A SHORT HISTORY OF 1 PEOPLES WEST Class _^ $-3.^- Book .WR?,*r CQP»{IGHT DEPOSIT. ALLYN AND BACON'S SERIES OF SCHOOL HISTORIES A SHORT HISTORY OF EARLY PEOPLES TO 1500 A.D. FROM CAVE-MAN TO COLUMBUS BY WILLIS MASON WEST SOMETIME PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA ^•^^c ALLYN AND BACON BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO ... ^/^7 WEST'S HISTORIES 1 2mo. cloth, numerous maps, plans, and illustrations THE ANCIENT WORLD THE MODERN WORLD HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE AMERICAN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT SOURCE BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY THE STORY OF MAN'S EARLY PROGRESS THE STORY OF MODERN PROGRESS THE STORY OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY COPYRIGHT. 1922. BY WILLIS MASON WEST. ^C\ ^>^' Xortoooti iprfsa J. S. CusbliifT »'... — Hiiwi.k A Smith Co. Norwood, Muss., r.S.A. ftB iei922©''"^^54714 FOREWORD Many schools have decided that, for some of their students at least, they must abandon Ancient history or cut down the time formerly given to it. For such schools this volume pre- sents the essentials of Ancient and Medieval times in compact form for a half-year course in the ninth school-year. My aim has been to select topics that make the past live again, and that at the same time permit a continuous story and prepare best for the study of our modern period. The book is an intro- duction to such a volume as my Story of Modern Progress in the tenth year, for students who give three half-years to Euro- pean history. The text is enriched with many new illustrations and reading references, and "exercises" have been selected with the brevity that befits so short a course. Willis Mason West Wind AGO Farm January, 1922 CONTENTS List of Illustrations List of Maps Vll xiii CHAPTER I. IL III. IV. V. PART I — THE WORLD BEFORE THE GREEKS / Men before Writing Bronze-Age Men in Egypt Men of the Euphrates and Tigris The Persian Empire .... Middle States — Phoenicians and Hebrews 1 9 29 41 46 PART II THE GREEKS 1000-500 VI. Aegean Civilization, 3500-1200 b.c. . VII. The Greeks of Homer VIII. From the Trojan to the Persian War B.C. . . . . IX. Greeks and Persians X. Athenian Leadership, 478-431 b.c. . XL The Athenian Empire in Peace XII. Everyday Life in the Age of Pericles XIII. The Peloponnesian War and the Fall of Hellas 53 58 67 88 97 103 116 124 PART III — THE GRAECO-ORIENTAL WORLD XIV. Alexander Joins East and West .... 135 XV. The Hellenistic World, 323-150 b.c. ... 140 PART IV — ROME XVI. Land and People . . . ... . . 148 XVII. The Early Republic, 226 b.c 157 XVIII. United Italy under Roman Rule after 266 b.c. . 164 VI CONTENTS CHAITER VMiK XIX. ThI: W INMN(i OF TIIK WoUM), 2()4-l»)l B.C. 174 XX. Sthifk between Rich and Pook, 140-49 b.( . 1S3 XXI. The Gracchi, 133-121 n.r 192 XXll. The Senate and Military Chiefs 197 Marius and Sidln ; Povipey and Caesar PART V — THE ROMAN EMPIRE XXIII. FouNDiNc; the E.mpire, 49-31 b.c 204 XX1\'. The Emperors of the First Two Centuries, 31 B.c.-lSO a.d 211 XXV. The Early Empire to 180 a.d. : Government, Society, Daily Life 219 XXVI. The Later Empire: the Decline and Fall . 229 XXVII. The Victory ok Christianity 237 PART VI — ROMANO-TEUTONIC EUROPE XXVIII. MER(;iN(i OF Roman and Teuton, 378-800 a.d. . 244 XXIX. Charlemagne's Empire 259 XXX. The Feudal Ac^e, 800-1300 265 New Barbarian Attacks : Britain Becomes England ; Feudalism; The Church in the Feudal Age; Eng- land in the Feudal Age, Other Lands XXXI. A(iE OF THE Crusades, 1100-1300 . .294 The Cnis(i({c.-<; Ri.^c of Towu^; Learning and Art PART VII — AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE XXXII. En(;land and France. 1300-1500 . XXXIII. Other States, 13(M)- 15(H) .... XXXIV. I'm: Renaissance, 1300-1500 .... Appendix : A CIas.sified List of Selected Books for the Library Index, Pronouncing Vocabulary and Map References 305 313 321 1 7 ILLUSTRATIONS The Nile and the Great Pyramid. Colored . . Frontispiece PAGE 1. Flint Fist-hatchet of Old Stone Age 1 2. Ivory Needles of Old Stone Age 2 3. CHff Caves near Le Moustier . . . Plate I, facing 2 4. Mammoth Engraved by a Stone-age Artist . Plate I, facing 2 5. Reindeer Graven on Stone by Stone-age Artist ... 3 6. Prehistoric Paint Tube. Three views ..... 4 7. Stonehenge, Ruins and a " Restoration" . Plate II, facing 5 8. Arrow-heads (Britain) of New Stone Age 9. Primitive Hoe and Evolution of the Plow . 10. Stages in Fire-making ....... 11. Scraper of Old Stone Age. Two views 12. Temple of Horus and Hathor at Edfu . Plate III, facing 11 13. Egyptian Capital, from Temple of Amnion at Karnak 14. Levying the Tax ; an Egyptian relief .... 15. Hall of Columns in Temple of Ammon, Karnak Plate IV, facing 12 16. Egyptian Noble Hunting Waterfowl ; a tomb-painting 14 17. Pyramids and the Sphinx .... Plate V, facing 15 18. Egyptian Market Scene ; a relief ...... 17 19. Part of Rosetta Stone with hieroglyphs first deciphered . 19 20. Part of Above on a Larger Scale 19 21. Rosetta Stone, as preserved in the British Museum . . 20 22. Temples of Rameses and of Isis . . Plate VI. facing 21 23. Egyptian and Roman Numerals ...... 21 24. Offerings to the Dead ; Egyptian tomb-painting Plate VII, facing 23 25. Sculptured Funeral Couch, picturing the soul by the corpse 23 26. Osiris, Isis, and Hathor (bronze statues), Plate Will, facing 24 27. Weighing the Soul before the Judges of the Dead Plate VIII, facing 24 28. Thiitmosis III 25 29. Modern Road to Pyramids of Gizeh . Plate IX, facing 26 30. " Colossi of Memnon." Two views . . Plate X, facing 28 31. Babylonian Boundary Stone, 2000 B.C. . ... .29 32. Oldest Arch Known (Babylonian) 30 vii Vlll ILLUSTRATIONS PAnr, 3;i. Oholisk of SliMlm.incsor II 'S2 34. Balnloiiian Lion (from the " Sacrod Way") ... 34 35. Laws of Ilainniurapi ........ 35 36. Babylonian " Delude Tablet " and " Cotilract Tablet " Plate XI, Jncirif/ 3H 37. An Assyrian " Book " .... Plate XII. /r/r///// 37 38. Babylonian Cylinder Seals 38 39. Impre.^^sion from a Kin^;'s Seal ...... 30 40. Reliefs from Assyrian Palaces Plate XIII, Jncittq 40 41. Persian Gold Armlet 43 42. Frieze of Lions from Palace of .Vrtaxer.xes Alemnon Plate XIV, Jacn,(i 14 43. The Land of Goshen To-day 48 44. Vase from Knossos, 2200 b-c 53 45. Palace Sewer at Kno.ssos ....... 54 46. The Vaphio Cups .... Plate XV, njicr 54 47. Scroll from the Vaphio Cups Plate XVI, facinq Plate XV 48. Cretan Writing of 2200 b.c 55 49. Cretan Cooking Utensils 55 50. Gate of the Lions at Mycenae 56 51. Bronze Dagger from Mycenae, inlaid with gold . . .57 52. Part of the Excavations at Troy 60 53. Zeus 65 54. Ruins of Stadium at Glympia and of That at Delphi Plate XVII, Jacnq (iO 55. Attic Vase of the Sixth Century b.c 70 56. Ground Plan of the Temple of The.scus at Athens 71 57. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Columns . . .72 58. A Doric Capital (from the Parthenon) .... 75 59. " Temple of Theseus " (so-called) at Athens ... 79 60. Site of Ancient Sparta and the Modern Cit>' Plate XVIII, fnanq S2 61. Vale of Tempe Plate XIX, ./ac//<^ 85 62. Greek Women at Their Music (Scroll from an .\ttic Vase) 88 63. Plan of the Battle of Marathon 88 64. Marathon To-day 89 65. Athenian Youth in the Procession in Honor of .\thcnc (from the Parthenon frieze) 97 66. Ruins of the Piraeus Walls 98 67. Bay of Salamis 102 68. Plan of the Acropolis of .\thens .... facinq 103 69. The .'Xcropolis as " restored " by Lambert .... 103 70. The Acropolis To-day .... Plate XX, facinq 106 71. Sophocles (a portrait statue) ...... 108 ILLUSTRATIONS IX 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. PAGE Theater of Dionysus at Athens To-day Plate XXI, facing 109 A Restoration of the Parthenon. Colored . . facing Greek Girls at Play (from a vase painting) . Plan of a Fifth-century Greek House Greek Women at Their Toilet (from a bowl painting) The Wrestlers (after Myron) .... Greek School Scenes (from a bowl painting) An Athenian Trireme ...... The Hermes of Praxiteles ..... Copy of Praxiteles' Satyr (" The Marble Faun ") Theater of Apollo at Delphi Parthenon and Erechtheum To-day . Plate XXII, facing Plan of the Battle of Leuctra .... PhiUp II of Macedon (from a gold medallion) Alexander the Great (two sides of the medallion of Tarsus) Public Buildings of Pergamos .... The Apollo Belvedere ...... Tower of Pharos (Alexandrian Lighthouse) . Venus (Aphrodite) of Melos .... Etruscan Vase Etruscan Tombs at Orvieto Temple of Vesta (so-called) Wall of Servius (so-called) . A Coin of Pyrrhus The Appian Way To-day Etruscan Ruins at Sutri Coin of Hiero II of Syracuse Excavations at Pompeii The Discus Thrower (Myron) Plate XXIII, facitig Plate XXIV, facing Plate XXV, facing 106. 107! 108. 109. Two Views of the Ruins of a Roman Villa Plate XXVI, facing Pompeian Remains: Temple of Apollo; House of the Vettii Plate XXVII, facing A Roman Holiday, with Procession. Colored (a modern painting) ........ facing Court of a Roman House (Boulanger's painting) Plate XXVIII, facing A Roman Chariot Race (a modern painting) Plate XXIX, facing Juhus Caesar (the British Museum bust) .... Views of the Roman Forum To-day . Plate XXX, facing The Theater at Pompeii ....... The Roman Forum and a " Restoration " (Benvenuti) Plate XXXI, facing 112 115 117 118 121 122 124 126 128 129 130 131 134 138 140 141 142 143 149 152 153 155 162 166 170 177 180 185 186 188 193 197 200 206 207 208 210 X ILLUSTRATIONS PAOE 110. Aumistiis Cnosar (tlio V:itio:\n statiio) 212 111. The C:i:iii(li:in Aquoduct To-day . . Plate XXXII, /r/r/,/7 213 112. Tlio Mroiizc " Janus " Coin of Nero 214 1 1'A. Triiini|)lial .Vrch of Titus (showing also the Colosseum) Plate XXXIU. faring 21o 111. Detail from .\rcli of Titus 215 115. Detail from Trajin's Column 21(i lit). Trajan's Column (commemorating the Dacian conquest) Plate XXXIV. /aa«f7 210 117. Ruin of Hadrian's Temple to Zeus at Athens 21S 118. Aqueduct near Ntmes, built by Antoninus Pin- . . 220 119. Porta Nigra at Trier (Treves) 222 120. Cross-section of the Pantheon 225 121. The Pantheon To-day . . . Plate XXXV. /an/zf/ 225 122. The "Way of Tombs" at Pompeii . Plate XXXVI, fncir>{j 226 123. Marcus Aurelius (the Capitoline bust ) .... 227 124. Views of the Colosseum . . Plate XXXVII, facing 228 125. Trajan's Arch at Beneventum Plate XXXVIII. facing 229 126. Roman Amphitheater at Nimes . Plate XXXIX, /aci/w7 232 127. Serfs in Roman Gaul 234 128. Imperial Rody-guard of Germans ''Marcus Aurelius) 236 129. Arch of Constantine at Rome 239 130. Constantine's Column at Con.stantinople .241 131. Plan of a Basilica 242 132. Constantine's Basilica, and a '' Restoration " Plate XL, Jacnig 242 133. Roman Coins ......... 243 134. Ruins of the " Palace of the Caesars," and Benvenuti's "Restoration" .... Plate XLI, /an /<<7 245 135. Tomb of Hadrian (as a memorial of the \'andal sack of Rome) Plate XLII, faring 246 136. .\ Roman Temple at Nimes (well preserved) 247 137. Silver Coin of Justinian ....... 24S 138. Trial by Combat (two views from fifteenth-century MS.) 249 139. Seventh-century Villa (wood) in Gaul, "restored" by Parmentier ....... 250 110. The Abbey of Citeaux 252 111 S.iracenic Walls of .Jerusalem ami the Damascus Gate Plate XLIII. facing 254 112. Cloisters of St. John's L.ateran 257 143. Seal of Charlemagne 259 144. Silver Coin of Cliarlemagne ...... 2(il 145. Conway Castle 265 146. Remains of a Viking Ship 266 ILLUSTRATIONS XI PAGE St. Martin's Church (near Canterbury) . . , . 268 Plowing, from an Anglo-Saxon Manuscript Entrance to a Feudal Castle (after Gautier) Bodlam Castle ..... Knight in Plate Armor ; from Lacroix Reaper's Cart ; fourteenth century Falconry ...... A Court Jester ..... Medieval Jugglers in Sword Dance The Quintain ..... Doorway of IfHey Church (Norman architecture) Salisbury Cathedral .... Plate XLIV, facing 282 Battle of Hastings (Bayeux Tapestry) .... 284 Facsimile of Magna Carta, Sections 39, 40 . . . . 286 Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral 288 An English Family Dinner (MS. of fourteenth century) . 289 Court of Lions in the Alhambra . . Plate XLV, facing 294 A Byzant Crusader Taking the Vow Siege of a Medieval Town 268 269 270 271 274 275 276 277 278 282 295 295 298 Town Hall at Oudenarde (13th century), Plate XL VI, facing 298 A Medieval Cooper's Shop 300 Old Street in Rouen ; present condition Plate XL VII, facing 300 Workshop of Etienne Delaulne (16th century goldsmith) . 302 Flying Buttresses, Norwich Cathedral .... 304 Rheims Cathedral (with explanation of Gothic style) Plate XLVIII, after 304 Cathedral at Metz ; interior of nave Plate XLIX, facing Plate XLVIII A Bombard (sixteenth-century woodcut) . . . . 305 A Luxurious English Carriage (fourteenth century) . . 308 Parliament of 1399 . 310 Guy's Tower 311 Joan of Arc at Orleans .... Plate L, facing 312 Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople . Plate LI, facing 317 Hall of the Clothmakers' Gild at Ypres . . . .318 Illustration from Fifteenth-century Manuscript (showing historical characters) . . . Plate LII, /acmgr 319 Ca d'Oro at Venice and Ducal Palace . Plate LIII, facing 322 St. Mark's, Venice .... Plate LIV, facing 323 Erasmus (Holbein) 323 Columbus before Isabella (Brozik). Colored . facing 326 Monk Teaching the Globe (thirteenth century) . , . 326 MAPS MAP PAGE 1. Ancient Egypt 10 2. The First Homes of Civilization. Colored . . facing 18 3. Greatest Extent of the Egyptian Empire .... 26 4. Babylonian and Assyrian Empires ..... 33 5. Lydia, Media, Assyria, Babylonia. Colored . facing 38 6. The Persian Empire. Colored .... facing 42 7. The Empire of Solomon (the Syrian District) . . .50 8. Greece and the Adjoining Coasts. Colored . . . after 52 9. The Greek World (showing all Mediterranean coasts). Colored after 70 10. Attica (with special reference to Marathon and Salamis) . 94 11. Athens 101 12. Growth of Macedonia 133 13. Empire of Alexander (with routes of his campaigns). Colored facing 135 14. The World according to Eratosthenes (about 250 B.C.) . . 146 15. Ancient Italy (for general reference). Colored . facing 148 16. Rome and Vicinity ........ 150 17. Rome under the Kings ........ 151 18. Italy about 200 b.c. (showing Roman colonies and roads) . 168 19. Mediterranean Lands at Time of Second Punic War (showing route of Hannibal). Colored after 176 20. Pompeii and Vicinity in 79 A. D. . . Plate XXIV, /aci/?^ ISO 21. The Roman Empire (showing stages of growth, and main roads). Colored after 218 22. Rome under the Empire (showing walls of Aurelian) . . 230 23. Teutonic Kingdoms on Roman Soil, 500 a.d. Colored after 248 24. Kingdom of the Merovingians. Colored . . facing 253 25. Europe in 814 a.d. Colored after 260 26. Fields of History to 800 a.d ' 264 27. The Division of Verdun (843 A.D.) . Colored . facing 205 xiii Xiv MAPS MAI' PAGE 2S. Knuland aiul tlie Danelagh (900 a.d.) . facing 268 29. KiiKland and France at Four Periods. Colored facing 290 .SO. (Icnnaii Colonization (>n the East, 800-1400. Colored faring 202 :il. C.ennaiiy and Italy, 1254-1273. Colored fiiring 29(1 ;}2. Doniiiiioiis of tlu> Ilaiisa and 'rciitonic Knights. Colored after 302 33. (lermany about 1500. Colored after 314 34. Europe in the Time of Charles V. Colored . facing 320 SHORT HISTORY OF EARLY PEOPLES PART I - THE WORLD BEFORE THE GREEKS CHAPTER I MEN BEFORE WRITING The story of man goes back to a time when he was more The first helpless and brutelike than the lowest savage in the world to- °^®" day. His only clothing was the coarse hair that covered his body. He had neither fire nor knife, — no tools or weapons except his hands, his formidable apelike teeth, and chance clubs or stones. Finally some savage discovered that he could chip flakes from a flint stone by striking it with other stones, so as to give it a sharp edge and a convenient shape for the hand to grasp. This invention lifted man into the first Stone Age. In Europe the Stone Age began at least 100,000 years ago. The mighty rivers of still earlier times had washed out many caverns in their limestone banks. As the waters cut down a deeper bed, such caves were left dry, above the new water level ; and they became the favorite shelter of the early Stone-Age man — though he often had to fight for them with the ferocious cave-bear. By digging in these caves to-day, we find stone tools of the "cave-man" where he dropped them 1 ^%k / ^' W A fj 1 ^|M ^^L. iy| J^"''^ i^^^^rak ^ fe"i., ^l^^jPf^^ / ^J TJvBhwIl^ ^%, Y /fiJij^Q 'm 'f^m P W § The first Stone Age, 100,000 years ago Flint Fist-hatchet (six inches long) from Kent's Cave in Southern England, found in the lowest of several distinct layers of deposits. Such tools have been discovered in nearly all parts of the world. STONE-AGE MEN The fire-makers Tools of the cave-man And his domestic animals Hunters, not farmers oil thr cartli floor — p('rlia|)s tliirty or forty feet l)el()\v the present Hoor — and rcinaiiis of "ireat heajjs of the l)ones of the animals he ate. In ahnost the lowest deposits many jjicees of eharred bone and wood, and some solid layers of ashes, show that men learned to use fire soon after reaching the Stone Age. With their siour knives, they could shape sticks so as to make fire hy friction. Witli his knife, too, tlic ca\-c-nian could remove the hides from tlie animals he killed ; and while he dozed hy the fire after j]jorging on their flesh, his cave-woman worked on these skins with stone scrapers. Then when they were cleaned and dried and softened, she sewed them into clothing with hone needles. The early deposits contain no spindles, with which thread could ha\e hccn spun from vegetable fiber, and so these needlc\s must have been threaded with finely di- vided sinew, such as the Eskimo woman uses to-day. As we examine the layers of deposits /ro//; fhe bottom upward, we find better tools and more kinds of them, until we have a great variety of shapely ^^=-.-==3' IvuHY Nekdlf.s of tho Stone Age. Europe had no bett >r needles until some three liundrcd years afro. flint Jniives, spcar-heads, daqqers, scrapers, chisels, and drills fine enough to make the delicate eyes in the bone needles. Toward the close of the age, the cave dwellers learned to make claii pots, in which to cook their food in new ways, and to make earthen irare hunps, with wicks swimming in fat. Next, l)one and stone arroir-heads show that the how had been invented, to lengthen man'., arm. Man began, too, to make living animals serve him. He tamed the young of wolf or jackal into th< first dog: and his drawings show that he taught the reindeer to draw his sled. Hut through all their tens of thousands of years, the Chipped .^tone men were hunters merely. They never learned to farm. Besides the animals they killed, tb.ey had for food only the nuts and roots and ^ee(N the women ami children gathered. PLATE I Above. — Cliff Caves on the Vez^re, overlooking the modern village Le Moustier in Southern France. From some of the caves whose dark mouths show in this cut have come the oldest remains pictured in this book. One can make out two terraces. The second of these also is rich in remains, because here the ancient hunters had a station, out in the sun, to fashion their flint weapons. More than 150 of these cave homes have been discovered in France and Spain. — From Osborn's Men of the Old Stone Age. Below- — Mammoth engraved by an Old Stone Age artist on a piece of ivory tusk. Foimd in a cave in Southern France. — From Parkyn's Pre- historic Art. The student should examine that work, or Mr. Osborn's book referred to above, forCave-Men drawings of the Saber-Toothed Tiger and of the Cave-Bear, and especially for the colored representations of Stone Age paintings, such as cannot be adequately reproduced in a book of this kind. The Stone Age remains in the caves show that the men of that day feasted upon these and other animals now long extinct in Europe. LIFE AND THOUGHTS 3 Their homes were littered with loathsome heaps of rotting refuse. Their numbers must have been scanty, but it seems probable that in places the^^ had learned to combine into groups somewhat larger than the family. No doubt the early groups often drifted slowly north or south with the seasons, in pursuit of their food. If two dif- ferent sorts of men met in such wanderings, they probably fought one another savagely — possibly even hunting one Reindeer graven on stone by a Stone-Age artist. Note the remarkable spirit and accurate detail. The drawing is full life size. From a cave in Southern France — where the reindeer has been extinct for many thousand years. another's children for food. The terrifying tales of giants and goblins among all primitive peoples have some such origin. The earliest cave-man must have believed in a life after death ; ideas of a for he buried the bodies of those he loved and honored under ^^^^^^ ^^*® the hearth before which they had rested in life, and in the shallow grave he placed food and precious weapons ready for use when the dead should awake in the spirit world. The cave-man, too, had a keen interest in the world about him, and STONE-AGE MEN The second Stone Age ^flft^rrmfJ'^^^^ Cave-artists fell much ot" its hcaiit \ . In stormy s<'as()ns lie amused him- self l)y carviui;" nii the walls of his caxcni or on Hat hones. Witli amazing' acc-iiracy \\c r('i)ro(lu('('([ the ficrt'c wild-hoar in the char.i;i', the mare nourishin*; her foal, a herd of deer hrows- iiiii" hy a i)e;ieeful i)()ol, and eouiitless othei" animal forms. .\s Kij)lin^- writes, — "Later he pictured an aurochs — later he pictured a bear — Pictured the saber-toothed tiger dra^;p;in{!; a man to his lair — Pictured the mountainous mannnoth, hairy, abiiorrent, alone — Out of the love thdt he bore them, scribing them clearly on bone." Finally, some ten thousand years ii^^o, some infi:eni()us l)ari)arian discovered that lie coidd grind his stone knife with certain stones, and so get keener edge and sharper point than merely hy chipping at it. This inven- tion began a new era. The "Old Stone Age," or age of chipped stone, ga\e way to the " N e w \ 1 i:\vs OF \ Pkehistouic Paint Tcbr. of reindeer hone. , * »» I'ound. with ocher still in it. in ;i eave in France, '^tonc Age. The ra\e-artist ground fine the red oxide of iron and '^l"'|i(> <'"round iui- othcr clay.s and jiaeked them in hollow horn.s, from . whieli to rnlnr hi.s drawings. (Cf. Irgcnd for the P I e lU C n t S are Mammoth after page 2.) — From Parkyn's Prehistoric niore beautiful in finish than those of the older age, and iiiiirh niorr rffrrfirr. The Xew-Stone men nnuh^ gains more rapidly than had been possible to their predeeessf)rs. They soon became herds- men, with cows, asses, sheep, and goats; and some races among them grew into /r/r///rr.v. ScmmIs gathered by the women for food must often have (ln)i)j)ed near the home, and some of these must now and then ha\ c grown into i)lants and ])roduced new ^eed. The convenience of so gathering seeds at the door, PLATE II Stonkiiknuk. — From Barclay's Bun'rtl TonpU. Above arc pictured tho ruins as they stand to-tlay. Bolow is Barclay's " restoration." Stonc- henne was a " temple " of the Xew-Stone men on what is now Salisbury Plain in South England- Two miles away is the site of a Stone-Age t<^)wn, and near by the traces of an ancient two-mile race course, where, no doubt, shf)utinK multitudes jostled one another. Some of these huge blrjcks (undres.sed stone) are .iO feet high, and must weigh two hundred Ums- This is only the most famous of many. sucIj ruins left I)y the New- Stone men in western Europe. AND WHAT THEY GAVE US Beginning of trade instead of searching for them through the forest, would suggest The first to some thoughtful woman the idea of "planting" seed, and *'"°^®^^ finally of preparing a patch of ground by stirring it with a crooked stick. Such a woman with such a "hoe " was probably the first "farmer." Thousands of farmers, even in a rude stage of agriculture, can live in a territory that could furnish food for only a few score of hunters ; and so the New-Stone "barbarians" dwelt no longer in isolated caves, but in villages and towns of simple one-room huts of clay or wood. With their improved weapons they conquered widely, espe- cially among the backward tribes that had remained in the "savagery" of the Chipped Stone Age; and so they formed larger societies with some trade between one and another. Now that captives could be used to watch herds and till the soil, the vanquished in war were no longer killed or tortured to death as formerly, but were merely made slaves. And as the growing populations called for larger grain fields than women could till with their stick "hoes," the hoe handle was enlarged into a "beam" to which cows could be harnessed, and two new handles were added to guide the "plow." In regions not particularly fitted for agriculture, the New-Stone men some- times turned to the life of nomadic herdsmen. These nomads were less numerous than the farmer folk, and more thinly scattered. But they were more suited to war and they were particularly inclined at times, issuing from the desert regions or the steppes, to raid the richer farmer folk — and sometimes Arrow-heads of the New Stone Age in Britain. 6 STONE-AGE MEN The Age of Copper in the Nile valley to coiujucr and settle aiiioiiL;- tlieiii. Mueli of ])rimitlve man's life went to such wars. The next threat advance was hcf^nin, not in Europe, hut in the Nile \ alley in Africa. Pieces of malachite, a kind of copper ore, are found there in a loose state. No douht many a camp- fire melted ("reduced") the metal from such scattered stones into shining; copper globules; and finally some observant Primitivf- Hoe and Plow. — From early Egyptian monuments. The Bronze Age hunter found that the bright metal could be worked more easily than stone, and into better tools. So men passed from the Stone Age to the Age of Metals, ahont seven thousand yairs ago. Copper implements, it is true, were soft, and soon lost their edge; but l)efore long, perhaps again by happy accident, men learned to mix a little tin with tlu> copper in the fire. This formed the metal we call hnntzr. Bronze is easily worked ; but, after cooling, it is much harder than either of its parts. The Bronze-Age men equipped themsehcs with weapons of keener and more lasting edg(\ and more convenient form, than had ever been known. With these they concpiered widely among the Stone- Age men ai)out them, and also added greatly to their command over nature. The use of bronze entered southeastern Europe some oOOO years ago — about IWOO B.C. — and spread slowly westward to the .\tlantic during the next thousand years. Soon after the age of metals began, men came to use some kind of wriiinfj. That inxcntion brings us to the "historic" period. The t^irlier "prehistoric" man, with many other gifts, had becjueathed to his successors, and to us, four supreme contributions. AND WHAT THEY GAVE US 7 1. The use of fire made it possible to advance beyond raw Contribu- food and finally beyond stone tools. All wild animals fear *^°"f. /^^."^ •^ . . prehistonc flame; but the Stone-Age man had come to know it for his man truest friend. The methods of making fire which are pictured on this page (below) were all invented by prehistoric man ; Some Stages in FiRE-i\iAKiNG. — From Tylor. and no other way was known, except striking two stones to- gether, down to very recent times. 2. Most of the domestic animals familiar to us in our barn- yards were tamed by prehistoric man in the Old World. 3. Wheat, barley, rice, and nearly all our other important food grains and garden vegetables, were selected from the myriads of wild plants, and cultivated and developed. Modern science has failed to find one other plant in the Old World so useful to man as these which prehistoric man there selected. Their only rivals are the potato and maize ("corn"), which the Stone- Age men in America had learned to cultivate. 4. The invention of ivriting multiplied the value of language, xhe inven- Writing is an "artificial memory," and it also makes it possible f^^ ^^ w"*' for us to speak to those w^ho are far away, and even to those not yet born. Many early peoples used a picture writing such as is common still among North American Indians. In this kind of writing, a picture represents either an object or some idea connected with that object. A drawing of an animal w^th wings may stand for a bird or for flying ; or a character like this O stands for either the sun or for light. In our Arabic numerals, especially in l,Z»3,5, we can still see the one, two, three, or five lines that stood for numbers. ing 8 STONE-AGE MEN The rebus stage of writing N'astly iini)()rt;int is the juKancc to ;i rrJ}n.s .sfagc of writing. Here ii symlx)! has coiuc to have a sound raluc wholly apart tVoin tlie original ohjcct, as if the syinhol O ahove were used with 1) (1) O) to make the word (hli(jht. Tliis representation of sifllahlrs hy pietures of objects is tlie first stage in .sound ivritincf, as distinguished from ])ieture writing proper. Finally, some of tliese characters are used to represent not whole syllables, hut siuf/lc sounds. Such a character we call a letter. If these letters are kept, and all other characters dropped, we have a true (dpluthrf. Picture writing, such as that of the Chinese, reciuires numy thousand symbols. Several hundred characters are necessary for even simple syllabic writing. B\i{ a score or so of letters are enough for an alphabet. Students will enjoy any of the following books: Myres' Dawn of His- tory, 13-28; Clodd's Story of Pritnitive Man, 35-76; C'lodd's Story of the Alphabet; Hollirook's Cavr, Mound, and Lake Dwdlers: Waterloo's Story of Ab (fiction). A very interesting larger book, handsomely illus- trated, is Solas' Ancient Hunters. Flint Schaper. front and back, found in the lower deposits of the cave of Lc Moustier in Southern France, one of the oldest homes of man. — Fioni Parkyn's Prehistoric Art. CHAPTER II BRONZE-AGE MEN IN EGYPT Egypt is the gift of the Nile. — Herodotus. By the map, Ancient Egypt is as large as Colorado, but seven eighths of it is only a sandy border to the real Egypt. That real Egypt is smaller than Maryland, and consists of the valley of the Nile and of its delta. The valley proper forms Upper Egypt. It is a strip of rich soil about 600 miles long and 20 miles wide — a slim oasis between parallel ranges of desolate limestone hills which once formed the banks of a mightier Nile. While yet a hundred miles from the sea, the narrow valley broadens suddenly into the delta, — a squat triangle resting on a two-hundred mile base of marshy coast. This Lower Egypt has been built up out in the sea from the mud carried there by the river. And the Nile keeps Egypt alive. Rain falls rarely in the val- ley ; and toward the close of the eight cloudless months between the annual overflows, there is a short time when the land seems gasping for water. Then the river begins to rise (in July), swollen by tropical rains at its upper course in distant Abyssinia ; and it does not fully recede into its regular channel until Novem- ber. During the days w^hile the flood is at its height (some thirty feet above the ordinary level), Egypt is a sheet of turbid water, spreading between two lines of rock and sand. The waters are dotted w^ith towns and villages, and marked off into compartments by raised roads, running from town to town. As the water retires, a thin but rich loam dressing, brought dow^n from the hills of Ethiopia, is left spread over the fields, renewing their wonderful fertility from year to year; while the long soaking supplies moisture to the soil for the dry months to come. 9 10 RROXZK-AOK MEX IX EGYPT -^>v^: Nam-niti PyramiUs of i .i.-uh \^A Hiliol Mciiinliis] ± »• IcniplnsIS , ( V >^ 1 I I' I* K U K fl Y P T 'V\\v oldest records yet found in P'^,\\ l)t reach hack to al)out 5000 B.C. The use of l)roir/e was ah\'ady well advanced, })Ut n'lnains in the soil show that there had been earlier dwellers in the valley usin^ rude stone inii)h'- nients. Food wa.s abundant there, — not only fish and waterfowl, l)ut also the date i)ahn and various wild ^n-ains. The first J}j^ \ ' The first inhabit- Egyptians j //> ,\ ants lived by fishing along the streams and hunting fowl in the marshes. When they began to take advantage of their rare oppor- tunity for agricul- ture, new problems arose. Before that time, each tribe or \illage could be a law to itself. But now it becar.K' nec- essary for whole districts tocombine in order to drain marshes, to create systems of ditches for the distribution of the water, and to build reservoirs for the surplus. The Thus till Xlh, which had made the land, plaj/cd (i pari in Nile makes ThVr:::50-< ANCIENT K(; V PT ^*-'^,/l. ELEPHANTINE VJ ■r-<4. ' ..^^l V E T H I O 'Vf^C'\\t^ A for union initl'nuj Kfij/pf info om sftiti .^ To control the o\crflow was th( ' Tlio Word ■state" i.s coiniiionlN used in luston" not in the sense in which we call Massachusetts a state, hut rather in that .sense in which we call Eng- land or the whole United States a state. That is. the word means a people, livin(j in s(it7ir dtfinitr ))lacc, with a s}i})rvere little kings, each in his own domain ; and about a third he turned over to the temples to support the worship of the gods. This land became the property of the priests, of whom a large number lived in each temple. The priests were also the scholars of Egypt, and the pharaoh took most of his high officials from them. 12 BROXZK ACK M KX IX K(JVPT The peasants T\w prd.suDifs tilled {\\v soil, and wvvc not unlike the jjeasants of modern l\u>|)t. They rented small "farms," — hardly moic than uarden plots. — for which they j)ai(l at least a third of the prochice to the hmdlord. This left too little for a family ; and they eked ont a lixcli- hood l)y day labor on the land of the nobles and priests. For this work they were paid a small part of the prod- is our farmers tlo, hut in little villages or in the squalid (juarters of the towns, with the other poorer peo])le. The house of a poor man was a mud hovel of only one room. Such huts were separated from one another merely by (Hie mud A Capital FitoM Kaknak. — Set' opposite- uce. Thev did not live in the country All I''.Kyi)ti;ui rcliof' ])artition. and wei'e Imilt in lon<; rows, facing upon narrow crooked alleys filled with filth. (A " i)la.uue of flies," like tliat described in the Old Testament, was natm-al enough; and only the extremely dry air ke])t down that and worse pestilences.) Hours of toil were from dawn to dark ; but usuall\ the ])easants were careless and kJ'>'. ix'ttini; the cattle an;ul 1.1 tl,, -pliinx. with the niaKiiifiod featuros of one of tlie phara tliirty years, relays of a liuiidred thousand men were kept at tlie toil, eaeh relay for three months at a streteh. Other thousands, of course, had to toil throuj^h a lifetime of lahor to feed these workers on a monument to a nionareh's vanity. .1// the lahor iras performed hi/ mere fnnncui .strenfjfh: the K^yi)tians of that day had no beasts of burden, and no machinery, such as we have, for inovin^^ ^n-eat weights with ease. The vain and cruel pyramid l)uilders were finally overthrown l)y a rebellion, and a new line of kin^s took Thel)es for their capital. The next four hundred years (2400-2000 B.C.) is known as the period of the ''Middle Kingdom.'' It is marked by the extension (ind el(d)or(ifion of the irrigation sj/ston. Besides caring for the old dykes, the ])haraohs now drained tens of thou- sands of acres of marsh, making it fit for rich cultivation, and on tlu^ other hand, they built a wonderful system of vast arti- ficial reservoirs to hold the surplus water of the yearly inunda- tion — with an intricate network of ditches and "gates" (as in some of our Western States now) to distribute the water throughout the country in the dry months. \Vith this aid, more soil was cultivated, and a larger po])ulation supported, in ancient Kgypt than in any modern period until English con- trol was estal)lish(Ml in that countrv some forty years ago. Agriculture The main industry was farming. The leading grains were wheat, barley, and sesame. Even the large farms were treated almost like gardens ; and the yield was enormous, — reaching the rate of a hundredfold for grain. Long after her greatness had departed, Egyj)t remained "the granary of the Mediterra- nean lands." Other food croj)s wvrv beans, peas, lettuce, rad- ishes, melons, cucumbers, and onions, (irapes, t«)o, were gr(nvn in great (juantitics. and made into a light wine. Clox'er was raised foi- the cattle, an linen cloth, which was the main material for clothing. .\ little cotton, also, was cultivated ; and large flocks of sheep furnished wool. Besides th(> plow, th(> farmer's only tools were a short, crooked LIFE AND WORK 17 hoe (the use of which bent him ahnost double) and the sickle. The grain was cut with this last implement, then carried in baskets to a threshing floor, and trodden out by cattle. An Egyptian barnyard contained many animals familiar to us (cows, sheep, goats, scrawny pigs much like the wild hog, geese, ducks, and pigeons), and also a number of others like antelopes, gazelles, and storks. Men had to learn by carejul experiment, through many generations of animal life, which ani- mals it paid best to domesticate. During most of Egypt's three thousand years of greatness, exchange in her market places was by barter. A peasant with A Market Scene. — An Egyptian relief. Tiie admirable description of Egyptian markets in Davis' Readings (I, No. 7) is based in part upon this sculpture. wheat or onions to sell squatted by his basket, while would-be customers offered him earthenware, vases, fans, or other objects with which they had come to buy, but which perhaps he did not want. In the closing periods of Egyptian history, the people came to use rings of gold and silver a little, somewhat as we use money ; but such rings had to be w^eighed each time they changed hands. In spite of this handicap, the Egyptians carried on exte7isive trade. Especially did the great Theban pharaohs of the " Middle 18 BK'OXZF.-AOE MEX IX KOVPT Manufac- ttires Kingdom" (MicoiUM^a' c'(iinin(M*('(\ explore distant regions, de- velop e()pj)er mines in the Sinai peninsula of Arabia, and huild roads. One ot" tlieni even ()j)ened a eanal from the eastern month of the Xile to the Red Sea, so estahlishin^ a eontinuous water route hetween the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. In that day, K^\ptian mereliants sailed to (Vete on the north and to distant i)arts of Ethiopia on the south. So far as we know, the Egyptians were the first men to "go down to the sea in ships," the first, indeed, to hnild sea-going ships at all. To pay for the precious products of distant countries, the Egyptian merchant exported the sur])lus j)r()duets of the skilled arfisaiis at home. This class included weavers, hlack- smiths, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, cahinet-makers, uphol- sterers, glass blowers, potters, shoemakers, tailors, armorers, and many other trades. In many of these occupations, the workers possessed a marvelous dexterity, and were masters of processes that are now unknown. The weavers in particular produced delicate and extjuisite linen, almost as fine as silk, and the workers in glass and gold were famous for their skill. Jewels were imitated in colored glass so artfully that only an expert to-day can detect the fraud by the appearance. Beau- tiful bowls and vases, and other sorts of pottery, were worked, no longer i)y hand, l)Ut on the potter's wheel — another Egyp- tian invention — and burned, not by an open fire, l)Ut evenly in closed brick ovens. Books and writing The Egyptians wrote religious books, poems, histories, travels, novels, orations, treatises on morals, scientific works, geographies, cook-books, catalogues, and collections of fairy stories — among the last a tale of an Egyj)tian dnderella with her fairy glass slipj)er. On the oldest monuments, writ- ing liad advanced from mere j)ictures to a rebus stage (p. 8). This rarh/ writing was used mainly by the ])riests, and so the strange characters are called hiirofjh/jihs ("priests' writing"). They are a "delightful asseml)lage of birds, snakes, men, tools, stars, and beasts," used, not for objects merely, but rather as sound symbols, each for a syllable. Some of these signs LEARNING AND ART 19 grew into real *' letters " (p. 8), but the Egyptians never took the final step, to a true alphabet. Their writing remained to the end a curious mixture of hundreds of signs of things and ideas and syllables, and of a few single sounds. The oldest inscriptions were cut in stone. But very soon The papyru the Egyptians invented " paper." They took papyrus reeds, ki3"0^n ;f.crr^i°€:; »= o ^t Y--'3'if-/?p-'iir=!!rr*,<<;!:i)uiDT2s:.':s;>;rfMi*/-fL Part of Rosetta Stone (p. 20) containing hieroglyphs first deciphered. which grew abundantly in the Nile, split the stems down the middle, laid the slices, flat side up, in two layers, one crossing the other, and pressed them into a firm yellowish sheet, some- what as we make our " paper " from wood pulp. On such sheets they wrote with a pointed reed in black or red ink. Part of Above Inscription (last line) on a large scale. That part within the curved line ("cartouch") was known, by Egyptian custom, to be the name of a pharaoh, and became the starting point for study. The dry air of Egyptian tombs has preserved great numbers of buried papyrus rolls to our time. In the rapid writing on this " paper," stl*okes were run together, and so the stiff hiero- glyphs of the monuments were gradually modified into a running script, differing from the older characters somewhat as our script differs from print. Many Egyptian inscriptions and papyrus rolls had long The Rosett been known to European scholars ; but until a century ago no ^*°"® one could read them. About 1800 a.d. some French soldiers. 20 RHOXZK A(JK MEX IX EGYPT A key to lost ages while di^giiiK trciiclics near the Kosctta iiioutli of the Xile, t'oiiml a curious shib of l)lciek rock covered with three inscrip- tions, ((tch in if,s' oirn lci)t(l of writing. The top one was in the ancient hieroglyphics of the pyramids ; then came one in the later Egyptian script (likewise unknown) ; and at the bottom was an inscription in Greek. A French scholar, (liampol- lion, who had been work- ing for years, with small success, in trying to de- cipher the hieroglyphics, guessed shrewdly that tliese three inscriptions told the same story. In 1822 he proved this true. Then, by means of the The RosKTi a vStoni:, us now mounted Greek, he found the mean- and preserved in the British Museum. . Length. 3' 9"; breadth. 2' 41" ; thick- »ng ot the Other charac- ncss, 11". The inscription belongs to ters, and so had a key to the second century B.r. See p. 19- , , , the language and writing of old Egypt. The famous " Rosetta Stone " made dumb ages speak once more. Science lvg>]UiMn science, too, was " the gift of the Xile." After an iiiuiidation, it was often needful to surve\ the land, and this led to the skill of the (>arl\ Egyi)tians in geometry. And the need of fixing in adxance the exact time of the inundation directed attention to the true " xcar," and so to (i.sfrotiouiy. Great adxance was made in hotli these studies. The Egyptians understood the rexolution of the earth and planets around the >nn. and fixe thousand xcars ago they had mapped tlie sun's (ipixinnt ])atli (the zodiac) into its twelve signs. They iiad also nuip})ed the stars in constellations, as shown to-da\ in our " star-maps" ; and they had adopted a PLATE VI ABovt.. — Tkmim.k ok ltAMKsi:s AT Thkhks: liist cuurl. .souili siiU'. BkLOW. OlTEU CulKT IN FHONT OF TkMPI.K ()F IsI^ AT PhILAK West f'ohiimado. LEARNING AND ART 21 '' calendar " with a year of 365 days, divided into twelve months (moons) of 30 days each, with five added feast-days. (Later they found that their year was too short by nearly a quarter of a day ; but the leap-year arrangement which their scholars then invented never came into general use in ancient Egypt.) They also divided the day into twelve double hours, and in- vented both a water-clock and a shadow-clock (or dial) to measure the passage of the hours. In arithmetic the Egyptians dealt in numbers to millions, with a notation like that used later l)y the Romans. Thus, 3423 was represented by the Romans : T-I M M C C c C XX ill and by the Eg^Tptians : $X$®@@(gRI' iVmazing skill was shown in architecture, sculpture, and painting. Aside from the pyramids, the most famous buildings were the gigantic temples of the gods. In these we find the first use of columns, arranged often in long colonnades. The Egyptians understood the principle of the arch, and they used it sometimes in their private mansions ; but in the huge temples the roofs and ceilings were formed always by laying immense flat slabs of rock across from column to column (or from square pier to pier). The result is an impression of stupendous power, but not of surpassing beauty. On the walls and columns, and within the pyramid tombs, we find long bands of pictures ("reliefs") cut into the stone.. Often these represent historical scenes, the story of which is told in detail by inscriptions above or below^ the band of sculpture. The Egyptians did not understand "perspective," and so in such carving and drawing they could not represent one figure behind another, or give the sense of varying distances. All the figures appear on one plane, and are drawn on one scale. (Compare the reliefs on pp. 12, 17 with the Roman relief on p. 216.) In other respects the Egyptian work is exceedingly lifelike. In carving complete statues, the ignorance of perspective did not injure the effect. The Eg^^ptians, accordingly, excelled here, especially in portrait statues, small or life size. They were fond, too, of making colossal statues, which, however 22 BRONZE-AGE MEX IX EGYPT unnatural, have a gloomy and overwhelming granrleur in keeping witli the melancholy desert that stretches about them. Religion There was a curious mixture of religions. Each family wor- shiped its ancestors. Such (inccs-tor iror.ship is found, indeed, among all primiti\e peoples, along with a Ix-lief in evil spirits and malicious ghosts. There was also a nu)r.shiiJ of (itiimal'i. Cats, dogs, hulls, crocodiles, and many other animals were sacred. To injure one of these "gods," even hy accident, was to incur the uuinhMous fury of the people. Probably this wor- ship wa.s a degraded kind of ancestor worship known as totcntis-m, which is found among many peoples. North American Indians of a wolf clan or a bear clan — with a fabled wolf or bear for an ancestor — must on no account injure the ancestral animal or "totem." In Egypt, however, the worship of animals became more widely spread, and took on grosser features, than has ever been the case elsewhere. Above all this, there was a nature worship witli countless deities and demigods representing sun, moon, river, wind, storm, trees, and stones. Each village and town had its special nature g(Kl to protect it ; anci the gods of the great capitals became fiatiotial deities. Ideas of With the better classes this nature worship mounted some- ^°^ times to a lofty and pure worship of one God. "God," say some of the inscri])tions, "is a s])irit : no man knowt^th his form," and again, — " He is the creator of the heavens and the earth and all that is therein." These lofty thoughts never spread far among the people ; but a few thinkers in Egypt rose to them even earlier than the Hebrew prophets did. A youthful king (Ikhnaton) of the fifteenth century n.c, sought earnestly to replace all lower worships with this higlier one. He wiis overthrown finally by the priesthood and the superstitious masses; but we still have a hymn written by him in honor of Aten (the Sun-disk), symlx)! of Liglit and Life. "Thy appearing is beautiful in tho liori/oii of licavon, O living Aten, the beginnin^^ of life ! . . . Thou tillest evory land with thy lu'iiuty. PLATE VII A ToMn Painting showiiiR offorinps to the dead. The Egyptians decorated the flat walb of their tombs and temples, and their relief sculptures, in brilliant colors — which in the dry air of enclosed tombs have lasted to this day, but which fade quickly when exposed to the outer air. This picture shows well the chief article of male dress — a linen loin-cloth, s*)metimes drawn together into short trousers. Nobles st)metimes added a sleeveless mantle clasped over the shoulder. RELIGION AND MORALS 23 Thy beams encompass all lands which thou hast made. Thou bindest them with thy love. . . . The birds fly in their marshes — Lifting their wings to adore thee. . . . The small bird in the egg, sounding within the shell — Thou givest it breath within the egg. . . . How many are the things which thou hast made ! Thou Greatest the land by thy will, thou alone, With peoples, herds, and flocks. . . . Thou givest to every man his place, thou framest his life." Sculptured Funeral Couch, representing the soul crouching by the corpse. The idea of a future life was held in two or three forms. Nearly all savage peoples believe that after death the body remains the home of the soul, or at least that the soul lives on in a pale, shadowy existence near the tomb. If the body be jiot pre- served, or if it be not given proper burial, then, it is thought, the soul becomes a wandering and mischievous ghost. The earl}' Egyptians held such a belief, and their practice of embalming ^ the body before burial was connected with it. They wished to preserve the body as the home for the soul. In the early tombs, too, there are always found dishes in which had been placed food and drink for the ghost. After these 6000 years of different faiths, the Egyptian peasant still buries 1 " Embalming" is a process of preparing a dead body with drugs and spices, so as to prevent decay. The corpses of the wealthy, so preserved, were also swathed in many layers of linen cloths before being laid away. A corpse so preserved and wrapped is called a mummy. 24 ANCIENT K(JVPT Moral standards Protected from inva- sion by geography food and diiiik with his (h-ad. Siicli customs hist h)iig after the ideas on which they were based have faded ; hut llu re must always hare hern sonic lire idea in thnu at first. Among the l)etter classes there finally grew up a i)elief in a truer immortality in a distant Klysium. This haven, however, was only for those ghosts who, on arrival, should he declared wortlix. The following noble extract comes from the "Repu- diation of Sins." This was a statement (hundreds of years older tlian the IIcl)rcw Ten Commandments) which the Egyptian believed he ought to be able to say truthfully before the "Judges of the Dead." It is the y?/-.v^ record of tlie idea that a good life ought to win reward hereafter. "Hail unto you, ye lords of Truth! hail to thee, great god, lord of Truth and Justice ! [O.siris] . . . I have not committed iniquity against men ! 1 liave not oppressed the poor ' I have not caused the slave to be ill-treated of his master ! / have not pulled down the scale of the balance! I have not taken away the milk from the mouths of suck- lings. . . . Grant that he may come unto you — he that hath not lied or borne false witness, . . . he that hath given bread to the hungry and drink to him that was athirst, and that hath clothed the naked icith gar- ments.'' Some other declaration of this statement run: "I have not blasphemed"; "I have not stolen''; "I have not slain any man tn'acherously " ; **I have not matle false accusation"; "I have not eaten my heart with envy." See also Davis' Readings, I, Xos. 9 and 10. h'or the first thousand years of her history as a kingdom, Egypt was almost isolated from other lands, excej)t for trade. The Nile valley was so difficult to get into that. wher. a large state had once been formed there, it was almost safe from attack. To the south were the .\byssinians, a brave and warlike people; but they were cut off from Egyi)t by a twelve-day march through a desert and by impassable cataracts in the Nile. Trade caravans and small bands might traxcl from one country to the otlu*r; but armies could do so only with the greatest difhcultx . To the west lay the Sahara — an immense inhos- pitable tract, peoj)lc; l)Ut alon^^ the two legs of the triangle — the only practicable route — the distance was much greater. That whole district was soon covered by a network of roads. These were garrisoned here and there by Egyptian fortresses; and along them, for centuries, there passed hurr\ ing streams of oflicials, couriers, and merchants. EXCHANGES INDUSTRY FOR MILITARISM 27 But "he who takes the sword shall perish by the sword." The population of Egypt was drained of its manhood by long wars, and impoverished by heavy ivar taxation. Finally the pha- raohs could no longer defend their distant frontiers, and with- drew within the old borders of Egypt. In particular, they found it impossible to war longer with the Hittites, who, armed with iron weapons, descended from the slopes of the Taurus moun- tains and overthrew Egyptian power in Syria. Then, in 672, Egypt became subject to Assyria (p. 31). Twenty years later, Psammetichus restored Egyptian inde- A bnet revi pendence, and became the first of the final line of native pharaohs. g q He had been a military adventurer, and he won his throne largely through the aid of mercenary Greek troops. During all her earlier greatness, however much her traders visited foreign lands, Egypt had kept herself jealously closed against strangers. But Psammetichus threiv open the door to foreigners, especially to the Greeks, who were just coming into notice. Greek travelers visited Egypt ; large numbers of Greek soldiers served in the army ; and a Greek colony at Naucratis was given special privileges. Indeed, Sais, the new capital of Psammetichus and his son, thronged with Greek adventurers. Egypt "had lit the torch of civilization" ages before : now she passed it on to the Western world through this vigorous new race. Neco, son of Psammetichus, is remembered for his fine attempt Voyage to reopen the ancient canal from the Nile to the Red Sea (p. 18). ^°|J.^^ This failed ; but Neco did find another sea route from the Red to the Mediterranean. One of his ships sailed around Africa, down the east coast, returning three years later through the Mediterranean. Herodotus (p. 15), who tells us the story, adds : "On their return the sailors reported (others may believe them but I will not) that in sailing from east to west around Africa they had the sun on their right hand." This report, so incred- ible to Herodotus, is good proof to us that the story of the sailors was true. (If the student does not see why, let him trace the route on a globe.) This voyage closes Egyptian history. In 525 B.C. the land became subject to Persia (p. 42), and native rule has never been 28 ANCIENT ECJYPT restored. The poet Slielley ])ietures tlie decay of Egyptian iniglit : "Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand. Half-sunk, a shattered visage lies. And on the pedestal, these words apju'ar: * My name is Ozymandias, king of kings Look on my works, Ye Mighty, and despair!' Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare. The lone and level sands stretch far awav." Exercises. — 1. Make and compare lists of the things we owe to Egypt. 2. What can you learn from these extracts upon Egypt in Davis' Readings, which have not been referred to in this chapter? (If the class have enough of those valuable little books in their hands, this topic may make all or part of a day's lesson.) 3. Do you regard the Great Pyramid or the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea or the con- quest of Syria as the truest proof of Egyptian greatness? 4. Can you see any connection between the cheap food of the Nile valley and its place as an early home of civilization? Could you suggest a more just division of the leisure that resulted from that cheap food? PLATE X ' Colossi OF Memnon" NEAR Thebes: statues of Amenophis III (1400 b.c), whom the Romans called Memnon. In the lower view the two " Colossi are in the background, while the structure in the foreground is part of a temple of Rameses III (Plate VI) with colossal statues of that pharaoh. The "Memnon" statues (69 feet high with the missing crowns) were originally the portals of a temple of which few vestiges remain. CHAPTER III THE MEN OF THE EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS Rising on opposite slopes of snow-capped Armenian moun- The land of tains, the Euphrates and Tigris rivers approach each other in ma- ^^^^^ jestic sweeps until they form a common valley ; then they flow in parallel channels for most of their course, uniting just before they reach the Persian Gulf. Their valley is a rich oasis of luxuriant vegetation lying between The three the sands of Arabia and the rugged plateaus of Central Asia, ^^^^^o^s A Babylonian Boundary Stone of about 2000 e.g., lying upon its left side. — Such stones were placed at each corner of a grant of land. The inscription records the title, and the gods are invoked to witness the grant or sale and to punish transgressors upon the owner's rights. It has three parts. (1) Like the delta of the Nile, the lower part had been built up out of alluvial soil carried out, in the course of ages, into the sea. This district is known as Baby- lonia, or Chaldea. Its fertility, in ancient times, was kept up by the annual overfloiv of the Euphrates, regulated, like the Nile's, by dikes, reservoirs, and canals. To the north, the rich Chaldean plain rises into a broad table-land. (2) The fertile half of this, on the Tigris side, is ancient Assyria. (3) The west- ern part of the upper valley (Mesopotamia) is more rugged, and 29 30 (MIALDKAXS A\I) ASSYRIANS City-states give way to an empire is important iiiaiiilx Ix'caiisc it makes part of the ^rcat curved road, around the Arai)ian desert, from ("haldea to K^ypt (p. 2()). By 4()()() H.( . the (Mialdeans liad eo])per tools and a hiero- glyphic \vriti^^^ Suceessixc waxes of eoiuiiierin^^ nomads from the Arabian desert finally made tlieir lanf^uage Semitic, thon^di the people never really became Semites in blood. In the less ci\ ilized Ti(m two fju'es in this cut run around the four faces, a.s do the in- .scriptions. Each hand illus- trates the conciuest by Shal- maneser of a different nation, and the inscriptions contain the cruel passages recorded on this \K\Kf- One inscri|)tion records the trihut*' exacted from Jehu, king of .lud.ili. throw, (hig up, .111(1 huriK'd. The nobles, as many as had revolted, / jhnjtd. With their skins 1 covered the pyramid [of citi/ens]. . . . Some of them / buried (litre in (he tnid,st of the pyrnmid ; others / impaled on stokes. In another inscription Sennacherib declares that he once razed Babylon it.self for rebellion : "Temple and tower 1 tore down. . . . 1 duji; ditches through the city, and /r/ir/ waste its site. Greater than the deluge wius its annihilation." Tlic wide rule of Assyria was short-lived. Her strength was wasted by constant wars abroad, and her industries decayed at home. .\ I (lim- ing hatred, too, against her cruelties and her crushing taxation rankled in the hearts of the oppressed peoples. •Vfter twenty years of subjection, Kgypt broke away. Twenty years more, and Babylon followed. Hordes of "Scythians " (probably Tartar nomads) from the north devastated the empire. And in 606 the Medes and Babylonians captured Nineveh itself; and the proud "city of l)lood," wliicli had razed so many other cities, was given to sack and pillage. The ])assionate exultation of all neighboring jx'oples was spoken in the stern words of the Hebrew j)rophet : " All that hear the news of thy fate shall claj) their hands over thee — for whom hath not tliy wickedness afliicttMJ eontiniially ? " ^ Two hundred years later the Greek ' Xahuin iii. 1 li). See also Isaiah xiii, Hi L'L', and .Jeremiah 1 and li. THE FALL OF NINEVEH 33 adventurer Xenophon, standing on the crumbling ruins of Nineveh, could not even learn their name. A Seco7id Babylonian Empire began with the successful Second rebellion against Assyria, in 625 b.c, but it lasted less than Babylonian a century. The glory of this period belongs chiefly to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.). He carried away the Jews into the "Babylonian Captivity" — in unhappy imitation of Assyrian policy ; but he also rebuilt Babylon on a magnificent scale, and renewed the ancient engineering works (Davis' Readings). Soon after this reign, Babylon fell before the rising power of Persia (p. 42). During the past thousand years, under Turkish rule, the last vestiges of the ancient engineering works of Chaldea have gone to ruin. The m^Tiads of canals are choked with sand, and, in this early home of civilization, the uncontrolled over- 34 CHALDEANS AND ASSYRIANS flow of the river turns the eastern districts into a dreary marsh, while on the west the desert has drifted in, to cover the most fertile soil in the world, — and the sites of scores of mighty cities are only shapeless mounds, where sometimes nomad Arahs cani]) for a ni<;ht. Recently (since 1910), it is true Babylonian' Lion. Sii;ii;:lii ikhiIi jukI >nu\\\ ihroutzh I'-alixKni ran a famous " Procession Street," or " Sacred ^^'ay," from the temple of Marduk, the city's guardian god, to the city gate. In Nebuchadnez- zar's time this street was paved witli huge smof)th slabs of stone. On either side of this pavement ran a high brick wall, ornamented along its entire length with a frieze of lions in low relief, lirilliantly enameled in white and yellow upon a dark blue ground and crowned with white rosettes. This procession of lions (s\-mbol of the god) led to colossal sculptures of guardian biills at the city gateway. (under German contrf)l, and now under Mn^lish). nuiny thou- sand acres ha\(' l)een rcclninicd for fields of cotton and ^n'ain. The king The king, both in Chaldea and Assyria, was surrounded with everything that could awe and charm the nuisses. Extraordi- nary magnificence and splendor reni()\ed him from the common people. He gave audience, seated on a golden throne covered with a purple canop\' which was supported hy pillars glittering with precious stones. All who came into his presence prostrated SOCIETY AND LIFE 35 themselves in the dust until bidden to rise. His rule was absolute. The peasants tilled the rich land in misery. As in Egypt Rich and they paid for their holdings with half of the produce. In a P°°^ poor year, this left them in debt for seed and living. The creditor could charge exorbi- tant interest — usually 20 per cent a year ; and if it were not paid, he could levy not only upon the debtor's small goods, but also upon wife or child, or upon the farmer himself, for slavery — though only for three years. The wealthy class included land-owners, officials, profes- sional men, money lenders, and merchants. The merchant in particular ivas a prominent figure. The position of Chal- dea, at the head of the Persian Gulf, made its cities the nat- ural mart of exchange between India and Syria. The exten- sive wars of Assyria, cruel as they were, were not merely for love of conquest : they were largely commercial in purpose, — to win " a place in the sun," like most modern wars, — to secure the trade of Syria and Commerce and wars of greed Laws of Hammueapi (see text). — At the top of the stone shaft, on one face, is a sculptured relief rep- resenting the king (standing) receiv- ing the Law from the hand of the Sun God. Phoenicia, and to ruin trade centers, like Damascus, Jerusalem, and Tyre, that were competing with Nineveh. In 1902 A.D., a French explorer found a collection of 280 Laws of Babylonian laws inscribed, in some 2600 lines, upon an eight- foot shaft of stone. This "code" asserts that it was enacted Hammurapi 36 ASSVKIA AXD BABYLOXIA by llaininuiai)! (p. 'M). It is the oldest huowu code of laws in the world ; and it shows tliai the men for whom it was made were ah'eady far achaneed in ei\ihzation. It tries to ^uard against l)ril)ery of judge's and witnesses, against careless medical practice, against ignorant or dishonest building contractors, as well as against the oppression of widows and ()ri)hans. Some prox isions remind us of the later Jewish law of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth — though injuries to a poor man could be atoned for in money : "If a man has caused a man of rank to lose an oyo, one of his own eyes must be struck out. if he has shattered the limb of a man of rank, let his own limb be broken. [But] If he has caused a poor man to lose an eye, or has shattered a limb, let him pay one maneh of silver" [about $32 in our values]. This code, and other discoveries, show that rifiht.s of propcriy were carefully guarded. Deeds, wills, marriage settlements, legal contracts of all kinds, survive by tens of thousands. Cuneiform The early inhabitants of Chaldea had a system of hieroglyph- writing j^g j^^j^ unlike the Egyj)tian. At first they wrote, or painted, these on the papyrus, which grew in the Kuj)hrates as well as in the Nile. Later, they came to press the characters with a sharp metal instrument into c-lay tablets (which were then baked to preserve them). This change of nuiterial led to a change in the written characters. The pictures shriveled and flat- tened into Vvcdge-shaped symbols, and so scholars call this writing rumifoDii, from the Latin cmicu.s, wedge. The sig- And writing natures to legal documents show a great variety of hand- schools writings; and recently a Babylonian .school Ikhi.si' has been excavated, wliere boys were taught to write. The floor was strewn with many ".slates" (soft cla\ tablets when the Babylonian boys used them), covered with writing exercises, evidently from set copies of various degrees of difliculty. When such a "slate" was full, the Babylonian boy cleaned it b\ scraj)- ing it smooth with a straight-edged scraper. Books Kach of the numerous cities that studded the valley of the fibraries ^^^''^ rivers had its library, sometimes several of them. A librarv was a collection of cla\- tablets or bricks cox-ered with PLATE XI Above. — ^ Fragment of a Babylonian " Deluge Tablet" — with a story of a deluge somewhat like that in Genesis. Below. — A Babylonian Contract Tablet in Duplicate. — The outer tablet is broken to show part of the inner original, which could always be consulted if the outside was thought to have been tampered with. PLATE XII Ax AssYKiAN "B(n;K" — an eijrht-sidcHl ryliiuler ..f iKiki-.l .-lay inscribed with the story of eight campaigns of Sennacherib. Tlie brick (now in the British Niuscum) is about three times as large as its representation here. LEARNING AND LIBRARIES 37 minute cuneiform writing — six lines, perhaps, to an inch. In Babylon the ruins of one library contained over thirty thou- sand tablets, of about the date 2700 B.C., all neatly arranged in order. A tablet, with its condensed wTiting, corresponds fairly well to a chapter in one of our books. Each tablet had its library number stamped upon it, and the collections were carefully catalogued. The kings prided themselves on keeping libraries open to the public ; and a large part of the inhal)itants (including many women) could read and write. The literary class studied the "dead" language of the pre- Semitic period, as we study Latin, and the merchants were obliged to know the languages spoken in Syria in that day. The libraries contained dictionaries and grammars of these lan- guages, and also many translations of foreign books, in columns parallel wdth the originals. Scribes were constantl}- employed in copying and editing ancient texts, and they seem to have been very careful in their work. When they could not make out a word in an ancient copy, they tell us so, and leave the space blank. Science was somewhat hindered by belief in charms and magic. Chaldean Some of our boyish forms of "counting out" such as "eeny, science meeny, miny, moe," are playful survivals of solemn forms of divination used by Chaldean magicians. Still, in geometry the Chaldeans made as much progress as the Egyptians ; and in arithmetic more. Their notation combined the decimal and duodecimal systems. Sixty was a favorite unit (used as we use the hundred) because it is divisible by both ten and twelve. (That notation survives on the faces of most of our clocks and on every school globe, and the Chaldean " dozen'' is still one of our units.) As in Egypt, too, the clear skies and level plains invited an Astrology early study of the heavenly bodies. Every great city had its lofty observatory and its royal astronomer ; and in Babylon, in 331 B.C., Alexander the Great found the record of an unbroken series of observations running back 1900 years before that time. Toward the close of their civilization the Chaldeans learned to foretell eclipses. In great measure, however, they studied 38 ASSY in A AXD BABYLONIA Arts and industry Our debt to Babylon iistroiioiuy as a means ol" lorctcllinj;' the future — hecausc tlie stars were tlioii^^lit to iiiHiieiiee hiiman lives. This })reten(le(l science we call (isiroUxjji, to distiii^niisli it from real astronomy. It was ])ractice(l in (^aiMiest in iMn-ojx- as late as Queen Eliza- beth's time, luul, even after so many hundred years, a European astrologer was always called "a Chaldean." These men of tlie lMi|)hrates made j)raetieal use of their science. They inxcnted ivhuliil caits, and, xcry early, they devised effective defen- si\'e armoi" — helmets of leather end)()ssed with co])])er ])lates. They wrote l)ooks on (ujri- culiuri\ which ])assed on tlieir skill in that field to the (ireeks. They understood the /rrrrand pill 1(1/, and used the (irrh in \aulted drains and a(iueducts. They invented an excellent system of nica.surcs, and arm ; and these come down to us Hauvli^xiax ( 'YLiXDKit Skai.s. i',\cr.\- \\c\[- to-do porsoii hnfl lii.s seal, with which to sign letters and legal papers. Sometimes they were tiiiely etijiraved jasper or chaledoiiy. based on the length of finger, hand, measures, along with their ivciiihis, have through the Greeks. Our poinid is merely the Babylonian mina renamed. The symbols in our 'W pothccdn'c.s' Th/' still used in every physician's prescription, are Babylonian, as are the curious ".v/V///.v of the zitdiac'' in our almanacs. As we get from the Egyptians our yvAV and months, so from the Chaldeans we get the //vr/,-, with its "seventh da\- of rest for the soul." Babxlonian nutal-workers and engraxcrs had surpassing skill in cuti'nuj (jcms, mitincltnd, and inhii/nui. Assyrian looms, too, produced the finest of nnislins and of fieecy woolens, to which the diiir gaxc the most brilliant colors. The rich wore long rol>es of those cloths, decorated with em- broideries. Tapestries and carpets, also, wonderfully colored, were woxcn, for walls ami iloors an-.l beds. ART AND RELIGION 39 The Euphrates valley had no stone and little wood. Brick- making, therefore, was, next to agriculture, the most important industry. Ordinary houses were built of cheap sun-dried bricks. The same material was used for all but the outer courses of the walls of the palaces and temples ; but for these outside faces, a kiln-baked brick was used, much like our own. With only these imperfect materials, the Babylonians con- structed marvelous tower-temples and elevated gardens, in imi- tation of mountain scenery. The "Hanging Gardens," built Architec- ture and sculpture Impressions from a King's Cylinder Seal. The figure in the air repre- sents the god who protects the king in his perils. by Nebuchadnezzar to please his wife (from the Median moun- tains), rose, one terrace upon another, to a height of one hun- dred and fifty feet, and were counted by the Greeks among the " seven wonders of the world." But this extensive use of sun- dried brick explains the complete decay of Chaldean cities, — which, in the course of ages, sank into shapeless mounds hardly distinguishable from the surrounding plain. Assyria abounded in excellent stone. Still for centuries her builders slavishly used brick, like the people from whom they borrowed their art. Finally, however, they came to make use of the better material about them for sculpture and for the facings of their public buildings. In architecture and sculp- ture, though in no other art, Assyria, land of stone, excelled 40 ASSYRIA AND BABVLOXIA Babylonia, land of l)ri(k. In tiic royal palaces, cspt'cially, tlic almost unlimited j)o\ver of the monarehs and their Oriental passion for splendor and color j^roduced a sumj)tuous mag- nificence. Religion Bahylonians and Assyrians worshiped ancestors. Mingled with this religion was a nature worship, with mnnerous gods and demigods. .Vncestor worship is usually aeeomj)anied hy a i)elief in witchcraft and in unfriendly ghosts and demons. In Chaldea these sujXM'stitions appeared in exaggerated form. The j)ictures in early Christian times representing the dexil with horns, hoofs, and tail, came from the Bahylonians, through the Jewish Talmud (a Hebrew hook of learning and legends). Nature worship, in its lower stages, is often accompanied l)y debasing rites, in which drunkenness and sensuality appear as acts of worshi]). The stern reproaches of the He])rew prophets ha\(' made Babylon notorious for such features in her religion; but tile following hymn composed in Ur, before the time of Abraham, shows noble religious feeling. "Father, long suffering and full of forgiveness, whose hand upholds the life of all mankind ! . . . First-born, omnipotent, whose heart is immensity, and there is none who may fathom it ! . . . In heaven, who is supreme? Thou alone, thou art sui)reme ! On earth, who is supreme? Thou alone, thou art supreme! As for thee, thy will is made known in heaven, and tiie angels bow their faces. Afi for thee, thy will is made known uj)()n earlli, and the spirits below kiss the ground." PLATE XIII Reliefs from Assyrian Palaces CHAPTER IV THE PERSIAN EMPIRE Now the map grows. Shortly before the overthrow of Babylon, Lydia and two new centers of power had appeared, one on either side of the Syrian crescent. These were Persia and Lydia. Lydia was a kingdom in western Asia Minor. Somewhat before 550 B.C. its sovereign, Croesus, united all Asia Minor west of the Halys River under his sway (including many Greek cities on the eastern Mediterranean coast). This made the Lydian Empire for a time one of the great world-powers (map opposite). The region abounded in gold and silver ; and " rich as Croe- sus" became a byword. Lydia's gift to the world was the invention of coinage. As early as 650 B.C., a Lydian king stamped upon pieces of silver a statement of their weight and purity, with his name and picture as guarantee of the state- ment. This ** money" of Lydia could be received anywhere at once at a fixed rate — which made commerce vastly easier. Ever since, the coinage of money has been one of the important duties of governments. The older " barter, " however, remained the common method of exchange, except in the most progressive markets, for centuries more. On the farther side of the Euphrates and Tigris lay the lofty A new field and somewhat arid Plateau of Iran. This was the home of the Medes and Persians. These peoples appeared first about 850 B.C., as fierce barbarians, whom Assyria found it needful to subdue repeatedly. Gradually they adopted the civilization of their neighbors ; and, in 606, as we have seen, the Medes conquered Assyria. Then the civilized world was divided, for three generations,^ * A generation, as a measure of time, means the average interval that separates a father from his son. This corresponds in length, also, in a rough way, to the active years of adult life, — the period between early manhood and old age. It is reckoned at twenty-five Or thirty years. 41 42 TlIK PKRSrANS A rest from war Cyrus makes the Persian Empire Extent and population l)('t\v(HMi tour «;r('at powers, — Babylon, Kgypt, Lydia, and Media. These kingdoms were friendly allies, and the ei\ iliz( d world had a rare rest from internal war. But in .loS H.( ., (\i/rits, a tributary prince of the Persian tribes, threw ott' the yoke of the Medes and set up an inde- pendent Persian monarchy — ivhich qiiickli/ hrcainc the most powerful empire the world Juui kiiowti. Cyrus conquered Media and her allies, Lydia and Babylon; and a few years later his son subdued Egypt. The new empire included all the former ones, together with the new districts of Iran and Asia Minor. The next three Persian kings (after Cyrus and his son) added to their dominions modern Afghanistan and northwestern India on the east, with vast regions to the northeast beyond the Caspian Sea; and on the west, the European coast from the Black Sea to the Greek peninsula and the islands of the Aegean. This huge realm contained possibly seventy-five million people, and its eastern and western frontiers were farther apart than Washington and San Francisco. Its only civilized neighbors were India ^ and Greece. Elsewhere, indeed, it was l)ounded bv seas and deserts. Persia and the Scythians Persian art and literature were whollij borrowed, mainly from Babylonia. Besides the expansion of tlie map, already noted, Persia's services to the world were three : the repulse of Scythian savages; n Jtetter organization of govern ment : and the lofty char- acter of her religion. 1. About 680 B.C., shortly before the downfall of Nineveh, the steppes of the North had poured hordes of savages into western Asia (p. 32). By the Greeks these nomads were called Scythians, and their inroads were like those of the Huns, Turks, and Tartars, in later history. They ])lun(lered as far as Egyi)t ; and the\ were a real danger to all the culture the world had been building up so j)aiiifully for four thousand years. The ' C^ivilizations grew up at a very early dat^ in the groat river valleys of India and China ; but these civilizations have not much affect^'d our "West- ern" rivilization until very rcrently. Therefore they are not taken into ac- count in this volume. DARIUS THE ORGANIZER 43 early Persian kings, by repeated expeditions into the Scythian country, saved civilization from these ruthless ravagers. 2. The first " empires " were held together very loosely. The tributary kingdoms had to pay tribute and to assist in war, and from time to time their kings were expected to attend the court of their master. Otherwise, the subject states were sepa- rate units. They kept their old kings and their own language, laws, and customs. Two of them sometimes made war upon each other, without interference from the head king. A foreign invasion or the unexpected death of a sovereign might shatter the loose union ; and then would follow years of bloody war, until some king built up the empire once more. Peace and security could not exist. The Assyria'n rulers had begun to reform this plan of government. They left the subject peoples their own laws and customs, as before ; but they broke up Persian Gold Armlet, 5 inches in height. « ^, 1 r 1 . 1 Found on the banks of the Oxus in 1877. some oi the old kmgdoms into satrapies, or provinces, ruled by appointed officers. (This was Assyria's sole contribution to progress.) The system, how- ever, was still unsatisfactory. In theory the satraps were wholly dependent upon the will of the imperial king ; but in practice they were very nearly kings themselves, and they were under constant temptation to try to become independent rulers, by rebellion. The Persians adopted and extended the system of satraps; and Darius ''the Organizer,'' the fourth Persian king (521-^85 B.C.), introduced three new checks upon rebellion. (1) In each of the twenty provinces, power was divided between the satrap himself and the commander of the standing army. (2) In A new im- perial organ- ization 41 TIIK PERSIANS Post roads The Persian religion Zoroaster each proxincv was placed a royal secretary (the "Kind's Ear") to coniiniinieate constantly with the Great King. And (3), most important of all, ji special royal commission (the "King's Eye"), backed witli military forces, appeared at intervals in each satrapy to inquire into the government, and, if necessary, to arrest the satrap. This icds fhr most .saf/'sfdcforj/ <)r(/anlz(iti()U ever inrc fifed In/ an Oritfitdl niipirr, (uiricnt or modern. To the vast Persian world it brought a long period of freedom from the waste and horror of internal war. ,, Each of the subject provinces kept its own language and customs ; but Darius did something also to create a ffj)7rit of union in the Empire. He reopened the ancient Egyptian canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, ^ to encourage trade ;^ and, to draw the distant parts of the Empire together, he built a mag- nificent system of post roads, with mil(\stones and excellent inns, with ferries and bridges, and with relays of swift horses for the royal couriers. The chief road, from Susa to Sardis (map after p. 42), fifteen hundred miles long, "pierced the strata of many tribes and dixerse cultures, and helped set thi irorld (i-)ni.vin(i. " 3. While they were still l)arl)arous tribes, the Persians liad learned to worshij) tlic forces of nature, — especially sun, moon, stars, and fire. This worship was in the hands of priests, called Magi, who were belie\ed to possess " mafjir " powers over nature and other men. But the Pi rsiaiis of tlie historic age had risen to a nobler worship. This is set forth in the Zend- Avesta (the Persian Bible), and it had been established about 1(K)0 B.C. by Zoroaster. According to this great teacher, the world is a stage for unceasing conflict between the powers of Light and Darkness, or Good and Evil. It is man's duty to assist the good power by resisting evil impulses in his own heart and by fighting injustice among men. It is also his jilace to ' .\ sorii's of nioiiuriicnts set u|> l»y 1 ):iriiis to coTiimeniorate thi.s ^reat enKiiiocriiin work have rtMontly l)ot'ii dim out of tlio sands which, after a few generation.s. had been aUowed again to l)nry the canal. - It wa.s then that trade with the Far East first hrouglit •»ur domestic "chicken" into Western .\sia. RELIGION AND MORALS 45 kill harmful beasts, to care tenderly for other animals, and to make the earth fruitful. The following passage from the Zend-Avesta shows the Persian idea of a future life : At the head of the Chinvat Bridge, betwixt this world and the next, when the soul goes over it, there comes a fair, white-armed and beauti- ful figure, like a maid in her fifteenth year, as fair as the fairest things in the world. And the soul of the true believer speaks to her, "What maid art thou, — all surpassing in thy beauty? " And she makes an- swer, "O youth of good thought, good words, good deeds, and of good religion: — / am thine own conscience.'" Then pass the souls of the righteous to the golden seat of Ahura-Mazda, of the Archangels, to . . . "The Abode of Song." Another passage tells how the souls of the wicked are met by a foul hag and are plunged into a hideous pit, to suffer endless torment. The cardinal virtue was truthfulness. Darius' instructions to his successor began : " Keep thyself utterly from lies. The man who is a liar, him destroy utterly. If thou do thus, my country will remain whole." A century later, the Greek Herodotus admired the manly sports of the Persians and the simple train- ing of their boys, — " to ride, to shoot with the bow, and to speak the truth." Exercise. — Would you have expected the Persians to adopt the Egyptian hieroglyphs or the cuneiform writing? Why? In what ways was the organization of the Persian Empire an improvement upon that of the Assyrian? In what way did Assyrian organization improve upon Egyptian? For Further Reading. — There is an admirable twenty-page treat- ment of the Persian Empire in Benjamin Ide Wheeler's Alexander the Great (pp. 187-207), — a book which for other reasons deserves a place in every school library. Davis' Readings, I, Nos. 25-31, contain much interesting material upon Persian reUgion and morals. CHAPTKK V THE MIDDLE STATES From tlic Persian Empire the story of ei\ ilizat ion passes back to Europe; but first we must stop to note l)riefl\ the work of two small peoples of Syria, the middle land between the Nile and the Euphrates. Without ever growing into powerful empires, the Phorniv'unhs and the Hebrews were mighty factors in the progress of the world. 1. THE PHOENICIANS Sailors and The Phoenicians dwelt on a little strip of broken coast shut tra ers ^^^ from the interior by the Lebanon Mountains (map, p. 50). Their many harbors invited them seaward, and the "cedar of Lebanon" offered the best of ship timber. When history first reveals the INIediterranean, it is dotted with their a^dventurous sails. At first, half traders, half pirates, their crews crept from island to island, to barter with the natives or to sweep them off for slaves, as chance might best suggest. Then, more daringly, they sought wealth farther and farther on the sea, until they passed even the Pillars of Hercules,' into the open Atlantic. By 1 100 B.C. the}/ had become the iraders of the world ; and we see them exchanging the precious tin of Britain, the yellow amber of the Haltic, and tlic slaves and ivory Of West Africa, for the spices, gold, scented wood, and j)recious stones of India. The ship that Xeco sent to circumnavigate .\frica was manned by Phoenician sailors; and the chief Phoenician cities, Tyre and Sidon, were among tiic most s])lendi(l and wealthy in the world. (Read Iv/ckiel. x\\ i \\\ ii, for a mag- nificent dcscrij)tion of tiic grandeur of Tyre and of the wide extent of her coinmerce.) ' 'l^v() Idfty hills. oiR' (»n each side of tlip Strait of Clibraltar. beyond which the .\ncients generally thought lay inconceivable perils (niaj) after p. 70). 40 THE PHOENICIANS 47 The Phoenicians were the first colonizers. They fringed The first the larger islands and the shores of the Mediterranean with J^n^history trading stations, which became new centers of civilization. Carthage, Utica, Gades (Cadiz, on the Atlantic), were among their colonies (map after p. 70). They worked tin mines in Col- chis, in Spain, and finally in Britain, and so made possible the manufacture of bronze on a larger scale than before, to replace stone implements. Probably they first introduced bronze into many parts of Europe. To get things wherewith to trade, the Phoenicians became Industries manufacturers, — learning from Egyptians and Bab\4onians to work in metals, glass, and textiles. Hammer, loom, potter's wheel, engraver's knife, were always busy in Tyre, and quan- tities of their products are found in ancient tombs of Greece Mission- and Italy — the earliest European homes of civilization. The cJ^i^zation Phoenicians were "missionaries" of culture. It was their func- tion not to create civilization, but to spread it. Their chief export, it is well said, was the alphabet. When The the Egyptians first conquered Syria, about 1600 a.d., the Phoeni- cians were using the cuneiform script of Babylon (introduced among them by Hammurapi's conquest). But their commerce made it necessary to keep complicated accounts and to com- municate with agents in distant ports. This called for a sim- pler way of writing; and, about 1100 B.C., we find them with a true alphabet of twenty-two letters — for consonant somids only — probably derived from Egyptian " sound-symbols." The Phoenician cities submitted easily, as a rule, to any Fall of Tyre powerful neighbor. From Babylonia, from Egypt, from Persia, in turn, they bought security by paying tribute in money and in ships. Assyria sought to annihilate the Phoenician cities, as rivals in trade, and did destroy many of them ; but Tyre was saved by her position on a rocky island-promontory. Finally, in 332 B.C., it was captured by Alexander the Great (p. 136). From this downfall the proud city never fully re- covered, and fishermen now spread their nets to dry in the sun on the bare rock where once her tall towers rose. 48 rUK HEBREWS Wandering shepherds II. rnr: ukrrews As tlic Phoenicians wciv men of the sea, so the early Hebrews were men of the desert. They appear first as wandering shep- herds along the grazing lands on the edge of the Arabian sands. Ahruhiim, the founder of the race, emigrated from **Ur of the Chaldees," about iMOO h.c He and his descendants, Isaac Thk ri;iMii.i; Land (,r (h.shkn To-day.— Palms arid yrain. From Petrie'.s Egypt and Isratl. and Jacoli, llxcd and ruled as j)atriarchal clu'efs, much as Arab sheiks do in the sauie regions to-day. The captiv- Finally, "the famine was sore in the land." Jacob and his sons, with their tribesmen and flocks, sought refuge in Egypt. Here they found Joseph, one of their brethren, already high ity in Egypt AND THEIR MISSION 49 in royal favor. The rulers of Egypt at this time, too, were the Hyksos, themselves originally Arabian shepherds ; and the Hebrews were allowed to settle in the fertile pasturage of Go- shen, near the Red Sea, where flitting Arab tribes have always been wont to encamp. But soon the native Egyptian rule w^as restored by Theban pharaohs, "who knew not Joseph." These powerful princes of the New^ Empire (p. 25) reduced the He- brews to slavery, and employed them on great public works, and " made their lives bitter with hard bondage in mortar and in brick and in all manner of service in the field." Three centuries later, while the Egyptian government was in The Exodus a period of weakness and disorder, the oppressed people escaped to the Arabian desert again, led by the hero Moses. For a man's lifetime, the fugitives wandered to and fro, after their ancient manner ; but they were now a numerous people and had become accustomed to fixed abodes. About 1250 B.C., And the under Joshua, to whom Moses had turned over the leadership, conquest of they began to conquer the fertile valleys of Palestme for their home. Then followed two centuries of bloody warfare with their neighbors, some of whom had long before taken on the civilization of Babylonia. During this period the Hebrew^s remained a loose alliance Under the of twelve shepherd tribes, led by a series of popular heroes, J^^s®^ like Samson, Jephthah, Gideon, and Samuel, known as Judges. Much of the time there was great and ruinous disorder, and bands of robbers drove travelers from the highways. Finally, the Philistines for a time overran the land at will. Thus the Hebrews felt the necessity for stronger government. Kings and Saul, a mighty warrior, roused them against the Philistine PJ^opl^e^s spoilers, and led them to victory. In return they made him their first king. Alongside this monarch and his successors, however, there stood religious teachers without office but with great authority. These "prophets" were shepherd preachers, clad perhaps only in the sheepskin of the desert ; but they did not hesitate to rebuke or oppose a sovereign. David, the second king (about 1070-977), completely subdued the Philistines, and, taking shrewd advantage of the fact that 50 TIIK HEBREWS The king- dom of David Solomon and the Temple (977 937 B.C. the ^rriit states on the Nile and the Euphrates were both in a period of decay, he raised the Hei)re\v state into a small empire m western Syria. He will he remembered longest, how- ever, as "the sweet singer of Israel." He was originally a shepherd boy who attracted Saul's favor by his beauty and his skill upon the harp ; and, in the THE SYRIAN DISTRICT f 4 H |\t t3| T E 8 V'-'' Sv-V \ i\ ^ \' most troublous days of his kingship, he sought rest and com- fort in composing songs and poems, which are now in- cluded in the sacred Book of Psalms. David's son, Solo- mon, built a noble temple at Jerusalem for the worship of Jehovah. Until this time the only sacred shrine of the He- brews had been a portable "Ark," suited to a primitive and nomad tribe ; and even now they lacked architectural skill to construct large buildings. But Solomon's ally, King Hiram of Tyre, sent skilled Phoenician builders for the work, and it was ((iiiiplrtcd with great magnificence. Solomon also built rich ])alaces witli liis foreign workmen, and copied within them the splendor and luxury of an Oriental court. >-n- ..ro«T[» tNO CO.. AND THEIR MISSION 51 The Hebrews now began to grow prosperous — with the usual inequality of great wealth and extreme poverty. And soon the prophets, like Mieah and Amos (the first social reformers in history), were denouncing fiercely the fraud and violence of the greedy rich, who *' corrupt judgment " (in law cases) and " grind the faces of the poor." The punishment for the nation, which they foretold, was already on the way. Solomon's reign closed the brief age of political greatness for the Division and Hebrews. The twelve tribes had not come to feel themselves really one nation. They had been divided into two groups in earlier times : ten tribes in one group ; two in the other. The "ten tribes" now held the north, the more fertile part of Pales- tine, with numerous cities. The "two tribes," in the rugged south, were still largely shepherds and herdsmen. David had belonged to the smaller group, and his early kingship had extended over only the two tribes. Jealousies against the rule of his house had smoldered all along among the ten tribes. Now came a final separation. Solomon's taxes had sorely burdened the people. On his death, the ten tribes petitioned his son for relief, and when the young king (Rehoboam) replied with haughty insult, they set up for themselves as the Kingdom of Israel, with a capital at Samaria. The tribes of Benjamin and Judah remained faithful to the house of David, and became the Kingdom of Judah, with the old capital, Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Israel lasted 250 years, until Sargon carried The the ten tribes into that Assyrian captivity in which they are captivities "lost" to history (p. 31). Judah lasted four centuries after the separation, most of the time tributary to Assyria or to Babylon. Finally, in punishment for rebellion, Nebuchadnezzar carried away the people into the Bahyloiiian caj^tivity (p. 33). When the Persians conquered Babylon, they showed special Priestly favor to the Jews, and the more zealous of the race returned to Judea. From this time, such control of their own affairs as was left to them by Persia was in the hands of the priests, led by the High Priest of the Temple. At this time the sacred writings of the Hebrews — our '* Old Testament " — ' were recopied and arranged in their present form. (In the the faith 52 Till-: IIKHKMWS ciiilitli cciitiirv the Ilchrcws had l.onowc*! an alplialx't from the IMiociiiciaiis.) The faith in The H('l)r('\vs added notliiiiji; to inaterial cixilization, nor did they contrihntc dirct'tly to any art. Their work was liij^dier. Their reH^dous Hterature was the nohlest the world had seen, and it has passed into all the literatures of the ei\ ilized world ; hut even this is valuable not so much for its literary merit as for its moral teachings. The true hi.stori/ of the Ili'hrcw.s' is ihc record of their spiritual fjrouih. Their religion was infinitely purer and truer than any other of the aneient world. Growth of At first this lofty faith belonged to only a few — to the pa- triarehs, and later to the i)rophets, with a small following of the more spiritually minded of the nation. For a thousand years the common people, and some of the kings, were con- stantly falling away into the superstitions of their Syrian neigh- bors. But it is the supreme merit of the Hebrew^s that a rem- nant always clung to the higher religion, until it became the universal faith of that "chosen" and sifted people who, after the Babylonian captivity, found their way back to Judea through so many hardships. Suggestions for Review Let the class prepare review qi'jstioiLS, each member five or ten, to ask of the others. Criticize the questions, showing which ones help to bring out important facts and contrasts and likenesses, and which are merely trivial or curious. It is well to make lists of important names or terms for rapid drill, demanding brief but dear explanation of each term, i.e. cuneiform, shekel, Ht/ksos, papyrus. Satnplr Questions : (1) In what did the Egyptians excel the Babylo- nians? (2) In what did the Babylonians excel the Egyptians? (3) In what did the Persians excel both? (4) Trace the growth f)f the map for civilized countries, (o) Locate four centers of civilization for L500 B.r., and observe, on the map, where they would most naturally come in contact with one another. (()) What new center became promi- nent between 1700 and 1000 h.(.? (One more center for that age — Crete — is yet to be treated.) Caution: Make sure that the terms "empire," ".state," "tributary state," "civiliz.ation." have a definite meaning for the student. time when Abraham set out from Vv of th(> Chaldees. In the treasure rooms of the palace at Knossos, there were Molt .- -^ ■.!■ Knossos, with terrarotta drain pipes. I w 3 - in — 5 li^ o C^ i " r rj c CRETAN CIVILIZATION 55 found numbers of small clay tablets covered with ivriting — appar- ently memoranda of the receipt of taxes. These, and other such remains since discovered, show that the Cretans had developed a system of syllabic writing, based on Egyptian sound sym- bols, but more advanced. Un- happily scholars have not yet learned to read it. A Roman historian who wrote a little before the birth of Christ men- tions that in his day the Cre- tans claimed that their ances- tors had invented the alphabet, and that the Phoenicians had only made it better known. Modern Cretans had forgotten this claim ; but these recent dis- coveries give it much support. Each home wove its own cloth, as we learn from the loom- weights in every house. Each home, too, had its stone mortars A Cretan alphabet Cretan Writing of 2200 b.c. — Plainly some of these characters are numerals. Others resemble later Greek letters. Tools and utensils i. il .^ - . "^ / Cooking Utensils of 2200 b.c, found in one tomb at Knossos. 56 TTTE EARLY GREEKS for grinding the daily supply of meal. Kitchen utensils were varied and numerous, and strangely modern in shape. Most cooking was done over an open fire of sticks — though sometimes there was a sort of recess in a hearth, over which a kettle stood. When the destroying foe came upon Knossos, one carpenter left his kit of tools hidden under a stone slab, which preserved tlicin ; and among them we find saws, hammers, adz, chisels hea\ y and light, awls, nails, files, and axes. They are of bronze, Tuf: (Iatk of thk Lions at Mycenae. — The huge stono at the top of the Kate, supportiiiK the lions, is 15 feet long and 7 feet thick. Enemies could reach the pate only by passing between long stone walls — from l^hiiid which archers could shoot down upon them. of course, but in shape they are so like our own that it seems probable that this handicraft passed down its skill without a break from the earliest European civilization to the present. One huge crosscut saw. like oiu' hinib(M'man's, was found in a mountain town. ("rctc (lid not stand l)y its(>lf in its (•ultur<'. The Greeks of the historical period had many legends about the glories of an older Mycenae "rich in gold." And there, in Argolis, some fifty years ago an explorer uncovered remains of an ancient PROGRESS BEFORE HOMER 57 city of perhaps 1200 b.c, with peculiar, massive (" Cyclopean") walls. Within were found a curious group of tombs where lay in state the embalmed bodies of ancient kings, — " in the splendor of their crowns and breastplates of embossed plate of gold; their swords studded with golden imagery; their faces covered strangely in golden masks. The very floor of one tomb was thick with gold dust — the heavy gilding from some perished kingly vestment. In another was a downfall of golden leaves and flowers. And amid this profusion of fine fragments were rings, bracelets, . . . dainty butterflies for ornaments, and a wonderful golden flower on a silver stalk." For Further Reading. — Specially suggested : Davis' Readings, I, No. 32, gives an interesting extract from an account of Cretan re- mains by one of the discoverers. Additional, for students who wish wider reading: Hawes, Crete the Fore-runner of Greece; or Baikie, Sea Kings of Crete. Bronze Dagger from Mycenae, inlaid with gold. — This dagger was prominent in the " Greek Exhibit " sent to America by the Greek govern- ment just after the World War and shown in various of our cities. CHAPTER VII THE GREEKS OF HOMER Barbarian Achaeans from the north About 1500 B.C. hands of tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed, semi- barbarous .If /?r/ra//.s' from tlu' north, drawn by the splendor and ric'lu's of the south, broke into the Aegean lands, as northern barbarians many times sinee have broken into southern Europe. Some fortunate ehanee had given these mighty-limbed strangers a knowledge of iron ; and now, armed with long iron swords, and bringing their flocks and herds, with their women and children in rude carts drawn l)y horses, they established them- selves among the short, dark, })ronze-weapone(l natives, became their masters, dwelt in their cities, married their women, and possessed the land. This occupation was a slow process, working unrecordef misery on generation after generation of the gentler nati\-es For the most part, the newcomers filtered in, band bv Troy and the Homeric poems band, seizing a valley or an island at a time. Occasionally, however, large armies warred long and desperately al)out some strong- hold of the old ei\ ilization. Knossos had never had walls : it had trusted for defense to its position on an island and to its sea-power ; and it fell early before fleets of Achaean sea- rovers. In walled cities like Mycenae, the old culture li\ cd on three or four centuries more. The legends of the Trojan War were probably based on one of the closing struggles. Our knowledge of the Achaeans comes largely from the so- called "Homeric poems," the Iliad and the Odi/sscy. The later Greeks believed that these were eom])o.sed about 1000 B.C. by a blind minstrel named Homer. Scholars now think that each collection was nuide u]) of man\ ballads sung originally by different bards at dilVcrcnt times and luinded down orally from father to son for centuries before they were put into writ- ing. The Iliad describes part of a ten-year siege of Troy by 58 HOMER'S "ACHAEANS" 59 Achaean chieftains from all parts of Greece. The Odyssey tells the adventures and wanderings of Odysseus (Ulysses), one of the heroes, in the return from that war. Whether or not there was a Trojan War, the poems certainly tell us much about the customs and ideas of the Greeks of 1100 B.C. ; and their pictures of Greek life have been confirmed by recent exca- vation of remains in the soil. The first explorer in this field of excavation in Greek lands Schlie- was Dr. Henry Schliemann. When Schliemann was a child in a "J^^^ ^ . . . story German village, his father told him the Homeric stories, and once showed him a fanciful picture of the huge " W^alls of Troy. " The child was told that no one now knew just where Troy had stood, and that the city had left no traces ; but he insisted that such walls must have left remains that could be uncovered by digging; and his father playfully agreed that sometime Henry should find them. Later, the boy heard that the learned scholars of his day did not believe that "Troy" had ever existed. This aroused in him a fierce resentment ; and to carry out his childhood dream of finding the great walls of Homer's city be- came the passion of his life. In 1870, after many years spent in w^inning the necessary Excavations wealth and learning. Dr. Schliemann began excavations at a ** ^'"^^ little village in "Troy -land," on a mound of earth three miles inland from the shore. The explorations continued more than twenty years and disclosed the remains of nine distinct towns, one above another. The oldest, on native rock, some fifty feet below the present surface, was a rude village of the Stone Age. The second, thought by Schliemann to be Homer's Troy, showed powerful walls, a citadel that had been de- stroyed by fire, and a civilization marked by bronze w^eapons and gold ornaments. We know now that this city belonged to the early Cretan age, and that it passed away more than a thousand years before Homer's time. Above it came the remains of three inferior settlements, and .then — the sixth layer from the bottom — a much larger and finer city, which had perished in conflagration some 1100 or 1200 years before Christ. Explorations, after Schliemann's death, proved this 60 EARLY CrREEKS sixth city to he tlu' Troy described so fully in the Iliad (Above this Homeric Troy came an old Greek city, a magnificent city of the time of Alexander the Great, a Roman city, and, finally, the s(jualid Turkish village of to-day. The position of these towns commanded the trade between the Black Sea regions and the Aegean. This accounts, probably, for the succession A S.MALI. FV\i>T OF rm. I ' \' of cities tliere. ;nid |)erlia])S for tlic destruction of some of them in war by tra Aegean age. vSome shields and inlaid weapons of that earlier j)eriod had passed into the hands of the Achaeans ; and th(^se were always spoken of as the work of Hej)haestus, the god of fire and of metal work. A separate class of traders had not arisen. The chiefs, in the inter\als of farm labor, turned to trading voyages now and then, and did not hesitate to increase their profits by pi racy. It was no ollense to ask a stranger wliether he came as a pirate or for peaceful trade (Odi/.s-sry, ni, ()0-70). The clan riligion was a worsliip of clan ancestors. If pro- vided with pleasing meals at proper times and invoked with magic fornuilas (so the belief ran), the mighty ghosts of ancient clan elders would continue to aid tlieir children. Tlu> clan tomb was the altar. Milk and wine were pourc^l into a hollow in the ground, while the clan elder, the only lawful priest, spoke sacred fornudas in\ iting the dead to eat. In like manner, the families of the clan each came to have its sej)aratejV/ /////// irorshipDi ancestors. Thr hrnrih wan ihr family altar. Near it were grouped the Ptn(tti.s, or images of household gods who watched over the family. Thr fathtr iras thr priest. Before each meal, he poured out on the hearth the Uhntion, or food-otfering, to tlu- family gods and asked their l)lessing. RELIGION 65 Originally, no doubt, the family tomb was ujider the hearth. (Cf. the Cave Men, p. 3.) This explains why the hearth became an altar, and why food offerings to ancestors continued to be made there all through Greek and Roman history. But the religion of which we hear most in Greek literature The grew out of a nature worship. The lively fancy of the Greeks ^^^^^^^ personified the forces of nature in the forms and characters of men and women — built in a somewhat more majestic mold than human men. The great gods lived on cloud- capped Mount Olympus, and passed their days in feasting and laughter and other pleas- ures. When the chief god, Zeus, slept, things sometimes went awt\% for other gods plotted against his plans. His wife Hera was exceedingly jealous — for which she had much reason — and the two had many a family wrangle. Some of the gods went down to aid their favorites in war, and were wounded by human vveapons. The twelve great Olympian deities were (Latin names in parentheses) : ZeI 8 Zeus (Jupiter), the supreme god; god of the sky; "father of gods and men." Poseidon (Neptune), god of the sea. Apollo, the sun god; god of wisdom, poetry, prophecy, and medicine. . Ares (Mars), god of war. Hephaestus (Vulcan), god of fire — the lame smith. Hermes (Mercury), god of the wind; messenger; god of cunning, of thieves, and of merchants. Hera (Juno), sister and wife of Zeus ; queen of the sky. Athene (Minerva), goddess of wisdom; female counterpart of Apollo. Artemis (Diana), goddess of the moon, of maidens, and of hunting. Aphrodite (Venus), goddess of love and beauty. 66 IK )M Kirs GKEKKS Demeter (Ceres), the earth goddess — controlUng fertiUty. Hestia (Vesta), the deity of the home; goddess of the hearth fire. All the world about wun peopled, in (ireek imagination, l)y a multitude of lesser local ifods and demigods — spirits of spring and wood and river and hill — ail of whom, too, were personi- fied as glorious youths or maidens. To give the gods beautiful Innnan forms, rather than the revolting bodies of lower animals and reptiles, was an advance, exi'U though it fell far short of the noble religious ideas of the Hebrews and Persians. As to the future life the Greeks beliexcd in a place of teriible pimishment ( Tari(irus) for a few great offenders a(/(iifi.st the (jods, and in an FJi/.s-ium of supreme pleasure for a \ery few others particularly favored by the gods. But for the mass of men the future life was to l)e "a washed-out copy of the brilliant life on earth" — its pleasures and pains both shadowy. Thus Odys- seus tells how he met Achilles in tlie liome of the dead : "And he knew me straightway, when he had drimk the dark blood [of a sacrifice to the dead] ; yea, and he wept aloud, and shed big tears as he stretched forth his hands in his longing to reach me. But it might not be, for he had now no steadfast streytgth nor power at all in moiing, such as was aforetime in his supple liml)s. . . . But lo, other spirits of the dead that be departed stood sorrowing, and asked concerning those that were dear to them." And in their talk, Achilles exclaims sorrowfully: "Nay, speak not comfortably to me of death, O great Ody.s.seus. Rather would I lire on ground as the hireling of another, even with a lack-land man who had no great livelihood, than hear S2vay among all the dead.'' For Further RE.\DiNf;. — Specialhj suggested: Davis' Readings, I, No-. 33-39. Additional: Bury, pp. ()9-79. The legends of heroes and demigods, like Hercules, The.seus, and Jason, are retold charmingly for young people by Hawthorne, Gayley, Guerlier, and Kingsley. CHAPTER VIII FROM THE TROJAN TO THE PERSIAN WAR 1000-500 B.C. I. THE DORIANS AND NEW GREEK MIGRATIONS About 1000 B.C. Greek civilization was checked again, for a The Dorian hundred years, by invasions from the north. The new bar- <^<*^*i"®st barians called themselves Dorians. They were probably merely a rear-guard of the xAchaean invasion, delayed somewhere in the north for two or three centuries. But in this interval they had come to fight as heavy-armed infantry in close ranks, with long spears projecting from the array of shields. The Achaeans, who fought still in loose Homeric fashion, could not stand against this disciplined onset. The Dorians settled mainly in the Peloponnesus ; and that And other district (the old center of both Aegean and Achaean glory) ^g^^t^ons lost its leadership in all but war. When civilization took a new start among the Greeks, soon after 900 B.C., it was from new centers, especially in Attica and in Asia Minor. The peninsula of Attica, guarded on the land side b\' rugged lonians in mountains, was the one part of southern Greece not overrun ^^^^^ by the Dorians. The Greeks there had come to call themselves lonians. Many fugitives from the Peloponnesus sought Coloniza- refuge in Attica. But Attica could not support all the new- *^°" °^,*^®. cofl.st of A.sifl, comers ; and, after a brief stay, many passed on across the Minor Aegean, to the coast of Asia Minor. There they established themselves in twelve great cities, of which the most important were Miletus and Ephesus (map after 52). All the middle district of that coast took the name Ionia, and looked upon Ionian Athens as a mother-city. Other Greek tribes soon colo- nized the rest of the eastern Aegean coast. While the Greeks were so dispersing in space, they were 67 68 TTir<: riREKKJ^. 1000-500 B.r. Oneness of feeling among all Hellenes Due to language And to Religion The Olym- pic games l)('«;iniiin^^ to ^n-ow to^^cthcr in feeling-. Tlicy remained in wholly sej)arate "states"; hut they had come to helieve in a kinship with one another, to take pride in their common civili- zation, and to set themselves apart from the rest of the world. The chief forces which had created this oneness of feeling were (1) language and litcraturr, and (2) the Olympian religion. 1. The Greeks understood one another's dialects, while the men of other speech about them they called " Harharians," or babblers (Bar'-bar-oi). This liheness of language made it possible for all Greeks to possess the same literature. The poems of " Homer" were sung and recited in every village for centuries. 2. The religious features that helped especially to bind Greeks together were the Olympic Games and the Delphic Oracle. To some great festivals of the gods, men flocked from all Hellas. This was especially true of the Olympic games. These were celebrated each fourth year at Olympia, in Elis, in honor of Zeus. The contests consisted of foot races, chariot races, wrestling, and boxing. The victors were felt to have won the highest honor open to any Greek. They received merely an olive wreath at Olympia ; but at their homes their victories were commemorated by inscriptions and statues. Only Greeks could take part in the contests, and wars between Greek states were commonly suspended during the month of the festival. To these games came merchants, to secure the best market for rare wares. Heralds proclaimed treaties there — as the best way to make them known through all Hellas. .\s ei\ iliza- tion grew, poets, orators, and artists gathered there; and gradually the intellectual contests and exhibitions became the most im])ortant feature of the meeting. The oration or poem or statue which was ])raisem sito lonlua I Dorian I l Othcr Greek Jlacea ■ (rhcrnician) 6 Lonifitude AVest 10 Lonjfitude 16 ART AND SCIENCE 71 In Athens one large section of the city was given wholly to great factories in which beautiful pottery was made (see " Ceramicus " in the plan of Athens, p. 101) ; and vases of this period, signed by artists in these factories, are unearthed to-day all the way from central Asia Minor to northern Italy. Oriental vase-painting had delighted in forms half-human, half-beast, as Oriental sculpture did. But Greeks now dropped all unnatural features from their art — first of all peoples — and found increasing satisfaction in depicting the beauty of the human body, with or without draperies. The artist first colored the vase black, and then painted his designs in red on Vase- paintings and what they teach m m m m — ¥ — • = m m ■=. % rzz. # rr= m — m = m # 1 mmmm7 m<^ U-. im: L w/sm tm7. t™ m 1 ^^ 1 P ^ m 1 i H B % ® H 1 # 1 i H ^ ® 111^ ^as^. W3l^ S!!SS» A WW ww> W^/ m^^ _ -j^ # f WW^MmF^ Mm m mi « k 9 m % ^ 9 m \m — %\ 1® L m w — m M Ground Plan of the Temple of Theseus at Athens (p. 79). that background. He began, too, to see how to draw figures in perspective, and a growing interest in everyday life is shown by an increasing proportion of scenes from the work and play of common men. (See cuts, pp. 97, 115, 125, etc.) About 600, architecture made marked advance, and began Architecture to show a character distinct from that of Egyptian archi- tecture — on which it was founded. Its chief use was in build- ing temples for the gods, rather than in palaces as in the Cretan age. In every Greek city, through the rest of Greek his- tory, the temples were the most beautiful and most noticeable structures. The plan of the Greek temple was very simple. People did not gather within the building for service, as in our churches, THK GHFEKS UKKOKK :.(X) B.C Poetnr nor did trix-^ps of priests live there, as in Oriental temples. The inelostnl part of the huililing, therefore, was small and rather ilark. — containuij: only one or two nxims, for the statues of the iiixl and the altar and the Siife-keeping of the otTerincs. It was merely the gixi's house, where ptx^ple wuld brinj: him otTeriuirs when they wisheii to ask favors. The temple was rtx^tauirular. The rcx^f pn^jtvttxi l>eyond the inclosed pxirt of the Iniilding, and was suppurteii not l\v walls, but bv a row of ci^lumns running around the four siiles. The iia- 1>K^ (JMdimcnt:t^ in front and rear wert^ low, and were tilleii with rrlitf .statuary, as was als(^> the fruz*\ l>etween the ci^r- nict^ and the columns. Sometimes there was a -econd frieze upon the walls of the building in- side the a^lonnade. The Iniilding tix^k much of its Ueauty fn^m its ciA^n- nades. The hint was taken fn^m Egypt ; but the GrtH^ks far surpiisseil all prtnious builders in the use of the ci^lumn I he chitf iiij[Ftrrncts in the Okukr 1. shaft : 2, capital : 3, frirsp; 4. p<»mtce: 5. pan rool, »)ioviQc low sJojH and in -' ^ he cx'klumn iiselt styU^ of 'f wtrr marlctd by tht co/MmiK* and tktir capitah. Acconiing to differences in these features, a building is said to Wlong to the Doric or Ionic "onier." l^uer there was develo|XHl a Corinthian tmler. iStH" cuts hennvitii. and (Mi pp. To. 79. 2lS.and Plate^ XXll. XWll ^ In /Hvfry theri^ was more progrt^ss even than in arehittvtunv The earlit^t Gnvk jxx^try hail Ux^n made up of fmllad,*. cele- brating war> and henx^ Tht^^ ballads were storie:> in \ erse. I ART AXD SCIF.XOK ^o sung by wanderinix minstrels. The greatest of such composi- tions rose to epic portri/, of which the Iliud and Oih/ssri/ are the niU^lest examples. Their period is called the Kpic Agr. In the seventh and sixth centuries, most poetry consisted of odes and songs in a great varidi/ of nh'trr,'^. Love and pleasure are the favorite themes, and the poems tleseribe tlie frrUngs of fhc wriivr rather than the deeds of some one else. Tliese poems were intended to be simg to the accompaniment of the lyre (a sort of harpV They are therefore called h/rics : and the seventh and sixth centuries are known as the Li/ric Agr. Pindar, the greatest of many great lyric poets, came from Boeotia. He delighted especially to celebrate tiie rushing chariots and glorious athletes of the Olympic games. Sappho, of Lesbos, wrote exquisite love songs, of which a few fragments siu'vive. The ancients were wont to call her "the poetess," just as they referred to Homer as '*the poet." Two other poets of this age represent anotlier kind of poetry. One was Thcsipis, at Athens, who wrote the first pIai/,\\ The other, Hcsiod of Boeotia (about 800 B.C.), wove together into a long poem old stories of the creation and of the birth and relationship of the gods (the Thcogoui/), and wrote also remark- able home-like poems on farm life (ILo/Aw and Datjii) which made a sort of textbook on agricultiu'e (Davis' Readings). Hesiod was himself a hard-toiling farmer, and his pictin-es of the dreary life of a Greek peasant help us to understand the colonizing movement of his time. In Ionia, in the sixth century B.C., men first began fearlessly Philosophy to try to explain the origin of the universe. Thairs, of Miletus, taught that all things came from water : that is, from the condensation of an original all-pervading moistiu'c. One of his disciples affirmed that the world had evolved from a fiery ether. Another taught that the higher animal forms liad developed from lower forms. These explanations were merely daring guesses ; but the great thing is that men shoidd have begim to think about natural causes at all. in place of the old, supposed .v?/2^rrnatural causes, for all that happens. Thales 74 THE GREEK^^ BEFORE 500 B.C. argued that the movements of sun and stars were determined, not by the whims of gods who dwelt in them, as people thouglit, but hy fixed natural lair; and he proved his argument hy \nv- dicting an eclipse of the sun — which came off as he had fore- told. (He had visited Egypt ; and some writers guess that he had had access to the astronomical observations of the Bal)y- lonians. He foretold about the time of the eclipse, not the exact hour or minute.) In Magna Graecia, Pythagoras sought the explanation of the universe, not in any kind of matter, but in Number, or II a r- mony. This, he said, was th-e principle that had brought order out of primeval chaos. His disciples, naturally, paid much attention to mathematics ; and to Pythagoras himself is ascribed the famous demonstration in geometry that the square on the longest side of the right-triangle is equal to the sum of the scpiares on the two other sides. The Pythagoreans, too, especially connected "philosoj)hy" (the name for their study of the beginnings of things) with human eonduct. The harmony in tlic outer world, they urged, should be nuitched by harmony in the soul of man. III. THE "PEOPLE" RULE AT ATHENS The kings go Between 1000 and 500 B.C., the "kings" disappeared from all Greek cities except Sparta and Argos — and there they kept litth- but their dignity. p]verywhere the nobles had been growing in wealth, through their control of all eoinuu^rce. As the only cajiitalists, they loaned money to tl'e ordinary farmers — on exorbitant interest, as high as twenty per cent a year — and took farm after farm on mortgage foreclosure, perhaps enslaving also the farmers and their families. Not content with so oppressing the masses below them, they used their increased power to dixide among themselves, step by step, the old royal authority. The Homeric monarchies became oli- garchies (p. 1)2, note). Class The next step was the rise of tyrants. In all (ireek cities struggles there had come to be a sharp division between classes. The wealthy nobles called themselves "the few" or "the good"; THE PEOPLE RULE AT ATHENS 75 The tyrants A Doric Capital. ■ — Fruin a photograph of a detail of the Parthenon (p. 107). and the class below them they called " the many " or " the bad. " "The many" clamored and complained; but they v/ere too ignorant and disunited as yet to defend themselves against the better-united "few" — until the umy was made easier for them by the ''tyrants." Usually a tyrant was some noble, who, either from selfish ambition or from sympathy with the oppressed masses, turned against his own order to become a champion of the despised "many." When he had made himself mas- ter of the city by their aid, he tried to keep his power by surrounding himself with mercenaries and by ruining the nobles with taxes or even by exiling or murdering them. As the Greeks used the word, "tyrant" does not necessarily A step mean a bad or cruel ruler : it means merely a man who seized toward '^ democracy supreme rule by force. Many tyrants w^ere generous, far- sighted rulers, building useful public works, helping to develop trade, encouraging art and literature. But some, of course, were selfish and vicious ; and all arbitrary rule was hateful to the Greeks, — so that the oligarchs could usually persuade the people that the murder of a tyrant was a good deed. Ty- rants became common about 700 B.C. By 500, they had gone from every city in the Greek peninsula, though some w^ere found still in outlying districts. When the tyrants w^ere overthrown, the nobles had been so weakened that the people had a better chance. In the Ionian parts of Greece, the next step was com- monly a democracy. Now we will trace this change from "the rule of one" to "the rule of many" in Athens. 76 THK GRKKKS BKFOUK ■)()() B.C. Kingship The heads of the "nohlc" fainihcs (the " wcll-horn ") were to^^oliearchy '" ^''^' hahit of iiu'ctiii^^ in council on the liill called the Arcoj)- cigus (the hill of Ares, <:;od of war). XCry early this Council of the Areopagus began to choose '' (irchous" ("rulers") from its own number to take ()\er the command in war and other important parts of the royal power. Gradually the "king" became only the city-priest. The oU- By mortgages, by ])urchase perhaps, by fraud and force f", ^,° . sometimes, the "well-born" had come also to own nearlv all the land and enslave the the land of Attica. Most of it was tilled for them by tenants P°°^ who had lost their own farms on mortgages and who now paid five sixths their crops for rent. A bad season, or ravages by hostile bands of invaders, would force these tenants to mortgage themselves, since they had no more land to mortgage, in order to get food and seed. Interest was crushing, — eighteen or twenty per cent a year. If the debtors failed to pay, the noble who held the mortgage could drag them off in chains and sell them for slaves. Nor did the common tribesman ha\ e any part in the government. Even the Assembly had shrunk into a gathering of noble families to decide upon peace and war and to choose archons. " The poor, " says Aristotle (a later Greek writer, in an account of this period), "were the very bondmen of the rich. . . . They were discontented with every feature of their lot . . . for . . . they had no share in any- thing." Attempts at This discontent of the masses, and tlie ([uarrels among fac- tyranny ead ^\^^^^ ^^f ^j^p nobles, gave opportunity to ambitious adventurers ; to conces- » *-> i k . ^ » sions and (()25 B.r.) one young noble seized the citadel of Athens with a band of troops, in order to make himself tyrant. The nobles rallied and crushed this attempt ; but the peril induced them to make two concessions to the ])oorer masses: (1) They admitted to the Assembly all men who would buy their own heavy ai'mor for war, and (2) they gaxc the j)e()])le written laws. Written Athenian law had been a matter of (ineirtit eustoui. It was ^^^^ not written down, and much of it was known only to the nobles. All judges (archons) were nobles ; and they often abused their THE PEOPLE RULE AT ATHENS 77 power in order to favor their own class in law suits. The people had long clamored for written laws. The nobles had stubbornly resisted this demand, but now they gave way. In 621 B.C. Draco, one of the archons, engraved the old laws of Athens on wooden blocks and set them up where all might see them. The result was to make men feel how^ harsh the old laws were. Rise of The "laws of Draco," it was said in later times, were "written ^^^^gj-g^p in blood rather than luJ:.'' The Athenians now demanded new laws ; and the renewed class struggles, together with the incom- petent rule of the nobles, brought the city to the verge of ruin in war with Little Megara. From this peril the city was finally saved by the courage and generalship of a certain Solon (one of the nobles, already- famous as a philosopher and poet) ; sole Archon and this brilliant success pointed to Solon as the possible savior (dictator) of Athens from her internal perils. He was known to sympa- thize w^ith the poor. In his poems he had long blamed the greed of the nobles and had pleaded for reconciliation between the warring classes. The Assembly now made him " sole Archon, " with supreme authority to remodel the gomrnment and the laws. Solon used this extraordinary powder first to reform economic Economic evils. ^ (1) He gave to all tenants the full ownership of the reforms lands w^hich they had been renting from the nobles (and which in most cases they or their fathers had lost earlier through debt) ; and he forbade the ownership in future of more than a moderate amount of land by any one man. (2) He freed all Athenians who were in slavery in Attica, and forbade the en- slaving of any Athenian tribesman in future. (3) He can- celed all debts, so as to give distracted Athens a fresh start; but he resisted a wild clamor for the division of all property. In later times, the people celebrated these acts by a yearly "Festival of the Shaking-off of Burdens." These reforms, it was soon seen, went deeper than merely to matters of property. (1) So many of the nobles lost their commanding wealth that before long they ceased to be a distinct class. Later distinctions in Athenian society were mainly 1 Economic means "relating to property" ; it must not be confused with "economical." '8 TIIK CKKKKS BKKOKK r,()() H.( Direct political reforms )forms Solon abdicates A true democrat Plain, Shore, and Mountain Pisistratus, tyrant. 560 B C. bt'twc't'ii ricli and poor. (2) Many of the old tenant farmers could afi'ord to buy heavy armor (p. 76), and so could come also into the Assembly on a level with its old members. And, besides these indirect political changes, Solon next reformed the goxernnient (lircrtli/. (1) He created a Senate (chosen by lot, so that wealth should not control election) to replace the Areopagus as the (luiding part of the government. This body was to recommend measures to the Asseml)l\ . (2) He admitted to the Assembly all tribesmen, even the light- armed soldiers — though these last were not yet allowed to hold any offices. This enlarged Assembly, besides accepting or rejecting proposals of the new Council, could now discuss them ; and besides cleding archons, it could fry ihnn and pimish them for misgovernment. (3) The Areopagus was henceforth to consist of ex-archons, and became merely a sort of law court. Solon also made it the duty of every father to teach his sons a trade ; limited the wasteful extravagance at funerals — espe- cially the amount of wealth that might be buried with the dead ; and replaced Draco's bloody laws by milder punishments for offenses. In one thing he intensified an unhappy tendency of his age: he forbade women to appear in public gatherings. To establish all these ciianges kept Solon busy through the years 594 and 59;i B.C. Then, to the surprise of many, he resigned his power. He had really been an "elected tyrant," or a " dictator." His acts were so poj)u]ai- with the great mass of the people that he might easily have nuule himself tyrant for life. Bui for tin first fitur in history, a mail holding vast poircr rolunfonli/ loid it doirn in order that the jiroplc might govern themselves. Hut now a new strife of factions followed between the Plain (the larger land-owners), the Shore (merchants), and the Moun- tain (small farmers and shepherds) until. ;>() years later, Pisis- tratus, a near kinsman of Solon, made himself tyrant. His rule was mild and wise. He lixcd simply, like other citizens. He even a])])eare(l in a law court, to answer in a suit against him. And he always treated the aged Solon with deep respect, SOLON AND CLISTHENES 79 despite the latter's steady opposition. Indeed, Pisistratus governed through the forms of Solon's constitution,^ and enforced Solon's laws, taking care only to have his own friends elected to the chief offices. He was more like the "boss" of a great political "machine" than like a ''tyrant." Pisistratus encouraged commerce. Indeed he laid the basis for Athens' later trade leadership by seizing for her the mouth Temple of Theseus (so-called) at Athens, now believed to have been built about 440 b. c. as a temple to Athene. During the Middle Ages it was used as a Christian church; hence its perfect preservation. See page 71 and Plate XX. to the Black Sea. He also enlarged and beautified Athens; improved the roads, and built an aqueduct to bring a supply of water to the city from the hills ; and he drew to his court a brilliant circle of poets, painters, architects, and sculptors, from all Hellas. The first written edition of the Homeric poems is said to have been put together under his encouragement, and Thespis (p. 73) began Greek tragedy at the magnificent festivals now instituted to Dionysus (god of wine). 1 Constitution, here and everywhere in early history, means not a written document, as with us, but the general usages of government in practice. 80 TIIK (HiEEKS BEFORE 5,)0 B.C. Hippias and Hipparchus Clisthenes expels the tyrant Cleruchs: a new kind of colony In .")L'7, Pisistratus was succccdrd l)y his unworthy sons Hippias and Hipparchus. Hipparchus was soon murdered, and hiter Hippias was driven out by a revolt led by Clisthenes, a noble whom lie had exiled. "The Athenians," says Aristotle, "now showed that men will fight more bra\ ely for themselves than for a master." The Euboeans and Thel)ans seized this moment of confusion to invade Attica from two sides at once ; but the Athenians routed them in a double l)attle, pursued into Euboea, stormed Chalcis there, and took for themselves its trade with Thrace (p. 70). Athens now began a new kind of colonization, sending four thousand citizens to possess the best land of Chalcis, and to serve as a garrison there. Thoic men retained full Aihcn'um citizni.shij), l)esides having full control over their own settle- ments in their own Asseniblies. They were known as cleruchs, or out-settliM's. In this way Athens found land for her surplus population, and fortified her influence al)road. I Internal quarrels due to two evils Reforms of Clisthenes Internal jealousies still weakened the city (1) ])etween Plain, Shore, and Mountain, and (2) between the citizens and a large body of resident "aliens," drawn to Athens since Solon's time by the growing trade of the city. These aliens were enter- prising and sometimes wealtliy ; still, though they lived in the city, iheii had no share in it. Xn alien could vote or hold office, or sue in a law court (except through the favor of some citizen), or fah'r part in a rehijious fisiind , or inarri/ an Afheniati, or iven own land in Attica. The city usually found it worth while to protect his property, in order to attract other strangers ; but he had no srrure rights. Xor eould his sou or anil later descendant acquire anif rights uiereli/ hi/ cimtinuincj to live in Athens. Clisthenes now came forward with j)ro])osals to remedy tlu'Se e\ils. The .\sscnil>ly a])])r(t\"ed liis plan and ga\e him authority to carry it out. .\eeordingly, he marked ofi' .Vttica into a hundred little di\ isions called deiues. Each citizen was riii-nllfd in one of thes(\ and his son after liim. Member- ship in a elan had always been tlie j)roof of citizenship. Now that proof was to be found in this deme-eUrollnient. Even the SPARTA AND MILITARISM 81. cleruchs (p. 80), aiid their descendants, kept their deme-enroll- ment, and, through that, their Athenian citizenship. The hundred demes were distributed among ten "tribes," or wards, so placed that men of the Shore and of the Mountain often found themselves in the same " tribe." The Assembly now voted by these "territorial" tribes, and so the old factions died out. Moreover, while Clisthenes was distributing citizens among these new geographical units, he seized the chance to enroll the non-citizens also in the denies and so brought them into the citizen body. (This applied only to those aliens then in Athens. In a few years another alien class grew up, with all the old disad- vantages. It was to be a long time before the world was to learn our device of easy "naturalization.") Clisthenes also gave the Assembly more power. It now a new elected ten ''generals'' yearlv, who took over most of the old demo^atic ^ ^ ^ ' advance authority of the archons ; and it was made lawful for any voter to introduce new business. The " light-armed " citizens were still not eligible to office. Otherwise, Athens had become a democracy. Like Solon, Clisthenes might easily have made himself tyrant. But, with splendid faith, he chose to work, as Solon had done, to found government by the people. Clisthenes added also one more device to check faction. This was ostracism. Once a year Ostracism the Assembly was given a chance to vote by ballot (on pieces of pottery, "ostraka"), each one against any man whom he deemed dangerous to the state. If six thousand citizens took part in the vote, then that man against whom the largest number of the six thousand votes uiere cast had to go into exile. Even after all danger of a tyrant had ceased, ostracism was a convenient way for the people to relieve a leader whom they trusted from troublesome rivals or opponents. Such exile was felt to be perfectly honorable ; and when a man came back from it, he took at once his old place in the public regard. IV. THE GROWTH OF MILITARY POWER AT SPARTA One of the petty Dorian states in the Peloponnesus was Sparta. It had no sea coast ; but their devotion to war and certain habits of life (ascribed by legend to a great lawgiver Lycurgus) 82 thp: greeks before 500 b.c. Kings, Senate, Assembly Spartans and their subjects Spartan discipline opened to tlu- Spartan.^ a career of eoiKiuest. By 700 B.C. they were masters of all Laeoiiia ; soon after, they suhdned Messenia ; and then they hrou^dit all the rest of the Pelopon- nesus — except hostile Ar^^os — into a military league of which they were the head (the Prloponncsidn Ijdf/ur). In Sparta the royal power was di\ ided between ttro kings (the Spartan story explained tliis arrangement as due to the hirth of twin j)rinees), and real autliority rested in the Scnfitc of thirty elders. An A.s.scmhlj/, much like that of Homeric times, accepted or rejected proposals laid hefore it hy the Senate, hut could not amend or discuss them. Practically, Sparta was an oligarchy. Moreover, as a whole, the Spartans were a ruling class in the midst of subjects eight or ten times their number. Thry were a camp of some 9000 conquerors, with their families, living under arms in their unwalled city. They had taken for themselves the most fertile lands in Laconia ; l)ut fhci/ did no worh. Each Spartan's land was tilled for him by sla\es, called Hrlois. These Helots wen* the descendants of the ro?/7?/n/-dwellers at the time of the Spartan conquest. They numbered perhaps five to one Spartan ; and occasionally the Spartans carried out secret massacres of the more ambitious and intelligent among them. The inhabitants of the himdred small towns of Laconia were not slaves, but neither were they ])art of the Spartan state They tilled lands of their own, and carried on whatever other industry was found in Laconia. They kept their own customs, and managed the local affairs of their own towns — under the supervision of Spartan rul(Ts ; and they ])rovi(le(l troops for wSparta's army. Spartan mastery rested on a sleepless \ igilance and on a rigid and brutal discipline. The aim of S])arta was to train soldiers. 77/r fanilli/, as null a.s flit nian, hdoiujid almdutrly to the .state. Officers examined each child, at its birth, to decide whether it was fit to li\e. If it seemed weak or puny, it was exposed in the mountains to die. If it was strong and healthy, it was returned to its j):ir('nts for a few Ncars. Hut after a boy PLATE XVIII Above. — Modern Sparta from the north. In the background is seen the southern slope of Mt. Taygetus, through whose perilous passes Spartan armies marched to conquer their western neighbors, the Messenians. Below. — The Plain of the Eurotas, the site of ancient Sparta. The Spartans had no city walls and no important buildings, and so left little in the way of lasting relics of their life. SPARTA AND MILITARISM 83 reached the age of seven, he never again slept under his mother's roof : he was taken from home, to be trained with other boys under pubhc officers. Boys were taught reading and a Uttle martial music, and were given training to strengthen the body and to develop self-control and obedience. On certain festival days, boys were whipped at the altars to test their endurance ; and Plu- tarch (a Greek writer of the second century a.d.) states that often they died under the lash rather than utter a cry. (This custom was much like the savage " sun-dance" of some American Indian tribes. Several other features of Spartan life seem to have been survivals of a barbarous period that the Spartans never wholly outgrew.) From twenty to thirty, the youth lived under arms in bar- racks. Years of constant military drill made it easy for the Spartans to adopt more complex tactics than were possible for their neighbors. They were trained in small regiments and companies, so as to maneuver readily at the word of com- mand. This made them superior in the field. They stood to the other Greeks as disciplined soldiery always stands to un- trained militia. At thirty the man was required to marry, in order to rear more soldiers ; but he must still eat in barracks, and live there most of the time. There was a kind of virtue, no doubt, in this training. The The good Spartans had the quiet dignity of born rulers. In contrast \Yith the noisy Greeks about them, their speech was brief and pithy ("laconic" speech). They used onh' iron money. And their plain living made them appear superior to the weak in-^ dulgences of other men. Spartan women, too, kept a freedom which unhappily was lost in other Greek cities. Girls were trained in gymnastics, much as boys were ; and the women were famous for beauty and health, and for public spirit and patriotism. Still, the value of the Spartans to the world lay in the fact that they made a (jarrison for the rest of Greece, and helped save something better than tliemselves. // the Greeks had all been Spartans, we coidd afford to omit the study of Greek history. 84 TiiK (;kkkks hi<:f()I{K rA)() bx\ " Hellas " and Hellenes Many small divisions A varied civilization Intercourse by the sea V. GlXXaiAPHV AM) ITS IXFLKENCE (Map study, hafterl on maps afler pp. 52 and 70) Note the three ^rcat (hvisioiis: Northrni Greece (Epirus and Thes- saly) ; Central Greece (a fj;n)up of eleven distriets, to the Isthmus of Corinth); and the Peloponnesus (the southern peninsula). Name the districts from Phocis south, and the chief cities in each. Which districts have no coast? Locate Delphi, Thermopylae, Tempe, Parnassus. Olympus, Olympia, Salamis, Ithaca, eight islands, three cities on tli* Asiatic side. Keep in mind that the islands shown are only a few of the many score that dot the Aegean. {The index usually tells on what map a geographical name can be found.) The Greeks culled themselves Hellenes (as they do stillV Hellas meant not European Greece alone, hut all the lands of the Hellenes. Still, the European peninsula remained the heart of Hellas. ()inittinv.»#-SiN^H R .3||^V <'mIvT^^^^^^I j^^sa I^HMl f ' M^^l r" l^^H "^^S^BK ^^^EBfv ^^^^Hft^^ i^^^^^H .>/r ■' 3 ^^^H '»., j^^H ri ^H f H ^^^H ^-'^^^^^^l l^^^^H 1 INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 85 touch constantly with new manners and new ideas, and they ' Always are more likely to make progress than a purely agricultural ^®®^"s people. Exchanging commodities, they are ready to exchange thing " ideas also. The seafaring Hellenes were "always seeking some new thing." These early seekers found ''new thiiigs" within easy reach. Vicinity This "most European of all European lands" lay nearest of all . ?.. f. , , , , . civilizations Europe to the old civilizations of Asia and Egypt. Moreover, in the East it faced this civilized East rather than the barbarous West. On the other side, toward Italy, the coast of Greece is cliff or marsh, with only three or four good harbors. On the east, however, the whole line is broken by deep bays, from whose mouths chains of inviting islands lead on and on. In clear weather, the mariner may cross the Aegean without losing sight of land. Very important, too, was the appearance of the landscape. Influence of A great Oriental state spread over vast plains and was bounded geography by terrible immensities of desolate deserts. But, except in Thessaly, Greece contained no plains of consequence. It was a land of intermingled sea and mountain, with everything upon a moderate scale. There were no mountains so astounding as to awe the mind. There were no destructive earthquakes, or tre- mendous storms, or overwhelming floods. Oriental man had bowed in superstitious dread before the mysteries of nature, with little attempt to explain them. But in Greece, nature was not terrible ; and men began early to search into her secrets. Oriental submission to tradition and custom icas replaced by fearless inquiry and originality. In government. Oriental despotism gave way to Greek freedom. Greece had no parallel to the slavish Babylonian or Persian submissiveness before their kings, or to the Egyptian's before his priests. No doubt, too, the moderation and variety of the world about them had a part in producing the many-sided genius of the people and their lively but well-controlled imagination. And the varied beauty of hill and dale and blue, sunlit sea, the wonderfully clear, exhilarating air, and the soft splendor of the radiant sky helped to give them deep joy in mere living. the Medi- terranean tion like our own 86 THE GRP^EKS BEFORE r,0() B.C. Al)()\(' all olluT peoples, i\w\ developed a Ion jOr harniotty and proportion. Moderation became their ideal virtue, and they used the same word for (jood and beautiful. A temperate Like most of Europe, Greece has a more temperate climate than the semi-tropical river valleys of Asia, and food crops demand more culiimtion. This called for greater exertion upon the part of man. Tlie beginnings of civilization were slower in Europe ; l)ut man was finally to count for more there than in Asia. Protected Finally, Greece was saved from Asiatic concjuest largely by its Asiatic position behind the })road moat of the Mediterranean. Persia conquest by subdued the Asiatic Greeks almost without a blow : against the European Greeks, we shall see, her supreme efforts failed. Most important of all, Greek civilization was essentially one A civiliza- witli our own. The remains of Egyptian or Babylonian sculp- ture and architecture arouse our admiration and interest as curiosities; but they are foreign to us. With a Greek temple or a Greek poem we fec^l at liome. It micjht hare been })uilt, or written, by an America)). Some of our most Ix'autiful build- ings are copied from Greek models. Our historians venerate the Greek Herodotus and Thucydides as their masters. Our children delight in the stories that the blind Homer chanted, and older students still find his poems a necessary part of literary culture. Exercise. — Make a table — in two parallel coliunns — of leading dates, approximate or fixed, in Oriental and in Greek history, down to 600 B.C., when the two streams join. Can you justify the phravse "Most European of European lands" for Greece, by pointing out two or more respects in which important European characteristics are emphasized in Grc^ek urography? Name two features of Greek geog- raphy favorahle to any earlif civilization — as compared with Spain or France. Distinguish hetween Sparta and Lnroriin. Have you any huildings ill your city in which Greek columns arc used? Of which order, in each ca-sc? liefnrc the GriM'ks, the Persians built great roads; so did the Romans aflenrnrds ; you will hear no mention of roadbuild- ing among the Greeks. Why? Find in the library two or three .<;tories about Solon. The Ilidd open- with a story of a pestilence in the Greek camp ; the poet a^cribc> it to the arrows of the sun-god ApoUo. Can INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 87 you find an explanation for such a pestilence in this text ? Explain the following terms : constitution ; Helot ; tyrant ; Lycurgus ; Clisthenes ; Areopagus; archon; deme; clan; tribe; a "tribe of Clisthenes." (To explain a term is to make such statements concerning it as will at least prevent the term being confused with any other. Thus, if the term is Solon, it will not do to say, "A Greek lawgiver," or "A lawgiver of the sixth century b.c." The answer must at least say, "An Athenian lawgiver of about 600 b.c." ; and it ought to say, "An Athenian lawgiver and democratic reformer of about 600 b.c") For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, I, 40 ff. (especially Nos. 41-43 on the Delphic Oracle ; 44, on Olympic Games — and see also Dr. Davis' novel, A Victor of Salamis ; 46, on founding a colon j' ; and the extracts from Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus). For modern authorities, Bury, 86-106, 116-117, 159-161, and especially 180-189 (on Solon) ; or Kimball-Bury's Studerds' Greece, chs. ii-iii. N Attic Vask T East and West join battle rilAPTKR IX GREEKS AND PERSIANS We have seen how tlu' Persians stretched their rule swiftly ()\ er the territory of all j)reeeding empires, besides adding vast regions before unknown. By 500 B.C. they had advanced even into Europe across Thrace (map after p. 52) to the borders of Greece. The mighty world-empire next advanced confidently to add to its dominions the scattered groups of Greek cities, coveted for their ships and their trade. East and West joined battle. Asiatic Hellas, lacking the jirotcction of a sca-nioat, had l)cen conciuered by Cyrus the Persian some fifty years before, and now Carthage (a Phoeni- cian colony on the north coast of Africa) was incited by Persia to attack Magna Gallia ; so that to oppose the master of the worldl there was left only tli( little peninsula we call' Greece — and its strength was being wasted in in- ternal struggles, Athens at war witli Acgina and Tliel)es, Sj)arta with Argos, and many other cities torn by class strife. By 492, Darius the Persian had collected a mighty army at tlic Hellespont, with a fleet to sail along the coast carrying 88 Plan <>f Marathon. Ci. ma{), p. 94. I MARATHON, 490 B.C. 89 supplies. This fleet was wrecked by a storm at the rocky promontory of Mount Athos, and the land army had no choice but to return to Asia. But in the spring of 490 a second expe- dition was embarked upon a new majestic fleet, which proceeded directly across the Aegean. Receiving the submission of the islands on its course, this expedition reached Euboea, destroyed the city of Eretria there, and then landed its troops on the plain First Persian expedition, 492 B.C., Mt. Athos Second expedition, 490 B.C., Marathon Marathon To-day. — From a photograph. The camera stood a little above the Athenian camp in the Plan on the opposite page. That camp was in the first open space in the foreground, where the poplar trees are scattered. The land beyond the strip of water is the narrow peninsula running out from the " Marsh " in the Plan. of Marathon in Attica — especially to punish i\.thens, which had dared assist Ionian Greeks in a vain rebellion. From the rising ground where the hills of Mount Pentelicus meet the plain, ten thousand Athenians faced the Persian host. Sparta had promised help ; and at the first news of Persian approach, a swift runner (Phidippides) had raced the 160 miles of rugged hill country to implore haste. He reached Sparta on the second day ; but the dilatory Spartans waited a week, on the ground that an old law forbade them to set out on a military 90 WARS OK (JKKKKS AND PERSIANS Generalship of Miltiades Athens saved The meaning of Marathon expedition Ix'torc tlic full moon. Athens was left to save her- self — and our Western world — as best she could, against many times her numbers of the most famous soldiery of the world. Miltiades, the Ath(>nian commander, did not wait to be attacked, but himself took the otlcnsiw, moving his forces down the slope toward the Persian array. While yet an arrow's flight distant, the advancing Greeks l)r()ke into a run, so as to cover the rest of the ground before the Persian archers could get in their deadly work. Once at close quarters, the heavy weapons of the Greeks gave them overwhelming advantage Their dense array, charging with long, outstretched spears, by its sheer weight broke the light-armed Persian lines. The Per sians fought gallantly, as always ; but their darts and light scimitars made little impression upon the heavy bronze armor of the Greeks, while their linen tunics and wicker shields offered little defense against the thrust of the Greek spear. For a time, Persian ninnl)ers did force back the Greek center; but the two Greek wings (wher(> INIiltiades had nuissed his strength). ha\ ing routed the forces in front of them, wheeled upon the Persian center, crushing l)oth flanks at tlie same moment, and drove it in disorder to the slii])s. The Persians sailed away on a course that might lead to Athens, and so Miltiades hurried off Phidip{)ides to announce the victory to the city. Already ex haust<'d by tlu' battle, the runner put forth su])renie « fVort, raced the twenty-two miles of mountain road, shouted exidt antly to the eager, anxious crowds in tlu> city street, — "Ours the victory!" — and fell dead. (This famous run from the battle field to the city is the basis of the modern "Marathon" race, in which champion athletes of all coimtries compete. The student will like to read Browning's poem, Phidippidrs.) Meanwhile Miltiades was hurrying his wearied army, with- out rest, over the same road. Fortunately, the Persian fleet had to sail around a long promontory (map after p. o2), andj when it appeared off .\thens, the next morning, Miltiades had arrived. The Persians did not care to face again the men of] Marathon, an'd tin- same day tlu-y set sail for .\sia. Merely as a military e\ ent Marathon is an imimportaut skir- THE EXPEDITION OF XERXES 91 mish ; but, in its results upon human welfare, it is among the few really "decisive" battles of the world. Whether Egyptian conquered Babylonian, or Babylonian conquered Egyptian, mattered little in the long run. But it did matter whether or not the huge, despotic East should crush the new free life out of the West. Marathon decided that the West should live. For the Athenians themselves, the victory began a new era. The sons of the men who, against such odds, conquered the hitherto unconquered Persians, could find no odds too crush- ing, no prize too dazzling, in the years to come. Soon after Marathon, Egypt rebelled against Persia. This The ten gave the Greeks ten years to get ready for the next Persian ^^^^ ^"*®^" attack, but the only city to make any good use of the time was Athens. The democracy there had divided into two political parties. The conservative party wished to follow es- Preparation tablished customs without further change. Its leader at this ^* Athens time was Aristides, surnamed "the Just." The radical party wished further reforms. It was led by Themistocles, less up- right than Aristides, but one of the most far-sighted statesmen in history. Themistocles saw that Persia could not attack Greece sue- Aristides cessfuUy without command of the sea. Moreover, huge as ^^^^^^ ^^^^' the Persian Empire was, it was mainly |in inland power; it could not so vastly outnumber the Greeks in ships as in men. Victory for the Greeks, then, was more likely on sea than on land. Accordingly he determined to make Athens a naval power. But, sea-farers though the Greeks were, up to this time they had not used ships much in war. The party of Aristides wished to hold to the old policy of fighting on land, and they had the glorious victory of Marathon to back their arguments. Finally, in 483, the two leaders agreed to let a vote of ostracism decide. The vote sent Aristides into banishment, and left Themis- Themisto- tocles free to carry out his new policy. Rich veins of silver cles^and the had recently been disco\'ered in the mines of Attica. These mines belonged to the city. It had been proposed to divide the 92 WARS OF (IRKKKS AXD PKRSIAXS Third Per- sian expe- dition, 480 B C. Gloom Greece The three possible lines of defense Greek plans inronu' from them ninon^^ tlic citizens; hut Thcniistocles per- suaded liis eouutrynien to reject this tempting phni, and instead to huild a ^reat fleet. In tlie next three years Athens hecanie tlie t;reatest na\ al power in Helhis. Marathon liad proNcd tliat no Persian fleet hy itscH" could trans{)()rt enou^li troops; so the Persians now tried a^ain the plan of the first expedition (p. SS), hut upon a larger settle, both as to urmii and fleet. To guard apiinst another accident at Mt. Athos, a canal for shij)s was cut through the isthmus at the hack of that rocky headland, — a great engineering work that took three years. Supplies, too, were coUected at stations along the way ; the Hellespont was bridged witli chains of boats covered with planks ; ^ and at last, in the spring of 4S0, Xerxes, the new Persian king, k'd in person a mighty host of many nations into Europe. A fleet of twelve hundred ships accompanied the army. No wonder that the Delphic Oracle warned the Athenians to flee to. the ends of the earth. The Greeks had three lines of defense. The first was at the Vale of Tempe near Mount Olympus, where only a narrow pass opened into Thessaly. The second was at Thermopylae, where the mountains shut off northern from central Greece, except for a road only a few feet in width. The tliird was behind the Isthmus of Corinth. At a congress at (^orinth (where Sj)arta was chosen leader) the Peloponnesians wished selfishli/ to abandon the first two lines. They urged that all patriotic Greeks should retire at once within the Peloponnesus, and fortify the Isthmus by an imjM'cgna- ble wall. This ))ian was as foolish as it was selfish, (ireek trooj)s might ha\(> held the Isthmus against the Persian land arm\ ; l)ut the Pelopomiesus was readily oj)en to attack by sea, and the Persian Heet would hax'e found it easier here than at <'ither of the other lines of defense to land troops in the Gnu'k rear without lofifi lositifi toneh \rith its own arnn/. >^\\\\ Xerxes was allowed to enter (ireece without a blow — and was of course at once reinforced by excellent troops from ' Road Hori)d()tu.s' .story of Xerxes' wrath when tlic fir^t bridge broke, and how he ordered the Hellespont to Ije flogged (Dav-is' RcaHings, I. No. 64). THERMOPYLAE AND PLATAEA 93 deserted northern Greece. Then in a half-hearted way, Sparta Thermopy- decided to make a stand at Thermopylae. The pass there jj^'j^entral was only some twenty feet wide between the cliff and the sea, Greece and the only other path was one over the moimtain, equally easy to defend. Moreover, the long island of Euboea ap- proached the mainland just opposite the pass, so that the Greek fleet in the narrow strait could guard the land army against having troops landed in the rear. The Greek fleet at this place numbered 270 ships, of which the Athenians furnished half. The land defense had been left to the Peloponnesian League, and the Spartan king, Leonidas, held the pass with three hundred Spartans and a few thousand allies. The rtiavn force of Spartans was again left at home, on the ground of a religious festival. The Persians reached Thermopylae without a check. Battle was joined at once on land and sea, and raged for three days. Four hundred Persian ships were wrecked in a storm, and the rest were checked by the Greek fleet in a sternly contested con- flict at Artemisium. On land, Xerxes flung column after col- umn of chosen troops into the pass, to be beaten back each time in rout. But on the third night a Greek traitor guided a force of Persians over the mountain path, which the Spartans had left only slightly guarded. Leonidas then sent home his allies, but he and his three hundred remained to die in the pass which ' their country had given them to defend. They charged J03'- ously upon the Persian spears, and fell fighting, to a man. Sparta had shown no capacity to command in this great crisis. But at Thermopylae her citizens set an example of calm heroism that has stirred the world ever since. In later times the burial place of the Three Hundred was marked by this inscription, " Stranger, go tell at Sparta that we lie here in obedience to her command." Xerxes advanced on Athens and was joined by most of central Athens Greece. The Peloponnesians withdrew the army and fell back destroyed upon their first plan of building a wall across the Isthmus, and the admiral of the fleet (a Spartan, though Sparta furnished only 16 ships) was ben^ upon retiring to that position. By G, the Greek fleet at Salamis. PPI\ the IVrsiau fleet. A', the I'lirnii of Xerxes. (The "Long Walls" wore not built until latt\veen the Athenian shore and Salamis. If the (ireeks withdrew to Cor- inth, the fleet, too, would ])robal)ly break uj). Some ships would sail home to defend their own island cities; and others might join tlie Persians. Debate w:i\ed fieice in tlie all-night THERMOPYLAE AND PLATAEA 95 council of the captains. The Corinthian admiral sneered that the allies need not regard a man who no longer represented a Greek city. Themistocles retorted that he represented two hundred ships/ and could make a city, or take one, where he chose ; and, by this threat he forced the allies to remain. To make reconsideration impossible, the wily Themistocles Battle of then made use of a strange stratagem. With pretended friend- *™^^ ship, he sent a secret message to Xerxes, telling him of the weak- ness and dissensions of the Greeks, and advising kirn to block up the straits to prevent their escape. Xerxes took this treacherous advice. There was now no choice for the Greeks but to fight. The battle of Salamis, the next day, lasted from dawn to night, but the Greek victory was complete. ''A king sat on the rocky brow ^ Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis ; And ships by thousands lay below, And men in nations, — all were his. He counted them at break of day, And when the sun set, where were they ? ' ' The Persian chances, however, were still good. Xerxes fled Mardonius at once to Asia with his shattered fleet, but he left three hundred *"^ ^^^^^ thousand chosen troops under his general Mardonius to winter in the plains of Thessaly. The Athenians began courageously to rebuild their city. Mardonius looked upon them as the soul of the Greek resistance, and early the next spring, he offered them an alliance, with many favors and with the complete restora- tion of their city at Persian expense. Terrified lest the x\thenians should accept so tempting an offer, Sparta sent profuse promises of help", begging them not to desert Hellas. But the Athenians had already sent back the Persian messenger : " Tell Mardonius that so long as the sun holds on his way in heaven, the Athe- nians will come to no terms with Xerxes." Of Sparta they now asked only that she take the field early enough so that Athens need not be again abandoned without a battle. ^ The fleet had now grown to 378 ships in all. - A golden throne had been set up for Xerxes, that he might better view the battle (see map, p. 94). These lines are from Byron. 1)G WARS OF CRKKKS A\D I'KUSIAXS Spartan delay or treachery Battle of Plataea Sparta made tlic promise, Imt did not keep it. Mardonius aj)pn)at'lu'd ra])idly. Tlic Spartans found another sacred fes- tival l)efore which it would not do to lea\(' tlieir homes; and the Athenians, in l)itter (hsappointment, a second time took refuge at Sahimis. Mardonius again l)urned Athens and hiid waste the farms over idl Attica. wSparta was still clinging to the stupid plan of defending only the Isthmus. Some of her keener allies, however, at last made her government see the uselessness of the wall at Corinth if the Athenians should he forced to join Persia with their fleet ; and finally Sparta took the field with 50,000 Peloponnesian troops. The Athenian forces and other reinforcements raised the total of the Greek army to ahout 100,000, and the final contest with Mardonius was fought near the little town of Plafarn. Spar- tan \alor and the Athenian skill and dash won a \ictory which became a massacre. Only 3000 of the invaders escaped to Asia, and no hostile Persian ever again set foot in European Greece. Exercises. — 1. Summarize the causes of the Persian Wars. 2. Do- vise and memorize a series of catch-words for rapid statement that shall suggest the outline of the story quickly. Thus : Firs/ expedition against European Greece, 492 B.C., through Thracp : Mount Afhos. Second expedition, acrosis the Aegean, two years later: capture of Eretria ; landing at Marathon ; excuses of Sparta ; Miltindi< and ItnUle of Marathon, /,!H) B.(\ (Let the student continue the series. For Furtuer Readinu;. — Speciallg suggcslcit : Davis' Rc(nlin{)s (I, Nos. ()2-73) gives the whole story of Xerxes' invasion as the Greek- themselves told it, in ahout 47 page-. Addi(ion(d : Co\s Greeks and Persians is an admirable little l)o()k. Many anecdotes are given in Plutarrh's Lives ("Themistocles" and " Aristides"). Bury is alwa> - good reading. Athenian Youth in the Great Religious Pkim i.>^i.;\ in Honor of Athene. From the Parthenon frieze (p. 107) ; now in the British Museum. CHAPTER X ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 478-431 B.C. (From the Persian War to the Peloponnesian War) After Plataea, the Athenians began once more to rebuild their temples and homes. Themistocles, however, persuaded them to leave even these in ashes and first surround the city with walls. Corinth, hoping basely to gain iVthens' old com- mercial prosperity for herself, urged Sparta to interfere ; and, to her shame, Sparta did demand that the Athenians give up the plan : such walls, she said, might prove an advantage to the Persians if they should again occupy Athens. Attica, which had been ravaged so recently, was in no condi- tion to resist a Peloponnesian army. So the wily Themistocles gained precious time by having himself sent to Sparta to discuss the subject. There he put off the matter from day to day, with skillful excuses ; and meanwhile the Athenians, neglect- ing all private matters, toiled at the walls with desperate haste — men, women, children, and slaves. No material was too precious. Inscribed tablets and fragments of sacred temples and even monuments from the burial grounds were seized for 97 Athens builds walls 98 THE (IliKKKS— ATIIKXIAX LIOADKRSII I T the work. Then, wlicn incsscn^'crs inl'orincd Thciiii.stoclos thiit the walls were hi^Hi enough to \)v (Icfeiided, he came before tlie Laeediieinoiiians ' and told them hluntly that henceforward "tliey nuist deal with the Athenians as with men who knew quite well what was best for their own and the eonnnon good." Themistoeles went on to establish the naval and commer- cial supremacy of Athens by two great measures: he secured a vote from the Assembly ordering that twenty new ships should i';i i\> OK i»ih Wall li.. I'M Piraeus fortified be added each year to the war fleet ; and lie provided the city with a port secure against either storm or hinnan attack. Athens lay some miles from the shore. Until a few years before, her only port had been an oj)en and unsafe rcKidstead, — the Phalerum ; but during his archonship in 493, Themis- toeles had given the city a magnificent har])or, by improving the inclosed bay of the Pirdcua, at great expense. Xow he persuaded the peoj)le to forflfy this port on tlie land side with a massive wall of solid masonry, clamped with iron, sixteen 1 LaredaoiDonia is the name Riven to the whole Spartan territory. See map after p. 52. Head in Tljueydifh's (see j). 109) t])e story of how Tliemis- tocles provided for his own safety at Sparta. i THE PIRAEUS 99 feet broad and thirty feet high, so that old men and boys might easily defend it against any enemy. The Athenians now had two ivalled cities, each four or five miles in circuit, and only four miles apart ; and the alien merchants, who dwelt at the Athenian ports, and who had fled at the Persian invasion^ — many of them to Corinth, — came thronging back. The war with Persia was still going on, but only on the Ionian Victory at coast. In the early spring of 479, a fleet had crossed the Aegean ^^^ ^ to assist Samos in revolt against Persia. A Spartan commanded the expedition, but three fifths of the ships were Athenian. On the very day of Plataea these forces defeated a great Persian army at Mycalc, on the coast of Asia Minor, and seized and burned the three hundred Persian ships. No Persian fleet showed itself again in the Aegean for 71 early a hundred years. This victory of Mycale was a signal for the cities of Ionia to Sparta revolt against Persia. The Spartans, however, shrank from YJ?^^*^u* the task of defending Hellenes so far away, and jyroposed in- leader stead to remove the lonians to European Greece. The lonians ^sainst refused to leave their homes, and the Athenians in the fleet declared that Sparta should not so destroy " Athenian colonies. " The Spartans seized the excuse to sail home, leaving the Athenians to protect the lonians as best they could. The Athenians gal- lantly undertook the task, and began at once to expel the Per- sian garrisons from the islands of the Aegean. The allies now organized the Confederacy of Delos, so called Confederacy because its seat of government and its treasury were to.be at the ° ® **^ island of Delos. Here an annual congress of deputies from the different cities of the League was to meet. Each city had one vote — like the American States under the old Articles of Con- federation. Athens was the "president" of the League, and her generals commanded the fleet. In return, she furnished nearl\' half of all the ships and men, — far more than her proper share. The purpose of the League was to free the Aegean completely from the Persians, and to keep them from ever coming back. The allies meant to make the union perpetual. Lumps of iron 1(K) rili: (iUKKKS — ATHENIAN l.KADKKSHIl Growth of the League were thrown into the sea wlieii tlie oatli of union was taken, as a symbol tliat the oath sliould l)e l)in(ling until the iron should float. The Ltdfjuc W(hs composed maiuli/ of Ionian cities, intcr- csird in rommcnr. It was a natural rival of Sparta's Dorian inland Iraguv. The Lea inenihers of tlie League soon began to shirk. As soon as the })ressing danger was over, many cities chose to pay money, instead of furnishing ships and men. Athens, on the other hand, eagerly accepted both burdens and responsibili- ties. The fleet became almost wholly Athenian ; and the congress at Delos became of little consequence. Then, here and there, cities began to refuse even the payment of money. This, of course, was secession. Such cities said that Persia was no longer dangerous, and that the need of the League was over. But tlie Athenian fleet, ])atr()lling the Aegean, was all that kept the Persians from reappearing; and Athens, with good reason, held the allies by force to their j)romises. In 4n(iuercd state was not allowed to return into the union. It lost its vote in the congress, and hreamr a mere snhject of Athrns. From tJMH- to time, otin-i- un-mbcrs of tiu' League atttinpted secession, ami nut a like fate, .\thens took away their tieets. leveled their walls, atid made them pay a tribute. Lsually a subject citN was left to manage its internal go\ (-rnnient in its own way ; but it could no longer haxc alliances with other THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 101 cities, and sometimes its citadel was held by an Athenian gar- Athens i rison. The confederacy of equal states became an emjnre, with ' .J^^*^* Athens for its "tyrant city." The meetings of the congress ceased altogether. Athens removed the treasury from Delos, and began to use the funds and resources of the union for her own glory. (By 450 B.C. Lesbos, Chios, and Samos were the Acharnian Gate 7 Eleusinium 8 Council House y I'holos 10 Temple of Furies STADIA S || J Templeof Asclepius 11 Temple of Ares ^] ' 3 1^ Mcnument of 1 - So-called Prison -ly lysi cntea ufSocraiea Map of Athens, with some structures of the Roman period. — The term "Stoa," which appears so often in this map, means "porch" or portico. These porticoes were inclosed by columns, and their fronts along the Agora formed a succession of colonnades. Only a few of the famous build- ings can be shown in a map like this. The "Agora" was the great public square, or open market place, surrounded by shops and porticoes. It was the busiest spot in Athens, the center of the commercial and social life of the city, where men met their friends for business or for pleasure. only states of the League which had not become " subject states." Athens, however, had other independent allies that had never be- longed to the Delian Confederacy — like Plataea and Corcyra in Greece, Rhegium in Italy, and Segesta in Sicily.) 102 THE GREEKS — ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP And her work Atlicns at least continiU'i(/(in in the s()ii<;s and dances of a chorus in honor of Dionysus, ^od of wine, at tlie spring- festival of flowers and at tlie autunm \ inta*i,-e festixal. The leader of the chorus came at length to recite stories, ix'tween the songs. Thespis at Athens, in the age of Pisis- tratus, had (le\ clojx-d this leader into an actor, — ayart from the chorus and carrying on dialogue with it. Now Aeschi/lus added another actor, and liis younger rival, Sopho- cles, a third. All the action had to he such as could have taken place in one day, and w itliout change of scene. Aes- chylus, wSophocles, ;ind their successor, Euri})ide.s, are the three greatest Greek drama- tists. Together they produced some two hundred tragedies, of which thirty-one survive. Comedy also grew out of the worship of the wine god, — not from the great religious festi- \als. liowexcr, hut from the i-nde \illage merrymakings. " Attic com«'d\ " ke})t traces of tiiis ru(h' origin in occasional coarseness; and it was sometimes misused, to ahuse men like Pericles and Socrates. Still, its great master, .lr/.s7o/>/;^;;?r.»f, for his wit and genius, nuist always remain one of tlie l»right names in hterature. The theater l''\'ery Greek city liad its " tlieater" — a semicirctdar arrange- ment of rising seats, often cut into a iiillside, with a small stage Aristoph- anes I SoPHOCLKs. — A !» )rtr;iit statvio. now in the Later:in MiisiMini at Rome. PLATE XXI I Ahovk- I 111: A ri;if <.i I )i()\\ si Ariii.Ns 'l'(t-l)A^ Hki-ow. — Thk Sta(;k ok thk Tin- \thh. slmwini' ilu- s.iil|, alxjut it. — From the front- .1 li^Mirc INTELLECT AND ART 109 at the open side of the circle for the actors. There was no inclosed building, except sometimes a few rooms for the actors, and there was none of the gorgeous stage scenery which has become a chief feature of our theaters. Neither did the Greek theater run every night. Performances took place at only two periods in the year — at the spring and autumn festivals to Dionysus — for about a week each season, and in the daytime. The great Theater of Dionysus, in Athens, was on the south- east slope of the Acropolis — the rising seats, ^ cut in a semicircle into the rocky bluff, looking forth, beyond the stage, to the hills of southern Attica and over the blue waters of the Aegean. It could seat almost the whole free male population. Pericles secured from the public treasury the admission fee to the Theater for each citizen who chose to ask for it. The Greek stage was the modern pulpit and press in one, and this free admission was for religious and intellectual training, rather than for amusement. The art of public speech was studied zealously by all who Oratory hoped to take part in public affairs. Among no other people has oratory been so important and so effective. For almost two hundred years, from Themistocles to Demosthenes (p. 134), great statesmen swayed the Athenian state by their sonorous and thrilling eloquence ; and the citizens, day after day, packed the Pnyx to hang breathless for hours upon the persuasive lips of their leaders. Prose literature now began, with history as its leading form. History The three great historians of the time are Herodotiis, Thucydides, and Xenophon. For charm in story-telling they have never been excelled. Herodotus was a native of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor. He traveled widely, lived long at Athens as the friend of Pericles, and finally in Italy completed his great History of the Persian Wars, with an introduction covering the world's history up to that event. Thucydides, an Athenian general, wrote the history of the Peloponnesian War (p. 124 ff.) in 1 The stone seats were not carved out of the hill until somewhat later. During the age of Pericles, the men of Athens sat all over the hillside, on the ground or on stools which they brought Mdtii them. 110 UK A'l^llKXIAX K.MIMKK wliich lie took part. Xciiophon also was an Athenian. He completed tlie story of the Peloponnesian War, and ga\-e us, with other works, the Atuifxhsis, an account of the expedition of the Ten Thousand Greeks through the Persian Empire in 401 B.C. (p. i;^()). Compared with the earlier philosophy Philosophy The age of Pericles saw also a raj)id devekjpnient in ])liilos- ophy, — and this movement, too, had Athens for its most important home. Anaxagora.s of Ionia, the friend of Pericles, taught that the ruling princij)le in the universe was Mind : "In the l)eginning all things were chaos; then came Intelli- gence, and set all in order." He also tried to explain comets and other strange natural phenomena, which had been looked upon as miraculous, and he amazed men of his time most of all by asserting that the sun was a red-hot mass probably as large as tlie Peloponnesus. Tlie pliilosoi)h(M-s of the sixth century (p. 73) had tried to answer tlie (juestion, — How did the universe come to be? The ])hil()soi)hers of the age of Pericles asked mainly, — How does man Iniow about the universe? That is, ihrii tried to explain the leorlcitKj of the hutiuni ntind. These early attempts at explana- tion were not xcry satisfactory; so next came the Sophists, to declare all such ex])lanations beyond the power of the hmnan iiiind. Man, they hrld, cannot reach the trutli itself, but must l)e content to know only (ipjx'dnmces. Socrates 'iheu came Sorrdtes to com])lete the circle of ancient philosoj)hy. Like the Sophists, he aliaiidoncd the attemj)t to understand the m(iteri(d unixcrse, and ridiculed gently the attcmj)te(l explana- tions of his friend, Anaxagoras. Hut he really dllVered widely from the Soj)hists. He sought knowledge about himself and his duties. He took for his motto, " Kiioir thj/self,'' and consid- ered philoso])hy to consist in rii/ht thiukiuq upon humon conduct. "^rrne \\is(l(»iii. he taught, is to l:noie what is good and to do what is right ; and he tried to make his followers see the ditf(Tence between justice and injustice, temperance and intemi)erance, virtue ami \ ice. Socrates was a poor man, an artisan who car\'ed little images SOCRATES 111 of the gods for a living; and he constantly vexed his wife, The " So- Xanthippe, by neglecting his trade, to talk in the market place. ^^^^^ .. He wore no sandals, and dressed meanly. His large bald head and ugly face, with its thick lips and flat nose, made him good sport for the comic poets. His practice was to entrap unwary antagonists into public conversation by asking innocent-look- ing questions, and then, by the inconsistencies of their answers, to show how shallow their opinions were. This proceeding afforded huge merriment to the crowd of 3'ouths who followed the bare-footed philosopher, and it roused up bitter enemies among his victims. But his beauty of soul, his devotion to knowledge, and his largeness of spirit make him the greatest name in Greek history. When seventy years old (399 B.C.) Socrates was accused of Socrates' impiety and of corrupting the youth, and was condemned to ^^^^^ death. For thirty days he remained in jail, conversing daily in his usual manner with groups of friends who visited him. Two of his disciples (Plato and Xenophon) have given us ac- counts of these talks. On the last day, the theme was immor- tality. Some of the friends fear that death may be an endless sleep, or that the soul, on leaving the body, may "issue forth like smoke . . . and vanish into nothingness." But Socrates comforts and consoles them, — convincing them, by a long day's argument, that the soul is immortal, and picturing the lofty delight he anticipates in questioning the heroes and sages of olden times when he meets them soon in the abode of the blest. Then, just as the fatal hour arrives, one of the company (Crito) asks, "In what way would you have us bury you?" Socrates rejoins : " 'In any way you like : only you must first get hold of me, and take care that I do not walk away from you.' Then he turned to us, and added, with a smile : ' I cannot make Crito l)elieve that / am the same Socrates who has been talking with you. He fancies that I am another Socrates whom he will soon see a dead body — and he asks, How shall he bury me? I have spoken many words to show that / shall leave you and go to the joys of the blessed. ... Be of good cheer, then, my dear Crito, and say that you are burying my body only — and do with that what is usual, or as you think best. ' " Ill Till-: (iKKKKS — ACJK (JF I'KKICLKS Extent of Athenian culture Pericles' glorification of Athens Friciuls of Socrates liad inado arran^ciiicnts for his oscajx' from prison Ix'forc tlie day set for his excfution ; ])ut he stead- fastly refused to s. . . . I'Or we hav(^ eoni- |>elle(l every land and every sea to open a i)atli for our valor, and have everywhere planted eternal memorials of our friendship and of our emnity {thrns is the school of Ifcllos." T'hrce liniitatiiuis in this noble culture nnist be noted : 1. It rested on slaNcrw The main business of the citizen i In Greek culture WEAK POINTS IN THEIR CULTURE 113 was government and war. Trades and commerce were left Limitations largely to the free non-citizen class, and unskilled hand labor was performed mainly by slaves. As a rule, it is true, this slavery was not harsh. The slaves were frequently Greeks, of the same speech and culture as their masters ; but in some ways, this made their lot all the harder to bear. There was always the possibility of cruelty ; and in the mines, even in Attica, the slaves were killed off brutally by merciless hardships. 2. Greek culture was for males only. It is not likely that the wife of Phidias or of Thucydides could read. The women of the working classes, especially in the country, necessarily mixed somewhat with men in their work. But among the well-to-do, women had lost the freedom of the simple and rude society of Homer's time, without gaining much in return. Ex- cept at Sparta (p. 83) they appeared rarely on the streets, and, even at home, passed a secluded life in separate women's apart- ments. (The rule is merely emphasized by its one exception. No account of the Athens of Pericles should omit mention of Aspasia. She was a native of Miletus, and had come to Athens as an adventuress. There she won the love of Pericles. Since she was not an Athenian citizen he could not marry her ; but, until his death, she lived with him in all respects as his wife — a union not grievously offensive to Greek ideas. The dazzling wit and beauty of Aspasia made her home the focus of the intellectual life of Athens. Anaxagoras, Socrates, Phidias, Herodotus, delighted in her conversation ; and Pericles consulted her on the most important public matters. But she is the only woman who need be named in Greek history after the time of Sappho.) 3. With all their intellectual power, the Greeks of Pericles' day had not thought of finding out the secrets of nature by experiment. They had only such knowledge of the world about them as they had chanced upon, or such as they could attain by observatio7i of nature as she showed herself to them. To ask questions, and make nature answer them, by systematic experiment, is a method of reaching knowledge which belongs, in any marked degree, only to recent times. But, before the lU Till-: CUKKKS - AdI-: OK rKKICLKS Greeks, men had readied alxmt all the mastery ()\cr nature that was possible without that method. Tlie Greek mind achicM d won(h'i-s in iitcratui-e and art and |)hil()S(»|)hy ; Inif if did liftlr to (idnutci iitdirs poircr onr unfit lu. To make the (ireek woi'id at all real to us, we must think of <'\en the hest houses witliout plumhin^' — or drains of any sort; heds without sheets or springs; rooms witliont fire; tra\-elin*i- without hrid^^-es and without e\-en a stagecoach; shoes without stockings; clothes witliont })nttons, or e\-en a liook and eye. The Grt>ek had to tell time without a watch, and to cross seas without steamshi])s or wireless telegraphy or e\-en a com])ass. He was civilized without heing what we should call " comfortable." Perhaps all the more, he felt keenly the beauty of sky and iiill and temple and statue and the human form, l^ut in one respect this lack of control over nature was exceedingly serious. With- out modern scientific knowledge, and modern machinery, it has ne\er been })ossible for man to ])roduce wealth fast enough so that nuuui could take sulficient leisure for refined and graceful living. There nuts too Utile wenlth to go round. The cixilization of the few rested neeessarUji u])on slax'cry. This third limita- tion was the cause of the first. The mora! side of (ireel: culture /V///.v short of the intetJicfuol and morals .m/,. Their religion had little to do with conduct toward men. Their good sense anrl clear thinking had freed their religion from the grossest features of Oriental worshij); l)Ut their moral ideas are to be sought mainly in their philosoj)hy and literature, rather than in their stories about the gods. They acce])te(l frankly the search for j)l<'asnre as natural and proper. Self- sacrifice bad little place in their ideal ; but they did deeply admire the beauty of self-control and moderation. No society ever j)rodu('ed so many great men, but many societies ha\p produced better men. At the same time, a few (ireek teachers gi\e us some of the noblest morality of th«' woi'ld. as the following brief (piotations show : Religion RELIGION AND MORALS 115 a. From the Odyssey. — "Verily the blessed gods love not fro ward deeds, but reverence justice and righteous acts." h. From Aeschylus. — "Justice shines in smoke-grimed houses and holds in regard the life that is righteous ; she leaves with averted eyes the gold-bespangled palace which is unclean, and goes to the abode that is holy. c. Antigone, the heroine of a play by Sophocles, had knowingly in- curred the penalty of death by disobeying an unrighteous comm.and of a wicked king. She justified her deed proudly, — " Nor did I deem thy edicts strong enough That thou, a mortal man, should'st overpass The unwritten laws of God that know no change." d. A Prayer of Socrates (from Plato's Phaedrus). — "Beloved Pan, and all ye other gods who haunt this place, give me beauty in the in- ward soul ; and may the outward and inward man be at one. May I reckon the wise to be the wealthy, and may I have such a quantity of gold as none but the temperate can carry." Greek Girls at Play — from a vase- painting. ( IIAITKK XII EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE AGE OF PERICLES The home (irci-k houses, vvvn those* of t\\v rich, were siiiiph'. Tlic j)oor c-ould not atVoid more; and the rich man thou^dit liis house of little account. It was merely a place to keep his women folk and young children and some other valuable property, and to sleep in. His real life was i)assed outside. The ])0()r man's house was a one-story mud hut; and even a "well-to-do" house was merely a wooden frame, covered with sun-dried clay. Houses were huilt flush witli the street, and on a level with it, — without even sidewalk or steps between. The door, too, usually opened out — so that passers-l)y were li;d)le to l)umps, unless they kept well to the middle of the narrow street. On the opposite page is given the ground plan of one of the few private houses of the fifth century which has been unearthed in a state to be traced out. Tliis house was at Delos ; and it was something of a mansion, for tlie times. The street door opened into a small vestibule (A), about six feet by ten. This led to a square "hall" (D, D, D, D), which wa.s the central feature of every Greek house of iniportanee. In the center of the hall there was a "court," n])en to the ski/, and surrounded by a row of columns ten feet high. The columns were to uphold their side of the hall ceiling, — since the hall had no wall ne.xt the court. The court was |)aved with a beautiful mosaic. (Commonly, however, all floors in private houses were made of concrete, or merely of beaten earth.) From the, hall there opened six rooms more. The largest (//) was the dining room and kitchen, with a small recess for the chimney in one corner. The other rooms were store rooms, or sleeping rooms. .\ny overflow of guests could be taken care of by couches in the hall. This whole floor was for males ortholes, and the rowers were protected from arrows by the .sides of the ship.) There were 174 oarsmen and al)out 20 other sailors t/> each ship, for helmsmen, lookouts, overseers of the oarsmen, and so on. And a warship never carried less than t^n fully armed soldiers. The Athenians usually sr, and a group of incapable aristocrats, led T, TT n n . bv Nicia.s-, a good but The Hermes of Praxiteles. — Praxit- • , > r> ole.s rivaled his master. Phidias; and stupid man. this statue, though so sadly mutilated, t„ iio ,, ^, ..iv..,. .. remains one of the most famous sur- viving masterpieces of Greek art. wliole generation had grown up in war, the superstition and mismanagement of Nieias caused tlu* loss (in an expedition against Syracuse) of two hundred perfectly cfjuipped Atlienian ships and ov<'r forty thousand nu-n — among them eleven thousand of the flower of the Ather.ian hoplites. Even after this crushing disaster Athens refused i)t*ace that should take away her emi)ire, and the war lasted nine years more — ])art of the time w ith Athens as suprcMue in th<^ Aegt>an as ever. Hut in \\1, immediately after the destruction of th(> Athenian army in Sicily, Persian satraps a])])eared again upon the Aegean coast. Sj)arta at once bouglit tlie aid of their gold by Ix'traying the freedom of the Asiatic Greeks, — to whom th<' Athenian name had been a shield for sev^ty years. Persian funds then SPARTAN SUPREMACY, 404-371 B.C. 127 built fleet after fleet for Sparta ; and slowly Athens was ex- hausted, despite some brilliant victories. In 405, her last fleet Fall of was surprised and captured at Aegospotami (Goat Rivers), -^t^^^s Apparently the officers had been plotting for an oligarchic revolution ; and the sailors had been discouraged and demoral- ized, even if they were not actually betrayed by their com- manders. Lysander, the Spartan commander, in cold blood put to death the four thousand Athenian citizens among the captives. This slaughter marks the end. Athens still held out, despair- ing but stubborn, until starved into submission by a terrible siege. Corinth and Thebes wished to raze it from the earth, but Sparta had no mind ]to do away with so useful a check upon those cities. She compelled Athens to renounce all claims to empire, to give up all alliances, to surrender all her ships but twelve. The Long Walls and the defenses of the Piraeus were demolished, to the music of Peloponnesian flutes ; and Hellas was declared free ! It remained oiily to see to whai foreign master Greece should fall. From the Persian Wars to the fall of Athens there had been seventy-five glorious years. From the fall of Athens to the fall of Hellas there were about as many years more — mainly of shame and of profitless wars. For thirty-seven years, Sparta was supreme. Every- Spartan su- where she set up oligarchic governments. The cities of the P^^^^^^y- old Athenian Empire found that they had exchanged a mild, B.C. wise rule for a coarse and stupid despotism. Their old tribute was doubled ; their self-government was taken away ; bloodshed and confusion ran riot in their streets. Usually the management of a city was given to an aristocratic board of ten men, called a decarchy (''rule of ten"), commonly with a Spartan garrison in the citadel to guard against demo- cratic risings. The garrisons plundered at will, and grew rich from extortion and bribes; and the decarchies were slavishly subservient to their Spartan masters, while they wreaked upon their fellow-citizens a long pent-up aristocratic 128 THE GREEKS Spartan decay The Thirty at Athens vengeance, in confiscation, outrage, expulsion, assassination, and massacre. In Sparta itself luxury and corruption replaced the old sim- plicity. Property was gathered into the hands of a few, while many Spartans grew too jioor to support themselves in their barrack life. These poorer men ceased to he looked upon as citizens. They were not permitted to vote in the Assembly, and were known as " In- feriors." The 10,000 citizens, of the Per- sian War period, shrank to 2000. For a time even Athens remained a victim to Spartan tyr- anny, like any petty Ionian city. During tlie war, the old oli- garchic party, so long helpless, had organ- ized secret "clubs** to conspire against the democratic gov- enunent. After tlie surrender, in 404, Lysander appointt^l a coMiMiittee of thirty from these clul)S to undo the reforms of Pericles and Clisthenes and Solon, and "to reestablish the constitution of the fathers." These men (a triple decarchy) were known as "the Thirty Tyrants." They called in a Spartan garrison, to whom they ga\-e tlie fortress of the Acro})- olis ; they disarmed the citizens and began a bloody and greedy reign of terror. Rich democrats and alien merchants were put to dcatli or drixcn into exile, in order tliat their property might be eonfisc-ated. (Davis' Ixrddimjs, 1, No. 100.) Copy of a Satyu by i-'kaxitklks. Hawthorne's "Marl)le Faun. I SPARTAN SUPREMACY. 404-371 B.C. 129 Despite the orders of Sparta, such exiles and other democratic fugitives were sheltered by Thebes. That city felt aggrieved that her services in the Peloponnesian War had received no reward from Sparta, and now she would have been glad to see Athejis more powerful again. A year later, a daring band of these Athenian exiles marched secretly from Thebes by night and seized the Piraeus. The aliens of the harbor rose in their Present State of Theater of Apollo at Delphi. — Compare with cuts facing p. 109. This view is taken from the ruins of the Temple. support, and they defeated the Spartan garrison and the forces of the Thirty. The restored democracy showed itself generous as well as moderate. A few of the most guilty of the Thirty were punished, but for all others a general amnesty was declared. This moderation contrasted so favorably with the cut-throat rule of the recent Athenian experiments at oligarchy, that Athens was undisturbed in future by revolution. Meantime, important events were taking place in the East. March of In 401, the weakness of the Persian Empire was shown strik- jhoug^nd ingly. Cyrus the Younger j brother of. the king Artaxerxes, en- 130 Tifi<: (;i{KKKs New Persian wars Theban revolution (loavort'd to seize tlie Persian throne. While a satrap in Asia Minor, Cyrus had furnished Sparta the money to keep her fleet tojjether before the })attle of Goat Rivers ; and now, through Sparta's favor, lie was able to enlist ten thousand Greeks in his army. Cyrus penetrated to the heart of the Persian Empire ; })ut in a great battk^ near Babylon, lie was killed, and his Asiatie troops routed. The Ten Thousand Greeks, however, proved uneoncpier- able by the Persian half million. By treaehery the Greek commanders were entrapped and murdered ; but, under the leadersliij) n\' Xfiioplion (])p. .33, 110), the Ten Thousand mad(> a remarkal)]e retreat to the Blaek Sea. rntil this time the Greeks had waged their contests witli Persia only along the eoftsfs of Asia. After the Ten Thousand had marched, almost at will, through so many hostile nations, the Greeks began to dream of eonquering the Asiatie eontinent. Indeed, in .'^9(), Agesilaus, king of Sparta, in\a(led Asia ]\linor with a large army ; but, in full career of concpiest, was called back by revolts in Greece. Sparta had used her power, with brutal cunning, to keep down the Ixginnings of greatness everywhere else in Hellas, breaking up promising leagues and even dispersing the inhabit- ants of Mantinea (leading city of neighboring Arcadia) into villages. Naturally, idliance after alliance rose against her — until finally she was overthrown by her old ally, Thebes — whose citadel had been seized treacherously /// time of peace, by a S|)artan army. That garrison set uj) a Tlicban uoxcrnmcnt of oligarchs, which dro\-e crowds of |)atri()tic citizens into exile. Athens shelti'red these exiles, as Thel)(\s had protected Athenian fugi- tives from the Thirty T\rants. Then a number of daring young iiH'H among the exiles returned secretly to Thebes, and, through the aid of friends then*, were admitted (disguised as daneing girls) to a l)an(|uet where the Theban oligarchs were alreadx dee|) in wine. They killed the (lruidpaininoii(las continued calmly to tall: of liberty to the young. Later, it was recognized that, more than any other man, he had prepared the way for a free democracy. Unhappily, the few years remaining of his life Epaminondas w^as compelled to give mainly to war. Laconia was repeatedly invaded. During these campaigns, on one side of Sparta, Epaminondas freed Messenia — which for two centuries had been a mere district of Laconia — and on the other side, or- ganized Arcadia into a federal union, so as to "surround Sparta with a perpetual blockade." The great The])an aided the Mvs- senians to found a new capital, Mcssrnc, and in Arcadia he restored Mantinea. In this district he also founded Mcgalojfo- lis, "the Great City," by conibiiiiiig forty scattered villages. The leadership of Thebes, howex'er, rested solely on the supreme genius of her one statesman. In 'M\'2, for the fourth time, Epaminondas marched against Sparta, and at Mantinea won another complete victory. The Spartans had been unable to learn ; and went down again before the same tactics that had crushed th<'m nine years earlier at Leuctra. Mantinea was the greatest land battle ever fought between Hellenes ; but the victory bore no fruit, for Epaminondas fell on the field, and I is citv sank at once to a sh In; I Slow and narrow ])()n('y The Macedonian conquest PhiUp II The failure of tiic (ircck cities to unite into larger stat(>s iniwle it certain that sooner or later tliey must fall to some outside ])()wer. Sparta and Thebes (with Persian aid) had been able to prevent .\thenian l(Nidership ; Thebes and .Athens had overthrown Sparta; Sj)arta and Athens had been able to check Thebes. Twenty years of anarchy followed ; and then Greece fell to a foreign master. Tntil some years after Leuctra. the MaciMlonjans (part of the outer rim (^f the (Jreek race) had been only a loose miion of barbarous tribes. Then Philij) II (ambitious, crafty, sagacious, persistent, unscrui)ulous, an unfailing judge of character, and a marvelous organizer) made his people a nation, and set him.self to make them true (ireeks by making them the leaders of Greece. CONQUEST BY MACEDONIA 133 At his accession Macedon was a poor country without a good harbor. The first need was an outlet on the sea. PhiHp found one by conquering the Chalcidic peninsula — whose gold mines furnished him a huge revenue. Soon he turned his energies to Greece. In all Greek states, among the pretended GROWTir OF MACEDONIA SCALE OF MILES PvwTn Macedonia at the hegmning ^ r.^'S'vC^ of Philip's Reign VW/////X Territory added by Philip u//////l/ 4 „ before Chaeronea. *& o patriots, there were secret servants in his pay, while even some farsighted leaders (like Isocrates at Athens) seem to have believed honestly that the hope of Greece lay in union under Macedon. Philip 's wealth made it possible for him to keep a disciplined The army ready for use. This army was as superior to the two- ph^la^^ months citizen armies of Hellas as his secret and persistent "diplomacy" was more cunning and efl'ective than the changing lU TIIK (IRKKKS Demos- thenes and his Philippics Philips conquest of Greece Philip II of Macedon. — A gold me- dallion l)y Alexander. counsrls and open plans of a pnl)lic' ass('inl)ly. Dnrin^^ a stay at Thebes wliih* a Ixn, Philip had Ix-coine fainihar with tlie Thehan phahmx. He now enhir^^ed and improved it, so that the ranks presented five rows of bristling spears projeet- in^- beyond the front rank of soldiers. The flanks were proteeted by liirht- arined troops, and the Macedonian nobles fur- nislicd the finest of eav- alry. At the same time a field "artillery" first ap- ])ears, made n]) of enrious engines able to throw darts and great stones three hun- dred yards. Such a iiii.r- turc of frdlncfl troops, on a prrnKUicnf foofinf/, irav(^ uou untouched, in the name of all the gods, it is a shame for you in ignorant stupidity to sacrifice the rest of Hellas I " In 'X\S, n.( ., Philij) thn^w off the mask, iinaded Greece, jind crushed the combined Athenians aiul Thebans at Clnirrotnd. Then a congress of (ireek states at ( Orinth rcroguizcil Miindonia (IS the lu'dd of Grrcrc. The se|)arate states were to kee]) their local self-government, but foreign matters, including war and peace, were committed to Philip. Philip was also declared general in ch'uf of the (innies of (Jreeee for a war against Persia. PART III -THE GEAEOO-OEIENTAL WORLD The seed-ground of European civilization is neither Greece nor the Orient, but a world joined of the two. — Benjamin Ide Wheeler. CHAPTER XIV ALEXANDER JOINS EAST AND WEST Two years after Chaeronea, Philip of Macedon was assas- Alexander sinated. He was just ready to begin the invasion of Asia ; q^^^^ .. and the work was taken up by his son Alexander. As a boy, 336 B.C. Alexander had been fearless and self-willed, with fervent affec- tions. He was devoted to Homer, and he knew the Iliad by heart. Homer's Achilles he claimed for an ancestor and took for his ideal. His education was directed by Aristotle (p. 143), and from this great teacher he learned to admire Greek culture. yVt his father's death Alexander was a stripling of twenty years. Order He was to prove a rare military genius. He never refused an ^®s*<'''®<* engagement and never lost a battle, and he could be shrewd and adroit in diplomacy ; but at this time he was known only as a rash boy. Revolt broke out everywhere ; but the young king showed himself at once both statesman and general. With marvelous rapidity he struck crushing blows on this side and on that. For a second revolt Thebes was sacked and leveled with the ground, except the house of Pindar (p. 73), and the miser- able thirty thousand survivors w^ere sold as slaves. Then, with his authority firmly reestablished, Alexander Conquest turned to attack Persia. In 334 B.C., he crossed the Hellespont p *^® with 35,000 troops, an army quite enough to scatter any Oriental Empire force, and as large as any general could handle well in that day on long marches in a hostile country. The route of march can best be traced on the map opposite. The conquest of the 135 13(i Tin-: GRAECO-ORTEKTAL WORLD cinpirc took fixe years, and tlu- storv falls into tlirce ])arts, each marked hy a t'anums l)attle. 1. Tlie Persian satraps of A,si(i Minor met the in\aders at I lie (irdnlcii.s', a small stream in ancient Troyland. Alexander himself led the Macedonian charge tlirough the river and uj) the steep bank into the midst of the Persian cavalry, where he barely escaped roV((l the hopelessness of their resistance. Darius nexcr gathered another army. The capitals of the em])ir<* — Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, PtMsepolis — surrendered, with enoiiuous treasure in gold and sihcr, and the Persian Em})ire had fallen i'.V.U \ix\). The next six >'ears went to more desperate warfare in the eastern mountain regions, and in India. .Mexander carried his arni'^ as far east from Hab\ Ion as Hab\ Ion was from Mace- FUSION OF EAST AND WEST 1E7 donla. He traversed great deserts ; subdued the warlike and princely chiefs of Bactria and Sogdiana up to the steppes of the wild Tartar tribes beyond the Oxus ; twice forced the passes of the Hindukush; conquered the valiant mountaineers of what is now Afghanistan; and led his army into the fertile and populous plains of northern India. He crossed the Indus, won realms beyond the ancient Persian province of the Punjab, and planned still more distant empires ; but on the banks of the Hyphasis River his faithful Macedonians refused to be led farther, to waste away in inhuman perils ; and the chagrined conqueror was compelled to return to Babylon. This city he made his capital, and here he died of a drunken fever two years later (323 B.C.) at the age of thirty -two. Alexander began his conquest to avenge the West upon the Merging of East. But he came to see excellent and noble qualities in ^gg^^^ Oriental life, and he rose to a broader view. He aimed to fuse the East and the West into a new civilization. Persian youths were trained by thousands in Macedonian fashion to replace the veterans of Alexander's army; Persian nobles were wel- comed at court and given high offices ; and the government of Asia was intrusted largely to Asiatics, on a system similar to that of Darius the Great. Alexander himself adopted Persian manners and customs, and he bribed and coaxed and forced his officers and soldiers to do the like. At the same time Alexander saw that to fulfill this mission he Hellenism must open the East to Greek ideas. The races might mingle the leaven ^ , '^ , '^ for the mass their blood ; the Greek might learn much from the Orient, and in the end be absorbed by it; but the thought and art of little Hellas, with its active energy, must leaven the vast passive mass of the East. ' One great measure, for this end, was the founding of chains The many of cities, to bind the conquests together and to become the ^^^^^^^^"^s homes of Hellenic influence. Alexander himself built seventy of these towns. Their walls sprang up under the pick and spade of the soldiery along the lines of march. One great city, we are told, walls and houses, was completed in twenty days. 138 TIIK (iKAKCO OKIKXTAL WOULD Soiiu'tiines these places were mere garrison towns on distant frontiers, hut oftener they l)eeanu' mighty emporiums at the intersection of great hues of trjide. There was an Alexandria on the Jaxartes, on tlie Indus, on the Euphrates, as well as on the Nile. Many of these cities remain great capitals to this day, like Herat and Kandahar. (Iskandar, or Kandahar, is an Oriental form of the Greek name Alexander.) Greek col- This building of Greek cities was continued by Alexander's omes in the successors. Once more, and on a vaster scale than ever before, the Greek genius for colonization found vent. Each iirw city had a Greek nucleus. At first this consisted mainly of worn-out Alexandkr. Alexander in a Lion-hunt. The two sides of a Rold medallion struck by Alexander at Tarsus, Cities in the age of Alexander veterans, left behind as a garrison ; l)ut adxcnturous youth, emigrating from old Hellas to win fortune, ('ontinu(>d to rein- force the Greek element. The native \ illage people roundabout were gatheri'd in to make the bulk of the inhal)itants ; and these also soon became " Hellenized." These cities were well paved. Tliey had am])le provision for lighting by night, a good water supj)ly, and ])()liee protection. Tliey met in their own asseinl)lies, managed their own courts, and collected their own taxes. For ci-ntin-ies they made the backbone of Hellenism throughout the world. Greek was the or(!iii;'r\- speech of tlieir streets; Greek architrcture built their temples, and Greek sculpture adorned them ; they celebrat<'(l A NEW CIVILIZATION 139 Greek games and festivals. No longer in little Hellas alone, but over the whole East, in Greek theaters, vast audiences were educated by the plays of Euripides. The culture developed by a small people became the heritage of a vast Graeco-Oriental world. Wealth was enormously augmented in the West. The vast Wealth treasure of gold and silver which Oriental monarchs had hoarded ^^g^^^ted in secret vaults was thrown again into circulation, and large sums were brought back to Europe by returning adventurers, along with a new taste for Oriental luxuries. Manifold new comforts and enjoyments adorned and enriched life. A neiv era of scientific progress began. Alexander himself had Science the zeal of an explorer. When he first touched the Indus, he ^ ^^^ce thought it the upper course of the Nile ; but he built a great fleet of two thousand vessels, sailed down the river to the Indian Ocean, and then sent his friend Nearchus to explore that sea and to trace the coast to the mouth of the Euphrates. After a voyage of many months, Nearchus reached Babylon. He had mapped the coast line, made frequent landings, and collected a mass of observations and a multitude of strange plants and animals. This expedition was more important for its day than the famous scientific exploration by Lewis and Clark, from the Missouri to the Pacific, was in its day. At other times, scientific collections were made by Alexander, to be sent to his old in- structor Aristotle, who embodied the results of his study upon them in a Natural History of fifty volumes. (At one time, it is said, a thousand men were engaged in making such collections.) Thus Alexander's victories enlarged the map of the world once more, and made these vaster spaces the home of a higher culture. They grafted the new West upon the old East, — a graft from which sprang the plant of our later civilization . For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, I, Nos. 108-118, and Wheeler's Alexander the Great. Public Buildings of Pergamos, a Greek city of Asia, as "restored" by Thiersch. The city lay lower down, upon the pl9,in. CHAPTER XV THE HELLENISTIC WORLD, 323 150 B.C. AU'xandcr left no licir old enough to succeed him. On liis deathbed, asked to whom he woidd leave his throne, he replied ^Timly, " To the strongest" ; and for a half century, as he foresaw, the history of the civilized world was a horrihle welter of war and assassination. About 280 B.C., somethinjA' like a fixed order emerged. Then followed a period of sixty years, known as tlie (Mnri/ of Ilfllciii^'m. Tlie Hellenistic' world reached from the Adriatic to the Indus, and consisted of: (1) three great kingdoms, Sj/ri(| waves. "AH night," said a Greek poet, " will } the sailor, driving before the storm, see the in art and literature: fire gleam from its top." This structure especially (1) the prose stood for more than 10 centuries. 1 ' . roiiKinrr, a story of love and adventure, the forerunner of the modern novel ; (2) thr ])(isfor(iJ j)ortri/ of Throcritua, which was to influence Virgil and Tennyson; and {?>) personal memoirs. Treatises on literary criticism abounded ; the science of grammar was devel- oped ; and poets ])ri(ied themselves uj)on writing all kinds of verse e(iuall.\ \\«ll. Iiitelleetiially. in its faults, as in its virtues, the time strikingly resenil)les our own.' ' This period saw also the most iiiip(.rt;int :itt(>nipt at a fcdornl government that the world was to know until the founding of the I'nited States of America. For many years thr Achat an L< a'juc st^emed alx)Ut to revive the ancient glory of old Hellas: but this promise was ruined by a selfish war with a reformed and "socialistic" Sparta, and Macedonian rule was again established- PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 143 Painting was carried to great perfection. According to Painting popular stories, Zeuxis painted a cluster of grapes so that birds , pecked at them, while Apelles painted a horse so that real horses neighed at the sight. Greek sculpture, too, produced some of its greatest work in this period. Among the famous pieces that survive are the Dying Gaul, the Apollo Belvedere (p. 141), the Venus of Milo (Melos), and the Laocoon group. After Socrates, Greek philosophy had three periods. {For Philosophy the Spartan and Theban period.) The most famous disciple of Socrates is known , best by his nick- name Plato (" broad- browed"). His name, and that of his pupil and rival, Aristotle, of the next period, are among the greatest in the history of ancient thought, — among the very greatest, indeed, in all time. Plato taught that things are merely the shadows of ideas and that ideas alone are real. This statement gives a very imperfect picture of his beautiful and mystical philosophy — which is altogether too complex to treat here. It is more important to know that, for the first time in history, Plato planned an ideal state (his Republic), — so prophesying a time when men shall build the world intelligently. {For the Macedonian period.) Aristotle, in sharp contrast with Plato, cared about things. Besides his philosophical treatises, he wrote upon rhetoric, logic, poetry, politics, physics and chemisi:ry, and natural history ; and he built up all the knowl- edge g; thered by the ancient world into one complete system. Venus {Aphrodite^ or Melos. — This beautiful statue is now in the Louvre. 144 TTTK CHAKCO-ORIKXTAL WOFJLD For the intellectual world of liis dax lie '.vorked a task not unlike that of liis ])iii)il Alexaiidei- in the political world. More tlian any othci- of the ancients, too, he was nianx-sided and modern in his way of thiidvin*;-. (For flir j)! riixl (iffrr Alr.vdtidcr.) During- the Wars of the Suc- cession, two new philosophical systems were horn, — Kpicurcitn- ism and Stoicism. Each called itself highly "practical." Neither asked, as older philosophies had done, "What is true? " Stoicism asked (in a sense following Socrates), "What is right? " and Epicureanism asked merely, "What is expedient?" One sought virtue; the other, happiness. Neither sought knowl- edge. 1. Epicurus was an Athenian citizen. He taught that cNcry man muM pursue happiness as an end, hut that the highest pleasure was to he ohtained by a wise choice of the refined pleasures of the mind and of friendship, — not by gratifying the lower appetites. He advised temperance and virtue as means to lia])j)iness ; and he himself lived a frugal life, saying that with a crust of bread and a cup of cold water he could rival Zeus in happiness, lender cover of his theories, however, some of his followers taught and practiced gross lixing. The Epiciu-i'ans denied the suj)ernatural, and held death to be the end of all things. Epicureanism produced some lovable characters, but no exalted ones. 2. Zeno the Stoic also taught at Athens, in the ])ainted porch (stoa) on the north side of the market place. His followers made \irtue, not haj)j)iness, the end of life. If haj)i)iness were to come at all, it would come, they said, as a result, not as an end. They placed emphasis ui)on the dignity of human nature : the wi.se man should be su])erior to the accidents of fortune". The Stoics believed in the gods as manifestations of one Divine Pro\idence that ordered all things well. The noblest characters of the (xreck and Roman world from tliis time be- longed to this sect. Stoicism was inclined, however, to ignore th<' gentler and kindlier side of human life; and with bitter natures it merged into the philosophy of the Cynics, of whom Dittgcncs, with his tub anly followed Eratosthenes.) 27(3 B.(\), a librarian at Alexandria, wrote a systematic work on geography, invented delicate astronomical instruments, and devised the present way of measuring the circumference of the earth — with results nearly correct. His maps were the first to use meridians and parallels to show latitude and longi- tude. ;\ little later, Aristnrrhus taught that the earth moved round the sun ; and Ilippnrchus calculated eclipses, catalogued the stars, wrote books on astronomy, and founded the science of trigonometry. Aristotle had already given all the proofs of the sphericity of the earth that are common in our textbooks now (except tliat of actual circumnavigation) and had asserted that men could j)roh(d>li/ narh .l.vm I>j/ sdilijiq ircsf from Europe. OUR HERITAGE FROM THE GREEKS 147 The scientific spirit gave rise, too, to actual voyages of explora- tion into many regions. Daring discoverers brought back from northern regions wild tales of icebergs gleaming in the cold aurora of the polar skies, and, from southern voyages, stories of hairy men ("gorillas") in vine-tangled tropical forests. The Greek contributions to our civilization we cannot name our debt and count, as we did those from the preceding Oriental peoples. *o Hellas Egypt and Babylon gjave us outer features, — garments, if we choose so to speak, for the body of our civilization. But the Greeks gave us its soul. Said a great historian, " There is nothing that moves in the world to-day that is not Greek in origin."^ Because the Greek contributions are of the spirit rather than of the body, they are hard to describe in a brief summary. One supreme thing, how^ever, must be mentioned. The Greeks gave us the ideal of freedom, regulated by self-control, — freedom in thought, in religion, and in politics. References for Further Study. — Specially suggested : Davis' Readings, I, Nos. 119-125 (19 pages, mostly from Polybius, Arrian, and Plutarch, the three Greek historians of that age). Additional: Plutarch's Lives C'Aratus," "Agis," ''Cleomenes," "Philopoemen") ; Mahaffy's Alexander's Empire. Fact Drills on Greek History 1. The class should form a Table of Dates gradually as the critical points are reached, and should then drill upon it until it says itself as the alphabet does. The following dates are enough for this drill in Greek historv. The table should be filled out as is done for the first two dates. 776 B.C. First recorded Olympiad 371 B.C. 490 " Marathon 338 " 405 " 220 " 2. Explain concisely the following terms or names: Olympiads, Mycenaean Culture, Olympian Religion, Sappho. (Let the class extend the list several fold.) ^See also theme sentences on page 53. PART IV -ROME The center of our studies, the goal uf our thoughts, the point to u-hich all paths lead and the point from which all paths start again, is to he found in Rome ami her abiding power. — Freeman. CHAPTER XVI LAND AND PEOPLE Liguria, Gallia Cisalpin.a, and Venetia are outside ancient " Italy" — which inchided only the Apennine peninsula, not the Po valley. Fix the position of Etruria, Latium, Campania, Samnium, antl the Sahines. (Observe that the Arnus (Arno), in Etruria, the Tiber, between Etruria and Latium, and the Liris, between Latium and Campania, are the most important rivers. Their basins were homes of early culture in Italy. About 200 M.v. tlu' historical "center of ^n'avity " sliiftcd ur.st- uuird once more to Ital\-, wbicli till then bad l)ccn niercl\- an out- lying fragment of tlie cixiiizcd world. Eiu'opcan culture hrgan in the peninsula nearest to the older civilizations of the East. Just as naturally, flic state which was to unite and rule all the coasts of the Mcdiicrrtniaiu had its home in the central /xn insula wliicli dixides tliat inland sea. Italy and (ireece stood l>ack to l)ack. Italy faced, not the old East, but the new Wrst. Tlu* mountains arc nearer the eastern coast than tlir western: so, on the nistern side the short rocky s])urs and swift torrents lose tbcmscKcs (juickly in the Adriatic. The westein slojx- is nearly twice as broad: here arc rivers and fertile plains, and, as a rcsidt, most of the few harbors and the important states. When Italy was ready for outside work, she gave herself first to eoiuinerini; and ci\ iliz- ing tlie lands of the western Mediterranean. 1 IS ITALY REFERENCE MAP THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 149 In prehistoric times, the fame of Italy's rich plains and Races sunny, vine-covered slopes' had tempted swarm after swarm of barbarians across the Alps and the Adriatic ; and already at the opening of history the land held a curious mixture of races, — savage Gauls in the Po valley ; mysterious Etruscans just north of the Tiber ; Greeks in the south ; and in the center the Italians. The eastern Italians were highlanders (Sabines, Samnites, Volscians) ; the western, lowland Italians were called Latins, and one of their cities was Rome. The Etruscans came in from western Asia long be- fore the Greeks began to settle in Italy. They were mighty builders, and have left many inscriptions in u language to which scholars can find no key. Their early tombs contain articles of Egyptian, Phoenician, and early Greek workmanship, brought there by traders Etruscan Vase, — red figures on a black ground- There is a strong resemblance to ancient Cretan work ; and for other reasons some scholars suspect a close connection between Cretans and Etrus- cans. who doubtless taught them many arts. In turn, the Etruscans were Rome's first teachers. The Romans had no Homer.^ Their early history, as it Old legends was first put together by their historians about 200 B.C., was ^^^* ^^^^^ a mass of curious legends, without much value except for the place they hold in poem and story. But in recent years excava- tions have taught us many facts about early Rome. The Latins called their district Lathim. This territory was The early about the size of an ordinary American county. It was broken ^^*^"^ here and there by scattered hills; and on some one of these 1 Some modern scholars, however, believe that there must have been a copious ballad literature among the people, from which early historians could draw. Macaulay's La?js of Ancient Rome was an attempt to reproduce such ballads as Macaulay thought must once have existed. 150 EAin.^' \i()\]K Trade with Etruscans ROME AND VICINITY The square Palatine town : the nucleus of Rome each Latin tribe liad its citadel. Once a year all Latins ^^athered at one of these hill forts, Mount Alba, for a festival in honor of the chief Latin god, Jnpiter ; and the straggling village Alba Longa (the Long White town) was the recognized leader of the Latin tribes in war against the robber bands of Sabines from the mountains and against the powerful Etruscans across the Tiber. In many ways, however, the Etruscans had become necessary to Latin comfort. The Latins them- selves were peasant farmers, with- out smiths or artisans among them. If a farmer needed a plow- share or a knife, he drove an ox across the plain to the bank of the Ti))er, or sometimes car- ried grain there, to trade it to some Etruscan for the tool. About twelve miles up the Tiber (a third of the way from the sea to tlie mountains) the river could be crossed by a ford at the foot of an island (map, p. 151). To this ])laee Etruscan traders very early began to bring wares of metal and wood on regular "market days," to temi)t this profitable Latin trade. Now and then, too, a Cretan or Phoenician sliij) thought it worth while to row up the river ; and to the same ])oint the Sa- bines from the foothills of the Apennines floated down their wine and grain on Hat l>arges. Just soutli of tlie ford arose a remarkable grouj) of seven low hills. The level space between these hills, ojx'ning on the v'wcv, became the regular market or For II III, for all this trade. At some early date the Etruscans improved the river-crossing i)y building a bridge there. The Latins feared lest the Etrtiscans use it for armed invasion, and so they guarded tli<'ir end of it by building a scpuire fort about the top of the Palatine, the steepest hill close by. !I( n a prniKiiitiii Lut'ni fmni (if oner qrrw up. This "scjuare town" (the earliest " Uoiiie") dates l>aek at least to 1200 u.c. ; and in places the walls may still be traced. THE SEVEN HILLS 151 Early settlements were made also on at least two other of other early the seven hills. Roman tradition says that one of these towns settlements was founded by an invading tribe of Sabines, and the other by seveiThills ; a conquering Etruscan tribe. No doubt, there was a long period ^^^ ^®^- eration ROME under tl 1. Citadel (Arx). 2. Temple of Jupiter (Capitolinus). 3. "Quays of the Tarquins." 4. Citadel at Janiculum. 5. "Wall of Romulus." 6. Temple of Vesta. 7. Senate House (Curia). 8. Comitium. of war between the three hill-forts, but, finally, the three settle- ments were united into one state, on an equal footing. Thns began the process of association that was later to unite Italy. Rome was a city, not of one hill, like most Italian towns, but of seven hills. About 750 B.C. the old kings gave way to "tyrants" (the 152 EAKLY ROME Rome the head of the Latin confederacy legendary Servius and tlie Tarquins) like tliose who seized power in Greek cities at about that time. Some of them seem to have been P^truscan adventurers, or conquerers. These "tyrants" drained the marshes and inclosed all seven hills within nwv wall — the so-called "wall of Servius" — takinj:^ in lar^^c ()\)vu s])a('('s for future city growtli. The huge (h'ain Etruscan Tombs near Orvieto, not far from Rome. A name on one tomb is made out to be Tarkhnos — which may bo the Tarquinius (Tarquin) of Roman story. (Cloaca Maxima) and the remains of a massive wall ])ictured in these pages are supposed to belong to this period. At tlic Til)cr mouth, these new kings founded ().sfi had succeeded to the hindship of thr Latin ronfrdcrdci/. The life of the early Romans was j)laiii and sinij)le. Their hnu,s-es were small Inits, often only one room, with no chinmey or window. Tiic open door and an opening in the j)eaked roof HOME LIFE AND RELIGION 153 let out the smoke from the hearth fire, and let in light ; and a Home life slight cavity directly below the roof -opening received the rain. ^^^^ ^ Religion centered about the home and the daily tasks. For each house the door had its protecting god Janus, two-faced, Religion looking in and out ; and each hearth fire had the goddess Vesta. When the city grew powerful, it had a city Janus and a city Vesta. In the ancient round temple of Vesta, the holy fire of So-called Temple of Vesta, probably having nothing in common with the real ancient temple of the goddess except its circular form. The origin of this comparatively late building is not known. It is now a church. the city was kept always bright by the priestesses {Vestal Virgins), who had to keep themselves pure in thought and act, that they might not pollute its purity. Next to the house gods came the gods of the farm : Saturn, the god of sowing; Ceres, the goddess who made the grain grow; Venus, another goddess of fruitfulness ; and Terminus, a god who dwelt in each boundary pillar, to guard the bounds of the farm — and, later, the boundaries of the state. The early Romans had also an ancestor worship at each family tomb, and each Latin tribe had its ancestral deity. The war god, Mars, father of the fabled Romulus, was at first the special 154 EARLY ROME gi)(l of Ixoiiic. Bui ;it llic \wAi\ of all the tril)al ^'ods of Latiiiiu stood Jupiter (l'\itlirr Joxc) ; and when l{oiiic Itccainc the cen- tral Latin ])()\v('r, elnpitcr brcanic tlic center of the Roman re- ligion. Tlie later Romans borrowed some Greek stories about the gods (p. ().')); l»ut they lacked poetic imagination to create a l)eautiful mythology, as the Greeks had done. The augurs The gods at Rome manifested their will not 1)\- oracles hut l»y omens, or (nispitus. Tliese auspices were sought especially in tile conduct of birds, and in the color and size of the entrails of animals. The interpretation of such signs became a kind of science, in the possession of a "college" {collection) of augurs. Their "science" came from the Etruscans, and seems to have been related to old Babylonian customs. And the thrifty Roman drove hard bargains with his gods. The augurs, or soothsayers, called for fresh animals until the entrails gave the signs desired by the ruling magistrate, and then the gods were just as much bound as if they had shown favor at the first trial. The sky was watched until the de- sired birds did ap])ear, and, in the later periods, tame birds were kept to give the required indications. Patricians and plebeians The patrician family Like the Greek cities, Italian cities contained many non- citi/ens. In Rome this class was especially large, ])artly be- cause the city had brought within its walls many clans from con(|Uered cities, and j)artly because adxcnturers and refugees thronged to a ])r()S])erous commercial center. These non- citi/ens were /thhiidns. Some of them were rich; but none of them had any i)art in the religion, or law, or ))olilics of the city, nor could they intermarry with citizens. The citizens (the descendants of tlie three original tribes) were jHitricians, or "men with fathers." The Roman father had complete authority over his sons and grandsons as long as he li\('(l, e\'en when they wcrr grown men and j)«'rha})s in the ruling ofhees of the city. When his son took a wife, she, too, leaving her own family, came imder his control. His own daughters passed by marriage from his hand under tliat of some otiier house-father. The father luled his household. PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS 155 The Senate seems to Patrician government and the households of his male descendants, as priest, judge, and king. He could sell or slay his wife, unmarried daughter, grown-up son, or son's wife; and all that was theirs was his. The patrician government had three parts. The king stood The to the state as the father to the family, have been originally a council of the chiefs of the 300 clans (or gentes) that made up the three tribes. The Assembly was much like the Homeric gathering. It met only at the call of the king. It did not debate. It listened to the king's propos- als, and voted yes or no. Originally the army was made up of the patricians and their immediate depend- ents. But as the plebeians grew in numbers, the kings needed their service also. According to legend, " Servius " divided all landhold- ers, plebeian as well as patrician, into six classes, armed according to their wealth ; and each of these classes was divided into a fixed number of companies, or centuries. Now in barbarous society, the obligation to fight and the right The to vote go together (cf. page 76), and gradually this army Centuries ° of centuries became, in peace, an Assembly of Centuries, Gains by the plebs under the tj rants So-called Wall of Servius. The old leg- ends said that Servius built a wall about the seven hills. Cf. p. 151. This wall was thirteen feet thick and fifty feet high. It consisted of a huge rampart of earth, faced on each side by a wall of immense stones fitted together without mortar. Part of this colossal structure has been un- covered recently on the Aventine. 156 EARLY ROME The patrician minority manage to control the Assembly wliicli took oxer the ])oliti(al j)()\v('r of the older patrician Assembly. The patricians, however, held most of the j)o\ver in this new j:;atherin^'. As poj)ulation increased, the j)()orer classes ^n-ew in nuni))ers faster than the ricli ; hut they did not ^Min duly in political weight, l)ecanse the juitricifui.s Icrjd the Nioiihcr of au- fiirics from hcinf/ changed. The patricians had a majority in the centnri(>s of the richer classes. These centuries slu'ank up into skeleton companies, while the centuries of the lower classes came to contain far more than 100 men each; })}it each cefifiiri/, full or s/cclrfon, coinifcd jiisf one vote. This ^ave the patricians a vast advantage o\er tlie more numerous ])lel)eians. None the less it was a t^ain that the position of a man was fixed not by his birth, but by his wealth — something' that he mi^ht help chan^'c. The first great barrier against democracy was broken down. I dictator CHAPTER XVII THE EARLY REPUBLIC, TO 266 B.C. About 500 B.C. the patricians replaced their king by two The consuls elected consuls/ ruling for one year only. For that year, the consuls kept most of the old royal power — except that either might stop any act of the other by calling out Veto (" I forbid"). The danger of a deadlock by a mutual veto, which might be The fatal in a time of foreign peril, was avoided by a curious ar- rangement. At the request of the Senate either consul might appoint a dictator. This officer was the old king revived, save that his term of office could not exceed six mo7iths. The first century and a half of the Republic was a stern con- Class flict between patricians and plebeians. The last kings had struggles leaned upon the plebeians and had protected them. That order had lost, not gained, by the revolution. The overthrow of the kings had left Rome a patrician oligarchy. The ple- beians could hold no office ; they controlled only a minority of centuries in the Assembly, and they had no way even to get a measure considered. At best, they could vote only upon laws proposed by patrician magistrates, and they could help elect only patrician officers, who had been nominated by other patricians. The patrician Senate, too, had a final veto upon any vote of the centuries ; and, in the last resort, the patrician consuls could always fall back upon the patrician augurs to prevent a possible plebeian victory — since the augurs could forbid a vote by declaring the auspices unfavorable. Law was unwritten, and, to the plebs, unknown, so that it was easy for a patrician to take shameful advantage in lawsuits. The ruling class used their political advantages to secure unjust economic advantages. When Rome conquered a hos- tile city, she took away a half or a third of its territory.. This ^ The stories for this period — Battle of Lake Regillus, Brutus and His Sons, Horatius at the Bridge, and the Porsenna anecdotes — should be read in Davis' Readings or in Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. 157 158 EARLY ROME Unjust privilege War hard upon the poor Plebeian slavery Plebeians win a ■ general strike new territory became a common pasture ground. It belonged to the state, and a small tax was paid for the riglit to graze cattle upon it. But, by selfish patrician law, only the patricians had the right to use this grazing land ; and the patrician officers ceased even to collect the grazing tax. Thus the public land, won by plebeian blood, was enjoyed by the patricians as private patrician property. The farmer was called away frequently to battle. The plebeian had no servants to till his fields in his absence ; and his possessions were more exposed to hostile forays than were the strongly fortified holdings of his greater neighbor. He might return to find his crops ruined by delay, or his homestead in ashes. Thus, more and more, the plebeians were forced to borrow tax money, or to get advances of seed corn and cattle from patrician money lenders. On failure to pay, the debtor became the property of the creditor. He was compelled there- after to till his land (no longer his) for the creditor's benefit ; or, if he refused to accept this result, he was cast into a dungeon, loaded with chains, and torn with stripes. There were a few rich plebeians (from gain by trade), but they too were bitterly dissatisfied because they could not hold office or intermarry with the old Roman families. Livy, an early Roman historian, gives a graphic account of the first great clasli ])etween the classes — in 497 B.C. : The plehs, driven to despair by the cruelty of patrician creditors, refused to serve in the war against the Volscians, until the consul won them over by freeing all debtors from prison. But when the army returned victorious, the other consul refused to recognize his col- league's acts; he arrested the debtors again, and enforced the law with merciless cruelty. On a renewal of the war, the betrayed plebs again declined to fight; but finally Manius Valerius (of the great Valerian house "that loved the |)eople well") Was made dictator, and him they trusted. Victory again followed ; hut Valerius was unable to get the consent of the Senate to his proposed changes in the law. So the plebeian army, still in battle array outside the gates, marched away to a hill acro.ss the Anio, some three miles from Rome, where, they declared, they were going to build a Rome of their own. This first "general strike" in history forced the patricians to some real conces- sions (p. 159), and the plebs returned from the "Sacred Mount." CLASS STRIFE 159 The patricians were especially bitter toward any of their own Patrician order who were great-souled enough to dare take the side of the st^o^od^for ° people. The first such hero was Spurius Cassius. He had justice served Rome gloriously in war and in statesmanship, and finally, as consul, he proposed a reform in the selfish patrician manage- ment of the public lands. The patricians raised the cry that he was trying to win popular favor so as to make himself tyrant. This was a favorite patrician trick — not unknown to much later ages. The plebeians allowed themselves to be fooled into deserting their noble champion, and he was put to death. Under like conditions, two other heroes, Spurius Maelius and Marcus Manlius, the man who had saved Rome from the Gauls (p. 161), fell before like charges. The secession of 497 B.C. gave the plebs the right to choose Tribunes tribunes, who had power to stop any magistrate in any act by merely calling out veto. From a seat just outside the Senate door, the tribune's shout could even stop proceedings in that body, and he could forbid a vote in the Assembly. Thus these representatives of the plebs could bring the whole patrician government to a standstill. This veto power could be exer- cised only within the city (not in war). A tribune's door was left always unlocked, so that a plebeian in trouble might have instant admission, and the tribune's person was made sacred, — a device which did not always protect against patrician daggers. The next great step dates from 460 B.C., when the plebs The Twelve began to demand written laws. The patricians opposed the demand furiously, but after a ten-year contest a board of ten men (Decemvirs) was elected to put the laws into writing. Their laws were engraved on twelve stone tables, in short, crisp sentences, and set up where all might read them. These "Laws of the Twelve Tables" were the basis of all later Roman law. Like the first written laws at Athens, they were very se- vere, and were for the most part simply old customs reduced to writing. The new thing about them was that they were now known to all, and that they applied to plebeian and patrician alike. , Then came a political gain. At some early date (legend Tables 160 EARLY ROME Assembly by Tribes A double state says in tlir days of Scrx ins) the city and its territory outside the walls had been divided into twenty-one "wards, or "tribes," for tlie military le\y. In some way the meetin^M)f the inhabit- ants of tlu'se local units grew into a regular "Assembly." The plebeians (who had no complete organization in fdood tribes) had come to use this new Assem})ly of jddcr "Tribes" to choose their tribunes and to adopt plans ; and here they passed decrees (plcbi.scita) binding upon (ill of their order. The tribunes called this Assembly together and j)resi(led over it, as tlie consuls did with the Assembly of Centuries. Now by threat of another "strike," the plebs forced the patricians to agree that their plebiscites should be law, hiiuliiuj iijxm the whole state, just as the decrees of the Assembly of Centuries were. (The Senate, of course, kept a veto upon both assemblies.) Thus the first half century of conflict set up a plebeian govern- ment over agjiinst the patrician government, — Assembly of Tribes and its Tribunes over against Assembly of Centuries and its Consuls. There was no arbiter, and no check upon civil war except the Roman preference for constitutional metliods. The Licinian Laws, 367 B.C. Victory of the plebs To fuse these two rival governments into one took nearly a century more. Even after the two orders had begun to inter- marry, the patricians long resisted all attempts to open to plel)eians the sacred office of consul. In 377 n.c. the final campaign began. Under the wise leaden-hij) of the tribune Licinius Stolo, the j)lebeians united firmly in a ten-year struggle for a group of measures known as the Licinian Laws: (1) that at least one consul each year must be a jdeheian ; (2) that no citizen should hold more than SOO acres of the public lands; and (3) that payment of debts might be j)ostponed for three years — a measure made necessary by tlu^ universal distress that had followed a rec(>nt inxasion by sa\age Gauls (p. 161). Year by y(>ar the plebeians reelected Licinius and passed the decrees anew in the .Assembly of the Tribes. Each time the Senate vetoed the measures. Then the tribunes f()ri)ade the election of magistrates for tlie vear, and so U>ft the state without FUSION OF THE TWO ORDERS 161 regular government (though one year, during danger of foreign war, they patriotically permitted consuls to be chosen). At last the patricians tried to buy off the masses, by offering to yield on the matters of debts and lands if they would drop the demand regarding the consulship. But Licinius succeeded in holding his party together for the full program ; and, in 367, the Senate gave way and the plebeian decrees became law. Plebeian consuls now nominated plebeians for other offices; and, since appointments to the Senate were made from those who had held high office, that body itself gradually became plebeian. The long struggle had seen no violent revolutions and no massacres, such as were common in class struggles in Greek cities. Except for the assassination of one tribune (Genucius) and a little political trickery now and then, the patricians after each defeat accepted the result in good faith, and the distinction between the classes soon died out. While Rome w^as most weakened by internal strife, she had The GalUc been obliged also to fight continually for life against outside foes, — Etruscans, Sabines, Volscians ; and in 390 B.C. the city was actually occupied by a horde of invading Gauls except that a small garrison, under the soldier Marcus Manlius (p. 159), still held the Capitoline citadel. Later Romans told the story that one night the barbarians had almost surprised even this last defense, but some hungry geese, kept there for religious sacrifices, awakened Manlius by their noisy cackling just in time for him to hurl back the invaders from the walls. But the Gauls were ravaged by the deadly malaria of the Ro- Rome man plain, and they had little skill or patience for a regular siege. ^^^^^ Finally they withdrew on the payment of a huge ransom. While the gold was being weighed, the Romans objected to the scales ; w^hereupon, as the story runs, the Gallic chieftain, Brennus, threw^ his sw^ord into the scale exclaiming "Vae Vic- tis" — "woe to the vanquished." Such has been the principle of many a peace treaty since. Other states in Italy had suffered by the Gauls as much as Rome, or more. Rome at once stood forth as the champion of 1()2 EAKI.V ROME Rome Italian cix ili/.at ion a<;aiiist the l)ail»ariaiis. Alter lirr own irn- expels the ,,„.,li;,t,- ,„.,i| was past, she followed up the invadcfs of Italv Gauls from ' ' ' Italy in \i^M)r()Us (•anij)ai^ns until they withdrew to the Po valley. Then, as soon as the Lieinian Laws had united her own people, .she fiinird in iiinic.sf fo uiiiit Ifahj under her rule. Soni<' j)OWerful alliances were formed against her, especially one hetween the warlike Saiunites of the southern Apeiuiines and the turbulent (lauls of the Po \alley; hnt, usinn' t<> the full the a(l\antati;e of her central |)osition, Konie always heat her foes one hy one l>efoi-e the\ could unite their forces. The war with Pyrrhus The final stru^^f,de was with Tarontuni, a ^rcat Greek city of the south, which had called in aid from Pyrrhus, the chivalrous kin^ of Epirus. Pyrrhus was one of the Greek military adventurers who arose after the death of Alexander. He came to Italy with a ^reat armament and with vast desi^^ns. He hoped to unite the Greek cities of A ' 'oIN "F PyUUII Mafjna Graecia and Sicily, and then to sulxlue Car- thage, the ancient enemy of Hellenes in the West. He knew little of Rome ; })Ut at the call of Tarentum he foinid himself en^^a<:e(l as a Greek chami)ion with this new ])ow('r. He x.oii some \ ic- torii'S, chiefly through his e|«'j)hants, which the Romans liad ncN'cr before encountered; hut, anxious to carry out his with-r j)lans, he oll'ered a faxoraMe j)eacc. I iidcr the leadership of an aj^ed and blind senatoi'. .\/)/>iu.s ('Innt/iits, (lefeate»l Rome an- swered hau^ditily that siic woidd treat witii no in\ader //'/////• ht stood nfxtn Ifdlidn soil. Pyrrhus chafed at the delay, and iinall> hurried oti" to Sicily, leaxinjj; his victory inconii>lete. The steady Roman advance called him back, and a uieat Roman \ ictor\ at BrncrrntuJii (27') H.c.) ruined his dream of emi)ire and i;av(> Ronu' that sovereij^nty of Italy which siic had claimed so resolutely. In BECOMES HEAD OF ITALY * 163 266, she rounded oft' her work by conquering that part of Cisal- pine Gaul which lay south of the Po. The internal strife between classes in Rome had closed in 367. That strife had fused patricians and plebeians into one Roman people. Then that Roman people at once turned to unite Italy — and completed the task in just a century, 367-2G6 B.C. For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, II, Nos. 9-15 ; Ihne's Early Rome, 135-151, 165-190; and Pelham's Outlines, 68-97. Special Report by a student, from library material : the story of the Roman army sent " under the yoke " by the Samnite Pontius, and Rome's perfidy. ("HAITKK Will UNITED ITALY UNDER ROMAN RULE AFTER 266 B.C. 1. "CITIZENS" AND "SUBJECTS Classes of citizens Roman colonies Municipia The Tribes increased to thirty-five Italy now contained some 5,000,000 people. More than a fourth of these (some 1,400,000) were Roman citizru.s. The rest were .siihjirt.s, outside the Roman state. The majority of Ronian citizens no longer lived at Rome. Large parts of Latium and Etruria and Campania had become "suburbs" of Rome; and other towns of Roman citizens were found in distant parts of Italy. There were now three classes of citizens: (1) the inhabitants of Rome itself; (2) members of Roman colonics; and (3) members of Roman municipia. From an early date (p. 152) Rome had planted colonies of her citizens about the central city as military posts. The colonists and their descendants kept all the righis of citizens. Each colony had control over its local afi'airs in an Assembly of its own ; but representative (lorernment had not been worked oat, and in order to vote upon matters that concernexl the whole Roman state, the colonists had to come to Rome at the meeting of the Assembly there. This, of course, was usually impossible. There were many concpiered towns, too — especially the Latin and Sabine towns — which Rome incorporated into the state. Such a town was called a municipium. These municipia differed little from Roman colonies except in origin. (They represent, therefore, a new eontril)Ull()n to i)olitics. Athens had invented a clerucli s\ stem — the best adx anec^ up to her. time — corresponding to Rome's colonies; l)Ut she (hd not learn to give citizenship to roiKjuered states. By 2()() B.C., Rome li:id a "citizen" body five times as large as Athens excr had.) To suit this expansion of the state, the twenty-one Roman "trilx's" (p. 1()0) were increased gradnallx to thirty-five, — four in the citN-, th(> rest in adjoining (hstiiets. .\t first th(>se were 101 CITIZENS AND SUBJECTS 165 real divisions of territory ; but, once enrolled in a given tribe, a man remained a member, no matter where he lived, and his son after him. As new communities were given citizenship, they were enrolled m the old thirty-fide tribes. Each tribe had one vote in the Assembly. Rome and her citizens owned directly one third the land of Rights and Italy. All Roman citizens, too, had certain valued rights. ^}^}^^^ ^^ citizens Under the head of private rights, they might (1) acquire prop- erty and (2) intermarry in any of Rome's possessions. Their public rights included the right (1) to vote in the Assembly of the Tribes, (2) to hold any office, and (3) to appeal to the Assembly if condemned to death or to bodily punishment. In return for these privileges, the citizens furnished half the army of Italy and paid all the direct taxes. Outside the Roman state was subject-Italy, in three main The classes, Latin colonies. Prefectures, and ''Allies.'^ Highest **^°®. in privilege among these stood the Latins. This name did not apply now to the old Latin towns (nearly all of which had become municipia), but to thirty-five colonies of a new kind, sent out far beyond Latium {after 338) from Rome's landless citizens. . These colonists were not granted full citizenship, as were the Roman colonies, but only the "Latin right." That is, their citi- zens had the private rights of Romans ; and they might acquire full public rights also, and become Roman citizens in all respects, by removing to Rome and enrolling in one of the tribes, hi local affairs, the Latin eoloiiies had full self-government, like the Roman colonies and the municipia. Most numerous of all the inhabitants of Italy stood the mass The of subject Greeks, Italians, and Etruscans, under the general " ^1^®^ " name of Italiari Allies. These cities differed greatly in con- dition among themselves. Each one was bound to Rome by its separate treaty, and these treaties varied widely. None of the "Allies" had either the private or public rights of Romans, and. they were isolated jealously one from another; but in general they bore few burdens and enjoyed local self-government and Roman protection. IGO UXITKD ITALY AFTKIi 2i\(\ B.C. Tlu- class of Pr(Jictuns consisted of tlircc or four coiKiiicrcd towns, too (Iccj) offenders to warrant thcni in asking either the "Latin ri^iil " or "alHance." Tluij had no .sdj'-govcrnimnf. Alone of all citi, -Imwiii^' the n more, hy a wise ftth rdfioH of local customs. 1 taly had i)ccomc a contcderacy under a queen city. ROMAN ROADS 167 At the same time Rome sternly isolated the subject commu- nities. Her '' Allies " had no connection with one another except through the head city. Even the famous roads that marked her dominion " all led to Rome." Moreover, she took skillful advan- tage of the grades of inferiority she had created to foment jealous- ies. In politics as in war, her policy was ^'Divide and conquer.^' The Roman roads were bonds of union. Rome began that Roman magnificent system in 312 B.C. by building the Via Ajrpia ^°^^^ to new possessions in Campania. This was the work of the censor Appius Claudius — the man who, old and blind, after- ward held Rome firm against Pyrrhus and haughtily claimed for Rome the dominion of all Italy (p. 162) . Nothing was permitted to obstruct the course of these high- ways. Mountains were tunneled ; rivers were bridged ; marshes were spanned by viaducts of masonry. The construction was slow and costly. First the workmen removed all loose soil down to some firm strata, preferabl}^ the native rock. Then was laid a layer of large stones, then one of smaller, and at least one more of smaller ones still, — all bound together — some two feet in thickness — by an excellent cement. The top was then leveled carefully and paved smoothly with huge slabs of rock fitted to one another with the greatest nicety. Remains of these roads in good condition to-day still "mark the lands where Rome has ruled." Under the kings the army was similar to the old Dorian organ- The army ization, — a dense hoplite array, usually eight deep. In Greece the next step was to deepen and close the ranks still further into the massive phalanx. In Italy, instead, they were broken up into three successive lines, and each line was divided further into small companies, forming the flexible I egio7i. The phalanx depended upon long spears. While it remained unbroken and could present its front, it was invulnerable ; but if disordered by uneven ground, or if taken in flank, it was doomed. The legion used the hurling javelin to disorder the enemy's ranks before immediate contact (as moderns have used musketry), and the famous Roman short sword for close combat 168 UNITED ITALY AFTER 2(i() B.C. (as moderns ha\ c used the hayoiu't). Fl('xil)ility, individuality, and constancy took the place of the collect i\-e lance tlirust of the unwieldy phalanx. The legion numbered ahout five thousand, and was made u]) of Roman citizens. Each legion was accompanied hy ahout ^f.^ IT AT.V About 200 B.C. TO SHOW /J s, Roman Colonies * ^i .3 and lionian Roads ===• five thousand men from the Allies. These (iiLvilidrirs served on the wings of the legion as light-armed troops, and as cavalry. The camp The Roman camp was characteristic of a people whose colonies were garrisons. Where the army encamped — even if for only a single night — there grew uj) in an hour a fortified city, with earth walls and regular streets. Tiiis system allowed ROMAN GOVERNMENT 169 the Romans often "to conquer by sitting still," declining or giving battle at their own option; while, too, when they did fight, they did so with a fortified and guarded refuge in their rear. The importance of these camps, as the sites of cities over Europe, is shown by the frequency of the Roman word castra (camp) in English place-names, as in Chester, Rochester, Win- chester, Dorchester, Manchester. II. THE GOVERNMENT The officers of chief dignity in the Roman Republic, from The curule least to greatest, were : Aediles (two), with oversight over police °®^^^ and public works ; Praetors (two), with the chief judicial power ; Consuls (two), leaders in war and in foreign policy; Censors (two), with power to appoint and to degrade Senators, and with supreme oversight over morals; Dictator (one, and in critical times only). These five were called curule offices, because the holders kept the right to use the curule chair — the ivory " throne " of the old kings. There were also eight quaestors (in charge of the treasury and with some judicial power) and the ten tribunes. A new aristocracy had appeared. Each curule official, l\v The new law, handed down to his descendants the right to keep upon ^riTJcracy the walls of their living rooms the wax masks of ancestors, and to carry them in a public procession at the funeral of a member of the family. A chief part of such a funeral was an oration commemorating the virtues and deeds of the ancestors, whose images were present (Davis' Readings, II, No. 19). Families with this privilege were called nobles ("the known"). Before the year 300 B.C., the nobles began to be jealous of the admission of "new men" to their ranks; and their united influence soon controlled nearly all curule elections in favor of some member of their own order. To mak^ this easier, they secured a law fixing the order in which these offices could be attained : no one could be elected aedile until he had held the quaestorship, nor praetor till he had been aedile, nor consul till he had been praetor. Then the nobles had to watch only the election of quaestors. And since senators now had to be 170 TIIM KOMAX KKPUBLIC app()int(ul from cx-oilicials, "nobles" liccaiiic ((iniNalcnt to " t\\v senatorial order." The Scndtr //v/.v rtdlli/ ihc a u id in a force in the (jovcruinrtii. It contained the wisdom and experience of Rome. The })ressure of constant and dangiM'ons wars, and the f^rowin^^ c()mj)]exity of foreign rchitions excn in j)eace, made it ine\ital)le that this far-seeinroval of the Senate (so that indirectly that body, rather tlum tlie Assembly, had become the real legislature). No officer would draw money from the treasury without its consent. It declared and managed wars. It received ambassadors and made alliances. And certainly, for over a hundred years, by its sagacity and energy, this "as- sembly of kings" (as the ambassador from Pyrrhus called it) justified its usurpation. ill. ROMAN SOCIETY AT ITS BEST From .'^()7 to about 200 h.c. is the period of greatest Roman vigor. The old class distinctions had died out, and the new aris- tocracy of office was still in its "age of service." There was soon to come a new struggle between rich and poor — but this had not yet begun. The Roman citizens, in the main, patrician or j)lei)eian by descent, were still yeomen farmers, who worked hard and livt^l ])lainly. The raj)id gain in territory after 'MM made it possible to turn the city ])oor into land-owners — in a colony if not near Rome. Each farmer tilled his few acres with his own hands and the hel]) of his own sons. Every eiglith d;iy h(^ camt* to the city with a load for "market," — wheat, barhy, garden \ cge- tabh^s, fruit, horses, cattle, slice]), or hogs. There was little wealth and little extreme i)()verty. Mouius Curio, the C()n(iueror of the Samnites and of Pyrrhus, was a peasant. Plutarch tells us that, though lie haek influence, was just beginning at the close of the j)eriod. Roads, bridges, and acjueducts were built in the last half of the |)eriod on a magnificent scale, and the u.se of th(^ round arch was so de\('lo])e(l that we often s])eak of it as " the Roman arch." LIFE AND WORK 173 Undue praise has been given sometimes to the semi-barbaric excellence of early Rome. The Roman was haughty, obedient to law, self-controlled ; but too often he was also coarse, cruel, and rapacious. The finest thing in his character was the willingness to sink personal or party advantage for the public weal. Next to this, and allied to it, is the capacity for team- w^ork. Roman history, up to this point, is not the history of a few brilliant leaders : it is the story of a people. We have seen a village of rude shepherds and peasants grow a summary: into a city-state and then (by 264 B.C.) into the queen city of Rome's united Italy. During the next hundred years Italy was to tions organize the fringes of the three continents bordering the Mediterranean into one Graeco-Roman society. But it was not Rome's genius in war, great as that was, which made the world Roman. It was her political wisdom and her organizing power. As Greece stands for art and intellectual culture, so Rome stands for government and law. A little later her poet Vergil wrote : *' Others, I grant, indeed, shall with more delicacy mold the breath- ing brass; from marble draw the features to the life; plead causes better; describe with a rod the courses of the heavens, and explain the rising stars. To rule the nations with imperial sway be thy care, Roman. These shall be thy arts : to impose terms of peace, to spare the humbled, and to crush the proud. " niAPTER XTX THE WINNING OF THE WORLD, 264 146 B.C. I. KXPANSIOX IX THE WEST The five 111 2()4 u.c. Italy was one of five ^rcat Mediterranean states. world- Alexander tlie (ireat luulbeen dead nearlv sixt\' vears, and tlie powers in ... . " ' * . 264 B C. dominion of the eastern Mediterranean world was divided l)etween the three jjjreat Greek kin^lonis, Syria, Egypt, and Macedonia, with their nunierons satellites. In the western ^Mediterranean, ('arthatj:e had held sway. Between East and West now stood forth Roman Italy, ready first to seize the West. Carthage Carthage was an ancient Phoenician colony on the finest harbor in North Africa. Her government, in form, was a repnhlic, somewliat like Rome, hut in reality it was a narrow oligarchy controlled by a few wealthy families. She was now at the height of her power, and the richest city in the world. She had built up a vast empire, including North Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, half of Sicily, and the coasts of Spain. In Africa alone she ruled three hundred cities, and her territory merged into the desert where tributary nomads roamed. The western Medi- terranean slie regarded as a Punic' lake: foreign sailors caught trespassing there were cast into the sea. Rut the Greeks of South Italy had traded in those waters for five hundred years; and Rome, now mistress and protector of those Greek cities, was bound to defend their trading rights against the ( ^irthaginian closed door. The strength of ('arthage lay in her wealth and her na\y, but her army was a motley mass of nuTcenaries. Her Roman foes represented her as wanting in honesty, and their epithet, " Punic faith" is still a synonym for treacher\-. But Rome wrote the ' "Punic" is another form for " PhotMiicinn." and i.s nst'd as a .short<^r ad- jective for "C'arthacinian." 174 WARS WITH CARTHAGE 175 history ; and, even so, the charge of faithlessness holds more clearly against Rome. The occasion for the First Punic War was found in Sicily. ^^^^^^^ The struggle lasted 23 years, and left Rome mistress of that ^^^_^^^ island. Immediately after the peace, too, by a base minghng B.C. of violence and treachery, Rome seized from Carthage the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. (Then in 222 she completed her con- quest of Cisalpine Gaul up to the crescent wall of- the Alps.) The Second Punic War is known as "the War with Hanni- The^SeoMid bal." The most brilliant Carthaginian general in the first war ^^"g""^^^ ^'' had been Hamilcar, surnamed Barca ("the hghtning"). From B.^J^^^^^ Rome's high-handed treachery in Sardinia, Hamilcar imbibed Hannibal ") a deathless hatred for that state, and began to prepare for another conflict. To offset the loss of the great Mediterranean islands, he sought to extend Carthaginian dominion over Spain. The mines of that country, he saw, would furnish the needful wealth ; and its hardy tribes, when disciplined, would make an infantry which might meet even the legions of Rome. When Hamilcar was about to cross to Spain, in 236, he swore Hanmbal his son Hannibal at the altar to eternal hostility to Rome. '^ ^^'"^ Hannibal was then a boy of nine years. He followed Hamilcar to the wars, and, as a youth, became a dashing cavalry officer and the idol of the soldiery. He used his camp leisure to store his mind with the culture of Greece. At twenty-six he suc- ceeded to the command in Spain, where he had already won the devotion and love of his fickle, mercenary troops. Hamilcar had made the rich south of Spain a Carthaginian province. Hannibal rapidly carried the frontier to the Ebro, collected a magnificent army of over a hundred thousand men, and besieged Saguntum, an ancient Greek colony, which had already sought Roman alliance. Now, in alarm and anger, Rome declared war (218 B.C.). Rome had intended to take the offensive. But, with auda- Hanmbal cious rapidity, Hannibal in five months had crossed the Pyrenees '^^f ^' and the Rhone, fighting his way through the Gallic tribes ; forced the unknown passes of the Alps, under conditions that made it a feat paralleled only by Alexander's passage of the Hindukush ; 17( /o ROME WIXS TIIK WKST Victories ; Ticinus. Trebia. Trasimene Fabius dictator Cannae Fidelity of Rome s Allies Except Capua and Syracuse and, Icax iii^^ the Ixmcs of tlircc fourths of his army Ix-twccn the Ebro and Po, startled Italy hy apjx'ariii^^ in ("isalpinc Gaul, with 2(), ()()() " heroic shadows." With tlu'st' *' cnuiciatcd scarecrows" Hannibal swiftly de- stroyed two hastily gathered Roman armies — at the llcitiu.s and at the Trchia. Then the recently pacified Gallic tribes rallied turbulently to swell his ranks. The next spring he crossed the Apennines, ambushed a Roman army of 4(),()()() men, blinded with morning fog, near Lake Tramminc, and annihilated it, and carried fire and sword through Italy. Quintus Fabius Maximus was now named dictator, to save Rome. That wary old general adopted the wise policy of delay ("Fabian policy") to wear out Hannibal. He woidd not give battle ; but he followed close at the Carthaginian's heels, from place to place. Even Hanni})al could not catch Fabius imawares ; and he did not dare to attack the intrenched Roman camps. But he had to win victories to draw tlie Italian "Allies" from Rome, or he would have to flee from Italy. So far, not a city in Italy had opened its gates. But in Rome many people nun'umred imj)atiently, nick- naming Fabius Cuiictdior (the Laggard) ; and the following summer the new consids were given 90,000 men — by far the largest army Rome had ever put in the field, and several times Hannibal's army — w ith orders to crush the invader. The result was the battle of ('anna(> — "a carnival of cold steel, a butchery, not a battle." IIannil)al lost (iOOO men. Rome lost (iO,()00 ^\vAi\ and LM).0()() prisoners. A consul, a fourth of the senators, nearly all the officers, jind o\cr a fifth of the fighting poj)ulation of the city ])erished. Hannibal sent home a bushel of gold rings from the hands of fallen Roman nobles. Kx'en this victory yielded little fruit. The mountain tribes of the south, eager for plunder, diii(i. Syracuse, too, renounced its Roman alliance, and joined its ancient enemy Carthage. But the other cities — colonies, Latins, or .\llies — closed their gates against him as resolutely as Rome itself, — and so gave mar- THE MEDITERRANEAN LANDS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR SCALE OF MILES 60 100 200 300 400 Roman Poesvesiona and Allies CartliiitfiDian •' " Maoi' " \ Hiinnilial's Rout* 1— ■• Fn-e Greek SUtes Syrian rosachsions Egyptian • • i \ N.B. The Kin a much than cai LonyituJe Wcat 6 Longitude 10 East 15 E the Seleucldae had • extent to the East wn on this map. I 20 Greenwich WARS WITH CARTHAGE 177 velous testimony to the excellence of Roman rule and to the national spirit it had fostered. A third of the adult males of Italy had fallen in battle within Roman three years, or were in camp, so that all industry was demoral- f^^i^ f ^t ized. But Rome's greatness showed grandly in that hour of gloom. With splendid tenacity she refused even to receive Coin of Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, long an ally of Rome against Carthage. Hannibal's envoys or to consider his moderate proposals for peace. Nor would she ransom prisoners. Much as she needed her soldiers back, she preferred to teach her citizens that they ought at such a time to die for the Republic rather than sur- render. Taxes were doubled, and the rich gave cheerfully, even beyond these crushing demands. The days of mourning for the dead were shortened. Not a man w^as called back from Sicily or Spain. Instead Rome sent out new armies to those places; and, by enrolling slaves, old men, boys, and the criminals from the prisons (arming them with the sacred trophies in the temples), she managed to put two hundred and fifty thousand troops into the field. Hannibal could maintain himself indefinitely in Italy. But Lack of he made no more headway. He had not force enough to capture ^o^*^®^ any important walled town. So his only possible chances Rome's 1 for success lay in arousing a general Mediterranean war against Rome, or in receiving strong reinforcements from Carthage or Spain. Philip V of Macedonia did ally himself with Hannibal, but he acted timidly and too late. Carthage showed a strange character of the war 178 ROME WINS TIIK WKST apathy wlirii \ ictory was within licr ^nas]), and even allowed Romr to keep command of the sea, without a struggle. Syracuse Meantime Home besieged Syracuse by land and sea, and punished .jj.j^.j. ^,jj.^.^. ^.^„^j.^^ ^^^^^j^ j^ 1^^. ^^^^j.j^^ ^212 B.C.), and, for a time, wijH'd it from the map. Works of art, accumulated through many centuries, were destroyed or carried away as ])lunder; and th<' city ncNcr recoxered its old place in culture, power, or commerc(>. Indeed Rome's barbarous cruelty to Syracuse was due, in no small measure, to her greedy wish to seize for her.self the rich trade of the fated city. (The siege is memorable also for the scientific inventions of Archimedes, used in tlie defense. The philosopher himself was killed during the sack of the city. See Davis' Readings, IT, No. 27.) Changed In Ital\- itself, Rome fell V)ack upon iron constancy and stead- fast caution. The war became a long series of wasting sieges and marchings and counter marchings. Hannibal's genius shone as unsurpassed as ever, earning him from modern military critics tlie title, "Father of Strategy"; but he found no more chance for diizzling \ictories. Meantime his African and Spanish veterans died off, and slowly the Romans learned from him how to wage war. For thirteen years after Cannae Hannibal maintained himself in Italy witliout reinforcement in men or monex-, — always winning a battle when he could engage the enemy in the field, — and directing o])erations as best he might in Spain, Sicily, Mace- donia, and Africa. Hut it was a war waged by one suj)reme genius against the most powerful and resolute nation in the world — and the genius was defeated after a sixteen years' war. Hannibal One more dramatic scene marked the struggle in Ital\. The Romans had besieged ("aj)ua. In a daring attem])t to relieve his ally, Hannibal marched to the xcry walls of Rome, ravaging the fields about the city. The Roiumus, liowexcr, were not to be enticed into a rasli engagement, nor could the army around Capua l)e drawn from its j)rey. Tlie only result of Hannibal's desperate stroki' was the fruitless fright he gave R(l u]), sown to salt, and cursed (\4i) H.c). To carr> out this crime fell to the lot of one of the pinvst and noblest characters Rome ever j)ro(luced, — Puhlius Seipio Aemilianus, the nej)hew and a(lo])te(l grandson of Seij)io Africanus, known himself as Afrieanus th< ] (uniger. As he watched the smoldering ruins (they burned for seventeen days) with his friend Polyl)ius the historian. Seii)io s])oke his fear that some (la\ Rome nn'ght sulVer a like fate, and he was heard to repeat Homer's lines : PLATE XXIV •■^^i^^^*'^'^''^' Bb ^gg ;^--*.j^ m J ;.:,* %. ^-r^^--^":: -" - ; '^iCf^... ''*^^A^v^^'.'«#" Naples Pompeii, as the excavations show it. A large part of our knowledge con- cerning the life of Roman Italy is due to the rediscovery of this buried city. Vesuvius (shown in the background) was supposed to be an extinct volcano, but in 79 a.d. it belched forth in terrible eruption, bury- ing two cities and many villages in ashes and lava. Eighteen hundred years later, by the chance digging of a well, the site of Pompeii, the larger of the two cities, was re- discovered. In recent years it has been carefully excavated ; and to-day a visitor can walk through the streets of an ancient city, viewing perfectly preserved houses, shops, temples, baths, ornaments, and tools of the men of that day when the volcanic flood came upon them. In the Art Museums of our larger Amer- ican cities there are interesting Pompeian remains, and sometimes " reconstructed " models of houses and temples. COMMERCIAL GREED 181 'Yet come it will, the day decreed by fate, The day when thou, Imperial Troy, must bend, And see thy warriors fall, thy glories end." II. THE WIXXINXx OF THE EAST Immediately after the Second Punic "War, Rome began to extend her authority in the Greek East and in eleven years (200-190 B.C.) she set up a virfual protectorate ^ over all the realms of Alexander's successors. For this there was much excuse in the weakness and disorder of the degenerate Eastern states (p. 142). That vast region had become politically "an intoler- able hubbub," from which men's eyes turned with hope " to the stable and well-ordered Republic of the ^Yest." But Rome did not stop with protectorates. Gradually she Rome was led to seize territory in the civilized East, as before in the ^^q^q^_^ barbarous West. Appetite for power grew with its exercise ; torates into a class of ambitious nobles craved new wars of conquest for the P'"°^^°^®^ sake of glory and power; and the growing class of merchants and money lenders (who now indirectly dominated the govern- ment) hungered raveningly for conquests in order to secure more special privileges in the form of trade monopolies and the management of finances in new provinces. Two or three features only of this long conquest can be noted here. 1. The fiexil:)le legion proved incomparably superior to the unwieldy phalanx. 2. Rome so filled her coffers from the plunder of the East that thereafter she never taxed her citizens. Besides this public plunder, Roman generals regularly paid their soldiers by the sack of helpless rich cities — one Roman hero turning over to a ruffian soldiery seventy civilized cities in one campaign. 3. In 146 B.C. — the same year that saw the destruction of Carthage — Rome basely goaded Greece into rebellion, and then destroyed Corinth — another of the commercial centers ^ That is, Rome controlled their foreign relations, and. on occasion, would step in to maintain internal order — much as the United States stands to Cuba to-dav. 182 HOME THE WOULD MISTRESS The world Graeco- Roman Latin West and Greek East whose prospcrit.N- callrd out tlic envy of Roman nirrcliants. The fity was luirncd ; its site j)l()\V('(l and cursed ; and its people murdered or sold into sla\(M-y. The art-treasures l)eeame the phmder of tlie Roman state, hut much was h)st. Polyl)ius saw soldiers playing at dice, amid the smoking ruins, on the ])alntings of tlie greatest masters. In 2()4 B.C. Rome liad been one of five Great Powers fp. 174). In 14(), she was the .vo/r Great Power. Cartilage and Mace- donia were provinces. Egypt and Syria liad i)ec()me protec- torates and were soon to he provinces. All the smaller states had been brought within the Roman "sphere of influence." Rome held the heritage of Alexander as well as that of ( "arthage. The civilizi'd world had become a Graeco-Roman world, under Roman sway. But Rome\s relations with the two sections of her empire were width/ different. To the people of the West, despite terrible cruelties in war, she brought better order and higher ci\ ilization than they had known. The Western world became Latin. But to the last, the East remained Greek, not Latin, in language, customs, and thought. The Adriatic continued to divide the Latin and Greek civilizations when the two shared the world under the sway of Rome. Exercise. — Make a table of dates in parallel columns to show relations in time between Greek and Roman historv — to 14() B.C. B.C. CiREKCE R.r. RoME 510. Kxpulsionof.Vthenian tyrants. r)()0(?). Expulsion of the kings. 492. .\t tack by Persia. 494. First secession by the plehs : tribunes, etc. etc. Special Report, from lil)rary material : the story of IlanniWal after Zama. CHAPTER XX STRIFE BETWEEN RICH AND POOR, 146-49 B.C. Rome had 'won the world but lost her own soul.' During Decline in her wars of conquest, she sank steadily to lower levels in morals "^^y^^^ ^"® and in industry at home. The Second Punic War alone cost Italy a million lives. These included the flower of the Roman citizens, — tens of thousands of high-souled youth, who, in peace, would have served the state through a long lifetime. The Italian race was made permanently poorer by that terrible hemorrhage. Conquest and war had hastened, too, the growth of a capitalist Conquest class. By 14^^, Rome had become the money center of the world. ^^^^^^. The capitalists became known as equites, or "knights." They class formed a new and larger aristocracy of wealth just below the old senatorial aristocracy of office and birth. Very comnlonly they were organized in partnerships and stock companies, and the Via Sacra, along which such companies had many offices, was the first Wall Street. Some of these combinations monopolized the trade in important commodities — so as unduly to raise the price to the public. Olive oil was a necessary part Trade of Italian food, holding much more than the place that butter "^onopoUes does with us, and it had many other uses aside from food ; so about 200 B.C., we find an " oil trust " at Rome. A few years later the people were so distressed by a speculators' "corner" in grain that the government felt it necessary to prosecute certain "malefactors of great wealth" under an ancient law of the Twelve Tables against engrossing food. Ordinarily, however, the capitalists went their extortionate And their ways without rebuke. True, the Senatorial families were for- ^it^^t^e bidden by law to engage in foreign trade or in government Senate contracts ; but this attempt to keep the money power from influencing the government failed. The capitalists could not 183 184 DKCAV OK THK ROMAN UKPUBLIC place incinl)(.TS of tlicir own class in the Senate, so as (lincfli/ to secure such policies as they desired ; l)ut none tlie less, indi- r(>ctly, they did control the j^o\ ernnient. This condition hrga)i with the ])atriotie action of the moneyed nuMi during the Second Punic War. \'ear l»y xcar, during that desperate struggle, the Senate had to liaxc immense sums of money such as the Roman treasury had ne\er })efore known. The only way then to get such sums cjuickly was from the rising companies of capitalists. These companies risked their w(vilth generously to build the fleets and equip the armies with which Hannihal was held in check. Thcti, in return, when the danger was past, they demanded and obtained special favors. In particular, they were allowed to take for their own the public lands, treating the land provision of the Licinian Laws as a dead letter. Sometimes tliey rei)aid themselves out of graft- ing contracts for supplies, or by overinsuring ships laden with army supplies, and then scuttling them, to collect the money from the government. Moreover the capitalists loaned money, perhaj)s without security, to ambitious young nobles to help them get elected to office ; and in return, when one of these nobles became a pro\incial goN'crnor, lie could easily iiuhice a rich city to give fat contracts to his favorite Ronum syndicate ; or he coidd enable the syndicate to squeeze from a debtor city the last ])enny of extortionate interest which its go\-ernment had foolishly or wrongfully j)r()mise(l. The syndicates were of no ])olitical ])arty. Lik(> "big busi- ness" in our own time, they sought to control or own excry l<*ader and party which might be able sometime to serve them. ^b)reover, small shares of the stock companies were widely distributed, so that the whole middle class of citizens was interested in excry ])rosj)ect of enlarged di\i(l(Mids. Such citizens could be coimted upcui to support any project of the moneyed interests with their xotes in the .Vssembly and with their shoutings in the stnM-t mobs. Ever since the war wiili Pynhus, (li-eek culture from Magna Graecia had been more and more intluencini; Rome, ^^ith a PLATE XXV THKjJisds TiiKowKH (y;(.s(M/., This Kl<'ri..u.s iuarl)ltMuiu-;irtlu-d ill 1H71 amid some ruins on the Esciuiliiic Hill. ;ind now at the Lanrelotti Palace in Rome) is a copy of a bronze by Myron (p. 121). probably celebrating some victor in the Olympian ^ames. (}ui(c probably this marble was plundered from some Greek city. RICH AND POOR 185 few of the better minds, like the Scipios, this softened and refined Influence of Greek culture character into a lovable type; but as a rule it merely ve- ^^^ neered the native Roman coarseness and brutality. i\nd after the conquest of the Greek East, there was a new Simplicity inflow of Greek culture into Italv. Greek became the fashion- s^^^^ way to sumptuosity able language ; Greek marbles and pictures, plundered from Greek cities, adorned Roman palaces ; Greek slaves wrote plays to amuse Roman nobles. With the rich and the nobles, the old Roman simplicity gave way to sumptuous luxury. There was a growing display in dress, in rich draperies and couches and other house furnishings, in the celebration of marriages, at funerals, and at the table. (The Romans now adopted the Luxury of Greek custom of reclining at meals.) As the Roman Juvenal wrote later : " Luxury has fallen upon us — more terrible than the sword ; the conquered East has avenged herself by the gift of her vices." The houses of wealthy men had come to imitate the Greek type. Each fashionable house had its bathrooms, one or more, and its library. The pavement of the courts, and many floors, were ornamented with artistic mosaic. Walls were hung with costly, brilliantly colored tapestries ; and ceilings were richly gilded. Sideboards were beautiful with vases and gold and silver plate ; and in various recesses stood glorious statues, the booty from some Hellenic city. Besides his town house, each rich Roman had one or more The villa country houses (villas), with all the comforts of the city, — baths, libraries, museums, mosaic pavements, richly gilded ceilings, walls hung with brilliant tapestries, — while about the house spread parklike grounds with ornaniental shrub- bery and playing fountains and with beautiful marble forms gleaming through the foliage, and perhaps with fish ponds and vineyards. Commonly a villa was the center of a large farm ; and its magnificent luxury found a sinister contrast in the squalid huts, leaning against the walls of the villa grounds, in which slept the wretched slaves that tilled the soil and heaped up wealth for the noble master. Near by, in somewhat better quarters, lived 186 DECLINE OF TIIK liOMAX KKPrBLIC his skilled iirtisans — carpenters, smiths, and hakers. To care for the e()mj)le\ needs ot" liis suniptuons life, too, e\'ery man of wealth kept troops of hoiLschold skives — who slej)t on tlie ilooi-s of the lar<;e halls or in the open eoiirts. Alon^^side this i)ri\ate Inxnry, there ^yvw ilu prdctirc (lunmi) cdudiddics for office of entertaining the popuUiee with ,shoie,s, especially with (/Iddidtoridl (jdmes. These came, not from the Greek East, hut from nei.uhhors in Italy. Tliey were an old Etruscan custom, and were introduced into Rome about the beginning of the Punic Wars. A gladiatorial contest was a combat in which two men fought each other to the death for the amusement of the spectators. The practice was connected with ancient human sacrifices for the dead, and at Rome the first contests of this kind took place only at the funerals of nobles, but by degrees they became the most common of the ])ublic amusements. Exaggerated copies of the Greek pul)lie baths apjx'ared in Rome. These became great public clubhouses, where the more voluptuous and idle citizens spent many hours a day. Besides the various rooms for baths, — hot, tepid, or cold, — a bathing house had its swimming j)ools, libraries, and nuiseums, and extensive gardens with delightfid shady walks. Before long, some of these were opened free to the poorer classes. For Rome now had a populace, — masses of hungry, unem- ployed men. This new class, like the new rich, was also a prod- uct of the Second Punic War. That war began the ruin of the small farmer in Italy. Over much of the ])eninsula the home- steads were hopelessly devastated ; and years of c(Mitinuous camp life, with ])lunder for ])ay, e()iTn|)te(l the simple habits of the yeoman class, so tiiat they di-iftcd to the city, to become a rabble. When the great wars were oxer, the rift between the new rich and the new j)oor went on widening. Rome confiscated vast tracts of land in lier contiuercd proxinces. and afterward sold them cheap to her own iioiiles; and often the ruined natives were glad to sell their remaining estates for a song. By such means, Roman nol)les became the owners of huge landed PLATE XXVI Two Views of the Remains of the Library of a Roman Villa near Tivoli. Walls so well preserved are uncommon ; but the foundations of such structures are scattered over Western and Southern Europe, and even to-day new finds of this sort are revealed by chance excavations. I RICH AND POOR 187 properties in Sicily, Spain, Africa, and soon in the East, — all worked by cheap slave labor, which was supplied in abundance by the continuous wars of conquest. This new landlord class then supplied the Italian cities with grain from Sicily and North Africa cheaper than the Italian farmer could raise it on his more sterile soil. This did not hurt the large landlord in Italy : he turned to Ruin of cattle grazing or sheep raising, with slave labor. But the small *^® farmer had no such refuge. Ruined and dismayed, many of this class were ready to sell their farms ; and they found eager purchasers in the new capitalists, who especially desired pleasure resorts in Italy, Indeed, when the yeoman (in the more se- cluded districts) still clung stubbornly to his ancestral fields, a grasping landlord neighbor sometimes had recourse to force and fraud. Horace, court poet though he was (pp. 225-6), describes in pathetic words the helplessness of the poor farmer, whose cattle died mysteriously, or whose growing crops were trampled into the ground overnight, until he would sell at the rich man's price. Redress at law was usually too costly and too uncertain for a poor man in conflict with a rich one. In parts of Italy, especially in the north, many yeomen Emigration did hold their places. But over great districts, only large ranches could be seen, with half-savage slave herdsmen and their flocks, where formerly there had nestled numerous cottages on small, well-tilled farms, each supporting its independent family. As a class, the small farmers, once the backbone of Italian society, had disappeared. What became of this dispossessed yeomanry, from whom formerly had come conquerors, statesmen, and dictators? Many had foresight and energy enough to make their way at once to Gaul or Spain, while their small capital lasted. To Italy their strength was lost. But in the semi-barbarous west- ern provinces, for a century, a steady stream of sturdy peasant emigrants spread the old wholesome Roman civilization and confirmed the Roman rule, while at the same time they built up homes and fortunes for themselves. 188 DECAY OK TIIK KOMAX KMI'IUK A city mob A whole class of people, liowexcr, eotild not lea\c their iiali\(' hind. 'V\\c ^I'eat Imlk of tlie ex-farmers merely drifted to the cities of Italy, and esi)ecially to the capital. If Italy had heen ji inanufac'turiiii;- country, they mi^dit finally haxc found a new kind of work in these city homes. Hut the Roman concjuests in the East j)re\ente(l this. In the Eastern ])ro\inees, mami- facturin^ of all sorts was nuieh more developed than in Italy; and now Roman merehants found it eheaj)er to import Oriental ^oods than to huild up a system of factories at home. .Rome eeased to develo]) home resourees, and fed upon the provinces ; and such manufactyu'cs as remained were already in the hands of skilled Oriental slaves or freedmen. Thus the ex-farmers found no more employment in the eity than in the country. They soon spent the small sums they had reeeived for tlieir lands, and then they and their sons sank into a degraded eity rahhle. Hannibal had struck Rome a deadlier blow than hv vvvv knew. The rugged citizen farmers who had eoiKluered Pyrrhus were replaced, on one side, by an incapable, effeminate aristocracy, and on the otlier, Iw a mongrel mob reinforced by freed slaves. The lines of an English poet, almost two thousand years later, regarding similar phenomena in his own country, apply to this Italy : "111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates, and men decay!" Political With this moral decline came ])olitical decay. In theory the decay constitution had not changed ; but really it had become a play- thing for factions of ambitious and degenerate ])()liticians. Old ideas of loyalty, obedience, regard for law, self-restraint, van- ished. Leading statesmen disregarded all checks of the con- stitution, to carry a point ; and young nobles flattered, caressed, A Senatorial and bribed the ])opulace for their xotes. The Senatorial order o igarc ly shrank from a broad and wise aristocracy into a narrow, selfish, incompetent oligarchy, careful oidy of its own class interests. The shows expectears, ("icero tells us, he cynically declared it (piite enough : "In the first year he could secure j)lunder for himself; in the second for his friends; in the third foi- his judges." This new period of class struggle was to last nearly a century, and to end onl\- with the coming of the Caesars — a connnon master. The strife was ihri'c-fold : /// Ixouir, between rich and * In Cisalpine Gaul a Roman Kf)vorn(>r hchoatird a nohlo (laul. a fugitive guest in his camj). j»ist to gratify witli the sight a worthless favorite who was lamenting that he had missed the gladiatorial games at Rome (Davis' Rrad- iugs, II, \o. 'M). THE PROVINCES 191 poor; in Italy, between Rome and the " Allies '* ; in the Roman world, between Italy and the provinces. Everywhere, too, there was possible strife between masters Roman and slaves. In the closing period of the Roman Republic, ^^*^®^ there grew up a slavery beyond all parallel in extent and in horror. Says one leading authority, "In comparison with its abyss of suffering, all Negro slavery [has been] but a drop in the ocean." Slaves were made cheap by the wars of conquest. Later, to keep up the cheap supply, man hunts were organized regularly on the frontiers, and kidnappers even desolated some of the provinces. At the famous slave market in Delos ten thousand slaves were once sold in a day. Cato (p. 180), the model Roman, advised his countrymen to work slaves like cattle, selling off the old and infirm. "The slave," he said, "should be always working or sleeping." Naturally, the Roman world was troubled by many terrible slave revolts. CHAPTER XXI THE GRACCHI, 133-121 B.C. Tiberius The evils described in the last chapter had not come upon Gracchus Iconic without being seen l)y many thoughtful men, and with- out some efforts at reform. But the older statesmen were too selfish, too narrow, or too timid ; and the great attempt at reform fell to two youths, the Gracchi brothers, throbbing with nol)le enthusiasm and with the fire of genius. Tiberius Gracchus was still under thirty at liis death. He was one of the brilliant circle of young Romans about Scij)io. His father had been a magnificent aristocrat. His mother, Cornelia, a daughter of the elder Africanus, is as famous for her fine culture and noble nature as for being the "Mother of the Gracchi." Til)erius himself was early distinguished in war, and marked by his uprightness and energy. Thi.s w(i,s fhr first man to strike at the root of the i)i(lustrial, moral, and political decaii of His pro- Itdly, hy trying to rebuild the yeoman class. He obtained the posals for tribuneship for the year 133, and at once brought forward an land re- ^ " .... form agrarian' law (the obsolete land clause of the Licinian law in a gentler but more effective form) : 1. Each holder of public land was to surrender all tliat he held in excess of the legal limit, receiving in return absolute title to the three hundred acres hft him. (This was generous treat- ment and neither confiscation nor demagogism. It was further provided that an old holder might ke(>p al)ont l(>0 acres more for each of his sons.) 2. The land reclaimed was to be gixcn in small holdings (some eighteen acres each) to poor ai)i)li('ants, so as to re-create a yeomanry. And to make the reform lasting, these holders and their descendants were to i)()ssess their land leifhout right > Agrarian refers to land, e.'^perially farm land ; from the Latin a{/fr. Opponents of reform very commonly refer contemptuously to any attempt at social betterment as "agrariani.sm." 192 A Roman Hi.lidan, with Pkockssion CLASS GREED — THE GRACCHI 193 to sell. In return, the}^ were to pay a small rent to the state. (This is very like the land projects that have been under con- sideration in America to provide for unemployed returned sol- diers since the World War.) 3. To provide for changes, and to keep the law from being neglected, there was to be a permanent board of three commis- sioners to superintend the reclaiming and distributing of land. Gracchus urged his law with fiery eloquence : " The wild beasts The struggle of Italy have their dens, but the brave men who spill their blood for her are without homes or settled habitations. The private soldiers fight and die to advance the luxury of the great, and they are called masters of the world without having a sod to call their own." The Senate of course opposed the pro- posal as " confiscation." Tiberius brought the question directly before the tribes, as he had the right to do ; and the town tribes, and all the small farmers left in the rural tribes, rallied enthusi- astically to his support. The Senate put up one of the other tribunes, Octavius, to forbid a vote. After many pleadings, Tiberius resorted to a revolutionary measure. In spite of his colleague's veto, he put to the Assembly the question whether he or Octavius should be deposed ; and when the vote was given unanimously against Octavius, Tiberius had him dragged from his seat. Then the great law was passed. Tiberius next proposed to extend Roman citizenship to all Tiberius Italy. The Senate fell back upon an ancient cry: it accused f®^^s^° him of trymg to make himself king, and threatened to try Allies into him at the end of his term. To complete his work, and to *^® ^***® save himself, Gracchus asked for reelection. The first two tribes voted for him, and then the Senate, having failed in other methods, declared his candidacy illegal. Tiberius saw that Tiberius he was lost. He put on mourning and asked the people only murdered to protect his infant son. It was harvest time, and the farmers tocrats were absent from the Assembly, which was left largely to the worthless city rabble. The more violent of the Senators and their friends, charging the undecided mob, put it to flight and murdered Gracchus — a patriot-martyr worthy of the company of the Cassius, Manlius, and Maelius of earlier days. Some 104 DKC'LIXK OF TIIK KoMAX KKIHTBLIC His work lived for a while Aristocratic reaction three lumdred of his adlierents also were killed and thrown into theTiher. Rome, in all her centniies ofsti'rn, soher, j)atient constitutional strife, had ne\er witnessed such a day before. The Senate declared the murder an act of patriotism, and followed up the reformer's partisans with mock trials and perse- cutions, fastenint,^ one of them, says Plutarch, in a chest with vipers. But the work of Tiberius lived on. The Senate did not dare to interfere witli the (;reat law that liad l)een carried. A consul for the year 132 inscril)ed on a monument, that he was the first who had installed farmers in place of shepherds on the public domains. The land commission (composed of the friends of Tiberius) continued its work zealously, and in 125 B.C. fhr citizen list of Rome h(i4 increased by eighty thousand farmers. This "back to the land" movement was a vast and healthful reform. If it could have ])een kept up vi<;orously, it might have turned the dangerous rabble into sturdy husbandmen, and so removed Rome's chief danger. But of coui-se to re- claim so much land from old holders led to many bitter dis- putes as to titles ; and, after a few years, the Senate took ad- vantage of this fact to abolish the commission. Caius Gracchus Caius provides allies Immediately after this reaction, Caius Gracchus took up the work. He had been a youth when Tiberius was assassinated. Now he was Rome's greatest orator, — a dauntless, resolute, clear-sighted man, long brooding on personal revenge and on pa- triotic reform. Tiberius, he declared, apj)eared to him in a dream to call him to his task: " \Vh>- do you hesitate? You cannot escape your doom and mine — to live for the people and to die for them ! " A iceently discovered letter from Cor- nelia indicates, too, that liis mother uiu«'d him on. First Gracchus sought to win i)olitieal allies. He gained tlie favor of the equitis l)y getting them tlie control of the law courts (in i)laee of the former .senatorial eontroH ; and the city mob lie secured by a corn law providing for the sale of grain to the poor in the ca])ital at half the regular market j)rice — the other half to be made up from tlie public treasury. This measure undoubtedh' had a \ ieious side, and aristocratic writers CLASS STRIFE — THE GRACCHI 195 have made the most of it. Perhaps Caiiis regarded it as a necessary poor-law, and as compensation for the pubhc lands that still remained in the hands of the wealthy. It did not pauperize the poor, because such distributions by private patrons, especially by office-seekers, were already customary on a vast scale : it simply took this charity into the hands of the state and if Gracchus' other measures could have been car- ried through, the need for such temporary charity would have been removed. Caius then entered upon the work of reform. The land com- Economic mission was reestablished, and its work was extended to the reform founding of Roman colonics iii distant parts of Italy. Still more important, — Caius introduced the pkm of Roman colonization out- Roman side Italy. He sent six thousand colonists from Rome and other ^^^^^^^^^ abroad Italian towns to the waste site of Carthage, and planned other such foundations. If this statesmanlike measure had been allowed to work, it would not only have provided for the land- less poor of Italy : it would also have Romanized the provinces rapidly, and would have broken down the unhappy distinctions between them and Italy. (The colonists kept full citizenship.) Caius also pressed earnestl3' for political reform outside the Attempt to city. He proposed, wisely and nol)ly, to confer full citizenship ^^*^"^ upon the Latins, and Latin rights upon all Italy. But the to the Allies tribes, jealous of any extension of their privileges to others, were quite ready to desert him on these matters. The "knights" and the merchants, too, had grown hostile, because they hated to see commercial rivals like Corinth and Carthage rebuilt. The Senate seized its chance. It set on another tribune. Defeat and Drusus, to outbid Caius by promises never meant to be kept, murder Drusus proposed to found twelve large colonies at once in Italy and to do away with the small rent paid by the new peasantry. There was no land for these colonies, but the mob thoughtlessly followed the treacherous demagogue and abandoned its true leader. When Gracchus stood for a third election he was de- feated. Now that he was no longer protected by the sanctity of the tribuneship, the nobles, headed by the consul (a ferocious nU) DKC^.LINK OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC jxTsoiial cncmv), were Ix'iit upon his ruin. Tlic chanci' was soon found. Tlu* Senate tried to rej)eal the hiw for the eolony at ('artha<:;e. This attempt eaused nian\ of the old supporters of Caius to eonie into the Assenil)ly from the country. Re- nienilx'rinj; tlie fate of Til)erius, some of them came in arms. The nobles cried out that this meant a conspiracy to overthrow the government. The consul called the senatorial party to arms and ofi'ered for the head of Gracchus its weight in p)ld {the fir.s'f ifi.sfdnrc of head uionc}/ In Ronum ciril .strife). A bloody battle followed in the streets. Gracchus, taking no part in the conflict himself, was slain. Three thousand of his adherents were afterward strangled in prison. Work of The victorious Senate struck hard. It resumed its sovereign rule. The proposed colonies were abandoned ; then the great land reform itself was undone: the peasants were perinltted to sell their land, and the eonnnisxion ira,s' (dxdi.shed. The old economic decay began again, and soon tlie work of the (jracchi was but a memory. Even that memory the Senate tried to erase. ]\Ien W(M-e forl)idden to s])eak of the brothers, and Cornelia was not allowed to wear mourning for her sons. One lesson, howe\ cr, had been taught. The Senate had drawn the sword. When next a great reformer should take uj) the work of the Gracchi, he would come as a military master, to sweep away the wretched oligarchy with the sword, or to receive its cringing submission. the Gracchi undone t CHAPTER XXII THE SENATE AND MILITARY CHIEFS I. MARIUS AND SULLA, 106-78 b.c. The corrupt Senate had proved able to save its own unjust Incom- privileges by throttling reform, but it had grown glaringly, tj^/genate incompetent to guard the Roman world against outside foes. — except to Rome had left no other state able to keep the seas from pirates pj^^weg or to protect the frontiers of the civilized world against barba- rians. It was her plain duty therefore to police the Mediterra- nean lands herself. But even while she was murdering the fol- lowers of the Gracchi, the seas were swarming again with pirate fleets, and new barbarian thunderclouds were gathering un- watched along her borders. This was another reason why the Roman world was ready for a military master. The first great storm broke upon the northern frontier. The first The Cimbri and Tcidoncs, two German peoples, migrating slowly with families, flocks, and goods, in search of new homes, reached the passes of the Alps in the year 113. These new bar- barians were huge, flaxen-haired, with fierce blue eyes, and they terrified the smaller Italians by their size, their terrific shouts, and their savage customs. They defeated five Roman armies in swift succession (the last with slaughter that recalled the day of Cannae), ravaged Gaul and Spain at will for some years, and finally threatened Italy itself. At the same time a dangerous Slave War had broken out in Sicily. Rome found a general none too soon. Mariiis (a rude soldier, Marius son of a Volscian day-laborer) had just before risen from the ranks to chief command in a critical war against African bar- barians. In defiance of the law and against the wish of the Senate, the Assembly reelected him consul in his absence — and repeated this action each year for the next four years. While the Germans gave him time, Marius reformed and drilled 197 German invasion saves Rome 198 FALL OF Tlfl<: KOMAX KKPUBLIC Marius' failure as reformer liis army. Tlicii, in tin- suiniucr of 102, at A(jiitic Sr.rfiar (Aix) in southern Gaul lie auniliilatcd tlic two lumdrcd thousand warriors of the Teutones, with all their women Jind ehildren, in a huge massacre (Davis' Rrndings, II, No. 41). The next sunnner he destroyed in like manner the vast horde of the ( 'imhri, who had penetrated to the Po. The first German nation to attack Rome had won graves in her soil. Marius might now lia\-e made himself king; or, Ix'tter, had he been enougli of a statesman, he might have used his ])()wer to reform the Republic. He was naturally the chanij)ion of the democrats; hut he looked on (undecided, and incapable except in the field) wlu'le the Senatorial party massacred the reviving democratic party once more in a street war ■ — and so he lost his chance. The Social War' : Sulla All Italy enters the Roman state Soon another war brought to the front another great general. In tlie year 91, tlie tril)une Dru.sus, son of the Drusus wlio liad opposed the Gracchi, took up the Gracchi's work and proi)osed to extend citizenshi]) to the Italians. The nol)les murdered liim, and carried a law tlu-eatening death to any one wlio should renew the projxjsal. Then the Italians rose in arms. Once more Rome fought for life, surrounded by a ring of foes. This Social War (war with the Socii, or "Allies") was as dangerous a contest as the imperial city ever waged (91-8(S B.C.). Two things saved her. She divided her foes by granting citizenship to all who woidd at once lay down their arms; and the aris- tocratic consul, Sulla, sliowed nuignificent geiu>ralship. The "Allies" were crushed, huf thrir cditsr iras ricforioii.s. Whrn the war was oxer, Rome grachially incorj)orated into tlie Roman state all Italy south of the Po, tiiak'nuj all Italian cities iiiimicipia and raining the numhrr of rifi-:i ns from /,()0,0U0 to 000,000. The peril l''or tliirty yrai's tlic Senate had looked on indolently while fromMith- ,].,, ,,.,. ^.jitluTed h.-a.l in Asia. Finallv the storm had burst. ridates in '^ the East I'ontus, Armenia, and Parthia had grown into independent kingdoms, each of them, for long time past, encroaching upon MILITARY CHIEFS: POMPEY AND CAESAR 199 Rome's territory. At last, Mithndates VI, king of Pontus, suddenly seized the Roman province of Asia Minor, then called the "Province of Asia." The people hailed him as a deliverer, and joined him enthusiastically to secure freedom from the hated extortion of Roman tax-collectors and money-lenders. Eighty thousand Italians, scattered through the province, — men, women, and children, — were massacred, almost in a day, by the city mobs. Then Mithridates turned to Macedonia and Greece. Here, too, the people joined him against Rome. Athens welcomed him as a savior from Roman tyranny ; and twenty thousand more Italians were massacred in Greece and in the Aegean islands. Rome^s dominion in the Eastern world had crumbled. This news merely intensified anarchy in Rome. The Senate civil declared war on Mithridates and gave the command to Sulla. ^" The Assembly insisted that Marius should have charge. Then followed savage civil war with regular armies, and with bloody massacre after massacre in the streets of the capital. After various ups and downs, Marius died in an orgy of triumph. And then, on his return from victory in the East, Sulla ruled for years with the title of permanent dictator (81-78 .B.C.), Sulla's stamping out the embers of democracy by systematic and long- dictatorship continued assassination. Finally, when he thought Senatorial rule safely reestablished, he abdicated his monarchy — and died in peace, in debauchery. II. POMPEY AND CAESAR, 78^9 b.c. Sulla 's death left one of his officers, Pompey, the leading man Pompey in at Rome — a fair soldier, but otherwise of mediocre ability, ^P**^ vain, sluggish, and cautious. Pompey now forced or persuaded the Senate to send him with an overwhelming army to put down a long-standing rebellion in Spain — where he succeeded after the democratic general of the rebels (Sertorius) had been assassi- nated. In his absence, came a terrible slave revolt in Italy, And headed by the gallant Spartacus. Spartacus was a Thracian ^^^ ^^"^ captive who had been forced to become a gladiator. With a few companions he escaped from the gladiatorial school at 200 FALL OF TirL HOMAX liKl^UBLIC ("apua and lied to the inouiitains. 'riicrc lie was joined l)y otluT fugitive slaves until he was at the head of an arin\ of 70,000 men. For three years he kei)t the field, and repeatedly threatened Rome itself. Just as Ponij)ey returned to Italy, however, in 70 B.C., Spartacus' forces were crushed by Crassus, another of Sulla's old lieutenants; but Pompey arrived in time to cut to pieces a few thousand fugitives and to claim a share of the credit. Pompey and And in ()7, military danger called Pompey again to the front, pira es r^^j^^ na\y of Rome had fallen to utter decay, and swarms of pirates terrorized the seas, setting u}) a formidable state on the rocky coasts of Cilicia and negotiating with kings as ecpuils. They paralyzed trade along the great Mediterranean highway, and even ravaged the coasts of Italy. Finally they threatened Rome itself with starxation by cutting off the grain Heets. To put down these plunderers Pompey was given supreme command for ihrcc i/cars in the Mrdiftrrdiicdn and in all its coasts for fif ill miles inUind. He received also unlimited author- ity over all the resources of the realm. Assembling vast fleets, he swept the seas in a three months ' campaign. Pompey in Then Pomjx'y 's conunaud was extended indefinitili/ in order that he might carry on another war against Mithridates of Pontus, who for several years liad again been threatening Roman power in Asia Minor. He was absent on this mission five years — a glorious ])eriod in his career, and one that proved the resources and energies of the eonnnonwealth unexhausted, if only a resjx^ctable leader were found to direct them. He waged successful wars, crushed dangerous rebellions, conquered Pontus and .\rmenia, annexed wide i)ro\ inees and extended the Roman bounds to the Kui)hrates, and restored order through- Pompey out tlie I'^ast. When he returned to Italy, in iV2, he was " Pom])ey the (ireat," tlie leading figure in the world. The crown was within his grasj) ; but he let it slij). e\|)eeting it to be thrust uj)on him. Anj)t and .\sia Minor each re(iiiii-e(l a eani|)aigii. In l\u_\j)t. with the \()hii)tuous (|ueen, CIropdtra, Caesar wasted a few months; i)Ut he atoned for this delay by swift j)rosecution of the war in Asia against the son of Mithridates. This was the campaign that Caesar re])<)rted rather boastf\dly to his lieutenants in Home, — "1 came, I saw, I coiKiuered." 204 JULIUS CAESAR'S FIVE YEARS 205 Caesar's first constructive work was to reconcile Italy to his Caesar government. He maintained strict order, guarded property reconciles carefully, and punished no political opponent who laid down arms. Only one of his soldiers had refused to follow him when he decided upon civil war. Caesar sent all this officer's prop- erty after him to Pompey's camp, and continued that policy toward the nobles who left Italy to join Pompey. On the field of victory, he called to his vengeful soldiers to remember that the enemy were their fellow-citizens; and after Pharsalus, he employed in the public service any Roman of ability, imihout regard to the side he had fought 07i. This clemency brought its proper fruit. Almost at once all classes, except a few aris- tocratic extremists, became heartily reconciled to his rule. From the time of the Gracchi, Rome had been moving toward Caesa;'s monarchy. Owing to the corruption of the popidace in the capital, "lon^chy and to the incompetent greed of the oligarchs, the tremendous of iJig- power of the tribune had grown occasionally into a virtual standing dictatorship, as with Caius Gracchus. Owing to the growing military danger on the frontiers, the mighty authority of a pro- consul of a single province was sometimes extended, by special decrees, over vaster areas for indefinite time, as w^ith Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar. To make a monarch needed hut to unite these two powers, at home and abroad, in one person. This was what Caesar did. He preserved the old Republi- can forms. The Senate debated, and the Assembly elected aediles, consuls, and praetors as before. But Caesar received "the tribunician power" for life, and the title of Imperator for himself and his descendants. This term, from which we get our word "Emperor," had meant simply supreme general, and had been used only of the master of legions in the field abroad. Probably Caesar would have liked the title of king, since the recognized authority that went w^ith it would have helped him to keep order. But he found that name still hateful to the people ; and so he adopted Imperator for his title as monarch. The corruption of the populace and the incapacity of the greedy oligarchy, we have said, made monarchy inevitable. 206 BOUNDING THE ROMAN EMPIRE A third condition — the Senatorial niis^^()\i>rnnient of the prov- inces — made Cacsar\s monarchy a boon to the great Roman world outside Italy. Caesar the Indeed Caesar rose to power as the clianipion of suffering ^^1?^*°" subject populations. Already, as proconsul, on his own author- pressed pro- ity, he had admitted the Cisalpine Gauls to all the pri\ileges vincialworld ^f Roman citizens. In his most arduous campaigns, hv had kei)t up correspondence witli leading provincials in other parts of the Empire. Otlier Ronuin concjuerors liad spent part of their plunder of tlie provinces in adorning Rome witli ])u))lie buildings: Caesar liad ex])ended vast sums ill adorning and im])rov- ing provincial citirs, not only in his own districts of Gaul and S])ain, but also in Asia and Greece. All previous Roman ar- mies had been made u]) of ,, ,,, ^ , Italians: Caesar's arm\- Julius Caesar. — Wo are not sure, how- ever, that any of the so-called "busts of was drawn from Cisal|)ine Caesar" aro really authentic. q.^,,|^ .,„,| j,,^,^.^.,, j,.„.^,^. from Gaul beyond the Alps. Many of the subject peoples had begun to look to him as their best hop<> against Senatorial rapacity; and the great body of tlieiu wislu'd for monarchy as an es('a])c from anarchy and oligarchic misrule. (To call Caesar's monarchy a solution for tlie ])r()l)lcms of his day is not to call monarchy good at all times. A (lcsi)otism can get along w itli l<>ss virtue and intelligence tlian a free governnuMit can. The Roman world was not good enough or wise enough for free go^■ernment ; and indeed it seemed on the \-erge of ruin. The (h's])otism of the Caesars was a ])oison — but a strong iiiedicim- whicli pre- served tliat world for five j)reci()us centuries.) PLATE XXX Ahovk. — Thk Roman- Fouim IO-dav. - Tliis viow looks southwanl from the direction of the Capitoline (p. l")!). toward the tfastern edge of the Pahitine. Tlie Kroiip of coluriiiis in the foreground belonged to a Temple of Saturn, which was also the lioman Treasury. The rows of bases of |)illars, on the right, belonged to a splendid basilica, or judgment hall, built by Julius Caesar. South of the Temple of Saturn, and to the left of ( 'aesar's basilica, lay the open market place. Below. — Roman Fohim To-day. looking toward the Capitoline. Note the triumphal arch on the right (Arch of Titus; cf. Plate XXX II I). JULIUS CAESAR'S FIVE YEARS 207 Caesar at once made over the system of provincial govern- Caesar ment. The old governors had been irresponsible tyrants, with '■®^<'™s. *h® ever}^ temptation to plunder. Under Caesar they began to be system trained servants of a stern master who looked to the welfare of the whole Empire. Their authority was lessened, and they w ere surrounded by a system of checks in the presence of other offi- cials dependent directly upon the Imperator. Caesar's plans were broader than this. He meant to put the And extends provinces upon an equality with Italy, and to m.old the dis- .°.™^^^ tracted Roman world into one mighty whole under equal laws, outside Something he accomplished in the brief time left him. He ^^ incorporated all Cisalpine Gaul in Italy, and multiplied Roman citizenship by adding whole communities in Gaul beyond the Alps, in Spain, and elsewhere. Leading Gauls, too, were ad- mitted to the Senate, whose membership Caesar raised to 900, meaning to make it represent the whole Empire. Rome and Italy were not neglected. A commission, like Renewal of that of the Gracchi, w^as put at work to reclaim and allot public *^® Yf°^^ ,°/ . the Gracchi lands. Landlords were required to employ at least one free for Italy laborer for every two slaves. Italian colonization in the prov- inces was pressed vigorously. In his early consulship (59 B.C.), Caesar had refounded Capua ; now he did the like for Carthage and Corinth, and these noble capitals, wdiich had been crim- inally destroyed by the narrow jealousy of the Roman mer- chants, rose again to wealth and power. Eighty thousand landless citizens of Rome were provided for beyond seas; and by these and other means the helpless poor in the capital, dependent upon free grain, were reduced from 320,000 to 150,000. Soon after the time of the Gracchi, it became necessary to extend the practice of selling cheap grain to distributing free grain, at state expense, to the populace of the capital. This became one of the chief duties of the government. To have omitted it would have meant starvation and a horrible insur- rection. For centuries to come, the degraded populace was ready to support any political adventurer who seemed willing and able to satisfy lavishh^ its cry for "bread and games." To have attacked the growing evil so boldly is one of Caesar's 208 FOUXDIXG TIIK ROMAN P]MP1RE chief titU's to lionor. With a longer Hfe, no (l()ul)t he would have lessened it still further. His successors soon abandoned the task. Rigid economy was introduced into all branches of the govern- ment. A bankru])t law released all debtors from further claims, if they surrendered their prj)j)erty to their creditors, and so Thkatek at PoAtPKii. — Every KDinaii city liad its a/^i/>//' theater (/'/'o theaters back to back) for shows and gladiatorial games. Cf. illustrations after pp. 22S. 232. the demoralized Italian society was given a fresh start. Tax- ation was e(iualized and reduced. A comprehensi\e census was taken for all Italy, and measures were under way to extend it over the Empire. Caesar also began the codification of the irregular mass of Roman law, created a great public library, rebuilt the Forum, began vast public works in all parts of the Empire, and reformed the coinage and the calendar.^ ' The Roman calendar had been inferior to the Egyptian and had got three months out of the way, so that the spring e(iuinox came in June. To correct the error. Caesar made the year 4(i ("the last year of confusion") consist of four hvmdred and lorty-five days, and for the future, instituted the system of leap years, as we have it, except for a slight correction by Pope Gregory in the sixteenth century. JULIUS CAESAR'S FIVE YEARS 209 Caesar was still in the prime of manhood, and had ever^' The Ides reason to hope for time to complete his work. No public °^ March enemy could be raised against him within the empire. One danger there was : lurking assassins beset his path. But with characteristic dignity he quietly refused a bodyguard, declaring it better to die at any time than to live always in fear of death. And so the daggers of men whom he had spared struck him down. A group of irreconcilable nobles plotted to take his life, — led by the envious Cassius and the weak enthusiast Brutus, whom Caesar had heaped with favors. They accomplished their crime in the Senate-house, on the Ides of March (March 15), 44 B.C. Crowding around him, and fawning upon him as if to ask a favor, the assassins suddenly drew their daggers. Ac- cording to an old story, Caesar at first, caUing for help, stood on his defense and wounded Cassius ; but when he saw the loved and trusted Brutus in the snarling pack, he cried out sadly, "Thou, too, Brutus!" and dramng his toga about him with calm dignity, he resisted no longer, but sank at the foot of Pompey's statue, bleeding from three and twenty stabs. No doubt, "Caesar was ambitious." He was a broad- Character minded genius, with a strong man's delight in ruling well. The "^^^^ murder came only five years after Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Those years, with their seven campaigns, gave only eight- een months for constructive reform. The work was left in- complete ; but that which was actually accomplished dazzles the imagination, and marked out the lines along which Caesar's successors, less grandly, had to move. The assassination led to fourteen years more of dreary civil Octavius war. Rome and all Italy rose against the murderers, and they *" '^ ^^^ fled to the East, where Pompey's name was still a strength to the aristocrats. They were followed and crushed at Philippi in Macedonia (42 b.c.) by the forces of the West led by Mark Antony (one of Caesar's officers) and Octavius Caesar, an adopted son of the first Imperator. Then Octavius and Antony divided the Roman world between themselves. Soon each Actium 210 FOUXDlXd TlIK KOMAX EMPIRE was j)l()tliii.u fur the other's share. The Mast had fallen to An- tony, in K^\ l)t he heeame infatnated witli ( 'h'opatra. He bestowed rich pi'ON inces iij)()n her, and, it was rumored, he Battle of planned to supplant Rome by Alexandria as chic^f caj)ital. The West turned to Octavius as its ehamj)ion. In 'M, the rivals met in the naval battle of Aciiuin off the coast of Greece. Early in the battle, (Meopatra took flight with the Pvgy])tian ships. 'I'he infatuated Antony followed, deserting his fleet and army. Once more the West had won. (Meopatra, last of the Ptole- mies, soon took poison rather than grace Octavius' triumph and Kgypt l)eeaine a Roman ])ro\ince. For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, II, Nos. 50-54 ; and on Cae.sar's constructive work, Warde-Fowler's Caesar, 326-359. Dr. Davis' Friend oj Caesar (fiction) and Plutarch's Lives of Caesar, Poin- peiu<, and Cicero make admirable reading. Fact Drills 1. List of important battles in Roman history to this point, with results of each. 2. Dates, ('ontinued drill on the list given on p. 147. .\dd the following and group other dates around these : 510(?) B.C. "Expulsion" of the kings. 390(?) B.C. Sack of Rome by the Gauls; and in like manner, the events for 307, 200, 14G, 133, 49, 31 b.c. PLATE XXXI Above. — Roman Forum, northeast side, to-day. Below. — Roman Forum, same as above, as it was in Roman times, accord- ing to the " restoration," by Benvenuti. CHAPTER XXIV THE EMPERORS OF THE FIRST TWO CENTURIES, 31 B.C.-180 A.D. Octavius spent the first two years after Actium in restoring Augustus, order in the East. On his return to Rome in 29 B.C., the gates J^ ^ .p' of the Temple of Janus were closed, in token of the reign peace. ^ By prudent and generous measures, he soon brought back prosperity to long distracted Italy, and in 27 he laid down his office of triumvir (which had become a sole dictatorship) and declared the Republic restored. In fact, the Empire was safely established. Republican forms, indeed, were respected even more scrupu- Under lously than by Julius Caesar. But supreme power lay in Octa- [qJ^^s^^^^ vius' hands as Imperator, — master of the legions. This office he kept, and the Senate now added to it the new title Augustus, which had before been used only of the gods. It is by this name that he is thenceforth known. He was so popular that he did not need the open support of the army — which he stationed mostly on the frontiers. He lived more simply than many a noble, and walked the streets like any citizen, charming all whom he met by his frankness and courtesy. Augustus ruled forty-five years after Actium, carrying out the policies of the great Julius, and renewing, for the last time, the work of founding colonies outside Italy. Peace reigned ; order was established ; industry revived. Marshes were drained, and roads were built. A census of the whole Empire was taken, and many far-distant communities were granted Roman citizenship. Augustus himself tells us, in a famous inscription that in one year he began the rebuilding of eighty. two temples ; and of Rome he said, — "I found it brick, and ^ These gates were always open when the Romans were engaged in any war. In all Roman history, they had been closed only twice before, — and one of these times was in the legendary reign of King Numa. 211 212 KAlvM.V KOMAX KMPIKK. 'M H.r.-lsO A.I). li;i\(' left it marldc." lie was also a <^M'n(M'()Us j)atr()n of litera- ture and art. TIk' " Aii^'ustaii A^^c" is the <;()l(i('n age oF Latin literature. \t t\\c (leatli of Aii^Mistiis, the Senate decreed liim di\ine honors. Temples were erected in his honor, and he was wor- shiped as a only religion common to tlie whole Roman world, — l)in(ling together the dwellers on tlie Euphrates, the Nih', tlie Tiber, the Rhone, and the Tagus. But shortly licfore this wor- ship began, when the reign of .\ugustus was a little more tlian half g<)n(\ there was l)orn ilia manger in an obscure the Roman world, the child was to replace AuUfSTCH ('aK.SAK. .\ St.ltlK- in the Vatican, Rome. hamlet of a distant corner of Jesus, whose r<'ligion, after some centuri( the worship of dead ciiij)erors and all other religious faitli of the pagan world. At .\ugustus' death, every one recognized that some one must be appointed to succeed him, and the Senate at once granted STORY OF THE EMPERORS 213 his titles and authority to his stepson Tiberius, whom he had Tiberius, " recommended " to them. Tiberius was stern, morose, suspi- ^^~^'^ ^^• cious, but an able, conscientious ruler. The nobles of the capital conspired against him, and were punished cruelly. The popu- lace of Rome, too, hated him because he abolished the Assembly where they had sold their votes, and because he refused to amuse them with gladiatorial sports. Therefore Tiberius established a permanent body of soldiers {praetorian guards) in the capital ; and he encouraged a system of paid spies. With reason the people of Rome looked upon him as a gloomy tyrant. But in the provinces he was proverbial for fairness, kindness, and good government. " A good shepherd shears his sheep, he does not flay them," was one of his sayings. In this reign occurred the crucifixion of Christ. Tiberius had adopted a grand nephew as his heir, and the Caligula, Senate confirmed the appointment. This youth (Caligula) 37-41 had been a promising boy ; but now he suddenly became an insane monster, and was slain finally by officers of his guard. Caligula had named no successor. For a moment the Senate Claudius hoped to restore the old Republic ; but the praetorians (devoted 41-54 to the great Julian line) hailed Claudius, an uncle of Caligula, as Imperator, and the Senate had to confirm the appointment. Claudius had been a timid, awkward scholar and an author of tiresome books ; but now he gave his time faithfully to the hard work of governing, with good results. His reign is famous for a great extension of citizenship to provincials, for legislation to protect slaves against cruel masters, and for the conquest of southern Britain. Nero, Claudius' stepson, became Emperor as a likable boy Nero, 54-68 of sixteen. He had been trained by the philosopher Seneca (p. 226), and for two thirds of his reign he was guided by wise ministers. He cared little for affairs of government, but was fond of art, and ridiculously vain of his skill in music and poetry and he sought popular applause also as a gladiator. After some years his fears, together with a total lack of principle, led him 214 KAKL^ KOMAN KMPIKK. ;il H.(\-1S() A.I). to criiiK' and tyranny. Wcaliliy n()l)lr> were put to death in numbers, and their j)roperty confiscated, Seneca himself l)eint; amon^ the victims. The burn- During this reign, luilf of liuinc wiui laid in aahis by the " (Jreat ing of Rome p-^^., (d.^^.j^' Readings, II, No. 65). In the densely poptdated parts of the city, many-storied, cheap, flimsy tenement hou.ses projected their upper floors nearly across tbe narrow, crooked thoroughfares, so that the fire leaped easily from side to side. For six days and nights the flames raged unchecked, surging in billows over the slopes and through the valleys of the Seven Hills. By some, Nero was believed to have ordered the de- struction, in order that \\v might rebuild in more magnificent fashion. On better authority he was reported to have at least enjoyed the spec- tacle from the roof of his palace, singing a poem lie had composed on the " Bm-ning of Troy." The new sect of Christians also were accused of starting tli(^ fii-e, out of tl)eir supposed "hatred for tiu> lunnan race," and because they had so often declared that a fiery destruction of the world was coming. To turn attention from himself, Nero took u]) the charge against them, and carried out the first persecution of the Christianas', one of the most cruel in all history. Victims, tarred with pitch, were burned as torches in the imperial gardens, to light the indecent re\-elry of the court at night ; and others, clothed in the skins of animals, were torn l)y dogs for the amusement of the niol). Tlie persecution, howe\'er, was confined to the capital. Nero's disgraceful rule finally roused the legions on the fron- tiers to rebel ; and to avoid capture, he stabbed hims(^lf. (>\e]aim- ing, "What a pity for such an artist to die ! " Bronze Coin of Nero — to roniniemoriite the closing of the doors of the Tenijile of Janus (of. p. 211. note). Nero's persecution of Christians The \'ear 09 a.d. was one of wild confusion and war between PLATE XXXIII I'khmphal Arch of Titus (showing the ('olo.ssoum in tho distaiiro). (Cf. Phito XXXVII faciuK p. 228.) The Iriuniphal arch, spanning a city street like a gate, was a favorite decf»rative application of the ar<'h by the Romans to commemorate victories. For an Egyptian model, see illustration after p. 10. Napoleon's famous Arch of Triumph at Paris is a modern imitation. Tor the position of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum, see Plate facing p. 207. STORY OF THE EMPERORS 215 several rivals. Finally the powerful legions in Syria "pro- claimed" their general, Flavins Vespasianus, who quickly became master of the Empire. He and his sons are known as Flavians ^ (from his first name). He was the grandson of a Sabine laborer, and was blunt and coarse, but honest, industrious, and capable. He hated sham ; and at the end, as he felt the hand of death Vespasian, 70-79 Detail from the Triumphal Arch op" Titus (opposite), showing Jewish captives and the seven-branched candlestick taken from the Temple at Jerusalem. upon him, he said, with grim irony, "I think I am becom- ing a god," — in allusion to the worship of dead emperors. In this reign came the destruction of Jerusalem. Judea had been made a tributary state by Pompey (63 B.C.), and in 4 A.D. it became a Roman province. But the Jews were restless under foreign rule, and in the year 66, in Nero's time, a national uprising drove out the Roman officers. This rebellion was now put down by Vespasian and his son Titus. In 70 a.d. Titus captured Jerusalem, after a stubborn siege. He had offered 1 The preceding five emperors (descendants-in-law of Julius Caesar) are known as the Julian line. They had been Romans ; the Flavians came from Italy outside Rome. Their aucccssurs were provincials. 210 KAIvLV KOMVX KMIMI^K, 31 B.(\ ISO A.D. Pompeii destroyed by Vesu- vius Domitian, 81-96 lilxTuI terms; hut \\\v starvin^^ Jews made n frenzied rcsistancr, and wlieii the walls were finally stormed, many of them slew their women and c'hil(lr(>n and died in the flames. The miserable remnant for the most ])art were sold into slavery. (Only ^mm Wf!§., •r.!i,^ Dktail from Tk.uan's Column (opposite) : Trajan sacrificing a bull at the bridge over the Danube, just completed by his soldiers. This bridge was a remarkable structure, — probably the most wonderful bridge in the world imtil the era of iron and steel bridge-work in the nini^teenth century- ree(>ntl\', dnrin<,^ th(> World War, was a project started to re- estahlish a Jewish state in Palestine.) Titus had heen associated in the ^oviM-nment with his father. The most famous event of his two years' rei.uMi was the (frsfruc- tion of Ponqxii (lud llcrniUnuum h}/ l^rsuviuii (Plate XXIV). Domitian, Noim^er brother of Titus, was a stronjx, stern ruler. He built a famous wall :VM\ miles lon<;, to comph-te the northern boundary from the Rhine to the Danube — a line of forts joined to one another by earthen ram]Kirts ; and he took the oflfice of Censor for life, and so coidd le^allx make and un- make senators at w ill. This led the Ronum nobles to conspire against him and fin;dl\ he was assassinated. PLATE XXXIV Trajan's Column, coninicmorating the Daoian conquest. It is 100 feet high, and the spiral bands of sculpture that circle it contain 2500 figures. It is the finest survival of a favorite Roman form of monument. Cf. p. 32 for an earlier model. See a detail opposite. STORY OF THE EMPERORS 217 The Senate chose the next ruler from its own number ; and Nerva, that emperor with his four successors are known as the five ^""^^ good emperors. The first of the five was Nerva, an aged senator of Spanish descent, who died after a kindly rule of six- teen months. Trajan, the adopted son of Nerva, was a Spaniard Trajan, and a great general. He conquered and colonized Dacia, ^ ~^^'^ ^ a vast district north of the Danube, and then attacked the Parthians in Asia, adding new provinces beyond the Eu- phrates. These victories mark the greatest extent of the Roman Empire. Hadrian, a Spanish kinsman of Trajan, succeeded him. Hadrian, Wisely and courageously, he abandoned most of Trajan's ^'7-i3 conquests in Asia (disregarding the sneers and murmurs of nobles and populace), and withdrew the frontier there to the old line of the Euphrates, more easily defended. He looked to the fortification of other exposed frontiers. His most famous work of this kind was a wall in Britain, from the Solway to the Tyne, to keep out the unconquered Picts of the northern highlands.^ Hadrian spent most of his twenty years' rule in inspecting the provinces. Now he is in Britain, now in Dacia ; again in Gaul, or in Africa, Syria, or Egypt. He spent several months in Asia Minor, and in Macedonia ; and twice he visited Athens, his favorite city, which he adorned with splendid buildings. Hadrian was followed by Antoninus Pius, a pure and gentle Antoninus spirit, the chief feature of whose peaceful rule was legislation ^g^' ^ to prevent cruelty to slaves. On the evening of his death, when asked by the officer of the guard for the watchword for the night, Antoninus gave the word Equanimity, which might have served as the motto of his life. (Davis' Readings gives a noble tribute to his character by his successor.) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, nephew and adopted son of 1 This "Wall of Hadrian" was seventy miles long, extending almost from sea to sea. Considerable portions can still be traced. It consisted of three distinct parts : (1) a twenty-foot stone wall and ditch, on the north ; (2) a double earthen rampart and ditch, about one hundred and twenty yards to the south ; and (3) between wall and rampart a series of fourteen fortified camps connected by a road. 218 KAKLV UOMAX KMIMKK, M B.C. ISO A.U. Marcus Aurelius, i6i i8o Commodus. 180-192 Antoninus Pius, was a iihllosophrr and sfudcfit. \\v helongod to tlu' Stoic school, l)ut in him that stern j)hil()S()phy was softened l)y a gracious gentleness. His tastes made him wisli to con- tinue in his father's footsteps, hut lie had fallen ui)on harsher times. The harharians renewed their attacks upon the Danube, the Rhine, and the Kui)hrates. The emj^eror and his lieu- KliNs (ir A Ikmi'LK I \ r Atiikns li; ii.i my Hadui.w. — Xoto the Coriiitliiaii style {\). 7 J) and tho Acropolis in \\w hackjiiouiul. tenants heat them hack, only at the cost of almost incessant war; and the gentle phil()so])her li\-ed and wrote and died in camj). A great Asiatic plague, loo. de])opulated the Empire and demoralized society. The i)o])ulace thought the diseasr a visitation from offendcMl gods, and were frantically e.\cite( against the unj)o])ular sect of Christians who refused to worship the gods of Rome. Thus the reign of the kindl\- Aurelius wm> marked hy a cruel |)ersecution. Marcus .\urelius' son, Counnodus, was an infamous wretch whose reign hegins the period of decay. For Fukthkk Kk.\din(;. — Davi.s' Headings, II, No. 56 (Augustus' own account of his work) and No. 59, and Capes' Early Empire, especially ch. i. CHAPTER XXV THE EARLY EMPIRE : GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY Republican Rome had little to do . . . with modern life: imperial Rome, everything. — Stille. The early emperors did not invent much nnv political machin- The " Prin- ery. Following the example of Julius Caesar, each one merely ^^P^*® concentrcdrd in his own person the most important offices of the Republic, — powers which had originally been intended to check one another. He could appoint and degrade senators; he led the debates in the Senate — and coidd control its decrees, which had become the chief means of lawmaking. He appointed the governors of the provinces, the generals of the legions, the city prefect, the head of the city police, and the prefect of the prae- torians. Each successor of Augustus was hailed Imperedor Caesar Augustus. (The title Caesar survived till recently, in Kaiser and in Tsar.) The Roman world was a broad belt of land stretching east Life under and west, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, with the Mediter- *^® Empire , concen- ranean for its central highway. On the south it was bounded trated in by sandy deserts, African and Arabian ; on the north, bv stormv .^"^" waters ; and at the weaker gaps — on the Rhine, the Danube, the Euphrates, and at the Walls of Domitian and Hadrian — stood mighty sleepless legions to watch and ward. Within this vast territory, about as large as the United States, were 75,000,000 people. They lived mostly in cities (muni- cipia) large and small, throbbing w^th industry and with intel- lectual life and possessing some loccd self-government in those municipal institutions they were to pass on to us. Stockaded villages had changed into stately marts of trade, huts into pal- aces, footpaths into paved roads. Roman irrigation made part of the African desert the garden of the world (where to-day 219 220 IvVKI.V ROM AX KMPIRE — TO ISO A.D. only desolate ruins mock the eye), and the symbol of Africa was a gracious virgin with arms filled with sheaves of golden grain. Gaul (France) was Romanized late, after Julius Caesar; but in the third century a.d. that district had IK) flourishing cities, with pul)lic baths, temples, acjueducts,* roads, and famous schools that drew Roman xouth r\vn from the Tiber's banks. Aqubduct near NiMES. Franck, huilt tihout 150 a.d. l)y tho Kniperor Aii- tDiiinus Pius to .supply the city with wiiter from mountain springs 25 miles distant; present condition of the long Kra>- structure, where it crosses the (Jard River. Water pipes were carried through hills })y tun- nels and across streams and valle\s on arches like these. This acjueduct has vanished (its stoties used for other buildings) except for this part; but here it i-^ still |)ossible to walk through the pipes on the top row of arches. Most towns were ])1a('es of 20, 000 jx-oj)!!- or less, and usually each one was merely the center of a farming district ; but there were also a few great centers of trade. — Ronu\ with j)erhaps •J. 000. ()()() pc<)j)lc ; Alc\;iii(hia (in l\u\ j)! ) aiul .Xntioch (in .Vsia) ■ The water supply of many large cities was better than that of large cities to-dav. and the same is true of public baths — which in Rome could care for 00,000 people at a time. TOWN LIFE 221 with 500,000 each ; and Corinth, Carthage, Ephesus, and Lyons, with some 250,000 apiece. These commercial cities were likewise centers of manufac- Industry tares. The Emperor Hadrian visited Alexandria (about 125 ^"^ *^**^® A.D.) and wrote in a letter : " No one is idle ; some work glass ; some make paper (papyrus) ; some weave linen. Money is the only god." The looms of Sidon and the other old Phoeni- cian cities turned forth ceaselessly their precious purple cloths. Miletus, Rhodes, and other Greek cities of the Asiatic coast were famous for their woolen manufactures. Syrian factories poured silks, costly tapestries, and fine leather into western Europe. Each town had many gilds of artisans (p. 171). In Rome the bakers' gild listed 254 shops ; and the silversmiths of Ephesus were numerous enough {Ads xix, 23-41) to stir up a formidable riot. (Slaves did most of the unskilled labor ; and a baker or mason would have two or three or a dozen to work under his direction.) The roads were safe. Piracy ceased from the seas, and trade Communica- flourished as it was not to flourish again until the days of Co- *^°^ J^^ f ®^ . . . . and land lumbus. The ports were crowded with shipping, and the Medi- terranean was spread with happy sails (ships not very different from those in which Columbus w^as to cross the Atlantic). The grand military roads ran in trunk-lines — a thousand miles at a stretch — from every frontier toward the central heart of the Empire, with a dense network of branches in every province. Guidebooks described routes and distances. Inns abounded. The imperial couriers that hurried along the great highways passed a hundred and fifty milestones a day. Private travel from the Thames to the Euphrates was swifter, safer, and more comfortable than ever again until the age of railroads, less than a century ago. The products of one region of the Empire were known in every Commerce other part. Women of the Swiss mountains wore jewelry made by the silversmiths of Ephesus ; and gentlemen in Britain and in Cilicia drank wines made in Italy. One merchant of Phrygia (in Asia Minor) asserts on his gravestone that he had sailed '' around Greece to Italy seventy-two times." 009 EARLY ROMAN EAfPTRE — TO ISO A.D. And int'ii traveled for j)leasnre as well as for husiness. One lun^'ua^^e answered all needs from London to liahylon, and it was as eonnnon for tlie jjentlenian of GanI to \ isit the wonders of Rome or of the Nile as for the American to-da\ to spend a sum- mer in England or France, ((^iiite in modern fashion, such trav- elers defaced precious monuments witli scrawls. The colossal Thk lii.At K G.\TK {Porta Ni(ji'o,), a Jloman structuiv at Tnii v l"it'\ ts). Cf. ti'xt on p. 22.'i. — Tliat .sjitnc frontior cit>' contains other faiiiou.s lioniaii ruins : cf. I'Jiirh/ Pnu/rtss, p. 'ASi). K^yjjtian statue ])ictin'cd after |). '27 i)ears a scratclied inscrij)- tion that a certain Roman "(l«'inullus with his dear wife Rufilla" had \isit((l it.) There was also a \ ast connucrce w itii regions Ik i/ond tin hotuid- r/r/r.s- of ffir Enijiirc. As Ln^disli and l)iilch traders, three hun- dred years ap), journeyed far into the sa\ a^^e interior of America for l)t'tter har^Mins in furs, so the indomitahle Ronum traders pressed on into re^dons wliere the Roman leuions nexcr camped. From the Raltic shores the\- hrouLrht l)ack amher. fur, and TRADE, TRAVEL, AND PEACE 223 flaxen German hair with which the dark Roman ladies liked to adorn their heads. Such goods the trader bought cheaply with toys and trinkets and wine. A Latin poet speaks of "many merchants" who reaped "immense riches" by daring voyages over the Indian Ocean "to the mouth of the Ganges." India, Ceylon, and Malaysia sent to Europe indigo, spices, pearls, sapphires, drawing away, in return, vast sums of Roman gold and silver. And from shadowy realms beyond India came the silk yarn that kept the Syrian looms busy. Chinese annals- tell of Roman traders bringing to Canton glass and metal wares, amber, and drugs — and speak also of an embassy from Marcus Aurelius. In 212 A.D. the long process of extending citizenship was com- The world pleted by an imperial decree making all free inhabitants of the ^^^^^^ Empire full citizens. This wiped out all remaining distinctions between Italy and the former "provinces"; and the later emperors were more at home at York or Cologne or at some capital by the Black Sea than at old Rome — which perhaps they visited only once or twice for some solemn pageant. This widespread, happy society rested in "the good Roman Peace and peace" for more than two hundred vears, — from the reign P^°^P®" y ^ ' '^ for 200 years of Augustus Caesar through that of Marcus x\urelius, or from 31 B.C. to 180 A.D. No other part of the world so large has ever known such unbroken prosperity and such freedom from the waste and horror of war for so long a time. Feie troops were seen within the Empire, and "the distant clash of arms [with barbarians] on the Euphrates or the Danube scarcely disturbed the tranquillity of the Mediterranean lands." The "Roman" army had become a body of disciplined mer- cenaries, with intense pride in the Roman name. More and more the legions were renewed V)y enlistment on the frontiers where they were stationed, and in the third century barbarians became a large part of the army. From the hungry foes surging against its walls, the Empire drew^ the guardians of its peace. At the expiration of their twenty years with the eagles,^ the ' The Roman military standard became the model for late European gov- ernments that claimed to succeed Rome. 224 EARLY I^OMAN EMPIRE — TO ISO AD. vrtcrans Ix-canu' Roman citizens, no matter where recruited; and commonly tliey were settled in colonies with grants of land. Tims they helped mix the nuiny races of Rome into one. Span- ish troops in Switzerland, Swiss in Britain, Ciauls in Africa, Africans in Armenia, settled and married far from the lands of their hirth. A few of the emj)erors at Rome, like Nero and Caligula, were weak or wicked ; hut their follies and vices concerned only the nobles of the capital. The Empire as a whole went on with- little change during their short reigns. To the vast body of the people of the Roman world, the crimes of an occa- sional tyrant were unknown. To them he seemed (like the good emperors) merely the symbol of the peace and prosperity which enfolded them. In language, and somew'hat in culture, the If'r.v/ rental tied Ldtiu, (ind ihc KaM,^ Greek; but trade, travel, and the mild and just Roman law made the world one in feeling, liriton, African, Asiatic, knew one another only as Romans. An Egyptian Greek of the period expressed this world-wide patri- otism in a noble ode, closing, — "Though wo troad Rhone's or Orontos'- shore, Yet are we all one nation ovcrniore." The universities and gram- mar schools Painting and sculptin*e followed the old Greek models ; but the Roman art was architecture. Many of the world's most famous buildings belong to the Early Empire. Ronum archi- tecture had more massive grandem-, and was fonder of orna- ment, than the Greek. Instead of the simple Doric or Ionic columns it commonly used the ricli Corinthian, and it added, for its own especial features, the noble Roman arch and the dome. Rome, .Mexandria, and Athens were the three great centers of learning, l^ach had its iinirer.sity, with \ ast libraries and many ])r()fessorshii)s. \'esj)asian began the practice of paying salaries from the |)ublic treasury, and under Marcus Aurelius the government began to provide perjnaueut endowments (of ' The Adriatic may ho taken as a convenient line of division (p. 182). - A river of Asia Minor. PLATE XXXV Thk I^\^•THK(»^' To-day: "Shriiio of all saints and tciiiplo of all ^ods." (Re:id the rest of Byron's fine description in Canto IV of ( "hilde Harold.) Agrippa. victor of Actium and chief minister of Augustus, built this tenii)lc in thc('arni)us Martins; and it was rebuilt, in its present form, by Hadrian — who, however, left the inscription in honor of Agrippa. The structure is 132 feet in diameter and of the same height, surmounted by a majestic dome that originally fla.shed with tiles of bronze. The interior is broadly flooded with light from an aperture in the dome 20 feet in diameter. The inside walls were formed of splendid columns of yellow marble, with gleaming white capitals .supporting noble arches, upon which again rested more pillars and another row of arches — up to the base of the dome (.see section opposite). I'ndcr the arches, in pillared recesses, stood the statues of the gods of all religions, for this grand temple was .symbolic of the grander toleration and unity of the Roman world. Time lias dealt gently with it, and almost alone of the buildings of its day it has lasted t.«» ours, to be used now as a Christian church. ART AND LEARNING 225 which only the iricome could be used each year), as we do for our universities. The leading subjects were Latin and Greek literature, rhetoric, philosophy, music, arithmetic,^ geometry, and astronomy.'^ Law was a specialty at Rome, and medicine at Alexandria. Every important city in the Empire had its well-equipped grammar school, corresponding to an advanced high school or small college; and like the universities, to which they led, they had permanent endowments from the Roman government. All this education was for the upper cla^'ses, but occasionally bright boys from the lower classes found some wealthy patron Schools for the poor w~w F-|^^^^»V Cross-section of the Pantheon. to send them to a good school, and rich men and women some- times bequeathed money to schools in their home cities for the education of poor children. Davis' Readings (II, No. 80) tells of such an endowment, and (No. 79) repeats Horace's story of how his father, a poor farmer, gave him the education that made it possible for him to become one of the most famous of poets. ^ Arithmetic was an adv^anced subject when Roman numerals were used. ^ The first three subjects, the literary group, were the tritium; the last four, the mathematical group, were the quadrivium. 226 EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE — TO 180 AD. Litorafurc |)lay(Hl a small part in Roman life until just before the Empire. Thr following lists of names for the four periods, down to Mareus Aurelius, are for referenee only. 1. The "Age of Cicero," gave us Lucretius, perhaps the most sublime of all Latin poets, and Caesar's concise historical narrative. Cicero himself remains the foremost orator of Rome and the chief master of the graceful Latin prose essay. 2. For the "Augustan Age" only a few of (he many imi)<)rtant writers can be mentioned. Horace (son of an Apulian frcedman) wrote graceful odes and playful satires. Vergil (from Cisalpine Gaul), the chief Roman poet, is best known to schoolboj^s by his epic, the Aerieid, but critics rank higher his Georgics, exquisite poems of country life. Livy (Cisalpine Gaul) and Dionysius (an Asiatic Greek) wrote great histories of Rome. Straho (living at Alexandria) produced a geograi^hy of the Roman world, and speculated on the possibility of a continent in the Atlantic between Europe and Asia. 77;c last two authors wrote in Greek. 3. To the second half of the first century belong another host of great names : among them, Pliuy the Elder {of Cisalpine Gaul), a scien- tist who perished at the eruption of Vesuvius in his zeal to observe the phenomena; the Stoic philosophers Epictetus, a Phrygian slave, and Seneca, a noble of Spanish l)irth. 4. For the second century, we have the charming Letters of Pliny the Younger, a Cisalpine Gaul ; the satirical poetry of the Italian Jurenal; the philosophical and religious Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius; the histories and biographies {in Greek) of Appian, an Alexandrian, of Plutarch, a Boeotian, and (in Latin) of the Roman Tacitus. Science is represented chiefly by Galen, an Asiatic, who wrote Greek treatises on medicine, and by Ptolemy, an Egyptian astronomer, whose geog- rai)hy was the standard authority until the time of Columbus. (Ptol- emy unhappily abandoneil the truer teachings of Aristarchus and Eratosthenes (p. 146), and taught that the heavens revolved about the earth for their center.) Tjidcr tlic Kiupirc morals ^ncw ^^'iitlc, and nianncrs were refined. The Lrticrs of Pliny reveal a society bigb-niinded, j)()lit(', and virtuous. Pliny himself is a type of the finest gentleman of to-day in delicacy of feeling, sensitive honor, and genial conrt(^sy. Marcus Aurelius shows like qualities on the throne. The j)hilosopher Epictetus shows them in a slave. Fu- neral inscriptions show tender affection. Over the grave of a little girl tluTc is inscribed, — "She rests here in the soft cradle of the Earth . . . comcl.w charming, keen of mind, gay in talk PLATE XXXVI The Way of Tombs at Pompeii. — Each Roman city buried its dead out- side one of its gates along the highway, which therefore was lined for a great distance with marble monuments or the simpler raised headstones that are also shown in this picture. The ruins shown alongside the Appian Way (p. 166) are tombs and monuments. The disorders of later centuries destroyed most of these monuments in Italy, though we do still have many interesting inscriptions from them. At Pompeii the volcanic covering preserved them almost intact. A husband inscribes upon his wife's monument : " only once did she cause me sorrow ; and that was by her death." Another praises in his wife "purity, loyalty, affection, a sense of duty, a gentle nature, and whatever other qualities God would wish to give woman." The tombstone of a poor physician declares that "to all the needy he gave his services without charge." MORALS 227 and play. If there be ought of compassion in the gods, bear her aloft to the light." In the Thoughts ^ of Marcus Aurelius the emperor thanks the gods " for a good grandfather, good parents, a good sister, and good friends," and (stating his obligations to various associates), — "From my mother I learned piety, and to abstain not merely from evil deeds but from evil thoughts." Again a jotting in camp (on the borders of Germany) reads, — "When thou wishest to delight thyself think of the virtues of those who live with thee." Sympathies broadened. The unity of the vast Roman world prepared the way for a feeling of human brotherhood. Said Marcus Aurelius, " As emperor I am a Roman ; l)ut as a man my city is the world." The age prided itself, justly, upon its progress and its humanity, much as our own does. The Emperor Trajan instructed a provincial governor not to act upon anonymous accusations, because such conduct "does not belong to our age." There was a vast amount of private and public charity, with homes for orphans and hospitals for the poor. Woman, too, won more freedom than she was to find again until after 1850 A.D. The profession of medicine was open to her, and law recognized her as the equal of man. This broad humanity was reflected in imperial law. The harsh law of the Republic became humane. Women, children, 1 One of the world's noblest books, closer to the spirit of Christ than any other pagan writing. Davis' Readings gives some excellent extracts. Marcus Aurelius, a bust now in the Capitoline Museum. Broader human sympathies More hu- mane law 228 EARl.V KOMAX EMPIRE — TO ISO AD. and even dimil) Ix'asts sliared its protection. Torture was limited. The ri^dits of the accused were better recognized. From the Kmpire dates the maxim, "Better to let the guilty escajx' tlian to punish the innocent." "All men by the law of nature aic ('(pial " became a law ma.xim, through the great jurist Ulpian. Slavery, he argued, had been created only by the lower law, enacted not })y nature but by man. Therefore, if one man claimed another as his slave, the benefit of any possible doubt was to be given to the one so claimed. (It is curious to remember that the rule was just the other way in nearly all Christian countries tlirough the Middle Ages, and in the I'nited States under the Fugitive Slave laws from 1793 to the (^ivil War.) True, there was a darker side. During some r(Mgn.'^ the court was rank with hideous del)aucliery, and at all times the rabble of Rome, made up of the off-scourings of all peoples, was ignorant and vicious. Some evil customs that shock us were ])art of the age. To avoid cost and trouble, the lower classes, with horrible freciuency and indifference, exj)osed their infants to die. Satirists, as in our own day, railed ;it the growth of diNorce among the rich. Slavery threw its shadow across the Roman world. At the gladiatorial sports — so strong is fashion — di'licate ladies thronged the benches of the amphitheater with- out shrinking at the agonies of the dying. For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, II, to No. 108. For thasc who wish to read further on this important period, the best and mast readable material will be found in Jones' Roman Empire (an ex- eollcnt one-volnme work), rhs. i-vi ; Capes' Earlif Empire and The A}itonin'-s: Thoin.'Ls' Roman Life; Preston and Dodge's Private Life of the Romana; or Jolm.ston's Private Life of the Romans. PLATE XXXVII i 1 I 1 i 1 2' 1 I Above. — The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) at Rome, built by Ves- pasian and Titus, It covers six acres, and the walls rise 150 feet. It seated 45,000 spectators. For centuries, in the Middle Ages, its ruins were used as a stone quarry for palaces of Roman nobles, but its huge size pre- vented complete destruction. Cf. page 208, and Plate XXXIX. Below. — Interior View of the Colosseum. The human figures in the arena give some idea of the size of the building. PLATE XXXVIII Tl{AJA\'s 'luilMI'HAI. Arc li M I.. or.ilitiji his \ icldi it'> ■ iiiMiii ill Soulli It;il.\, sponsible for the collection of the imperial taxes in their districts. This burden finally be- came so crushing: that many cnrials tried desper- ately to evade it, — even by sinking into a lower class, or by flight to the barbarians. Then, to secure the n^venue, law made them an hereditary- class. They wi'vv forbidden to become cl(M'g>-, soldiers, or lawyers ; tli(\\ were not allowed to or (xcn to travel without p(T- The artisans k5EKFS i\l.\KIN(i HHKAI) IN RoMAN Ga( !> from one cit \' to another mo\ mission. Between these local nobl(>s and the artisan class, then* had been, in the da> of th(> Karly Empin*, a much larger middle class of suiall laiul-owuers, merchants, bankers, and professional men. This middle class had now almost disappeared. Some were com])elled by law to take up the duties of the vanishing curials. More, in the financial ruin of the period, sank into the working class. Thr cofidifiofi of artis(i)is had lucouir drsprrair. An edict of Diocletian's regarding j)rici's and wages shows that a work- man received not more than one tenth the wagt^s of an Ameri- DEARTH OF MEN AND MONEY 235 can workman of like grade, while food and clothing cost at least one third as much as in our time. His family rarely knew the taste of eggs or fresh meat. And now the law forbade him to change his trade. The 'peasantry had become serfs. That is, they were bound Farm labor to their labor on the soil, and changed masters with the land 5^°^^^^*° they tilled. When the Empire began, the system of great estates, which had blighted Italy earlier, had begun also to curse the provinces. Free labor disappeared before slave labor ; grain culture decreased, and large areas of land ceased to be tilled. To help remedy this state of affairs, and to keep up the food supply, the emperors introduced a new class of heredi- tary farm laborers. After successful wars, they gave large num- bers of barbarian captives to great landlords, — thousands in a batch, — not as slaves, but as serfs. The serfs were not personal propert^s as slaves were. They were part of the real estate. They, and their children after them, were attached to the soil, and could not be sold off it ; nor could it be taken from them so long as they paid the land- lord a fixed rent in labor and produce. This growth of serfdom made it still more difficult for the free small-farmer to hold his place. That class more and more sank into serfs. On the other hand, many slaves rose into serfdom. 4. A fourth great evil was the lack of money. The Empire Lack of did not have sufficient supplies of precious metals for the de- ™®^®y mands of business ; and what money there was was steadily drained away to India and the distant Orient (p. 222). Even the imperial officers were forced to take part of their salaries in produce, — robes, horses, grain. Trade began to go back to the primitive form of barter ; and it became harder and harder to collect taxes. 5. Only one measure helped fill up the gaps in population. Peaceful This was the introduction of barbarians from without. The i^^^^ion of bar- Roman army had long been mostly made up of Germans ; barians and (beside the captive colonies) conquered barbarians had been settled, hundreds of thousands at a time, in frontier prov- 236 LATER ROMAN EMIMKK inces, wliilc whole irifiidly tribes liad Ix'cii admitted peacefully into depopulated districts. But all this had a danger of its own. True the Germans so adnntted took on Roman civili- zation ; but they kept up some feeling for their kindred beyond the Rhine. The barrier between the dnlized world and its as- sailants was melting away. BoDT-QUARD OF Marctjs Auremus, made up of Germans- Aurolius' Triumplial Arch. From The Empire no longer able to resist outside barbarians In the third and fourth centuries there were no more great poets or men of letters. Learning and patriotism both declined. Society began to fall into rigid castes, — the serf bound to his spot of land, the artisan to his trade, the curial to his office. Freedom of movement was lost. To the last, the legions were strong in discipline and pride, and ready to meet any odds. But more and more there was dearth of money and dearth of men to fill the legion^s or to pay them. The Empire had become a shell. For five hundred years, outside l)arbarians had been tossing wildly about the great natural walls of the ei\ ilized world. Sometimes they had broken in for a moment, but always to be destroyed by some ^Llrius, Caesar, Aurelius, or .\urelian. In the fifth century they broke in to stay — but not until the Roman world had heeonn Christidn. For Further Readin-c. — Davis' I^railings, Additional: Pelham's Oj///i//e.s, 577-o.S(). II. Xos. 109-119. CHAPTER XXVII THE VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY The first Roman writer to make any definite mention of the Roman so- Christians is Tacitus, in 115 a.d. ; and it is plain that (hke all l^^\^^iy fashionable Roman society much later) he had heard only Christians misleading slander of them, for he refers to them merely as "haters of the human race" and practicers of a "pernicious superstition." But from the Book of Acts we know that at least fifty years earlier there were Christian congregations among the poor in nearly all the large cities of the eastern part of the Empire. The religion of mercy and gentleness and hope appealed first to the w^eak and downtrodden. For three centuries Roman society and government despised the sect of Christians, and often persecuted them ; but still the gentler spirit of the age, and its idea of human brotherhood, and especially the unity of the w^orld under one government and one culture, prepared the way for the victory of the church. If Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy had remained split up in hun- dreds of petty states with varying languages and customs, Paul and other early missionaries could not so readily have made their way from city to city, or have been able to speak to their audiences. Four causes help to explain the persecutions. 1. Rome tol- Causes of erated and supported all religions ; but, in return, she expected Persecution all inhabitants of the Empire to tolerate and support the re- ligion of the Empire, including the worship of the emperors. The Christians alone refused to do this, proclaiming that all worship but their own w^as sinful. 2. Secret societies were feared and forbidden by the Empire, Secret on political grounds. Even the enlightened Trajan instructed ^°"®**®2 Pliny to forbid the organization of a fircmciiis •company in a 237 238 KISK OK CIIKISTIAXITY lar^^c city of his j)n)\iiicc, Ix'causc sucli associations were likely to l)cc«)iMc "factious asscmhlics." Hut the church of that day was a \ast. hiuhly or^Mui/cd, widely diffused, secret society. Pacifists ;j. In the third i)lace, the Christians kept apart from most public aniusenients, either because those amusements were immoral, like the " ^dadiatorial games," or because they were connected with festixals to heathen gods. This made Christians seem unsocial. Also, because* Christ had jjreached peace, many Christians refused to join the legions, or to fight, if drafted. This was near to treason, inasmuch as a i)rime duty of the Roman world was to repel l)arl)arism. Some of these extreme "pacifists" and "conscientious objectors" irritated their neigh- bors by e\('n refusing to illmninate their houses or garland their j)ortals in honor of national triumphs. lander 4. Clean li\(>s marked the early Christians, to a notal)le degr(>c. K\(M'y sin was punished before the whole congregation. The church was a \ ast association for mutual helpfulness in pure li\ing. Any member wlio was known to haxe worshiped pagan gods, or blaspliemed, or borne false witn(*ss, was dis- missed from Christian fellowsliip. Hut, strangely enough, fHKjan sociiiii hnrtr uofhuKj of this .side of the cdrli/ church. The Jews accused the Christians of all sorts of crimes, and, ])artic- ularly, of horrible orgies in the secret "love-feasts" (comnmnion su])])ers). If a cliild disappeared —lost or kidnapped by some slave-hunter — the rumor spread at once that it liad been eaten by the Christians in their jirivate feasts. Such accusations were accepted, carelessly, i)y Roman society, because the Chris- tian meetings were secret and Ix'cause there had really been licentious rites in some religions from the East that Rome had been forced to crush. Attitude of 'V\u' firsi century, e\cej)t for the horrors in Rome under the govern- \;,.,.,,^ alVorcJed no persecution until its xcrx close, and tlien ment toward \ r ^ • " • ; ; persecution only a slight one. Cnder 'I'rajan we see sj)asmodic local ])erse- cutions. not instigated b\- the govermnent. On the whole, during the second eenturx, the Christians were legall\- subject to ))unislnnenf ; but the law against them was rarely enforced. CONSTANTINE AND THEODOSIUS 239 Still it is well to remember that even then many noble men and women chose to die in torture rather than deny their faith. The third century was an age of anarchy and decay. The few able rulers strove strenuously to restore society to its an- cient order. One great obstacle to this restoration seemed to them to be this new religion, with its hostility to Roman patriotism. This century, accordingly, was an age of definitely planned persecution. But by this time Christianity was too strong, and had come to count nobles and rulers in its ranks. Triumphm, a OF CoNSTANTiNE AT RoME, 312 A.D., Commemorating the victory of Milvian Bridge. In 305, Diocletian abdicated the throne (in the midst of the most terrible of all persecutions of the Christians) ; and for eight years civil war raged between claimants for the imperial power, more than one of them bidding for the favor of the growing church. In 312 a.d. at the battle of the Milvian Bridge in north Italy the mastery of the world fell to Constan- tine the Great Constantine's father, while ruler in Britain and Gaul, had been distinctly favorable to the Christians, and on the eve of his decisive battle Constantine adopted the 240 THK VK^roKV OK (Ml H ISTI AXITY Licinius attempts to restore paganism Cross as a symhol upon his standards. (Sec Davis' Rradhujs for tlir story of his dream.) Tlu' Christians still were less than one tenth the population of the Empire; but they were ener^^etic and enthusiastic; they were massed in the great cities wliicli lield the keys to ])oliti('al power; and they were a(hnii-al)ly organized for united action. It is not likely that Constantine ga\-e much thought to the trutii of Christian doctrine, and we know tliat he did not ])rac- tice CIn-istian \irtues. (He put to death cruelly his wife and a son, and had a rival assassinated.) But he was wise enough to recognize the good policy of allying this rising power to himself against his rivals. He may have seen, also, in a hroader and unselfish way, the folly of trying to restore the old pagan world, and have felt the need of establishing harmony between the government and this new power within the Empire, so as to utilize its strength instead of always combating it. So, in 313, a few months after Milvian Bridge, from his capital at Milan, Constantine issued the famous decree known as the Edict of Milan: "We grant to the Christians and to all others free choice to follow the mode of worship they nuiy wish, in order that whalsocirr diviniti/ and crlrstial power maii exist may be propitious to us and to all who live under our government." This edict established religions toleration,' nui\ })ut a.n end forever to pagan persecution of the Christians. At a later time Constantine showed many favors to the church, granting money for its buildings, and exempting the clergy from taxa- tion (as was done witli teachers in the schools). But, as head of the Roman state, he contimied to make ])ublic sacrifices to the pagan gods. .\fter ten years came a struggle l)etween Constantine and a rival, Licinius, for power. This was also the final conflict between Christianity and i)aganism. The followers of the old faiths rallied around Licinius, and the victory of Constantine was accepted as a verdict in favor of ( 'hristianity. In 392, Theodosius the Great, who liad already ruled for many years as emperor in the East, became sole emi)eror. He RISE OF HERESIES 241 made Christianity the only State religion, prohibiting all pagan ^ worship on pain of death. In out-of-the-way corners of the Empire, paganism Hved on for a century more ; but in the more settled districts zealous worshipers of Christ destroyed the old temples and some- times put to death the worshipers of the old gods and teachers of the old philosophical schools. Almost at once, too, the Christians began to use force to prevent differ- ences of opinion among themselves. When the leaders tried to state just what they believed about difficult points, some vio- lent disputes arose. Tn such cases the views of the majority finally pre- vailed as the orthodox doc- trine, and the views of the minority became heresy — to be crushed out in blood, if need were. Most of the early here- sies arose from different opinions about the exact nature of Christ. Thus, Persecu- tions by the Christians « m^Kl^Wi p Hi M Constantine's Triumphal Column at Constantinople — a beautiful piece of porphyry originally bearing the em- peror's statue in bronze on its summit (until 1 105 A.D.) . Constantine removed the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium, which he rebuilt with great magnificence and renamed Constanti- nople ("Constantine's City "). One of "his motives, it is said, was to have a capital more easily Christianized than Rome with her old pagan glories. back in Constantine's time, Arius, a priest of Alexandria, taught that, while Christ was the divine Son of God, He was not equal to the Father. Athanasius, of the same city, asserted that Christ was not only divine and the Son of God, but that He and the Father were absolutely equal Early heresies The Nicene Creed 1 Pagan is from a Latin word meaning rustic. In like manner, later, the Christianized Germans called the remaining adherents of the old worship heathens ("heath-dwellers"). 242 KAKLV ClIKISTIAXITY ill ;ill rcsiM'cts, "ol" x\\v same sul)stanc('" and '* co-ctcrnal." The struggle waxed fierce and dixided ( "lirislendoiu into oppos- ing camps. But Constantinc desired union in the church. (If it s|)lit into hostih' fragments, his political reasons for favoring it woidd l>e gone.) Accordingly, in 325, he summoned all the i)rincipal el(M-gy of the Empire to the first great council of the whole church, at Nicaea, in Asia Minor, and ordered them to come to agreement. Arius and Athanasius in person led the fierce debate. In the end the majority sided with Athanasius. His doctrine, summed up in the Niccne Creed, became the orthodox creed of Chri.stendom ; and Arius and his followers (unless they recanted) were put to death or driven to seek refuge with the barbarians — many of whom they con- verted to Arian Christianity. The victory of Christianity no doubt was in part a com- promise, like excry great change. Paganism reacted upon Cluistianity and ina(l(> the churcli in souk^ degree imperial Aisle Kave Aisle (Jkneual Plan ok a Basilica. and pagan. l^nt tliere was immenst* gain. The new reli- gion tnitigated slaxcry. built up a \ast and ixMieficent system of charity, abolished the gladiatorial games and the "exposure" of infants, and lessened the terribly conunon practice of suicide — branding that act as one of tlie worst of crimes; and it purified and strengthened th<' souls of hosts of common men and wo!nen. Tlie fourth century, ev(>n more than the tiiird, was a time of intellectual (leca\'. Tliere were no jxx'ts and no new science, PLATE XL Above. — Ruins of Constantine's Basilica. Below.— Interior of the Same " Restored." —The basilica (from a Greek word meaning the king's judgment hall) became the favorite Roman form for law courts just before the Empire came m\V hen the Christians came to power, they adopted this type of building tor their churches, and adapted many pagan structures for that purpose. Cf. Early Progress, p. 408. RISE OF HERESIES 243 while even the old were neglected. Pagan poetry, beautiful as DisUke it was, was filled with immoral stories of the old gods, and the and fear of Christians feared contamination from it (as the Puritans of the learning seventeenth century did from the plays of Shakespeare). The contempt for pagan science had less excuse. The spherical form of the earth was well known to the Greeks (p. 146), but the early Christians demolished the idea, asking, "If the earth be round, how can all men see Christ at his coming ? " The church was soon to become the mother and sole protector of a new learning, but it bears part of the blame for the loss of the old. Review Exercise 1. Add to the list of dates 180, 284, 325. 2. Extend list of terms for fact drill. 3. Memorize a characterization of the periods of the Empire ; i.e. First and second centuries : peace, prosperity, good government. Third century : decline — material, political, intellectual. Fourth century : revival of imperial power ; victory of the Chris- tian church ; social and intellectual decline. Fifth and sixth (in advance) : barbarian conquest. Ro?,iAN Coins of the Empire. — Many have been found in th(> Orient. PART VI -ROMANO-TEUTONIC EUROPE 400-1500 CHAPTER XXVIII MERGING OF ROMAN AND TEUTON, 378 800 A.D. I. FOUR CENTURIES OF CONFUSION The savage East of tlic Uliiiu' tluTc had long roamed many "forest peoples," whom the Romans called Germans, or Teutons. These barbarians were tall, hut^^e of limb, white-skinned, flaxen-haired, with fierce blue eyes. To the short dark-skinned races of Roman Europe, they seemed tawny giants. The tribes nearest the Empire had taken on a little civilization, and had begun to form large combinations under the rule of kings. The more distant tribes were still savage and unorganized. In general, they were not far above the le\el of the better North American Indians in our colonial period. Government Tlic government of tlie Teutons is described for us by the Roman historian Tacitus. .\ tribe lived in villages scattered in forests. The rilhuic irth, military renown, or eloquence, are heard, and gain attention rather from their ability to persuade than their autliority to command. If a proposal (lisplea.se, the assembly reject it by an inarticulate nuirnuir. If it prove agreeable, they clash their javelins; for the most honorable expression of assent among thera i.s tlie sound of arms." (Cf. early (In^ek organization.) 241 of village and tribe PLATE XLI AnovK. — RriNs of 'thk Palack of thk Caksars" on tlic P;il:itiiir Hill. I)uil( by Tilx^rius and Caligula. Below, — A " Rkstouation " of the Palaco of the Caesars, by Bonvonuti. FOUR CENTURIES OF CONFUSION 245 The first Teutonic people to establish itself within the old Invasion Empire was the West Goths. These barbarians in 378 defeated ^^ ^^^ ^^^* and slew a Roman Emperor at Adrianople, almost under the walls of Constantinople, and then roamed and ravaged at will for a generation in the Balkan lantls. In 4IO, they entered Italy and sacked Rome (just 800 years after the sack by the Gauls), and then moved west into Spain, where they found the Vandals ^ another Teuton race who had entered Spain through Gaul from across the Rhine. Driving the Vandals into Africa, the West Goths set up in Spain the first firm Teu- tonic kingdom. Meanwhile, other Teutons had begun to swarm across the Other Rhine. Finally, after frightful destruction, the East Goths '[^^^^^^^ established themselves in Italy ; the Burgundians, in the valley of the Rhone ; the Angles and Saxons, in Britain ; the Franks, in northern Gaul. This "wandering of the peoples" filled the fifth century and part of the sixth. These two terrible centuries brought on the stage also another Slav Europe new race, — the Slavs ; and the opening of the following century ^ . ^~ brought Mohammedanism (pp. 253 ff .) . But of these three forces, we are concerned almost alone ivith the Teutons. Mohammedan- ism, as we shall see, seized swiftly upon all the old historic ground in Asia and Africa ; but these countries have had little touch since with our Western civilization. South of the Danube, Slavic tribes settled up almost to the walls of Constantinople, where the Roman Empire still maintained itself. Southeastern Europe became Slavic-Greek, just as Western Europe had be- come Teutonic-Roman. But, until very recently, Southeastern Europe has had little bearing upon the Western world. The two halves of Europe fell apart, with the Adriatic for the dividing line, — along the old cleavage between Latin and Greek civili- zations. In all the centuries since, human progress has come almost wholly from the Western Romano-Teutonic Europe — and from its recent offshoots. The invasions brought overwhelming destruction upon this 24(1 WKSTKKX lailiOPIO, 4(K)-S()0 A.D. The inva- sions over- throw the old civil- ization The Dark Ages." 400 800 Survivals of Roman civiUzation in towns and in the church Wc'storii world, — tlic most (•()iii])l('t(> catastroplic tliat ov(T Ix't'cll a urcat cixilizi'd society. ( 'i\ ilizatioii, it is true, liad hccii ut llicy t iciiiriidoiisly accelerated the iiu)\ (Miieiit, and j)re\<'nte(l any rc\i\al of the old cnlture in the West. And when the in\aders liad entered into possession, and .so ceased to destroy, two new causes of decline appeared : (1) Thr new ruling claJis<\s were densely ignorant. They cared nothing for the survivals of literature and science. Few of them could read, or write even their names. Much of the old civili- zation was allowed to decay because they could not under- stand its use. (2) The language of everyday speech was grow- ing away from the literary language in which all the remains of the old knowledge were preserved. Tlie language of learning })ecame "dead." It was known only to the clergy, and to most of them at this period \ery imperfectly. The fifth and sixth centuries brought the Teuton into the Roman world; the seventh and eighth centuries fused Roman and Teuton elements into a new "Western Europe." For the whole four hundred years of these "Dark Ages" (400-SOO), Europe remained a dreary scene of violence, lawlessness, and ignorance. The old Ronuni schools disappeared, and classical literatiu'c seemed to be extinct. There was no tran(|uil leisure, and therefore no study. There was little security, and there- fore little work. The l^^'anks and Cioths were learning tlie rudi- ments of civilized life; but the Latins were losing all but the rudiments — and they seemed to lose faster tlian the Teutons gained. liut after all, the invasions did not uproot civilization. The con(|uests were made by small nund)ers. and. outside Britain. tliey did not greatly cliange the cliaracter of the j)o])ulation. The concpierors settled among ten or fifty times their own mnnbers. At first they were the rulers, and almost the only large land-owners. But fhf towns, so far as they sur\i\('d, re- nidified Roman, and, almost unnoticed by the ruling classes, they ])reserved some parts of the old culture and handicrafts. Till old jiojuddfion, too, for a long tlmr fiirni.shrd tdl the clergy. PLA'lE XLU ^„^ r^ 9'^(W When the Vandals from Tomb of Hadrian (locate on map p^ 230) . ^^^^^n ^^^ ^, ^ death upon him : "Soul of mme, pretty one, flitting one. Guest and partner of my clay, Whither wilt thou hie away, Pallid one. ri«id one, naked one. — Never to play again, never to play f THE JUSTINIAN CODE 247 From this class — the sole possessors of the art of writing and keeping records — the Teutonic lords had to draw secretaries and confidential officers ; and by these advisers they were grad- ually persuaded to adopt many customs of the old civilization. Most important of all, the church itself lived on much in the old way. Necessarily it suffered somewhat in the general deg- radation of the age ; but, on the whole, it protected the weak, and stood for peace, industry, and right living. In the darkest A Roman Tkmple as It 'rHNU'KS 'I'li-DAY 111 Xill (M'aisonCarree). ]• ranee of those dark centuries there were great numbers of priests and monks inspired with zeal for righteousness and love for men. The preservation of Roman law we owe mainly to a source The outside Western Europe. The Roman Empire lived on in part Ej^7re^" of Eastern Europe and in Asia, with its capital at Constantinople. Cut off from Latin Europe, that Empire now grew more and more Greek and Oriental, and after 500 a.d. we usually speak of it as "the Greek Empire." In the sixth century, after long decline, the Empire fell for The a time to a capable ruler, Justinian the Great (527-565), whose Jode^^*" most famous work was a codifieaiion of the Rowan law. In 24S WKSTKIv'X KlMiOPK, 4()0-S00 AD. the coni'sc of (•(•iitiii'ics, tlint l;i\v had hoconic an iiitolcrahle maze. Now a coinmissioii (»t alilc lawvcrs j)Ut tlic wliolc mass into a new foi'iii, iiiaiAclously (•oiii|)acl, clear, and orderly, -lustiniaii also reeon(|iiered Italy for the Kmpii-e, and so tlie code was (>stal)lislied in that land. Thence, thron^h the church, and some centuries later through a new class ot" lawyers, it spread over the West. -[ustinian's coiKjuest of Italy had another result less hapi)y. 1 1 is ^-enerals destroyed a proniisin<; kingdom of the East Goths in Italy. Then (odS), immediately- after the great emperor's death, a new German j)eople, the saccKjc Lombards, swarmed into the peninsida. Their chief kingdom was in the Po valley, which we still call Lomhardy ; hut \ arious Lombard "dukedoms" were scat- tered also in other parts. The Empire kept (1) the "Exarchate of Ravenna" on the Adriatic; (2) Rome, with a little territory about it; and i'X) the extreme .south. Thus Ifali/, the middle hmd for irhicli Romdn luid Teuton had stnufqled, was at last dirided heticeen them and shattered into Jnufments in the })rocess. A SiLVKR Coin of Justinian. When the barl)arians came into th<' Km])ire, t lieii' law was onl\' unwritten custom. Much of it remained so, especially in Britain. But, under Roman iiifhu-nce, the con(iuerors soon put parts of their law into written codes. Two common features of these codes throw interesting sidelights on the times. 1. Offenses irere atoned for h}/ monei/-j)a}/nu'nts, \arying from a small amount for cutting off the joint of a finger, to the wergeld (man-money), or payment for taking a man 's life. 2. WIk'U a man wished to ])ro\'e himself imiocent, or another man guilty, he did not try to i)ring e\ idence, as we ^\ iit,hBr .Ti nfr,ij> CSeptkuania} TEUTONIC CODES OF LAW 249 believed their man was telling the truth. To swear falsely was to invite the divine vengeance, as in the boyish survival, — " Cross my heart and hope to die." In trial by ordeal, the accused tried to clear him- self by being thrown bound into water. Or he plunged his arm into boiling water, or carried red-hot iron a certain distance ; and if his flesh was uninjured, when examined some days later, he was declared innocent. All these ordeals were un- der the charge of the clergy and were preceded by sacred exercises. Such tests could be made, too, by deputy : hence Trial by ordeal Trial by Combat — the religious prelimi- nary. Each champion is making oath of the justice of his cause- f'rom a fif- teenth-century manuscript. our Trial by Combat — ^companion piece to the preceding cut- phrase to "go through fire and water" for a friend. Among the fighting class, the favorite trial came to be the trial by combat, — a judicial duel in which God was expected to " show the right." The Teutons introduced once more a system of growimj law. Codification preserved the Roman law, but crystallized it. Teu- tonic law, despite its codes, remained for a long time crude and unsystematic ; but it contained possibili- ties of further growth . The Growing law 250 WKSTKRN EUROPM, KM) SOO AD. iinportaiu'c of this fact lias been felt mainly in the p]nglish "Connnon Law," the basis of our Ameriean le^al system. The eonquest modified the politieal institutions of the eon- querors in many ways. Three ehan^es call for attention. 1. The Tiutonic Icings hicfDiic more (ihsoluff. At first they were little more than especially lionored military chiefs, at the hcjid of rude democracies. In the conciuests, they secured lar<;e sliares of confiscated land, so that they could reward their supporters and l)uil(l up a strong jx'rsonal following". Mon^- m.,^^<^e^?^>^>^^:-'^t^^'^^ I ^kJ. ''*-J^\,J=>~ . ^aio^gfi iSEVKNTH ('KNTinY Vii.LA (ill \v()()(l) IN NouthG.ml, US " rostofcd " by Par- mcntior. Tho palisacios inclose, it will he ii()ti<'Ocl, not only the dwellinR.s ft)r tho human inhabitants (with a lofty watch fowc^ri, but .iIsm vcui'tablc pardons and extensive barns for rattle. ov(>r, the Uoniau idea of al)solute |)ow('r in tlie head of the state had its infiuence. (Witli all its excellences, the Roman law was imbued with the i)riu(iple of desj)()tism. A faxoritc maxim was. — " What the prince wills has the force of law .") 2. .1 ncir nohllif}/ of .srrrirr (ipprand. The kiuLT rewarded his most trusted follower's with grants of lands, and mad(> them rulers (counts and dukc^s) over large districts. 3. The as.scnihlir.s of j'nriiun (Iccrcascd in iuiportancc. They EVERYDAY LIFE 251 survived in England as occasional "Folkmoots," and in the Prankish kingdom as "Mayfields" ; but they shrank into gath- erings of nobles and officials. Everyday life in the seventh century ivas harsh and mean. Life in The Teutonic conquerors disliked the close streets of a Roman ^®^*®g^ town ; but the ^'illa, the residence of a Roman country gentle- 700 A.D. man, was the Roman institution which they could most nearly appreciate. The new Teutonic kings (and their nobles also) lived not in town palaces, but in rude but spacious w^ooden dwellings on extensive farmsteads in the midst of forests. Population had shrunken terribly, even since the worst times Population of the Roman Empire. In the north, most towns had been shrunken destroyed. Those that were rebuilt (on a small scale), sur- rounded by rude palisades, were valued chiefly for refuge, and for convenient nearness to a church or cathedral. (In the south, it is true, the old cities lived on, with a considerable degree of the old Roman city life.) Everywhere, the great majority of the people were the Life of the poor folk who tilled the land for neighboring masters. Most P°°^ of these toilers lived in mud hovels, or in cabins of rough boards, without floors and with roofs covered with reeds or straw. At the best, little more of their produce remained to them than barely enough to support life; they were con- stantly subject to the arbitrary will of rough masters ; and at frequent intervals they suffered terribly from pestilence and famine. In the old East, holiness was believed to be related to w^ith- Monasti- drawal from the world and to disregard for pleasure and for natural instincts, even love for mother, wife, and child. This . unnatural tendenc}^ invaded Eastern Christianity, and, in the Egyptian and Syrian deserts, there arose a class of tens of thou- sands of Christian hermits, who strove each to save his own soul by tormenting his body. In some cases these fugitives from society united into small societies with common rules of life ; and in the latter part of the fourth century the idea of religious communities was trans- 252 WESTKRN KUROPK, 4(KVS(K) A.l). ])l;uit(Ml to tlic \V(»st, wluTo the loii^' juuircliy following' tin- iii- \ Msioiis iiiJidt' siicli a life pccnliiirly iii\ itin^-. KuropcMii moiiMst icisiii, liowcxcr, dilVcrcil widely from its inodi'l ill the East. The monks of the West, within their quiet walls, wisely sought escape from temptation, not in idle- ness, but in actixc and in- cessant work. Their motto was, "To work is to pray." In the scvcttth ccuiurii, the ma- jority of cultured mid rrfinrd men and women in Western Europe lived within monastic walls. Monks did not go out into the world to save it ; hut their doors were open to all who came for help. For cen- turies of \iolence and brutal- ity, the thousands of monas- teries that dotted Western Flu- rope were tlic only ahnhoiises, inns, asylums, h()sj)itals, and of learning. The Aubky of C'itkaux. — From a miniature in a twelfth century manuscript. {Ahhci/ i.s the name for a hirtic monastery.) Note the grain fields in the background, which were largely cultivated l)y the monies them.'selves. •honh 1 tlie sole refui^e Rise of the Franks II. F1{ANKS, MOH A.MMEDAXS, AND POPES During the two centuries of fusion (p. 24()\ two organizing powers grew uj) in Europe the Frdnhish .v/a/r and ///' PdjKwy; and one great danger apj)eared — Mohammrdauism. The growth of the Frankish stat(» was due mainl\ to (Ions, a ferocious and treacherous Teutonic sa\age of shrewd intellect. In /fSI , Clovis became king of one of the se\ cral little tribes of Franks on the lower Rhine. Fifty years later, thanks to a long- eontimied |)<)lic\ of war, assassination, and jx-rfidy, In's sons ruled an em])ire comi)rising nearly all mo Kxarcliatc ot" Kaxcniiii. Tlic pojx-s jipjx'alcd to I lie Fniiiks for aid a^^aiiist Loinl)ar(l attack. The Fraiikisli mayors needed papal sanction for their own plans jnst then ; and so the two or- (jdtiiziufi forces of W'cstrni Karopr joined hand.s. Tlie Frankish mayor now was Pip])in the Short, son of Charles Martel. This ruler felt that he bore the burdens of kingship, and he wished to take to himself also its name and dignity. Such a stej) needed powerful sanction. So, in 7')(), Pippin sent an embassy to the pope to ask whether this was "a good state of things in regard to the kings of the Franks." The pope replied, "It seems better that he who has the ])ower should b(^ king rather then he who is falsely called so." Thereupon Pippin shut up the last shadow-king of tlie house of Clovis in a monastery, and himself assumed the crown. A little later, Pope Stephen visited the Frankish court and solemnly consecrated Pippin king. All earlier Teutonic kings had held their kingship by will of their people ; but Stephen anointed Pippin, as the old Hebrew prophets did the Hebrew kings. This began for European monarchs their "sacred" character as "the Lord's anointed." On his ])art. Pippin made Loml)ar(ly a tributary state and gave to the pope that territory which the Lombju'd king had recently seizenl from Ravenna. Tin's "Donation of Pij)])in" creiited \\\c modern princij)ality of "the Papal States" — to last until ISTO. 1m)|{ I'^nrriiKU I^kadinc. — Tlie ('l(»>in^!; nuiiilx-rs of Davi--' Rcaih'tujs, H, contain excellent source material on this period. See, too, (^jig's Sourer lionk, especially for Mohatninedaiiisni. If time is found for other library worU, the following hooks are among the most useful : Emcrlon's I nlrndiielion. fo the Middte A(/es, dis. i-vii ; Hod^kin's Tlu(>(i() Till-: KMIMKK OK ( 'I l.\ KM.KM ACJNE Buffer ■ states on the east ' Emperor of the Romans, " 800 AD. L(unl)ar(l in Italy, and the more newly " cixilized " Bavarian and Saxon in Germany, along witii the dominant Franks — (ill I III siirririiiii Trufiniir peoples except the Norsemen in the S('andina\ian lands and the Anr learned to write, l)Ut lie spoke and read Latin, and he understood some Greek. For his age he was an edueated man ; and he wished earnestly to make more learning possible for others. Nearly every noble, and many of the elergy, were densely ignorant. The only tools to work with were poor. There seemed no place to begin. Still much was done. For teachers Charlemagne sought out learned men in South Italy, where Roman civilization best survived, and he opened schools in monasteries and at bishops' seats for the instruction of all children who could come to them — even the children of serfs. Some of these schools, as at Tours and Orleans, lived on through the ]\Ii(l(lle Ages.^ In the early i)art of the eighth century there were four great forces contending for Western F^noix', — the Greek Empire, the Saracens, the Franks, and the papacy. Hy the year SOO, Charles iVIartel and Charles the Great had excluded the first two and had fused the other two into the revived Roman Empire. For centuries more, this Roman Empire was to be one of the most important forces in P^ur<)p(\ Barbarism and anarchy were again to break in, after tlie deatli of the great Charles; but the imperial idea, to wliieh he had gixcn new life, was to be for ages the inspiration of the best minds as they strove against anarchy in behalf of order and ])rogress. Cliarleniagne himself towers al)o\'e all other men from the fifth century to the fifteenth — easily the greatest figure of a thou- sand > cars. He stands for fi\'e mighty mo\'ements. He widened til*' area of ei\ilizati()n, created one great Romano-Teutonic state, re\i\('d the Roman Empire in the West for the out- ward form of this stat<\ reorganized church and societ\'. and began a ie\i\al lA' learning. He wioiight wisely to combine the best cleiiiciiis (»f Komaii and of 'r«>utonie society into a new civilizal ion. /// his i'.in/iirr irt if fn.\-rs" is used f..r llio conturios fn.ni KM) to loOO. or from tlic Teutonif iiivasion.s to the discovery of America. These centurie.s cover that "MedievaF' periful whicli intervenes between the distinctly Aticictit and the distinctly Modirn period. AND OUR HERITAGE 263 of influence ivhich the earlier world conirihuted to our modern world. The scene of history had shift etl to the West once more, and this time it had shrunken in size. Some Teutonic districts outside the old Roman world had been added ; but vast areas of the Roman territory itself had been abandoned. The Euphrates, the Nile, the Eastern Mediterranean, all Asia with Eastern Europe to the Adriatic, and Africa with Western Europe to the Pyrenees, were gone. The Mediterranean, the central highway of the old Roman world, had become an ill- defended moat between Christian Europe and Mohammedan Africa ; and its ancient place was taken over, as well as might be, by the Rhine and the North Sea. Scene of " history " shifted to " Western Europe " We can now sum up the inheritance with which "Western Europe" began. Through Rome the W^estern peoples were the heirs of Greek Our debt to mind and Oriental hand, including most of those mechanical the ancient arts which had been built up in dim centuries by Egyptian, Babylonian, and Phoenician ; and though much of this inherit- ance, both intellectual and material, was forgotten or neglected for hundreds of years, most of it was finally to be recovered. Rome also passed on Christianity and its church organization. Rome herself had contributed (1) a universal language, which was long to serve as a common medium of learning and inter- course for all the peoples of Western Europe ; (2) Roman law ; (3) municipal institutions, in southern Europe ; (4) the impe- rial idea — the conception of one, lasting, universal, supreme au- thority, to which the world owed obedience. The fresh blood of the Teutons ^ reinvigorated the old races, and so provided the men who for centuries were to do the 1 The use of the words German and Teuton in the above treatment calls for a word of caution. The mingling of Teutonic and Roman elements in our civilization took place not in Germany but in the lands we call Eng- land, France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain. The people who brought the Teutonic contributions into those lands were not the ancestors of the mod- ern Germans — any more than were other Teutons, like the Danes and Swedes, who never entered Germanv. 204 TUK EMPIUK OF ClIAULKMACXK world's work. 77/r Tcuhms contrilxitcd, too, certain dofinito ideas and institntions : (1) a new sense of personal inde- ptMidenee; (2) a i)()nd of jx-i'sonal loyalty lietween chieftain and follower, in contrast with the old Roman loyalty to the state; ()i) a new cfKuirr for democracy, esjxciall.N in the popnlar assemblies of diiVerent *i,rades in England. Out of Roman and Teutonic elements there had already de- veloped a new serf organization of labor ; a new nobility ; and a new Romano-Teutonic kingship — and now there was to grow out of them a new feudalism fell. x\x). For Fuhtheu Rkauino. — 0«!;g's Source Book, eh. x; Hodgkin's Chaiie.s (he Great; Davis' Chdrletnagnc; Masterman's Dawn of Me- dieval Europe. ThK FiKI I)S of AnCIKNT HiSTOIlY. CHAPTER XXX THE FEUDAL AGE, 800-1300 I. THE NEW BARBARIAN ATTACK '^Frorn the fury of the Northmen, Lord, deliver us." — Prayer in Church Service of Tenth Century. Charlemagne died in 814, and his empire did not long outlive him. His brilliant attempt to bring Western Europe into order and union was followed by a dismal period of reaction and turmoil, while his ignoble descendants sought only to see who could grab the largest slices of the realm. The most important of these selfish contests closed in S43 with the Treaty of Verdun. This treaty begins the map of modern Europe. Lothair, Charlemagne's eldest grandson, held the title Emperor, and so he was now given North Italy and a narrow strip of land from Italy to the North Sea — that he might keep the two imperial capitals, Rome and Aachen. The rest of the Empire, lying east and west of this middle strip, was broken into two kingdoms for Lothair's two brothers. The eastern kingdom was purely German. In the western, the Teutonic rulers were being absorbed rapidly into the older Roman and Gallic populations, to grow into France. Lothair's unwieldy "Middle Europe" proved the weakest of the three. Italy fell away at once. Then the northern portion, part French, part German, crumbled into "little states" that con- 265 The division of Verdun, 843 A.D Beginnings of France and Ger- many Degenerate Carolin- gians 2G(i WKSTKUX KrUOl'K -XIXTII CKXTUKV New bar- barian in- roads The Norsemen fused tlu' iiuij) of Europe for ('{'nturies, uiost of tlieui to he Hl)sor))e(I finally by more powerful neighbors. For a eentury after Verdun, politieal history remained a l)l()ody tangle of treaeherous family quarrels, while the descend- ants of the Hammer and the Great were known as the Bald, the Simple, the Fat, the Lazy. And now distracted Europe was imperiled by a new danger from without. Once more bar- barian invasions threatened the civilized world. On the east, hordes of wild Sldvs and of wilder llungariam broke across the frontiers, ravaged Germany, and penetrated sometimes even to Rome or to Toulouse in southern France; the Mohnmmcdan Remains of a Viking Ship found buried in sand at Clokstad. Norway. It is of oak. unpaintod. 70' 4" by Ifi^'; fi feet deep in the middle. .Uoor.s- from Africa attacked Italy and Sicily, establishing them- selves firudy in many districts; and fierce Aor.sr j)irates harn(>d every coast. The Norsemen were a new branch of the Teutons, and the fiercest and wildest of that race. They dwelt in the Scandi- na\ian i)cninsulas, and were still heathen. They had taken IK) i)art in the earlier T<'ut()nic invasions; but. in the ninth centur\-, ])oi)ulation was becoming too crowded for their bleak lands, and they were driven to seek new homes. Sonic of them colonized distant Iceland, but the greater number resorted to raiding richer countries. The Swedes conquered Finns and "BRITAIN" BECOMES "ENGLAND 267 Slavs on the east, while Danish and Norse "Vikings" ("sons of the fiords") set forth upon "the pathway of the swans," in fleets, sometimes of hundreds of boats, to harry western Europe. Driving their liglit craft far up the rivers, they then seized horses and ra\aged at will, sacking cities like Hamburg, Rouen, Paris, Nantes, Tours, Cologne, and stabling their steeds in the cathedral of Aachen about the tomb of Charlemagne. At last, like the earlier Teutons, the Norsemen from plun- derers became conquerors. They settled the Orkneys and Shetlands and patches on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, and finally established themselves in the north of France — named, from them, Normandy — and in the east of England. II. BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND We must go back to note how Britain had become England. The In 408 the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain to 'r®"*o"ic . . conquest of defend Italy against the threatened invasion by the Goths Britain, (p. 245). This left the dismayed Romanized Britons to defend 449-6oo themselves as best they could against the wild Celts ^ from the Scottish mountains and the Teutonic Arigles and Saxo7is from the sea side. The Britons called in these Teutons to beat off the other foe, and (449) these dangerous protectors began to take the land for their own, — in many httle kingdoms. This conquest, unlike that of Gaul and Spain, was very slow. The con- It took the Teutons a century and a half (till about 600) to ^^^ ^^^^ master the eastern half of the island. Coming by sea, they thorough came necessarily in small bands. They were still pagans: so they spread ruthless destruction and provoked desperate resistance. Moreover Britain had been less completel}^ Roman- ized than the continental provinces were : there was more forest and marsh, and fewer Roman roads ; hence the natives found it easier to make repeated stands. And because the co7iquest was slow, it was thorough. Eastern England became strictly a Teutonic land. Roman institutions and language vanished, and the Romanized natives were slain or enslaved. 1 Celt includes the Highland Scots, the Irish, the Gauls of France, and the native Britons of Bi-itain before the Teutonic conquest. 2G8 WKSTFRN EIIROPK — XIXTII (M^NTURY Ahout GOO A.D. Christian missionaries from Rome (and some from Ireland) converted these heatlien conquerors. And in I. .\i \Kii\ s V 111 KCH, Nkak Caxterbury. — Frf)ni a photograph. Parts of the l)uiklinK are very old and may have Ijehmgod to a church of the Roman jjoriod. At all events, on this site was the first Christian church used by Augustine and his fellow missionaries, sent out l)y Pope Gregorj' to convert the Teutonic states in Britain, (^ueen liertha, a Prankish princess, who had married the heathen king ol Kent, secured them this i)rivilege. Her tomb is shown in the church. the mi(Mle of the niiitli century VAjJxii, kimj of the ]\r,sf Saxojis (Wessex, in South Kn,L,dand), \u-ddv liimself also kinj; of the Anodes (Kn«;lish) and (inall\' hrouf/hf (ill ihc T( tifofilc })(irf.'i of p — ] the i.sldfid un(/ 1. N 1> EN C 1 e »- K ♦ n i: FEUDALISM 269 road from London to Chester) ; and all the Teutonic states in South England now willingly accepted the rule of Wessex for protection against the Dane. Alfred gave the rest of his splendid life to heal the wounds of his kingdom, and, more successfully than Charlemagne, to revive learning in a barbarous age — though at first there could be found "not one priest" in the kingdom who could understand the church services that he mumbled by rote — and Alfred's sons and grandson, in a measure, reconquered Danish England. Alfred the Great IIL FEUDALISM "A protest of barbarism against barbarism." — Taine. After Charlemagne, the ninth century on became a time of indescriba])le horror. The the weak, and brigands worked their will in plun- der and torture. But out of this anarchy emerged a new social order. Here and there, and in ever growing numbers, some petty chief — retired bandit, rude huntsman, or old officer of a king — planted himself firmly on a small domain, fortifying a stockaded house and gathering a troop of fighters under him to protect it. By so doing, he became the protector of others. The neighbor- hood turned gladly to any strong man as its defender and master. Weaker land- lords surrendered ("com- mended") their lands to him, receiving them back the continent strong robbed Entrance to a Feudal Castle. — From Gautier's La Chevalerie. The draw-bridge crossed themoat, or ditch, that surrounded a castle. When it was raised, the port- cullis (whose massive iron teeth can be seen in the doorway) was let fall. The anarchy of the ninth century forces Europe into feudalism 270 TIIK KKl'DAL A(,l< as ''fiif'S.'' Tlu'v l)t'caiiK' his ra.v.va/.v; \w hccame their lord The former "free peasants," on the lord's own hinds and on the hinds of his vassals, saw that they were no longer at the niercN- of any ehance marauder. They ventured again to plow and sow, and ])erha])s they were permitted in part to reap. On their part, they eultivated also the lord's crop, and paid him dues for house, for cattle, and for each sale or inheritance. The village became his village; the inhabitants, his villeins. Fugiti\'e wretclies, too, without the old resident's claim to con- sideration, gathered on the lord's lands to receive such measure Honi.AM ("asti-k in 1;n(;i,\\i urll-prcscrvcil iiicdirval sfructurc Origin of the feudal privileges of the nobles of mercy as he might grant, and usually sank into the class of serfs of wliom there were aln^ady many on all estates. In return for th(> i)rotecti()n \\v gave, the lord assunuMl great l)rivileges, uns])eakal>ly obnoxious in later centuries, but in their origin connected with some benefit. The noble slew the wild beast — and came to ha\'e the sole right to hunt. .\s organizer of labor, lie forced the \illeins to l)uild the mill {his mill), the o\cn, the ferry, the bridge, the highway; then he took toll for the use of each — and later he ileniolished mills that the \illeins wIsIkmI to build for tin insehes. CASTLES AND MEN-AT-ARMS 271 castle And the ironclad cavalry Finally each district had its body of mailed horsemen and its circle of frowning castles. These two features typify the new order — which we call feudalism. "Castles" rose at every ford and above each mountain pass The feudal and on every hill commanding a fertile plain. At first they were mere wooden blockhouses, but soon they grew into those enormous structures of massive stone, crowned by frowning ])attlements and inclosing many acres, whose picturesque gray ruins still dot the landscape in Europe. Upon even the early castle, the Norse invader spent his force in vain ; while each such fortress was ready to pour forth its band of trained men-at-arms (horsemen in mail) to cut off stragglers and hold the fords. The raider's day was over — but meanwhile the old Teutonic militia, in which every freeman had his place, had given way to an ironclad cav- alry, the resistless weapon of a new feudal aristocracy, which could ride down foot-soldiers {mfa7itvy) at will — till the invention of gunpowder, cen- turies later, helped again to make fighting men equal. Knight in Plate Armok, visor up. — From Lacroix, Vie Militaire. Plate armor Feudal came in only about 1300, " decentral- succeeding lighter chain ization " mail. Each petty district teas practically in- dependent of every other district. The king had been expected to protect every corner of his realm. Actually he had protected only some central district ; but under feudalism each little chieftain proved able to protect his small corner, when he had seized the king's powers there. His territory was a little state. The great nobles coined money and made war like very kings. Indeed a vassal owed allegiance to his overlords two or more grades above him only through the one overlord just above him.. He must follow his 272 Till-: FKl DAL A(iK Economic causes of feudalism Feudal land- holding Lords and vassals immediate lord to war against them and even against his king. Tins drrruiralizdiion was tlie result not only of military needs l)ul also ol" ceoiiomic ' needs — of the lack of money and the lack of roads. The rich man's wealth was all in land; and he eould make his land pay him only by renting it out for services or for produce. "Nobles" paid him for parts of it by fighting for him. Workers paid liim for other parts by rais- ing and harvesting his crops and by gi\ing him part of their own. A man without land was glad to pay so for the use of some in one way or the other. In theory, the holder of any piece of land icas a tentud of some higher landlord. The king was the supreme landlord. He let outmost of the land of the kingdom, on terms of military serv- ice, to great vassals. Each of these parceled out most of what he received, on like terms, to smaller vassals ; and so on, perhaps through six or seven steps, until the smallest division was reached that could support a mailed horseman. But in practice there was no such regularity. The various grades were interlocked in the most confusing way. Except for the smallest knight^>, all landlords of the fighting class were "suzerains" (liege lords) ; and, except perhaps the king, all were vassals. There was no great social distinction between lord and vassals. The " vassal" was always a "noble," and his service was always "honorable," — never to be confounded with the "ignoble" service paid by serfs and villeins. The relation between suzerain and vassal had the character of a bargain for nnitual advantage. Th<> vassal was to ])resent himself at the call of his lord to serxc in war. with followers according to the size of his fi(>f, but oidy for short terms and usually not to go "out of the realm." He nuist also serve in the lord's "court" twice or thrice a \ear, to advise in matters of j)oliey and to give judgment in disputes between vassals. He did not pay "taxes," in our sense, but on frequent occasions he did have to make to the lord certain financial contributions — "reliefs" and "aids." The lord, on his ])art. was bound to 1 Eninomic.s refers to wcaltli. as pulitir.s floo.s (<. jiovcrniiiont. PRIVATE WAUS 273 defend his vassal, to treat him justly, and to see that he found just treatment from his co- vassals. Feudal theory, then, paid elaborate regard to rights; but Private feudal ijractice was mainly a matter of force. It was not easy to ^" enforce the decisions of the crude courts against a noble offender who chose to resist, and in any case war was thought the most honorable way to settle disputes. Like the trial by combat, it was considered an appeal to the judgment of God. "Private wars," between noble and noble, became a chief evil of the age. They hindered the growth of industry, and commonly they hurt neutral parties more than belligerents. There was little actual suffering by the warring nobles, and very little heroism. The weaker party usually shut itself up in its castle. The stronger side ravaged the villages in the neighborhood, driving off the cattle and perhaps torturing the peasants for their small hidden treasures, and outraging the women. Clergy and nobles, praying class and figUting class, were The supported by a vastly larger number of "ignoble" workers, who were usually referred to only as other live stock might be men- tioned. Each noble had to keep some of his land for the support of his own household and for other revenue. This "domain" land was cultivated by the lord's serfs and villeins, under direction of a bailiff, or steward. The peasant workers did not live in scattered farmhouses, each on its own field ; they were grouped in little villages of twenty or fifty dwellings, as in Europe to-day. Such a village, with its adjoining ''fields,'' was a "manor.'' Each manor had its church, at a little distance, and usually its manor house — the lord's castle on a hill above the other dwellings, or maybe a house only a trifle better than the homes of the villeins, used by the lord's steward. At one end of the street stood the lord's smithy ; and near by, on some con\'enient stream, was the lord's mill. As in the last Roman days (p. 235), the serf was bound to Serfs the soil by law : he could not leave it, but neither could he be *?jj^ . sold apart from it. He had his own bit of ground to cultivate, feudal manor 274 Till-: FKLDAL ACIK Homes of the peasants at siicli times as the lord's hailitV did not cull him to labor on the lord's land. Usually tlie hailitt' summoned tlie serfs in turn, each for two or for three days each week; l)ut in liarvest or haying he might keep them all busy, to the ruin of their own little crops. If the serf did get a crop, he had to pay a large part of it for the use of his land. He paid also a multitude of other dues and fines — sometimes in money, l)ut usually " in kind," — eggs, a goose, a cock, a calf, a portion of grain. The villrifi was a step higher. He was "free" in person. That is, he could leave his land and ehantre lords at will ; hut A Reaper's Cakt Going up Hill. — After a fourteenth century nmiiu- script. The force of men and horses, and the tharactor of the wheels, indicates the nature of the roads. (The steepness of the hill is exag- gerated, to fit the picture to the .space in the manuscript.) he had to have sonir lord. The landless and masterless man was an outlaw, at tlu' mercy of any lord. In jirofits from labor and in manner of life there was little to choose between serf and \ illcin. The homes, serf's nr xillrin's. wrrc low. (iltliy. earth-Hoored, straw-thatclird. oiir-i-ooni ho\ ris of wood and sticks plastered together witli nnid. withoiil window or ehininey (exeej)! a hole in the roof). Thej^e home^ straggled along either side of an irregular lane, where i)oultry, i)igs, and children played together in th(> dirt. Behind each house was its weedy garden patch, and its low stable. HOW THE COMMON PEOPLE LIVED 275 Small as the house was it was not cluttered with furniture. A handmill for grinding meal, or at least a stone mortar in which to crush grain, a pot and kettle, possibly a feather bed, one or two rude benches, and a few tools for the peasant's work, made up the contents of even the well-to-do homes. Farming was very crude. The yloidand was divided into Cultivation three great ''fields.'' These were unfenced, and lay about the pf the land •n J • /^ /^ 1 1 i^ common Village at any convenient spots. One field was sown to wheat (in the fall) ; one to rye or barley (in the spring) ; and the third lay fallow, to recuperate. The next year this third field would be the wheat land, while the old wheat field would raise the barley, and so on. This primitive "rotation of crops" kept a third of the land idle. Every "field" was divided into a great number of narrow strips, each as nearly as possible a "furrow-long " and one, two, or four rods wide, so that each contained from a quarter of an acre to an acre. Usu- ally the strips were separated by "balks," or ridges of turf. A peasant's holding was about thirty acres, ten acres in each " field " ; and his share in each lay not in one piece, but in fifteen or thirty scattered strips. (See cut, p. 252.) This kind of holding compelled a "common" cultivation. That is, each man must sow what his neighbor sowed ; and as a rule, each could sow, till, and harvest only when his neighbors did. Three-fold the seed> or six bushels of wheat to the acre, was a good crop in the thirteenth century. There were of course extensive pasture and wood lands for the cattle and swine. Farm animals were small. The wooden plow required eight Falconry. — From a medieval manuscript re- produced by Lacroix. A falconer, to capture and train young hawks to bring game to the master, was among the most trusted under- oflScials of each castle. 27() THK FKrDA]. AdK Small variety in food Life in the manor Life in the castle oxen, and thon It did liai-dly more than scratch the surface of the ^n-ound. Carts \v('i(> few and cnnihrous. There was little or IK) cultivation of root foods. Potatoes, of course, were un- known. Sometimes a few turnips and cahhaj^es and carrots, rather uiieatahle \arieties j)r()l)ahjy, were grown in garden plots behind the houses. Well-to-do peasants liad a hive of bees in the garden plot. Honey was the chief luxury of the poor : sugar was still unknown in Europe. It was difficult to carry enough animals through the winter for the necessary farm work and breeding; so those to be used for food were killed in the fall and salted down. The large use of salt meat and the little variety in food caused loathsome diseases. Kdch village was a world by itself. P^ven the different \illages of the same lord had little intercourse with one another. The lord's bailiff secured from some dis- tant market the three outside products needed, — salt, millstones, and iron for the plowshares and for other tools. Kxcept for this, a \illage was hardly touched by the outside world — unless a war desolated it, or a royal proces- sion chanced to pass through it. The noble classes li\-ed a life hardly more attractive to us. They dwelt in gloomy fortresses over dark dungeons where ])risoners rotted. They had fighting for business, and iuinting with hound and hawk, and ])la\ing at fight- ing (in tournament and joust), for A Court Fool. — .Vftoru pl^-asures. The ladies l)usied theni- medicval miniature in , i i • i • hrilliant errors. Many selves over tapestries and embroideries, in the chambers. Ga\- ])ages flitted tlu-ough tlir halls, or i)laycd at chess in the deep windows. And in the courtyard lounged grulf men- at-arms, ready with blind obedience to follow the lord of the castle on any foray or even in an attack ujx)!! tln-ir king. The n«>l)ie hunted for food, (juite as much as for s|K)rt, and Kroat l«)rd!- jesters. koi)t such CHIVALRY 277 and story telling he did not suffer from lack of fresh meat. The game in forest Hunting and stream was his : for a common man to kill deer or hare or wild duck or trout, was to lose hand or eyes or life. Feasting Feasting filled a large part of the noble's life. Meals were served in the great hall of the castle, and were the social hours of the day. Tables were set out on movable trestles, and the household, visitors, and dependents gathered about them on seats and benches, with nice respect for rank, — the master and his noblest guests at the head, on a raised platform, or "dais," and the lowest servants toward the bottom of the long line. A profusion of food in many courses, especially at the midday "dinner," was carried in from the kitchen across the open courtyard. Peacocks, swans, w^hole boars were favorite roasts, and huge venison "pies" were a common dish. At each guest 's place was a knife, to cut slices from the roasts within his reach, and a spoon for broths, but no fork or napkin or plate. Each one dipped his hand into the pasties, carry- ing the dripping food directly to his mouth. Loaves of bread were crumbled up and rolled between the hands to wipe off the surplus gravy, and then thrown to the dogs under the tables. The food was washed down with huge draughts of wine, usually diluted with water. Intervals between courses were filled with story telling and song, or by rude jokes from the lord's "fool," or perhaps traveling jugglers were brought in to perform. Jugglers in Sword-dance. — From a medieval manuscript. This grim life had its romantic side, indicated to us by the name chivalry (from the French cheval, horse) which has come to stand for the whole institution of knighthood. From the age of seven to that of fifteen, a noble boy usually served as a page in some castle (commonly not his own father's), where he was trained daily in the use of light arms (cut on p. 278) and 278 rill': FEUDAL AGK where he waited upon the ladies, — who in return taii^'lit liini courtesy. Tlien for hw or six years as a ,squirr, the youth attended Uj)on tlie lord of the castle, overseeing, too, in the field and in the hunt, the care of the lord's horse and armor. Tlien he was ready to become a knight — after a solemn religious ceremony — hy receiving the (iccohidc (a light blow upon his shoulder as he 1"HK ExKK( l>h. «.(• lHh ()[ IN IAIN. -- rili> >l|ip'.\> ;ili ill 1 1 .< .| i a 1 1 i |>,iii "I till- schooling of iiohlo rhildivn. The hoys rido, hy (virns. at the woo(1(mi fipure. If the ridor strikes the shield squarely i" tlie center, it is well. If he hits only a alanciiiK hlow. the wooden figure swings on its foot and whacks him with its club as he pas.ses. knelt) from some older knight. More honored, hut rarer, wjis the nol)l(> who wjis dul)l)ed knight hy some famous leader on the field of victory for distinguished hrax cry. Chivalry has Ixm^u called '* the flower of feudalism." True, its virtues (bravery and dexotion to ladies —of iiohir hirtli) were carried to fantastic extremes; and true, too. its si)irit was wholly a class spirit, recognizing no ol)iigation outside the noble class. Still chivalry did softiMi mann j)unislinients — and its j)r()niis(' of eternal reward. And yet this <;overnni(Mit was more democratic in spirit tlian feudal society was. Men of humblest birth often rose to its loftiest offices. Gregory VII, who set his foot u})on the neck of the mightiest king in Europe, was the son of a poor peasant. The church was the only part of society in the Mid- dle Ages where study and intellectual ability could lift a poor boy to power — and so it was recruited from the best minds. Of all this mighty or- ganization, the village j)riest brought the church closest liome to the mass of the people. The great ec- clesiastics — bishops, arch- bisli()j)s,and abbots — were often from the noble class by birth, and in any case they alwa\s became part of the aristocracy. But the rural ])riest was com- monly a ])easant in origin, and he often remained es- sentially a jXNisant in his life. — marr\ ing in the village (until the eleventh century), and working in tlie fields with his neighbors. Hewasa})easant with a somewhat better income than his fellows, with a little learning, a revered position, and with great power for gotxl. He christened. absoKcd. marrie (lothic See opi)osite. PLATE XLIV Salisbury Cathedral, a fine example of early English Gothic, 1200-1250. (The glorious elms of the Cathedral Close are now gone — cut for lumber during the World War.) The stone spire rises 404 feet from the ground- To carry such immense weight was a great engineering problem. Cf- text at bottom of Plates XLVIII, XLIX, to see how such problems were solved in this new style of architecture. Toward the extreme right one side of the cloisters is just visible (cf. p. 288) . THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH 283 Sunday, between the sacred services, the people found their chief recreation in sports and games. And from its steps the priest gave to them what news they received from the outside world, reading aloud there, too, any rare letter that some adven- turous wanderer might be able to get written for him b}' some stranger -priest. In the twelfth century, when, as we shall see, towns began to The friars grow up, these did not fit into the old organization of the church. ^^^ j.^ Neither parish priests nor monks took care of the religious needs of the crowded populations. The poorer inhabitants were miserable in body, too, beyond all words, — fever and plague stricken, perishing of want and filth. Early in the thirteenth century, these conditions called forth a religious revival, with the rise of two new religious orders — the Franciscan and the Dominican brotherhoods. These "begging friars" went forth, two and two, to the poor and the outcasts, to act as healers and preachers. They were mmionar?/ monks. V. ENGLAND IN THE FEUDAL AGE Long l)efore the year 1000 the Saxons in England had learned Local self- to ivork many forms of local self-government — to manage many ^^^^J?™^^* of their own affairs at their own doors, not only in village of represen- (manor) "courts," but also in courts (assemblies) of the larger ^*^o" ^^ units, the hundreds and shires (counties). Moreover, they had England become familiar with the practice of sending a sort of representa- tive from the village to these larger assemblies — since all men could not attend these in person. True, after the year 900 an irregular Saxon feudalism had been Saxon growing up; and these local "courts" had fallen largely under ^®"<^*^*sm the control of neighboring landlords. Still enough activity among the people themselves survived so that these assemblies, with their representative principle, vv^ere to prove the cradle of later English and American- liberty. Ill 1066 came the Norman Conquest. A century and a half The Norman })efore, Norse pirates had settled in a province of northern ^oj^^^^^t, France. In that district of Normandy (p. 2G7), they had 284 Till-: FETDAL A(iK (juicklv ix'ooino loaders in Frnnkisli " ('i\ ilization," and now tlicy trans|)lant(Ml it anioii^Mlic ruder Saxons of Kn^dand, alon^ with iniicli new hjood niid new (•Icmciits in l.i iiutiau'c' and iiii- j)ortant (•()iitril)Utions in <:;()\('rnnient. Sinee the time of Alfred, the eln'ef dan^M-rs to Kn, in a grassy nH'a(h)w of the Thames caUcd Ruhni/- imdr, tlic tyrant .John, hjicked only l)y a few nu'rcrnaries and confronted l)y a people in arms, found himself forced to sign the Great Charter, "the first great document in the Hihle of English Liberties." In the main, the cliarter merely restated ancient liberties ; I)ut the closing j)ro\ ision expressly sanctioned rebellion against jjllnl (ib Vmid ^A^jftW- w «"P nmcr ^hMrhlWomr^^ttr waA^ NuUus lilxM- liouio ciiijiatur, vol iuiprisonetur, aut diijsiii.siatur, aut utlaKetur, No free wan shall be taken, or imprisoned, or dispossessed, or outlawed, . gathering. Thus (i rcprcsnifdfirc rlcmmt was infrodund into the notional (i.sscnihly. Tliis was a natural step for llnfjlishnun. The prinrijdr of representative government was no way new to tliem. It had taken root long before in lorol institutions. The "four men" of each towFiship present in court of hundred or shire spoke for all their township. The sworn "jurors" of a sln'rc wlio ga\'e testimony in compiling Donu'sday Book under ^^illiam I or "presented" offenders for trial under Henry II or did the many otluT things the Norman kings called on tliem to do (p. 285), ENGLAND : RISE OF PARLIAMENT 289 spoke for the whole shire. England was familiar with the prac- tice of selecting certain men from a community to speak for the community as a whole. The same principle was now applied in a larger, central gathering, for all England. Then in 1265 the glorious, rebel, Simo7i of Montfort, gave The us a real " Parliament." He had been leading the people against Parliaments of 1265 the weak, ill-ruling Henry IH, and had made him prisoner, and and 1295 now he called a national assembly to settle the government. English Family Dinner. — From a fourteenth-century manuscript. Note the dogs, the musicians, and the barefooted monk, at whom the jester is directing some witticism. Observe, too, that the Norman round arch (p. 282, based upon the Roman) has been superseded by the ■pointed arch of the Gothic style (p. .304). This time not only was each shire invited to send two knights, but each borough (town) to send two burgesses, to sit with the usual lords. Simon wanted the moral support of the nation, and so he replaced the ''Great Council of royal vassals'' hy a " Parliament representing the whole people. In 1295 after some variations, Edward I adopted this model of Simon's; and for the first time in history representative government was firmly established for a nation. 2!K) Til 10 FKUOAL mm: The two " Houses Half a ('(Mitury latiT, Parliament divided into two Houses. At first all sat together. Had tliis continued, the townsmen would iieNcr liaxc secured mucli xoice : tliey would liaxc heen friiilitened and oxerawed by the n()l)les. The result would ha\e l)een ai)out as had if the three estates had come to sit separately, as tlu\\ did in France and Spain. With so many distinct orders, an ahle kin<,^ could easily have played off one ;if2:ainst the other. But En*,dand followed a different course : the i^reat peers, lay and spiritual, wlio were summoned hy indixidual letters, made a " House of Lords," while the representati\e elements — kni^dits of the shire and burgesses, who had been accustomed to act top'ther in shire courts — came together, in the national assembly, as the " House of Commons." For Fuhthek Rkauino. — Green's English Pronh is tlic best f)ne book on this period. France in the feudal age Growth of the king s territory VI. OTHER LANDS IN TIIK FEIDAL AGE In nS7 in France the dcjt^enerate Carolin^dan ' line ^ave way 1() Hu^di ("a])et, founder of tin* lon- only one twelfth of modern l*'rance — only one sixth as much of it as was then ruled by Henry II of England — and held not one seaport. \t the close of his reign Philip ruled directly two thirds of h'ranee. The eonsolidatio!i of the realm was maiidy com])leted by his grandson, l.onis I .\ (St. Louis), and by b)uis' grandson. Philip the Voir ( LJ8:)-I.S14V .\nd as the kings won the soil of h'rane*' i)ieee by j)iece, so too they added gradually to the royal ])ower. until this Philip 'Tin- n.inif r'MroIiimi.iii. fr..tii ('.irohi.t. the Latin form ap|ilir«l (-1 all (Ik- rulers of ( "liarleinagne's line. )f Charles, ig CASTILE '^^^''^^^Vfoo N ^ ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 1154-1453. Limit oftht French Kingdom Pottettion* of Plantag«n«t Kingt_ Land* oftht Frmeh Kings SCALE OF MILES 60 100 200 400 600 800 Indep»nd»nt Fuft in Frane* Terntory of CharUt ths BiM ^f Burgundy _ PRANCE : CONSOLIDATION AND DESPOTISM 291 the Fair and his successors were the most autocratic sovereigns in Growth of Europe in their day. France was divided into districts ruled ^°y^^ power by royal officers. Each such appointed officer, as representative of the king, held vast power, appointing all inferior officers in his district, collecting the royal revenues, and controlHng the administration in every detail. These royal officers were chosen from men of humble birth — that they might not aspire too much. The feudal lords had lost all authority except over their serfs and villeins : the small vassals and the townsmen were pro- tected now from their rapacity and capricious tyranny. In England this escape had come, a little earlier, through the courts, the itinerant justices, and the free principles of the common law ; and Englishmen grew to have an instinctive reverence for courts and law as the protectors of liberty. In France the like security came through the despotic power intrusted to their officers by the absolute French kings ; and for centuries French- men came to trust autocracy as Englishmen trusted law. This contrast is shown, in part, in the history of the French The institution which most resembled the English Parliament, ^s***®^ Philip the Fair completed his reforms by adding respresentatives of the towns to the nobles and clergy in the Great Council of France. This brought together all three "estates"; and the gathering was called the Estates General, to distinguish it from smaller gatherings in the separate provinces. The first meet- ing in this form was held in 1302, only a few years after the " Model Parliament " in England. But Philip and his successors used the Estates General only as a convenient taxing machine. It never became a governing body, as the English Parliament did. It lacked root in local custom ; nor did the French people know how to value it. The kings assembled the Estates General only when they chose, and easily controlled it. When they no longer needed it, the meetings grew rarer, and finally ceased, xoithout protest by the people. In Germany the Carolingian line died out even sooner than Germany in France, and then the princes chose a Saxon duke for King ^," ^^^, of the Germans. The second of these Saxon kings was Otto I 2\)2 Tin-: FEUDAL AdK Expansion to the east False ambi- tion of the German kings Otto and the Holy Roman Empire, 962 Popes and Emperors (9!i()-97i^). His first ^^rcal work was to cihI lorcvrr the harharian inroads. Tlic nomad Hun^'arians (p. 2()()) once more })rokc across tlic eastern hordei" in enoiMnons nunihers. Otto crushed tlieni with horril)h> slaughter at the battle of Ix'clifeld. Soon after, tlie Hnni^Mrians adoj)ted Christianity and settk'd down in ni()d«'rn IIiin»;ary. Otto followed up his success. Year bv year, he forced farther hack the Slavs from his eastern borders, and established " marks" (a name for a border state) alon^ that whole frontier. On the extreme southeast was the Eustmark (against the Hungarians), to grow into modern Austria, while the Mark of Brandenburg on the northeast (against the Slavs) was to grow into modern Prussia. Now, too, began a new colonizing movement which soon t'xtcndcd Gcrmaui/ from the Klbr to the Oder and carried swarms of German settlers among excn the savage Prussians and tlie Slavs of the heathen Baltic coast. It should have been the work of the German kings to foster this defensive colonization along their barbarous eastern })ar(lers, and to fuse the Gernuins themsehcs into a true nation. But Otto and his successors were drawn from this work, so well begun, by greedy dreams of wider em])in'. For half a century the Empire in the \Vest had lapsed. Otto was tempted to restore it — as a mask for seizing upon Italy. That unhappy land had no shadow of union. Saracens from Africa contested the south with the Greek Empire and the Lombards, and the north was dexastated l)y ferocious wars be- tween petty states. Otto in\ aded Ital\ , and in 962 had himself consecrated by the p«)pe at Ronu' as " Emperor of the Honums." The restored Empire did not include all "Western Euroj)e." as Charlemagne's Empire did in its day. l-'ranee was outside as were new Christian kingdoms in England, Scandina\ia. Poland, and Hungary. .\s a physical power it rested wholly on (IrniKin militarx' prowess. And it w;is "the //'>/// Roman Empire of the (ierman Peo|)le." It elaimeil to share the headshij) of Christendom with the i)apae\. But the relation between Euijx'rors and Pojx's was not defined ; tiirrc followed three centuries of fatal struggle. GERMANY : THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 293 During these three centuries the history of Germany was bound Ruin to both up with that of Italy. This connection brought to Germany ^nJ^ta^y somewhat of the culture and art of the ancient world ; but in government and industry it spelled ruin. Otto was merely the first of a long line of German kings who led splendid German armies across the Alps, to melt away in fever beneath the Italian sun. German strength was frittered away in foreign squabbles, and the chance to make a German nation was lost for nine hun- dred years. No better were the results to Italy. A German king, however much a "Roman" Emperor, could enter Italy only with a Ger- man army at his back. The southern land was a conquered province, ruled by uncouth northern barbarians. True, at last the Popes won, and expelled the Germans ; but only by calling in Frenchman and Spaniard, and making Italy for centuries more the battle ground and battle prize of Europe. In 1254 the last German ruler was driven from Italy. The The period Empire ceased to he either "Holy'' or "Roman." Thereafter it JLw"in' was wholly German. And even the German kingdom seemed Germany, extinct. For twenty years (1254-1273) there was no Emperor, '^54-i273 and no king, in Germany. This was the period of "Fist- law." Germany dissolved into more than 300 petty states — "free cities," duchies, marks, counties. (Cf. maps after pp. 296, 316.) CIIAITKK XXXI Moham- medan cul- ture during Europe s ' Dark Ages ' THE AGE OF THE CRUSADES, 1100 1300 I. THE CRUSADES K?(Hii 1 100 to li^OO A.I)., all Western Europe was deeply moved 1»\ one eoninion impulse. The Mohanunedans (pp. 253-255) still ruled from the Pyrenees to the Ganges. They had utilized the old eulture of Persia and of Greeee. Their go\ernments were as ijood as the Oriental world had ex'er known. Their roads and canals encouraged commerce and hound together distant regions. Their magnificent cities were built with a jx'culiar and beautiful architecture, characterized l)y the horse- shoe arch, the dome, the turret, the graceful minaret, and a rich ornament of " arahesfjue." Their manufactures were the finest in the world, both for beautiful design and for delicate work- manshij). We still speak of "Toledo" blades, and "Morocco" leather, while "muslins" and "damasks" recall their superior processes at Mosul and Damascus. iMn-ope was soon to owe to them these products, with many other things long-forgotten or new, — spices, oranges, lemons, rice, sugar cane, dates, asparagus, sesame, buckwheat, apricots, waternu'lons. oils, perfuiui's, calicoes, satins, the crossbow, the windmill. Ill intellectual linrs .\rab suj)eriorit\- was no less marked. \\ liilc Eiirojx' had only a few monastic schools to light its "I)ark Ages." the .\rabs had great uni\"ersitie^, where philos- ophy, tlu'ology. law. rhetoric, were subjects of special study. The old (haldean astrology was becoming true astronomy in the hands of the .\ral)ians of Spain, and the lieaxcns still keej) a thick sprinkling of .\rabic names, like .Ihlrhdidn, \\W\\v common terms in our t<'\ts on astronomy {(iziinuth, zrnlth, ti(i(/ir) bear like t«'stiinony. I'rom India the .\rabs brought the "Arabic" notation, while Euroj)e was still struggling with 2'J4 PLATE XLV The Court of Lions in the Palace of Alhambra at Granada, Spain Typical Moorish architecture. See also after page 254. CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES 295 A Byzant (Bezant). — A gold coin issued by the emperors at Constantinople in the Middle Ages. This coin had a wide circulation, especially from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries, in the coun- tries of Western Europe, where, with the exception of Spain, these lands had no gold currency of their own. clumsy Roman numerals. Algebra and alchemy (chemistry) are Arabic in origin ; and while Europe still treated disease from the viewpoint of an Indian "medicine man," the Sara- cens had established, on Greek foundations, a real science of medicine. But in the eleventh century, polit- ical supremacy in the Mo- hammedan world fell to the Turks, a barbarous Tartar people from beyond the Jaxartes. The Arab cul- ture survived long enough to be transplanted into Europe, but in its own home it was doomed to swift decay. The Turks were mighty soldiers, and they began a new era of Mohammedan conquest. Almost at once the greater part of the Greek Empire fell into their hands. They overran Asia Minor, almost to the gates of Constanti- nople. In terror, the Greek Em- peror turned to Western Christen- dom for aid ; and this appeal was the signal for two centuries of war, "Cross" against "Crescent." This call for aid against the in- fidel would have produced little effect, however, if Western Europe had not had deep grievances of its own against the Turk. Pilgrim- ages to holy shrines were a leading feature of medieval life. Good men made them to satisfy religious Crusader taking the vow. enthusiasm; evil men, 'to secure forgiveness for crime ; sick men, to heal bodily ills. A pilgrimage was an act of worship. Chief of all pilgrimages, of course, was The Turkish peril in the East The Greek Empire calls on the West to save it from the Turk The Turks abuse Christian pilgrims 2iH) THK CRUSADKS, 1 100- llioo The Crusades Importance of the Crusades Intellectual results Growth of Commerce that to t\\v land wIutc Christ had Hvcd and to the tomi) where Ilis body had l)een hiid. Tlie Saraeens had permitted these pil- tirinia^^es ; l)ut the Turks, when they eai)tiircd Jcrusah'ni from tlie Arabs, he^^an at onee to perseeute all Christians tliere. Thus began those movements of armed pilgrims wliieh we eall the Crusades. Kaeli erusa(h'r marelied in })art to sa\'e Eastern CIn-istians, partly to axcnge pilgrims from the West; and l)artly to make his own pilgrinuige to the holiest of shrines. Mingled with these moti\'es, too, was the spirit of ad\t'ntui"e and the greed for gain in land or gold. From }()!)() to ahmhst l.]00 ihrrr was co)istanf fixjht'inq in thr East hdirrcn Christian and Mohammedan. Kuroj)e, which in the ninth century had been helj)less against plundering heathen bands, had now grown strong enough to pour into Asia for two hundred years a ceaseless stream of mailed knights, with count- less followers. For almost the first half of that j)eriod the Chris- tians did hold all or most of tlu> Holy Land, broken into various "Latin" j)rineii)alities, and defended against the re\i\ing Mo- hanunedan power by "Orders" of hgliting monks — the Templars, the Knights of St. Jolui, and the Teutonic Order. But at the end, the Mohannnedans had expelled Em-ope wholly from Asia. This was mainly because iMU'ope had outgrown the crusading movement. The Crusades themselves had created a new Euro})e. Trade had grown, and society was no longer s(> e\-clusi\'ely made up of fighters. The indirect rtsuJt.s of tlu Crusades were \astl\ moi-e imj)ortant tlian the reco\-ery of I'ah'stine would liaxc lucii. New energies were awakened; new woilds of tiiougiit opened. The intellectual horizon widened. Thi erusa.d< r.s hrouijht haeh neir tjains m .seie}iee, art, architect lire, m((h'c(d shill : and I'nrope had learned that there was nnire to learn. Manx Oriental i)ro(hicts (]). 294) became almost uecessarii's of life. Some of them were soon grown or uianu- faelured in l-'uroix-. OtluM's, like sj)ices, could not be produced there; and, in (•(.nse(iuenee. commerce with distant ])arts of .\sia grew enormousl\ . In the absence of fresh meat in winter and of our modern root-foods (p. 270), spices became of immense 1 AND THEIR RESULTS 297 importance for the table. For a time, Venice and Genoa, assisted by their favorable positions, monopoHzed much of the new carrying trade ; but all the ports of Western Europe were more or less affected. This commercial activity called for quicker methods of reckoning, and so Europe adopted the Arabic numerals. Money replaced bartrr. Bankers appeared, alongside the old Jew money-lenders; and coinage increased. All this undermined both the economic and the military Feudalism basis of feudalism. Money made it unnecessary for the tenant ^"dermined to pay rent in service, and enabled the kings to collect " taxes," so as to maintain standing armies. Moreover, the Crusades swept away the old feudal nobility directly. Hundreds of thousands of barons and knights, squandered their possessions in preparing for the expedition, and then left their bones in Palestine. The ground was cleared for the rising city democ- racies and the new monarchies. And these two new forces at first were allies. The "third estate" wanted order, and the kings could help secure it. The kings wanted money, and the third estate could supply it. Kings and towns joined hands to reduce feudalism to a form. True, a new nobility grew up — but it had only the honors of the old, without its power. II. RISE OF THE TOWNS, 1100-1300 From 500 to 1100 a.d. the three figures in European life had The towns been the tonsured priest, the mailed horseman, and the field ^^^ *^® , , , , , eudal lord? laborer, stunted and bent. In the twelfth century, alongside priest, noble, and peasant there stood out a fourth figure — the sturdy, resolute, self-confident burr/her. The age of the Crusades was also the age of the rise of towns. In Italy and southern France, some old Roman towns had Origin of lived along, with shrunken population, subject to neighboring ^^^ *°^"^ lords. Under the new commercial conditions after 1200, these districts became dotted once more with self-governing cities, with municipal institutions molded, in part at least, upon those brought down from Roman times. Elsewhere the towns were mainly new growths — from peasant villages. Most were 298 TlIK RISE OF TOWNS Town charters won in two centuries of revolt Town life in the feudal age Siege of a Medieval Town : the summons to surrender. — From a sixtcentli-contury copper engraviiif;. small. W'l-y few had moic than four or five thousand people. At first cdc/i luhdhiliuif of a (jroir'nuj town remained directly dependent upon the town' :i feudal lord. The first ad\ance toward frccdoni was to change this indixidual depend- ence into eolleetive de- pendence. The town demanded the rijijht to " har^^ain collectively " (thr()uniitli at Paris in the sixteenth century. Drawn and engraved by himself. Medieval science time they spent in |)laying with such (picstions as. How many spirits can dance at one time ui)on the jioint of a needle? The last of the famous Schoolmen was Duns the Scot, who died in 130S. In that da\ there was jio highiT praise for a young scholar than to call him "a Duns." Before many years, when a new scientific method had come in i])p. '.V2A \\.\ tlie term came to he our "dunce." A very little "science" crept into Em'opc !>> 1-(H) from the Arahs, mainlv in astronomv and chemistry. But the astronomy DOMIMONB OF THE HANSA AND OF THK TEITOMC OKDER AT THKIU (.KKATEST KITENT. (About 1400.) Banaa toxms are thoven thua:- Qronlngen Forrlgn FaotorUa of the LtagxU fhua> Bruje. CitU* in vEhlch the League, or aome of it* membera, poaaeaaed trading prlvOegea thua.- Yarmonth TERRrrrmr or the tkitoxic obdek. LEARNING AND ART 303 was mostly astrology (p. 38). And chemistry (alchemy) was little more than a search for the "philosopher's stone," which should change common metals into gold, or for the "ehxir of life," a drink to make man immortal. Both astrologers and alchemists mingled their studies with magic incantations and were generally belie\'ed to ha\'e sold their souls to the Devil in return for forbidden knowledge. No doubt there were many men, whose names we have never A fore- heard, who were trying through those weary centuries really ^f^J^^g to study into the secrets of nature in a scientific way, by experi- science ment. The greatest man of this kind before 1300 was Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan. While Duns Scotus was admired and courted by all the world, Roger Bacon was living in lone- liness and po\ erty, noticed only to be persecuted or reviled. He spent his life in trying to point out the lacks of the School- men's method and to teach true scientific principles. Fourteen years he lay in dungeons, for his opinions. When at liberty, he worked devotedly, but under heavy handicaps. More than once he sought all over Europe for a copy of some book he needed — when a modern scholar in like case would need only to send a note to the nearest bookseller. He wrote upon the possibility of reaching Asia by sailing west into the Atlantic. He learned much about explosives, and is said to have invented gunpowder. It is believed, too, that he used lenses as a tele- scope. Apparently he foresaw the possibility of using steam as a motive' power. Certainly he prophesied that in time wagons and ships would move "with incredible speed" without horses or sails, and also that man would learn to sail the air. His "Great Work" was a cyclopedia of the knowledge of his time in geography, mathematics, music, and physics. But Roger Bacon lived a century too soon for his own good, and found no successful disciples. Latin, a mongrel Latin, too, was the sole language of the Literature university and of learning ; and until 1200, except for the songs ^" *^^, of wandering minstrels, it was practically the only language of the people any kind of literature. About that time, however, in various *^*®^ ^^°° 304 TlIK FKIIDAL AiWl, ll(K)-i;;(K) Art in the Middle Ages lands popular poctri/ uf a h'nih order began to api)ear in the lan- guage of ereri/dai/ speech: the Song of tlu' ('id in Spanish; the lox'c s()n<;s of tlic Troubadours in French and of tlic Minnesingers in German; tlie l)i\ine Comedy of Dante in ItaHan ; and, toward 1400, the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer in New English, with Wyclif's translation of the Bible into the same tongue. ( 'lassical art was lost, through the Dark Ages, as comi)letely as classical learning. Medieval painting existed only in rude altar i)ieces, representing stifl' saints and Madonnas, where even the flowing draperies could not hide the artist's ignorance of how to draw the human body. On a minute scale, to be sure, there was some better work. Monks "illuminated" missals with tiny brushes in brilliant colors, and sometimes with beauty and delicacy. Architecture, too, was rude until after 1100. But in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- turies, the heavy Roman- esque style gave way to the Gothic, and the world gained one of its wonders in tlie Gothic cathedral — "a religious aspiration in stone." (See especially the following Plates XLVIII, XLIX, and explanations, and also Plate XLIV and page 1()2.) Tlii-s cU'vico meets the "sido-thnist" (.f the roof, iiiul so porniitt<^d the nrrhitoct to cut out most of the upper wall into tlu- tall windows horo rtliown. Those flyiria buttresses earry that "thrust" to the top of the linvrr wall (see any of the Cathedral outs), w!i(>re in turn it is mot. in part, hy fiuHd buttresses reaching from the urovuid wall to the top. Those lower buttre.s.ses are not in themst«lves beautiful, though they make possi- ble other beautiful arranjrements (.see Plates following) ; but the flying buttresses themselves are a strikingly U'autiful feature. ^^^1 Flying BrTTRF.ssKS from tlu^ upper wall of Xorwich Cathedral. PT.ATE XLVlll Rhkims Cathedhal. — This supivnu'ly Doautiful example ot Gothic archi- tortviro (p. ;i()4). dating back almost to the year 1200, was wantonly injured by O.'rnian shells in the World War. I'ntil 1100. the rather rude architecture of Western Europe was the liinnniusqin , based upon Roman remains and marked by the round arch and massive walls. The early architects knew no better way to carry the weight of inmiensc stone roofs; nor did they dare weaken their gloomy walls even by cutting out large win- dows. In the 13th century, that Homanes(|ue style was replaced by a new French style called Gothic. The architect, a better engineer now, had learned two new devices to carry his roofs. (See opi)osite.) PLATE XLIX ^Z^mZ^Z^^U-^^ Met,.__a beautiful example of Gothic arclnt.,ture, sho^^" th. ^^^^*^^^^^h «^"tury. (The piles of chairs are interesting as showing the method of seating, even to-day, in European cathedrals butTheT-'" ""'^'f^ ^2^^^^-^- T^^ cr^hedrararropen "; but the chairs are used only during special services.) usinf Zn^n-""^ ^'''.'"^^ is carried by gathering it at certain points, by «^^Tf;. runrth' '% ^^^'^ '^'"'^ °" ^^""^^ ^' ^i^hty pillars. The pomts. Thus the Gothic architect could use a lighter, more varied more foTeii^^lrin l'"^ "^'^ ',^!' "^'^^""^ ornamented curiously with Cce." (openings in the stonework) and with moldings. He could also use gave'waft"' ^^^T;°^^^ ^^^ "^^^ enough; and the old round ceiling ^ZdZe \Zfl:r '"''r^r''''' *^' "^^ "' converging arches inter- S cedTheT^Indome' ''""' *^" ^^^^ ^^^ heaven-pointing spire, PAET VII -AGE OF THE KENAISSANOE, 1300-1500 CHAPTER XXXn ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 1300-1500 We left the story of England with the great Edward, who had The the wisdom to adopt and perfect the Parliament of the rebel Simon. In 1327 Parliament deposed the weak second Ed- ward, Then the third Edward began the Hundred Years' War with France (1338-1453). On the surface, this war was a struggle between kings for prestige and territory : but at bottom it ivas a commercial struggle. Every country, in that day, shackled foreign mer- chants with absurd restrictions and ruinous tolls. England wanted to sell her wool freely in Flemish towns and to buy Bordeaux wines freely in the south of France ; and the easiest way to get access to these markets seemed to be to conquer France. The war was waged on Hundred Years' War (1338-1453) A Bombard. — From a sixteenth- century German woodcut. An old chronicler tells us that at Crecy the English had some small " bom- bards, " which, with fire and noise like God's thunder, threw little iron balls to frighten the horses. These first cannons were made by fastening bars of iron together with hoops ; and the powder was very weak, A century later they began to be used to batter down castles and city walls It was longer still before firearms replaced the bow for infantry. French soil. The English won brilliant victories, overran France repeatedly, ravaging crops, burning peasant villages, tui'ning the country into a black- 305 France ravaged :]()(> TIII<: RKXAISSANCFO ACM^ 1300-ir,()f) Battle of Crecy, 1346 The Black Death And the decay of serfdom in England ciu'd desert in the usual fasliion of warfare in those ehivalrous (hiys, and hrin^'ing horui* much plunder — rf)l)es, furs, feather Ix'ds, kitclien utensils, sonic rich j)late, and some coin from the ransom of "nohle" i)ris()ners. Tlie wliole century of horrible and meaningless slaughter had just one gleam of promise for the future world. This was given l)y the hattle of Oeey. An F^ng- glish army was trapped apparently by five times their num- ber. Hut the English yeomen — men of the six-foot bow and yard-long shafts feathered fiom gray-goose wings — coolly fac<(l the ponderous mass of French knights, repulsed charge aft CI- charge of that gallantest chivalry of Europe, and won back for the world ihc long-lost e(|uality of tlie footman with the feudal horseman in war (134()), Vov a time, toward 1400, the war languished l)ecause pesti- lence was slaying men faster than steel could. The Black Dcatli, most famous of famous plagues, had })een devastating the continent for years, moving west from Asia. At least a third of the population of Europe was carried oif by it. Then, in the year after Crecy, the returned victors brought it to Eng- land, where, almost at a blow, it swept away half the nation. This loss fell most heavily of course upon the working classes, l)Ut it hcljx'd those left ali\-e to rise out of serfdom, — a move- ment already well under way there. The lack of labor doul)led wages, too, and so brought in a higher standard of living. True, PiiiTiaiiicnl tried, in the interest of the landlords, to keep down the labors by foohsh and tyraimical laws, — for- bidding them to lea\(' the ])arish \\h< re they lived or to take more wages than h;id Ix'cn customai-y in tlie i)ast, and ordering them under cruel jXMialties to s<*rve any one who oil'ered them such wages. There were many indi\ idual cases, too, of bitter tyranny, where some lord, by legal trickci-y or by outright violence, fiU'ced half-freed \illcins back into serfdom. Thus among the jx-asants there was long smoldering a fierce and just discontent . .\n(>ther set of causes fanned tliis discontent into flame. The huge wealth of the church and the worldliness of the greater clergy were becoming a conunon scandal. Excn the gentle ENGLAND AND FRANCE 307 Chaucer (p. 304), court poet though he was, wrote in keen raillery of these faults. More serious and less happy men could not dismiss them with a jest. The priest, John Wyclif, a famous WycUf and lecturer at the University of Oxford, preached vigorously against such abuses, and finally attacked even some central teachings of the church. He denied the doctrine of transubstantiation,^ and insisted that even ignorant men might know the will of God, through the Bible, without priestly intervention. Accord- ingly, with his companions, he made the first complete transla- tion of the Bible into English ; and his disciples wrote out many copies (printing was still a century in the future) and distrib- uted them throughout the land. These disciples called themselves "poor preachers." Their John enemies called them "Lollards" (babblers). Some of them exaggerated their master's teachings against wealth, and called for the abolition of all rank and property. John Ball, one of these "mad preachers," attacked the privileges of the gentry in rude rhymes that rang through England from shore to shore, — "When Adam delved and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman?" ''This priest," says Froissart, a contemporary chronicler, "used often- times to go and preach when the people in the villages were coming out from mass ; and he would make them gather about him, and would say thus : 'Good people, things go not well in England, nor will, till every- thing be in common and there no more be villeins and gentlemen. By what right are they whom we call lords greater folk than we? We be all come from one father and one mother, Adam and Eve, . . . but they are clothed in velvet and are warm in their furs, while we shiver in rags ; they have wine, and spices, and fair bread ; and we, oat cake and straw, and water to drink ; they dwell in fine houses, and we have the pain and travail, the rain and the wind in the fields. From our labor they keep their state. Yet we are their bondmen; and unless we serve them readily, we are beaten.' And so the people would murmur one with the other in the fields, and in the ways as they met together, affirming that John Ball spoke truth." In 1377 Edward's grandson, Richard II, came to the throne as a mere boy; and, while the government was in confusion, 1 That at the Mass the bread and wine were changed miraculously into the very flesh and blood of Christ. 308 THE RENAISSANCE A(IE, i:i()0-1500 The Peasant Rising of 1381 1111(1 England in this soothing discontont, Parlianiont passod a hoavy poll tax, l)oaring unfairly upon tho poor. This match sot the realm ablaze — in the " Peasant Rising of 1381." With amazing suddenness, from all sides, the peasants, rudely armed, marched upon London ; and in a few days the king and kingdom were in their hands. The special demand of the peasantry was that all labor-rents should be changed into fixed money rents. They sacked some castles and manor houses, destroying the "manor rolls" (the written evidence of services due on the estate) ; and they put to death a few nobles and their lawyer tools. Women and children Wat the Tyler An English Carriage of the Fourteenth C'entiry. — After Jussorand's English Wayfaring Life; from a fourteenth-rentury psalter. This rarriane is represented as drawn by five horses tandem, driven l»y two postilions. Such a carriage was a princely luxury, equaling in value a herd of from four hundred to sixteen hundred oxen. were nowhere injured, and there was no attempt at general pillage and massacre, such as usually go with servile insurrec- tions in other lands. The revoli inis marked hi/ the moderation of mm irho had a. reasonable program of reform. VuhiippWy the peasants lacked organization. Their cliief le;i(l:^uiin;»i m .nnm oi Arc, tlic peasant uirl hhcrator of her country), and with her kinnt stancHng army, witli a train of artillery that Her industrious jx-asantry, not for restoration of small hut cmeuwit standmg army, with a tram ot artillery that could easily hatter the castle of any feudal rehel ahout his ears. His reign left France the most powerful single state in Europe. FoK FruTHKU Rkadin(;. — Green's Etiyiish People contiimes to be th(^ most desirable general narrative. Lanier's The Boy' a Froissart gives an entertaining contemporary story of the period. Jessopp's Coming of (he Friars pictures the desolation of the Black Death. Clemens' ("Mark Twain's") Joan uj Arc is history in a novel's form. PLATE L ■^ ^« ^HHm ^^^ {^^^■*w*:^yiH *'■&.._ ,:/r1fw^' Joan of Arc relieving Orleans from the besieging English. This unschooled French peasant girl heard divine "voices," she was persuaded, calling her to free her country from the English invader. How she did this may best be read in Mark Twain's Joan of Arc. This painting portrays an early victory which roused the French people from their despair to follow the "Holy Maid of Orleans." Finally, when her work was really done, Joan fell into English hands and was burned as a witch, after a trial marked by her gentle firmness and purity and heroic endurance. History places her foremost among French heroes; and recently (May, 1920) she was canonized by Pope Benedict XV. CHAPTER XXXIII OTHER STATES FROM 1300 TO 1500 Meantime the papacy was losing power. AV)oiit 1300, both England and France challenged the papal overlordship in mat- ters of government. (Neither questioned the pope's authority in religious matters.) The kings needed more revenue, and were try- ing to introduce systems of national taxation — in place of the outgrow^n feudal revenues. The clergy had been exempt from feudal services ; but they owned so much of the wealth of the two countries that the kings insisted upon their paying their share of the new taxes. Pope Boniface VIII (1296) issued a bull forbidding any prince to impose taxes on the clergy without papal consent, and threatening excommunication against all clergy who paid. But when the English clergy, trusting in this decree, refused The conflict to pay taxes, Edward I outlawed them until they submitted. ^^ ^^^^^ In France Philip the Fair (p. 290) forbade any payment to the pope, and arrested the papal legate. Boniface threatened to depose the king. A few days later, a company of French soldiers made Boniface prisoner ; and the chagrin of the old man at the insult probably hastened his death (1303). Philip then secured the election of a French pope, who removed •• The the papal capital from Rome to A^^gnon, in southern France. Babylonian TT 1 -IP / X Captivity Here the popes remamed for seventy years (1309-1377), in "the Babylonian Captivity of the church." Of course the papacy lost public respect. It was no longer an impartial umpire. PoHtically it had sunk into a mere tool of the French kings, and the enemies of France could not be expected to show it rever- ence. In Italy, too, the Papal States themselves fell into anarchy, and there was danger that the popes might lose that principality. 313 314 'nil-: KKXAISSAXCK A(i i;>i).) i.'/M) Rival " popes The Lollard heresy The Hussite heresy The Council of Con- stance, 1414 III lo77, to sjiAi' tin' papal tiMiitory, (iic^ory XI visited Koine. This jict ln-oii^ht on a ^n'cater disaster even than the exile itself, (ire^ory died while at Rome. The cardinals were ()l)Ii^('(l at onee to choose a successor. They were Frenchmen (as all hi^h chnrch offices had been ^iNen to Frenchmen during the scandal of the Captivity); hut e\en French cardinals did not dare (lisrei:;ar(l the savajjje demands of the people of Rome for an Italian {)o])e, and so they chose I rhan VI. Urban estab- lished himself in tlu> old ])ai)al seat at Rome ; but, a few months later, the cardinals assend)led again, declared that the choice of Urban was void because made under compulsion, and elected a French pope, Clement VII, who promptly returned to Avignon. Urban and Clement excommimicated each other, each de\'ot- ing to the (l(>\il all the supporters of the other. Which pope should good Christians obey? The answ(>r was determined mainly by political considerations. France ob(>ved Clement; England and (Jeiinany obeyed Urban. This condition encouraged other disunion mo\(>ments. The ]\\i/rllf movnnrni in England (p. 307) took place toward the close of th(^ (^xile at A\ ignon. Th(^ clun'ch dcelan^d \Vyclif a heretic; i)Ut he was protected during liis life l>y one of King Edward's sons. Soon after Wyclif's death, liowexcr, the Lan- castrian monarchs began to i)ersecute his followers. In MOl. for th( first time, an Englishman was burned for luM'esy, and the Lollards finally disappeared. But meantime, the seeds of the heresy had bciMi scattered in a distant part of Euroj)e. Richard II of Fngland married a ))rincess of BoluMuia, ans called the Council of Constance (1414). Fi\e thousand delegates were ])resent. repn^senting all Chris- tendom. With recesses, the Council sat for four years. It THE CHURCH AND THE PAPACY 315 induced one pope to resign his office, and it deposed the other claimants. Then it restored unity by electing a new pope, Martin V, to rule from Rome. Next the Council turned its attention to restoring church doctrine. John Hus was present, under a "safe conduct" from the Emperor. His teachings were declared heresy ; but neither persuasion nor threats could move him to recant. " It is better for me to die," he said, "than to fall into the hands of the Lord by deserting the truth." Despite the Emperor's solemn pledge for his safety, Hus was burned at the stake, and his ashes were scattered in the Rhine (1415). Then Wyclif's doctrines, too, were condemned ; and, to make thorough work, his ashes w^ere disinterred from their resting place and scattered on the river Swift. These vigorous measures did not wholly succeed. Hus The last became a national hero to Bohemia. That country rose in the Middle arms against the church. A crusade was preached against Ages the heretics, and years of cruel war followed ; but some survivals of Hussite teachings lasted on into the period of the Protestant Revolt a century later. The papacy never regained its earlier authority over kings. Nicholas V (1447) showed himself a learned scholar, eager to advance learning, as well as a pure and gentle man. Pius H (1455) strove to arouse a new crusade against the Turks, who had at last captured Constantinople ; but his complete failure proved (in his own words) that Europe " looked on pope and emperor alike as names in a story." Some of the succeeding popes, like the notorious Borgia (Alexander VI, 1492-1503), were busied mainly as Italian princes, building up their temporal principality by intrigue and craft such as was common at that day in Italian politics. The " Holy Roman Empire," it has been explained, had come Germany to mean merely Germany. The anarchy of the "Fist-law" Hapsburgs period was checked in 1273 by the election of Rudolph of Haps- burg as Emperor. Rudolph was a petty count of a rude district in the Alps ("Hawks' nest"), and the princes had chosen him 316 TUK KEXAISSAN'CE ACIK. 13()n-i:)()() Holicinia, indeed, refused to reeo^niize liiiii as Kiiiperor. Ru- d<)l{)h attacked Bohemia, and seized from it the dueliy of Aus- tria, whicli until recently has remained the chief seat of the Hapshurgs. In other ways he showed the now-familiar Haps- burg zeal to widen his personal domain. "Sit firm on Thy throne, O Lord," prayed one bishop, "or the Count of Hapsburg will shove Thee ofl'." After Rudolph's death, tlie ])rinces of the Empire (the Elec- toral College) passed the throne from family to family — until, in 1438, after a long line of Bohemian rulers, the imperial dig- nity came back to thc^ Hapsburgs by the election of Albert, Duke of Austria. Erom this time, so long as the title endured, fh< ''Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" 2ras of ihc llousr of Aiustria, and election became a form only. Maximilian I (1493-1519), the one romantic hero of the Hapsbiu'g race, made a noble effort to bring Germany abreast of England and France. In the end he failed utterly, and Germany entered the Modern Af/e a loose eonfederacy of majiy ])(fty sovereifin statrs (jronped (d)(>nf AuMria. Tlie Mohammedan iinasion of 711 (]). l2r)4\ separated the development of S/xiin from that of tlie rest of Europe. Eor centuries, "Africa began at tlie Pyrenees." The wa\-e of Moorish invasion, howexcr, left uneontiuered a few resolute Christian chiefs in the remote fastnesses of the northwestern mountains, and in these districts several little Christian j)rincipalities began the long task of winning back their land, crag by crag and stream by stream. This they accom- plished in eight hundred years of war, — a war at once j)atriotic and religious, Sj)aniard against .\frican, and (liristian against Infidel. The long struggle left tlie Si)anish race i)roud, brave, warlike, unfitted for industrial ei\ ilizatioii, intensely j^atriotic, and blindly devoted to the eiiurch. During the eight centuries of conflict, the Christian states spread gradually to the south and east, — waxing, fusing, splitting up into new states, unitinir in kaleidoscopic combina- PLA'l E LI ""huhch of St. Soi'HIa, Coxstaxtinoi'lk, luiilt l)y .lustiiiian upon tlie site of an earlier church of the same name by Constantine. The whole interior is lined with costly, many-colored marbles. The interior view shows only a part of the vast dome, with einhteen of the forty windows which run about its circumference of some :i4() feet. In IJ.j.i the building became a Mohammedan mos(pie (p. :i\7). In lOlU it became again a Christian temple. (The pointed minarets adjoining are SaraciMiic.) • SPAIN — THE TURKS 317 formed the three countries, Portugal, Aragon, and Castile. Nearly a century later, the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon united the two larger states, and in 1492 their combined power captured Granada, the last Moorish stronghold. In the year that Columbus discovered America under Spanish auspices, Spain at home achieved national union and national independence. During the next two reigns, the Spanish monarch}/, financed by the treasures of Mexico and Peru, became the most absolute in Europe. While the civilized Mohammedan Moors w^ere losing Spain, The Turks barbarous Mohammedan Turks were (laining southeaster?!, Europe. ^^^ s^^ They established themselves on the European side of the Helles- Europe pont first in 1346. Constantinople held out for a century more, a Christian island encompassed by seas of Mohammedanism. But at Kossom (1389), the Turks completed the overthrow of the Serbs, and a few years later a crushing defeat was inflicted upon the Hungarians and Poles. Then, in 1453, Mahomet the Conqueror entered Constantinople through the breach where the heroic Constantine Palaeologus, last of the Greek emperors, died sword in hand. The Turks, incapable of civilization, always remained a hostile army encamped among subject Christian populations, whom their rule blighted. After 1453, Constantinople was the capital of their empire. That empire continued to expand for a century more (until about 1550), and for a time it seemed as though nothing could save Western Europe. Venice on sea, and Hun- gary by land, were long the two chief outposts of Christendom., and, almost unaided, they kept up ceaseless warfare to check the Mohammedan invaders. For a time, Hungary was conquered, and then Austria became the bulwark for Western Europe. The Netherlands (Low Countries) did not form an independent state in the Middle Ages. They were made up of a group of provinces, part of them fiefs of the Empire, part of them French fiefs. The southern portion has become modern Belgium ; the northern part, modern Holland. The land is a low, level tract, and in the Middle Ages it was more densely packed with teeming 318 TIIK liKXAISSAXCM M\K, i:i();)-l .">()() citii's tluin ;iny other part of iMiropc 'I'lu' inliahitants were a sturdy, iiulcixiidctit, slow, industrious, persistent people. Ghent claimed ei*,dity thousand citizens ahle to hear arms, while ^'J)^es is said to haxc emj)lo\('d two hundred thousand people in tlie weaxin^^ of cloth. Wealth so abounded that the "eounts" of this little district excelled most of the kind's of Europe in magnifieence. Trade and Many of the eities, like Rotterc/a///. and Amster^/rn//, were manufac- |j,jjj^ ^j,^ |.,,,,j ^yrested from the sea hv dikes, and thev took tures mMiiHiHiii^^lilt ^^ Hall of thk Ci-otiimak. i ^ tiiiishod, VMA; di'sfroycd 1)\ tlit' tiiTinaii.- in tin- W.-ild War. naturally to eonnnerce. In their markets, the nn^rchants from Italy and the south of Kuro])e exchanged wares with the Hansa merchants of the Baltic. .Vnd the Netherland towns were worksliops even more than they W(Te trading rav.v enabled Cohnnbus to discover a New World on the old earth, (iiui- poieder (p. 305), which found its first serious use in the wars between Charles V and Erancis I, gave the final blow to dying feudalism. And print 'nuj did more to create a new society PRINTING, AND DISCOVERY 325 than gunpowder could to destroy the old. Two of these new movements call for special notice. 1. Early medieval manuscripts were all written on parch- ments. These were costly and hard to obtain in any desirable quantity. About 1300, to be sure, a cheaper paper was intro- duced by the Saracens ; but all books had still to be written by the pen. Soon after 1400, engravers began to make the re- production of books cheaper by engraving each page on a block of wood (as the Chinese seem to have done centuries earlier). This was still costly. But now, about 1450, John Gutenberg, at Mainz, found out how to " cast " separate metal type in molds. This invention of movable type reduced the price of books at once to a twentieth their old cost. It came, too, at a happy moment. It preserved the precious works recovered by the Humanists ; and soon it was to spread broadcast the new thought of the Reformation. 2. The ancients had played with the notion of saiHng around New the earth. Aristotle speaks of "persons" who held that it geograpl"- cal discover- might be possible ; and Strabo, a Roman geographer, suggested ies that one or more continents might lie in the Atlantic between Europe and Asia. But during the Middle Ages men had come to believe that the known habitable earth was bounded on all sides by an uninhabitable and untraversable world, — on the north by snow and ice, on the south by a fiery zone, on the west by watery wastes stretching down an inclined plane, up which men might not return, and on the east b}^ a dim land of fog and fen, the abode of strange and terrible monsters. The Indian Ocean, too, was thought to be a lake, encompassed by the shores of Asia and Africa. These false views had been partly corrected by a better geographical knowledge of Asia, gained in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Louis IX of France sent Friar Rubruk as ambassador to the court of the Tartar Khan in central Asia^(1264 a.d.) ; and the friar on his return reported that he had heard of a navigable ocean east of Cathay (China), with a marvelously wealthy island, Zipango (Japan). This rumor made a leap in men's thought. Friar Bacon in 32(5 'rilK KKXAISSAXCE Discoveries of Henry the Navigator Eiifjhind (p. 30.S) at once raised the (|U('stion whether this east- ei'M ocean iniudit not l)e tlie same as tlie one that washed Europe on tlie west and whetlier men might not reaeli Asia hy saihng west into the Athintic. Indeed, Baeon wrote a hook to support these conjeetures, adding many opinions of the Ancients; and extensive extracts from this vohime were eoj)ied into a later hook, whicli was to l)ecome a faxorite of ('oluml)us. Sucli specuhition imphes that .schohirs unck'rstood the spliericity of tlie earth. Sar;jcenic sciiools had preserved the old Greek knowledge in this matter, and some European thinkers had \)vvn familiar with it, even in tlie "Dark Ages." Now this became more than a curious question. The Cru- sades, we have seen, had gi\-en a new imi)ulse to trade with the Orient, hut in the fifteenth century, the progress of the /- 'mw'f'jrji^ '^V^NaM route l.y the illustration in a thirteenth-century Black Sea, fell into their hands, "^^""■^""P^- and each y(>ar their power crept farther south in Asia, endangering the remaining routt' hy the Red Sea. Under these circumstances the question was forced home to Europe whether or )iof a neir route could !)<■ found. The Portuguese, under Prince Henry the Na\igator. liad already been engaged in i)uil(ling uj) a Portuguese empire in .\frica and in the islands of the .\tlantic (.\zores. Canary, and \'enle'); (Uid (dxH/t I '/^D thej/ hefimi to (iffeinpf to rxwh liidni 1)1/ sailinfi uround Africa, In 14S() a Portuguese captain, li'ir- tholonnic Diaz, while engaged in tliis attempt, was carried fai- to the south in a storm, and on his r(>turn to tlie coast he found it on his lift hand as h(> mo\-ed toward th«' north. We followed ' The name ' ( 'a|>e VercK at verdure .so far south. indicates tlie suri)rise of the di.scoverer.s ( 1150) A NEW WORLD 327 it several hundred miles, well into the Indian Ocean. Then his sailors compelled him to turn back to Portugal. India was not actually reached until the expedition of Vasco da Gama in 1498, after more memorable voyages in another direction. One of the sailors with Diaz in 1486, when in this way he Columbus rounded the Cape of " Good Hope," was a Bartholomew Colum- ^^*^ bus, whose brother Christopher also had sailed on several Portu- guese voyages. Now, however, for some years, Christopher Columbus had devoted himself to the more daring theory that India could be reached by sailing west into the open At- lantic. Portugal, well content with her monopoly of African exploration, refused to assist him to try his plan. Henry VII of England also declined to furnish him ships. But finally, the high-minded Isabella of Castile, while the siege of Granada was in progress, fitted out his small fleet, and in 1^92 Columbus revealed to Europe the continent of America — soon to be a chief factor in that "new world" toward which the old earth was now so swiftly spinning. APPENDIX A SELECT LIST OF BOOKS ON ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS Prehistoric Culture Clodd, E., Story of Primitive Man (" Primer "). Appleton, New York. Story of the Alphabet. Appleton. Davenport, E., Domesticated Animals and Plants. Ginn, Boston. Dodge, R. J., Our Wild Indians. Hartford. Holbrook, F., Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers. Heath, Boston. Joly, N., Man before Metals. Appleton. Mason, O. T., Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. Appleton. Starr, F., Som^ First Steps in Human Progress. Flood and Vincent, Meadville, Pa. It is not suggested that a school library should own all the works above, until it is well supplied in other directions. But any of them will make entertaining reading. Before the recent rise in the cost of bookmaking they were cheap volumes — from 35 cents to $2.50. More costly, and beautifully illustrated volumes in the same field are Solas' Ancient Hunters and Osborn's Men of the Old Stone Age. For Fiction, on the same period, the best attempt is Stanley Waterloo's Story of Ab. Oriental History Baikie, James, Story of the Pharaohs (illustrated). Macmillan. Breasted, J. H., History of the Ancient Egyptians. Scribner, New York. The same author has a larger, finely illustrated work covering the same ground. History of Egypt. Scribner, New Y^ork. ** Davis, William Steams, Readings in Ancient History. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Two volumes : " Greece and the East " and " Rome and the West." Volume I contains 60 pages of " source material " in Oriental history, with valuable introductions and comment. Hommel, F., Cimlization of the East (" Primer "). Macmillan. Jackson, A. V. W., Zoroaster. Macmillan. * Myres, J. L., Dawn of History (" Home University "). Holt. 1 2 APIMADIX Petrie, W. F., Arts and Crafls of Ancient K(f!//>t fillustratod). MrClurg. Soiiu'wluit tcclinical, hut by the most famous 10^;yi)tian explorer of our times. Sayre, A. H., Hdbiilonian^ and A.s.sijrians. Uevcll, Chieago. Winckler, Hugo, Bahylonia and Assyria. Scribner. Souiewliat ruore recent in scholarship than Sayre, hut hardly so readable. Ancient Crete Baikie, James, .S'm A'///(/.s o/ Cre/e (illustrated). Macmillan. Hawes and Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner oj Greece. Harpers. CiHEEK History Source Material ** Davis, William Stearns, Readings in Ancient Histori/. See above. This should be the first library material purchased for Greek history, unle.ss it is bought by each student. Its use will make students wish to know more of certain ancient authors (l)elow). Aristotle, On the Constitution of Athens; translated l)y Kenyon. Mac- millan. This is the least readable of the books mentioned in this li.st ; i)ut it can be used in parts, under a teacher's direction. Herodotus, RawHnson's translation, edited by (Jrant; two volumes; Scribner. Macaulay's translation, two volumes. Macmillan. * Homer s Iliad, translated by Lang, Leaf, and Myers. Macmillan. * Homer's Odyssey, translated by Butcher and Lang. JMacmillan. Translated by Palmer. Houghton. Plutarch, Lives; translated 1)\ ('lough; r^'cryman's Library (l)utton. New York) ; three volumes. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War. .lowett's translation ; Clarendon Press, Oxford; four volumes, or the same edited in one volume and published by Lothrop, Boston. Everyman's Library (Dutton, New York) gives several volumes of these classics at chea|)er rates. Constant additions are made to the Library. Herodotus and Thucydides can be obtained also in le.>^s desirable translations, but imidi ciicapcr, in Hnri)cr's Classi- cal Library. Modern Works. * Abbott. E., Pericles (" Heroes "). Putnam, New York. Bliimmer, H., Home Life of the Ancieid Greeks (profu.sely illustrated). ( 'a.s.scll, Xew York. (Still valuable; but if the library is buying a new book on the subject, it should get Gulick, below. j APPENDIX 3 * Bury, J. B., History of Greece to the Death of Alexander. Macmillan. * Church, E. J., Trial and Death of Socrates. Macmillan. A translation of four of Plato's Dialogues touching upon this period of Socrates' life. They are also the easiest of Plato's writ- ings for young people to understand. It has valuable comments. Cox, G. W., Greeks and Persians. Epochs Series. Longmans, New York. * Cox, G. W., The Athenian Empire. Epochs Series. Longmans. Cunningham, W., Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects: Ancient Times. Macmillan. The best work on its special phase. Very full for Greece. * Davis, William Stearns, A Day in Old Athens. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. A Victor of Salamis (novel). Macmillan. Exceedingly vivid presentation of Greek life. Gardiner, E. N., Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals (illustrated). Mac- millan. Gayley, C. M., Classic Myths. Ginn, Boston. * Grant, A. J., Greece in the Age of Pericles. Scribner. * Gulick, Chas. B., Life of the Ancient Greeks (illustrated). Appleton. * Mahaffy, J. P., Alexander s Empire. Putnam, New York. Old Greek Life (" Primer "). American Book Co. Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Ernpire. University of Chicago Press. * Wheeler, Benjamin Ida, Alexander the Great (" Heroes "). Putnam. Bury is the best single work on Greek history. It closes with the death of Alexander. Cox's volumes in the Epochs Series are slightly preferable for the Athenian period; and Wheeler's Alexander is admirable for its period. For the age after Alexander, the best book is Mahaffy 's Alexander s Empire or his Progress of Hellenism. Roman History v Source Material. * Davis, William Stearns, Readings in Ancient History, as for Greek History above. Tacitus. 2 vols. Macmillan. Modern Works. * Beesly, A. H., The Gracchi, Marius and Sulla. Epochs Series. Long- mans. Bradley, H., The Goths (" Nations "). Putnam. Bury, J. B., The Roman Empire to 180 a.d. (" Student's "). Ameri- can Book Co. 4 APPKNDIX * Capes, W. W., Enrb/ Roman Empire, l^pochs Series. Longmans. A(/c of the Antonincs. Epoclis Series. L()nf»;mans, Carr, The Churrfi and the Empire. Longmans. Church, A. J., lioman Life in the Days of Cicero. JNlacmillan. Church, R. W., Beginning of the Middle Ages. Epochs Series. Long- mans. Davis, William Stearns, A Friend of Caesar (fiction). IVIacmillan. Firth, J. B., Augustus Caesar. Putnam, New York. Constantine the Great. Putnam, New York. Fowler, Warde, Caesar (" Heroes "). Putnam. Fowler. S(>ci(d Life in the Age of Cicero. Macmillan. A useful and readable hook. * How and Leigh, History of Rome to the Death of Caesar. Longmans. * Ihne, Wilhelm, Early Rome. Epochs Series. Longmans. Inge, W. R., Society in Rome under the Caesars. Scribners. Johnston. H. W., Private Life of the Romans. Scott, Forcsman n and Bacon, Boston. Einhard, Charlemagne. AincTJcaii Book Coiupaiiy. English History from Contemporary {Writers). lOdited by F. York- Powell. A series of ten small volumes, all vi>ry valuable. Putnam, New "\'ork. * Hill, Mabel, Liberty Documents. Longmans. Joinville, Memoir of SI. Louis. (Various editions.) Lanier (editor), The Boy's Froissart. Scribner. Marco Polo, The Story of, edited by Noah Brooks. Century Co. * Ogg, T. A., Source Book of Medieval History. American Book Co. APPENDIX Modern Works. Adams, G. B., Growth of the French Nation. Macmillan. Civilization during the Middle Age. Scribner. * Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades (" Nations "). Putnam. Balzani, Popes and Hohenstaufen. Longmans. Beard, Charles, An Introduction to English Historians (extracts from leading authorities on interesting topics). Macmillan. Boyeson, H. H., Norway (" Nations "). Putnam. Brown, Horatio, The Venetian Republic (" Temple Primers "). Mac- millan. * Bryce, James, Holy Roman Empire. Macmillan. * Cheyney, E. P., Industrial and Social History of England. Mac- millan. Church, Beginnings of the Middle Ages {" Epochs "). Longmans. Clemens (Mark Twain), Joan of Arc. Harper. Cornish, F. W., Chivalry. Macmillan. Cox, G. W., The Crusades (" Epochs ")• Longmans. Cunningham and McArthur, Outlines of English Industrial History. Macmillan. Davis, H. W. C, Charlemagne (" Heroes "). Putnam. (Or see Hodgkin's Charles in the supplementary list below.) * Emmerton, Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. Ginn. Gilman, The Saracens {" Nsitions "). Putnam. Gray, The Children's Crusade. Houghton. * Green, J. R., History of the English People. 4 vols. Burt, New York. Or, in place of this last work, Short History of the English People. American Book Co. Green, Mrs., Henry II. Macmillan. Hughes, Thomas, Alfred the Great. Macmillan. Jenks, Edward Plantagenet (" Heroes "),. Putnam. Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars. Putnam. Jiriczek, Northern Hero Legends. Macmillan. Lane-Poole, Saladin {" Heroes "). Putnam. Masterman, J. H. B., Dawn of Medieval Europe ("Six Ages"). Mac- millan. Mullinger, University of Cambridge. Longmans. Oman, C. W. C, Byzantine Empire (" Nations "). Putnam. Pears, E., Fall of Constantinople. Harper. Perry, F., St. Louis (" Heroes "). Putnam. * Shepherd, W. R., Historical Atlas. Holt. Stubbs, Early Plantagenets (" Epochs "). Longmans. Tout, T. F., Edward I. Macmillan. Van Dyke, History of Painting. New York. Zimmem, H., The Hansa (" Nations "). Putnam. APPKXDIX These preeedinp; lists do not contain nearly all the hooks in these fields to he found in a lar^;e hif!;h school lihrary. They represent only such voliirncs as oiujhl to be conslaidbj ncces.sible to a first-year clans in the stioh/. \\ hen two hooks on the same field are named, one of them distinctly preferahle to the other (as with Blummer and Gulick on (Ireek Life), this is done hecause the lihrary may already have tlic older work — in whieh case it is not worth while to huy the other until more pressing needs are well supplied. The starred rolunies should be presetd in multiple copies. It seems desirahle to add the following; sui)pl(Mn('ntary list for the larfjer schools. Some Additional Books on the Last Phkiod Ashley, Introduction to English Economic History. XOl. I, Part L L()n^;mans. Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator (" Heroes "). Putnam. Cutts, Parish Priests and Their People. London. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. New "^'ork. Du Chaillu, The Viking Age. 2 vols. Murray. Gasquet, F. A., Parish Life in Medieval England. New York. Hodgkin, T.. Charles the Great. Macmillan. James. G. P. R.. History of Chivalry. Harper. Jusserand, English Wayfaring Life in the Mithllc Ages. London. Keary, The Vikings of Western Christendom. Putnam. Liibke. History of Art. 2 vols. Dodd and .Meatl. McCabe. Abelard. Putnam. Morison. Life and Times of St. Bernard. Macmillan. Putnam. Ruth. Books and Their Makers in the Middk Ages. Putnam. Robinson and Rolfe, Pdrarch. Putnam. Sabatier, SI. Fninris. Scrihner. Saintsbury, Flourishing of Romance. Scrihn(M-. Smith. J. H.. The Troubadours at Home. Putnam. Stephens. W. R. W.. Hildebrand and His Times. Longmans. Symonds, J. A.. ShnrI History of the Rniai.ssancr in Uahi (clitr.! hy Pearson ). Scrihner. Vincent, The Age of Hildebrand. Scrihner. Weil. Venice (" Nations "). Putnam. York-Powell, Alfred the Trnth-TclUr. Putnam. INDEX Pronunciation, except for familiar names and terms, is shown by divi- sion into syllables and accentuation. When diacritical marks for English names are needed, the common marks of Webster's Dictionaries are used. German and French pronunciation can be indicated only imperfectly to those who are not familiar with the languages ; but attention is called to the following marks : ae and oe = e;ie = i; the soft aspirated guttural sound g of the German is marked g ; the corresponding ch (as in ich) is marked k ; the sound of the nasal French n is marked n; for the German a and du the equivalents are indicated, to prevent confusion with English a; 6 is always the German letter ; and li is the German sound which is equivalent to French u. In French words with an accent on the final syl- lable, that accent only is marked ; but it should be understood that in such words the syllables as a rule receive nearly equal stress. Silent letters are put in ItaUc. For most geographical names, except such common ones as England or Italy, the index indicates a map on which the location is shown. Aachen (aK'gn), 260; map after p. 260. Abbey, term explained, 252, note. Abelard (iib'e-lard), Peter, 301. Abraham, founder of Hebrews, 48. Absolutism, 231. Abyssinia (ab-ys-sin'i-a), 24 ; see Ethiopia, map, 10. Academy, Plato's, at Athens, see Museum. Accad (ac'ciid), 30; map after p. •18. Achaea (a-€h«'a), map after p. 52. Achaean (a-ehse' an) League, 142, note. Achilles (a-ehil'les), 62, 64, 66. Acropolis (a-crop'o-lis), the central hill-fort about which grew up an- cient cities, 61. Acropolis of Athens, in age of Peri- cles, 103 and map opposite, 106- 7, and Plate XX. Actium (ac'ti-um). Battle of, 210; map after p. 52. Adrianople (ad'ri-an-o'ple). Battle of, in 378 a.d., 245; map after p. 260. Adriatic Sea, dividing line between Greek and Latin cultures, 182, 224 ; between Greek and Roman churches, 256. Aediles (ae'dlles), Roman, 169. Aegaean (ae-gx'an) Sea, home of early culture, 53; see Crete, Knossos, Mycenae, maps after pp. 52, 70. Aegina (ae-gl'na), map after p. 52. Aegospotami (ae-g6s-p6t'a-mi) (Goat Rivers), Battle of, 127. Aemilianus (ae-mil-i-ii'nus), Pub- lius Scipio, 180-1. Aequians (e'kwi-ans), map, 150. Aeschylus (aes'chy-lus), 108. Africa, early copper civihzations in INDEX Nile \'alk\v, G; see Egypt; cir- cumnavigation of, by ancient Egyptians, 27 ; Phoenician col- onies in, 40, 47 ; CJrcek colonies in, 70; prosperity under Rome, 219, 220; Vandal kingdom in, 245 and map after 248; con- quered by Mohammedans, 254; see Egypt antl Carthage . Agamemnon (ag-a-m6m'n6n), 62. Agesilaus (a-g6s-i-la'us). King of Sparta, 130. Agora (ag'6-ra), at Athens, 120; map, 101. Agrarian Laws, term explained, 192, note; Solon's, 77; Licin- ian, 160; of the Gracchi, 192-6; of Caesar, 207. Agricola fa-gric'd-lii), and the Pan- theon, Plate facing 225. Agriculture, prehistoric, woman's part in, 4-5; selection of our food plants, 7 ; in Egypt, 16-7 ; in Babylonia, 38 ; in Homeric Greece, 6^3-4 ; in age of Pericles, 119; early Roman, 15S; Ro- man about 200 B.C., 170; after Punic Wars, 1S5-8 ; serf labor in later Empire, 235 ; primitiv^e under Feudal system, 273-6; Saracenic, 294. Alba Longa (ftl'ba l6n'g!i), 150, and maj), Hk Alchemy falShfin-y), 302-3. Alcibiades (al-cT-bi'a-des), 12(). Alemanni (:l-la-m;in'ne), 229 ; map after 2 }S. Alexander the Great, 35; ct)n- quests, 135-7; merging of the East and West, 137-8; ex- plorations, 139 ; routes, map after 131. Alexander VI, Pope, 315. Alexandria, name of inanv Greek cities in Asia, 137-8, map after p. 134. Alexandria in Egypt, founded, 136; glory of, 142; library at, 145; center of culture under Rome, 224 ; Patriarchate of, 255 ; falls to Mohammedans, 256 ; map after p. 134. Alexandrian Library, 145. Alexandrian Lighthouse, 141-2. Alexandrian Museum, 145-6. Alfred the Great, 268-9. Algebra, origin, 295. Alhambra (al-ham'bra), Plate XLV, facing 294. Alphabet, growth, 8; Phoenician, 47; Cretan, 55; completed by the Greeks, 59. America, discovery, 325-7. Ammon, Temple of (Hall of Col- umns), at Karnak, Plate IV. Amos, Hebrew prophet, 51. Amphitheater (am-phi-the'a-ter), term explained, 208; at Pom- peii, 208 ; at Rome, see Colos- seum. Anaxagoras (an-flx-Jlg'o-ras), 110. Ancestor worship, primitive, 3; Egyptian, 22 ; Greek, 64 ; Ro- man, 153-4. Andrea del Sarto (an-dre';i dfl sar'to), 323. Angles (an'ghs), in Britain, 245; map after 24S. Anio (a'liT-o) River. 148; map, 150. Antigone (an-tlg'o-ne), 115. Antioch, 220; map after p. 218. Antonlnes (an'to-nines), the, 217. Antoninus (an-to-ni'nus), Marcus Aurelius, 217-8. 226-7. Antoninus Pius, 217. Antonius fan-to'ni-us), Marcus fMark .\ntony), 209, 210. Apelles (a-pgl'lcif), 143. INDEX 9 Aphrodite (aph-ro-di'te), 65; statue (of Melos), 143. Apollo (a-p6l'lo), 65; oracle of, 69; Belvedere, 141, 143; see Plate XVII. Appian (ap'pi-an), historian, 226. Appian (ap'pi-an) Way, the, 166, 167 ; see Roman Roads, and map, p. 168. Appius Claudius, censor, 152, 167. Apprentices, see Gilds in Middle Ages. Aquae Sextiae (ak'we s6x'ti-e), Battle of, 198 ; map after p. 176. Aqueducts, of Pisistratus, 79; in Graeco-Oriental cities, 138; in Roman cities, 220. Aquitaine (a-kwi-tan'), 253, 255; map after 252. Arabic notation, origin, 7 ; and the Arabs, 294 ; adopted in Europe, 297. Arbela (ar-be'la), Battle of, 136; map facing p. 135. Arc, Joan (Jon) of, 312 and Plate opposite. Arch, Egyptian, 21; Babylonian (oldest known), 30; Roman, 224, and many cuts; Norman, 282; pointed in Gothic archi- tecture. Plates after 282, 288, and 304. Archbishops, origin, 255; in Middle Ages, 128. Archimedes (ar-ehi-me'des), 146, 178. Architecture, prehistoric, Plate after p. 4; Egyptian, 15, 21, and Plates III-VIII; m Chaldea and Assyria, 39-40 ; Persian bor- rowed,- 42 and Plate after 44; Grecian, orders of, 72 ; in age of Pericles, 106-7; Roman (under the Empire), 225; Saracenic, 294 and Plates after 244, 294; Romanesque, Plate after 304; Gothic, 288, 304, and Plates XLVIII and especially XLIX. Archon (ar'ehon), 76. Areopagus (ar-e-op'a-giis). Council of, 76, 78. Ares (a'res), 65. Argolis (ar'go-hs), map after p. 52. Argos (ar'gos), map after p. 52. Arian (a'ri-an) heresy, 241-2. Aristarchus (ar-is-tar'chus), 146. Aristides (ar-is-ti'des), 91. Aristocracy, term explained, 62, note. Aristophanes (ar-is-t6ph'a-nes), 108. Aristotle (ar'is-t6t-le), quoted on early Athens, 76, 80 ; and Alex- ander, 135, 139; philosophy, 143-4; on sphericity of the earth, 146. Arius (a'ri-us), of Alexandria, 242. Armenia (ar-me'ni-a), map after p. 218. Armor, feudal, 269. Art, prehistoric, 3, 4, and Plates 1 and II; Egyptian, 21-2, and Plates III-X; Babylonian, 38- 9; and cuts on 34-9, Plate XIII; Persian, borrowed, 42; Greek, to 500 b.c, 70-2; in age of Pericles, 106 flf . ; in Alexandrian age, 229-30; in Middle Ages, 560-1 ; at Renaissance, 597. Artaxerxes (ar-ta-zerx'es), cut fac- ing 44. Artemis (ar'te-mis), 165. Asia, Province of, 199. Aspasia (as-pa'si-a), 113. Assyria (as-syr'i-a), 29-30; Em- pire, 31 ; militarism, 31-2 ; fall, 32; society and culture (see 10 INDEX Bahi/lonia), 39, 40; see map after IS. Astrology. Chaldean, .SS ; incdle- val. :i()l>. Astronomy, l-^jiyptian, 20; Chal- dean, 3S; (ireek, 14t); Sara- cenie, 294. Athanasius (ilth-an-ri'.si-us), 241. Athene (a-thr'ne), 05; statues of, on the Acropolis, 107. Athens, map after 52 and 94 ; plan, 101 ; consolidation of Attica by, 01; mother of "Ionia," 07; democratic gains before 500 b.c, 76 fT. ; discontent of the poor, 77; wealth gains political power, 77; written laws, 78; Solon's reforms, 78-9 ; continued class stride, and tyrants, 79-80; re- forms of Clisthenes, 80-1 ; and Persian Wars, 88-96; rebuilt, and walls, 97-8; the Piraeus, 98; and Confederacy of Delos, 99; and Athenian Empire, 100 ff. ; power and numbers, 183; democracy, 104 ff. ; assembly, under Pericles, 105; juries and payment, 105-6 ; public .service, 106 ; intellect and art in age of Pericles, 106-12; as described by Pericles, 112; and Pelopon- nesian War, 124-9; CJoat Rivers, and surrentler, 127 ; under Spar- tan rule, 128 ff. ; " the Thirty," and restoration of democracy, 128-9 ; shelters Theban demo- crats, 130; and Philip of Mace- don, 134; center of learning under Rome, 224. Athos (a'thos). Mount, map after Attica, after Dorian inv-asions, ()7 ; map after 52, and on 94. Attic Comedy. 109. Augurs, Roman, 154. • Augustan Age," 212, 226. Augustine, mi.ssionary to Britain, 26S. Augustus, Roman Emperor, see Octiii'ius Caesar. Aurelian (au-re'll-an). Emperor, 229-30. Aurelius, .see AntoniKus. Auspices, Roman, 154. Austria, origin. 292; .seized by Hapsburgs, 3l('); head of Holy Roman Empire, bulwark against Turks, 317; and Netherlands, 319. Avars, map after 260. Aventine (a'v6n-tlne), the, map, 151. Avignon (a-ven-y6n'), Papacy at, 313-5. Babylon, map after 18, on 33; land and people, 29-30; early city-state, 30; and Hammurapi (First Empire), 31; subject to A.ssyria, 31 ; Second Empire, 32-3; fall, 33; society, indus- try, and art, 34 ff. ; cuneiform script, 36-7; laws of Hammu- rapi, 35-() ; religion and morals, 40. " Babylonian Captivity." of the (Muirch. 313-5. Bacon, Roger, 303 ; ami Colum- bus, 325-6. Bactriana (bac-trt-an'a), map fac- ing 135. Bagdad (bag'dAd). maj) after 2()0. Ball. John, and the Pea.^ant Ri.sing, 307 ff. Banquet, in Creek life, 121-2. Barbarian Invasions, in Oriental hi.slory, 5, 25, 30. 32, 42-3; in times of Marius and Caesar, INDEX 11 197, 201 ff. ; on frontiers of Roman Empire, 223 ; into Em- pire from Aurelius to Aurelian, 218, 229; success in 4th cen- tury, 244 flf. See Teutons, Norsemen, Hungarians. " Barbarians," to Greeks, 68. Barca (bar'ca), see Hamilcar. " Barrack Emperors," 229. Barter, Trade by, see Money. Basilica (ba-siri-ca), Plate after 240. Battle, Trial by, 249. Bavaria, and the Franks, 253, 255 ; map facing 253. Bayeux (ba-e') Tapestry, 284. Belgium, see Netherlands ; becomes Austrian, 319. Belvedere (bel-ve-dere'), Apollo, 141, 143. " Benefit of clergy," 280. Beneventum (ben-e-ven'tum), Bat- tle of, 162 ; map after 148. Benvenuti, Italian authority upon Roman antiquities, Plates XXXI, XLI. Bible, the, translated into Greek (Old Testament), 145; into English, by Wyclif, 307; see Erasmus. * " Bills," origin of, in Parliament, 309. Bishops, origin of, 255 ; in Middle Ages, 279-80. Bithynia (bi-thyn'i-a), map after p. 218. " Black Death," the, 306-9. Black Sea, and early Greek colo- nies, 70. Boeotia (boe-o'ti-a), map after p. 52; see Plataea, Thebes. Bohemia, map after p. 260; and Hussites, 314-5 ; loses Austria to Hapsburgs, 316. Boniface VIII, Pope, 313. Bordeaux (bor-do'), map after p. 248. Borgia (bor'gia), family, 315. Brandenburg, Mark of, see Prus- sia. " Bread and Games," 207-8. Brennus (bren'nus), Gaul, 161. Britain, and Phoenicians, 46; and Romans, 213; Hadrian's Wall in, 217; abandoned by Romans — Teutonic Conquest, 267-8 ; rechristianized, 268; see Eng- land. Bronze Age, the, 6; see Egypt, Babylonia. Brutus, Marcus, 209. " Bull," the Papal, term explained, 287. Burgundians, settlement in Gaul, 245; map after 248. Burgundy, Duchy of, map after p. 290. Byzant (coin), 295. Byzantine (by-zan'tine) Empire, see Greek Empire. Byzantium (by-zan'ti-um), map after 70 ; see Constantinople. Ca-diz' (or Ga'des), founded, 47; map after p. 70. Caelian (c£e'li-an) Hill, map, p. 151. Caesar, Caius Julius, and Sulla, 200, 201 ; in Gaul, 201 ; rupture with Pompey, 202 ff. ; five-year rule, 205 ff. ; the hope of subject peoples, 206 ; constructive work, 206-8; murder, 209; author, 226. " Caesar," a title, 219. Calendar, Eg3'ptian, 20; Caesar's, 208; Gregory's, 208, note. Caligula (ca-lig'u-la), Emperor, 213. 12 IXDKX Campania fcMin-pa'ni-a), map after p. 1 IS. Campus Martius (inar'ti-us), map. l.-)!. Canal, Nile to Red Sea, 18, 27, 44 and note. Cannae (caii'iia')* Battle of, 17(). Canon Law. l2s(). Canterbury Tales. 304; quoted, sec Chaucer. Capet Cka-pfi'), Hugh, 291. Capetians (ca-pe'ti-ans), 291 ff. Capitoline. the, map, p. 151. Capitularies (ca-pit'u-la-ries), ( 'liarlcniafine's, 261. Cappadocians (rap-pa-do 'ci-ans), map after 134. Capua (cap'ii-a), destroyed by Rome, 17(), 179; map after 148. Cardinals. College of, 281. Carolingians (car-o-lin'gi-ans), de- generate, 205-6, 290, 291 ; term explained, 290. Carpentry, in ancient Crete, 56. Carthage. Phoenician colony, 47. 124 ; and Greeks in Sicily, 8>s ; and Rome, Punic Wars, 174- 281; "blotted out." 180-1; rebuilt by Caesar. 207; maf) after p. 70. Cassius (cash'ius), .-md Caesar. 209. Cassius. Spurius 's|)u'rius). 159. Cato. Marcus Fortius, 180, 191. Cave-men (Stone Age), 1-4. Celt, term explained, 267, note. Censors. Roman. 1()9. Centralization, in government, term explained. 231. Ceres I'rc're^), 65, 153. Chaeronea (ehier-o-ne'a), Battle of, 134. Chalcis (ehal'cis), map after p. 52; and colonies, 70. Chaldea (chal-de'a), map after 18; convenient but not strictly projuT name for the Eu[)hrates district ; .see Babyloti. Champollion (sham-p6l-li-6n'), French authority on Egyptian hieroglyphics, 20. Charlemagne (sharre-man), 279; defensive wars, 259-60; and revival of Roman Empire in the West, 260; civilization in his age, 261 ; government, 261 ; and learning, 262; place in history, 262-3. Charles Martel (mar-tfl'), 253 255. Charles the Bold, 319. Charles V, of Holy Roman Empire, and danger of world despotism, 319-20. Chaucer, 304; quoted, 279. 307. Cheops (ehe'Sps), .see Khufn. Chinvat (chfn'vat) Bridge, the, 45. Chios (chl'ds), map after 52. Chivalry, 277-9. Christ, birth. 212. Christianity, early beginnings, 212, 214, 237; Nero's persecution, 214; debt to the Empire, 237; and persecutions, 237-9; tol- erated and favored by Constan- tine. 239; state religion under Theodosius. 241 ; persecutes pagans, 241 ; anil heresies, 242- 3; .see Church, Papncij. Church, the. see Christianity and Papacy; organization and early history, 255-6 ; schism between East and West, 256-7; Roman hardship in Latin Christen- dom, 257; tem|)oral power. 257; see Papacy. Cicero. 190; " age of." 226. Cid. Song of the, 303. INDEX 13 Cilicia (ci-Wcia), map after p. 70. Cimbri (cim'bri), the, 197. Cimon (ci'mon), 100. Cincinnatus (cin-cin-na'tus), 171. Circuit Judges, in England, origin, 285. Cisalpine (cis-arpine) Gaul, map, 148. Citeaux (si-to'), Abbey of, 252. Cities, see Towns. City-states, in old Egypt, 11; in Euphrates valley, 30 ; in Hellas, — the limit of Greek political ideals, 61 ; failure, 132 ; ap- proach to, in Middle Ages, 300. Civil Service, term defined, 106, note. Claudius (claud'i-us). Emperor, 213. Claudius, Appius, 162, 167. Clazomenae (cla-zom'e-nie), map after p. 70. Clement VII, 314. Cleon (cle'on), Athenian, 126. Cleopatra (cle-o-pa'tra), 204, 209. Cleruchs (cler'uehs), 80. Cliff caves, and prehistoric remains, 1, 2, and Plate I. Clisthenes (clis'the-nes), 80-1. Cloaca Maxima (clo-ii'ca max'i- ma), the, 152. Clovis (clo'vis), 252. Coinage, see Money. Colchis (col'^his), map after p. 70. Cologne (ko-lonO, map after 218. Colosseum, the, Plate after 228. Colimibus, Christopher, and Amer- ica, 327. Combat, Trial by, 249. Commerce, early routes, Egyptian, 17-8; of Euphrates States, 35; Phoenician, 46-7 ; and inven- tion of coinage, 41 ; and Greek geography, 69-70, 84-5; Ro- man, 150, 171, 180, 184, 219- 23; growth in Europe after Crusades, 297-8. Commodus (com'mo-dus), 218. Common Law, the Enghsh, 285. Commons, House of, origin, 290. Compass, the Mariners', invention of, 324. Compurgation (com-pur-ga'tion), Trial by, 248. Constantine, Emperor, and Chris- tianity, 239-40 ; and the Nicene Creed, 242. Constantine VI, 260, 261. Constantine Palaeologus (pa-lse-o'- 16-gus), 317. Constantinople, map after p. 218; capital of Greek Empire, 247; repels Saracens, 254; and the Crusades, 295; captured, 367. Constitution, term explained, 79. Consuls, Roman, 169. Copper, first use for tools, 6. Corcyra (cor-cy'ra), map after p. 70. Corinth, and Peloponnesian War, 124; destroyed by Rome, 187; rebuilt by Caesar, 207; map after 52. ' Corinthian Order, of architecture, 72. Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, 192, 194, 196. Correggio (k6r-6d'jo), 323. Crassus, 200, 201, 202. Crecy (krgs'si). Battle of, 306; map after p. 290. Cretan civilization, ancient, 53 ff. ; alphabet, 55; see Knossos; map after 18 and 52. Croesus (crce'sus), 41. Crotona, map after 70. Crusades, 294-6 ; results, 297 ff . 14 INDEX Cuneiform script, 36 and Plates following. Curials (cu'ri-al.s), lioman, 234. Curio. Manius, 170. Curule offices, 1()9. Cynic philosophy, 144. Cyrene ivy-u-'uv), map after p. 70. Cyrus " the Great," 42, 88. Cyrus the Younger. 129-30. Dacia (da'ri-a), 217; map after p. 218. Damascus (da-m;ls'cus), map after I). 2 IS. Danelaw (drinf''la\v)(or Danelagh), 2(JS and map opposite. Darius Codomannus (da-rl'us c6d- o-man'nu.s). and Alexander, 136. Darius the Organizer, 43-4, 88-9. " Dark Ages," the, 301. David, Kin;:; of the Hebrews, 50. Decarchies (d6f''areh-ies), under Sparta. 127. Decemvirs (de-rCm'virs), Roman, 159. Delos (de'los), Confederacy of, 99- 100; island, maj) after p. 52. Delphi. ()S ; repul.se of Gauls from, 1 41 ; map after p. 52. Delphic Oracle, <)S-9. " Demagogues." in .\tliens, term oxpiaincd, 101. Demeter (de-mr'ter), 65 ; see Ceres. Demosthenes fde-mfts'th("-ne§), orator, 134. Diaz fd("-as'), and };o()^ra|)liical di.s- ('over\-, 323. Diocletian fdi-Tj-clr'tl-an), Em- peror, 330-3 ; persocution of Christians by, 239. Diogenes fdi-<5fc'f-ne§), 144. Dionysius (a-la'ti-a), 1 U ; maj) after •J is. Gauls, invasion of (Ireek Orient, 141; in Italy, 149; .sack Rome, 101 ; Caesar in Gaul, 200-1 ; see Cisalpinr (laid, Roman Empire. " Generation," a, as measure of time, explained, 41, note. Genucius (j>en-u'ci-us), 1(>1. Geography, and historv, in I'^pypt, 9-11. 20; in Clialdea, 29, 35; in Hellas, .')3. (il. r)7, and especially 84-() ; in Italy and with Rome, 148-51 ; discoveries at clo.se of Middle A^rvs, 322-7. Geometry, lOfiyptian. 20; ("lial- dean. '.',7 ; Creek. 71. ll«i. Germany, see Teutons, Franks, and Charlemagne; and Treaty of X'erdun, 205 and njap oppo.site ; expansion into Slav East, 292 and ma|); and Otto I (close of Itarharian invasions), 292; and Holy Roman lOmpire, 292-3; decline of German kingship and political chaos, 293, 315-6; see Austria, Hapshurgs, and mai)s after 302, 314. Gilds (j>iMs), Roman, 171, 221, 234-5 ; medieval, 229-30. Giorgione (jor-jo'ne), 323. Gizeh (ji;C''zeh), map, 10. Gladiators, 186. Goshen (gosh 'en). Land of, 48-9. Goths, see East Goths and West (loths. Gothic architecture, 304 and cuts and Plates, 288, 318 and after 20(), 2S2, and especially 304. Gracchus, Caius fgrac'chus, cai'- us), 194-0. Gracchus, Tiberius, 192-4. Graeco-Oriental (gra'co) World, the, 137 fT. ; Hellenism of the active element, 137-8; the many Alexantlrias in, 138; wealth, 139; .scientific exj)editions, 139; Wars of the Succession, 140; resemblance to modern Europe, 140-1; Gallic invasion. Ml; .society and culture, 141-7. Granada, fall, 317. Granicus (gra-nl'cus,) Battle of, 13t); maj) after p. 134. Grand Jury, origin, 285. Greek Church, the, .separation from Latin, 2.').')-0. Greek contributions to civilization (summary), 147. Greek Empire (or Eastern Em- pire), 247-S, 25.')-7 ; and Charle- INDEX 17 magne, 260-1 ; threatened by Turks, 295; and Crusades, ib. ; overthrown liy Turks, 317. Greek home life, in age of Pericles, 116-23. Greek language, recovery of, in closing Middle Ages, 317, 322-3. Greek philosophy, 6th century, 73-4; in age of Pericles, 110-2; in Alexandrian age, 143-4. Greek religion, 64-6; moral side, 114-5. Greek theater, 108-9. Greeks, the, and Ancient Egypt 27 ; prehistoric culture, 53 ff. ; Cretan, 53-6; Mycenae "rich in gold," 56-7; Achaean, 58; fusion with earher culture, 60 ff. ; city-state, 61-2; Ho- meric society, 62 ff. ; religion, 64-6 ; Dorian conquest, 67 ; 1000-500 B.C., 68 ff. ; expansion by colonization, 69-70 and map after 70; disappearance of Ho- meric kingship, 74 ; art and phi- losophy of 6th century, 71-3; "Age of Tyrants," 74; rise of democracy at Athens, 75-81 ; Spartan training and military leadership, 81-3 ; geography, and contrast with Oriental States, 84-7; Persian Wars, which see; Athenian leader- ship, see Athens; Spartan lead- ership, see Sparta; Theban leadership, 131-2; Macedonian conquest, 133 ; failure of city- state, 132-3 ; in the Orient with Alexander and after, see Graeco- Oriental World; contributions to civilization, 147 ; see Athens Macedonia, Rome. Gregory the Great, Pope, and England, 268. Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), 282. Gregory XI, Pope, 314. Gunpowder, invention of, and early use, 302, 305 ; later improve- ments and importance, 324. Gutenberg (goot'6n-b6rG), John, 325. Habeas Corpus, 287. Hadrian, Emperor, 217; mau- soleum of, Plate after 246. Hadrian's Wall, 217 and note, and map after p. 218. Halicarnassus (hal-i-car-nas'sus), map after p. 52. Hamilear Barca (ha-mil'car bar'- ca), 175. Hammurapi (ham-mu-ra'pi), of Babylon, 31 ; laws of, 35-6. Hanging Gardens, at Babylon, 39. Hannibal (han'ni-bal), 175-80; route, map after 176. Hanseatic (han-se-at'ic) League, 300 and map p. 302. Hapsburg (haps'buro), the, 315-6, 319. Harold, the Saxon, 284. Hasdrubal (has'dru-bal), the Bar- cide, 179. Hastings, Battle of, 284. Hathor, Egyptian diety, Plates III, VIII. "Heathen," 241, note. Hebrews, Semites, 30, note; early history to the Exodus, 48-9; under the Judges, 49; Kings and Prophets, 49 ; David and Solomon, 50-1 ; division and dechne, 51 ; Assyrian cap- tivity, 51 ; Babylonian captiv- ity, 51 ; return to Palestine, 51 ; priestly rule, 52; and our Old Testament, ib.; mission, 52; IS INDEX provinro of Roman Empire, 21 f) ; destruction and dis])erHion, 215; see Jerusalem. Hegira (he-Kl'ra), the, 254. Hellas (hfl'las), St. Hellenes (hcrr'ii/-^ term (explained. S4. Hellenism and Hellenistic, terms compared, 140, note. Hellespont (hcl'es-pont), the, map alter J). 52. Helot (ho 'lot), 82. Helvetii (hel-ve'ti-T), 201-2. Henry H, 2S5. Henry HI. 2S9. Henry IV, 303. Henry VII. 311. Henry VIII, 311. Henry the Navigator, 323. Hephaestus (he-{)ha's'tus), 65. Hera (he'ra), ()5. Herculaneum (her-cu-la'ne-um), •2\i\. Heresies, early Christian, 241-2. Hermes (her'me.s), 65; statue l)y I^raxiteles, 126. Hermits, Christian, 251. Herodotus (he-rod 'o-tus), (juoted on pyramids, 15; on Noco's circumnavigation of Africa, 27; on Persian morals, 45; place in literature. 86, 109. Hesiod (he'si-od), 73. Hiero (hi'e-ro) II, 177. Hieroglyphics (hi-or-o-gl yph 'ies) . i:^vptian, 18-9; Chaldean, 36-7. Hipparchus (hi|)-par'chus), philo.s- ()|)licr, 146. Hipparchus. tyrant. SO. Hippias (lilp'p!-as). tyrant. SO. Hiram of Tyre, and Solomon, 50. Hittites fhit'titfs), and ERyi)tians, 27; iron weapons of, 27. 31; map.s, 50 and after IS, 3s. Holbein fhdl'hrln), Dutch painter, 323. Holy Roman Empire, .see Charle- nnignc; rcvi\al of Roman Em- pire in the WCst l.y Otto; effect . on Germany and on Italy, 293, 315 ff. ; and the Hapshur^s, 316. Homeric poems, 5S, (iS, 79 ; re- du('ed to writing, 79. Hoplites (hop'IIt6"s), Greek heavy- armed infantry, 124. Horace, Latin poet, 187, 225, 226. Horus (ho'rus), Egyptian deity, Plates III, VIII. ' Houses, Egyptian, 12, 14; in I)rimitive Aegean civilization, 53; in age of Pericles, 116-7; early Roman, 152-3; Roman about 200 B.C., 172; after Punic Wars, 185 and Plates after 182, 188; in feudal age, 270-1, 274. Hungarians, nomad raids, 266 ; checked by Otto, 292. Hungary, see Huytgarians; he- comes a Chri.stian kingdom, 292; and the Turks, 317; a Haps- hurg province, 316. Hus, John. 314-5. Hyksos (hyk'sos), the. 25, 49. Hymettus (hy-m?t'tus), map. p. 94. Hyphasis (hy'pha-sis) River, map after p. 134. Iconoclastic (i-con-o-clas'tic) dis- pute, the, 25(). Ikhnaton ( ik-hna'ton), and his iiymn, 22-3. Iliad (il'i-ad), the, 58. Imbros firn'hros), map after ]). 70. Immortality. l)(4ief in, prehistoric man, 3; Egyptian, 23-4; Per- sian, 45; Greek, 66; and see Snrnitcs. INDEX 19 Imperator (im-per-a'tor), title, 205. Infantry, early meaning, 271. Interdict, the, 289. Ionia, Athenian colonization of, 67 ; early center of art and phi- losophy, 72 ; map after 52. Ionic Order, see Architecture Iran (e-ran'), Plateau of, 66; map after p. 38. Ireland, schools in Dark Ages, 301. Irene (i-rene'), Empress, 260. Iron, known to early Hittites, 27, 31 ; to Achaeans, 58. Isabella of Castile, 317, 327. Isis (i'sis), Egyptian deity, Plate VIII. Iskandar (is-kan-diir'), map after 134. Isocrates (I-soc'ra-tes), 133. Israel, Kingdom of, 51 ; see He- brews; map, 50. Issus (is'sus), Battle of, 136; map after p. 134. Italy, map after p. 148 ; Greek col- onies in, see Magna Graecia; land and peoples, 148-9; see Rome, Goths, Lombards; divided between Teutons and Empire, 248; see Papacy, Franks; and Holy Roman Empire, 292-3; in fragments in 13th century, 293, 319; see Renaissance. Ithaca (ith'a-ca), map after 52. Janiculum (ja-nic'u-lum). Mount, 152; map, 151. Janus (ja'nus), 153; gates of temple closed by Augustus, 211, 214. Japan, medieval rumors of, in Eu- rope, 325. Jaxartes (jax-ar'tes), the, map after p. 134. Jephthah (jeph'thiih), 49. Jerusalem, 51; map, 50; de- struction by Titus, 215; patriar- chate of, 255 ; becomes Moham- medan, 254, 256; see Crusades; maps after 210 and on p. 50; Saracenic walls of, Plate after 294. Joan of Arc, see Arc, Joan. John, of England, 286. Joseph, the Hebrew, 48. Joshua, 49. Judah, Kingdom of, 80; map, 50; see Hebrews. Jugglers, medieval, 277. Julian Caesars, the, 215, note. Juno (ju'no), 65. Jupiter, 65, 154. Jury, the Athenian, 105-6. Jury, the modern system of trial by, 285, 288. Jury, Grand, 285. Justinian (jus-tin 'i-an) the Great, 247-8. Justinian Code, the, 248. Juvenal (ju'v6n-al), 185, 226. Kandahar (kan-da-har'), map after p. 134. Karnak (kar'nak), temple at, 12 and Plate IV after 12 ; map, p. 10. Khufu (ku'fu), 15. Kitchen utensils in ancient Crete, 55. Knighthood, see Chivalry. Knights of St. John, 296. Knights Templar, 296. Knights, Teutonic, 296 ; in eastern Europe, map after 302. Knossos (knos'sos), Palace of, 54-5 ; map after 18, 52. Koran (ko-ran'), the, 254. Kossova (kos-so'vii). Battle of, 317. 'JO INDKX Leo III. ;iii(l Cliarli'iimgnc, 2G0. Leo the Isaurian, 256. Leonardo (Ifi-o-nar'do) da Vinci (chi vinVhe), 323. Leonidas (Ic-on'i-das), 93. Lesbos (le.s'hos), 157; map after r)2. Leuctra (Icuc'tra), Battle of, and plan. 131. Libations, in Clreek worshiji, 64. Libraries, Babylonian, 3()-7 ; in Gracco-Oriental World, a.*^ at Aloxandria, 14o-(). Licinian laws, the, KiO-l. Licinius (li-cin'i-u.s), Kinporor, 210. Ligurians (li-J2;ri'ri-an.s), niap after lis. Liris (ll'ri.'^), tho, >na|) aftor 1 IS. Livy, 22() ; cniotod ixtssim. Lollards, the. .307, 31 I. Lombards, 2 is. j.-,?, 2.'.S, 2.")0 ; map :iff(*r 2<>0. Louis IX, of I'r.incc. 2«>0. Louis XI, 312. Louvre fNilTjvr), art museum in modern Paris. Lydia (lyd'i-a), map after 38 ; and eoinaji;e, 41. Lyons, map after p. 218. Lyric Age, in Greece, 73. Lysander (ly-san'der), the Spartan, 127. Lacedaemonians (lac-e-die-mo'ni- I Lucretius (lu-ere'ti-u.s), 226 aiisi, siH- Sixiihi; map after 52 ; | Lycurgus (ly-eur'gus), 81. t(Mtn e.xplained, 9S, note. Lacroix (lii-erwii'), a French au- thority upon medieval times, 271 and elsewhere. Lancastrians, growth of Parliament under, .309-10. Latin colonies, 165. Latin language, in Middle Ages, 303. Latium (la'ti-um), 149; maj) after p. 14S and on 150. Lebanon Mountains, map on p. 50. Lechfeld (iCK'fflt), Battle of, 292. Legion, the Roman, l()7-8. Lemnos (lem'nos), map after p. Macedonia (mae-e-do'ni-a), map after 52; rise of, 132-3; and Philij) II, 132-4; see Alexander. Maelius, Spurius (mie'li-us, Spii'- ri-us), 159. Magna Carta, 2S6-7. Magna Graecia, 70; map after j). 70. Mahomet (ma-liom'et i the Con- queror, 317. Manlius (man'li-us), Marcus, 159, 161. Manor, feudal, 273-5. Mantinea (man-ti-ne'a), broken into villages by Sparta, 130; restored by Epaminondas, 132; battle of. 132; map after 52. Marathon. Battle of, SS-91 ; maps, 94 and after 52. March of the Ten Thousand, 129- 30. Mardonius (mar-do'ni-us), 95-6. Marius fma'ri-us), 197-9. Martin V. ]'op(\ 315. Mary of Burgundy, 31'.» and Plate opposite. Massilia (mas-sil'i-a), map after 70. Maximilian I. l'jn|)eror, .IKV ;uul Pl.ate after 3 IS. Mayfields. 251. 261. Mecca (mfe'ea), 25;;; ma|> after 134. Medes (medcs), the, 41 ; map after 38. INDEX 21 Megalopolis (meg-a-l6p'o-lis), 132. Megara (meg'a-ra), map after 52. Melius Spurius (me'li-us spu'ri-us), 159. Memnon (mem'non), Colossi of, Plate after 27. Memphis, in Egypt, map, 10. Men-at-arms, 479. Menes (me'nes), of Egypt, 11. Merovingians (mer-o-vin'ji-ans), rulers of the House of Clovis, Empire of, map after 252. Mesopotamia (mes-o-po-ta'mi-a), 29 ; map after 18. Messene (mes-se'ne), 132; map after 52. Messenia (mes-se'ni-a), map after 52. Metaurus (me-tau'rus). Battle of, 179; map after 176. Metropolis (of a Greek colony ; mother city), 70. Metropolitan (met-ro-pol 'i-tan) , see Archbishop. Metz, Cathedral of, Plate after 304. Micah (mi'cah), Hebrew prophet, denunciation of greed of wealth, 51. Michael Angelo (mi'kel iin'je-lo), 597. " Middle Ages," the, 321. Milan, map after 210; Edict of, 240. Miletus (mil-e'tus), map after 52; founded, 67 ; colonies, 70. Miltiades (mil-tl'a-des), 90. Milvian (mil'vi-an) Bridge, Battle of, 239. Minnesingers (min'ne-sing-ers), 304. Minos (mi'nos), of Crete, 53. Missals, illuminated, 304. Mithridates (mith-ri-da'tes) VI, 199. Mohammed (mo-ham 'med), 253-4. Mohammedanism, 245, 253-5 ; see Saracens, Turks; culture in 11th century, 294-5. Monasticism (mon-as'ti-cism), 251-2. Money, no coinage in ancient Egypt, 17; invention of coin- age, 41 ; early Roman, 171 ; under Empire, drain to the East, 235, 236 ; lack in Middle Ages, 272; increase of, undermines feudalism, 297. Money power in politics, in Roman RepubHc, 183-4 ; in the Empire, 232, 233. Montfort (mont'fort), Simon of, 289. More, Su- Thomas, 324. Moses, and the Exodus, 49. Moustier (moos'ti-a), Le, and Stone Age remains, Plate after p. 2. Museum, Plato's, at Athens, 145; Ptolemy's, at Alexandria, 145-6. Mycale (myc'a-le), Battle of, 99; map after 52. Mycenae (my-ce'nie), 56-7; map after 52. Myron, Greek sculptor, 122 and Plate after 184. Nahum, on fall of Assyria, 32. Naucratis (nau-cra'tis), Greek col- ony in Egypt, 27 ; map, 10. Naupactus (nau-pac'tus), map after 52. Nausicaa (nau-sic'a-a), 63. Naxos (nax'os), 100; map after 52. Nearchus (ne-ar'ehus), 139; route of, map after 134. 22 INDEX Nebuchadnezzar (iicl )-ii-€had-nez '- zarl, ;>;). Neco (nc'co), of I'^fiypt, 27. Nero, Kinpcror, 213-4. Nerva fiier'v^a), Knii)cr()r, 217. Netherlands. 317-9. " New Monarchy, " in England, Tudor, :ni. New Stone Age, 4-8. Nicaea (ni-ciu'a), map after 21S ; Council of, 242. Nicene (nl'cenc) Creed, the, hi.s- tory of, 242. Nicholas V, Pope, 315. Nicias (nic'i-as), 126. Nile, the, map, p. 10. Nimes (nrni), Aqueduct of, 220. Ninevah (iiiu'c-vali), 49; map after IS, 38. Normandy, 2()7 ; maj) after 290. Norseman. 2<)(). Norwich (nor'it-ich), Cathedral of, 304. Octavius Caesar, 209-12; see August lis. Odysseus (o-dys'seus), ()2, 63, 64, Odyssey (od'y.s-sey), 59 fF. Old Stone Age. 1-4. Oligarchy, defined, (52, note. Olympia. map after 52; games at, (VS; Stadium. Plate after 68. Olympiad, (is. Olympic Games. ()S. Olympus, inaj) after 52. Olynthus (o-Iyii'tlius), map after 52. Ordeal. Trial by. 248-9. Orleans, map after 290. Osiris, I^gyptiaii deity. Plate VIII. Ostia, 1st Roman colony. l.VJ; m:ip. 150. Ostracism (o.s'tra-ci.sm), 81. Ostrogoths (o.s'tro-goth.s), see East Coths. Otto I, and Hungarian invasions, 292; and Holy Roman Empire, 292. Oudenarde (ou-de-nardc'), 13th (;entury town-hall, Plate after 298. Ounce, a division of the Babylo- nian minn, equivalent in weight to the shekel, 171. Oxford Reformers. 323. Oxus (ox'us) River, map after 42. Ozymandias (o-zy-man'di-as), 28. Pagans, term exi)lained, 241, note. Painting, Cave-man, 4; Egyptian, Plate VII, facing 23 ; Greek, 71 143 ; medieval, 304 ; Renais- sance, 322 ; and oils, 322. Palatine (para-tinc) Hill, map, 151, and Plate XLI. Palestine, map, 50. Palmyra fpal-my'ra), map after 218. Pamphylia (pam-phyl'i-a), map after 70. Pantheon (pan'the-on), the, 225 and Plate opposite. Papacy, claims of early Roman bishops, 25t) ; advantages of Rome, /7).; Eastern rivals elim- inated, ih.; head of Latin Chri>- tendom, 25()-7 ; ri.se to temporal [)ower, 257; and Lombards and Franks, 257-8; and Charle- magne. 259-60 ; and Holy Ro- man I'jnpire. which see; loses power; " H.ibylonian Captiv- ity," 313-5. Papal states, origin, 258. Paper, invention of, 325. Papyrus fi)a-py'rus), 19. Paris, University of, 301. INDEX 23 Parliament (English), origin, 287-9 ; and Simon of Montfort, 289; ''Model Parliament" of 1295, 289; division into Lords and Commons, 290 ; gains under Lancastrians, 309-10 ; saved under Tudors, 311. Parnassus (par-nas'sus). Mount, map after 52. I'arthenon (par'the-non), 107 and cuts after 103, 106, 130. Parthians (par'thi-ans), 198; map after 218. Patriarch, in church organization, 255. Patricians (pa-tri'cians), 154. Pavia (pa-ve'a). Battle of, 320; map after 296. Peasant Rising of 1381 (English), 308-9. Pedagogue (ped'a-gogue), term explained, 121. Peloponnesian (pel-o-pon-ne'si-an) League, 82. Peloponnesian War, causes and character, 124-5 ; plague at Athens, 125; loss in Syracusan expedition, 126 ; exhaustion and fall of Athens, 127. Penates (pe-na'tes), 64. Pentelicus (pen-tel'i-cus). Mount, map, 94. Pergamos (per'ga-mos), 140; map facing 135. Pericles, 104-5 ff. ; glorification of Athens, 112. Persepolis (per-sep'o-lis), maps after 42, 134. Persia, 41-5; and Greeks, 88-96, 99-100. Persian Wars, 88 ff. Perugino (pe-ru'gi-no), 323. Petrarch (pe'trarch), 322. Phaedrus (phsed'rus), 115. Phalanx (pha'lanx), Theban, 131; Macedonian, 134; compared with Roman legion, 168. Phalerum (pha-le'rum), map, 94. Pharaohs (pha'raohs), of Egypt, 11. Pharos (pha'ros), lighthouse, 142. Pharsalus (phar-sa'lus). Battle of, :, 204 ; map after 218. Phidias (phid'i-as), 107. Phidippides (phi-dip 'pi-des), 89, 90. Philae (phl'lse), map, 10. Philip II, of Macedonia, 132-4. Philip V, ally of Hannibal, 177. Philip II, of France (Philip Augus- tus), 290. Philip IV (the Fair), 290-1, 313. Philip of Hapsburg (haps'burc), Plate after 318. Philippi (phil-ip'pl), Battle of, 209; map after 218. Philippics (phil-ip'pics), of Demos- thenes, 134. Philistines, 49, 50; map, 50. Philosophy, see Greek Philosophy. Phocis (pho'sis), map after 52. Phoenicians (phoe-ni'sians), Sem- itic, 30; sailors and merchants, 46 ; colonizers, 47 ; alphabet, 47; influence on early Greece, 60; map, 50. Phrygia (phryg'i-a), map after 42, 218. Pilgrimages, in medieval life, 295. Pillars of Hercules, map after 70. Pindar, 73, 135. Pippin the Short, 258. Piraeus (pi-rse'us), map, 94. Pisistratus (pis-is 'tra-tus), 7^-9. Plataea (pla-tie'-a), Battle of, 96; map after 52. Plato, 143 ; see Museum. Plebeians (ple-be'ians), at Rome, 154, 156 ff. 24 IXDKX Plebiscites (|)l('l)'is-citcs), Roman, HiO. Pliny the Younger, 220. Plow, ovolution of, 5, 6. Plutarch (plu'tareh), 226; quoted frcHjuently. Pnyx (pnyx), lOo; maj), 101. Polybius (i)o-lyl)'i-u.s), 180; quoted t"r('(}uc'iitly. Pompeii (poin-pa'i), 188, and cuts at'l(M- ISO, 188. Pompey " the Great,'* 199. Pontius (pon'ti-as), the Samnite, UV.i. Pontus (i)()n'tus), map after 70. Pope, orij^in of name, 256, note. Porsenna (por-.s6n'na), 157, note. Poseidon (])o-sei'don), 65. Post roads, Persian, 44 and map after 42 ; Roman, 166, 167, and maps 168 and after 218. Pottery, sifinificancc in culture, 2; potter's wluH'l an Kjiyptian in- vention, 18 ; in Cretan civiliza- tion, 53, 55; Greek vases, 70-1 ; many illustrations from, as on 70. 88, etc. Praetor (prie'tor), Roman, 169. Praetorians (prse-to'ri-ans), 213. Praxiteles (prax-It'6-le§), 126. Prehistoric man, 1-8. Printing, invention, 324-5. Propylaea (|)r6p-y-la^'a), of .\<-rop()- lis, {-lit facing 1()3. Protectorate f|)ro-t(M't<)-ratf), term explained, 181, note. Provence (pro-vOns'), oripin of name, 201, iiote. Provinces. Roman, ls<) 90. sec Cm siir. Psammetichus (/(sani-inct 'i-clmsi, 27. Ptolemy (//tol'i^-niy ) I and II, of Egypt, 141-2, 145. Ptolemy, geographer, 226. Punic Wars, 174-81. Pyramids, Egyptian, 15-6; Plates \ and IX ; map, 10. Pyrrhus (p^r'r/ius), 162. Pythagoras (py-thag'o-rasj, 74. Quadrivium (quad-riv'i-um), Ro- man, 224, note. Questors (quius'tors), Roman, 169. Quintain (quin'tain), exercise of, 278. Rameses (ra-me'se§) III, temple of. Plates after 20, 28. Raphael (raph'a-el), 323. Rehoboam (r("-/H")-l)o'ain), 51. Relief sculptures, definition, 12, note; illustrations frequent. Religion, prehistoric, 3; Egyptian, 22-4; Chaldean, 40; Persian, 44-5; Hebrews, 51-2; Greek, 64-6; see Greek Philosophy; Roman, 153-4; see Christianift/^ Moha m m cda n ism . Renaissance, the. .'^21-7. Representative government. growt h in England, see Parliament. Rheims Cathedral, Plate after 304. Richard II, 307-8, 309. Roads, sec Post Roads. Roman Empire, .see Rome; and .lulius Caesar. 204-9; Julius to .Augustus. 209-10; Augustus, 211-2; in first two centuries, story of, 211-8; government, 219; extent, 219; a city-life, 219; industry, 221; trade and travel. 221-3; unity of, 223; peace and prosperity. 22;i-4 ; .irchitccture, 224; education and learning, 224-6; morals, 226-8; decline after 180 a.d., 229 ff. ; cau.ses,. 232-6; victory INDEX 25 of Christian cJiurch, 237 ff. ; see Teutons. Roman Forum, see Forum. Roman heritage for civilization, 263-4. Roman Law, see Justinian Code. Roman Republic, land and peoples of Italy, 148-9; legendary his- tory, 149 ; Etruscan trade, 150 ; the "seven hills," 151; "ty- rants," 151-2; head of Latium, 152; life simple, 152-3; reh- gion, 53-4; patricians and ple- beians — class strife, 155-61 ; unites Italy, 161-2; war with Pyrrhus, 162; Italy under Rome's . rule, 164-9 ; Roman society at 200 b.c, 169-73; winning of the West, 174-81; conquest of the East, 181-2; new class strife, rich and poor, 180-91; the Gracchi, 192-6; Marius and Sulla, 197-9; Pompey and Caesar, 199-203; civil war, 203; see Caesar, Roman Empire. Rome, city of, map of, " under kings," 151; under Empire, with Aurelian's walls, 229-30; sack by Goths, 245 ; by Vandals,' Plate opposite 245 ; see Papacy. Rosetta (ro-set'ta) Stone, 19-20. Rubicon (ru'bi-con), the crossing of, 203 ; map after 148. Rubruk (ru'bruk). Friar, 325. Rudolph of Hapsburg (haps'buro), 315-6. Rimnymede (run'ny-mede), 286. Sabines (sa 'bines), 150; map, 150. St. Mark's, Venice, Plate .after 322. St. Sophia, Constantinople, Plate after 316. Sais (sa'is), 27; map, 10. Salamis (saFa-mis), Battle of, 94-5; map, 94, 101. Salisbury (sahs'be-ry) Cathedral, Plate after 282 ; cloisters of, 288. Samnites (sam'nites), map after 148. Samos (sa'mos), map after 52. Samson, 49. Samuel, 49. Sappho (sa'fo), 73. Saracens (sar'a-cens), culture in 11th century, 294-5; see Mo- hammedanism. Sardinia, map after 70. Sardis (sar'dis), map after 42. Sargon (sar'gon), of Assyria, 31. Saul, 49. Saxons, in Britain, 245, 267 ; map after 268. Schliemann (schKe'mann), and work, 59. Schoolmen, medieval, 302-4. Schools, in Chaldea, 36 ; in Greece in age of Pericles, 119, 121, 123; Roman, 172 ; in Roman Empire, 224-5; in Empire of Charle- magne, 262; in Middle Ages, 301 ; grow into universities, which see. Science, see Education and Learn- ing. Scipio (scip'i-o) (P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus), 179-90. Scipio Africanus the Younger 180-1. Scythians, in Assyria, 32; and Persians, 42-3. Segesta (se-g6s'ta), map after 70. Semites (sem'ites), and Semitic speech, 30, note. Seneca, 213, 226. Sennacherib (sen-naeh'e-rib), 31. Septuagint (sep'tu-a-gint), the, 145. '20 INDKX Serfdom, in Koiiiaii liinpiro, 2.'io; in IViulal ap;(', 270, 273-4; dis- appeaniiifc in JOn^land, 300-1). Sertorius (ser-to'ri-as), 199. Servius Tullius (scr'vi-us tul'li-us), 152; walls of, 155 and map on 151. Shalmaneser (slii\l-ni;l-ne'scr) II, oholisk of, 32. Sicily, Clreek colonies in, 70; and wars with Carthage, 88, 174; and Punic Wars, 174-5, 176, 177; Roman province, 189. Sidon (sl'don), map after 18 and on 50. Simon of Montfort, 2S9. Slavery, origin, 5; Greek, in Sparta, 82; in Athens, in age ot Pericles, 112-3; I^oman, after Punic Wars, 191 ; under limpire, milder, 228 ; hut of enormous amount, 232 ; see Serfdom. Slavs (slavs), 245; maps after 248, 260. Social War, th(\ in Italy, 198. Socrates (soc'ra-te.^), 110-2; teach- ings on immortality, 115. Sogdiana (s5g'di-an'a), map after 42. Solomon, 50. Solon (so'lon), democratic reforms, 77-8. Sophists. th<'. 110. Sophocles (.sopli'oH'If'.s), 108. Spain, ('arthage in, 175; falls to Home, 180; Vandal conquests and Gothic kingdom, 245; Aral) concjuest, 254 ; rccoxcrN- and union, 31()-7; union with Holy Roman Empire, under Charles, see Charles V. Sparta, leading Dorian city, 81 ; government, 82-3; Spartan training, 82-3; and Persian Wars, 89-96 ; Peloj)onnesiau War, which see; leadership in Hellas, 127-31; and Leuctra, 131-2. Spartacus (.spiir'ta-cus), 199. Sphinx, Plate after 14. State, definition of, 3. States General, French, see Es- tates Gem ml. Stephen, Pope, and Pipj)in, 258. Stoics, 144. Stone Age, 1-5. Stonehenge (stone 'hcnge), Plate after 4. Strabo (stra'bo), 226. Sulla (sul'la), 198-200. Sugar, introduced after C'rusades, 294. Susa (su'sii), maps after 42, 134. Sybaris (syh'a-ris), Greek colony in Italy, map after 70. Syracuse, map after 70. Syria, maps 50 and after 18 and 134. Tacitus (tac'i-tus), 226; on early Christians, 237 ; on Teutons, 244. Talmud (tal'mud), the, 40. Tarentum (tar-en 'tum), map after 70. Tarquins, Roman tyrants, 152. Taurus (tau'rus) Mountains, maps, 33 and after' 38. Telescope, invention of. 324. Tempe (tem'p?), Vale of. in:ip after 52. Ten Thousand, March of the. 129- 30. Terminus (ler'niin-us). god of hounds. 153. Teutones (teu'fn-ne.s) (and Cim- hri). 197-8. Teutonic contributions to civiliza- tion, 263-4. INDEX 27 Teutonic Law, 248-9. Teutonic Order, Knights of the, map after 302. Teutons, in their first homes, 244 ; invasions and kingdoms on Roman soil, 245 and map after 248; and the Dark Ages, 245-6. Thales (tha'Ies), 73. Thasos (tha'sos), map after 52. Thebes (thebes), in Egypt, map, 10; in Greece, map after 52; leadership, 131-2; and Mace- donia, 134; razed, 135. Themistocles (the-mis'to-cles), 91- 2, 94-5, 97-8. Theocritus (the-oc'ri-tus), 142. Theodosius (the-o-do'si-us) the Great, 240-1. Theogony (the-6g'o-ny) of Hesiod, 73. Thermopylae (th6r-mop';y-l2e), Bat- *» tie of, 93 ; map after 52. Thersites (thgr-si'tes), 62. Theseus (the'seus), 61 ; so-called Temple of, 79. Thespis (thgs'pis), 73, 79. Thessaly, map after 52. " Thirty Tyrants," at Athens, 128-31. Thrace, map after 52. Thucydides (thu-cyd'i-des), 109; on Peloponnesian War, 125. Thutmosis (thlit-mo'sis), 25. Tiberius (ti-be'ri-us), 213. Ticinus (ti-cl'nus), Battle of, 176; map after 148. Tintoretto (tin-to-ret'to), 323. Titian (ti'shian), 323. Titus (ti'tus), 215. Toga (to'ga), the, described, 279. Toulouse (tou-louse')> map after 218. Tours (toor). Battle of, 255; map facing 253. Towns, in Graeco-Roman World, 137-9; mider Roman Empire, 220-1; few from 600 to 1100 A.D., 251 ; survival in south Eu- rope, 251 ; rise of, after Cru- sades, 297-8;' hfe in, 298-9; gilds, 299-300; leagues of, see City-State. Trajan (tra'jan), Emperor, 217; column of, 216, and Plate oppo- site ; arch of, Plate after 228. Transubstantiation (tran-sub-stan- shi-a'shon). Doctrine of, 307, note. Trasimene (tras'i-mene). Battle of, 176; map after 148. Trebia (treb'i-a). Battle of, 176; map after 148. Tribune, Roman, 159. Trier, Roman remains at, 225 ; map after 218. Trireme (tri'reme), 124. Trivium (triv'i-um), the Roman, 224. Troubadours (trou'bii-doors), the, 304. Troy, story of siege, 58; excava- tions at, 59-60; map after 70. Tudors, the, 311. Turks, the, 295; and Crusades, 294-6; in southeast Europe, 317. Twelve Tables, the laws of the, 159. Tyrants, Greek, place between oli- garchies and democracies, 74-5. Tyre, 46-7; map after 18 and 38, etc. Ulpian (ul'pi-an), 228. Universities, origin in Graeco-Ori- ental World, see Museum; Ro- man. 224-5; medieval, 301-2. 28 l.\l>K\ Ur, in Chaldoa, .SO, 4S ; maj) aftor 18. Urban VI, Pope, ;5l I. Utica (u'ti-ca), fouiidiMl hv IMiociii- cians, 47 ; map alter 70. Utopia. .V2\. Vandals. 245 and Plate after 240 ; iiiaj) after 248. Van Eycks (Iks'), the, and oil j)aintins, 32.3. Vaphio (vaph'i-o) Cups, the, Plates W. XVI. after .')4. Vasco da Gama (vii.s'co dii gil'ma), :;24. Venice, 217. Venus, 153; see Aphrodite. Verdun (ver-dun'), Treaty of, 205; map of, after 264. Vergil (ver'gil), 226. Verres (vfr'res), and Sicily, 190. Vespasian ( vos-pa'si-an), Emperor, 215. Vesta fves'ta), 65, 1.53. Vestal Virgins, 1.53. Vezere (va-zar') River. Plate after 'rciitoiiic, Wars of the Succession, 140. Wat the Tyler, 30S. Watling Street, 2()S; map after 2(iS. Wergeld (ver'^Mt), 248. Wessex (wes'sex), 26S and map ()p])()site. West Goths, 245; map after 248. William I, of England, 284. Witan (wi'tan), 287, 289. Woman, in primitive indu.'^try, 2, 4, 5; in l"]iz;ypt, 14-5; in Greece, 7S, 113; in Roman Em- pire, 227. Writing, stages in invention of, 6-8; see Alphabet, Hieroglyph- ics, Cuneiform, Printing. Wyclif (\Ay'clif), John, 307, 315. Xenophon (zen'o-ph6n), 110; and " March of the Ten Thousand," 1.30; at ruins of Nineveh, 33. Xerxes (zerx'es), 91-5. York, map after 2 IS. Ypres (e'pr), Hall at, 318. Villa. Rorii.in. Is5( 250 1. Villeins ivil'Ieins), 270 ff. Visigoths (vis'i-trotlis). see Wi:'