Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/outlinesstudyofmOOhopk AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN; OR, ®l)e JSobs anb Mirib in one System. WITH ILLUSTRATIYE DIAGRAMS, AND A METHOD FOR BLACKBOARD TEACHING. BY MARK HOPKINS, D.D., LL. D. II AUTHOR OF "evidences OF CHBISTIANITT," "LECTURES ON MORAL SCIENCE," "the law OF LOVE," ETC. REVISED EDITION, NEW YORK: CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS. 1892. ■H7 Copyright, 1878, ^T SCRIBNER, ARMSTRONG AND COMPANY Copyright, 1886, By CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS. By Transfer D. C. Public Library AUG 3 1 1933 / //^7 - ^^^^^^"^Si'ftOM^UBilc LIBRARY CONTENTS. J ^ LECTUEE I. The Place op Man 1 LECTURE 11. The Body 26 LECTURE IIL Mind. — Intellect. — The Reason 50 LECTURE IV. The Reason. — The Senses, External and Internal . .73 LECTURE V. Recapitulation. — = Consciousness. — Theories, Be- liefs, AND Practical Results 98 LECTURE YL The Representative Faculty. — Control of the Will over the Mental Current . . . .121 LECTURE VIL The Elaborative Faculty, and its Processes. — Con- cepts AND their Properties ..... 145 LECTURE VIII. Reasoning. — Analogy and Experience. — Demonstra- tion AND Probable Reasoning. — Inferring and Proving. — Systemization 172 IV . CONTENTS. LECTURE IX. The Sensibility. — A Good. — Beauty. -- The Lu- DiCKOus. — The Affective Reason .... 194 LECTURE X. Intellect, Sensibility, and Will. — The Practical Reason. — Personality, Causation, Freedoji, Obli- gation, Merit and Demerit, Rights, Responsibil- ity, Punishment 221 LECTURE XL Body ; Soul ; Spirit. — Spontaneity ; Freedom. — The Natural ; Supernatural ; Miraculous. — Conduct ; Obligation ; A Supreme End ; Character, — The Highest Good; The Whole Good; The Law of Limitation 248 LECTURE XII. Original Objects. — Action and its Consequences. — Philosophy of Action from the Constitution. No Christian Moral Philosophy. — Choice. — Su- preme Ends. — Supreme Principle of Action. — Conscience. — A Nature and a Necessity after Choice. — Moral Affections. — Moral Emotions. — Religious Emotions. — The Law of Construction. — The Law of Conduct. — Test of Progress. — Position of Man as a Worshipper .... 275 Appendix 302 Explanation of the Diagram 306 PREFACK As compared with their delivery the following lectures are published at a special disadvantage. For their best effect they need blackboard and drawing facilities, like those of the Lowell Insti- tute. Through those the work done was retained and kept before the audience ; each subject was commented upon as it found its place in the sys- tem and on the board, and thus the system grew before the eye as well as before the mind, till it be- came for both a completed whole. This gave a freshness and interest that could have been had in no other way. The substance of the lectures was preserved in a phonographic report. This, it was found, would be of so much aid in writing them out that the form of lectures and the phraseology appropri- ate to them have been retained, though the refer- ences to the board were so many and of such a character that a recast of many portions has been found necessary. As read, the \ectures would VI PREFACE. scarcely convey a correct impression of the extent to which the board was used. The method of teaching an abstract subject other than Mathematics through the eye has long been practiced in Logic, but until recently has been chiefly confined to that. So far as I know, the first to apply it generally and with success was my friend Mr. Dickinson of the Westfield Normal School. This is not object-teaching. That consists in showing the object itself, but this is the teaching of relations, which are invisible, by means of things that are visible. This facili- tates the holding of abstract subjects steadily be- fore the mind, and I cannot but hope a good deal from it in the way of popularizing studies of this kind. Perhaps it was not wise to attempt the discus- gion of so many and such disputed points within a compass so limited, but an outline has its advan- tages for both the teacher and the learner, and that is all that this claims to be. Besides, meta- physical points are capable of being stated briefly, and are often best seen when thus stated. Liko that Genius in the Arabian Nights who was con- Sued in a jar drawn out of the sea by a fisher- DQiUL, they are capable of being brought into a PREFACE. vn rery narrow compass, as well as of expanding into proportions vast, misty, and mighty. The method of the work is constructive, and so, except as a positive and progressive system must be, not critical or controversial. It gives a LAW OF CONSTKUCTION for the universe so far as we know it, by which the whole, including man, is brought into one system. It gives a Law OP Conduct for man that grows out of the construc- tion ; and also a Law of Li^htation that enables us, as is shown in " The Law of Love," to carry the Law of Conduct into the details of Ufe. In connection with this method the Intuitiona are naturally divided into three kinds, and are presented in an order different from that gener- ally followed. Part of them are also seen to be complex, and in connection with their complexity, systems that have been supposed to be opposed &re readily reconciled. In following out the system, and Ln turning irom books to the investigation of the subjects themselves, I have found myself differing more frequently and more widely from those who are regarded as authorities than I expected. Such difference will be found not only in regard to the oature and place of the Intuitions, but in regard Vlll PREFACK to Consciousness, to Perception, to various doo trines of Logic, to the central position of Choice, and to the nature and necessity that precede and follow that as they are related to Choice and to each other. The work will, therefore, be found to differ from others, both in its Method and its System. K these are correct, errors of detail will be of minor consequence. Whatever may be its fate, I shall be content if this work shall awaken in the community a wider interest in the study of man, — of man in hia unity so marvellously complex, as he is related to the universe around him, to his fellow-men, and to God. N. B. The diagrams which vnll be found in the following Lectures are to be read from the bottom upwards ; and the reader will bear in mind that, in the use of the diagrams and of the black- board, the process is always that of starting with ft conamon foundation and building up. A^ OUTLINE STUDY OF MAJS^. LEC5TURE I. THE PLACE OE MAN. Is it possible to present the most abstract and difficult questions of metaphysics so that they shall be interesting and profitable to a popular audience? I think it is. I think so partly be- cause, as these questions naturally suggest them- selves to every man, so the elements for theii solution are found in every man ; and partly from an experiment which I made here four years ago, and from my experience since. I was aware at that time that some of my lec- tures, especially those on the foundation of obliga- tion^ would require more careful attention than could reasonably be expected from a popular au- dience; therefore, anticipating that the audience would be small, I consulted Mr. Lowell on the expediency of permitting, as had been my custom with classes in college, questions from the audi- ence. It did not seem to him expedient, and I have no doubt he was righi. Then, being averse 1 2 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. to saying anything that could not be perfectly un- derstood, and seeing a blackboard behind me, 1 laid aside my manuscript and gave three or four lectures on the more abtruse points with the aid oi that. This was thought to be a success^ and I have so far followed the method since as to desire to test it further ; for if these studies can be popu- larized, it will be a public benefit. It will, then, be my first object in the following course to present this class of subjects so that they can be readily understood by any one who will give attention. I beHeve in no transcen- dental metaphysics which are not capable of be- ing communicated in good English, and of being understood by any man of good common sense. A second object wiU be to present man in his unity. Man is so complex, so many studies origi- nate from him, that he is seldom studied except in a fragmentary way. Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology, Logic, Morals, are studied separately, and with Httle reference to their relation to each »ther. I shall also wish to present at different points views of my own which I think in some measure new, and not without importance. In one sensi nothmg on these subjects can be new. There car be no new elements, but the elements may hi presented in new relations ; they may be more carefully discriminated, and, perhaps b^er ^f^ ranged. UNORGANIZED AND ORGANIZED BODIES. 8 We pass, then, to the study of man. And first let us find his place. This we can do only as we separate man from other beings and objects. In making this separation I observe that all beings and objects that fall under our observation are divided into two great classes — they are either unorganized or organized. Let us look at some of the differences between these, most of which have been noticed by physiologists. Unorganized and organized bodies differ, first, in their origin. Organized bodies originate in a germ, a seed, a spore, a cell, in something that is itself organ ized. It is now generally, though not universally, conceded by naturalists that there is no such thing as spontaneous generation. Between life and or- ganization there is a relation of interdependence, as between the different parts of a circle. They imply each other in a way that seems to necessi- tate a simultaneous origin, and from a higher power. Organization could not first be without life, and fife could have no means of manifestation without organization. It is said, indeed, that there is living matter that is not organized. It has been said that the amoeba is a mere mass of unorgan- ized jelly, but that is now disproved ; and the as- sertion that anything has life, or can be made to have it, that is not either organized or the pioduct of organization, be it protoplasm or what it may, 18 a mere assiiniption. 4 AN OUTLLXE STUDY OF ilAN. Unorganized and organized bodies differ, in th« second place, in their composition. Unorganized bodies may be simple, having no composition properly so called, but simply aggre- gation. They may have two or more elements. In organized bodies there are always three ele- ments, one of which is carbon. Unorganized and organized bodies differ, in the third place, in their structui-e. Organized bodies have cellular and vascular tissues. They consist of parts performing func- tions through which those parts are mutually re- lated to each other and to the whole. These parts cannot be wholes, while any part of a mass of sil- ver is as much a whole as the whole is. An arm is not and cannot be a whole in any such sense as that. In an organized body the parts are mutually related as means and ends. In an unorganized body there is no such relation. In the fourth place, unorganized and organized bodies differ in their mode of preservation. In unorganized bodies the individual is preserved as long as the species. In organized bodies the in- dividual perishes and the species only is preserved. In the one there is a growth and decay from ac- tivities within ; in the other there is no growth and no decay, and all changes are by the operation of agencies from without. There is simply aggrega- tion and disintegration by the action of exteornai forces. In the one there is health and disease, m the other there is nothing of the kind. M,^^ V UNORGANIZED AND ORGANIZED BODIES. Once more, these bodies differ in their Motive Forces. In unorganized bodies certain general forces, as gravitation and cohesion and chemical afl&nity, are the forces that produce motion. But in organized bodies there is a force commonly known as Life, that coordinates the action of the parts with ref- erence to the end of the whole. This is a crucial test as between organized bodies and those that are not. In an unorganized body there is no end of the whole within itself, so that well-being or the reverse can be affirmed of it. There is also another such test that is worthy of attention as opposed to the ^orts now made to identify the processes of crystallization with those of life. In all upbuilding by Ufe there is first, not only a selection of the material, but a preparation of it, and then a placing of it where it is needed. Hence the movement of the material is from within outward, which is never the case under any lower force, and this movement is by a force which preserves the identity of the being while its ma- terials are changed. We have, then, as discrimi- lating the organic from the inorganic force, first, the preparation of the material ; second, its movement from within outward, or from the point where it is prepared to that where it is needed. This is the beginning of a reverse movement, of a new order of things in which the process is not by aggrega- tion or evolution or development, but by growth b AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. And third, there is identity of the being with change of the material. I have thus mentioned the main differences be- tween unorganized and organized bodies. By these they are sufficiently distinguished. Now man is organized. Leaving, then, unorganized matter we pass on in our analysis of what we see around us and observe that organized bodies are divided into two great classes — Vegetables and Animals. These have much in common in those functions that are called organic, but they differ, — First, in their composition. For the most part they thus differ, though there are individual exceptions. For the most part ani^ mal organizations consist of a greater number of elements. Nitrogen is added. In the vegetable, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon are always present, with little nitrogen. In the animal, nitrogen ia more abundant. Hence animal substances may generally be distinguished by the peculiar smell, as of burnt feathers, which is produced by the burning of bodies which have nitrogen in them. Vegetables and animals differ, in the second place, in their structure. A vegetable has no muscles. It has no nerves 3r nervous tissue. They differ, again, in their mode of nutrition. Vegetables have the power, and animals have VEGETABLES AND ANIMALS. 7 not, of obtaining nourishment from unorgan- ized matter. There are instances of vegetables, aa the mushroom and certain parasitic plants thiit are Qourished by matter that has been the product of organization, but there is no well established in«> stance of an animal that is nourished by matter that has not been organized. This power of the vegetable to find its nourishment in unorganized matter is regarded by some as its great character- istic. Certainly it is the great function and use of the vegetable world to come between animals and unorganized matter, and to prepare materials for their nourishment and use.^ The great difference, however, between vegeta- bles and animals is, that animals have, and vege- tables have not, sensation and voluntary motion. We may not be able to discriminate between the sensitive plant and the animal. It is marvel- ous how Nature simulates in that which is lower that which is higher ; how she avoids abrupt and great transitions, and hence some say that there is no difference. It may be impossible for us to draw the line, but there is a line ; there must be. Either there is sensation or there is not. If there be sensation, it is an animal ; if there be not, it is a vegetable. It may be that God only knows where the line is, but there is a line, definite and fixed ; there is a point where you go over to an- other thing, whoUy anotner thing, because, when sensation begins it is waolly anot!ier thing. Cer- ' See Appendix A. 8 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. tainly tliere is a point where there is no sensation, and certainly there is a point where there is sensa- tion, and if we may not be able to draw the line it yet exists, and it is a new thing, altogether different that comes in. And the same thing is true of vol- untary motion. The sensitive plant has motion^ but anatomists say this is from irritability, and not from will. The motion is no more voluntary than that of the clouds. Here again there is a line whether we are able to discern it or not, a radical difference, a new thing that comes in — there is voluntary motion. These two make a difference heaven wide between the vegetable and the animal. Now man is an animal, and we next seek the difference, or differences between him and other animals. There are, indeed, those who think that man should not be classed as an animal; and if such classification must imply that he is nothing more, they are right. Man, as man, is not an animal. So far, however, as he has animal characteristics he may be classed as an animal, and if it cannot be shown that he has something more, the classification will be wholly correct. First, then, man differs from animals in certain ohysical characteristics. He is the only animal that is clearly both two-handed and two-footed. Hence he is the only animal that is fitted for an erect posture. These two characteristics, — th« ANIMALS AND MAN. 9 release of the upper extremity from all use in locomotion, and his erect position, cause his rela- tions to Nature around and above him to be differ- ent fi-om those of the animals. By the hand he conquers Nature, and by his erect position he studies the heavens. No animal can do either Man is also the only animal that has a chin. I believe that is so. I know that Dr. John Augus- tine Smith, with whom I studied medicine, used to say that ; and he said he always thought that when the chin was deficient, there was some defi- ciency in the upper story. Again, man differs from mere animals in cer- tain intellecfcupl characteristics. Animals have no thougiit in the sense in which that word is now used. They have no insight properly, that is, no comprehension of the rela- tions of parts when parts are put together so as to make a complex whole. They may generalize faintly, but give no evidence of abstract ideas. They may know that a thing is white, but do not know whiteness. Nor is there any evidence that animals have either necessary or universal ideas in such a sense as to recognize them as necessary and universal. When an animal is driven into a corner, it is not probable that he knows it as an angle ; but if he does, he does not know, and cannot be made to know, that the three angles of every- triangle must be equal to two right angles. Whether an animal knows that 10 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN he is in space may be doubted, but he does not know that a body must be in space, nor that space must be infinite. Lacking thus those necessary ideas which constitute man rational, or at least without which he could not be rational, no ani- mal is capable of studying any science as such, or of any rational discourse. In connection with this it may be stated that man is the only animal that uses either articulate language or arbitrary signs as a means of intercommunication. In consequence of these physical and intellect- ual differences — and it is to be said that the physical differences would avail nothing without the intellectual — man has, and the animal has not, a capacity for progress in the race. Through written and spoken language man can avail him- self of the experience and improvements of the past. This animals cannot do. Each genera- lion begins where the previous one began, and runs the same round. The bee and the beaver build to-day, under the same conditions, as they did four thousand ^^ears ago. K there are trans- mitted modifications of instinct it is only of those instincts wliich tend to the preservation of the individual, and of the race. In connection with his capacity for progress^ and for possessing the whole eartli, man is the only being that uses fire, or metals, or artificial 3lothing, or that invents and uses machinery ^nd what a marvelous difference does this make POWER TO PRODUCF REMOTE EFFECTS. 11 in onr day, this use of machinery ! In conne(^iioii with this, too, man is the only being capable of buying and selhng, of commerce, and of an inter- change of commodities. It is further in connection with the powers al- ready mentioned that man has the wish and the power to produce remote effects, — effects that are remote from himself both in space and in time. Man alone has this wish and power. The animal produces whatever effects it may produce through the agency of its muscles in the place where it is ; but man has the wish and the power to produce effects upon the other side of the globe. It is a great and distinguisliing prerogative of man that he is able, in connection with those agencies which he can control, to cause his will to be felt over the globe and through indefinite periods of time. Whether man has emotions not from the moral nature different in kind from those of the brute it is impossible to say with certainty. I think he has. As he alone lauglis, so I think he alone has the perception and feeling involved in that. As ha is the only ridiculous animal, so I incline to think he is the only one that has a sense of the ridiculous. But whatever may be said of the emotions just mentioned I observe again that man differs from all mere animals in possessing a moral and relig- ious nature. 12 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. I know tliere are those who say that the dog. with perhaps other animals, has a perception ot moral relations; and it must be admitted that, as in other cases of gradation, there is an appearance of something that approximates it, but is not it. The condition of a moral nature is personal- ity. It is something within in virtue of which the being becomes, or may become, subject to moral law, of which a brute knows nothing. He is governed by impulse and not by law. The same m true of worship. The brute has not the prerequisites for it, and to identify the feeling of a dog towards his master with that, shows an ignorance of its elements. God is properly an object of worship only as He has moral charac- ter, and the recognition of this must imply a knowledge of moral law, and of obligation under that law, of which the brute is incapable. Be- sides, true worship can be rendered only to a spiritual and invisible God, whereas the brute is mcapable of being affected except through the senses. "Whom," says an apostle, "having not Been ye love." No animal can love a being it has never seen, or can love at all on the ground of moral and spiritual excellence. But as in passing from the vegetable to the ani- mal we found a single decisive test, so I think we may here^ A number of tests have been proposed. Some have said that the distinctive difference be- tween man and the animals is the power of foriE- POWER OP CHOICE. . 18 ing general ideas, and of using general terms ; some that it is the power of abstraction, and others that it is the power of looking in upon him- self, and of so making himself the object of his con- templation as to become at once both subject and object. But to me it seems that the discriminat- ing difference is that man has the power to choose his own supreme end and the brute has not. A brute aces from impulse and is driven by its consti- tution to its end. It has no power to compare different motives and principles of action and to make one supreme. It has no power of choice with an alternative in khid, and so no true free- dom. It is not a being that is capable of contem- plating different possible ends of its being and of choosing or rejecting its true end. Man is such a being. Hence man has, and the brute has not, elements by which he may become a fool. A brute cannot be a fool. Only a man can be a fool. There are no elements in a brute by which he can be made a devil ; neither are there any by which he can be made an angel. But man can become a fool, or a devil, or an angel. Thus, as I think, do we find man. He is broadly discriminated from all other beings ; so broadly, that he properly belongs to a diif erent order. Of man, as thus found, we next inquire whi^t his place is relatively to other beings. We say that he is higher than any other being. But by 14 AH OUTLINE STUDY OF MAJ^. what test ? If the brute were to make the stat/v ment would he not say that he was higher? le there aii}^ proper test by which we can ascertain what is higher and what is lower ? Naturalists say that specialization is a test. We find in what are called the lower forms of organization that the f mictions, as of nutrition and of circulation, are performed without particular or- gans, and that, as the animal becomes higher, the organs are speciahzed, and each function has its own organs ; and it is generally true that as there is more specialization the animal comes to be higher. At the same time the speciahzation in the musquito, for instance, is as perfect as it can be anywhere. There is no more perfect adaptation or specialization in Nature that I know of than in the bUl of the musquito. There is a larger amount of specialization in man, but the specialization itself is as perfect in the lower animals as in him. But we need a broader principle ; we need one by which we may judge of that which is higher or lower, not merely with respect to animals as they axe related to each other, but with respect to the forces of Natm:e, the faculties of man and their products, and the whole structure of the universe. Such a principle, if there be one, must be thai which gives its unity to the universe. The princi- ple is, that those forces, and forms of being, and faculties, and products, are lower, which are a condition for others that are conditioned upon CAUSE AND CONDITION. 15 them. I believe that there is a gi'eat law of con- ditioning and conditioned, by which we may know wliat is higher and lower throughout the whole range of being. But here i^ will be necessary to say that I do not accept tne doctrine adopted by both Hamilton and Mill, and also by some of our American writers, that there is no difference between a cause and a condition ; or that the condition of a tiling is, in any proper sense, a part of the cause. Sir William Hamilton says, " By cause I mean everything without which the effect could not be realized." That is his definition of a cause. But a house could not be without materials of some kind of which to construct it ; and I ask you whether, in accordance with any proper meaning of that term, the materials are a part of the cause of a house, or whether they are simply a condition through which it becomes possible that the intelli- gent agency of the builder should be put forth and become a cause. The same may be said of the foundation of a house. Without a foundation a house cannot be, but the foundation is no part of the cause of the house. The earth could not be, we could not be, without space. Space is the con- dition of matter. I ask you w^hether you beheve it is in any proper sense its cause. I therefore make a distinction at this point between a cause and a condition. It is a distinction which I thhik may De maintained, and which ought to be main 16 - AN OUILINE STUDY OF MAN. tained in the interest of both clearness of expres- sion and of thought. I say, then, that some things are the condition of other things ; that the law of conditioning and conditioned runs through God's universe ; and that it is that by which we know, or may know, scientifically, that one thing is higher ihan another. Let us then see how this is with reference to the great forces by which the miiverse is controlled. I speak of forces, and for the present we must speak thus whatever may be true of the doctrLi^e of the correlation of forces by which it is possible they may all be resolved into one. Indeed, it matters httle for our purpose whether what we have been accustomed to call the great forces of Nature are really separate forces, or different modes of one force. Leaving this, then, let us suppose, according to the statement of the Bible and the nebular theory, that " In the beginning the earth was without form and void," — mere diffused, nebiilous, chaotic, surging matter in space ; what would be the force which must act in order to bring this matter into such a condition that it might serve the purpose of a world ? Evidently it would be the force of Gravitation ; that is to say, it would be that force by which aU matter tends to- wards all matter by a certain definite law. It would be necessary that such a force or mode oi force should exist and apply itself to every particle of matter in order to its aggregation in such a way TWO ASi'ECTS OF MATTER. . 17 hat it could become subject to the action of any pther force or mode of force. Being thus the con- dition for the action of any other force we may set Gravitation down as the lowest and most universal of all the forces or forms of force. In matter as thus subject to this lowest and most universal law we find those two aspects of it that have set thinkers in opposition to each other as they have regarded one or the other of them ex- clusively. These are the aspect of necessity ; and that of being controlled with reference to an end. The necessity is apparently absolute since there can be nothing in matter to resist the force, and since its movements under this law can be math- ematically calculated. These movements would therefore seem to have not only the necessity that belongs to physical law as uniform, but that abso- lute necessity which is involved in mathematical relations. On the other hand, no evidence of free- dom can be greater than the control of force di- rected to an end : and that matter under the con- trol of this force is so directed there can be no doubt. And so these two aspects or faces of mat- ter under law have looked, one towards necessity and atheism, and the other towards freedom and God, and men have failed to see their reconciliation in the fact that absolute uniformity — even that which may be expressed by mathematical relations — may be the highest and most perfect result of an intelhgent will working towards an end which .8 AN OUTLlLv'E STUDY OF MAN. could be best accomplislied only in that way. These two aspects I refer to now because they are quite as prominent in this lowest law as in any other, and because they present themselves in every form of physical law. By gravitation matter is brought together, but simply as loose particles. That it may be service- able as matter now is, there must be a force which will unite the particles into separate bodies. What is this ? It is the attraction of Cohesion. This exists between the particles of all bodies whether sohd or fluid that can be defined or limited as separate bodies. This would give us a world made up of the different kinds of matter indiscrim- inately mixed, or with kinds separated as in crys- talHzation. What force, then, is there by which such indis- criminate mixture may be avoided, and the varie- ties and combinations of matter as we now have them be given us ? It is Chemical Afiinity, which is the next higher power as conditioned upon grav- itation and cohesion. Under this, also, as mider cavitation, we have uniformities so perfect that they may be represented by mathematical for- mulae. We thus have the three great forces of inor- ganic matter in their order as lower and higher, each one of them being the basis of some form oi physical science. Gravitation gives us Astronomy vnth the laws of failing bodies ; Cohesion gives CBYSTALLIZATION. — VEGETABLE LIFE. 19 as crystallography and portions of mechanics ; and Chemical Affinity gives us the now great science of Chemistry. These laws suffice to themselves. They would produce a permanent world and system of worlds, but these would be of no use except as A condition of a higher order. That higher order they anticipate and prefigure by producing through erystalhzation regular forms. In crystallization, and in crystals, through definite form, we find the lowest point of transition from inorganic to organia matter. Here again, too, we find matter con- trolled under the semblance of mathematical neces- sity with reference to ends, — the ends of beauty and of utility. Special mystery is supposed to be attached to the force that gives us organisms, but I do not see that it is more mysterious than that which gives us crystals. Indeed the whole mystery is given in any form of force apparently imper- sonal, whether it can be expressed by mathemat- ical formula or not, that works so miiformly as to give what we call a law, and to seem necessitated, and yet that works in the mterest of ends beyond itself, and that run up into spheres of which, re- garded as impersonal, it can know nothmg. So these laws work, regai'ded as the condition of the manifestation and force which is next above them. This is vegetable life. These laws being given, and working upon suitable materials, we have the condition on which vegetable life, what- ever that may be, can work. Without them veg- etable life could not be. 20 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. Agaiii, having vegetable life given, mediating as it does between inorganic nature and animal life, by converting inorganic matter into food, by absorb LQg superfluous carbon, and by giving out oxygen to supply the waste made by animals, we have the conditions, and the only conditions, on which ani- mal life could be produced and permanently main- tained. This then gives us our next higher force — Animal Life. But one higher force remains, that is, Rational or Spiritual Life. That an animal life is a neces- sary condition of this in all beings, is not claimed or supposed. But in man it is. Man exists in his present state only as the laws and forces already mentioned are given as a part of himself, and to be subjected under the force of a Rational and Free Will. This gives us Maj^. These forces, their products and relations, ma^i be presented on the board thus, Man. Animal Life. Vegetable Life. Chemical AfiSnity. Cohesion. Gravitation. MAN. 21 In this figure we see the different steps of the creation as it went up, taking with it all that was below, and adding something at every step. At first we have only Gravitation, then Cohesion; but every particle that coheres also gravitates. Then we have Chemical Affinity ; but every particle united by that also coheres and gravitates, and BO on upward till we reach man. In him we find at work Gravitation, Cohesion, Chemical Affinity, that Organic Life which belongs to the vegetable, a Life that is merely animal, and also that higher Rational, Moral, and Spiritual Life, which is pecuUar to himself. Everything is car- ried up, and then something is added — it is not developed from what is below, or caused by it — but added to it till we reach man at the top. Man is there by the possession of everything that is below him, and something more, — that some- thing being that which makes him man. Having thus in himself" generically all that is below him, man has tlie power of entering into sympathy with it; and then, in virtue of those rational and moral powers, and of that freedom of choice with an alternative in kind which he alone possesses, he ha=s not only the capacity to compre- hend speculatively what is below him, which no animal has in any degi*ee, but also the higher ca- pacity and the natural right to rule over it. Thus do Philosophy and the Scriptures agi-ee in making the outcome of those faculties by which man is dis- tinguished from the brutes to be dominion. The 22 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. idea of dominion on the part of any brute as origi- nating in comprehension, as exercised in freedom, and as extending over any distance in space, or any period of time, is absurd. Looking at the relations of the forces and powers as presented on the board, we see that man has a right to the highest place on two grounds. First, all other things are a condition for him. He is conditioned upon them. They precede him, not arbitrarily, as a herald precedes a king, but in the way of preparation, as soil pre- cedes vegetation, and as vegetable precedes ani- mal life. So far as the creation was a process of upbuilding, that which came last was of course highest. But again, man. is also highest because he subordinates all things to his own ends and uses them as they do not use him. Pope says, indeed, — " While man exclaims ' see all things for my use, * See man for mine,' replies a pampered goose.' '' But though in the ordering of Providence man may be of use to the goose, it is still true that he makes use of the goose, while the goose does not make use of him at all. So of all other animals, and of all natural forces. Tlje earth was given to man that he might '« replenish" and "subdue" it, and make it subservient to his own ends. The superiority of man as thus seen is not anomalous. It is wholly analogous to the supe- riority of each higher force to those below it. Each of them makes use of those below as they HIGHER FORCES NOT DEVELOPED. 23 do not of it 5 and, indeed, each manifests itself only on the condition of overcoming that which is below it. Cohesion in the wall above us and in the objects around us, manifests itself oaily as it overcomes gravitation, holding the parts in tlieix place in opposition to it. If there were as little cohesion among the particles of the wall as there is ir. water, it would come down at once. Chem- ical Affinity manifests itself only as overcoming cohesion, and Vegetable I^if e only as overcoming all the three lower forces, separating from their affini- ties and cohesions the particles it needs, bringing them into new relations, and lifthig them, in oppo sition to gravitation, a hundred and fifty, yes, in the great trees of California, three hundred and fifty feet into the air. And this holds all the way up. Man acts, as man, chiefly as he resists and overcomes lower forces. The above relation of these forces to each other in its bearing on the doctrine of development was, I believe, first seen and stated by President Ohadbourne in liis lectures liere on Natural The- ology. That bearing is this. It is not readily Been how a force manifesting itself in conjuncti(erf orm it ? Whoever knows all that is impKed In these questions knows all he needs to know in regard to the body in health, since a knowledge of the laws of health is involved in that of the func- tions and the mode of theii* performance. The physician needs to know another class oi sciences. That you should all know the position and struct- ure of those organs and tigsues of the body by 30 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. which the functions of Hf e are performed, is desira- ble, but not necessary for our present purpose. The body is not a single system. It is consti- tuted of different systems that are separate from each other, and are capable, at least some of them, of being shown separately. They have intimate relations to each other, and are bound up together, but are still separate, and each of these systems has a separate function. If then we would study this subject in accordance with the principle laid down, we shall need to inquire in the first place, just as we inquired in regard to the lowest and most universal force in nature, what that funda- mental function is without which none of the rest could be performed. I am perfectly aware, and it cannot fail to occur to you as I proceed, of the circle that is imphed in these inquiries. In any given organiza- tion, life seems to move in a circle, each system and function implying every other. The heart, where there is a heart, implies the stomach, and the stomach, the heart. The heart needs the stomach to supply it with nutriment, and the Btnmach needs the heart to supply it with blood. This is because, when we reach organization, we find, not merely as heretofore, dependence of the higher upon the lower, but a system of interdepend- ence. In all organizations, there is not only a dependence of the higher upon the lower, but also a reaction of the higher upon the lower, binding THE DIGESTITE SYSTEM. 3l them together in a union so close that " if one member suffer all the members suffer with it." In this view of it the different systems may be said to be reciprocally conditioned upon each other. Still there is an order of nature and of thought by which these systems may be presented as condi- tioning and conditioned, in accordance with the principle already laid down. To proceed then : if anything is to be built, it is obvious that we must have something to build it of. We must have, material; and in the case of all organizations, so far as I know, some prepara- tion of that material is needed. The process by which this preparation is made in the human system, for we are now speaking only of that, is called digestion. This process, with its accessories, is performed by the organs of mastication, and by the stomach and intestinal canal, together with the organs of secretion connected with them. It con- sists of various steps, and is so scientific that science cannot perform it ; or, if you please, so artificial that art cannot reach it. So it is in man, and in- deed everywhere .; but in the lower forms of organ- ization the process is simple, and the organ may seem a mere surface. But whatever the organ may be we must have the material ; that material must be prepared ; the process by which it is pre- pared is digestion ; and, as that process is, at least in thought, the condition of any other, we may set down as lowest THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 32 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. But when the material for building up the body has been prepared, what next is required ? evidently it must be transported to the point where it is needed. The system which does this is composed of the heart, the arteries, and the capillaries. The veins, as returning the blood to the heart, are acces- sory to these, and are a part of the same system. As the blood goes out from the heart and returns to it, it is said to circulate, and this movement gives its name to the system. Its object, however, is distribution, and since this is immediately con- ditioned upon the digestive system, and is itself the condition of any other system, we have as next in order THE CIBCIJLATORY SYSTEM. For some reason not fully understood by us it is requisite for the fitness of fluids which are to be used in building up animal bodies, I believe uni- versally, certainly it is so in man, that they should first be acted upon by the oxygen of the atmos- phere. That this may be done we have what ia called the smaller circulation, in which the blood is carried from the right side of the heart through the lungs, and returned to its left side. In thus pass- ing it loses carbon and its dark color, taking on a bright scarlet, and thus becomes fitted for its work We thus have THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. RESPmATOBI AND SECRETOBY SYSTEMS. 83 What next ? The material is now prepared for ase, but its constituent parts are mixed in one fluid, and we need special fluids to be used for particular purposes in different parts of the body. We need tears to moisten the eyes, and ear-wax to guard the ears from insects, and saliva to moisten the mouth and to enable us to swallow food that is dry. For digesting the food and its chylification, we need the gastric juice, the pancreatic juice, and the bile ; we need synovia for the joints, and we need to have the ashes of the system, when the car- bon has been consumed, separated and carried off. These and similar selections and processes are per- formed for the most part by what are called glands, sometimes by what seem to be only surfaces, and the system by which they are performed is that which comes next in order. It is called THE SECRETORY SYSTEM. But in the processes of life there is constant waste. The material becomes unfit for use. What are you to do with it ? You strike your finger- nail and there comes under it extravasated blood. What is to become of it ? Plainly we need a set of vessels, everywhere at work, that may be called scavengers, as having, for their chief office, to gather up waste material and carry it into those channels by which it may be eliminated from the body. This system is next in order, and is Ciilled THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM. 34 AH OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. The systems already considered, or at least the functions performed by them, seem necessary to life in any form. We now pass to those that are built up by these, and which belong to special forms of Hfe, generally those that are higher, H the body of man was to be erect and movable, a permanent frame work with joints was necessary. Such a frame- work we find in the bones. Of these the main objects are support and leverage, but they also, as in the skull and thorax, furnish protection. For these all the other systems are a condition, and BO we have in the next place THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. Having then somethmg to be moved, and having joints and leverage, we need that which shall move it. This we have in the muscles. These are ad- justed to the bones so as to produce by their mu- tual contractions and relaxations just the motions, and all the motions of which the joints admit. For these, in a being like man, the bones are a con- dition. We thus have next THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. But the muscles have neither intelligence noi power, unless, indeed, it be what is called the vis insitaj by which they are simply held in position, and hold the bones strongly together. If they are to contract, it must be by a stimulus from without THE NOVOUS SYSTEM. 35 themselves ; and if they are to contract in obedience fco intelligence and will, there must be some system in which that intelligence and will shall more im- mediately reside. This system must, moreover, be related to the muscles on the one hand, and to the external world on the other, so as to be at once receptive of sensations and a fountain of power. Such a system we have in the brain, the spinal marrow, and the nerves. Of these the larger por- tions are central, are wholly inclosed in bone, and show by their position and the care with which they are guarded, that the other systems were made with reference to them, while the nerves are chan- nels of sensation and of motive power. We thus have next, and highest as completing the individ ual ' THE KEKVOUS SYSTE:M. But though we have thus reached the top so far as the individual is concerned, we have not yet enumerated all the systems. There are two more, incidental, but yet essential. The systems already given have been given as separate. They may be conceived of as separate, and several of them may, to a great extent,, be actually separated from the rest. If we but had the skill, the circulatory; the digestive, and the nervous systems might be drawn out from the rest and shown separately as the skeleton actu- ally is. Kow is it then that they are so bound 36 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. together as to become a unity ? This is done hy a mass of cellular tissue which enyelops and per- vades the other tissues of the body. Take, for instance, the muscles as composed of those little fleshy fibres that have the power of contraction, and each one of those fibres is enveloped by a portion of cellular tissue that passes on to a point where they all unite and are hardened into a ten- don. This tissue thus pervading all parts of the body is called cellular, because it is connected throughout by cells, and it is in that that the fat is deposited. It is in that also that the water collects in dropsy. A man with this disease may seem large, but if you tap him in the top of his foot, several gallons of water will run off, and he will collapse at once, showing that this cellular tissue is connected throughout the body. It is exceedingly fine. If it could be separated, it would weigh but a few ounces, and you could double it up and hold it in your hand. It has withal no sensibility, and yet it is absolutely indispensable to the unity of the body that thert should be this fine, all-pervading, unobtrusive sys- tem. It is called THE CELLULAR SYSTEM. ' . But since it performs no distinct function by itself, but is only incidental and subsidiary, it cannot be ranked with the others. It seems to OLLLULAB AND TEGUMENT ARY SYSTEMS. 87 me it should be written across the ends of the others to show that it pervades the whole, and binds the whole together. The Cellular System, however, is not the only one that is thus incidental. It binds the others together indeed and gives them unity, but they also need to be covered. They would not look well otherwise. We have therefore a covering provided, which also indeed performs other func- tions. It consists of three layers, the scarf-skin, the rete mucosum, which holds the coloring matter, and the true skin. These three parts, including the hair and the nails, which are sup- posed to pertain to the scarf-skin, compose THE TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM. This also requires the same arrangement in the mode of its presentation as the Cellular System. I have now given in their order the functions that seem necessary to be performed, and also the systems that perform them, but there are two great functions performed in the body for which we know of no systems. One of these is what '"^ ^«i ASSIMILATION. ^ 1 his is the most wonderful process that takes place in the physical system, that is, if there is any dif- ference between them. You wiU see what is meant by this. Suppose you have the food prepared, sup- pose it dianged by the lungs, and circulated* and 38 A^ OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. special fluids secreted, what have you to do fur- ther? Why, you have to construct the system. Here you have a great variety of substances and tissues ; you have the skin, the hair, the nails, the muscles, the bones, the enamel of the teeth, the peculiar matter of which the eye is formed, and all this is to be taken from one common fluid, that is, the blood. Now when the food is brought in a fluid state to the point where it is needed, what is it that causes it to become skin, or nail, or bone, or muscle? What is it? Nobody knows what the system or organ is that does it. As far as we can understand it, it is performed at the point where the arteries terminate and the veins begin. And that is most marvelous, because, so far as I know, there is no microscope, wonderful as are the improvements in that instrument, that can discover the exact point where the arteries run into the veins. Yet there is no doubt about it. It is, as it is called, a system of circulation. The blood goes in a circle, and moreover there is no doubt about the fact of a very free intercommuni- cation between the arteries and the veins. Some of you may remember, I do, when they used to bleed people, and may have noticed how the flow of the blood would be instantly quickened by loosening the cord about the arm when it had been made so tight as to check the flow of blood in the artery. This was such as could be ac- counted for in no way except by supposing the ASSIAHLATION. — CALORIFICATION. 39 Ar*;eFies and veins to inosculate, as the doctors eaj, at some point, and so, to form one continuous drcle. It is at that point, so far as we can judge, that this process of assimilation takes place. But what is it at that point that knows the material that is required for bone, for muscle, for skin, for the enamel of the teeth, and selects it, and carries it to its proper place, and so fixes it there as to complete the texture ? What it is nobody knows, but it is this selection of material from a common fluid, and this compacting and arranging of it into organized tissue that is called assimilation, and it is a wonderful process — a process without which all the others had been useless. So far as we can discover, there is, as has been said, no separate system by which this process is performed, but it seems to be performed by the capillaries that con- Qect the arteries and the veins. Then there is another great function which seema to have no separate system. This is what is called CALOEIFICATION or the heating of the body. On that subject there have been all kinds of theories since my remem- brance. There was a time when the heat of the body was accounted for by supposing that the lungs were a furnace, and that there was combustion in them just as there is in a fire-place. No doubt there is in the lungs a union of oxygen and carbon, and carbonic acid is formed. But then it is not 40 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. nny hotter in the lungs than it is elsewhere. But if the fire is there it ought to be hotter. Then it was said that arterial blood contained latent heat which was diffused as it went on. That was in the days when it was supposed there was such A thing as heat, but since that is exploded, and aK heat is motion, it may be doubted whether there is such a thing as latent motion. It would appear therefore that the function of calorification is performed in some way in connection with that of assimilation, perhaps in accordance with the law that heat is evolved when a fluid becomes soHd. It may be also that in that destruction of organization which is constantly going on in the body, there is a union of oxygen with the material, from which heat is evolved. At any rate we know of no separate system by which this function is performed. We have then, so far as I know, the systems and functions that are requisite for the well-being of the body, and they may be presented togethei thus : Nervous. Muscular. >; Osseous. o g Absorbent. ^ S M ^ Secretory. j a 2 g Respiratory. S S < £ Circulatory. B « DlGESTIVK. That is th@ order ii^ which, on the whole, 4 THE BODY. 41 Bhould put them. In regard to some of them there may be room for question. If there are physi- cians here, they, very hkely, would think so. For instance, there might be criticism at this point. I have put the circulatory immediately above the digestive system, but when the material is digested and separated in the stomach and intestines, before it goes into what may properly be called the cir- culatory system, it is taken up by a set of absorb- ents called lacteals, and is carried by them into the circulatory system. Some physiologists would therefore say that the absorbent system should be placed next above the digestive, but I regard the lacteals as a part of the digestive system, and think that that system properly continues till its product is delivered over to another. If now you look at that as a whole, you will observe that it may be divided into two parts by a line between the absorbent and osseous systems, and that the five which are below are used ioi the purpose of building and repairing the three which are above. Whatever jon may say about the arrangement of the whole, nothing can be plainer than that the five lower systems are necessary as a condition for those which are above them. These are the builders and repairers, and their functions are common to vegetables and to animpJs. Vegetables have what is equivalent to digestion ; they have a circulation, and they have respiration. A tree brea,thes through its leaves, 42 AK OUTLINE STUDY OF UAH. and it circulates its fluids once a year. It haa also secretions and absorbents. Ail these are com- mon to the animal and the vegetable, but the three above are the systems that are to be built up. But between the two classes of systems now pointed out there is also another difference. Of the three lower systems the organs are in the great cavities of the thorax and abdomen, which are mainly given up to them, and they all per- form their functions without our knowing anything about them. They are involuntary. There are, indeed, some muscles, as those of respiration and of the eyelids, that are partly voluntary and partly involuntary, but these are wholly involun- tary, or at least, they are so with most persons. Occasionally there is an exception in some respects. I knew a man who could stop by his will the beating of his heart, so that it would beat eight times less in a minute ; and there is on record the case of a man who had power over his heart in this respect, and who went so far as to make bets about the time he could stop it, till at length he stopped it, and it never beat again. In general, these five are involuntary ; their organs are con- cealed from view, and are placed where they are needed without regard to symmetry. And here again there is a difference. The three higher systems are symmetrically divided by a vertical line into two equal and shnilar halves, — TEMPERAMENTS. 43 these, and all the special organs connected with them. Thus you have on each side an eye, an ear, a nostril, an arm, and so on, and these are gen- erally so far equal and similar that most persons observe no difference. There are, however, few if any, the two sides of whose faces are precisely alike. Their eyes are not alike, the form of the muscles on the two sides of the face is not alike. I know a lady who says that she is careful to turn the company side of her face to those she is speak- ing with. In some this difference is more con- spicuous than in others, but in general it is not noticed except by artists. Thus is a voluntary and symmetrical system built up by one that is involuntary, and presented to an intelligent spirit for its use and control. The systems of which I have spoken are com- bined in different proportions, and that gives rise to the doctrine of Temperaments. In their enu- meration of these, physiologists are not uniform. They speak of the sanguine, the bilious, the melancholic, the phlegmatic, and the nervous. This doctrine of the temperaments is of ancient date, a,nd was once in high repute ; but since at- tention has been more directed to the connectioB of the mental operations with the nervous system, it has been less esteemed. Still there are tliose who judge of other men by the predominance of these different systems, and no doubt there is some foundation for this. No doubi; the predominance 44 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. of the nervous, or tlie muscular, or the lyraphatia system will be connected with certain traits oi character, or rather with certain characteristics; but at present the temperaments are so poorly defined, and so inextricably mixed, that no doctrine respecting them can be called a science, or scarcely scientific. Perhaps more may be learned by the relation of the three great cavities, that of the brain, of the thorax, and of the abdomen, to each other. With the cavity of the brain and of the thorax both large, you may count on a powerful man. With the cavity of the brain small, and the expanse of the abdomen large, you would expect less general power. No man thus consti- tuted has been known to accomplish much. In connection with these systems, I again call your attention to the doctrine of development which was spoken of in the last Lecture. Is the body developed ? Are these systems developed ? Starting as the body does from a cell, the doctrine of development may seem plausible. This doc- trine, so far as it can account for anything, sup- poses two things : first, a force that works from within ; and second, a whole already existing, that is enveloped. If either of these be wanting, there can be no development that we need trouble our- selves about, and indeed the word loses its mean- ing, A house is not developed. Its increase io DEVELOPMENT. 45 Bize or elevation is by an agency from without. The figure on a carpet, as it gradually appears, is liot developed ; it grows, and that through an agency not in the loom, or in the materials. When, therefore, we inquire whether the body is developed, we inquire whether its different sys- tems are in any sense enfolded in the cell from which it starts, and are made manifest by a force hiherent in itself. This point we need to settle. Precisely what we mean by development we need to know, lest we fall, as is so often done, into a learned ignorance by substituting a word not well analyzed, but become familiar, for a knowledge of the thing. With this statement, if we look at the relation of the sj^stems mentioned to each other, or even of the different parts of individual systems to the other parts, we may see what this doctrine, as thus applied, amounts to. Take, for instance, the os- aeous system. Each bone of the skeleton grows from a distinct centre of ossification, is formed as a distinct instrument, in most instances tipped with cartilage, and except through this cartilage never comes into contact with any other bone. The bones of the upper extremity are a separate organ- ization that do not touch, except at a single point those of the lower. The bones of the skull com- mence at different points and grow towards each other, uniting by sutures. The bone of the tongue is wholly unconnected with any other bone 46 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. and so could not have been developed from the system. The teeth grow in the jaws, but are separate instruments, and are not developed from them. Indeed, each bone seems to have been formed separately, as a mechanic forms nails and pegs and the different parts of a chair, and then brings them together. There is nothing to in- dicate that they start fiom a common centre. Take, again, the heart and the arteries. Let the arteries run on till they become capillaries, and then enlarge themselves again and come round into the heart in the vena cava. Does anybody believe that this double set of vessels could have been developed from the heart and thus joined at the extremities ? And if that be so when but a single system is concerned, much more is it so in relation to the several systems. To me it does not seem possible that each and all of these can so exist in a single cell that their production can be at all accounted for by development. The process stands by itself — both that of origination and of growth, and is utterly inscrutable. Growth is not evolution. It may accompany it, but is not it. And now that I am on this subject theie is another point connected with a system that I have not yet mentioned, and which bears upon both origin and development. I have not mentioned THE HEPEODUCTIVE SYSTEM, wluch is the laat in order, and has relation to the CREATION. 47 race. This involves that sexual relation which is BO universal and controlling in the structure oi organized bodies. This relation implies more than one individual as its condition, and the difficulty is to account, not merely for one individual by de- velopment, but for the first two that held to each other this relation. In all the accounts I have seen, this difficulty has been either ignored or slurred over. According to the Bible, as you will remem- ber, the fact of this relation in our first parents ia connected with the idea of creation. It is said, " male and female created He them ; " and I ask you whether the idea of this relation, especially as BO pervasive and involving such variety of adap- tation, does not necessitate an origin by creation. In dioecious plants, unless there were originally two, how was the species perpetuated ? Not as now certainly. So of animals and of man. Give us a first pair and we have no difficulty ; without that, it seems to me we must suppose processes for which facts furnish no support, and the present order of Nature no analogy. Such processes we must suppose, and, unless we resort to that cuttle- fish ink of philosophers, indefinite words, we must ultimately get back to the fact of a creation. Go back as we may, development presupposes a whole either in idea or in fact, and the origin of such a whole demands intelligence and creative power. Connecting, then, this fact of the sexual relation m organized matter with that relation of the forces 48 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. in unorganized matter mentioned in the last Lecture, by which the higher force reveals itself only as it overmasters the lower — which fact indeed runs up through the various grades of or- ganization — and it is difficult to see how a phys- ical universe could have teen so constructed as to exclude more effectually the idea of development. The two relations demand a power working from without, and from above. Looking now at these systems as a whole, I may observe in a practical way that we see what health is, and to what our attention is to be directed in preserving it. Health consists in the perform- ance by each system of the body of its function, or fimctions, in a perfect manner. Let each system thus perform its function perfectly and there will be perfect health ; otherwise not. Hence, in pre- serving and promoting health, attention should be directed to the performance of function, rather than to technical and formal rules. In looking also at the different combinations of these systems, and at the differences between men thence resultiug, we may see that it is one thing bo study man, and another to study men. In one ease we study those things in man which are com- mon to all men, and only in those respects in which they are thus common ; that is, we study uniformities. This gives us science. In the other case the things that are common are presupposed UNITY OF NATL-EE AND OF THE BODY. 49 and we study men only as they differ. Uniformi- ties — differences — as men perceive and arrange the first they become scientific ; as they perceive the second they become practical ; as they are able to combine both they become both scientific and practical. Often these are not combined, hence a man may be scientific and able to talk well, and yet utterly fail in practical affairs ; or, again, he may know nothing but differences and details and be a successful business man. You will see at once that in a course of Lectures Hke this it is only the knowledge of man that can be taught. We have thus seen, as I promised to show you, that the body is built up on the same principle as external nature. It has its unity in the same way, one system being conditioned upon another ; but the unity is more close, because here the higher systems react upon the lower, and thus give a reciprocal sympathy of all the parts. And now I will close this Lecture by asking you what it is that constitutes this body which we have thus considered. Is it simply the shifting matter of which it may happen to be composed at any given moment ? or is it not rather that permanent, invisible, automatic, selecting and arranging power which begins with us. and goes with us to the end? LECTURE III. MEND. — INTELLECT. — THE KEA80N, External nature is built up on the principle oi the conditioning and the conditioned. Thus built it becomes a condition for the body of man. That again, as we have seen, is built up on the same principle. Is this true also of the mind? To that we are next to pass, but before doing this we must notice here, as we do at every point of transi- tion in nature, the care that is taken to prevent the transition from seeming abrupt. The transition is absolute and perfect. An element wholly new is in- troduced. Sensation, which we have now reached, is not gravitation, nor any modification of it. But when the new element is introduced it is so fore- shadowed and simulated by that which is below it that it is often difficult to fix the point of tran- sition, and some are even led to doubt whether there is such a point. And nowhere is this more noticeable than in the apparent shading off between what is called the reflex action of the nervous sys- tem and those conscious and voluntary actions which are the product of mind. This kind of action baa been much spoken of of late, and without know ing something of this we cannot understand our- selves. REFLEX ACTION. 61 This automatic and reflex action is of different degrees. There is, first, that which originates in the system of nerves that is called ganglionic, and that is wholly involuntary. With no knowledge or consciousness on our part the ganglion, or ner- vous centre connected with the heart, takes cogni- zance of its state when full, and by a reflex action originates the movement of contraction. In the game way the enlargement and contraction of the [lupil of the eye is regulated, and also the processes of digestion and secretion and assimilation, with the muscular movements they involve. In all these there is an adjustment of movements and a conspiring of means to ends that are admirable, and such a simulation of intelligence and volition that not a few have referred these movements, and BO the up-building of the body, to the unconscious operations of the soul. But however this may be, we have, in the second place, that reflex action which is connected with the voluntary muscles. It was in connection with this that the constitution of the nervous system as double, and also the different functions of its cineritious and fibrous portions were discovered. This may be illustrated thus : — j?^ ^2 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. If we suppose tlie straight line A to represent the spinal column and the lines B and C to be nervea passing out from it, as there are nerves on either side passing out between each two of the vertebra, then it is found that the nerve is composed of two parts, one originating on the back side of the spi- nal column, or rather from its centre, and passing out separately by distinct roots, the other originat- ing on the front side. The one originating from the centre springs from the cineritious matter, and has upon it, before it reaches the other portion, an en- largement or ganglion. These portions unite in the common nerve and become undistinguishable. Still they perform different functions. The part with the ganglion upon it is found to be the nerve of sen- sation, and the other the nerve of motion. This is ascertained by experiments upon animals in which the roots of each are severed. If one be severed aU power of motion wdll be lost while the power of sen- sation will remain, if the other be severed all power of sensation will be lost while the power of motion will remain. It sometimes happens in paralysis that there is the power of motion without that of feeling, and the reverse. We have thus what resembles a railway with a double track. One portion of the nerve, called the afferent, brings in the impression from without ; and the other, called the efferent, responds by originating motion from within. Motion thus produced in the voluntary muscles without consciousness or vohtion, is called SEPARATE EXISTENCE OF MIND. 53 reflex action. The centre of it is tlie spinal column and the medulla oblongata, and its object is to guard the body in sudden emergencies, and to relieve volition from unnecessary burdens. Some motions originally of this kind, as winking and breathing, may be controlled in a measure by the will ; while others, originated by the will, but often repeated, are supposed by some to pass out of con- sciousness, and to become wholly reflex. These are such as walking and playing on a musical in- strument. Certainly there is a wonderful blend- ing of action from forces merely vital, and. from the action of mind by intelligent volition ; and it is often difficult to say where one ends and the other begins. We now pass to the Mind. And first, has mind a separate existence ? Is it something distinct from matter ? So far as I can see, we have as much evidence for the existence of a permanent thinking thing that is separate from matter as we have of a permanent hard thing that is matter. Of the essence of either matter or mind we neither have, nor can have, any direct cognizance. That the phenomena of each have an underlying essence, or substance, we know by the laws of thought. We know that there can be no phenomena without a cause, and since the cause cannot be nothing, the cause of both physical and mental phenomena must be some being ^ some thing. But how do we know 54: AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. that the cause of mental phenomena is not mat- ter ? Because mental phenomena are different from those of matter, and so different that they are not compatible with its laws. How do we know that a stone is not a fluid ? Because the phenomena it exhibits are incompatible with the laws of fluidity. In the same way the phenomena of mind are in- compatible with the laws of mattei. The fij'st law of matter is that of inertia.^ This is, that matter will continue in a state of rest or of motion, whichever it may be in, without change of state, unless that change be produced by something out- side of itself. It is true that all bodies are in motion, but that does not conflict with the law, for they will continue in raotion precisely as they are unless they are affected by some external force. According to this, matter cannot become a cause except as it is an effect. What is called a second cause it may be, for the precise difference between a first and a second cause is that a second cause ia first an effect, and so an effect as to be necessarily determined. It would be contradictory to this fundamental law to suppose it to be an originating, or proper cause. It can have no voluntary action. But mind knows itself as acting voluntarily, and as a proper cause. It is an essential difference between mind and matter that one is self-active and the other is not. Mind acts from within by an energy of its own, and not simply as it is acted upon from without. Matter, under the same cir- 1 See Psychology, Ihiman and Comparative, by Dr. Wilson. THE MIND NOT MATERIAL. OO cuinstances, must always act with the same degree of force. This follows from the law. With mind we know that this is not so. I can use this stick with one degree of force or with another, with no reference to any fixed law or external force. It is in this power of mind to originate motion, and not only to direct force, but to increase or diminish the amount put forth, that we find a suflScient reason for putting mind in a different order from matter. Call matter force if you will, though what force can be without some being that has force I do not understand ; but call it so, and it is a force that can originate nothing, can direct noth- ing, can modify nothing except as it is modified, that has neither spontaneity nor vohtion, and can in no sense be a proper cause. Origination, cau- sation, modification, and direction belong to mind. Mind, in short, is the cause of its own actions, and acts from reasons. Matter is not the cause of its own actions, or rather movements, and acts from causes in distinction from reasons. Or if we take any other law of matter or of motion, as, that action and reaction will be equal and in con- trary directions, we shall find that it is wholly in- apphcable to the phenomena of mind. As applied to them its terms are without meaning. Since then the phenomena of mind are not only wholly different from those of matter, but are in- compatible with its laws, we conclude that they have a different basis. We conclude also that 56 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. khat basis, whatever it be, is a permanent thing. It is something underlying phenomena, and if I do not know it to be permanent, then I do not know that any thing hard is permanent. How do I know that this desk is the same hard thing that waa here last Friday night if I do not know myself t<. be permanent? I cannot know it. Therefore 1 have the same evidence of something in myself that is permanent, that has thought and affections, and that we call mind, as I have of something out of myself that is permanent and hard, and that we call matter. Certainly my evidence for the phe- nomena of mind is as good as that for the phe- nomena of matter, since I know the phenomena of matter only through those of mind. That those phenomena have some permanent basis is as certain as the laws of thought, and that the basis of one is different from that of the other we infer not only from the difference of the phenomena, differing as they do in their nature, lying in a different region, and niade known in a different way, but also from the incompatibility of the laws of matter with the phenomena of mind. Either physicists must give ap their own definitions and laws, or must concede to the phenomena of mind a different basis from those of matter. Of mind as thus existing we say that it mani- tests itseK in three forms, and that these follow the law of conditioning and conditioned abeady spoken of, thus, — SENSATION AND THE SENSIBIUTY. 57 WILL. SENSIBILITY. INTELLECT. As philosophers universally regard it now, these iire the general divisions of the manifestation of mind. I remember, and others here may, when the division was into the Intellect, or Understand- ing, as it was then called, and the Will. The Sen- sibility, as that which moves the Will, was classed with it, but now the division is as I have stated, and in the order in which I have placed the powers. For a rational being this is clearly the natural order. As rational, such a being can have feeling only as he has knowledge, and he can put forth choices and volitions only as he has both knowl- edge and feeling. This is the universal law, and this is the order. Here, however, it must be noticed that the Sen- sibility as used in this connection does not include Sensation. This is from the state of the body and mind as mutually related. After the body is re- vealed to the mind, sensation is known by the mind as from the body. It is known as it is in itself, and as indicative of something beyond itself. It is the connecting link between mind and matter. The mind is, indeed, affected by it, but its initia- tive is in matter, and because it is so we leave it behind us as capable of existing in connection with Rnimal Ufe only. At any rate, whatever may be 58 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. said of it as belonging to the Sensibility in a broad sense, it is widely different from those affec- tions and emotions which belong to man as intel- ligent, and which are possible only on condition oi the action of the intellect. Here then, we begin again, as we did before^ with that which is lowest, THE INTELLECT. It may, perhaps, seem strange to some that the Intellect should be placed lowest, but it belongs there ; and the order in which I have presented the different parts of our nature presents, as I suppose, the order of progress of the race when it has been reduced to a savage or semi-barbarous state and would rise again. At first men worship strength of body, physical energy. The man who had the greatest power of muscles was the hero. Even yet there are many with whom physical prowess is the great thing, and who hold those who manifest it in higher esteem than any others. The next step is the worship of intellect. Disputants and Intellectual prize fighters become heroes. Great debaters, pleaders, orators, writers, become the great men irrespective of character. This is our present state. No nation has yet got beyond this In our literary institutions it is chiefly the intel leet that is educated, and in some of them more and more, with Httle or no systematic regard for the training of the higher powers. No doubt the THREE QUESTIONa 59 fciine will come when this state of things wiU be looked back upon as we now look back on the ascendency of physical force. Until the Intellect is placed by the coinriiunity where it belongs, and made subordinate to the Sensibihty and the WiU, we shall find that mere sharpness, shrewdness, in- teHectaal power, and success through these, will be placed above those higher qualities in which character consists, and success through them. The Intellect is simply instrumental, and belongs where I liave placed it. The proper business of the Intellect is to know. This operation of knowing may take place without willing. Whether it ever does without feeling is not so certain. We can, I think, imagine the In- tellect as contemplating certain subjects, say the existence of space, or a mathematical proposition, in a perfectly dry light, with no feeling whatever ; but if not, we can treat of it separately, as of length without breadth, and as we often do and must of things which we can conceive of sepa- rately, but which do not in fact exist apart. You wall remember I said in the last Lecture In regard to the body that there were three ques- Uons to be asked, — First, What is there in any pai-ticular part of it ? Second, What function does it perform? and third. How does it perform it? And so there are three questions to be asked with respect to the Intellect. First, What is there in the mind regarded as In- tellect ? 60 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. Second, How came it to be there ? And Third, What operations can we perform with it, now that it is there ? These are the three questions which we need to answer ; and if we can answer these three ques- tions we shall know all that we need to know about the Intellect. The two questions in relation to what there is in the mind, and how it got there, cannot be treated separately. They blend together. But we need to know the answers to both, and in treating of them as thus blended, we treat of the fa- mous question of the origin of Knowledge. That has been one of the most famous questions amongf philosophers in past times, and it is that that we propose to consider now. In doing this we suppose the Intellect to be unfurnished, but then we suppose it to be Intel-' lect. As such we suppose it to have the capacity, the power, to know, for this is the function of Intellect. If there be not in it an original power to know, then it is not Intellect. Of the origin of this, or any other original power, we know nothing. We simply know it to be because it manifests itseK, and, plainly a power of knowing can manifest itseK only by knowing. So we be- gin by knowing ; knowing something. What then is it to know ? I agree with President Porter a? he puts it in his book on The Intellect, that tc know is to be certain of something. If you have THE FACULTIES GI\T<: CERTAINTY. 61 not certainty there is no knowledge. It is mere belief or opinion. To know is to be certain. But certain of what ? Of the existence of that, what- ever it may be, concerning which we have knowl- edge. It is absurd to suppose that we can have knowledge of that which does not exist. To know also involves a knowledge by himself of the exist- ence of the benig that knows. Certainly if a per- son is not certain of his own existence he cannot be certain of an^^thing else. There is involved, therefore, in knowing, the certainty of the exist- ence of the thmg known, and also the certainty of the existence of the being knowing. And here I observe that it is a great thing for a man to find himself, and to reach certainty. It b a great thing to have the certain ^ knowledge of anything. This we have on the authority of our faculties. The authority of the human faculties is for us, and must be, the ultimate authority. If I cannot trust my faculties I cannot trust any- thing. Perhaps some one would say that I might trust revelation, might trust the direct voice of God. But how am I to know that it is a revela- tion? How that it is the voice of God? How do I, or can I know anything except through my faculties ? And if these faculties do not give me in some form, and to some extent, immediate and direct knowledge, that is certainty, then there is no hope of it anywhere. The thing is impos- sible. Therefore it is that I say we hogm with 62 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. knowledge. We begin with certainty. If we do not we never find it. We begin with the cer tainty of the thing known, whatever it may be, and also with the certainty of the existence of the being that knows. If the thing known be not certain, we do not know it. If the knower do not exist, he cannot know it. This certainty of the thing known and of the existence of the knower I suppose to be given in one concrete act. I do not understand that one of these is before the other, but they come together and are mutually dependent. The knower and the thing known are each revealed by an authority that involves cer- tainty. If not, so far as I can see, it is impossible that certainty should ever be reached. We must here find our beginning. The occasion of the first mental operation is supposed to be in the action of some one of the senses, but the operation itself Is accompanied by that certainty which is involved in knowledge. If, then, we suppose man possessed of intellect alone, he may be represented by a single straight line thus, — Bkixo. Oejkct. Let us now suppose an object presented before him as a tree. Let this object so affect him fchrcHigh his senses that he becomes aware of its THE roEA OF BEING. 63 existence as something different from himseK, and tie will know the thing, and will know himself as knowing it. In thus knowing that which is not himself he will be revealed to himself, and in this double revelation there will be involved by neces- sity an idea that will connect itself with every sub- sequent mental operation. That is the idea of A BEING. As not given by sensation, but originated by the mind itself, we may place this on the other side of the line, and we shall have two ideas, or men- tal products, wholly different in their origin and characteristics. The one is the direct product of sensation. It is contingent and variable. The ob- ject might as well have been anything else. It appears and gives place to others. But the idea of being, no sense can give. It comes by the en- ergy of the mind itself, and is present in connec- tion with all its subsequent operations. It passes on and becomes an element in them by necessity.' We have thus two sources of knowledge : one the external world, giving objects that are contin- gent and variable ; the other the mind itself, evolv- ing ideas when the occasion arises by the necessity of its own constitution. We inquire then, for we are now furnishing the mind, what other ideas it gets, not as the product of the senses, but from the mind itself and by ne- cessity ; and I ask you whether it is possible that ' See Appendix B 64 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. fehe Intellect should have the notion of a tree and not know that it is in space. We put down then, SPACE. By the constitution of our minds the idea of a tree, or of any other material thing not in space, is impossible to thought. This idea of Space there- fore win be present, and accompany all perception of material objects, as that of being must be pres- ent and accompany every operation of the mind. What next ? You look at the tree, you repeat your observation. I ask you whether it would be possible thus to make two successive observations without having the idea of TIME. Thenceforward no thought, no event, no change can any more occur that shall not be known as in time than a material object can be perceived and not be known as in space. The idea will accom- pany you in all your thinking. Succession gives occasion for the exercise of memory, and I ask you again whether it is possible for any one to say I remember, and not have the idea that he, as remembering, is the same person that in time past knew the thing that is remem- bered. Of necessity he must know that. He does not know it by • consciousness alone for conscious- ness does not take cognizance of the past. He knows it immediately and necessarily on the joint NUMBER. — KESKMBLANCE. 65 operation of consciousness and memory. Hence we put down as the next idea that of PERSONAL IDENTITY. We proceed : I ask whether it would be possible to observe different objects or successive events without having the idea of NUMBEK. If not revealed to the mind distinctly as number in the first instance, it is yet so involved in all repetition, and especially in the presentation of different objects, that it enters in by necessity, and becomes a part of the furniture of every rational being. Once more : in noticing different objects of the same kind, would it be possible to avoid having the idea of resemblance, and its correlative, differ- ence ? Therefore, from the first, the idea of resem- blance enters in and travels along with the mind as the basis of all its classifications, and so of all science. Our next idea therefore is that cf EESEMBLANCE. Besides the ideas just mentioned it is claimed that those of Substance, of Motion, and of the Infinite belong here. In respect to substance my only question would be whether the idea of it does not so come under that of being that we need not give it a separate plao^. As to motion the ques- d6 AN OUTLINE STUDY 0^^ MAN. tion IS whether it be not directly apprehended b^ the senses. If not, it belongs here. But what shall I say of " The Infinite" ? This seems to me to be a mere generalization, like " The True," rather than an original and necessary idea. That we have the idea of infinity in connection with that of space there can be no doubt. When the mind has completed its intuitions in regard to space, it is as certain that space is infinite as that it is at all. Let the occasion arise and the idea comes by intu- ition and necessity. It can come in no other way. Frame to yourselves any conception you please of distance, and it does not approximate infinity. Suppose a flash of lightning to go on for a thou- sand years, it would be no nearer a hmit than when it began. Of space it may be said, as has been said of God, that its centre is everywhere, and its cir- cumference nowhere. And the same of duration. Go back as you will, and you are no nearer a beginning. Hence it has been well replied, when it has been asked why the world was not created sooner, that it was created as soon as it could be. This is true, for at whatever point it miglit liave been created the same question might have been asked. But the infinite which we reach in con- nection with extension is different from that which we reach in connection with duration. The in- finity of space is one thing, that of duration is another. The infinity of being, or of attributes, would be stilJ auotlier thing, and wholly different. NECESSARY IDEAS, 67 The term injSnite cannot be applied to either the intellectual or moral attributes of God in the same sense as to space and time. In strictness it can be applied to nothing that admits of degrees or limi- tation in any respect. But " The Infinite " must cover all cases in which the term infinite can be applied. Hence it must be found by comparison, and we shall alw*ays be entitled to ask, The Infi- nite what ? This form of expression has its place and use, but like " The Unconditioned," and '■' The Absolute," it is so remote from ordinary lines of thought and so vague and hazy that it has special fitness for use when men would " darken counsel by words without knowledge." Precisely what the ideas ai-e, and all of them, that are thus originated by the mind itself, though occasioned by the senses, it is not important to settle ; but it is important to establish the fact of such a class of ideas, and to understand their na- ture and functions. How little the senses, or any- thing that can properly be called experience, has CO do with the origin of those mentioned appears from the fact that but a single object is needed for them all. The taper is lighted and it burns. I will now place before you, on the left of the line, and in the order given, the ideas we have considered. Resemblance. Number. Personal IDE^'TITY. Time. Space. Being. Products of the Outer AND Inner Sense. 68 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. It will be observed that I have spoken hitherto only of ideas that are necessary. But besides ideaa there are also Propositions which are so immediately connected with the ideas as to be necessarily true. This body is in space. That proposition is true, and seen to be true by a necessity equal to that by which we have the idea of space. The swaying of that branch is in time. That is a truth which no man can deny. To deny it would be an absurdity. I will tell you what an absurdity is. It is some- thing that is opposed either to a mathematical demonstration, or to one of these first truths or original intuitions. Anything opposed to either of these is an absurdity, and that which it is im- possible for the human mind to beheve. In the ideas and truths now presented we have one part of our mental furniture, and we see what its origin is. It originates in the mind itself, and is that part of its furniture which is common to all men. These ideas and truths are as the bones of the mental skeleton. They are not only what all men have, but must have if they are men, and they abide permanently in the mind. Other ideaa come and go as guests. These keep the house. But if there are such ideas and truths you will want to know how they are to be tested. The test of the ideas is that they are necessar}^, and alsa universal in human consciousness. They are uni versal because they are necessary. The test oi the truths is that they are necessarily and univer TESTS OF NECESSARY IDEAS. 69 sally believed. Another test sometimes given is that they cunnot be proved because no truths plainer than themselves can be found with which to prove them. Another test of these truths is, that if a man denies one of them he must act as if he believed it ; and that other men, let him deny It as vehemently as he will, have a right to treat him as if he believed it. There is nothing that somebody has not claimed to disbelieve, but this will be a test. Let any one, for instance, claim to beheve that he does not exist. I should like to know whether he is not compelled to speak in order to make the denial, and whether that would not be acting as if he believed that he did exist. Or, take the belief in personal identity. Suppose a man to deny that, and to make a plea on that ground before a judge. Suppose him to say : " My body changes once in seven years. Accord ing to the physiologists not a particle of matter that was in it seven years ago is in it now. I believe that, and as I am a materialist, I believe that my mind changes in the same way. I do not believe that there is, or can be any such thing as personal identity. It is true some one bearing my name committed the murder eight years ago, but to punish me would be a case of mistaken identity, and unjust." Would the judge admit the plea? Would he admit it himself in the case of another man if that man owed him a debt ? You know that no sane man could believe that. If we 70 AN OUTIJNE STUDY OF MAN. eould possibly suppose any one to believe it, we should say that he had lost his reason, and was no longer to be treated as a rational being. I have dwelt on the above because I wish to show that there are certain elements and truthq that belong to human nature, and that mankind believe in with absolute certainty. In these days, when it would sometimes seem as if the founda- tions of belief were to be utterly unsettled, I wish to have it understood that there are some things that all men believe, and must believe. We are now prepared to see the distinction between a priori ideas and those of experience and also between priority in the order of time, and in the order of nature. The term a priori has been applied to those ideas which originate from the mind itseK on the occasion of experience ; while ideas of experience are those, as of external objects, which are de- rived directly from the senses. The term is not a happy one, but we may see how it arose. The mind must itself exist prior to experience, and as the capacity and necessity for forming these ideas exist with equal priority as a part of its constitution, the ideas themselves are called d priori. The- distinction between the priority of nature ftnd of time has been much insisted on by some philosophers, and is worthy of attention. Sensa- tion is supposed to be first. I see a body, an place to the inductions of science, but the number still remaining among us, based on this relation of time, is very great. But the relation of time is not the only one on whish casual associations are based. There is also that of place, and these two are generally com- bined. It is impossible for us to visit the place where an event of interest has occurred to us mth- out thinking of that event, and it is because we thus a-asociate events with places, that places have 128 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN, a historic interest. But for this, Plymouth Rock, Rome, Jerusalem, would be but as other places. But while both these principles are natural and necessbBi-y, they furnish a soil into which supersti- tion and folly so readily strike their roots that il we weit^ to take from the history of the world their results as based on these two relations it would be quite another thing. We put down then as a second associating principle, PLACE. Again if we see a man to-day, and to-morrow see another who resembles him, we shall think of the man whom he resembles. Hence we put down RESEMBLAIffCS as a third principle of association. This is wider and more extensive than any other. A fourth principle is that of CONTRAST. Heat reminds us of cold, poverty of riches, labor of rest, time of eternity, hope of despair This is the opposite of resemblance. A fifth associating principle is that of CAUSE AND EFl'EOT. These are correlative terms, and so imply each other. The cause reminds us of the ellect, the effect of the cai PRINCIPLES OF ASSOCIATION. 129 In the same way MEANS AND END are correlative terms. I place them here bec^?ise they are generally placed among the associating principles, but it is doubtful whether they are not go subordinated to Cause and Effect that they ought to be identified with them. These six principles of association, have been divided, and I think properly, into three classes : Time and Place, under which the mind works immediately and without reflection; Cause and Effect, under which everything is done by reflec- tion ; and Resemblance and Contrast which are intermediate. These are the chief principles of association, and they seem to me to be original and irreducible ; or at least that no reduction of them to any law more general can be made that will be of practical value. They mil remain the separate working principles of the mind, and must be studied as such. Attempts at reduction have been made, and the result as given by Hamilton is what he calls the law of Redintegration ; this is, that " thoughts D3nd to suggest each other that have previously been parts of one whole." That is the law which was given, as is said by Hamilton, by St. Augus- tine, and which he adopts. That it is a law I agree, but I do not think it the law, because I do not see that the law of resemblance can be brought 130 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN. under it. That it cannot is shown by President Porter, who proposes as the law, " That the mind tends to act again more readily in a manner or form which is similar to any in which it had acted before, in any defined exertion of its energy." But taking this statement as it stands, I see in it no more reason why, if I pass the place where I met a friend yesterday I should think of him then and there than at any other time or place. If the ten- dency be there independent of circumstances, it would be as likely to show itself at one time as at another ; but if it depends upon circumstances, we are thrown back at once upon the original law, having simply that and whatever tendency may be implied in our having a representative faculty at all. The faculty itself implies the tendency under certain conditions. That being given, what we need is to know the conditions. It is not, how- ever, important whether we reduce these laws to one or not. The great, primitive, working ideas, are, as I have said, those which I have put down, and you will observe that most of them are taken from those ideas which w^ere put down in the dia- gram as belonging to all men. I have now mentioned the primary laws of as- sociation. There are also secondary laws which have much to do with the order of succession. These were especially mentioned by Brown, and you will find them dwelt upon at length in hia lectures. They are chiefly these : 1st. Events that are recent, and objects recently seen are more SECONDARY LAWS OF ASSOCIATION. 131 apt to recur to tlie mind. 2d. The greater the vivacity or emotion with which anything is received into the mind, the more hkely it is to reappear. 3d. The longer it is dwelt upon, other things be- ing equal. 4th. The more frequently it is brought before the mind. Hence the benefit of reviews. 6th. The state of our bodily powers will have an influence. 6th. Which will include some of the others, whatever will lead to more fixed and pro- tracted attention. These secondary laws will vary with every individual ; and hence we see from these, as well as from the varying combinations of the primary laws, how it happens that such a di- versity of thoughts and courses of thought shall be struck out in conversation and in writing by different men. But if thoughts come into the mind through Borne associating principle can that always be traced ? Can you always tell how you come to think of a thing ? Something comes mto your mind. You say, " How did I come to think of that ? " And you camiot tell. Concerning this philosophers have had two theories. One is that something comes into the mind and introduces something else, but disappears so instantaneously that all trace of it is lost. The other is that there Is going on in the mind an operation which is below consciousness, but which still affects the in- voluntary current. This is Hamilton's view. I 3an only say that if it be correct it is an aban« 132 AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAK. donment of the principle that the current is reg alated by the laws of association, or by any lawa that we can understand or control. I hold to the first supposition. Of the representative faculty thus marshaling its hosts under the laws of association, the prodr uets appear in three forms ; and to these as was proposed, we now pass. The first and lowest of these is what is called Fantasy. Of this I have already spoken. There ia Lq it simply a succession of images that have been before in the mind, with no intervention of wiU, or recognition of time or place. It takes place, as I have said, in reverie, in dreams, and in in- sanity. You have seen Niagara. It rises before you as a picture. You view it simply as such, and it passes and gives place to another. This is one form. A second form is Memory. In this there is re- production with recognition, and with the element of past time. These two distinguish memory from fantasy on the one hand, and imagination on the other. Memory is spontaneous, or voluntary. Spon- taneous memory is the immediate suggestion, v