry, raspberry, wild strawberry and wild cherry 
 are eaten to a more or less extent. The young, while 
 under parental care, are fed exclusively on an insect 
 diet." These facts should make us of the East wel- 
 come rather than discourage the Redwing; for this is 
 one of the species of familiar birds that must become 
 extinct in many localities, owing to the circumstances 
 so desirable in itself of reducing the waste marsh lands, 
 and, tho later in the year other birds replace him ac- 
 ceptably, March and April would seem lonely without 
 the Redwing, for then, as the child said, "You've just 
 got to look at him." 
 
 Man is permitted much 
 
 To scan and learn 
 
 In Nature's frame; 
 
 Till he well nigh can tame 
 
 Brute mischiefs, and can touch 
 
 Invisible things, and turn 
 
 All warring ills to purposes of good. 
 
 — John Henry (Cardinal) Newman. 
 
 There is a transcendent power in example. We reform 
 others unconsciously, when we walk uprightly. — Mad. 
 Swetchine. 
 
62 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 CHILDREN'S FAVORITE AUTHORS 
 
 Louisa M. Alcott 
 
 Sarah J. 
 
 "She had a womanly face, bright gray eyes that looked 
 full of merriment and would not see the hard side of 
 life, and an air of common sense that made all defer 
 to her judgment. She told witty stories of the many 
 who wrote to her for advice or favors, and good-na- 
 turedly gave bits of her own personal experience." 
 
 If I were to ask the children to name the Children's 
 Favorite Author, of whom the above is a description. 
 
 Louisa M. Alcott 
 
 I am sure in grand chorus they would answer: Louisa 
 May Alcott. And so it is. 
 
 It is remarkable, too, to find positive cheer and good- 
 will ruling the life of this lovely woman, for of ease, 
 luxury and wealth, which we often connect with pleas- 
 ure and happine'ss, she had nothing. She was born in 
 Germantown, Pa., November 29, 1832. Her father, Amos 
 Bronson Alcott, was a teacher and philosopher, and, 
 with the aid of his cultured wife, placed before the 
 children from their infancy ideals of self-sacrifice, ideals, 
 of kindness, ideals of character which made for good 
 and useful lives. We read that everybody respected 
 his purity of life and his scholarship. With Margaret 
 Fuller as his assistant he conducted for ten years a 
 school in Boston where he was free to put into practice 
 his ideas of teaching, which were far in advance of his 
 time. He was forced finally to close his school because 
 there was so great opposition to the negro children, whom 
 he allowed to study with the white boys and girls. When 
 the Boston school was given up the Alcotts moved to 
 Concord, and altho poverty followed the philosopher 
 and his family, in the company of Emerson, Thoreau 
 and Hawthorne, who lived in Concord, the parents and 
 their happy children were content to live simply and 
 to get along. The four girls, Anna, Louisa, Elizabeth 
 and May, grew up to learn lessons of economy and 
 thrift together with the more pleasant studies of liter- 
 
 Schuster 
 
 ature and art of which their parents had full measure. 
 In company with Ellen, Edward and Edith Emerson 
 and Una, Julian and Rose Hawthorne, the days passed 
 with novel experiences such as you would expect of chil- 
 dren whose vivid imagination carried them into far dis- 
 tant countries when they were in their back yards mere- 
 ly enjoying a good story. The Alcott children found 
 especial delight in acting the books they had read. Bun- 
 yan's "Pilgrim's Progress" fastened itself with so great 
 reality upon their minds that a scroll of paper, a staff, 
 the pilgrim's hat and a bag to represent Christian's 
 load of sin were sufficient to play out the whole allegory. 
 The dark cellar was the City of Destruction, the top 
 of the house the Celestial City, the Sloughs of Despond 
 and the Valleys of Humiliation and the Hills of Diffi- 
 culty seemed very real to the children, and their imagi- 
 nation grew by what it fed on. As Louisa grew older 
 she wrote plays herself, and she and her sisters acted 
 them for their neighbors. 
 
 All of the boys and girls know "Jo" in "Little 
 Women," and Jo was Louisa herself. You remember 
 how Jo loved boys' games and how she burst into an- 
 ger one day and exclaimed. "I'm not a young lady; 
 and if turning up my hair makes me one, I'll wear it 
 in two tails till I'm twenty. I hate to think I've got 
 to grow up and be Miss March, and wear long gowns, 
 and look as prim as a china-aster! It's bad enough to 
 be a girl, anyhow, when I like boys' games and work 
 and manners!" 
 
 It is wonderful to see how exactly Miss Alcott could 
 look back to her childhood and feel over again the ex- 
 periences of her childhood days. The picture of Jo 
 at fifteen is so honest in its feeling that hundreds and 
 thousands of children as well as older people can see 
 th awkward girl with the sympathy that genuine sin- 
 cerity of description calls forth. Miss Alcott describes 
 •herself: "Jo was very tall, thin and brown, and reminded 
 one of a colt; for she never seemed to know what to 
 do with her long limbs, which were very much in her 
 way. She had a decided mouth, a comical nose, and 
 sharp gray eyes, which appeared to see everything, and 
 were by turns fierce or funny or thoughtful. Her long 
 thick hair was her one beauty, but it was usually bundled 
 into a net to be out of her way. Round shoulders had 
 Jo, and big hands and feet, a fly-away look to her 
 clothes, and the uncomfortable appearance of a girl who 
 was rapidly shooting up into a woman and didn't like it." 
 
 Mrs. Alcott had an unusual way of praising or re- 
 proving her children. Very often when the girls awoke 
 after they had done something especially kind the day 
 before they found little notes under their pillows telling 
 how much their mother had appreciated the act. Like- 
 wise, when they had been selfish, little letters telling 
 how grieved their mother had been to know that one 
 of her girls had done wrong. One of these notes shows 
 the tender sympathy Mrs. Alcott had for her Louisa: 
 
 "My Dear Louy: — I was grieved at your selfish be- 
 havior this morning, but also greatly pleased to find 
 you bore so meekly' your father's reproof for it. That 
 is the way, dear; if you find you are wrong, take the 
 discipline sweetly, and do so no more. It is not to be 
 expected that children should always do right; but oh, 
 how lovely to see a child penitent and patient when 
 the passion is over. I thought a little prayer as I looked 
 at you, and said in my heart, 'Dear God, sustain my 
 child in this moment of trial, that no hasty word, no 
 cruel look, no angry action may add to the fault.' And 
 you were helped. I know that you will have a happy 
 day after the storm and the gentle shower. Keep quiet, 
 read, walk, but do not talk much till all is peace again. — 
 Mother." 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 63 
 
 Days of inactivity passed soon for the energetic 
 Louisa. She knew that her parents needed her help 
 in supporting the family, and she went to Boston, where 
 she taught school with twenty pupils. In Boston she 
 sometimes visited at the home of the Rev. Theodore 
 Parker, where she met her childhood friends, Emerson 
 and Sumner, Garrison, and Julia Ward Howe. All of 
 the time, in the_ secret chamber of her heart, she longed 
 to write, and in her bedroom she sat until late at night 
 putting into execution her longing. At nineteen one 
 of her stories was published in a magazine called 
 "Gleason's Pictorial,' and for it she received five dollars. 
 Even so small an amount, in the eyes of the j'oung en- 
 thusisatic girl, meant success, and speedily she sent 
 another story to the "Boston Saturday Gazette." For 
 this she received ten dollars and a' request for another 
 storj-. "One of the memorial moments of my life," Miss 
 Alcott said in later years, "is that in which, as I trudged 
 to school on a wintry day, my eye fell upon a large 
 yellow poster with these delicious words: 'Bertha, a new 
 tale by the author, of The Rival Prima Donnas, will 
 appear in the Saturday Evening Gazette.' I was late; 
 it was bitter cold; people jostled me; I was mortally 
 afraid I should be recognized; but there I stood, feast- 
 ing my eyes on the fascinating poster, and saying 
 proudly to myself, in the words of the great Vincent 
 Crummies. 'This, this is fame!' That day my pupils 
 had an indulgent teacherj for, while they struggled with 
 their pothooks, I was writing immortal works; and 
 when they droned out the multiplication table, I was 
 counting up the whole noble fortune my pen was to 
 earn for me in the dim, delightful future. That after- 
 'noon my sisters made a pilgrimage to behold this famous 
 placard, and finding it torn by the wind, boldly stole 
 it and came home to wave it like a triumphal banner 
 in the bosom of the excited family. The tattered paper 
 
 still exists, folded away with other relics of those days, 
 so hard and yet so sweet, when the first small victories 
 were wofi and the enthusiasm of youth lent romance 
 to life's drudgery." 
 
 When the Civil War broke out Miss Alcott was thirty 
 years of age. Her sensitively sympathetic heart ached 
 for the soldiers who needed the kind touch of a woman's 
 hand to restore them to health, or, if hope for life was 
 gone, to make the last moments less full of pain. She 
 answered the call of her heart and presented herself 
 at Washington as a nurse. Stories of her experiences 
 afterward appeared, entitled "Hospital Sketches." 
 
 Miss Alcott's father about this time went to a pub- 
 lisher with several short stories from his daughter's pen, 
 and asked that an opinion might be given on them. 
 The editor replied that he was not anxious to publish 
 a book of short stories, but suggested that Miss Al- 
 cott try to write a story for girls. Miss Alcott tried, 
 and "Little Women" was the result. She had written 
 the story of their own family in their Concord home. 
 Fame had come at last. Before "Little Men" was pub- 
 lished, fifty thousand copies were ordered. "Jo's Boys," 
 "An Old Fashioned Girl," "Eight Cousins" "Rose in 
 Bloom," "Under the Lilacs," "Jack and Jill" followed 
 and Miss Alcott's dream of making a comfortable home 
 for her father and mother was realized. She wrote: 
 "Mother is to be cosy if money can do it. She seems 
 to be now, and my long-cherished dream has come 
 true; for she sits in a pleasant room, with no work, no 
 care, no poverty to worry, but peace and comfort all 
 about her, and children glad and able to stand between 
 trouble and her. Thank the Lord! I like to stop and 
 remember my mercies." 
 
 Miss Alcott died March 6, 1888, at the age of fifty- 
 five, three days atfer the death of her father, who lived 
 to be eighty-eight. 
 
 Kate Douglas Wiggin 
 
 Mary Eleanor Krai: 
 
 Kate Douglas Wiggin 
 
 "Quillcotc." Doesn't the name sound inspiring? And, 
 inspiring it must be, for it is here, at her country home 
 in the little village of Hollis, Maine, that Kate Doug- 
 las Wiggin writes her inspired books. "Always the 
 three summer months are spent at Quillcotte," says 
 Mrs. Wiggin. She is a great favorite in her old home 
 village, and is closely and actively allied with the vil- 
 lage life and interests. She often plays the church or- 
 gan, sings in the village choir, attends church sociables, 
 and is the leading spirit in the now famous "Dorcas 
 Society," which was founded several years ago. 
 
 "Well, I swan!" exclaimed one good old Republican 
 farmer who had come twenty miles by rail because his 
 wife wanted to see the Dorcas Fair. "Well, I swan! 
 You Dorcasses beat anything I ever see! There warn't 
 ever but one human creetur in Maine that could draw 
 two thousand folks anywheres, and that was James G. 
 Blaine — and I'm blest of he'd a' taken the resk of charg- 
 in' em ten cents apiece to git in" — which all goes to 
 prove that Kate Douglas Wiggin is the most popular 
 person in the entire state of Maine today. True, people 
 do come to see the great Fair, but it is "Quillcote" 
 and its mistress that is the great leading attraction; on 
 this day the old homestead is thrown open to all com- 
 ers, and its gracious mistress has a warm and heartfelt 
 greeting for all. 
 
 Kate Douglas Wiggin was really born in Philadelphia, 
 but spent most of her childhood in the quiet little vil- 
 lage of Hollis, Maine. There she attended the village 
 school, the same little school afterward made famous 
 in "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm." Later she was a 
 student at Abbott Academy, Andover, Mass., from which 
 she graduated with honors. 
 
 In her early maidenhood the failing health of her 
 step-father necessitated a change of climate, and the 
 family removed to California, and here the future au- 
 thor's kindergarten experience was begun, the outgrowth 
 of which was the establishment of free kindergartens 
 all over the country. Kate Smith (as she was then), 
 
64 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 found this work of the kindergarten of tremendous in- 
 terest, and she found the children even more so. With- 
 out realizing it, she was at that time absorbing material 
 for some of the truest stories ever told of child life 
 and child character. 
 
 "It was hard work," she has said of that period of 
 her life. "The children were principally the offspring 
 of poor and ignorant parents. They were unruly and 
 taxed the patience of the teacher. But I have been more 
 than repaid." 
 
 Mrs. Wiggin's first story, "The Story of Patsey," 
 was written and published to raise money for the kin- 
 dergarten. It was a heartsome tale of the pitiful little 
 creatures that came under the young teacher's care. 
 "Timothy's Quest," the story of a waif's wanderings, 
 was also written during the kindergarten days. Thru 
 "Timothy's Quest," just as in "Polly Oliver's Prob- 
 lem," the "Rebecca Books" and "Mother Carey's Chick- 
 ens," there runs a golden thread, from which depends 
 the germ idea, the underlying motive, as one may term 
 it, of a sort of premature sense of responsibility, pos- 
 sessed by just a few children, an embryo foreshadow- 
 ing of the father-love and the mother-love which comes 
 later, that makes the Timothies, the Pollies, the Re- 
 beccas and the Nancies of real life bend their fragile 
 shoulders under burdens almost too heavy for their 
 young strength. 
 
 Thru her child audience in the Golden Gate Kinder- 
 garten, Mrs. Wiggin found a world-audience. The group 
 of children huddled close about her, listening to one 
 of her wonderful "Once upon a time" stories, was less 
 in number than the throngs that fill our free kinder- 
 gartens today, but they were the same sort of babies, 
 starving for love, lacking in wholesome home environ- 
 ment and longing with all the power of their child 
 souls to love, to be happy and to create. To bring 
 color into a child's gray life, and to encourage him! 
 That is what Kate Douglas Wiggin has done thru her 
 actual experience with children and thru her books. 
 
 Perhaps of all her books up to this time the "Re- 
 becca" books have received the popular vote. The same 
 tender appeal that bound Miss Alcott's famous "Little 
 Women" to the hearts of an earlier generation is felt 
 in the work of Mrs. Wiggin. 
 
 At home and abroad, Mrs. Wiggin's beautiful op- 
 timism has found response in the hearts of the people. 
 
 and all feel that the best is yet to come. 
 
 "The Old Peabody Pew" is a depiction of the vil- 
 lage life of Maine, which Mrs. Wiggin knows so well. 
 The simplicity, the sincerity and naive literalness of 
 this description of village life and interests are in grave 
 contrast to the cosmopolitan and sophisticated "Pene- 
 lope" of the Penelope books. In fact, so cosmopolitan 
 are the latter books that Mrs. Wiggin has been frankly 
 recognized by English literary critics as our leading 
 writer of her sex. 
 
 Mrs. Wiggin in collaboration with her sister, Nora 
 Archibald Smith, has written a number of professional 
 books on kindergarten topics. From one of these, 
 "Children's Rights," we quote the following, which may 
 be termed Mrs. Wiggin's creed for children: "Once a 
 child is born, one of his inalienable rights, which we 
 too often deny him, is the right to his childhood. 
 
 . . . ilf we could only keep from untwisting the 
 morning glory, only be willing to let the sunshine do it; 
 there is no substitute for a generous, free, serene, 
 healthy bread-and-butter childhood. A fine manhood 
 or womanhood can be built on no other foundation; 
 and yet our American homes are so often filled with 
 hurry and worry, our manner of living is so keyed 
 to concert pitch, our plan of existence so complicated 
 that we drag the babies along in our wake and force 
 them to artificial standards, forgetting that flowers are 
 slow and weeds must haste." 
 
 In addition to the above mentioned works Mrs. Wig- 
 gins' literary output includes: "Susanna and Sue," a 
 story of the home life of the Shakers; "The Bird's 
 Christmas Carol;" "The Dairy of a Goose Girl;" "Rose 
 o' the River;" "The Affair at the Inn;" "The Village 
 Watch Tower;" "Marm Lisa and Robinette;" "Mother 
 Carey's Chickens," and "The Story of Waistill Bax- 
 ter." 
 
 It was the "Spectator," London, England, that called 
 the author of "Penelope" one of the most successful 
 ambassadors between America and Great Britain. Fin- 
 ally, to sum up the whole matter, where Mrs. Wig- 
 gin excels, where she has done her best work, is in 
 her portraits of children. * * * The men and women 
 of her stories, the quaintest and ruggedest of them, 
 are divinely human, but, always in every guise, and 
 thru every disfigurement of poverty or pain or ignor- 
 ance, she sees the angel in the child. 
 
 Eugene Field 
 
 Sarah J. Schuster 
 
 Among the people of the pen who have with singu- 
 larly arresting charm understood the child-heart, and 
 made it the home of poetry, Eugene Field holds con- 
 spicuous rank. In a series of chil- 
 'Iren's favorite authors, I dare say, 
 .>ys and girls will welcome the 
 tory of the great "child-lover," 
 ilic "laureate of children." 
 
 Eugene Field was born in St. 
 Louis, Mo., in 1850, September 3. 
 Tlis parents had come from Ver- 
 )]innt several years before the birth 
 of the poet. When Eugene was 
 but six years old his mother died, 
 and with the breaking up of the 
 home in St. Louis he and his 
 brother Roswell were taken back 
 east to Amherst, Mass., where a 
 cousin. Miss Mary Field French, 
 took them under her protecting 
 care. To Eugene Field's first pub- 
 lished poems he wrote a beautiful dedication to Miss 
 French, which attests to the fond love which she gave to 
 the children. The first stanza, touching with tender 
 gratitude, reads: 
 
 To Mary Field French 
 A dying mother gave to you 
 Her child a many years ago; 
 
 How in your gracious love he grew. 
 You know, dear patient heart, you know. 
 The beautiful stanza among Field's tenderest lines 
 shows us that he did not forget his mother, altho she 
 left him when he was still so little a lad. 
 To My Mother 
 
 How fair yout are, my mother! 
 
 Ah, tho 'tis many a year 
 
 Since you were here. 
 
 Still do I see your beaxUeous face 
 
 And with the glow 
 
 Of your dark eyes cometh a grace 
 
 Of long ago. 
 For a few years the boy Field attended a private 
 school for boys at Amherst, and his life passed much 
 as any other boy's would have passed, surrounded by 
 the culture afforded in the college atmosphere of Am- 
 herst. His temperament, full of sunshine, shed light 
 wherever he went, and early in his boyhood he drew 
 comrades to him from every sphere of life. Dogs, birds, 
 cats and squirrels liked to feel his soft hand, and seemed 
 to understand his friendly voice. Every one of his 
 pets had some name dear to his beautiful fancy, and he 
 spoke to Finnikin, Minnikin, Winnikin, Poog and Boog, 
 his chickens, as he did to his boy friends. Rarely does 
 a boy show so much sorrow when a person is injured 
 as Eugene Field did when one of his pets met with a 
 misfortune. His brother, in a sketch to the memory of 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 65 
 
 the poet, tells the story of an incident which happened 
 when Eugene was already a good-sized boy. "He came 
 into the house," the brother says, "and throwing him- 
 self on the sofa, sobbed for half an hour." While walk- 
 ing in the chicken-house he had crushed under his foot 
 one of the little chicks which had been hatched the day 
 before. In later years this same sympathy for suf-_ 
 fering ones touched many people of all classes of so- 
 ciety, and when he lay in his coffin the scores and 
 hundreds who looked at their friend with hot tears flow- 
 ing down their cheeks showed how he had loved them 
 all. 
 
 At the age of fourteen the boy was given to the care 
 of the Rev. James Tufts of Monson, who prepared him 
 for college. To these early days of training, Eugene 
 Field, when a man, looked back with earnest appreci- 
 ation. He sometimes humorously referred to the "All 
 day sessions in church and Sunday School." He often 
 said, "If I could be grateful to New England for nothing 
 else, I should bless her forevermore for pounding me 
 with the Bible and the spelling book." 
 
 In 1868 Field entered Williams College, where he 
 studied one year, and then because of the death of his 
 father, he went with his guardian, Professor Burgess, 
 to Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois, where Professor 
 Burgess had accepted a chair. .After a year at Knox 
 he attended the University of Missouri, where he fin- 
 ished his school education. \ 
 
 When Field was twenty-one years old, he visited 
 France and Italy for six months in company with a 
 school friend, a Mr. Comstock. In 1873 he married 
 Miss Julia Sutherland Comstock, the sister of this 
 school-mate. Shortly before his marriage Mr. Field 
 entered his newspaper career. He was connected with 
 a number of papers in various cities, including St. Louis, 
 St. Joseph. Kansas City, Denver, and finally upon the 
 invitation of Melville E. Stone, then editor of the Chi- 
 cago Daily News, he accepted a position with that 
 paper. He spent the rest of his life in Chicago, from 
 which city it is said "gold, silver, jewels, and precious 
 stones could not lure him." 
 
 His home in Buena Park was a merry place, always 
 containing guests who liked to visit the brilliant host, 
 the genial hostess and the five happy children. Mr. 
 Field had a pet name for each of the little ones. Mary, 
 he called "Trotty"; Eugene was "Pinney"; Frederick 
 he called "'Daisy," Roswell was "Pody," and Ruth was 
 called "Sister Girl." His yard was always filled with 
 
 little friends who came to tumble on the lawn with his 
 children. On the window-sills crumbs lay scattered 
 for the 'robins and the blue-jays. At one time Mr. Field 
 cared for, at considerable expense, a worn-out old don- 
 key, whom he always visited when returning from his 
 office, however late it might be. "Poor old Don," his 
 beautiful bass voice would say, whereupon old Don 
 would raise a melancholy bray of welcome. 
 
 Mr. Field died November 4, 1895, in Chicago, mourned 
 by the thousands who knew" him thru his pen, as well 
 as by thousands who knew him as a friend. On the 
 day of his funeral a poor little child saw a woman 
 purchasing a mass of roses. She timidly asked the lady 
 what she was going to do with the flowers, and when 
 told that they were going to be sent to Mr. Field's 
 family the little girl replied that she would like to 
 send the poet a rose, too, but she had no money. The 
 woman, deeply touched, gave the child a yellow rose, 
 and when the poet was lowered into the grave, he had 
 in his hand the tribute of the little one who had learned 
 to love him for his beautiful lines. 
 
 A few hours after he had passed away a crippled 
 boy came to the Field house, and begged to see Mr. 
 Field. He was allowed to do so, and hobbled to the 
 bedside. None of the family knew the lad, or what 
 bond of love held him to the poet, but when he left 
 the house great tears rolled down his cheek. On the 
 morning of the funeral while the family stood around 
 the coffin the mail carrier at Buena Park came into 
 the room, and laying several letters at the foot of the 
 coffin said quietly, "There is your last mail, Mr. Field." 
 Then turning with tears in eyes, as if to apologize for 
 coming into the family circle, he added, "He was al- 
 ways good to me and I loved him." 
 
 In a preface to one of Field's volumes a noted con- 
 temporary writes: "You read his poems or you read 
 his prose, and arc affected as if you met him. If you 
 were riding in a Pullman car with him, or if you were 
 talking with him at breakfast over your coffee, he would 
 say just such things in just this way. So, children, if 
 you wish to know this delightful man, you have but 
 to read the beautiful songs he sang to you and the 
 tales he so loved to tell. You will surely want to learn 
 these: "Little Boy Blue," "The Sugar-Plum Tree," "Pit- 
 typat and Tippytoe," "Norse Lullaby," "Wynken, Blyn- 
 ken and Nod" (Dutch Lullaby) "Christmas Treasures," 
 and don't forget to read, "A Little Book of Profitable 
 Tales."' 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley 
 
 Sarah J. 
 
 On October 7, 1911, the children of Indianapolis cele- 
 brated "Riley Day" in honor of the birthday anniversary 
 of James Whitcomb Riley, to whom they make unique 
 claim because it is in Indian- 
 apolis that the great poet lived. 
 What Eugene Field was to the 
 children of Chicago, James 
 Whitcomb Riley was to the 
 children of Indianapolis. Every 
 business house in the city was 
 festively draped with bunting 
 and hung with pictures of the 
 beloved poet on that day and 
 m every schoolroom special 
 exercises were held in his 
 honor. To the children Mr. 
 Riley addressed the following 
 letter: 
 Ta ,the School Childrdn of Indianapolis: 
 
 "You are conspirators, every one of you, that's what 
 you are! You have conspired to inform the general 
 public of my birthday, and I am already so old that 
 I want to forget all about it. But I will be magnani- 
 mous and forgive you, for I know that your intent is 
 really friendly, and to have such friends as you are 
 makes me not care how old I am. In fact, it makes 
 
 Schuster 
 
 me so glad and happy that I fe,el as absolutely young 
 and spry as a very schoolboy — even as one of you — and 
 so, to all intents, I am. 
 
 Therefore, let me be with you thruout the long, lovely 
 day and share your mingled joys and blessings with 
 your parents and your teachers, and in the words of 
 little Tom Cratchit, God bless us, every one. 
 
 Ever gratefully and faithfully. 
 
 Your old friend, 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley. 
 
 During the whole day, and for weeks afterward, birth- 
 day letters poured in and on the evening of the festal 
 day in spite of a heavy downpour of rain a party of 
 high school students gathered around the old brick 
 house on Lockerbie street, and serenaded the poet, sing- 
 ing a number of his poems which have been set to 
 music. 
 
 The beautiful enthusiasm of the Indianapolis chil- 
 dren is repeated by the school children thruout the 
 country every year when October 7 calls to mind the 
 anniversary of the birth of the "Hoosier Poet." 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley was born in Greenfield, Ind., 
 in 1854. His father was a lawyer and the Riley home 
 was a nest of culture where the birdling, James Whit- 
 comb, grew up. Books, flowers,' grass and trees were 
 the poet's heritage. He saw the "green fiields and the 
 
66 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 running brooks" with so great a love that the pic- 
 turesque spots with the boyhood experiences clustered 
 about them, lingered so definitely in his mind that later 
 his pen spoke freely of them. The little village of 
 Greenfield is located about twenty miles from the state 
 metropolis and every year tourists from all over the 
 country come to see the places where the famous poet 
 frolicked with, the other. boys, and where he had those 
 experiences which he in after years transferred into 
 beautiful poems. "The Old Swimmin' Hole" lies about 
 one-half mile northeast of Greenfield, and is still used 
 by the youngsters of the little city for their favorite 
 pastime. The beautiful treasure spot was immortalized 
 by Mr. Riley's most popular poem written more than 
 thirty years ago. a poem true to the actual happenings 
 of this trysting spot. The ''old swimmin' hole" re- 
 mains unchanged, for just as in the days of the boy 
 Riley, you can see the distant bank with its shrubs, 
 the towering sycamores spreading their leafy branches, 
 the diving log and the rickety fence, and the stump 
 which the waters reflect as a mirror. 
 
 Mr. Riley attended the district schools of Indiana. 
 In an address he delivered a few years ago to Indian- 
 apolis teachers, at whose meeting he was the honored 
 guest, the poet affectionately described the first of his 
 school teachers and the last, for whom he felt special 
 love and admiration. The first teacher he described as 
 follows: "She was a little, old, rosy, rolly-polly woman, 
 looking as tho she might have just come rolling out 
 of a fairy story, so lovable was she, and so jolly and 
 so amiable. Her school was kept in her little old Dame 
 Trot sort of a dwelling of three rooms, and like a 
 bracket in the wall, a little grey porch in the rear, which 
 was part of the playground of her 'scholars,' — for in 
 those days pupils were called 'scholars' very affection- 
 ately by their teachers: and her very youthful school 
 was composed of possibly twelve or fifteen boys and 
 girls. I remember particularly the lame boy, who al- 
 ways got the first ride in the swing in the locust tree 
 during recess." Of his last teacher he said that when 
 this teacher caught him reading "dime novels," she 
 insisted gently but firmly that if he would read novels, he 
 must read good ones. So the "dime novels" were dis- 
 carded for the genuine masterpieces of fiction, and the 
 boy learned to know Dickens, Scott, Cooper and Wash- 
 ington Irving. 
 
 It was the desire of the future poet's father that his 
 son should follow his footsteps and become a lawyer. 
 The boy Riley spent much time in his father's court 
 room and it was here that he observed the manners 
 and heard the rruisical ring of the dialect of the rural 
 folk who came to the court and whom he depicted so 
 sympathetically in his poems. He studied in later years 
 with the object of becoming a lawyer, but the call of 
 the outdoors was too strong and one sunny day he 
 slipped ffo'm the office and took the position of drum- 
 mer on the concert wagon of a "medicine show" which 
 was touring the rural communities of Indiana. He re- 
 mained with tlie company for a season, re-writing plays 
 
 and composing music for special songs. When the 
 show disbanded he turned to sign painting and con- 
 tinued traveling thru the country where his ability as 
 a free-hand artist at signs attracted numerous people. 
 Groups of onlookers watched his wizard paint brush 
 with great curiosity and pleasure. It was on occasions 
 such as these that the germ of his poetic sentiment 
 crystallized. He saw in a flash the high values that lay 
 hidden in the artless manners and utiaffected speech of 
 the farm folk. > 
 
 Mr. Riley first wrote for several unimportant news- 
 papers. No one noticed his first poem?, but he was con- 
 fident of the reality of his poetic vision. He sent a 
 copy of his poems to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 
 and received great encouragement from Longfellow's 
 reply. Later when they became friends, Mr. Riley de- 
 scribed the old poet as "the grey haired, sweet old 
 man who was so kind to him." 
 
 Mr. Rily kept on writing in spite of eastern literary 
 critics, who prophesied that poems of dialect would not 
 live. It was only after the poet had read his poems 
 on the lecture platform that the dialect proved how 
 perfect an instrument it is to make the poetry of the 
 farm vibrate with true feeling. Today the whole na- 
 tion has heard his appeal, and it is with pride that we 
 turn to James Whitcomb Riley to hear the beautiful 
 truths expressed in the delightful dialect of the common 
 folk. In fact, in the poems we hear our farm friends 
 speaking the realities of life in their simple, sincere 
 speech from their broad brotherly point of view. 
 
 No wonder that a poet of such intrinsic reality is 
 a favorite of children. Little wonder that he himself 
 once said it was the greatest ambition of his life, the 
 pinnacle of happiness, for him to give joy to little chil- 
 dren. If he could do that, he said, he believed he would 
 not have lived in vain. i 
 
 On the sixty-second birthday of the poet the first 
 complete collection of the works of James Whitcomb 
 Riley was put on the market. It is known as the Bio- 
 graphical Edition. This work gives complete informa- 
 tion regarding the circumstances under which every 
 poem was written, its first appearance and subsequent 
 history. Edward H. Eitel, Mr. Riley's nephew, who 
 for many years has acted as his secretary, edited the 
 work under the poet's personal supervision. 
 
 The children best know James Whitcomb Riley thru 
 "Long Afore He Knowed Who Santa Glaus Wuz," "Out 
 to Old Aunt Mary's," "The Old Swimmin' Hole,' "The 
 Raggedy Man." "A Peace Hymn of the Republic," "The 
 Name of Old Glory," "Decoration Day at the Place," 
 "Lincoln," "Christmas Along the River," "A Barefoot 
 Boy," "The Brook Song," "A Feel of Christmas in the 
 Air." In honor of the poet's birthday, children, read 
 over or recite, if you have learned these poetic gems, 
 and then remember that there is a great treasure house 
 of poems by Mr. Riley, which you will likewise enjoy 
 when you look them up and study them. 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley died at his home in Indian- 
 apolis on July 22, 1916, at the age of nearly sixty-seven. 
 
 Alice and Phoebe Gary 
 
 Sarah J. 
 
 .\ woman who spent many hours with the Cary sisters 
 in their home in New York writes of Alice Cary in 
 biography: "Yoix could not know her without learning 
 that the woman was far greater and sweeter than any- 
 thing that she has ever produced." This sentence is 
 fraught with wonderful meaning and it is with delight 
 that we lead the children to the little brown house on a 
 farm in the Miami Valley, eight miles north of Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio, where Alice Cary was born on the 26th day 
 of April, 1820, and bid them follow the life story of 
 their author friend who thru ' hard experiences and 
 bitter disappointments developed and preserved a rarely 
 beautiful character. 
 
 Alice was the fourth in a family of nine children. 
 Phoebe was the sixth "child in the family and v/ns four 
 years younger than Alice. She, too, was born in the 
 
 Schuster 
 
 house near Cincinnati. Poverty hedged in the life of 
 the Cary family. The touching pictures of Robert and 
 Elizabeth Cary written by their daughters and their 
 granddaughters stand as a beautiful background to the 
 story of their poet daughters, Alice and Phoebe. Phoebe 
 writes: "Robert Cary was a man of superior intelligence, 
 of sound principles, and blameless life. He was very 
 fond of reading, especially romances and poetry; but 
 early poverty and the hard exigencies of pioneer life 
 left no time for acquiring more than the mere rudiments 
 ■ of a common school education. He was a tender, loving 
 father, who sang his children to sleep with holy hymns, 
 and habitually went to his work repeating the grand 
 old Hebrew poets, and the sweet and precious prom- 
 ises of the New Testament of our Lord." 
 
 Ada Carnahan, his grandchild, says: "When he had 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 67 
 
 no longer children in his arms, he still went on singing 
 to himself, and held in his heart the words he had so 
 often repeated. Of his children Alice most resembled 
 hirn in person, and all the tender and close sympathy 
 with nature, and with humanity, which in her found 
 expression, had in him an existence as real if voiceless. 
 Tears rose to his eyes, smiles flitted across his face, pre- 
 cisely as they did in the face of Alice. He was the pro- 
 totype of Alice. In her was reproduced not only his 
 form and features, but his mental, moral, and emotional 
 nature. To see father and daughter together, one would 
 involuntarily e.xclaim, 'How alike!'" 
 
 The children will recall the lines Alice wrote about 
 her mother in the poem, "An Order for a Picture": 
 "A lady, the loveliest ever the sun 
 Looked down upon, you must paint for mc: 
 O, if I only could make you see 
 The clear blue eyes, the tender smile. 
 The sovereign sweetness, the gentle grace. 
 The woman's soul, and the angel's face 
 That are beaming on me all the while, 
 I need not speak these foolish wor'ds: 
 Yet one word tells you all I would say. 
 She is my mother: you will agree 
 That all the rest may be thrown away." 
 On the quarter-section farm in Ohio, the "Clover- 
 nook" of Alice Gary's stories, the children of the Cary 
 household grew up. A debt rested on the small farm, 
 and strict economy was the law of the home. The chil- 
 dren early found their happiness in the beauty of na- 
 ture about them. Every corner of the fields was ex- 
 plored and the waving grain, the trees and the blossoms 
 became their intimate friends. Little wonder that in 
 later years the two gifted sisters needed only to close 
 their eyes to have the birds flit before them with sweet 
 songs, daisies, dandelions and clover in their wholesome 
 beauty make their appearance, and the cows and horses 
 in mute respect look up at them. The girls learned to 
 knit, churn, cook and sew as was necessary in a home 
 where economy kept poverty away. The district school- 
 house which the Carys attended was a mile and a quar- 
 ter distant from their home, and here the happy chil- 
 dren devoured the bits of knowledge put before them. 
 Speaking of her older sister and herself, Alice said: 
 "We pined for beauty; but there was no beauty about 
 our homely house but that which nature gave us. We 
 hungered and thirsted for knowledge; but there were 
 not a dozen books on our family shelf, not a library 
 within our reach. There was little time to study, and 
 had there been more, there was no chance to learn but 
 in the district schoolhouse down the road. I never 
 went to any other, not very much to that." 
 
 When Alice was twelve years old the farm was paid 
 for and a new, plain but comfortable house built for 
 the large family who had outgrown the old house. "It 
 cost many years of toil and privation, the new house. 
 We thought it the beginning of better times. Instead, 
 all the sickness and death in the family dated from the 
 time it was finished," Alice told a friend reminiscently. 
 Within the next few months Rhoda, an older sister, 
 died, followed in a month by Lucy, the three-year-old 
 sister, to whom Alice was fondly attached. Two years 
 later the mother passed away, and sorrow followed 
 sorrow in the life of the young poetess. Mr. Cary mar- 
 ried a second time, and the new mother, practical in 
 every thought and action, had little sympathy for the 
 beauty-loving daughters. Alice, now seventeen, was 
 kept busily at work darning stockings, baking bread and 
 making herself generally useful. At night after the 
 hard day's work hidden dream spirits stole from their 
 chambers and beckoned Alice and Phoebe to study and 
 prepare for the work which they were to do. Candles 
 were denied them, but a saucer of lard and a bit of rag 
 for a wick served instead. They worked on, wrote on, 
 sometimes published little poems, but for long years 
 never received a dollar for their work. They saw few 
 books or newspapers. "The Trumpet," connected with 
 the Universalist Church, was eagerly read by the family, 
 and its poets' corner was an inspiration to the girls. 
 
 who felt it in tlicir power to improve the verses they 
 read. 
 
 When Phoebe was fourteen years old she wrote a 
 complete poem and, without consulting even Alice, sent 
 it in secret to a Boston newspaper. She knew nothing 
 of its acceptance until one day, while reading the Cin- 
 cinnati paper, she saw her poem. She laughed and 
 cried for joy. "I did not care any more if I were poor," 
 she said years afterward, "or my clothes plain. Some- 
 body cared enough for my verses to print them, and 
 I was happy. I looked with compassion on my school- 
 mates. 'You know more than I do,' I thought, 'but you 
 can't write verses that are printed in a newspaper.' But 
 I kept my joy and triumph to myself." i 
 
 After a time Robert Cary built a new house on the 
 farm, where he moved with his second wife, leaving 
 Alice and Phoebe with their two brothers and one 
 younger sister to live in the old home. New books, 
 newspapers and magazines were slowly added to the 
 library and several clergymen and other persons of 
 culture same to visit the brothers and sisters so sepa- 
 rated from the literary world which was theirs by right 
 of talent. .Mic'c continued to publish her poems, not at 
 all distressed by the fact that she received no money in 
 return. From Dr. Bailey of "The National Era" she 
 received ten dollars, a gratuity for her work. This was 
 the first money she had earned with her pen. So greatly 
 was she encouraged that success had come at last that 
 ballads, lyrics long imprisoned in an aching heart, flew 
 from her pen to magazines and newspapers. The name 
 
 ALICE CARY 
 
 of .■Mice Cary attracted the attention of men of letters, 
 among whom were Edgar Allan Poe and John Green- 
 leaf Whittier. Many letters of appreciation came from 
 the east to her simple western home. Horace Greeley, 
 the editor of the "Tribune," visited the sisters in their 
 home and said of them: '"I found them on my first 
 visit to Cincinnati, early in the summer of 1849; and 
 the afternoon spent in their tidy cottage on 'Walnut 
 Hills,' seven miles out of the city, in the company of 
 congenial spirits, since departed, is among the greenest 
 oases in my recollection of scenes and events long past." 
 
 In the same year, 1849, a little volume appeared enti- 
 tled "Poems of Alice and Phoebe Cary," for which the 
 authors received one hundred dollars. After the publi- 
 cation of this book the sisters set out foi New York to 
 meet the kind people whose letters had helped them. 
 They visited New York, Boston and Amesbury. The 
 good Quaker poet Whittier felt the sincerity that lay 
 behind the written lines of the young women, and a life- 
 long friendship grew out of their first meeting. After 
 three months the sisters returned to their home, but in 
 the next year Alice, with heart bruised anew liccause 
 the man she loved had been persuaded by his rich and 
 proud family not to marry a girl uneducated and poor, 
 again set out for New York, this time to seek her for- 
 tune and to make a home for those who were dear to 
 her. She dreamed that her lover might some day come 
 back to her, as he did at last. His wife whom he had 
 married after he had left "Walnut Hills" had died, and 
 he again sought the love of his youth. It was too late: 
 he found .Mice on her deathbed. 
 
 In New York Alice set to work with a will. The 
 motto, "Work," which had been hers thru youth, in- 
 
68 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 tensified its meaning as she grew older. In the spring 
 of the following year she sent for her sisters, Phoebe 
 and Elmina. A flat was established up two flights of 
 stairs, and Alice papered a room with her own hands. 
 Economy was their watchword; never did they eat any- 
 thi,ng they could not pay for, even if a crust of bread 
 had to suffice. In the following year the "Clovernook 
 Papers" appeared. They told of the world their author 
 knew, and the fragrance of her native fields breathed 
 thru her words. The brightness and simple grace of 
 the papers charmed the people and the book sold in this 
 country and in Great Britain. A second series was 
 soon issued, followed by "Clovernook Children." "Lyra 
 and Other Poems," "The Maid of Tlascala," "Lyrics 
 and Hymns," "The Lover's Diary," "Snow Berries: a 
 Book for Young Folks," and "Pictures of Country 
 Life" are among Alice Cary's best-known works. "Lyrics 
 and Hymns" is a standard edition of her poems. In 
 twenty years she produced eleven volumes.' 
 
 When success came in rapid strides Alice Gary bought 
 a house in Twentieth street. Here the pining for beau- 
 tiful surroundings was satisfied, but never for an in- 
 stant was work laid aside. Her sister writes:. "Her 
 pleasure was her labor. Of rest, recreation, amusement 
 as other women sought these, she knew almost nothing. 
 She was not always working with her pen, but always 
 working, whether she was making a cap or trimming 
 a bonnet for some poor woman made no difference, but 
 it was always work, no selfish play." The refreshment 
 of the home was hospitality. Every Sunday evening 
 for fifteen years the most brilliant Americans gathered 
 in the Cary parlors to talk to the kind sisters. Artists 
 poorly clad sat side by side with the literary men of 
 prominence, and to anyone who seemed especially for- 
 saken .^lice paid special attention and sought to help 
 him out of his trouble. 
 
 Their father often came to New York from his west- 
 ern home, and it was with exquisite joy that his daugh- 
 ters took him to visit their friends, to see pictures and 
 to enjoy those things for which his poet's heart had 
 yearned but which had been denied him. 
 
 It is refreshing to read of the friendship which ruled 
 the home of the three Cary sisters. During the sick- 
 ness of Elmina, and up to the day of her death, every 
 morning Alice and Phoebe met at her bed and told the 
 story of their dreams. When Elmina had died Phoebe, 
 as soon as she arose, went directly to Alice's room. 
 After the work of the day they again met in either 
 Phoebe's or Alice's room, and each sister read to the 
 other the poem she had composed during the day. A 
 
 friend who spent months in their home says in a memo- 
 rial to the sisters that they treated each other with 
 as careful politeness as they treated any visitor in their 
 home. No bright thought of Phoebe's was too valuable 
 to be spent on Alice, and Alice had no caress that she 
 would bestow on any one rather than her younger 
 sister. 
 
 When, in February of 1870, Alice died, biographical 
 sketches appeared in almost every newspaper and jour- 
 nal in the country. Sentences such as the following 
 attest to the rich influence Alice Cary's life shed into 
 many hearts who felt the strength of her life thru her 
 written words: "The bare mention of the death of 
 Alice Cary will be sufficient to cause a feeling of sorrow 
 in many a household in every part of the country"; 
 "Dear Alice Cary, sweet singer of the heart, is gone. 
 New York was shrouded in snow when her gentle face 
 was shut away from human sight forever." Horace 
 Greeley, speaking of her funeral, said that such a funeral 
 never before gathered in New York in honor of any 
 woman, or man either; that he never saw before in 
 any one assembly of the kind, so many distinguished 
 men and women, so many known and so many un- 
 known. 
 
 After .^.lice's death Phoebe came back to the lonely 
 home with a firm resolve to live on and work on. She 
 must edit Alice's poems and write more, she told her- 
 self. She believed truly, as expressed in so many of 
 her poems, that the spirit of the dead hover around 
 and administer to their loved ones on earth. Yet she 
 pined for the touch of her sister's hand. The house 
 was desolate and the disease which had already taken 
 hold of her during the strain of caring for Alice began 
 to show visibly. On July 31, 1871, she died. 
 
 Phoebe's pen, like that of Alice, was dedicated to 
 temperance, human rights, to religion and to all true 
 progress. She believed in the enfranchisement of women 
 and she hated every form of caste. She was very fond 
 of children, and the boys and girls love the straight- 
 forward ring of her poems addressed to them. She 
 speaks to the children as friends, jolly little comrades; 
 never with the mother-love that Alice strongly ex- 
 pressed. Among Phoebe Cary's works are "Poems and 
 Parodies," "Poems of Faith, Hope, and Charity," and, 
 more important than any of the others, "Hymns for All 
 Christians." In this beautiful collection is the well- 
 known "Nearer Home": 
 
 "One sweetly solemn thought 
 Comes to me o'er and o'er: 
 I am nearer home today 
 Than I ever have been before." 
 
 Robert Louis Stevenson 
 
 Sarah J. Schuster 
 
 Dear children, when you have read this letter on your 
 friend, Robert Louis Stevenson, you will think it a regu- 
 lar sermon and I confess when I think about Steven- 
 son the remarkable story of his life involuntarily formu- 
 lates itself into striking lessons that are an inspiration 
 to children and many times a rebuke to older folks. 
 I shall tell you but little about his life, rather try to 
 tell you of the many difficulties against which Stevenson 
 fought a valiant winning battle. 
 
 Robert was the only child of Thomas Stevenson, a 
 civil engineer and builder of lighthouses, and Margaret 
 Stevenson, the daughter of a Scottish minister. He 
 was born on the 13th day of November, 1850, in Edin- 
 burgh. Ill health haunted Stevenson even when he 
 was a little child. We read of him as "an eager, frail 
 little boy, with remarkable eyes, lustrous and brown, 
 dwelling largely in a world of his own invention; lov- 
 ing to read, to hear read, books of the romantic order, 
 and even desirous, with infantile zeal, to write them." 
 Many weary nights he could not rest because of a 
 continuous cough, which harrowed his frail body. These 
 long nights when he, with his faithful nurse, Alison 
 Cunningham, waited for the morning Stevenson later 
 
 described with remarkable vividness of memory. Alison 
 Cunningham of whom he speaks remained his friend 
 thru life. He says: "My recollections of the long nights 
 when I was kept awake by coughing are only relieved 
 by the thought of the tenderness of my nurse and 
 second mother (for my first will not be jealous), Alison 
 Cunningham. She was more patient than I can sup- 
 pose of an angel; hours together she would help and 
 console me . . . till the whole sorrow of the night 
 was at an end with the arrival of the first of that long 
 string of country carts, that in the dark hours of the 
 morning, with the neighing of horses, the cracking of 
 whips, the shouts of the drivers, and a hundred other 
 wholesome noises, creaked, rolled, and pounded past 
 my window." 
 
 Robert Stevenson's boyhood was, as far as external 
 advantages are concerned, very fortunate. His parents 
 were wealthy and he attended the best schools. He 
 traveled, too, in foreign lands and saw many interest- 
 ing places. Coming from a family of engineers, Thomas 
 Stevenson thought his son would take naturally to the 
 study of science, and when Robert attended the Univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh it was with a view to taking a degree 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 69 
 
 in science. Science, however, proved very uninterest- 
 ing to Stevenson, who already thought of nothing but 
 literature and writing. Mr. Stevenson talked the matter 
 over with his son and when the young man confessed 
 he was above all else eager to learn to write the father 
 was perplexed. The business of writing he thought 
 no profession, so it was agreed that his son study law. 
 He did so and as soon as he left the university was 
 called to the Scottish bar. Stevenson did little in law. 
 He could not put from him the call of literature. "I 
 always kept two books in my pockets," he says, "one 
 to read, one to write in. As I walked, my mind was 
 busy fitting what. I saw with appropriate words: when 
 I sat by the roadside I would either read or a penny 
 version-book would be in my hand, to note down the 
 features of the scene or commemorate some halting 
 stanzas. Thus I lived with words." 
 
 He wrote with no purpose other than to gain practice 
 in writing. Nevertheless, he zealously worked on. His 
 first published articles received little attention in the 
 world of letters. In fact, Stevenson was thirty-three 
 years old before he came into an assured support in 
 literature. "Treasure Island," published in 1883, fixed 
 his name in letters, and after that date Robert Louis 
 Stevenson grew in the affection of the English speaking 
 people until today boys and girls lay aside many another 
 book and clutch with joy their read and re-read volumes 
 of "Treasure Island," "Markheim," "Master of Ballan- 
 trae" and "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde." 
 
 The books of Robert Louis Stevenson, children, take 
 a new significance when we realize that practically all 
 were written while their author was walking in the 
 valley of the shadow of death. From childhood on 
 Stevenson felt the grip of the ghastly monster, con- 
 sumption, on his frail frame. Who would have blamed 
 the child had he been peevish and cross; instead we 
 read from his mother's diary: "17th February, 18SS, 
 Sunday — When I asked Lou what he had been doing, 
 he said, 'I've been playing all day,' and when I looked 
 at him, he added, 'At least I've been making myself 
 cheerful.'" Near the end of his life he said to a friend: 
 "I have spent nearly all of my life in the expectation 
 of death." Many a man would have considered such 
 a life of sickness a burden and if he had Stevenson's 
 wealth would have thought his life well spent in drown- 
 ing his troubles in luxury. Not so Robert Louis Steven- 
 son. When his right hand had to be bound to his side 
 to prevent hemorrhages, he learned to write with his 
 left hand. When the doctor forbade that, he dictated to 
 his wife. When speech was forbidden, he learned to 
 dictate by the deaf and dumb alphabet. Are you not 
 surprised that a man with so great physical suffering 
 could live a cheerful life and write lines full of hope? 
 
 These sentences quoted from a letter show how 
 natural it was for Stevenson to steadily see a ray of 
 sunshine that fell into his room, no matter how dark 
 the sick chamber itself might be: "I am lonely and 
 sick and out of heart. Well, I still hope; I still believe; 
 I still see the good in the inch, and cling to it. It is 
 not much, perhaps, but always something." One of the 
 friends of his youth writes: "Those who have written 
 about him from later impressions than those of which 
 I speak seem to me to give insufficient prominence to 
 the gaiety of Stevenson. It was a cardinal quality in 
 those early days. A childlike mirth leaped and danced 
 in him; he semed to skip among the hills of life." Try 
 
 to imagine a man propped up in pillows exclaiming, 
 as he neared death: "Sick or well, I have had a splendid 
 life of it . . . and, take it all over . . would 
 
 hardly change with any man of my time." 
 
 But more remarkable even than this persistent cheer- 
 fulness, in Stevenson, it seems to me, was his ambition 
 to worthily fulfill the calling of his life. He said he 
 made it the business of his life to learn to write, and 
 to learn to write he did. At first he practiced on de- 
 scriptions of the things around him; then he tried 
 dialogs. But in order to set a standard for his work 
 
 / Robert Louis Stevenson 
 
 he read books by well-known authors and then set to 
 imitate their style. He writes: "Whenever a book or 
 a passage that particularly pleased me in which a thing 
 was said or an effect rendered with propriety, in which 
 there was either some conspicuous force or some happy 
 distinction in the style, I must sit down and ape that 
 quality. I was unsuccessful, and I knew it; and tried 
 again, and was again unsuccessful; but at least in these 
 vain bouts I got some practice in rhythm, in harmony, 
 in construction and co-ordination of parts." 
 
 In 1883 he wrote: "I am merely beginning to com- 
 mence to make a first" start at trying to understand my 
 profession. O the height and depth of novelty and 
 worth in any art! And O that I am privileged to swim 
 and shoulder thru such oceans! I sleep upon my art 
 for a pillow; I wake in my art; I am unready for death 
 because I hate to leave it. ... I am not but in my 
 art, it is me; I am the body of it merely." 
 
 On December 3, 1894, Robert Louis Stevenson died. 
 Engraved on a panel on the blocks of cement over his 
 grave is his "Requiem," the beautiful poem with which, 
 no doubt, you are all familiar. 
 
 "Glad did I live and gladly die. 
 And I laid me down with a will." 
 
 How the lines vibrate with the joy of living and peace 
 at dying. 
 
 When you read the delightful tales of Stevenson or 
 some of his bright verses, remember the pictures of 
 Robert Louis Stevenson working under the pressure of 
 all his afflictions and take to heart the noble lesson 
 of his life. 
 
70 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 HOUSEHOLD ARTS AND DOMESTIC SCIENCE 
 
 The Organizing of Sewing Classes 
 
 Lenna G. Baker 
 
 Since the aim of our school work is to teach people 
 how to live and enjoy living, the schools should teach 
 those lines of activities which are closely related to every 
 day's work. This means that,, for the girl at least, the 
 work of the school must parallel the work of the home. 
 A greater proportion of the girls from the ungraded 
 schools than from other schools become homekeepers, 
 hence it would seem that it is more essential that the 
 home activities be taught in the ungraded school than 
 in any other. Nor can it be argued that the girls in 
 the schools are trained for homemaking in the home 
 itself, for there is too great, an evidence of the lack of 
 training in the appearance of many homes and of many 
 girls. Is it sufficient that pupils are taught the distribu- 
 tion and economic value of the textile industry, for 
 instance, but are given no ideas of how to select fab- 
 rics suited to a given purpose, or how to care for such 
 fabrics; or, that they are taught how to enjoy the best 
 in literature and art; but are given no help in the per- 
 formance of the necessary duties of the home that they 
 may have leisure to enjoy literature and art? 
 
 Perhaps the reason more attention has not been given 
 to efficiency in home work in ungraded schools is not 
 that the need for it is not felt, but that there are in- 
 
 sufficient funds available for equipment, and no time 
 available in the full program of the teacher of the un- 
 graded school. The latter is the only possible objec- 
 tion to the introduction of sewing, in that little equip- 
 ment is necessary. Since excellent results in handwork 
 depend upon repetition of hand movemerit and not upon 
 lengthy discussions of theories, the time for the presen- 
 tation of a lesson by the teacher is much less than 
 the time needed for the skillful execution of the direc- 
 tions by the pupil. One lesson a week might be given 
 and dhring the other days a period similar to a study 
 period could be given to the work by the pupils. The 
 same supervision could be given this work as is given 
 to other subjects during the preparation period. Les- 
 sons which involve a general discussion of some phase 
 of the work, as that of selection of material, might be 
 given during the general exercise period in that all 
 pupils could be interested. It is just as essential that a 
 boy be able to pick out a shirt that will wash well and 
 wear well and is becoming in color as that a girl be 
 able to choose suitable material for a dress. The choice 
 of design might furnish a very interesting topic for 
 the drawing class. Special time is then required only 
 for specific directions for each problem. 
 
 T/^ 
 
 
 I (y'y(^\^A^^.-cxyv\^-e\. 
 
 »»>v*SVK\VW«*^N<\ i WO'l* * > ii^fc^^at-MW* 
 
 M- 
 
 ^V\^}-y'L<^y^^ 
 
 Side Away from Worker Side Toward Worker 
 
 FUNDAMENTAL STITCHES 
 
THE SCHOOL 
 
 Equipment for Sewing 
 The equipment for sewing is simple. Eacli child 
 should provide herself with a thimble of suitable size, 
 a rule or a ' tapeline, a pair of small scissors, a few 
 pins and a paper of needles, varjang in size from five 
 to ten, and a box or bag in which to keep these. Il 
 is probably wise for the teacher to add to her own 
 equipment a tapeline, an emery ball and a pair of large 
 shears. If a machine can be obtained the work can 
 be carried much farther. The pupils should label each 
 article with the owner's name. Scissors may be labeled 
 by sewing a tape, on which the name is written, in one 
 of the handle loops. Thimbles may be labeled by 
 scratching the initials on the plain portion at the base, 
 or by pasting a name label around the base. In the 
 choice of scissors it will be found more satisfactory 
 to have smaller pairs of good quality rather than large 
 shears which will not retain an edge. In thimbles 
 aluminum are preferable to brass and are not more ex- 
 pensive. Celluloid thimbles are a trifle more expensive, 
 but are cooler and do not pierce readily. 
 
 Beginning Work 
 
 The problems chosen should, of course, be those which 
 involve the fundamental processes in sewing. There 
 are eight fundamental stitches used in plain sewing — 
 (1) the even basting stitch; (2) the uneven basting 
 stitch: (3) the running stitch; (4) the back stitch; (S) 
 the combination stitch; (6) the overcasting stitch; (7) 
 the nverhanding stitch, and (8) the hemming stitch. 
 .Ml of these stitches arc taken from right to left. 
 
 The even basting stitch is made by passing the needle 
 over and under equal spaces of material, each stitch 
 is approximately one half inch long. In beginning it 
 is probably well to have pupils measure a number of 
 stitches in order that they may learn to gauge the dis- 
 tance by the eyes. The even basting stitch is used to 
 hold materials together loosely. 
 
 The uneven basting stitch is made by passing the 
 needle under one half as much space as it is passed 
 over; the side toward the worker showing stitches one 
 half inch long, one fourth inch apart; the side away 
 from the worker showing one fourth inch stitches, one 
 half inch apart. It is used to hold materials a little 
 less firmly than the even basting stitch. 
 
 The running stitch is made in the same manner as 
 the even basting stitch, except that the stitches are 
 much smaller, being only one sixteenth of an inch long. 
 This stitch is used for gathering in fullness. 
 
 The back stitch is made by putting the needle under 
 one sixteenth inch of material and bringing the needle 
 thru, then putting the needle back into the point of the 
 first insertion and bringing it out one eighth of an inch 
 ahead of the insertion. The succeeding stitches are 
 made by inserting the needle back one sixteenth of an 
 inch and bringing it out one eighth of an inch ahead 
 of the insertion. The side toward the worker has the 
 appearance of machine stitching, the side away from the 
 worker shows a double line of threads. The stitch is 
 used when a very firm seam is desired. 
 
 The combination stitch is a combination of the run- 
 ning stitch and the back stitch. It is made by first tak- 
 ing two running stitches and then continuing with a 
 back stitch and two running stitches. 
 
 The appearance on the side toward tlie worker is that 
 of three back stitches and a space; on the side away 
 from the worker, a row of running stitches every other 
 one of which is double. This stitch is used when a seam 
 of ordinary strength is desired. 
 
 The overcasting stitch is made over the raw edge 
 of material. The thread is fastened by making a back 
 stitch, bringing the needle thru to the side next to the 
 worker. It is then put over the edge of the material 
 and brought thru on a line with the back stitch. The 
 depth of the stitch and the space between stitches de- 
 pend upon the texture of the material, the distance be- 
 tween stitches being twice the depth of the stitch. It 
 is usual to make the stitches one eight of an inch deep 
 and one fourth of an inch apart. Both sides of the 
 
 METHODS BOOK , 71 
 
 seam are alike. The stitch is used to finish a raw 
 seam. 
 
 The overhanding stitcli is made over selvedges or 
 turned edges of clolh. It is made like the overcasting 
 stitch except that the stitches are very close together 
 and very shallow; usually about two threads of material 
 deep and two threads apart. It is used when a very 
 close, strong seam is needed. On the right side of the 
 material the stitcher run parallel with tin- thread of 
 the cloth. I 
 
 The hemming stitch is made by inserting the TIfedle 
 thru the main piece of the cloth taking up a few threads 
 parallel to the fold of the licm and bringing the needle 
 up thru both the main piece and the hciu. 
 Making Useful Articles 
 
 These stitches Tnay be applied to innumerable articles 
 and those chosen should be practical. The practicabil- 
 ity and economy of making garments in the home must 
 be decided by each homemaker, hut the care and re- 
 pair of garments is a duty which cannot profitably be 
 slighted. The stitches used in mending are the same 
 as those used in making, but since mending is unat- 
 tractive to most people — children not excepted — it is 
 probably wiser to teach stitches by using them in mak- 
 ing small articles and later apply them to mending. It 
 will add interest to the work if the articles made are 
 those used 'in connection with some particular activity. 
 A shower or dowry chest might be made tor tlie dif- 
 ferent rooms of the house. 
 For the Kitchen: 
 
 Holder, dish cloth, dish wiper, hand tuwel. 
 For the Dining Room: 
 
 Silence clotli, napkin, napkin lioldcr, spoon or fork 
 case, doily. 
 For the Living Room: 
 
 A sweeping set. consistmg of dust clolh. Canton fian- 
 nel broom cover, sweeping cap, apron. 
 For the Bedroom: 
 
 Mattress pad, sliccts, pillow case, comfort, spread. 
 
 If the bedroom articles seemd too large to be handled 
 in the school room, small articles for a child's bed or 
 even a doll's bed could be made. 
 
 While the immediate aim of the work is to secure 
 good results in sewing, incidently habits of neatness and 
 accuracy will be developed. To encourage the forma- 
 tion of such habits it should be noticed before each les- 
 son that each child is ready for work. The hands should 
 be scrupulously clean. The child should sit erect with 
 the soles of the feet resting comfortably on the floor, 
 the work being held within sixteen inches from the 
 eyes. Thread should always be cut, never bitten or 
 broken. The thimble should be worn on the large fin- 
 ger of the right hand. The needle should be held at 
 its middle with the thumb and first finger, the eye of 
 the needle resting against the thimble. Drills in thread- 
 ing the needle, measuring distances accurately, and cut- 
 ting to a line should be given frequently. Attention 
 to mechanical detail will mean much to future skill and 
 speed. 
 
 THE SING-AWAY BIRD 
 
 Have you heard of the Sing-away bird. 
 That sings where the Run-away river 
 Runs down with its rills from the bald-headed hills 
 That stand in the sunshine and shiver? 
 
 ■■Oh, 
 
 sing! sing away! sing away! 
 
 How the pines and the birches are stirred 
 By the thrill of the Sing-away bird"! 
 
 'Twas a White-coated sparrow that sped a li«ht 
 arrow 
 Of song -from his musical qui\cr. 
 And it pierced with its spell every valley and dell 
 On the banks of the Run-away river. 
 "Oh, sing! sing away! sing away!" 
 And the river runs singing along, 
 And the Hying winds catcli up the song. 
 
 — Larconi. 
 
72 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Cooking in the Ungraded School 
 
 Lenna G. Baker 
 
 Altho the program of the teacher of the country school 
 is full, she has probably felt the necessity for putting 
 in some work in cooking. Where to introduce it, how 
 to find time for it, what equipment to get, and what to 
 teach are the problems which confront her. 
 
 It is not advisable to put cooking in below the Upper 
 Form, and if there is more than one division in Upper 
 Form it would be put into the course of the more ad- 
 vanced class. By leaving it for the last work, there is 
 one more basis of interest to hold pupils to complete 
 the entire course. Also classes will be smaller and can 
 be better handled under the crowded conditions, and 
 the more mature students are better able to grasp the 
 underlying principles of cookery. 
 
 Probably not more than an hour of teaching time 
 could be given during the week. Whether this be given 
 as one lesson, having the practical work done in the 
 schoolroom or divided among several lessons and allow- 
 ing the practical work to be done at home, will depend 
 largely upon the community. If it be in a progressive 
 community, where the housewives take pride in keeping 
 abreast- of the movements in household science, satis- 
 factory results may probably be obtained by allowing 
 the work to be done at home. If in a community made 
 up largely of foreigners who have been slow in adopt- 
 ing American methods of housekeeping, better results 
 can be reached by having the fewer number of lessons 
 and giving part of the time to practical work in school, 
 so that the entire process of cooking and manipulation 
 may be supervised by the teacher. The classes with 
 which the" theory of cooking can be linked best are 
 Agriculture and Physiology. Agriculture exists basicly 
 to produce food for the human race. A study is made 
 of conditions best suited to produce a given product; 
 why not complete the study by showing how to trans- 
 form it best from raw material into human food. For 
 instance, in his study of Agriculture, the child learns 
 what breeds of cows are the best milk producers, how 
 the cows must be fed and handled to get the best re- 
 sults in quality and quantity of milk, and how the milk 
 must be handled in order that it may reach the con- 
 sumer in the best possible manner. Might it not be well 
 to teach him, as a consumer, how to use milk in the 
 diet and what precautions must be taken in cooking it 
 in order to have it yield the best results to the body? 
 Following such study, put this knowledge to practical 
 use by actually preparing some dish composed largely 
 of milk. Both boys and girls can be interested in this. 
 All of the boys may not care to try cooking at first, 
 but many will be interested in comparing school methods 
 with home methods and judging which are better. In 
 fact, we frequently find boys our most careful students 
 of cooking, and certainly keen, frank judges. If the 
 time cannot be taken from Agriculture alone, take some 
 from the Physiology and Hygiene. Considerable space 
 is devoted in our texts in these subjects to the actual 
 food content of food-stuffs, to their uses to the body and 
 to the combinations and amounts best suited to body 
 use. Such study could be very nicely emphasized by the 
 preparation of foods according to the suggested methods. 
 The best results for both teacher and pupils will be 
 reached by having the practical work done at school. 
 If it must be done at home, very careful, specific direc- 
 tions must be given and a thoro discussion of theory and 
 reasons for each step must be brought out in class. 
 Reports should be made of the home work, and wherever 
 possible samples brought to the teacher. Even tho prac- 
 tical work is done in school, home work should be en- 
 couraged and credit given for it. 
 
 The equipment used in the school need not be 
 elaborate or expensive. Twenty dollars should cover 
 the expense in most instances. The amount of equip- 
 ment will depend upon the numbers in the class and the 
 funds and room space available. The first consideration 
 in equipment is the stove. The kind used will depend 
 npon available fuel. Since most of the school buildings 
 have now installed modern heating plants, probably 
 
 kerosene oil stoves will be most convenient where gas 
 and electricity are not available. Such a stove takes 
 less space than a wood or coal burner, is cleaner, and 
 does not give much additional heat. A range is best, 
 but good work can be done with a two or three-burner 
 stove. If proper care is given to these stoves, they 
 will last a long time. The same care should be given 
 them as is given an oil lamp. A good grade of oil 
 should be used, and the burners cleaned frequently. 
 
 Besides the stove, a cupboard and kitchen table will 
 be necessary. The cupboard should be a closed, mouse- 
 proof cupboard. If a regular cabinet can be obtained, 
 so much the better. It should be large enough to hold 
 a supply of flour, sugar and such staples, and to hold 
 the utensils used in cooking. Space may be saved by 
 having cupboards such that the tops might be used for 
 tables. A cool cupboard will be found a great conven- 
 ience. These can be made by fitting a closely screened 
 box into a portion of a window space. 
 
 For the table, an ordinary kitchen table made of pine 
 will be found satisfactory. If it has a drawer in which 
 small utensils may be kept, it will prove helpful. A 
 zinc top is convenient but not essential. 
 
 Other general equipment needed is: 
 
 1 teakettle. 
 
 1 six-quart granite kettle with cover. 
 
 1 dishpan. 
 
 1 draining pan. 
 
 1 two-quart double boiler. 
 
 1 large, sharp knife. 
 
 1 whetstone. 
 
 Salt and pepper shakers. , 
 
 1 pail for water. 
 
 1 pail for garbage. 
 
 Molding board. 
 
 Rolling pin. 
 
 Muffin tins. 
 
 Bread tin. 
 (If ovens are provided) — 
 
 Individual equipment should consist of: 
 
 1 measuring cup. 
 
 1 tablespoon. 
 
 2 teaspoons. 
 
 1 paring knife. 
 
 1 steel fork. 
 
 1 case knife. 
 
 1 quart saucepan. 
 
 1 quart basin. 
 
 1 small skillet. 
 
 1 two-quart mixing bowl. 
 
 1 fine sieve to fit into bowl. 
 
 1 plate. 
 
 1 saucer. 
 
 1 egg beater. 
 
 1 biscuit cutter. 
 
 Towels and holders should be provided by members 
 of the class. The number of individual equipments will 
 be governed by the number in the class and the way 
 in which work may be arranged. Probably four would 
 be sufficient for most classes. Perhaps part of the 
 equipment could be furnished from the homes of the 
 individual students. If in selecting care is taken to 
 choose dishes of sizes which stack well, much storage 
 space may be saved. 
 
 The subject matter taught must be the fundamental 
 principles underlying all cookery and illustrated by 
 dishes varying with the supply found in various sec/ons 
 of the country. Fancy cookery has no place m the 
 elementary school. The work will necessarily be 
 grouped about the cookery of proteins as exemplified in 
 meat, eggs, milk, cheese, beans and peas; the starchy 
 foods, as potatoes and other green vegetables, cereals, 
 bread, macaroni, etc., and the fats as found principally in 
 meat products. The order of the work will have to be 
 conditioned by seasonability of supply, storage means 
 and co-ordination of work with other subjects. 
 
 Suggestive lessons: 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 1. Care of kitchen and kitchen utensils. Use of 
 
 73 
 
 recipes. Measurements and tables of equivalent meas- 
 ures. General order of work. 
 
 2. Seasonable vegetables and fruits, studying (1) food 
 content, (2) principles of cookery necessary to preserve 
 food content, (3) methods of preparations, (4) wastes 
 in preparation, (S) combination with sauces and dress- 
 ings, and (6) uses of left-overs. 
 
 3. Cereals. Value in diet, part of grain used, vari- 
 ation in cookery and serving. 
 
 4. Eggs. Nutritive value, preservation, tests for fresh 
 eggs. Principles of cookery — effect of cooking on diges- 
 tion. Prepared as soft cooked, in shell, poached, 
 scrambled, omelet, custards. 
 
 5. Batters and doughs, if there are ovens. 
 
 6. Cream soup of mature or canned vegetables. 
 
 7. Meat lessons. (1) Structure of bone, niuscle, fat. 
 (2) Food content of each. (3) Characteristics of food 
 contents. (4) Methods and principles of cooking. Illus- 
 trate by preparation of (1) soup, (2) stew, (3) hamburg, 
 (4) hash, (5) meat pies, (6) casserole, etc., and (7) fish, 
 if available. 
 
 8. Spring vegetables used fresh and in salads. 
 
 9. Early fruits in desserts. 
 
 10. Planning of meals with view to obtain balanced 
 diet, good combination of flavors and colors, variety and 
 economy of energy and money. 
 
 Housekeeping in the Third Grade 
 
 Bessie Bacon Goodrich 
 
 One-half hour each week is given to housekeeping 
 in the third grade of the training school. The class is 
 divided in three sections, each section being responsible 
 for one piece of work during the term. The work is 
 changed each term, so that during the year each group 
 of children has twelve weeks' experience with each phase 
 of the work. 
 
 According to housewifely custom Monday morning is 
 chosen for the washing and general cleaning, while the 
 ironing is done on Tuesday. The washing is not an arti- 
 ficial activity, but a natural outgrowth of the needs of 
 the class room. Each child has his own towel (made 
 in sewing class) which must be laundered each week. 
 These with dusting and cleaning cloths and an occasional 
 piece of table linen make a very good sized washing 
 for a group of ten children. The work is carried on 
 in the kitchen. Few utensils are necessary, four tubs, 
 two wringers, a boiler, and two wash benches (the latter 
 made by children in manual training) meeting the needs 
 of a class of this size. Only simple problems are taken 
 up, tho there is some attempt to have a certain progres- 
 sion and development in the work. 
 
 While the washing is being done in the kitchen, a 
 second group is taking charge of the general cleaning 
 of the room. The furniture and woodwork are dusted, 
 boards and windows washed, and chalk trays and sink 
 cleaned. This group also cares each day for the bowls 
 
 and mirrors in the toilets on the first floor. At some 
 time during the term they are taken to the school bed- 
 room, where they hav« the additional experience of 
 making a bed. 
 
 The ironing presents two problems, first that of iron- 
 ing those articles washed by the children which must 
 be dampened some time before ironing; second, those 
 articles which must be dampened at the time of ironing. 
 Costumes used by various grades in their dramatiza- 
 tions have furnished material for the second part of 
 this problem. For this work each child has his own 
 board, which he has learned to cover properly. This 
 is placed on low sawhorses opposite a small gas plate. 
 Thru experiment much is learned about the proper heat- 
 ing and care of an iron. 
 
 These are the activities. Now, why should this work 
 be given a place in the weekly program? 
 
 We talk a great deal about the undesirable abrupt- 
 ness in taking the child from the home where the group 
 is essentially informal in its make up to the school, 
 where the organization is more or less severely formal. 
 Yet many times we fail to do the things which lie 
 within our power to avoid this abruptness. In the most 
 wisely conducted homes, the child not only feels his 
 importance as an individual member of the group, but 
 he also feels some of the responsibility for maintain- 
 ing the Welfare and comfort of the group. He is given 
 
 Ironing — Third Grade, Practice School, State Normal, Kalamazoo, Mich. 
 
74 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Honscclcaning — Third Grade, Practice School. State Normal, Kalamazoo, Mi 
 
 duties, imiJortant in the household, which depend upon 
 him and upon him alone. Thus his social responsibility 
 is developed in the only group which he knows. When 
 he comes into the larger group, the school, too often his 
 only social responsibility lies in reciting his part in the 
 arithmetic or geography lesson, or keeping his place in 
 line, or in not whispering, so that the deadly quiet of 
 the school room may be niaintained. All of which re- 
 sponsibilities are largely foreign to him. On the other 
 hand, if he feels that the proper condition of the cos- 
 tumes for the entire school or of the towels for his grade 
 depends upon him, if he is held responsible for the ap- 
 pearance of the windows of his own room, or of the 
 toilets on his floor of the school building, there is a 
 very vital motive for doing something worth while for 
 the good of the group, and his sense of individual 
 responsibility is thereby strengthened. 
 
 This work, too, offers a natural opportunity for initi- 
 ative on the part of the child and for growth in ex- 
 ecutive ability. If any one doubts that it does not re- 
 quire poise and self-control in children to clean a room, 
 each one doing a dififerent task, let him try it with a 
 group of children unused to the freedom under which 
 they must necessarily work. The experiment will doubt- 
 less convince him that when children can attack this 
 for themselves and carry it forward in decency and 
 order, with almost no supervision, that there has been 
 a decided growth in some of the qualities which we 
 respect in an individual everywhere in life. 
 
 The outsider often sees in this only the utilitarian side, 
 the fact that the child is being taught to wash and iron 
 and dust. A value does exist here, not only that he 
 is learning to do these things properly, but in the fact 
 that he is learning to have a respect for them simply 
 because they are a part of the school's work. Thus 
 
 lie is learning to dignify much of the work which too 
 many of our Americans have rapidly been learning to 
 consider menial. 
 
 We are often more awake to the social value of a 
 piece of work of this nature, however, than to the op- 
 portunities it offers for growth thru its physical activ- 
 ity. Our modern students of child life are teaching us 
 that the young child grows mentally not only thru his 
 combats with abstract problems, but thru his activities. 
 Then the muscular development and the necessary 
 muscular co-ordination gained thru washing may per- 
 chance be of more value than the power gained thru 
 a half hour spent in a reading class. The choosing of 
 a proper place to stretch a clothes line requires as much 
 judgment as the solving of a problem taken from the 
 arithmetic book. Modern psychologists also urge us 
 more and more to let the child come in contact with 
 the elements of nature, and it is evident in watching 
 the children while working in the water or manipulat- 
 ing the fire that here is something much more vital than 
 is found in much of the work given them in the usual 
 school curriculum. 
 
 This leads to this fact, which is subject to psycho- 
 logical proof, that when the child is working joyously 
 he is working with greater vigor than when this condi- 
 tion is absent. 
 
 The work suggested in this article does not need a 
 kitchen in which to carry it forward. Last year much 
 the same thing was accomplished in the school room, 
 the only utensils being two foot tubs, one small wash- 
 board, one wash bench, and three irons. The whole 
 plan is feasible' in any school where there is any means 
 of procuring gas or ■ other heat. The growth in the 
 unity and general spirit of the group will reward even 
 the most modest experiment along this line. — Kalamazoo 
 Normal Record. 
 
 Hot Lunch for Rural School 
 
 County Superintendent Gertrude Schwittay, 
 
 The hot school lunch is no ''fad." It has become 
 an educational problem which is being worked out by 
 progressive teachers all over the United States. This 
 plan has been in use in many countries of the old world 
 for some time, and wherever tried has met with uni- 
 
 versal approval by both patrons and teachers. 
 
 In Marinette County, wherever hot dinners are a part 
 of the regular school work, they have done much in 
 bringing the home and school together. Parents are 
 verv willing to contribute their share, and are often 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 75 
 
 interested in some new food furnished, new mode of 
 preparation, or new recipe. While equipments for our 
 worI< may be crude, tlie benefits are none the less ap- 
 parent. 
 
 Lord Bacon affirms that "the brain depends, in some 
 way on the stomach," and we may rest assured that 
 the warm, well cooked dinner will insure better spelling 
 lessons, better solutions of problems and clearer in- 
 dividual thinking for the remainder of the day. 
 
 Dr. Witmer of the University of Pennsylvania super- 
 vised a very careful scientific test in regard to the bene- 
 fits derived from hot lunches. The increase in average 
 gain in weight, lung capacity and scholarship was sur- 
 prising. The matter of discipline becomes of little mo- 
 ment when the pupils' attention is drawn to the varied 
 activities of the new order of things, and a live inter- 
 est in all that pertains to school is secured. 
 CULTURAL POSSIBILITIES 
 
 One of the most beneficial points gained by the hot 
 noon lunch, in the rural school, is the cultural possi- 
 bilities of the scheme. 
 
 Many homes in the pioneer section of Wisconsin are 
 devoid equipment, time, or opportunity for many of the 
 finer sides of life. Especially is this true in regard to 
 the hasty and often inadequate meals furnished in the 
 homes. Many of the mothers must of necessity care 
 for the gardens, and still others assist in the fields. 
 Where this is true there is little time left for the finer 
 things which go to make life livable, little care for the 
 aesthetic in any line. We must demand for their children 
 — the future citizens of our commonwealth — as broad 
 a culture as possible. 
 
 Just a little entering wedge, then, will be table cour- 
 tesies, table etiquette and table manners, which if of 
 necessity simple, yet pave the way for better things. 
 The opportunity to teach the economical use of ma- 
 terials should not be lost sight of. Americans as a rule 
 are wasteful, and young girls brought up on farms are 
 often unfitted for the work they seek in the city homes. 
 There is, however, by their prodigal use of vegetables, 
 milk, etc., an excuse for this, in the fact that the live 
 stock on the farm readily turn this seeming waste into 
 money, the refuse of the kitchen serving to fatten the 
 chickens or the pigs; but when, in the city kitchens, one 
 is able to get a platter of "Saratoga chips" for supper 
 from the potato parings of the noon meal, it smacks 
 
 of direct waste, as well as loss of the nutritive portion 
 of the tuber. 
 
 Weniust feel that the hot school dinners are a pay- 
 ing part of our school education. Let us prepare our 
 boys and girls for the positions they are looking for- 
 ward to, and for more cultured ' homes, that in later 
 life their children may be home drilled in all that per- 
 tains to better living. Habit is the result of doing things 
 over and over, and because of the limited time of the 
 school, the home must be enlisted in every plan for 
 the betterment of the child, but it is left to the school 
 to take the initial step, and when with the aid of an 
 energetic, self sacrificing teacher the noon lunch is es- 
 tablished, a long stride has been taken. 
 
 DOING THINGS HOLDS PUPILS IN SCHOOL 
 
 There is nothing helps to "hold pupils" more than 
 "doing something" for the school, and when the boys 
 build cupboards, in which the girls neatly store the few 
 dishes brought, when a convenient knife and spoon bo.K 
 is constructed or a wooden spoon for mixing is whittled 
 out and polished with a piece of glass or a bit of sand 
 paper, "our kitchen" becomes a matter of especial in- 
 terest. Meantime we correlate the boys' work in Man- 
 ual Training with the girls' industries. They must choose 
 the right wood for the cooking spoon. They ask why 
 pine will not answer. They study the grain of the 
 wood. Oh! the possibilities of all this to the progressive 
 teacher. The twentieth century teacher is to be con- 
 gratulated on her opportunities for enthusiastic work. 
 HYGIENIC VALUE 
 
 In the foregoing we have not touched upon the 
 hygienic side of the plan, which phase should appeal 
 to all. We have only to turn to our own experience 
 to be convinced that a well cooked, hot dinner fits one 
 better for the afternoon's service than a cold lunch, and 
 when we take into consideration the distance covered 
 by many school children in reaching the schoolhouse, 
 the lunches, of, in many cases, food to which no thought 
 of proper nutrition has been given, the effect on the 
 health, temperament and morals of a pupil by this 
 neglect, surely, we must own the hot lunch as one of 
 the blessings of a well ordered school. 
 
 Just how the matter can be established and success- 
 fully carried out may be understood by the story of its 
 accomplishment by many of the teachers of Marinette 
 and other counties of Wisconsin. 
 
 AGRICULTURE IN ELEMENTARY GRADES 
 
 Plans for Boys' and Girls' Clubs 
 
 T. A. Erickson 
 
 In order to make the work in agriculture worth while 
 in the elementary schools, it must be simple, practical 
 and closely related to the home life of the children. 
 One of the important objects of the work is to make 
 country life interesting to the boys and girls by open- 
 ing to them the wonderful possibilities of life on the 
 farm. There is no better month than September for 
 organizing the work for the year, and connecting it 
 with the home life of the pupil. 
 
 ORGANIZE A BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB 
 
 By organizing a boys and girls' club as a regular part 
 of school, the lessons in school may be connected with 
 the real projects at home in the most effective way. 
 
 The boys' and girls' club will serve not only for the 
 work in agriculture but will help make the school self- 
 governing, will teach citizenship and will help make the 
 school the center of the community. A great many of 
 these clubs are now being organized in every state under 
 the direction of the United States Department of Agri- 
 culture at Washington in co-operation with the state 
 colleges of agriculture. Each state has a state leader 
 for the boys' and girls' club work, who will be glad to 
 assist teachers in this work by sending suggestions, les- 
 
 sons and iilans, bulletins and other printed material and 
 sometimes by personal visits. Get in touch with the 
 state leader of your own state and get the plan of or- 
 ganization for your own state. The state leader may 
 be reached by writing the college of agriculture. Also 
 write to O. H. Benson, Washington, D. C, who has 
 charge of this work, for the northern and western states. 
 His department issues a lot of excellent material for the 
 work in agriculture which is sent free to teachers. 
 
 Organize the club as soon as school opens in Sep- 
 tember. Elect officers, adopt a simple constitution and 
 arrange for regular club meetings. Teachers in general 
 find that the last period of Friday afternoons is best 
 for the general exercises. Many schools hold club meet- 
 ings every week, others twice a month, while many find 
 monthly meetings best. 
 
 ■ Have a club motto, club badge or pin. The national 
 boys' and girls' club motto is ""To Make the Best, Bet- 
 ter." The club pin is the 4 H clover pin. (The 4 h's, 
 one on each leaf of a four-leaf clover design, stand for 
 the health, hand, head, and heart in human service.) 
 
 After organizing decide on the club projects. Each 
 state has a certain number of projects. Minnesota this 
 
76 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 year has an acre yield corn contest, a garden and can- 
 ning contest, a pig contest, a one-eighth acre potato 
 contest, and a bread making contest as the state pro- 
 jects. Several counties have "calf growing" contests. 
 
 Selecting the Exhibit tor the School Fair 
 
 others have "alfalfa" competitions, while other com- 
 munities make the boys and girls compete in clover 
 growing, dairy records, poultry growing or projects of 
 special interest to the community. 
 
 Encourage the club officers to write the club leaders 
 for the plans. Send a list of the members with projects 
 chosen to your county superintendent and to the state 
 leader. In most states this will bring to you a lot of 
 individual letters, bulletins and lessons on the special 
 projects chosen. The teacher should get as many stories 
 as possible of boys and girls who have won achieve- 
 ments in club work to tell to the boys and girls. The 
 stories and reports of the state champions may be had 
 
 HOME WORK AS CLUB PROJECTS 
 
 Do as much as possible to bring out the boys' and 
 girls' interest in the ordinary duties of the farm and 
 home. Make them feel that they have a part and re- 
 sponsibility in the care and management of the stock 
 on the farm, the crops and the home itself. Make the 
 morning and evening "chores" th? subjects of lessons. 
 Many schools keep a schedule of achievements along 
 these lines. 
 
 .\t the club meetings pupils may report on their home 
 work. The boys will have interesting stories to tell 
 of their work, milking cows, feeding the pigs, caring for 
 horses, or bringing in the wood and water for mother. 
 The girls will have splendid stories of their work in 
 making beds, washing dishes, sweeping floors and in 
 helping to prepare meals. 
 
 The teacher will find many ways in which she can 
 use these home reports in the regular lesson. Arith- 
 metic problems, language lessons and stories, as well as 
 geography work may be based on them. Splendid parts 
 for the morning general lessons may come from this 
 source. Emphasize the point that work cheerfully done 
 is worth so much more than what is done reluctantly. 
 CLUB PROGRAMS 
 
 The club program should be the most interesting 
 period of the week. Encourage the boys and girls to 
 plan it thernselves. Many schools invite the patrons 
 to the school at this time. Sometimes it is a good plan 
 to have light refreshments prepared by the club mem- 
 bers. The program should be made up of the best 
 stories, compositions and songs from the regular pro- 
 gram of the week, especially such as deal with the home 
 work. For September, stories and reports from vaca- 
 tion time are fine. If you have pupils taking part^ in 
 some agricultural contests, use their reports and stories. 
 SCHOOL FAIRS 
 
 September, October and November are the best months 
 for holding school fairs or agricultural exhibits. Let 
 the club have charge of it, and make it a miniature 
 county fair. Sometimes it's a good plan to combine 
 with one or more neighboring schools. The club should 
 appoint committees to have charge of the occasion, such 
 
 A School Exhibit 
 where six schools 
 
 take part, in 
 
 Douglas County, 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 from the state leaders and will make excellent num- 
 bers for the club programs. The stories of your cham- 
 pion corn grower, pig grower, canning girl, bread maker 
 or of other achievements on the farm or in the home 
 should be made to mean a great deal. Look for achieve- 
 ments along these lines in your own school and com- 
 munity. Some of our most effective agriculture is taught 
 this way. 
 
 as committee on exhibits, committee on prizes, commit- 
 tee on sports, committee on refreshments, etc. If pos- 
 sible have the exhibit in or near the place where pro- 
 gram is to be given, so that judges may place awards 
 and give reasons for giving individual prizes. The prizes 
 need not be large, and may consist of neat ribbons, 
 club pins, or some article, such as a book, tool, pure 
 bred poultry or magazine. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 There should always be a program of races, contests 
 and baseball if possible at these club fairs or festivals. 
 Awards should be made for these, as well as for the 
 exhibits. 
 
 Many schools raise funds for prizes by giving enter- 
 tainments, basket socials, or by selling refreshments 
 
 at the school fair. Often the community has progressive 
 farmers or business men who will provide the means. 
 In Minnesota it is very common for the Farmers' club 
 to help the junior club with the premium fund. 
 
 The annual school fair can be made one of the best 
 community occasions of the year. 
 
 Planning a School Garden 
 
 Ernest K. Thomas 
 
 1. Secure land as near the school as possible. If 
 there is room in the school yard that is the best' place 
 for it. 
 
 2. A pure clay is about the only kind of soil that 
 cannot economically be made to produce crops. 
 
 3. Very sandy light soil needs an abundance of or- 
 ganic matter, such as barnyard manure and street sweep- 
 ings. Put on all you can get. Add a little lime to cor- 
 rect any acidity which may be present. 
 
 4. Let the pupils draw a plan of the garden on paper 
 early in the year. Discuss it often in the school and 
 secure the advice of others on the matter. 
 
 5. Method of planning a school garden depends on 
 (a) area of land available; (b) number and ages of the 
 pupils. 
 
 6. There are three general ways in which a garden 
 may be laid out; (a) individual plots, where each child 
 has his own garden; (b) dual plots, where two pupils 
 work on the same plot; (c) community gardens, where 
 there are no divisions. The garden is planted as one 
 big area and the pupils should have just as much inter- 
 est in one as in any other part of the garden. 
 
 7. All three methods have much to recommend them. 
 Each teacher should decide which is best for her local 
 conditions. The individual plot system develops indi- 
 viduality. It demonstrates clearly which pupils are tak- 
 ing good, bad or indifferent care of their gardens. It 
 brings out the spirit of ownership and responsibility, 
 which often determines whether a boy will be interested 
 in his work or not. 
 
 8. The size of individual plots should not be too 
 large. Too large plots means too much work, the re- 
 sult is an untidy condition of the garden. 
 
 The educational value of a school garden is at a mini- 
 mum if it is not neat and clean. Individual plots should 
 not be smaller than 5x10 feet or at least 4x8 feet. If 
 there are too many children to give each one a plot 
 this size, adopt the dual or communal system. Very 
 small individual gardens mean numerous walks, which 
 take up a considerable portion of the garden space. 
 
 9. The dual, or two-pupil plot, system is valuable 
 because it eliminates walks, develops a competitive spirit 
 even more than the individual plot system, or enables 
 an older and younger pupil to work together, and the 
 placing of responsibility on the older pupil. Two pu- 
 pils from the same home might work the same plot, 
 which under some conditions might be advisable. 
 
 10. The community garden does away with the many 
 small walks and on that account, if properly managed, 
 will allow a larger yield from the area. It saves con- 
 siderable labor in plotting out and is more likely to 
 meet with approval from the general public who do not 
 understand the educational motives behind the move- 
 ment. Under a skillful teacher a splendid opportunity 
 is offered for developing an altrustic spirit to co-opera- 
 tion. 
 
 11. When the individual plot system is used the fol- 
 lowing sizes have been found advisable when two les- 
 sons per vfeek are given of from one to three hours. 
 
 Grades I, II, III, SxlO feet; grades IV, V, VI, 10x15 
 feet; grades VII, VIII, IX, 10x20 feet. The older child- 
 ren can work larger plots than 10x20 feet if they at- 
 tend oftener than twice a week. 
 
 12. In staking out a garden for the individual plot 
 
 system make the beds oblong in shape and have the 
 long side running east and west if possible, so that the 
 crops can be planted across the narrow way and run 
 north and south. 
 
 13. Do not arrange to have flowers and vegetables 
 in the same plot. Lay out the center portion with in- 
 dividual vegetable plots and arrange the flowers in long 
 borders around the outside. Let the flower borders bear 
 the same relation to the individual plots as the frame 
 of a picture docs to the picture itself. If the plot is 
 large there should be wide central walks, and borders 
 of flowers along these wide walks would add to the 
 picture. A central flower bed also may be desirable. 
 
 14. In staking out a garden, first determine the boun- 
 daries and mark the corners with a strong and perma- 
 nent stake. Next find the center on either side between 
 the boundaries and mark this point in the same way. 
 Always work from the center to the outside in plotting 
 out. 
 
 15. The following materials are necessary for the 
 work: Strong garden lines, twine, stakes 9 inches long, 
 several large stakes for permanent points 18 inches long, 
 tape measure and a wooden mallet. 
 
 16. Quicker results may be secured if only a few 
 older pupils take part in the staking out. Accuracy in 
 measurements should be insisted upon and if the work 
 is not perfect it should be done over again, even if it 
 is getting late in the spring and past planting time. 
 The appearance of a garden depends very much on how 
 it is laid out and planted. 
 
 HOME GARDENS 
 
 The school garden will serve higher educational and 
 utility purposes if it is supplemented by the home gar- 
 den. The home garden may be made a tremendous in- 
 fluence for good. In many cases the school garden is 
 not practicable, especially in the average rural school, 
 on account of the long vacation and the absence of the 
 teacher and pupils from the school. The home garden 
 may be used for both the school and home purposes. 
 In fact, a good many educators favor the home garden 
 plan. According to this idea each pupil in the school 
 is encouraged to plan at home, with the co-operation 
 and assistance of his parents, some specific phase of 
 farm activity along the line of gardening, poultrying, 
 or some other feature that especially interests him. This 
 assistance of parents and, of course, the assistance and 
 oversight of the teacher, eliminates many of the dif- 
 ficulties otherwise present in the teaching of agriculture 
 in the rural schools. 
 
 The home garden gives practically every child an op- 
 portunity to have and to own and conduct a garden. 
 The plan develops individuality in the pupil. He feels 
 a greater responsibility in the choosing of plants he will 
 grow and in the arrangement of them. He enjoys a 
 freedom which is not possible to grant him in the school 
 garden. This freedom, which in no way interferes with 
 his work, tends to make the interest in gardening more 
 permanent. The home garden is also a good agency for 
 keeping the child at home, which produces a bond of 
 sympathy between the parent and the child, due to the 
 fact that the parent takes an interest in the work and 
 talks about it to the child. 
 
78 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Testing Seeds for the Farmer 
 
 Grace Marian Smith 
 
 We are not getting the most out of our study of agri- 
 culture if our work does not affect the community. 
 
 It is worth something to teach the pupils how to test 
 seed, but the knowing how is of small value if while we 
 are testing and recording results the farmers of the 
 country have planted a hundred thousand acres (in 
 corn districts, the average acreage per county devoted 
 to corn) with seed, 40 per cent of which will not grow. 
 
 Connect your work with the homes so that the yield 
 of grain for next year will be increased because of your 
 efforts. , 
 
 Last spring a Bankers' Association offered to send 
 a "germination box" to any farmer who asked for one 
 Now, a germination box is the easiest thing in the world 
 to make, and the one sent out was no better than a 
 home-made one, but the offer afforded a means of gettihg 
 in touch with the farmer and getting him started. 
 
 The Crop Improvement Committee of the Council of 
 Grain Exchanges, Chicago, have a plan whereby each 
 boy or girl works as a partner with some farmer m the 
 district. If there are four pupils from one home, and 
 two or three other homes which send no children to 
 school, one of the brothers or sisters from the more 
 fortunate family is assigned to each of the childless 
 homes. The farmer is asked to select twelve ears of 
 seed corn. (Twelve ears is the maximum amount re- 
 quired for planting an acre). The two partners then 
 work together, the farmer selecting the ears which look 
 like good seed, and the boy testing the seed by sprout- 
 ing it to prove that it cannot be successfully selected 
 by any other method. 
 
 The method of getting the co-operation of the farmers 
 is as immaterial as the germination box; the point is 
 to get every one in the community to working with you 
 and to get all the seeds tested before planting. 
 
 February is a good month for the seed testing. If 
 the seed selected for planting is not good, there is still 
 time in which to locate and test other. In the test there 
 are two things to be determined: 
 
 1. Purity. 2. Germination. 
 
 In the case of corn, purity would be a question of 
 pure-bred, true to type, and the chief concern would be 
 germination test. But in the case of clover, alfalfa, oats, 
 wheat, buckwheat, and other small grains, the freedom 
 from weed seeds becomes of prime importance. If the 
 school did not gather weed seeds last autumn, the pupils 
 probably will not readily recognize all the alien seeds, 
 but a little practice and some samples with which to 
 compare seeds will help them to sort out the foes, 
 even if they cannot name all the discarded ones. 
 
 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station has put 
 up a collection of seeds of forty-eight of the common 
 weeds of Minnesota. The entire exhibit can be secured 
 for 50 cents, and will be of assistance in recognizing 
 weed seeds. 
 
 Those of us who do not live in Minnesota may hnd 
 in the collection, seeds of some weeds which do not 
 grow in our section, and we may have in our locality 
 some weeds, the seeds of which are not found in this 
 group. But most of the more troublesome weeds are 
 unfortunately found in all localities. The weed which 
 is giving the most trouble to the farmers of your sec- 
 tion is probably in the collection mentioned. 
 
 Test all seeds for germination, and score small grains 
 for freedom from weeds. In the case of corn it is 
 necessary to have a germination box or to use the 
 "rag-baby" tester. You will find a good description of 
 a germination box in Professor Holden's article, "The 
 Corn Crop," on page 48 of the "For Better Crops" 
 booklet. If you do not have one of these booklets, write 
 the Schools Division of the I H C Agricultural Exten- 
 sion Department, Chicago, and they will send you a 
 copy. 
 
 The "rag-baby" tester is less work and will probably 
 
 appeal to the children. For each tester, you will need 
 a strip of bleached muslin nine inches wide by live feet 
 long and two or three handfuls of bran or sawdust. 
 
 1. Lay out the ears side by side on the table, separ- 
 ating them into groups of ten, and numbering them 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 
 11 12 13 etc. 
 
 If desired the numbers may be written on slips of 
 paper and a nail run thru the paper and pushed into the 
 butt of the ear. Be very careful not to let the num- 
 bers get separated from the ears, else when your test 
 is finished, you can not distinguish which ears produced 
 the good kernels, and which the poor. 
 
 2 Now, lay out your strip of cloth. With an oil 
 crayon, India ink, an indelible pencil, or some other 
 marking which will not wash out, divide the cloth, thru 
 the middle lengthwise. Now, begin about seventeen 
 inches from the right hand end of the strip and lay out 
 ten sections, each two and one-half inches wide, in the 
 upper half, and ten similar sections in the lower half 
 of the cloth. Number the sections from left to right, 
 the upper row from 1 to 10 and the lower row from 
 1 to 20. Moisten the cloth by dipping in warm water 
 and spread out on a table. 
 
 3 Take ear No. 1 and select six kernels from it, 
 taking two from the butt of the ear, then turn the ear 
 part way around and take two kernels from the middle 
 of the ear, turn part way around and take two kernels 
 from the tip of the ear. This takes kernels from a 1 
 parts of the ear and gives us a surer test than if all 
 the kernels were taken from one part of the ear. 
 
 Place these kernels from ear No. 1 in square No. 1. 
 
 4 In the same way, take six kernels from ear No. 2 
 and place in square No. 2; from ear No. 3 and place in 
 square No. 3, and so on until the 20 sections are filled. 
 The tips of all kernels should point in one direction, 
 preferably down. 
 
 5. Fold over about three inches of the cloth at the 
 left hand end and write on it the number of the row, as 
 
 Row A. , , 1, u 
 
 6 Fold over about five inches of the cloth at the 
 right hand end and on it lay two or three handfuls of 
 moist bran, sawdust, or sand. This is to retain the 
 moisture which is necessary for sprouting. The extra 
 length of cloth at the right hand end is to furnish bulk 
 so the roll will be large and will give room for the 
 kernels when they swell, as they do in sprouting. The 
 extra length of cloth at the left hand end furnishes a 
 protective wrapping and keeps the kernels well pro- 
 tected. The name Row A written on the left hand end 
 will be on the outside of the roll when it is rolled up. 
 
 6 Moisten the cloth again by sprinkling. Begin at 
 the right hand end and roll up— not too tight— and tie 
 a string about the middle of the roll. Tie it rather 
 loo-^ely, just tight enough to keep the kernels in place. 
 If des"ircd, you may also tie the upper and lower ends. 
 When tied in this way it does look something like a 
 rag doll, doesn't it? Notice that we have a test for 
 twenty ears in a very small space. 
 
 7. Place the rolls in a pail. Do not pack them too 
 tight Not more than ten or fifteen rolls should be put 
 into a ten-quart pail. Fill the pail with warm water 
 (not hot) and let them soak. Keep the rolls entirely 
 under water. 
 
 8 Set the pail on several thicknesses of wrapping 
 paper or newspaper and fold these over the bucket to 
 retain the heat. Set in a warm place. In three to 
 twelve hours, unwrap the papers, take out the rolls, 
 empty the water, replace.the rolls, and wrap up as be- 
 
 9. After about two days, it is well to unwrap the 
 papers, fill the pail with warm water, and let stand five 
 of ten minutes until the rolls are thoroly soaked, then 
 
THE SCHOOL 
 
 empty the water out, and again wrap the bucket in 
 paper. Keep the bucket where it will not get too cold 
 at night. 
 
 10. After seven or eight days unroll the cloth care- 
 fully so as not to disarrange the kernels. The stem 
 sprouts should be about two inches long and the root- 
 lets about the same length. 
 
 11. Examine the kernels in each of the squares, and 
 discard all ears the kernels of which show: 
 
 1st. One or more dead kernels. 
 
 2nd. Weak sprouts. 
 
 3rd. Mould which kills the sprouts. 
 
 The good ears should be put aside for seed. 
 
 If it is desired to use the cloth a second time for test- 
 ing, it should be thoroly scalded to kill any germs. 
 
 In reading the test, don't forget that the seeds must 
 show strong, vigorous sprouts; a weak plant will prob- 
 ably not live to maturity. 
 
 METHODS BOOK 79 
 
 For garden seeds and small grains, a plate covered 
 . with moist sawdust, bran, or a blotting paper will do 
 as well as a germination box. 
 
 As it grows warmer, the plants for the school garden 
 may be started in the house. 
 
 A potato test may be made to learn whether large 
 potatoes when planted produce larger potatoes than 
 those grown from small potatoes. You can also ex- 
 periment to find out whether in cutting potatoes for 
 planting it is enough to see that there is "an eye in each 
 piece," or whether we should plant quite large pieces in 
 order that the baby plant may have a large store of food 
 to help it get a good start in the world. 
 
 Write your state agricultural college for bulletins on 
 testing seeds. If you do not have Circular 104, "Special 
 Contents for Corn Club Work," write the Bureau of 
 Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D. C, for a copy. It contains many helpful suggestions. 
 
 Lessons on Poultry 
 
 Grace Marian Smith 
 
 Lessons on poultry are of value in any school, but 
 they can lie made especially interesting and vital in 
 schools where at least a few, if not a majority, of the 
 children come from homes where poultry is raised. The 
 teacher should induce the older children from such 
 homes to test and care for a hen and raise a brood of 
 chickens this year. Even tho only two or three can do 
 this, their work will form a basis for, and will lend 
 reality to, the class discussions. 
 
 The first lessons can be devoted profitably to a sUidy 
 of the different breeds of chickens. Find out who iil 
 the neighborhood keeps just one breed and who keeps 
 a mixture of several breeds. If several breeds are rep- 
 resented in the neighborhood a visit to these will be of 
 value. 
 
 Poultry raisers group the breeds into four classes: egg 
 breeds, such as Leghorns and Minorca?; meat breeds, 
 such as Langshans, Brahmas, and Cochins; general pur- 
 pose breeds, as the Plymouth Rock, Wyandottes, Rhode 
 Island Red, and Orpingtons; and fancy breeds, which 
 may be represented by Polish and Bantams. 
 
 Let the boys and girls compare the different breeds 
 as to size, shape, color and value. Pictures of different 
 breeds, such as can be obtained from poultry farm jour- 
 nals, will be valuable aids in this study. 
 
 The advantages of keeping pure-bred poultry instead 
 of common mongrel fowls should be emphasized. Some 
 of the most obvious of these advantages are: 
 
 1. Greater beautv and attractiveness of a pure-bred 
 flock. 
 
 2. The higher market value of the fowls. 
 
 3. The higher market value of the eggs because of 
 their uniformitv in size, shape, color, and texture of 
 shell. 
 
 Great care should be given to the selecting of eggs 
 for hatching purposes. There are two reasons for this: 
 (1) the kind of eggs selected for hatching will determine 
 largely the kind of eggs that will be laid by the chickens 
 hatched; (2) when comparing eggs from the same vari- 
 ety of fowls the size of the eggs will determine to some 
 extent the size of the chickens that will hatch from 
 them. 
 
 Have the children study the eggs laid by the different 
 breeds and bring to school one which is typical of the 
 breed each is studying. Those selected for hatching 
 should be of medium uniform size, should be similar 
 in color, and the shell should be smooth, hard, and 
 free from transparent spots. 
 
 Eggs intended for hatching should be kept at a rather 
 cool temperature, SO or 60 degrees F. They should be 
 turned occasionally and should be kept covered to avoid 
 evaporation. They should not be kept more than a 
 week or ten days. The fresher thev are when set, the 
 
 better arc the ciianccs of a good Iiatcli an<l strong 
 chicks. 
 
 The number of eggs given to a hen depends on the 
 season, the size of the hen, and the size of the eggs 
 
 Thirteen is the number usually gi\cn to the averagt 
 sized hen in the spring. 
 
 The hen should be placed in secluded, comfortable 
 quarters, where she will not be disturbed. A half barrel 
 or bo.x makes a good nest. Earth should be placed in 
 the bottom and covered with bright, clean hay. Lice 
 will cause a hen to lea\e her nest. Hence it is abso- 
 
 lutely essential that the nest be clean and fresh, and 
 the hen should be dusted occasionally with insect pow- 
 der even tho there are no signs of vermin. 
 
 A sitting hen needs food only for the purpose of 
 bodily maintenance. Therefore very little vegetable or 
 meat foods should be given to her. Whole grain (wheat, 
 corn, and oats), clear, fresh water, grit, and a dust 
 bath should be within her reach at all times. 
 
 In about a week the eggs should be tested and infer- 
 tile ones removed. This gives the others a much better 
 chance. A homemade tester is just as good as those 
 supplied by dealers. Fit a small pasteboard or wooden 
 box over a lamp or candle, cut a hole in the top directly 
 over the flame and another a little smaller than an egg 
 in one side opposite the flame. Testing must be done 
 in a dark room. 
 
80 
 
 THE SCHOOL 
 
 Each egg is held against the hole in the side of the 
 box and the light shining thru shows its condition. ^ A 
 fertile egg shows a dark, spider-like formation which 
 floats as the egg is turned. Infertile eggs are clear and 
 should be removed and cooked for the first meal for the 
 young chicks. 
 
 Before the chicks are hatched, a coop should be made. 
 It should be large enough to allow the hen to move 
 about. The illustrations show two simple types of 
 coops, which anybody can make. It is well to place the 
 
 METHODS BOOK 
 
 oats moistened with milk or water make a good feed 
 for the first few days. A small portion of hard boiled 
 eggs may be added to this. They should be fed often 
 at first, five or six times a day. 
 
 Clean water should be kept always at hand for them. 
 
 
 —. _-?■-« 
 
 t 
 
 Box coop for hen and chickens 
 
 coop on a platform of boards, as this not only keeps 
 the coop dry, but helps to keep out rats and weasels. 
 The coop should face the south and should be placed 
 on land where chickens have not recently been reared. 
 It is a good plan to build a small covered run for the 
 coop, especially if there is danger from cats and hawks. 
 Chickens should not be fed for at least twenty-four 
 hours after they are hatched. The egg yolk is enclosed 
 in the chicken just before it is hatched, and is sufficient 
 nourishment for the first day. Bread crumbs and rolled 
 
 A-shaped coop for hen and chickens 
 
 A tin can filled with water and turned upside down 
 in a saucer makes a good drinking fountain. In addi- 
 tion to the moist food a grain food should also be 
 given. A good food mixture consists of three pounds 
 of cracked wheat, two pounds of cracked corn, and one 
 pound of rolled oats or hulled oats. Each child should 
 keep a record of his flock and should estimate the cost, 
 making a fair allowance for his own time. These 
 records should be brought to school and compared with 
 one another. 
 
 The following Farmers' Bulletins will be found help- 
 ful: No. 287, "Poultry Management"; No. 51, Standard 
 Varieties of Chickens"; No. 225, "Poultry House Con- 
 struction." 
 
 A Prize-Winning Bushel of Potatoes 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 ^!":il 
 
 81 
 
 STUDIES OF NOTED PAINTINGS 
 
 A Study of Madonnas 
 
 Matlonna by Ftriuzzi 
 
 Elsie May Smith 
 
 Herewith we give for the 
 I iijoyment of both teacher and 
 liiildren three beautiful pic- 
 lures of the Christ-Child and 
 I lis mother^ as represented in 
 the Madonna pictures of noted 
 irtists: the Sistine Madonna 
 liy Raphael, Madonna and 
 I hild by Gabriel Max, and 
 Madonna by R. Ferruzzi. We 
 -uggest that the teacher, in 
 I onnection with these pic- 
 lures, tell her pupils the story 
 uf the Christ-Child, something 
 nf His birth and early years. 
 Perhaps the best story she can 
 tell is that in the New Testa- 
 ment — the shepherds watching 
 tlieir sheep, the journey of the 
 wise men, the bright star shin- 
 ing overhead, the humble birth 
 in a stable at Bethlehem, the 
 ciiildhood days and journey to 
 llic temple. In this connection 
 she may profitably use Hoff- 
 mann's picture of the Christ 
 
 before the learned doctors of the temple, or pictures 
 by other artists. 
 
 The Sistine Madonna is the best-known and most 
 talked of Madonna in all the world. Let us see if we 
 can learn why, and come to feel ourselves that it de- 
 serves this. First, a word as to the name: "Madonna" 
 means "my lady," and is used to designate the mother 
 of the Christ-Child. This picture is called "Sistine" 
 because it was painted for some monks whose monas- 
 tery was called San Sisto, after Pope Sixtus. Thus it 
 was really named in honor of Pope Sixtus. In the 
 complete picture, of which we give only the loveliest 
 and most important part, there is a portrait of Pope 
 Sixtus to one side of the mother and child. There are 
 also green curtains on either side, drawn apart to show 
 the beautiful vision of the Madonna and her babe. Our 
 picture gives this vision as it is shown between the 
 dividing curtains. See the lovely mother, her eyes full 
 of love because she holds in her arms her wonderful 
 babe! See, too, that dreamy look as she gazes far out 
 into the distance. Of what can she be thinking? we 
 wonder. That wonderful expression on her face tells 
 us that she loves her boy, oh! so much, and she knows 
 that he is to be something more than all the other 
 babies in the whole wide world. And the baby Him- 
 self! Do you notice those wide-open eyes, how they 
 look out at you? Do they not tell you something more 
 than you can say in words? How strong he is! He sits 
 up in his mother's arms, and his face seems to tell us 
 of the great things he is going to do by and by. How 
 many little boys like to talk of what they will do when 
 they are men! The Christ-Child looks as tho he, too, 
 were thinking of that great time, and planning for it. 
 Look again at those eyes, the mother's and the babe's; 
 does it not seem as tho the artist had painted their 
 inmost souls, and they were speaking to our souls? 
 
 Let me tell you something of the young man who 
 painted this picture, for he was only a young man when 
 the great thought came into his mind which led him 
 to take up his brush and paint it. How quickly, how 
 happily he worked to put his vision on the canvas be- 
 fore he should forget any of it! How he loved his 
 work! Yes, that was the secret of his life; he had 
 always worked, and knew how to toil day after day. 
 
 Madonna and Child by Gabriel Max 
 He knew how to study and to think beautiful thoughts, 
 how to live with books and to love great men. From 
 other great men he learned many things. But best of 
 all was his life. He had lovely manners that pleased 
 people and made them love him, and he was modest 
 about himself. His life was upright and true. Because 
 he was pure and good, he lived in the world of the 
 spirit and had such visions as he gives us in the Sistine 
 Madonna. 
 
 Nearly two hundred and forty years after Raphael 
 painted this picture it was bought by a duke and carried 
 to Dresden. When it reached the duke's palace the 
 duke had it taken into the room where his throne was. 
 He wished to have it where he could see it often, but 
 the only place where the light would shirle on the pic- 
 ture to make it look the best was right where the throne 
 was. So the duke had his throne moved away to give 
 the best place to the picture! If he was willing to do 
 that, ought we not to find a place where we can put this 
 picture and keep it? 
 
 When we turn to the Madonna and Child by Gabriel 
 Max we think how pure and innocent they are. There 
 is a freshness about them which is very pleasing. See 
 how the mother holds her baby close to her breast. 
 Does not this tell us how much she loves him, and 
 wishes to keep him near her always? There is a very 
 thoughtful look in the mother's eyes; doubtless she is 
 thinking of the future when she will lose him, yet she 
 feels a proud, calm joy in spite of it all. Notice her 
 delicate face with its small, peculiarly rounded nose and 
 sweet, tender mouth. One eye is slightly larger than 
 the other. This gives the face that beautiful look which 
 makes it seem spiritual, unreal, as tho belonging to 
 another world. Her eyes are sad-looking, dovelike in 
 their expression. While she is proud, she does not 
 have that look of wonderful pride which we see in 
 Raphael's Madonna. There is a great contrast be- 
 tween the two pictures of the Christ-Child. Here a 
 sweet-faced infant clings to his mother as tho needing 
 love and care. There a strong baby sits up and looks 
 out upon the world as tho more anxious to give to 
 others than to take anything from them. 
 
 Gabriel Max belongs to our own times. He is a 
 Bohemian by birth and lives in the city of Munich. 
 
82 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Sistine Madonna by Raphael 
 
 As a man he is dreamy and fond of thinking of things 
 which do not belong to this world. These he paints 
 in his pictures. He has delicate feeling for those who 
 are beautiful and helpless, or who suffer wrong from 
 others. 
 
 Our last picture, Ferruzzi's Madonna, is quite diflfer- 
 ent from either of the others. Here the artist has pic- 
 tured a real mother with her baby. He saw no vision 
 in his soul far away from the world, but he found a 
 sweet woman in Italy carrying her baby in her arms. 
 He thought she was worthy to represent the mother of 
 Tesus, so he painted her. Notice her dress and the 
 dress of her baby. Did Raphael put clothes on his 
 Christ-Child? Did Gabriel Max? See, this baby has 
 fallen asleep. His mother carries him gently in her 
 arms, and holds him close to her breast so that he rnay 
 sleep in comfort. Notice his mouth. How natural he 
 looks! Just like any other baby we might see any day 
 on the streets. His mother's face is happy. She, too, 
 is a proud mother. See how she is looking upward as 
 she walks along. What makes us think they are out- 
 doors? 
 
 This mother has beautiful eyes. Are they like the 
 eyes of Raphael's Madonna? There is. a great difference 
 between this Madonna and Raphael's. How different 
 the Christ-Child in each case! Think of the contrast 
 
 between that strong, opened-eyed babe and this one 
 sleeping in his mother's arms, knowing nothing of what 
 is going on around. 
 
 Ferruzzi i^ an obscure Italian artist who is not known 
 ^ except by this Madonna, which makes such a human 
 appeal that the picture-loving public have become v.ery 
 much attached to it. 
 
 When teaching the children of the Christ-Child it 
 would be a splendid idea for the teacher to emphasize 
 the thought of his coming as a gift to the world, rfnd 
 that all our giving at Christmas time is only copying 
 the example furnished in this supreme gift. 
 
 Pictures of the Madonnas may be hung around the 
 schoolro.om for the children to look at during the week 
 preceding Christmas. One teacher who did this says: 
 "It was a beautiful sight to see the little figures coming 
 early to school that they might walk up and dowa 
 the line and learn of the Christ-Child." The teacher 
 may make a present of a Madonna to each child, or 
 she may encourage and help them to make collections 
 of Madonna pictures to put in notebooks made for this 
 purpose. The front cover of the notebook may be a 
 Madonna mounted on soft gray cardboard. The other 
 pictures are then pasted on paper forming the inside 
 leaves, the back cover being of the plain gray card- 
 board. The whole can be tied together with gray or 
 white narrow ribbon. Emphasize the little moral given 
 above in the story of the duke of Dresden. 
 
 Questions for Study of the Sistine Madonna 
 
 What does this picture represent? 
 
 \N'hat look do you see in the Madonna's face? 
 
 Does she seem to be thinking? What do you suppose 
 she is thinking about? 
 
 Has she a beautiful face? Do you like the look in her 
 eyes? 
 
 What do they seem to say? 
 
 How does she hold her Babe? 
 
 Wliat upon the right balances the Babe upon the left 
 of the picture? 
 
 What look do you see in the Babe's face? Do you 
 think he has wonderful eyes? Why? 
 
 Does he seem to look out upon the world with a 
 wondering look? 
 
 Study these faces carefully and note what meaning 
 they seem to have. 
 
 Does the Christ-Child resemble his mother in looks? 
 
 Why is this picture called the "Sistine Madonna"? 
 
 For whom was it painted? Where is it now? 
 
 Do people like to look at it? 
 
 Why is it appropriate to study it at Christmas time? 
 
 Do you like this picture? Why do you like it? 
 
 How does it rank among pictures of the Madonna? 
 
 Do you think it deserves its great fame? Why? 
 
 Is it a beautiful and inspiring representation of a great 
 subject? 
 
 Does it speak a noble message to you? Is it then a 
 great picture? 
 
 Saved — Sir Edwin Landseer 
 
 Elsie May 
 
 The popularity of the pictures of Sir Edwin Landseer 
 is largely due to their strong human appeal, for his por- 
 trayals of animals are not only skillful and lifelike but 
 touched with human sympathy and insight. This touch 
 of humanity, so pronounced in nearly all of them, 
 makes the chief figures, whether dogs, horses, deer, or 
 monkeys, seem to partake of human qualities of intelli- 
 gence or feeling, as the case may be. 
 
 In the picture entitled "Saved," this human quality is 
 strongly marked. Notice the proud, triumphant air 
 of this dog, but there is reason for it. Think what a 
 story of achievement Ties back of this picture. The 
 little child wandered away from home and came too 
 near the water's edge, or the tide of the sea came in 
 where he was playing and endangered his life. There 
 
 Smith 
 
 was no one near to see the danger; but the faithful dog 
 was there, and he took it upon himself to bring the 
 child to a place of safety upon the beach, and now there 
 he rests from his toil with the exhausted little one safe 
 in his great, strong paws. He is looking eagerly shore- 
 ward, hoping that some one will come to assist him 
 in carrying the child home. But we know he will see 
 that no harm comes to him now, whether others 
 slow or quick to come to his assistance. 
 
 Notice carefully all the details of the picture, 
 birds, the point of land beyond the chief figures, 
 distant ship, the clouds overhead, the rocks upon 
 beach. The details are few, but they are significant 
 and all that we need to complete the scene is given 
 The most wonderful thing of all is the eager, proud, al- 
 
 are 
 
 the 
 the 
 the 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 83 
 
 Saved — Sir Edwin Landseer 
 
 most living face of the expectant dog. The force and 
 vigor with which it is painted exemplifies the charm 
 of Landseer's work. 
 
 Questions for Study 
 
 What docs this picture represent? 
 
 Why is it so named? 
 
 What has this dog done? Does he seem proud of his 
 work? 
 
 How does he show that he is? 
 
 Do you think that lie is the kind of a dog you would 
 like to know? 
 
 Do you think he will protect the child from further 
 danger? 
 
 What is the expression of his face? 
 
 What do you think he expects will happen next? 
 
 Do you think some one will come to relieve him? 
 
 Do you think he expects they will? 
 
 What other objects do you see in the picture? 
 
 Do you like this picture? Why do you like it? 
 
 The Artist 
 
 Sir Edwin Landseer, the most popular animal painter 
 of the nineteenth century, was born in London, March 
 7, 1802. He very early showed a deep love for animals 
 and great skill in sketching them. He was the young- 
 est son of John Landseer, a distinguished engraver, 
 wliosc children inherited his artistic talent. There were 
 in the inmiediate family no fewer than eight persons 
 who attained more or less distinction as artists: John, 
 his brother, Henry, and six of John's children, of whom 
 Edwin became the most famous. John Landseer gave 
 his gifted son his first lesson in drawing, directing him 
 in a manner that meant constant improvement in the 
 child's work and encouragement to do his best. Some 
 of the pictures Edwin made between the age of five 
 and ten were so good that his father kept them, and 
 now after a hundred years they may still be seen in 
 Kensington Museum, in London. 
 
 With two of his brothers, the child studied art with 
 an English painter in London, and in 1816 entered the 
 Royal Academy. At this early age of fourteen Edwin 
 sent pictures to several galleries. He studied for a 
 while under the artist Haydon. A picture of his called 
 "Dogs Fighting" {engraved by his father) was painted 
 
 when he was sixteen, and "The Dogs of St. Gothard 
 Discovering a Traveler in the Snow," also engraved 
 by his father, appeared two years later. The people 
 of London became interested^ in his pictures, and he 
 immediate"ly became the most noted painter of animals. 
 No one else could paint dogs as Landseer did, and so 
 his pictures were in great demand. He M<rzs elected 
 an associate of the Royal Academy at the age of twen- 
 ty-four and received the rank of Academician four years 
 later. He was expressly invited by Sir Walter Scott 
 (as great a lover of dogs as himself) to visit Abbots- 
 ford, where he made himself very popular with Sir 
 Walter and his wife by sketching their dogs for them. 
 There he studied animals in their native haunts, in the 
 deep forests, on the wild mountain sides and by the 
 lakes and rushing streams. Thus he acquired a bolder 
 and freer style in his work and became fond of deer 
 as su'bjcts for his paintings. 
 
 For fifty years Landseer's paintings formed the chief 
 treasure and attraction in the Royal Academy exhibi- 
 tions, and engravings from his works had such a cir- 
 culation in England that in the sixties there was scarcely 
 a house in which there did not hang one of his horses, 
 dogs or stags. Even the Continent was flooded with 
 them. Some of his pictures are "Night," "Morning," 
 "Children of the Mist," "The Return from the Deer- 
 Stalking," "Sir Walter Scott and His Dogs," "Alexander 
 and Diogenes," "Dignity and Impudence," "The Sleep- 
 ing Bloodhound," "The Connoissuers," "The Old Shep- 
 herd's Chief Mourner," and "A Dialogue at W'aterloo," 
 representing the Duke of Wellington explaining to his 
 daughter-in-law the incidents of the great fight years 
 after it occurred. This is one of the best of the few 
 figurepieces he painted. He was knighted in 1850. In 
 1855 he received at Paris one of the two large gold 
 medals awarded to Englishmen. The comolete list of 
 his works is very large. A sportsman who wandered 
 about all day long in the open air with a gun on his 
 arm, he painted pictures with all the love and joy of a 
 child of nature. This accounts for the vivid force of 
 his work. Perhaps he owed a larp-e "-'art to h's c'larm- 
 ing social qualities. He died a millionaire in 187.'', and 
 was buried with the honors of a public funeral in St. 
 Paul's Cathedral, London. 
 
84 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 End of Labor — ^Jules Breton 
 
 Elsie May Smith. 
 
 Jules Breton occupied a leading place in the French 
 art of the nineteenth century. There is a peculiar 
 charm about his work which embraces the "grave, seri- 
 ous and vigorous poetry of the country which he ex- 
 presses with love, respect and sincerity." It is the 
 work of a man who feels — a man who has won his way 
 to the hearts of people because he speaks a message 
 that goes straight to their hearts. He is both a painter 
 of landscape and of human nature, harmonizing the 
 two in all his works with such justice and care, and 
 such equal ability, that he deserves the credit of be- 
 ing a master in the two branches of his art. "In each 
 he shows a deep, earnest, reverential sympathy in the 
 presence of nature, his eye for color is almost fault- 
 less, and his technical capacity is beyond question." 
 Breton has deservedly been called a true poet and 
 painter, for there is a delicate humor about his work 
 that adds much to its charm and individuality. The 
 numerous subjects treated in his pictures may be 
 divided generally into four classes: subjects dealing with 
 labor, with rest, with rural festivals and with religious 
 festivals. The subject of our sketch belongs to the 
 first class. 
 
 down at her side holding the jug. We see that one 
 of the women in the distance is calling to her and she 
 assumes this attitude as she turns to answer. In the 
 far distance' beyond the waving grain we see the out- 
 lines of a house toward which, no doubt, they will soon 
 all wend their way, indeed, two have already turned 
 their steps in that direction. The homely beauty of 
 the whole scene makes a strong appeal to us. We ad- 
 mire the vigor and charm of these young women, we 
 rejoice with them in the anticipation of their well- 
 merited rest, and we long to know more of their in- 
 teresting life. 
 
 Questions for Study 
 
 What is this picture called? 
 
 What time of day is it? How do you know? 
 
 What is the season of the year? How can you tell? 
 
 What have these women been doing? 
 
 Where are they going now? Are they all ready to 
 start? 
 
 Which ones are not? What are they doing? 
 
 What is going on between the two groups? How can 
 you tell? 
 
 What is the young woman with the jug in her hand 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 Ma 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 m- 
 
 -"W S 
 
 Ijfc^:^ 
 
 w 
 
 
 SJB i, 
 
 c^>v.^7^ ''^-^^^^m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i 
 
 ^".'^^^^^^^^ "^"'^^^^^BBi 
 
 /.' i 
 
 ■'-'•;^ 
 
 
 ^A: 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 ■ .^■■7;>-^ 
 
 i^-- 
 
 
 X^ 
 
 ^BbBSI^" 
 
 m. 
 
 
 '■'-V 
 
 •;' 
 
 
 
 v'L - 
 
 )l 
 
 a 
 
 K ' 
 
 ^. 
 
 
 
 
 
 'i^-n 
 
 k- ; 
 
 1 
 
 l» 
 
 End of Labor. — Jules Breton. 
 
 "End of Labor" suggests naturally to our minds the 
 close of the day's toil. We think of the beautiful twi- 
 light hour in the fields when the sun is slowly sinking 
 in the west,, and the laborers after their hours of work 
 are turning homeward to their needed rest. Notice 
 the figures in the picture. Some have already finished 
 filling their sacks and are turning their steps home- 
 ward, but the others, and these are the more prominent 
 figures in the foreground — these that catch our atten- 
 tion first — have not quite completed their task. One 
 robust, fine looking young woman holds the sack while 
 the other fills it with the grain. Notice the second's 
 bended attitude — her grace, naturalness and beauty. How 
 fine the other one looks as she stands erect, turning 
 her head toward those in the distance to whom the 
 young girl with her back turned toward us is beckon- 
 ing. Notice the latter's attitude, the erect figure, the 
 upturned, out-stretched arm holding the sickle, the other 
 
 doing? 
 
 What has she in her other hand? 
 
 Do you think these are attractive looking young 
 women? 
 
 Do they seem strong and healthy? Do they seem 
 to enjoy their work? What makes you think they do? 
 
 Do you think they will also enjoy their rest now that 
 the day's work is ended? 
 
 Do you like this picture? Why do you like it? 
 
 Do }'OU think the artist who painted it was in sym- 
 pathy with such people as these? Why do you think so? 
 
 Docs he make us in sympathy with them also? 
 The Artist 
 
 Jules Adolph Breton, one of the finest French paint- 
 ers of village and country life, was born at Courrieres, 
 France, May 1, 1827. His artistic gifts were apparent 
 at an early age, and he was sent to Ghent in 1843 to 
 study under the historical painter, Devigne, whose 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 dau°litor he afterwards married, and in 1846 to Ant- 
 werp to study under Baron Wappers. He afterwards 
 went to Paris and studied under Drolling. _ His hrst 
 pictures were concerned with historical subjects. He 
 soon discovered, however, that he was not born to be 
 distinguished in this f^eld of painting, and so turned to 
 the iiK-mories of his childhood and youth, painting the 
 scenes of nature and the country which had been im- 
 pressed upon his mind in his early years. 
 
 In 1853 he exhibited his "Return of the Harvesters 
 at the Paris Salon, and the "Little Gleaners," at Brus- 
 sels From that time on he was essentially a painter, 
 of rustic life, especially in the province of Artois, which 
 he quitted only three times for short excursions, going 
 in 1S64 to Province, and the following year to Brittany, 
 and again to Brittany in 1873. From the last named 
 place he derived some of his happiest studies of re- 
 ligious scenes. He won medals of the Third Class m 
 185^ of the Second Class of 1857, of the First Class m 
 1859 and again in 1861 and 1867. A medal of honor 
 was awarded to him in 1872. He was made an officer 
 of the Legion of Honor, reaching the rank of Com- 
 
 85 
 
 mander in 1889; and in 1899 he was made a foreign 
 member of the Royal Academy of London. 
 
 Breton has written several books. Among his paint- 
 ings are "The Recall of the Gleaners," 1859; "Evening," 
 1861, at the Luxembourg, Paris, "End of the Day," "Blue 
 Monday," 1865; "Spring of Water Near the Sea," "Har- 
 vest-Time," 1867; "Women Digging Potatoes," 1868; 
 "The Washerwoman of the Coast of Brittany," 1870; 
 "Woman Spinning," 1870; "Girl Tending Cows," "The 
 Fountain," 1872; "The Clifif," "When the Cat's .'^way 
 the Mice Will Play," 1874; "A Gleaner," 1877; "Even- 
 ing," 1880; "The Rainbow," "Morning," 1883, and "The 
 Song of the Lark," 1884. These titles will suggest the 
 charlicter of the themes he chose to paint. They are 
 always simple, but the wording of them does not give 
 an adequate idea of the beauty and charm which was 
 the excuse for their being. The pictures themselves 
 are always greater than their names might imply to 
 the uninitiated. A picture called "Benediction des 
 Bles" is technically a work of great importance in mod- 
 ern art because of its almost perfect interpretation of 
 sunshine. 
 
 Potato Planting— Millet 
 
 No one better understood the life of those who labor 
 out-of-doors than Millet. No one had greater sympathy 
 with the poor who toil incessantly for their daily bread 
 than he. All the struggles and the joys, all the striv- 
 ings and the rewards of the life of the peasants of 
 France, his native land, he knew, for he had been a 
 peasant himself, and looking out upon these people, 
 his friends, as one of them, who knew and loved them, 
 he was able to put them into his pictures in a way 
 which had never been done by any artist before him. 
 From the depths of his own great sympathy he has 
 
 Elsie May Smith. 
 
 made the world see in them tliat which it never saw be 
 
 fore and could not see without him, for he alone could 
 interpret and make plain the hidden meaning of their 
 lives. 
 
 In the spring-time, our thoughts turn naturally to 
 scenes of planting and seeding, for it is the time of 
 preparation for the coming harvest. In this picture 
 Millet gives such a scene, for here the peasants are 
 represented as planting potatoes. We notice the look 
 of happiness, of calm content, of dignity and repose 
 with which he nearly always invests his peasants. They 
 
 Potato Planting by J. F. Millet 
 
86 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 are happy in their work, looking forward to the time 
 when they shall gather their crop and enjoy the fruits 
 of their labor. They are also happy, we may believe, 
 in each other's love and companionship. Together 
 they may work, and together at some future time they 
 will share their reward, husband and wife, thus shar- 
 ing in each other's life. We know that work is often 
 doubly precious when it affords us the joy of com- 
 panionship and mutual assistance with those we love. 
 
 The sturdy forms of these peasants attract us. They 
 look so strong and capable. We are sure they take 
 an intelligent interest in their work, and perform it 
 with a zest and self-forgetfulness that make this a most 
 appealing picture. Industry, fidelity to the task in hand, 
 and the joy of companionship in labor are here so 
 manifest that the picture takes hold of the imagination. 
 The woman seems to drop the potatoes into the ground 
 with such confidence and assurance of the outcome, 
 and the man seems to share in this confidence and as- 
 surance with such fervor that we cannot doubt the 
 faith which they thus reveal in the goodness of nature. 
 Upon that goodness they count for the reward of their 
 labors, and the artist so brings it before our minds in 
 their attitude "that we, too, are conscious of it. 
 
 Under the trees we see the patient burro who waits 
 upon the needs of his owners. The open field stretches 
 away behind the principal figures. The details are few., 
 as so often in Millet's pictures, but they are sufticient 
 to impress upon us the great truths which he wishes 
 to bring to our remembrance — the dignity of toil and 
 of toilers, the joy of companionship in labor, the cer- 
 tainty of reward for diligent work in the fields because 
 of the trustworthy goodness of nature. 
 Questions for Study 
 
 What is the title of this picture? 
 
 What is the scene of this picture? To what nation- 
 ality do these people belong.? 
 
 Why was Millet especially fitted to paint pictures of 
 French peasants? 
 
 Was he in thoro sympathy with them? How could 
 you tell this from his pictures if you did not know that 
 he was once one of them and loved them? 
 
 What traits of character do you notice in these 
 people? 
 
 Do thev seem happy and contented? How can you 
 tell? 
 
 Do they seem to enjoy their labor' Their companion- 
 ship together? How can you tell? 
 
 Do they seem confident of the outcome of their 
 labor? 
 
 How can you tell? 
 
 Do these people seem strong and capable? Are they 
 diligent? Do they forget themselves in their labor? 
 
 What objects do you see in the picture besides the 
 two principal figures? 
 
 What great lessons does this picture teach us? 
 
 Do you think it is a beautiful picture? Why do you 
 think so? 
 
 The Artist 
 
 Jean Francois Millet, one of the greatest French 
 i:iainters of his time, was born at Greville, France, in 
 1814. His father was a poor peasant, and until eighteen 
 years of age Millet spent much of his time in hard 
 labor upon their little farm, located in the Norman vil- 
 lage of Gruchy, near Cherbourg. His grandmother and 
 his uncle, a priest, gave him the rudiments of a general 
 education. Very early he showed his talent for draw- 
 ing and painting so unmistakably that his father deter- 
 mined to send him to an art school. Hence it hap- 
 pened that the year 1834 found the lad studying with 
 the artist Langlois, at Cherbourg. Here 'his remark- 
 able progress influenced the city council to give him a 
 small pension, that he might go to Paris to study. 
 
 In Paris he studied with the artist Delaroche. In 
 1843 he left this artist's studio to paint pictures to earn 
 his living. He suffered long with poverty and neglect. 
 In 1848 he painted "The Winnowers," which brought 
 him a hundred dollars and gave him courage to defy 
 the world and follow the promptings of his own genius. 
 His friend, Jacque, the artist, persuaded him the follow- 
 ing year to go with him to the village of Barbizen 
 in the forest of Fontainbleau. Here Millet was to re- 
 main the rest of his life. Here he produced "The 
 Sower." His pictures were refused by the Paris Salons, 
 where the public did not care for pictures of genuine 
 peasants. Today many of his pictures are worth more 
 than their weight in gold. 
 
 In 1853 he exhibited at the Salon in Paris "The Reap- 
 ers," followed soon by "A Shepherd" and "The Sheep 
 Shearer," and received his first medal in 1855. "A Peas- 
 ant Grafting a Tree" appeared two years later, and 
 "The Gleaners" in 1857. Pictures which followed were 
 "November," "A Woman Churning Butter," "The An- 
 gelus," "The Man With the Hoe," and "Harvest of 
 Beans." Appreciation came to him before his death, 
 which occurred January 20, 1875. 
 
 Children of the Shell— Murillo 
 
 Elsie May Smith 
 
 One of the artists who is very successful in tlie rep- 
 resentation of children is the Spanish artist Murillo. 
 He loved to study the children whom he saw playing 
 upon the streets of the city where he lived, and he had 
 many opportunities for close and careful observation. 
 A man of deep religious faith and devotion, an ideal- 
 ist who looked beyond the things of sense to those 
 higher realms of the spirit, he took delight in some- 
 times transforming the children he found upon the 
 streets into the boy Jesus or John or cherubs and angels 
 belonging to another world, altho he often chose to 
 represent them as beggar boys just as he found them at 
 their play. 
 
 A picture which represents the idealization of child- 
 hood and the religious feeling of the artist, is the 
 "Children of the Shell." Here two beautiful little boys 
 are shown with all the charm and loveliness of perfect 
 childhood. Their delicate white flesh, their pretty, in- 
 nocent faces, their unconscious grace, their naturalness 
 and youthful beauty are all clearly portrayed. Notice 
 the exquisite grace of their attitudes, the one holding 
 the shell that the other may drink, leaning slightly 
 forward and holding it in one hand and with the other 
 extended at his side. Notice carefully the position of 
 his hands, and also those of the other boy, who leans 
 over that he mav drink from the shell. In his left 
 
 hand the latter holds his staff. In shape it is a slender 
 cross. They are in a desert place, and the water they 
 are drinking has been drawn from some spring that 
 bubbles up at their feet. 
 
 Before them we see a lamb — -that emblem of innocence 
 and helplessness. The two children make a good repre- 
 sentation of the boy Jesus and His cousin John. Murillo 
 had them in his mind as he painted the picture. The 
 slender cross is an emblem of John. Above their heads 
 we notice the figures of cherubs that bend over them 
 like protecting angels to keep them from all harm. 
 With all their beauty the cherubs do not seem as beau- 
 tiful as the two little boys over whom they watch. 
 Questions for Study 
 
 What does this picture represent? 
 
 What are these boys doing? 
 
 From what is the one boy drinking? 
 
 What is the name of the picture? Do you think it 
 is a good name? Why? 
 
 Where are these boys, indoors or out? What kind 
 of a place does it seem to be? 
 
 Where did they find the water which they are drink- 
 ing? 
 
 Why do you think so? 
 
 What does one hold in his left hand? 
 
 Wliat do you see in front of them? 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 87 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 j 
 
 BBr 
 
 ' 
 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 ,1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 HI 
 
 
 
 B^^^S\,i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^^V'n^H 
 
 K 
 
 ^^JH 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^Hh^a^ 
 
 
 n^ 
 
 
 
 . .^B 
 
 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 
 ^^^^1 
 
 I^^SBIk^^^ 
 
 •, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ^^Hh^^' ^ 
 
 ," ,M 
 
 I^I^^B 
 
 
 ^^^^S^jM^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 ^^^^^^1 
 
 
 ^^^^^HH 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Children of the Shell— Murillo. 
 
 Why do you think the artist placed the lamb in the 
 picture? 
 
 Whom do these two boys represent? 
 
 What do you see over their heads? 
 
 Why do you think the cherubs are placed there? 
 
 Do you think they are to protect the boys from harm? 
 Why do yoii think so? 
 
 What is the shape of the staff which John holds? 
 
 Why is it a slender cross? 
 
 Do you think this is a beautiful picture? Why do 
 you like it?' 
 
 Would you like to have it lianging where you could 
 see it often? 
 
 The Artist 
 
 Bartliolomc Esteban Murillo was born at Seville, 
 Spain, in 1617. His fatlicr was a simple mechanic, named 
 Caspar Esteban. Little is known of the painter's early 
 years. Like several other artists, he showed the bent 
 of his mind when a child by covering his school books 
 and the school room walls with drawings. His parents 
 died before he was eleven years old, leaving him to the 
 care of a surgeon named Jean Augustin Lagares, who 
 had married his aunt, Donna Anna Murillo. 
 
 Later the boy was apprenticed to his uncle, Juan del 
 Castillo, a master of ordinary ability whose school at- 
 tained a great reputation. L'nder his teaching Murillo 
 took his first steps toward the career of an artist. His 
 kindly nature and anxiety to learn made him a favor- 
 ite both with his teacher and his fellow-students. He 
 availed himself of all means of improvement, and soon 
 painted as well as his master. While still a pupil with 
 Castillo he executed two pictures in oil, the "Virgin with 
 St. Francis" and the "Virgin del Rosario with St. Do- 
 mingo." 
 
 In 1640 Castillo moved to Cadiz, leavin.g Murillo to 
 shift for himself and struggle with poverty as best he 
 could. For two years the boy found it difficult to exist. 
 Seville seemed to be well supplied with artists, so that 
 
 only the best could demand remunerative prices for 
 their works. Murillo was then unknown, shy and re- 
 tiring in disposition, with no influential patron to bring 
 him into notice. So he painted rough, showy pictures 
 for the weekly market, where he would take his stand 
 'at stalls of eatables and old clothes, among groups of 
 gypsies and muleteers. 
 
 As he stood in the market-place waiting for custom- 
 ers, Murillo had a splendid opportunity to study the 
 habits and characteristics of the little beggar-boys of 
 Seville, who afterwards appeared so truthfully in his 
 pictures. 
 
 Fired by a desire to see something of the world, and 
 to improve himself as an artist, when twenty-four years 
 of a.gc Murillo journeyed on foot to Madrid, a long 
 tedious distance when traversed in this manner. Ar- 
 rived in' the city, without friends or money, he was 
 kindly received by Velasquez, then at the height of his 
 power and fame as an artist. Velasquez recognized 
 the gifts of the ambitious young man and gave him 
 every assistance, even providing a home for him under 
 his own roof. 
 
 For three years Murillo worked and studied in Mad- 
 rid. He was permitted to visit the galleries of the city, 
 where he eagerly copied the pictures which appealed 
 to him. Then, declining Velasquez's offer to send him 
 to Rome, he returned to his native city. So far as is 
 known, he never again left it. 
 
 He now put into practice the lessons he had learned. 
 The people of Seville were amazed at the progress he 
 had made when they saw the eleven pictures he next 
 painted for the cloister of the Fransciscan monks. They 
 were entirely different from any pictures ever before 
 seen in Seville. The young artist had gone directly 
 to nature for his inspiration, treating the narratives of 
 th.e Bible as if they had happened in Spain, and using 
 the people who surrounded him as his models. 
 
 Among his important pictures arc the following: "An- 
 
88 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 nunciation," "Infant Savior," "Infant St. John," "Moses 
 Striking the Rock," "Return of the Prodigal," "Abra- 
 ham and the Three Angels," "Miracle of the Loaves and 
 Fishes," "St. Peter Released from Prison," "Mother and 
 
 Child," "The Dice Players," "The Melon Eaters," "Beg- 
 gar Boys," "Feeding the Five Thousand," "Virgin of the 
 Mirror," "Adoratiort- of the Shepherds" and "St. An- 
 thony of Padua." Murillo died in 1682. 
 
 Oxen Plowing — Rosa Bonheur 
 
 Elsie May Smith 
 
 Few painters of animals have enjoyed greater popu- 
 larity than .Rosa Bonheur. The forceful vitality of her 
 representations of animals, and the convincing natural- 
 ness of her delineations of their characteristics easily 
 won for her a vast audience of appreciative spectators. 
 Her pictures were in great demand, everyone who could, 
 wanted to own one, and large sums were offered for 
 their purchase. 
 
 The picture called "Oxen Plowing" is a good example 
 of her manner. The patient animals plowing their way 
 across the long sweep of field, the furrows already made 
 revealing the soft upturned earth, the rising hillside be- 
 yond with its covering of forest trees, all unite to make 
 a natural and a pleasing picture. There is here a fasci- 
 nating vista that tempts the eye and leads one to wish 
 for a more extended view of this charming country, but 
 at the same time, brings his attention back to the center 
 of the picture, — the plowing oxen. How faithfully and 
 sympatheticall}- they are represented! No attempt is 
 made to have them appear other than what they are, 
 beasts of toil, and yet how easil}' our admiration for 
 them is aroused as we look at their dreamy faces, their 
 straining backs, their soft, silky coats, and bent attitudes. 
 
 Are these natural-looking oxen? Are they interesting? 
 Why? 
 
 Describe their chief traits. Has the artist represented 
 them in a pleasing manner? Do you like their arrange- 
 ment in the picture? Why do you like it? 
 
 Where do the lights and shadows fall? Do you like 
 the play of light and shadow in the picture? 
 
 Have the oxen already plowed much ground? Do 
 you think it makes a pleasing appearance in the picture? 
 Why do you like it? 
 
 What do you see besides the oxen? 
 interesting to you? Why? 
 
 What do you see beyond the oxen? 
 upon the hillside? 
 
 Do you like the appearance of this country? Should 
 you like to see more of it? What country is probably 
 represented here? With what country was the artist 
 most familiar? 
 
 Do you like this picture? Why is it attractive to you? 
 If not, why not? 
 
 The Artist 
 
 Marie Rosa Bonheur, who was undoubtedly one of 
 the most accomplished women painters who ever lived, 
 
 Are their drivers 
 What is growing 
 
 Plowing — 
 
 Their position and arrangement in the picture in two 
 groups, one ahead of the other, are very pleasant as well 
 as the play of lights and shadows upon them and also 
 upon the ground. 
 
 Their drivers arc natural-looking, industrious work- 
 men intent upon their labor, and harmonizing well with 
 the rest of the scene. They do not protrude beyond 
 their charges, as is quite right when they are not the 
 chief center of interest, but have their place among the 
 oxen which they are directing in their work. 
 
 Questions for Study 
 
 What does this picture represent? 
 What are these oxen doing? 
 
 What do you think is the season of the year? Why? 
 What is the time of day? Why? 
 What kind of country are they plowing in? 
 Do you think it is fertile country? What makes you 
 think so? 
 
 Rosa Bonheur 
 
 was born at Bordeaux. France, in 1822. She belonged 
 to a very artistic family. Her father, Raymond Bon- 
 heur, was a painter and instructor in art of his little 
 daughter, her brothers and sisters were artists,— her 
 brother Auguste ranking very high as an animal painter. 
 For some time the family lived in Paris, in the top 
 story of a house whose roof they fitted up as a garden. 
 In this garden a pet sheep was kept who served as a 
 general model for this artistic family. They drew and 
 modeled it, and the children often carried it upon their 
 shoulders to a nearby field for exercise. Rosa began 
 her artistic life by copying works of art in the Louvre, 
 the famous art gallery of Paris. All her life she was 
 passionately devoted to the study of nature which she 
 loved with a deep aiTection as a great elevating and en- 
 nobling teacher. She roamed the country side at will, 
 learning the ways of shepherd folk and watching the 
 farmers at their plowing, harrowing, sowing and reap- 
 ing, then returning to her studio with an ample store of 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 89 
 
 sketches that she had taken from life itself. She was a 
 keen observer and had a very retentive memory that 
 held features and facts as she saw them for many 
 months until she was ready to use them in her pictures. 
 
 Rosa made her debut at the Paris Salon when she 
 was nineteen years old, with two small pictures called 
 "Goats and Sheep" and "Two Rabbits." During the 
 nine succeeding years she contributed to every Salon. 
 Her first decided impression was made with the now 
 famous "Horse Fair" which was exhibited at the Salon 
 in 1853. A burst of genuine popular enthusiasm greeted 
 the appearance of this picture. For eighteen months 
 Mademoiselle Bonheur had made studies for it, going 
 about in boy's clothing thru the lields and among 
 the stables and horse fairs of Paris. This picture is 
 fascinating in its spirited dash and action as the beauti- 
 ful animals prance and leap across a wide open space 
 and then narrow their ranks to pass thru a break 
 in the trees that grow upon a rising knoll. It brought 
 a price of fifty-two thousand dollars and is now in the 
 Metropolitan Art Museum of New York, to which it 
 was presented by Cornelius Vanderbilt. 
 
 At expositions in 1855 and 1867 this artist's pictures 
 received universal admiration. Some of her principal 
 works, are "Plowing in the Nivernais," "Sheep at Sea- 
 shore," "Oxen and Cows," "Three Musketeers," "Stags 
 Crossing an Open Space" and "Cows and Sheep in a 
 Roadway Hollow." Her pictures are praised for their 
 firmness of design and the grandeur of their landscapes. 
 She had great anatomical knowledge of animals, dex- 
 terity in her technical treatment, and a fascinating style 
 
 of coloring. Her drawing is beautiful. Her work shows 
 the same vigor, the same deep sympathy with nature, 
 and the same power of intense observation as that of 
 Landseer, but she could represent cattle better than 
 Landseer. Her place among the animal painters of 
 France is an exalted one. Because of her great popu- 
 larity she was so besieged by dealers and private patrons 
 that she was often prevailed upon to turn out pictures 
 unworthy of her talent in order to satify their insistent 
 demands. 
 
 A great favorite in England, her pictures received 
 enormous prices from the English people, some of them 
 paying her so well that she must have received five 
 hundred dollars for each day's labor put upon them. 
 
 She was always simple in her tastes and habits of life/ 
 fond of quiet seclusion, and an untiring worker. As a 
 generous and pure woman as well as a great artist it 
 would be difficult to admire her too much. Her talent 
 was hardly more unusual that the absolute spotlessness 
 of her character, altho she was an artistic woman 
 whose very occupation and enforced manner of life made 
 it impossible for her to avoid trying, unconventional 
 and often difficult situations. During the siege of Paris 
 in 1871, the Prince Royal of Prussia gave out the strict- 
 est orders that the house and studio of Rosa Bonheur 
 should not be disturbed in any way. She received many 
 medals for her work and was made a member of several 
 orders and societies, as well as being the first woman 
 to be decorated with the Legion of Honor, this being 
 presented to her by the Empress Eugenie herself. Tha 
 artist's death occurred at By, near Fontainbleau, in 1899, 
 
 Pilgrims in Art 
 
 Elsie May Smith 
 
 The Pilgrims have been a favorite subject with artists 
 dealing with historical themes connected with the early 
 days of the American Colonies. It is natural that this 
 should be so for the Pilgrims were a picturesque peo- 
 ple and the circumstances of their lives and the ideals 
 for which they stood, and which were responsible for 
 their coming to American shores, were such as lend 
 themselves to idealistic and artistic treatment. Their 
 departure from their homes to brave the discomforts 
 and dangers of a long sea-voyage, their coming to an 
 unknown and unsettled country, where they encountered 
 the rough, crude life of a barren frontier, and all the 
 hardships which they endured for religious liberty, af- 
 ford many themes that tempt the artist's imagination. 
 The following list of pictures will suggest the manner 
 in which they have been treated by different artists: 
 "Embarkation of the Pilgrims." Weir, "The Mayflower 
 in Plymouth Harbor," Hallsall, "Departure of the Pil- 
 grims from Delft Haven," "Landing of the Pilgrims," 
 Rothermel, "Departure of the Mayflower," Bayes, and 
 five pictures by George Henry Boughton: "Pilgrim Ex- 
 iles," "Return of the Mayflower," "John Alden and 
 Priscilla," "Priscilla," and "Pilgrims Going to Church." 
 
 The last named picture is a very well known repre- 
 sentation of a group of Pilgrims passing thru a small 
 grove of trees in the winter time on their way to the 
 distant meeting-house. The Pilgrims walk in orderly 
 fashion, each man armed to protect the group from the 
 hostile Indians, and many of the party carrying their 
 prayer-books. At the head of the group marches the 
 minister while about the whole scene is the atmosphere 
 of religious awe and reverential solemnity. "Departure 
 of the Mayflower" by Bayes reveals to us a sad, wistful 
 group of people upon the sea-shore, some kneeling, 
 some standing with bowed heads, and many peering out 
 to the expanse of broad sea which is bearing their be- 
 loved ship further and further away and leaving them 
 desolate upon the edge of an unknown and uninhabited 
 land. 
 
 "Pilgrim Exiles" is a representation that also brings 
 home to our minds the lonesome, desolate feeling that 
 the Pilgrims must have often experienced during the 
 early days of their life upon American shores. There 
 
 are three figures in the group, — a young man, a young 
 woman, and an older woman. The young man stands 
 with his hands resting upon a cane, a dreamy, far-away 
 look in his face. The young woman rests her hand upon 
 his shoulder. Perhaps she is his sister or his sweetheart. 
 Like most of Boughton's women she has a patient, re- 
 signed look in her face. The older woman sits upon a 
 large stone with her hands in her lap and she too gazes 
 dreamily toward the ocean as the others are doing. The 
 sentiment of the picture, — the sense of longing, of home- 
 sickness, of patient endurance and resignation is very 
 marked and calls forth our sympathy for the Pilgrims 
 who so heroically bore their lot. We can understand 
 something of what that wistful gazing toward the ocean 
 means, and the artist has so drawn us into the mood of 
 the scene that we suffer with them! 
 
 A picturesque coast-line with a deep indention just 
 behind the figures makes possible long, sweeping curves 
 of much charm. Dark Shrubbery contrasts with the 
 lighter grass upon which the figures are placed while a 
 few rocks add their irregular outlines to prevent the 
 suggestion of monotony. The picture is very attractive 
 both in its arrangement and the style of treatment. 
 
 Suggested Questions For Study 
 
 What is this picture called? 
 What are "exiles?" Who were the Pilgrims? 
 In what sense were they exiles? Did they choose to 
 be, and for what reason? 
 
 What are these Pilgrims represented as doing? 
 
 Why would they naturally gaze at the sea? 
 
 What would it suggest to them? 
 
 How many people are represented? What relations do 
 they probably bear to one another? 
 
 What is the attitude of the young man? What look 
 do you see in his face? 
 
 What is the look in the face of the young woman? 
 
 What is the look in the face of the older woman? To- 
 ward what are her eyes directed? 
 
 What style of costume do they all wear? Is it the 
 style in which we would expect to see them? 
 
90 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Pilgrims Going to Church — Boughton 
 
 What features of the pictures attract your attention 
 besides the figures? 
 
 What is the character of the coast-line represented? 
 
 Do you think it makes possible any graceful curve,s? 
 
 Do you like it better than you would a straight coast- 
 line? 
 
 What is the character of the vegetation shown? What 
 contrasts are introduced by means of it? 
 
 Do you notice any contrasts in light and shade? What 
 are they? 
 
 What do you see in the extreme foreground? Why do 
 you think the artist introduced these rocks? What pur- 
 pose do they fulfill? 
 
 What thoughts and feeling's do you think arc in the 
 ininds of these Pilgrims? Why? 
 
 Why should they feel desolate and alone? 
 
 What have they given up? 
 
 In what sense is the ocean a comfort to them? 
 
 To what kind of a land have they come? 
 
 What great thought, back of their hardships, would 
 lead them to accept their present lot with patience and 
 courage? 
 
 Would this, do you think, compensate for their pres- 
 ent loneliness and desolation? In what way? 
 
 Do they seem like heroic souls that we should revere 
 as represented here? 
 
 Do you think the artist has entered sympathetically 
 into their way of viewing things? 
 
 Has he given us an attractive representation of them? 
 
 Do you think this is a pleasing picture? 
 
 Why do you like it? 
 
 Brief Sketch of the Artist's Life 
 
 George Henry Boughton was born in a village near 
 Norwich, England, December 4, 1833. It was largely by 
 accident of birth that his early life was English, for the 
 following year the whole family migrated to America, 
 where the father hoped to succeed as a farmer. Not 
 many years afterwards the father died as well as his 
 wife, and their young son, still a child, was left to the 
 care of the elder brothers. The family now settled in 
 Albany, where in the district school, the future artist 
 received the beginnings of his education. He was then 
 sent to a commercial academy that he might be trained 
 for a mercantile career, but it was soon apparent that 
 he was destined for something else. He spent all his 
 spare moments in an attempt to record his observations 
 of people and things about him. These were a childish, 
 but at the same time, a purposeful embodiment of what 
 he actuallv saw. 
 
 One, day he went into a store to buy some fishing 
 tackle, but the sight of some paint tubes made him 
 change his mind and he bought the tubes instead. The 
 .impulse to have them to use was too great to be re- 
 sisted. ' Thus without masters he began the study of his 
 art. A picture painted when he was a mere lad called 
 the "Wayfare," was exhibited at the American Art Union 
 lixhibition in New York, and sold for fifty dollars, ac- 
 companied by a letter of praise and encouragement 
 from the directors of the exhibition, when the amount 
 was forwarded to the young artist. 
 
 He soon took a studio in Albany and met with suc- 
 cess almost from the beginning. The first studio was 
 opened in 1850. By the time he was seventeen he had 
 sold enough of his early productions to the Art Union 
 to enable him to go to England for a six months' sketch- 
 ing trip. He returned to Albany, and subsequently 
 settled in New York. In 1856, he went to England for 
 a longer visit, that he might study the work of the 
 British school. While there he went on a long sketch- 
 ing tour thru the English Lake District, Scotland, and 
 Ireland. He returned to America much benefited by 
 the trip with sketches he could use in pictures different 
 from anything he had before attempted. His "Winter 
 Twilight" was exhibited at the New York Academy of 
 Design in 1858, and created quite a sensation. He went 
 to Paris in 1860, where he received much assistance from 
 Edouard May and from Edouard Frere, of whose kindly 
 help he ever afterwards retained a pleasant memory. 
 
 Nearly two years were spent in France, where much 
 time was passed in the French galleries. He then went 
 to London and took a studio partly as an experiment, 
 but as it proved successful, he remained there and never 
 again returned to the United States. 
 
 Boughton frequently exhibited at the National Aca- 
 demy of New York, even after he took up his perma- 
 nent residence in England. Many of his pictures are 
 found in the finest private galleries in England and 
 America. The sources from which he draws his best 
 inspirations are Chaucer and the New England Pil- 
 grims. Boughton's art in spirit is quite American and 
 many of his subjects were taken from the life of the 
 early colonists so that we are justified in considering 
 him a good deal of an American artist. 
 
 The most noted of his Pilgrim pictures are "Pilgrims 
 Going to Church," "Pilgrim Exiles," "The Departure of 
 the Mayflower," "The Return of the i\Iayflower" and 
 "Priscilla." 
 
 Boughton died January 19, 1905. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 Nature Study Suggestions for Autumn 
 
 91 
 
 Miss Lura M. Eyestone 
 
 "Help the child to see and hear and feel; to wonder, 
 admire and revere; to believe, hope and love." — Spalding. 
 
 Bishop Spalding, in that delightful and inspiring essay, 
 "The Teacher and the School," says: "We may train 
 a child as we train an animal, but when our work is 
 done we have only a trained animal. If we would make 
 him a man we must teach him to look and listen, to 
 admire and revere, to think and will and love." 
 
 The true teacher comes before her pupils' with these 
 broad purposes in mind and realizes that thru nature 
 she may lead them to a higher conception and appreci- 
 ation of the common things about them so that their 
 lives may be richer, better and happier because of this 
 knowledge. 
 
 The child must learn the great laws of the world thru 
 the gateways of the senses; the child's mind must grow 
 thru its own activity, and children like action. They 
 want to see something doing and want to be doing 
 something. TJie little eager minds are ever ready to 
 respond to all external influences, and all about us in 
 the common everyday objects are secrets of discovery 
 which the children will enjoy to the fullest extent. 
 
 Teachers, and especially those in the rural schools, 
 often say there is no time for nature study when there 
 are so many classes and so many subjects that must be 
 taught. Parents will say, "It is all nonsense to waste 
 time on what the children can see for themselves; be- 
 sides, we want our children to learn practical things." 
 Nature study may, and should be, made a practical 
 thing, in order that the children's after lives shall be 
 broader and richer because in childhood they were 
 brought into an intimate and sympathetic acquaint- 
 ance with the material objects of the earth and sky. 
 
 The teacher of nature study should have a well- 
 defined aim and plan of work. It will happen that only 
 a beginning will be made along some lines. Only a 
 question put or a problem half solved will be a part of 
 the fall work, but the questioning mind of the child is 
 ever ready to take up that question or problem and 
 try to determine ifs solution. Frequently in our spring 
 work questions arise, the answers to which can only 
 be determined by careful and definite observations dur- 
 ing the summer. Having awakened the attention and 
 interest of children in certain lines it is necessary to 
 lead on to further observations, and sooner or later 
 to get from the children a clear statement of facts. 
 It is natural for children in these early years to ob- 
 serve, but the teacher should lead them to look more 
 closely and to inquire about many things which they 
 would never think of if left to themselves. 
 
 The material for the' children's lessons must' be that 
 which is open to accurate observation. 
 
 DETAIL OF PLANS 
 
 I. Introductory Work 
 
 The questions asked and the suggestions made in the 
 early work should be such as will form a connecting 
 link between the children's casual observations and the 
 more definite work of the future. Lead the children to 
 recount their experiences, their observations of birds, 
 plants, etc. Lead them thru the personal, human interest 
 toward nature and her life, particularly of the past 
 summer. 
 
 II. Plant Life 
 (a), Flowers: 
 
 1. Special study of several flowers. 
 
 2. The mission of, the flowers. 
 
 3. Games for testing knowledge of flowers, 
 (b) Vegetables: 
 
 1. Names of common vegetables. 
 
 2. Parts of plant used for food. 
 
 3. Games. 
 
 4. Putting away fruits and vegetables for winter 
 
 use. 
 
 (c) The Trees: 
 
 1. Detailed work on trees. 
 
 2. Outline plan for study of trees. 
 
 (d) The Leaves. 
 
 III. Birds 
 
 ' IV. Insects 
 
 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 
 
 On the first day of school the following suggestive 
 questions can be asked: 
 
 What did you see on j'our way to school? 
 
 Did you notice any birds? What birds are with us 
 now? Do you hear them singing when you are out 
 at play? 
 
 What flowers did you notice as you came to school? 
 What flowers are now blooming in the gardens? 
 GARDEN INSPECTION 
 
 A trip to a garden is always enjoyed by little children. 
 The teacher so fortunate as to have a school garden is 
 never at a loss for nature study material, but those 
 deprived of this advantage can find surely some one in 
 the neighborhood who loves flowers and wants others to 
 love them, who will be glad to have the children come 
 and see her beautiful flowers and vegetables. She will 
 be glad, too, to tell about how she cares for them. 
 Perhaps some child in the class is a neighbor of this 
 lady and can tell the other children how Mrs. A. has 
 w'orked in her garden. 
 
 The first trip might be devoted to getting general 
 information of the conditions that the season has 
 brought; the manner, uses, care of the plants, etc. 
 On the next trip a particular flower or vegetable should 
 be studied. Suppose it is the common four-o'clock. 
 Such questions as the following lead to an interesting 
 study of the plant and give opportunity for an excellent 
 language lesson by calling for thoughtful answers: 
 
 Have any of you flowers like these at home' 
 
 W'hat do you call them? (Four-o'clocks.) 
 
 Yes, that is what these are called. 
 
 W'hy do you think they were so named. (They bloom 
 at four o'clock in the afternoon, are wide awake all 
 night, and in the morning go to sleep.) Some child who 
 has this flower at home should be asked to make a 
 report similar to the above from his own observations. 
 
 When were your four-o'clocks planted? 
 
 Did you plant some of the seeds? 
 
 Tell us how you did the work. 
 
 What has helped the seeds and plants to grow? 
 
 Have you assisted them in any way? 
 
 Have the children notice one particular plant. Ob- 
 serve the shape of the plant. Of what does it remind 
 you? (It is like a little tree. It is shaped like an um- 
 brella.) Find the root; the stalk; the leaves. Find 
 flowers of as many colors as you can. 
 
 Where are these flowers prettier, in the garden or in 
 bouquets? Why? 
 
 Look on the plant for something besides flowers and 
 leaves. What do you find? What are they like? Can 
 you tell which seeds are ripe? What color are they? 
 Are they hard to gather? Why does a plant bear seeds? 
 
 If possible gather some seeds and dry them for plant- 
 ing next spring. 
 
 STUDY OF SPECIAL FLOWERS 
 
 Nasturtiums, California poppies, pansies, radishes, or 
 any other common plants are equally valuable for such 
 nature study and present good material for language 
 lessons. 
 
92 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 The teacher in the rural schools will find goldenrod 
 and asters, brown-eyed Susans and other wild flowers 
 useful and near at hand for the work. Note where the 
 flowers grow. Observe their color and height. In the 
 study of the goldenrod and aster the children will be 
 interested in noting that the two flowers are almost 
 always found growing near together. Later in the fall 
 attention should be called to the changed appearance 
 of the goldenrod and the reasons noted. 
 
 A detailed study of the nasturtium may be given. The 
 flower is a very common one and should be better 
 known to all children. Each child should be provided 
 with a blossom. What is its name? What helps you 
 to know the flower? The points in which the children 
 will be interested are: 
 
 L Variety in colors of the different flowers, the va- 
 riety of colors in one flower, and the markings of the 
 petals. 
 
 2. Shape of the petals and the long sac containing 
 the nectar, and how the bees and humming-birds get it. 
 
 3. Position of flowers on stem. The flowers are so 
 held, perhaps, that the rain may not get in to spoil the 
 nectar and pollen. 
 
 4. Development from bud to blossom, and from blos- 
 som to fruit. The shape of the bud, shape of the full- 
 blown flower, the drying up of the petals and sepals, 
 the falling of the same, the growth of the seed-pod 
 and the position of the same below the leaves, the stem 
 being twisted in a curious way to bring the seed-pod 
 under the leaves to be protected, perhaps, from the rain 
 and sun, and from enemies that might like to eat it, are 
 points to which the children's attention should be 
 called. 
 
 How many seeds are there in one pod? How are 
 they scattered? 
 
 The children should gather seeds for next spring's 
 planting, wlien attention should be given to the prepa- 
 ration of the ground, the depth of planting, etc. 
 
 5. The dense foliage. Describe the leaf. Notice the 
 stems of the young and of the older leaves. Notice the 
 juice, its abundance, and pungent taste. 
 
 6. Use of pods and stems for culinary and other 
 purposes. 
 
 Mission of the Flower 
 
 While studying flowering plants the children should 
 consider the mission of the flower, which is the forma- 
 tion of seed. The plants suggested for study tell the 
 whole story on one stalk: the children can readily see 
 the passing of the flower into fruit. 
 VEGETABLES 
 
 Work with vegetables should not be neglected. Make 
 trips to the garden to get better acquainted with the 
 vegetables. Children become intensely interested in 
 noting the different parts of the plant that are used for 
 food. Fix firmly in mind the parts of all plants; the 
 roots, stem, leaves, seed-pod or fruit. Lead the chil- 
 dren to use the term "fruit" correctly. 
 
 Having made the trips to the garden to become more 
 intimately acquainted with the vegetables, or if a 
 teacher does not have a garden to which she can take 
 the children, she should have the children bring as many 
 kinds of vegetables as they can get to school — the 
 teacher may say, "Let us see how many kinds of vege- 
 tables we can name." As the names are given, the 
 teacher writes them on the board. If the work moves 
 slowly the teacher may say, "I know one that hasn't 
 been given. It comes early in the spring, is usually 
 red. We like to eat it with salt and bread and butter." 
 (Radish.) "Another that mother slices and puts on it 
 ■ salt, pepper and vinegar." (Cucumber.) These sugges- 
 tions will put the children on the qui vive, and very 
 interesting work be done. 
 
 Parts of Plants Used for Food 
 
 What part of the plant is the radish? the cucumber? 
 etc. The children are thus led to see that the leaves of 
 one plant, the seeds and seed-pods of another, the thick- 
 ened root-stalk of another, etc., are used for food. For 
 succeeding lessons the teacher may make such little 
 assignments: For our next lesson let us think of the 
 
 vegetables we eat that are the leaves of the plant. For 
 another lesson consider the vegetables of which we use 
 the stems, etc. Games similar to those suggested in 
 flower study may be played. 
 Putting Away Fruits and Vegetables for Winter Use 
 Attention should be given to the gathering and putting 
 away of the various vegetables and fruits for the winter. 
 The children may recall that mother is busy during the 
 summer and early fall canning and preserving many of 
 the fruits and some of the vegetables. Ask the children 
 to tell what fruits have been put away and how the 
 work has been done. What will be done with the vege- 
 tables that are still in the gardens? etc. 
 
 THE TREES 
 
 1. During the fall trees are a source of much delight'- 
 ful nature study if the teacher and pupil can enjoy their 
 beauties together. The teacher should familiarize her- 
 self with the tree and should have a genuine liking for 
 the outdoor world if she hopes to secure that from her 
 pupils. Take the class to a tree having interest and 
 beauty, and make these suggestions and questions: Look 
 at the other trees or the buildings about to help you 
 think how tall this tree is. Try to make a picture of 
 the tree in the air, beginning at the place where the 
 tree grows out of the earth. (Use hands.) What is 
 that part .of the tree called which grows just above 
 the earth? What grows from the upper part of the 
 trunk? All the branches and leaves together make 
 the head of the tree. Notice the branches as they 
 spread from the head. Send one child to the tree to 
 measure the circumference by reaching the arms about 
 it. Have this repeated by several children. 
 
 Try to reach the branches. Is this tree easy to climb? 
 Why? 
 
 What covers the trunk? Of what use is the bark? 
 Notice how the tree is held to the earth. Can we see 
 the roots? 
 
 Look up thru the leaves of the tree. Where do we 
 find them? Can you see anything besides leaves on the 
 tree? 
 
 For the following lesson some twigs, leaves and 
 seeds of the same tree should be in the classroom. The 
 facts noted in the previous lesson should be carefully 
 reviewed. Then the leaves are to be studied as to out- 
 line, size, color, upper and lower surface, texture, etc. 
 Ask the pupils to look carefully at the end of the stem. 
 What is there? Why? We must watch the tree to 
 find out. 
 
 Notice how much the twig has grown during the sum- 
 mer. (Shown by color.) 
 
 Other trees should be studied in a similar way, for 
 even little children should know the trees as their 
 friends in all their changes — the misty greens of spring, 
 the luxuriant leafage of summer, the reds, browns and 
 russets of autumn, and the leafless branches "'silhouetted 
 against winter skies." 
 
 Early in the fall a tree should be selected for the 
 year's study in order that this more intimate acquaint- 
 ance may be cultivated. 
 
 Impress the fact that the trees are living things and 
 have important work to do. What? Why? Let the 
 children find a good tree for a swing, a tree that has 
 food for the squirrels. Find a tree with a bird's nest. 
 Let the children tell what they know about the uses of 
 trees, fruit, fuel, food, lumber, medicine, etc. Lead them 
 to see that for its beauty alone the tree is worth culti- 
 vating. 
 
 Study of Details 
 For more detailed study of the trees the following 
 outline is suggested: 
 
 General Form: Spreading, white oak; drooping, wil- 
 low; irregular, catalpa; symmetrical and rounded, horse- 
 chestnut; umbrella-shaped, elm; pointed, pine. 
 
 Branches: Close to the ground, far up on the trunk, 
 numerous, few, scattered, end of the branch subdivided 
 or not. 
 
 Bark: Color; character of bark, smooth, shaggy, 
 broad-longitudinal ridges. 
 
 Leaves: General shape; shape of the apex and base, 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 93 
 
 outline, saw-toothed, entire; surface, upper, lower; tex- 
 ture. 
 
 Blossoms: Wlicn and wliere formed; color, size. 
 
 Fruit: When found; kinds, winged,' fleshy, nuts, nut- 
 lets, etc. 
 
 Compare seeds and seed coverings of the various 
 trees studied. Note how seeds or fruit is scattered. 
 
 Buds: Where found; protection from rain, enemies 
 and cold. 
 
 Uses: Beauty; fuel; lumber; shade; children's plays; 
 homes of birds, squirrels and insects, furnishes food for 
 some animals; fruit. 
 
 Leaf Study 
 
 The names of the common trees of the neighborhood 
 should be known and the children should be able to rec- 
 ognize the various trees. The leaf study aids materially 
 in acquiring this knowledge. In the early autumn be- 
 fore they begin to change color is the best time to intro- 
 duce this subject. 
 
 There is an endless variety of forms, but with the 
 young children a careful study may be made of only 
 the most simple. 
 
 Children will readily respond if asked to bring in as 
 many different shaped leaves as they can find. 
 
 Notice the difference in shape, as the very long, heart- 
 shaped, arrow-shaped, lobed, etc. 
 
 Note the differences in outline, apex, divisions, etc. 
 
 Note the flattened end of the stem, shaped like a little 
 spoon. Why? 
 
 Note the way in which the leaves turn on the stem 
 to expose the greatest amount of surface to the light. 
 
 Have the children tell of use of the leaf to us. 
 
 Select the prettiest leaves for pressing and for mount- 
 ing on chart for further study. 
 
 As the leaves change color, many teachers select the 
 prettiest leaves, press them, then go over them with a 
 moderately warm flatiron that has been rubbed with 
 paraftine. These may be used for the fall decoration 
 of the room. 
 
 As the leaves are studied and pressed, one of each 
 variety should be mounted by each member of the class, 
 the leaf's name written on the card which is put away 
 by the teacher until the leaf lessons are completed, then 
 the children tie all of their leaf mounts into a booklet 
 which is the source of much pleasure for months. 
 Seat Work and Language 
 
 Considerable seat work may be done in connection 
 with leaf study. The children may draw around the 
 leaf, color the outline leaf with crayons or water colors, 
 cut it out and use for a border. A leaf may be drawn 
 and colored on paper to be used for language work. A 
 child will take much more interest in writing the sen- 
 tences in language if he may write them on the paper 
 on which he has drawn his leaf. 
 BIRDS 
 
 Bird life is wonderfully interesting and our feathered 
 friends are at all times and seasons challenging us to 
 discover their secrets. The children should be encour- 
 aged to make friends with the birds, to watch their 
 graceful movements, and listen to their songs. 
 
 If the teacher is interested and enthusiastic the pupils 
 will become so, and surprise her by their discoveries. 
 
 In the lower grades the living bird should be studied 
 out of doors and eight or ten birds known and loved as 
 a result of the first year's study. The teacher should 
 ask questions which can only be answered thru actual 
 observation of the birds. Request children to report 
 their observations from time to time. 
 
 What have you seen birds eating? 
 
 Where do the birds sleep at night? 
 
 What time of day do the birds begin singing? Do 
 they sing at night? 
 
 Where do birds go in autumn? Why do they go? 
 Will all the birds leave us? Which ones will stay? 
 What do the birds that stay with us thru the winter 
 find to eat? Which birds go first? Do they go singly or 
 in flocks? Do the birds fly high? Do they fly fast? Do 
 the birds lose their way? How do young birds know 
 where to go the first year? 
 
 Have the birds many enemies? 
 
 Use good bird pictures in connection with this work 
 after seeing the birds out of doors. 
 INSECTS 
 
 Children will notice the grasshoppers and crickets, the 
 spiders spinning their web, etc. 
 
 During the early part of September the pupils may 
 be on the lookout for caterpillars; the tiger caterpillar 
 is one of the most satisfactory, as the children may see 
 it spin its cocoon, and in the spring see the moth. The 
 brown and black caterpillars — the woolly bears — may 
 be studied, but they are not so successfully kept as the 
 other. 
 
 The cabbage butterfly may be watched in its various 
 stages of development and proves to be very interesting 
 subject matter. 
 
 Later in the fall encourage the children to look for 
 the cocoons of the Cecropia moth. These may be 
 brought into the room, and in the spring the children 
 will be delighted with the beautiful moths flying about 
 the room. In all our work we should remember our 
 purpose is to bring the child into a closer and more inti- 
 mate acquaintance with nature. The outdoor lessons 
 must be very informal and effort made to get acquainted 
 with the objects visited, whether plant or animal. The 
 child's first acquaintance should come from contact, if 
 possible, with the thing itself. 
 
 PRREPARATION FOR WINTER 
 
 Ask the children to account for changes which we 
 see in plant and animal life. 
 
 Preparation for winter: Examine the buds of the 
 trees studied the previous month. Tell uses of the seeds. 
 Collect and examine seeds of the trees, weeds, flowers, 
 etc. How are seeds disseminated? How protected? 
 
 Make a chart of seeds scattered by the wind, as milk- 
 weed, thistle, etc.; those scattered by animals and man, 
 sandburrs, burdocks, "beggar lice," sticktights, etc.; 
 those self-scattere(;l — balsam, poppy, radish seed, etc.; 
 scattered by birds — cherries, berries, grain, etc.; those 
 planted by man, fruit, vegetable, etc. 
 
 Find how most of the seeds upon the school grounds, 
 or vacant lots, or in nearby woods, are being scattered. 
 THE MILKWEED 
 
 Center the study of seed dispersal about the milkweed 
 as it furnishes one of the most exquisite illustrations 
 of the way the plant mother protects and provides for 
 the dispersion of seeds. 
 
 A Field Lesson: Take pupils outdoors if possible to 
 see the milkweed. Give them something definite to 
 look for. Find plant with green or brown pods. One 
 with no pods at all. Note the kind of place in which 
 the plant is found growing. Note the number of plants 
 in the field. Their location in relation to each other. 
 Note the height of the plant, the strength of the plants, 
 arrangement and shape of the leaves, the position of 
 the pods on the stem. 
 
 Pull lip some of the plants to take to the schoolroom. 
 Why are the roots of plants having ripe seeds spongy? 
 Note the appearance of roots and stems in plants hav- 
 ing upripe seeds. Account for the difference. 
 
 For the closer study in the schoolroom, center the 
 interest about the pod. How have root, stem and leaves 
 helped to make pod? Notice the weight of the pods. 
 Why are the roots of plants having ripe seeds spongy? 
 found later.) Call attention to the peculiar way of 
 fastening of pod. Notice how securely pods are fast- 
 ened. Why? Each pod has a sort of spring, and can 
 move easily when disturbed. Notice the shape of the 
 pod, color, softness, rows of soft spines, make it prettier, 
 perhaps, and protect it. How? 
 
 Notice the hard ridge — where is it? Study the partly 
 opened pod. Have children tell about arrangement of 
 the scales. Why arranged so carefully? Under the 
 crack there are no seeds. Why? Neither are there 
 any in the upper and pointed end. Why? 
 
 Have children examine the lining of the pod. They 
 will discover the delicate, smooth lining next to the 
 seeds, and the tough, firm outside coat. 
 
 Hang a ripe pod in the room to open. Lead children 
 
94 THE SCHOOL 
 
 to think of the baby milkweed plant wrapped up in each 
 seed. 
 
 Let a pupil open a ripe pod and crowd the seeds into 
 a glass jar, so that the class may see how many seeds 
 were packed in this little house. Have the older pupils 
 estimate the number of seeds growing on a single plant. 
 
 Think of the result if all the seeds of a single plant 
 fell from the cradles and settled down near the plant 
 on which they grew. Soil and food enough? Enough 
 moisture? 
 
 Hang a number of pods where children can watch 
 them opening and see them fly away. Why are the 
 
 METHODS BOOK 
 
 seeds provided with sails? In order to fly away to a 
 spot that is not occupied by some other plant. 
 
 The wind is a good £riend of the seed with sails or 
 wings. Why? Why are the pods on springs? Why 
 do they open toward the outside? 
 
 Lead children to compare seeds of milkweed with 
 those of the dandelion, thistle, etc. 
 
 Make a collection of edible seeds. Wheat, corn, oats, 
 etc. 
 
 Key to seed pictures: 1. Maple seed. 2. Ash. 3. 
 Linden or bass-wood. 4. Elm. 5. Cone or pine. 6. 
 Dandelion. 7. Milkweed. 8. Clematis. 9. Willows. 
 10. Beggar ticks ("Pitch-forks")- H. Cockleburr. 
 
 Winter Nature Study 
 
 Mary Eaton 
 
 The Pine Family 
 
 You know 6f the "old woman who lived in a shoe and 
 had so many children she didn't know what to do"; well, 
 that was a pretty big family, wasn't it? But I am going 
 to tell you about a family of thirty-nine children. That 
 is, there are thirty-nine children in the family, but I am 
 going to tell you about only a few of them. 
 
 To begin with, the name of the family is Pine. The 
 children are not very beautiful to look at, and they wear 
 the same dress all the year round, a green dress that 
 never seems to wear out. They are rather sharp and 
 touchy, so you would not like to get too near them; but 
 they are generous and give people many things they 
 want. Now I'll tell you some of their nariles: There 
 is Norway Pine, a big strong fellow, the big brother of 
 the family, whom they sometimes call Red Pine because 
 of his complexion. Then there are Yellow Pine, White 
 Pine, Pitch Pine, Spruce, Hemlock, Larch, Tamarack, 
 Cedar and the dear little Fir, and many more. Aren't 
 those queer names? Can you guess _what kind of a fam- 
 ily this is? Yes it is a family of trees — and a very fine 
 family it is, too.' 
 
 You have seen many of these children of the Pine 
 family but I suppose you called them all Christmas trees 
 and did not notice how very different the brothers and 
 sisters are from each other. You can find these trees 
 in winter just as well as in the summer and see if you 
 can tell them apart. The Red Pine will have its needles 
 in bunches of twos — long needles four to six inches long. 
 The White Pine has clusters of five needles, three to 
 four inches long. Larch has branches like long tassels. 
 Spruce, Fir and Hemlock have very short needles. The 
 Cedars have broad, flat open leaves which the Indians 
 call feathers. All this big family have something good 
 to give us; but most of all, they give us wood. 
 
 Turn any way you will in the house or out doors and 
 you will be sure to see some of this Pine family. I am 
 going to leave that for you to find tho, while I tell you 
 of something else that White Pine gives us. Bunches of 
 gray moss like tufts of gray hair grow out of the trunks 
 of these trees and the Indian mammas love to find this 
 to line. their babies' cradles. It is warm and soft and 
 clean and sweet. The red-breasted crossbills come and 
 pick seeds out of the cones. Men cut pockets in the 
 sides of the Pine trees and in a short time the trees 
 fill these pockets with a sticky juice called resin, which 
 the men take away and make into turpentine, tar, and 
 rosin. Just think, you couldn't have your house built 
 or painted or roofed if this good family didn't help you. 
 • The Red and Black Spruce give the children spruce gum, 
 and give peop4e wood fibre to make paper pulp. Hem- 
 lock gives us bark to tan our leather. LarcH gives us 
 long poles for telegraph poles, fence posts, railroad ties 
 and ship's timbers. Cedar gives us wood for chests to 
 keep out moths, and for lead pencils. Last of all, the 
 dear little Fir gives us our Christmas trees, and you will 
 know pretty soon what they will give you, Now, don't 
 you think this is a good, kind family to give us so much? 
 STORIES FOR REPRODUCTION 
 These may be based on "The Discontented Fir Tree," 
 tlif Pir that was so unliappy because it was so small 
 
 that even the rabbits hopped about it. Later it saw the 
 trees being cut down and asked the birds where they 
 were taken to. The birds told the Fir that these trees 
 were taken away on big ships. Next they told of seeing 
 them in houses covered with beautiful lights and pres-. 
 ents. This is merely a rough sketch of Anderson's story, 
 but I use it as an outline. 
 
 Drawing 
 Using the above story as a basis, draw series of pic- 
 tures, illustrative as: 
 
 1. The little tree when the rabbit hopped over it. 
 
 2. The tree larger when the birds were telling it of 
 the other trees and the men were chopping trees down. 
 
 3. The tree carried off in a wagon to town (or on 
 ship). 
 
 4. The tree in the house, decorated. 
 
 Songs 
 
 The Christmas Tree — Primer 106. 
 
 The North Wind Doth Blow — Corinne Brown. 
 
 Sleighing Song — Corinne Brown. 
 
 Shine Out, Oh, Blessed Star. 
 
 Christmas Bells— Primer 44. 
 
 Christmas Time— Primer 104. 
 
 Kris Kringle — Seaflet. 
 
 The above songs, while referring more to Christmas 
 than to the tree, lend themselves well to rhythm work — 
 for which a slight suggestion: 
 Rhythm 
 
 1. Hands raised to point above head to tree. Sway 
 to the wind's blowing. 
 
 2. Cutting down tree. 
 
 3. Trimming tree or taking down presents. 
 
 4. Skipping around tree. 
 
 Construction 
 
 1. Borders of Christmas trees. 
 
 2. Decorate the room as if it were a tree, with chains 
 and pendant yellow stars which the children can make. 
 
 3. Boxes decorated with trees. 
 
 4. Hexagonal baskets for work baskets, tied, and 
 decorated with trees. 
 
 OUTLINE FOR STUDY OF SNOW 
 
 1. What Snow Is (frozen water). 
 
 2. Characteristics of Snow Crystals. 
 
 Color — shapes — number of sides. 
 Give out light— prismatic edges give colors of 
 the rainbow. Fill more space than water. 
 
 3. Uses of Snow. 
 
 Stores moisures, melts and irrigates dry places. 
 
 Protects roots of plants. 
 Snow-flakes collect dust and leave the atmosphere 
 
 pure. 
 4. Pleasures Afforded by Snow. 
 
 Makes the winter season beautiful. 
 
 Furnishes opportunity for sleighing, coasting, etc. 
 
 5. Where It Never Snows. 
 
 6. Where There Is Snow All the Year. 
 
 Connect with geography work on cold countries. 
 —The Third School Year. 
 
THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 Plans for Spring Nature Study 
 
 95 
 
 Miss Hsize] 
 
 Springtime is the most beautiful season in most parts 
 of our country. This was especially true where Miss 
 Jamieson lived and it seemed t,o her that springtime 
 would supply more material for use than it would days 
 in which to use it. There would be new flowers every 
 day, returning birds, the budding trees and the sudden 
 warm spring showers that so helped to bring all the 
 glory of the season. So Miss Jamieson decided to de- 
 vote one week of April to the special discussion of these 
 four things, endeavoring to arouse interest in such a 
 way that the observation and delight would continue 
 thru the remainder of the spring. 
 
 RAIN AND RAINBOW WEEK 
 
 The first week was Rain and Rainbow Week. Miss 
 Jamieson began by telling the Easter story and pointed 
 out that all thru April the children could see the Easter 
 story over and over, told by each new bud and leaflet, 
 new fiower, returning bird, the frogs in the pond and 
 the tiny insects of the field. But water and warmth were 
 necessary to all this growth, and so the sun and rain 
 played a most important part in the new awakening. 
 Here the story of the rain was told. The children read- 
 ily grasped the effects of rain and the dire results which 
 follow the lack of it. This little verse of Robert Louis 
 Stevenson's was placed on the board to be used in 
 memory work: 
 
 The Rain 
 The rain is falling all around, 
 
 It falls on field and trees; 
 It rains on the umbrellas here, 
 And on the ships at sea. 
 
 The second day the story of the Rainbow was told, 
 and later Miss Jamieson used it for oral reproduction. 
 Here it is as she told it: 
 
 The Story of Iris 
 
 "Long ago the people believed in many Gods and 
 Goddesses. I have told you of many of them. The 
 King of the Gods was Jupiter, and Juno was his Queen. 
 They lived in a magnificent palace on the top of Mount 
 Olympus, away up above the clouds. But very often 
 Jupiter would want to send a message to Earth, perhaps 
 to Neptune, the God of the Ocean, or to Mother Ceres, 
 the Goddess of the Harvest. At such times Jupiter 
 threw out across the sky a beautiful arched bridge of 
 many colors. Across this bridge sped his fleet-footed 
 messenger, Iris. She was a beautiful maiden, clothed in 
 colors like those of her airy bridge. So Iris was called 
 the Goddess of the Rainbow, and when the ancients 
 saw the arched bow in the skies they would say to one 
 another: 'See! There is the Bridge of the Gods! Iris 
 must be carrying a message.' " 
 
 On the next day Miss Jamieson told them about the 
 natural origin of the rainbow, illustrating with a glass 
 prism. The children were delighted with the rainbow 
 thus thrown on the wall. With a chart showing the 
 colors of the spectrum. Miss Jamieson taught the colors 
 in their order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo 
 and violet. She called attention to the new colors 
 formed where the colors blended. 
 
 The Rainbow and the Rain furnished material for the 
 drawing lesson of the fourth day and also for seat work. 
 For the drawing the children illustrated the little verse, 
 "The Rain," showing the rain falling on fields and trees, 
 umbrellas and ships. The best drawings were awarded 
 places of honor above the blackboard. For the seat 
 work Miss Jamieson gave each child strips of colored 
 paper and they built rainbows on their desks, testing 
 their memories of the order of the colors. Finally, when 
 they were correctly arranged they were pasted on white 
 paper. 
 
 On the fifth day the children reviewed what they had 
 learned. Miss Jamieson asked questions pertaining to 
 the rain and rainbow, such as: What catises the rain- 
 drops to gather? What makes them fall? How are they 
 drawn back into the clouds again? What causes the rain- 
 
 Dysart 
 
 bow? What are its colors? In the oral reproduction 
 lesson Richard told the story of Rain; Myra told the 
 Rainbow myth; Dick of tenacious memory recited "The 
 Rain"; George took the glass prism and told in his own 
 way how the light passing thru it broke up into the 
 rainbow colors. In the afternoon they had a little play. 
 Ned was chosen for Jupiter, and Wilma impersonated 
 Iris. The other children formed a rainbow by holding 
 up their strips of paper whereon they had pasted the 
 rainbow colors. Jupiter gave Iris a basket of messages 
 and she tripped down the "rainbow." Then the chil- 
 dren resumed their seats and Iris distributed the "mes- 
 sages." For this purpose Miss, Jamieson had taken bits 
 of the colored paper and on the under or white side 
 she had written her message, then folded the paper into 
 the form of tiny envelopes. The messages were on this 
 order: 
 To Myra: 
 
 Orange is a sunshine shade. 
 
 Always be happy, little maid. 
 To Paul: 
 
 My message to Paul is written on blue; 
 
 It means "Dear Paul, always be true." 
 To Jennie: 
 
 Red is the color of love, they say; 
 
 My message is "Love more every day." 
 The messages could be written with no effort at 
 rhyme. They are equally pleasing to the children. 
 Seat Work 
 The Rainbow supplied plenty of seat work, for all the 
 week. The children mixed new colors from the six 
 primary shades in their paint boxes, cut out the Bridge 
 of the Gods and Iris running over it. They colored 
 their cut-outs. 
 
 THE PLAN 
 In the succeeding weeks Miss Jamieson used this 
 same plan, presenting her main theme in story form, in 
 poetry — sometimes having the pupils memorize the short 
 poems — in oral reproduction, drawing, seat-work, lan- 
 guage, spelling. In this way it did not grow monoto- 
 nous or tiresome. Here let me say that Miss Jamie- 
 son always tried to illustrate her stories or talks with 
 poems. She used only the best poetry, the masterpieces 
 wherever possible, for in doing so she was helping to 
 instil into the childish hearts a love of good poetry, a 
 love which would be sure to be of immense value in 
 profit and pleasure all their lives. The verses she chose 
 were simple and easily understood. Some were never 
 read but once, others became such favorites that the 
 children asked for them over and over, until they knew 
 them as well as Miss Jamieson herself. For this teacher 
 memorized the poems in most instances, since she had 
 a ready memory and found that it was more effective to 
 recite her poems, just as a told story is more entertain- 
 ing than one which is read. 
 
 FLOWER WEEK 
 The next week was Flower Week. Here there was so 
 much material that Miss Jamieson did not attempt more 
 than a beginning, as this work was intended to extend 
 thru all the remaining weeks of school. Some work 
 had already been done in this branch of Nature Study. 
 The first day the Easter idea in relation to the flow- 
 ers was told. The children were encouraged to bring 
 one specimen of each flower they found. Miss Jamie- 
 son then took sheets of heavy drawing paper, letter 
 size, or 8^x11 inches, and with these the children made 
 a school herbarium. The child who brought in the first 
 specimen of each new flower was privileged to press it 
 and^o mount it on the paper. It was surprising how 
 very careful they were and how neat the mountings 
 appeared. The date, name of flower and name of the 
 child finding it were written at the top of the sheet. 
 The parts of the flower that the children learned to dis- 
 tinguish in their Nature Study lessons were also noted. 
 In the case of small flowers two were sometimes 
 
96 
 
 THE SCHOOL METHODS BOOK 
 
 mounted on a single sheet. The eagerness with which 
 this work was followed all thru the spring weeks proved 
 to be of considerable educational value to Miss Jamie- 
 son as well as to her small charges. Her old botanies 
 and notebooks were brought to light from the depths 
 of her trunk and studiously reviewed, so that she might 
 be able to answer satisfactorily the questions which 
 were daily showered upon her. 
 
 Tuesday was Seed Day. The children brought flower 
 and vegetable seeds, each child a different kind. Some 
 were planted in egg shells for subsequent transplanting 
 to flower boxes, and others were planted in pots. Op- 
 portunities for Miss Jamieson's stories, poems, and the 
 airing of her recently re-acquired knowledge of flowers 
 came up continually. This same day the herbarium, 
 which had previously been explained, was started, for 
 Victor had found his first Daisy and Helen had brought 
 the Arbutus. 
 
 The next day Miss Jamieson recited Christina Roset- 
 ti's "Golden Glories" and copied it upon the board. The 
 whole room memorized it. 
 
 Golden Glories 
 
 The buttercup is like a golden cup. 
 
 The marigold is like a golden frill; 
 u The daisy with a golden eye looks up, 
 
 1 And golden spreads the flag beside the rill, 
 
 And gay and golden nods the daffodil. 
 
 The gorsey common swells a golden sea, 
 
 The cowslip hangs a head of golden tips, 
 ;■ And golden drops the honey which the bee 
 
 Sucks from sweet hearts of flowers and stores 
 and sips. 
 The herbarium supplied seat-work for every day for 
 some of the pupils. Thursday they all painted the flow- 
 ers which had been found and mounted. The memoriz- 
 ing of the "Golden Poem" continued. 
 
 Friday was a repetition of the previous Friday, with 
 its retold stories and questions. 
 
 TREES 
 
 Trees was the subject for the third week. The work 
 with the flowers did not stop, for nearly every day some 
 new plant went into the herbarium. The children were 
 again reminded of the Easter message in the buds and 
 the swelling sap of the trees. They were asked to 
 bring little twigs of various trees, and were taught to 
 look for the leaf scale scar, and the bud scale scars 
 from which the new growth comes. The protection of 
 the buds was noted, and the difference between leaf and 
 mixed .buds learned. When the trees blossomed the 
 study of their flowers went on in connection with the 
 study of field flowers. Later on the fruit itself came in 
 for its share of attention. The children were encour- 
 aged to ask questions and make observations of their 
 own. This is a general outline of the things taught and 
 noted. Lots of work for Miss Jamieson? Yes, indeed. 
 In addition to the botanies she had to provide herself 
 with a book of elementary horticulture; but she found 
 that the results were well worth the extra effort. 
 
 On Monday Miss Jamieson told the story of "Baucis 
 and Philemon," too long to be given here. 
 
 Tuesday, Bryant's "Planting of the Apple Tree" was 
 read. This was too long to be memorized by the pupils. 
 The study of the twigs- began and Miss Jamieson com- 
 menced sitting up nights with the Horticulture. 
 
 On Wednesday Miss Jamieson told the children about 
 strange trees and what they do for us, such as the 
 rubber tree, the olive, eucalyptus and bamboo trees, the 
 strange banyan tree and others. The boys and girls 
 were asked to mention the useful things which come 
 from trees, such as ships, houses, furniture, fire-wood, 
 our rubbers and -mackintoshes, our camphor, cinnamon, 
 cocoa, cocoanut, fruit, nuts, etc. This developed into 
 a game which was often played later as the children 
 grew better acquainted with the products of trees. One 
 child would describe some tree product and the others 
 would guess what it was; the one guessing correctly 
 was then "it." 
 
 Thursday the twigs and buds, the pussy willow catkins 
 
 and pine needles and cones were used in the drawing 
 lesson. 
 
 On Friday the oral reproduction was given as before. 
 In the afternoon the boys and girls dramatized "ftiucis 
 and Philemon." 
 
 BIRD WEEK 
 
 The last week was devoted to Birds. Here, as in the 
 case of the Flowers and Trees, Miss Jamieson made just 
 a beginning, giving enough that would be new each 
 day to arouse and stimulate interest. From now on 
 these Nature Studies were carried on each day to the 
 end of the term as the new flowers and birds appeared. 
 
 Monday was devoted to the Easter idea again as typi- 
 fied by the returning of the birds from the South. The 
 Indian legend of "How the Robin's Breast Became 
 Red" was told. This legend is so familiar that there is 
 no need to give it here. 
 
 Miss Jamieson had provided herself with large colored 
 pictures of the birds native to their part of the country. 
 The main facts about each bird were told the pupils, as 
 nearly as possible, when a new bird was reported. The 
 children kept booklets, drawing and coloring the birds 
 themselves. One of the boys had made this suggestion 
 of the bird booklet and the others had eagerly sec- 
 onded the request. Much of this was crude, but it 
 helped them to reinember the dominating characteristics 
 of color, shape, etc. Miss Jamieson remarked that of 
 all her Nature Study work that spring the birds proved 
 the most fascinating. 
 
 Thursday this little poem of Robert Louis Stevenson's 
 was recited. The children were so taken with it that 
 Miss Jamieson invented fingerplay movements for it and 
 it became one of the most popular games as well as one 
 of the prettiest which the grade knew. 
 
 Nest Eggs 
 
 Birds all the sunny day i 
 
 Flutter and quarrel, 
 
 Here in the arbor-like 
 
 Tent of the laurel. i 
 
 Here in the fork , 
 
 The brown nest is seated, 
 
 Four little blue eggs 
 
 The mother keeps heated. 
 
 While we stand watching her 
 
 Staring like gabies; 
 
 Safe in each egg are the 
 
 Bird's little babies. 
 
 Soon the frail eggs they shall 
 
 Chip, and up-springing. 
 
 Make all the April woods 
 
 Merry with singing. 
 
 Younger than we are 
 
 O children, and frailer; 
 
 Soon in blue air they'll be 
 
 Singer and sailor. 
 
 We, so much older. 
 
 Taller and stronger, 
 
 We shall look down on the 
 
 Birdies no longer. 
 I They shall go flying 
 
 With musical speeches. 
 
 High over-head, in the 
 
 Tops of the beeches. 
 
 In spite of our wisdom 
 
 And sensible talking. 
 
 We on our feet must go. 
 
 Plodding and walking. 
 Wednesday, during the Robin study. Miss Jamieson 
 touched on the usefulness of birds, the cruelty of kill- 
 ing them and robbing their nests. She suggested many 
 things for the children to observe about birds, such as: 
 Does the male or female wear the brightest colors? 
 Does the female sing? Do robins hop or run when 
 they want to go quickly over the ground? How is 
 the nest made? Which birds builds it? How long does 
 it take? How many eggs are laid? How long until the 
 fledglings appear? 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 021 366 918 7