/ ,7 LP 621 7 U6 1897 UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. RS IV AND V FROM RP^POKT OF COMMIS8IONEK OF EDUCATION ~ For 1895-96. ' EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. GOVERNMENT PRINTING gJF^V,V:,. 18 9 7. \ \i, ^ .IE>uT<2.Q.\J ol eaocoJ' UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. CHAPTERS IV AND V FROM REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION For 1895-»«. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EL^ROPE. WASHII^GTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OPFTOK. 1897. u^f u.^. \^ <\ (U CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. Articles on education in central Europe puhlished in previous reports. 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2S 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Title of article. Comparison of the schools of Germany, France, and the United States, with dia- grams Courses of study in graphic representation School population of the civilized world. Charts Blrd's-e^ e view of the schools in central Europe Middle and intermediate schools in Prussia Promoting public play of schoolchildren Education of neglected and depraved children Juvenile wage workers The schools of the Kingdom of Saxony Economic development of Saxony School gardens in GJermany and "Austria . School jjopulatiou in the civilized woild. Charts The December conference on secondary schools Brief view of the schools of Austria-Hungary Brief statement of the school system in Prussia Proportion of population in elementary, secondary, and higher institutions Iiidu.strial and technical education in central Europe Statistical summary of school population, teachers, and expenditures for schools in the civilized world Legal education in Eurojie and America Public kindergartens in European and American States The training of teachers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland The Swiss school system.'. .' School museums and educational exhibitions German universities, history and present status Schools for recruiting the civil service in France and Prussia Eecent developments in the teaching of geography The schools of Bavaria Child study and experimental psychology, with bibliography Bibliography of Herbartianism -' German criticism of American education Criticism of educational exhibitions German view of American technological schools Statistical table of elementary instruction in foreign countries Pesults of Prussian common-school statistics discussed , Common-school teachers of Prussia Develoi)ment of the common-school system of Berlin Attendance in secondary schools for boys in Germany Courses of study in history found in vogue in Europe Bibliography of the history of education Statistics of university li braries in Europe German bibliography of arithmetic The new education in Germany Is German pedagogy in a state of decomposition ? Supplementary and industrial schools in Germany Ungraded schools in Germany German opinions on monitorial instruction Comparative review of courses of study in sixteen German cities Normal schools in Switzerland Mental fatigue in school National features of female education Public instruction in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg Pensions for teachers The present report contains the following articles: Public industrial education in Berlin Salaries of elementary teachers in Germany . . _ Salaries of elementary teachers in Austria Statistics of higher education in central Europe Foreigners in central European iini versifies Music in German schools Reform schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden . Mental fatigue in school ED 96 5* ''or* ip^g 1888-89 18W8-89 1888-89 1889-90 1889-90 1889-90 1889-90 1889-90 1889-90 1889-90 ! 1880-90 1889-90 1889-90 1889-90 1889-90 1890-91 1800-91 1890-91 1890-91 1891-92 1891-92 1891-92 1891-92 1891-92 1892-93 1892-93 1892-93 1892-93 1892-93 1892-93 1892-93 1892-93 1893-94 1893-94 1893-94 1893-94 1893-94 1893-94 1893-94 1893-94 1894-95 1894-95 1894-95 1894-95 1894-95 1894^95 1894-95 1894-95 1894-95 1894-95 1894-95 1895-96 1895-96 1895-96 1895-96 1895-96 1895-96 1895-96 1895-96 137^ 138 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. Public Industrial Education in Berlin. When the old Trade Institute of tbe city of Berlin was changed into an industrial academy, and later was transformed into what is now known as the Polytechuicum of Charlotteuburg, there became api^arent a gaj) between the i^ublic elementary school work and the technological education, as well as a gap between school and practical life. It has always been well understood in Germany, that the education supx)orted by the State and general taxation must not be si^ecial education, but aim at general culture. In other words, i)ublic education can not i)re- pare for any particidar profession, vocation, or occupation ; it is intended to lay the foundation for a general culture desirable for all citizens of the State. While thus any special i)reparation for the trades, or for commerce, or for the higher professions is excluded from institutions that offer education gratuitously, ou the other hand there has arisen a difficulty which makes the establishment of trade and industrial schools a necessity. The labor unions, prompted by self-interest, frequently prohil)it their members from engaging apprentices; naturally then their number is very small, hence very few chances are offered for the learn- ing of trades. The great extension of mechanical contrivances and machines of all kinds has liberated much human power that was for- merly engaged in mere mechanical performances. Hence the labor of the hand has become much more complicated, much more difficult to learn, and, therefore, also needs much more careful study and exercise. All these causes combine to necessitate the establishment of a number of special schools, and the city government of Berlin, fully aware of the changed conditions of labor, liberally provided for them. But it must be well understood that all the trade schools and institutions for the I)reparation of skilled laborers in Germany have this one characteristic feature, to wit, that they bestow less attention upon manual labor and more to the underlying principles and the knowledge skilled labor pre- supposes. This is the reason why drawing, mathematics, the sciences of physics and chemistry, and the like are taught in trade schools. The shop work, so often spoken of, and held up as models of imitation in this country, is comparatively very limited and confines itself to mere application of iirinciples learned during lessons. It seems as though these German trade schools carefully abstain from coming into competition with the labor market. A recent report of the superintendent of x^nblic schools in Berlin, privy councillor. Dr. Bertram, states that the sum of 542,4:45 marks was spent in the year 1895. Of this sum 80,159 marks were contributed by the State of Prussia; 325,401 marks by the community; 16,565 marks by trade unions, societies, mercantile firms, etc., and the board of trade contributed 4,000 marks; while 110,320 marks, or about one-fifth of the sum total, were paid in the form of tuition fees. To this sum total of 542,445 marks ($129,102) must be added various donations in form of EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 139 tools and other things, such as material, for Avliich no correct estimate can be made. While this money is spent entirely in the interest of schools preparing for skilled labor, there must be mentioned also the fact that 337,500 marks ($80,339) is expended by the city for so-called "■ continuation or supplementary schools," in which industrial education is a very essential feature. These latter-named schools offer i^ost- gradaate instruction to boys and girls who have gone through the eight years' course of the elementary school. Most of these supple- mentary schools offer gratuitous instruction, but not all.^ Though Berlin is a metropolis of large size, it seems remarkable that it should pay about $200,000 per year for purely industrial education. How this sum is distributed, and for what purposes it is used, can be seen from the following statements taken from Dr. Bertram's report. Tlie great variety of trade institutions and their scope appear to cover up the fundamental idea, but careful observation reveals it. It is this: The city authorities desire to give young men of aspiration who are desirous of gaining knowledge, as well as persons of more advanced age, opportunities for the development of their special talents and skill that can not, in the nature of the case, be found in the workshop or the factory. It is the desire of all concerned in this department of education that the student should not engage in actual practical work for paj^, and to put the instruction in close contact with the circumstances or occupa- tions of the learners. Moreover, and this apj^ears to ns here in Amer- ica the more important and nobler object of the schools, the entire range of instruction in these trade and industrial schools tends to unify several branches of labor and to prevent too much specialization. Apprentices and young beginners are very apt in our modern time of application of machines to learn to work mechanically. Specialization is going so far that the workman is often degraded to an assistant of the machine, instead of the machine being his assistant. A few grips, a few touches, a few motions, are all the man has to do, and he loses bis respect for the dignity of labor and can not see all the bearings of a single trade. These industrial schools lift the young man to a higher standpoint, from which he can view all the bearings of his trade and its organic combination with other trades. In accordance with this central idea the choice of courses of instruc- tion is left free to the student, and a systematic, rigid course of study is introduced only in cases where experience has proven incontestably in certain trades that such a course is profitable. The authorities also desire to interest and solicit the active sympathy of trades unions, societies, and experts, by offering for every trade that kind of instruc- tion which is apt to supplement its practical application by theory. The eminent success of the royal art schools and industrial museums is utilized by employing the graduates of these institutions as teachers in ' Compare article on such schools in last years annual report. 140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the trade schools, for it is argued that a teacher should know very much more thau he is to teach. Hence mere artisans can not be teachers in Berlin trade schools. The authorities insist upon their being graduates of schools of design and other art schools. The system of industrial education of Berlin, it is admitted, is not entirely developed, and some of the schools belonging to the system are still in their infancy; but in the main features the course of education for young tradesmen and skilled artisans is designed to be as follows: First, it must be remarked that the course of education sketched in the following lines is designed for boys, because trades and industrial fields in Germany are, as a rule, not crowded with women. Every boy, then, may attend a public elementary school, the so-called i^eople's school, which ofi'er» instruction gratuitously. If he and his parents conclude to aim at a higher education than the elementary schools ofler, he may enter one of the twelve higher burger schools in Berlin, called Eealschulen, which are so organized that a boy coming from the elemen- tarj' schools at the age of 12 years may at once enter the fourth grade, above which instruction in foreign languages begins. These schools admit pupils at 10 years of age, but in the first two years the chief work consists of language (mother tongue), history, a little of the science of physics, and geometry. These high schools are of course without Latin. The graduates of these institutions receive the privilege of only one year's army service. Boys of the elementary school who enter these higher schools at the age of 12, and cannot pay for their tuition, receive their instruction gratuitously. Boys Avho at the age of 14 leave the elementary school or are dropped out of the Eealschulen owing to poverty, find oppor- tunity for continuing their studies in the evening or on Sundaj^s in so- called supplementary or continuation schools. Here the mother tongue, arithmetic, geometry, phj^sics, and some other branches are taught gratuitously. Some of these continuation schools also teach higher branches, such as foreign languages and double-entry bookkeeping; for these higher branches a small tuition fee is to be paid. And now we come to the purely industrial institutions : (1) The two trade schools of the city. The older of the two began in October, 1880. It was called into existence by the city authorities with the active cooperation of the State. From the moment that the new principal, Professor Jessen, was called from Hamburg to take charge of this first trade school in Berlin the latter has increased in extent and importance beyond everything that even the most extravagant expectations could have imagined — enrolling 2,193 students in 1894-95. The other school is almost a copy of the first, following in all essentials the plan evolved by experience in the first trade school. Professor Bertram describes it as follows : The original plan intended to give persons beyond the age of compulsory educa- tion, and who have completed the work of the elementary school, instruction in industrial drawing and modeling, in arithmetic; mechanics and physics, and, lastly, EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 141 ill bookkeei)iug aiul arithmetic. The school was iuteuded to accommodato 600 stu- dents; the expenditure, iisido from the tuition fee charged, was estimated at 30,000 marks per annum, of which the State intended to pay one-half. At present (in l'S95) the State pays 20,000 marks and the city 100,000 marks. The school fully lives up to th« original plan, but it has extended its field of usefulness so much that it is a source of pride to the industrial world of the German Empire. To prove this it may be mentioned that in the courses for mechanical drawing lb prepares its students for the work of a great number of trades, such as watchmakers, stone masons, and the like. In day classes it prepares fresco painters. Students of these classes come only in winter, and thej- come to Berlin for this jiarticular purpose from all over the Empire. Similar classes prepare cabinetmakers, wood cugravers, etc. The. school has lately opened day classes for mechanical engineers, and likewise for electro-technical work. Among the students there are found masters, journeymen, laborers, drawing teachers, side by side with students who are just beginning to prepare themselves for a trade. This Berlin Trade School is a nursery of s^jecial schools, the first beginnings of which are found within its walls ; thus, for instance, we find the typographical school started here; but, above all, it is a nursery of modern methods of teaching. This, indeed, is its most characteristic feature, and we may describe it by stating it to be an experimental station for teaching trades. lu oixler to relieve the school of its overcrowded classes a second trade school was established in October, 1S92. This second school had already in 1895 a total of 850 students. This school follows the first in all essentials except in physics, which science is excluded owing to want of suitable rooms; instead of that it has a day class for painters, and has lately opened also a class for artistic metal and brazier work. Drawing of metal and conventionalized floral designs is a peculiar fea- ture of this school. The builders' school, representing all the trades engaged in the erec- tion of buildings, is formed according to the model prescribed by the Prussian State authorities, and it is, like the two trade schools, sup- ported by the State and the community jointly. It has 381 students in four succeeding yearly classes. The weaving school in Berlin was formerly intended only as a special school for apprentices and journeymen in the textile industry, in order to give them an oi^portunity to go from one deiiartment to another without going through the otherwise necessary period of apprentice- ship. But the school has greatly extended its usefulness by attemx)ting to represent, and, as it were, foreshadow, the frequently changing fash- ions in the branch of textile industry. This school, like all other trade and industrial schools in Berlin, constantly keeps this leading idea in miud, namely, every workman .should know more, and should be able to do more, than one thing. It is not only desirable but in the nature of the case necessary for him to know many branches of his trade. If he be a weaver in silk he should know the tricks of the trade of the linen weaver, or the cotton weaver, or the woolen weaver j and the same holds good in other cases. The instruction extends over hand looms, mechanical looms, and work iu passementerie. The possibility of offer- ing to Sunday and evening school students so fine an equipment iu 142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. apparatus and ])ieaiis of iustructiou dates from the year 1889, when, in addition to these courses, day classes were opened which, according to the present terminology, are called the higher weaving school. The two divisions are supplemented by an evening school for merchants of the textile branch; and lately the beginning of a school for dyers has been made. The organization of all Prussian weaving schools is occu- pying the secretary of the de^jartment of commerce and industry, and his object is to make them more uniform than they arc at present. Tuition fees are not required of api^rentices and workmen in the textile industry. Two other institutions must be mentioned which are prob- ably characteristic of the city of Berlin. They are the cabinetmakei"'s school and what is known as the Industrial Hall. In the continuation of supplementary schools it was noticed that mechanical drawing engaged the attention of a large number of young people in preparation for certain branches of instruction closely allied with and forming the basis of trade and industrial education. Indeed, this special kind of drawing, the so-called drawing of working models, seems to be the backbone of instruction offered in the continuation schools. The further this system of schools developed, and the more the number of pupils increased, the more desirable became professional supervision and technical instruction in the industrial features of draw- ing; and to meet this demand it was deemed appropriate to establish what is known as the Industrial Hall. The courses of technical draw- ing arranged for locksmiths and artistic metal workers, machine build- ers, tinsmiths, instrument makers, etc., remained where they had been given, but in the Central Industrial Hall all branches of industry were united in one and taught by a specially and well-qualified group of teachers. At the head of this institution was placed a very skillful man who had, through long years of experience in the trades school, proved to be particularly well fitted for this position. He is the super- visor of technical mechanical drawing courses; he selects proper teach- ers and determines the method and means of instruction, so that now the city authority has some guaranty that the various industrial courses are appropriately prepared for by the instruction given in drawing. The Industrial Hall has ten subdepartments distributed over the vari- ous parts of the city. This is to enable the students in all parts of the city to participate in the instruction, so that everyone finds instruc- tion near his home. These courses are offered in the evening and on Sundays. The drawing does not confine itself to technical and pro- fessional drawing only, but includes projective drawing and mechanics. Tlic authorities entertain the hope that this instruction in drawing which centers in the Industrial Hall, and which was participated in during the winter of 1895 by 1,400 students, may in future time change into a day school for machine builders. A similar development has been noticed in the school of cabinet- makers. Cabinetmakers have great need for technical drawing, and EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 143 especially iu designing now models; lience it was desirable to establisli proper supervisors, so tliat the various courses offered in the city might be fostered and cared for uniformly. The city of Berlin has now a large number of drawing courses for cabinetmakers, altogether seven different departments in varions parts of the city. The next stej) con- templated is to combine a school for tnrners with the cabinetmakers' school. The Turners' Union has expressed the desire that such a school be established, and it is the intention to connect it with an established school, especiallj' since the two trades of cabinetmaking and turning are so closely allied. Woodcarving is carefully attended to m the cabinetmakers' school, and not having the desired space, some of the apprentices of this school have occupied the upper halls of common schools, winch, of course, in the nature of the case, can be utilized only in the evening. It may be of interest to remark that a successful trial has been made to change this cabinetmakers' school into a day school, for many of the api^rentices and sons of masters in that trade have been able to secure a release from work in their shops in order to attend the school for a certain nnmber of days a week. But in all parts of the school, whether in the central school for cabinetmakers or in the various branch schools, it is drawing which forms the chief branch and mainstay of the conrse of instruction. Aside from the schools thus far mentioned, Berlin has 15 other special schools for trades, namely, for masons and carpenters, for painters, chimney sweeps, barbers, wheelwrights, glaziers, shoemakers, black- smiths, paper hangers and decorators, basket braiders, bookbinders, gardeners, printers, and tailors. The potters also have a school, but that is supported by the city only in so far as the city allows the use of certain available schoolrooms for its use. It is confidently hoped that this school will soon enter into closer relations with the city government. Most of these schools have originated in trades unions, or, if not that, they have been suggested and aided by the unions. In most of them drawing is greatly fostered, although some of them represent trades in which drawing is not essential, but which require only manual dex- terity; thus, for instance, the barbers and hairdressers, whose trade is very extensive in the city of Berlin, and whose school is very numer- ously attended. Wheelwrights began with a small workshop for pupils. The bookbinders have gone much further, using rooms which were specially designed and erected for them. The same may be said of the basket braiders' school. For such trades as bookbinding, basket braid- ing, and the like the necessity of maintaining a practice workshop is very urgent. In the bookbinders' trade the division of labor has pro- gressed to such an extent that a number of apprentices can practice through their apprenticeship without ever having completely seen how a book is bound. This school shows all the various branches of the trade and enables the student to try his hand at all of them, so that 14-1 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. wlieu be cbiiiiges from one worksliop to auotber iu after life lie may be able to change his occupation as necessity or the vicissitudes of life demand. There is scarcely a specialty in the trade that is not carefully and judiciously represented in the bookbinders' school. Similar things may be said regarding the basket braiders. They have so-called common beaten work as well as fine artistic work; they also manufacture wicker and rattan furniture. Each master of a shop usually has a specialty, and hence apprentices in his shop would learn only that specialty; but in a braiders' school he learns all the many features of the trade. Other schools, like those of paper hangers and decorators, shoemakers, and tailors, show certain features of the trade and certain devices not commonly taught to apprentices in workshops* Thus, for instance, the students of tailoring and shoemaking are taught to use the cutting machine and to calculate mathematically the size of every part of the garment, one part being given. The authorities of Berlin noticed with satisfaction that the courses in garment cutting were attended by masters as well as by apprentices and journeymen. Tiie house decorators' school in Berlin is in a very prosperous con- dition, partly owing to the flourishing trade of paper hangers and fresco painters. Berlin since 1870 has grown more rapidly than many Ameri- can cities. Much building and remodeling of houses is going on, and the refined taste of the inhabitants of the capital seems to require the art of decorators more generally. Other trade schools need not be described; a mere mention will suffice. The gardeners' school draws into its influence young gardeners from far and near. They chiefly study botany and drawing, make excursions witli their teachers, and practice surveying and leveling, drainage, and other practical parts of landscape gardening. Dr. Bertram, being asked, "What is the result of these various trade schools?" says: I cau not as yet give utterance to a definite opinion concerning the results, because this extensive system of industrial education has not existed long enough to have developed fruit; but I may confidently state, without apprehension of saying too much, that with the ojiportunities that were offered the eagerness to learn increased extraordinarily, which is a most hopeful indication of wholesome influence. I observe, secondly, that the opposition against trade schools, which used to be very strong among the masters, has almost died out, and that, thirdly, the usefulness of apprentices in workshops and factories is being recognized all over the city, because they can apply in actual work that which they learn theoretically in school. The real value of a system of schools can not be estimated until its graduates have had time to prove to the world what they have learned, and how successfully they can apply their knowledge. That requires more time than many impatient people will concede. The authorities in Berlin entertain the hope that the further devel- opment of this system of trade schools will aid the trades in one particular, to wit: The school teaches the construction and use of machines used in trades, and acquaints the student with various EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 145 motors, wliicli will gradually lead to an extension of the tradesman's business. Tlie present extensive system of electrical motors enables a poor man to use mechanical power in his shop, and thus to compete with his wealthy rival. A connection between workshop and factory is established or made possible, since the factory owner will, it is evident, i)refer men who have learned in actual contact with machines how to perform skillful manipulations. And whenever new inventions change the aspect of au}^ trade, the men skilled in numerous phases of their work are apt to find occasion for their talents, while those who only understand the mechanical part are easily stranded. A summary of statistics of the trade schools in Berlin is here appended : Summary of statistics in 1S94-D5. Schools. First City Trade Scliool. . . Second City Trade School . City Builders' ScliooI City Weavers' School Ceiiiral Industrial Hall . . . School for— Cabiuetmakers Bricklayers Painters Chin)noy sweeps Barbers Wheelwrights Glaziers Paperhangers Shoemakers Blacksniiths Braiders Bookbinders Gardeners Printers Tnilors Saddlers Total Extraordinary expenses Grand total Amount spent for industrial education in continuation schools- Grand total Number of teach- ers. 336 Number of stu- dents. Expend- itures. 2,193 908 881 363 1,235 755 233 388 120 492 95 8S 250 228 168 27 111 98 372 330 162 8, 992 $32, 557 14, 342 21, 395 12, 006 10, 202 4,504 2, 222 a! 155 372 1,869 883 373 2 702 1, 783 522 505 1,071 287 1, 7C7 723 891 llu, i;J2 15, 970 129, 102 80, 339 In connection with the foregoing statement of what is done for indus- trial education in the city of Berlin, it is interesting to note an Ameri- can opinion of industrial education in Germany, and its effect upon the success of that Empire in commerce and various domains of industry. The following quotation is an editorial article in the Scientific Ameri-- can (September 26, 1896), which deserves great credit for shrewd obser- vation and candid statement. The article is headed " The secrets of Germany's industrial success." Perhaps the most notable fact in the industrial world just now is the commanding position which is being won by the German manufacturers and the rapid encroach- ments which they are making upon the foreign trade of other nations, and particu- larly upon that of Great Britain. In taking note of this development we must remember that it is nothing new— that it is not the result of a sudden outburst of 146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. energy. It is merely tlio larger clcvelopment, tlio coming of age, of a system whicli lias been steadily at work in Germany for many years. Her industrial triumnh, ■wliicli has come as a surprise to the world at large, and with a rude awakening shock to Great Britain in particular, is no surjiriso to the German people themselves. In school and college, in workshop and factory, by carefully planned organizations at homo and abroad, they have sot in motion a system of industrial forces which are now working out the desired results with mechanical regularity and i)recisiou. The German mind is essentially scientific and methodical. It was these qualities that contributed largely to the signal triumph of the German arms in the memora- ble war of 1870. During the quarter of a century that has intervened since the close of the struggle and the consolidation of the Empire, Germany has been applying the same scicntiSc methods to the arts of jieace; and with such success that it begins to look as though her industrial armies were going to occupy the broad fields of inter- national commerce with the same resistless energy with which her battalions marched from Saarbriick to Sedan a quarter of a century ago. Germauy owes her industrial success to her system of scieutiiic training in schools and colleges, to the close fellowship which exists between her factories and her schools, and to her elaborate organizations for the control and development of com- merce. That the scientific course in Gorman schools was thorough and effective has always been well understood; but it has been reserved for a private letter written by Pro- fessor Ostwald, the distinguished German chemist, to his English friend, Professor Ramsay, to open the eyes of the world, and iiarticularly of the English people, who are most nearly aifected, to the practical use to which the scientific researches of their specialists are put by the German xieople. It appears from this letter that there is a close alliance between the German manufacturers and the universities and high-grade technical schools. In the chemical industry, for instance, it seems that splendid inducements are offered to the graduates of technical colleges to eater the laboratories which form part of the equipment of the factories. These young men are engaged, not for the executive work of the establishment, but for purely esperi- meutal work in the laboratory. They form a brigade of skilled inventors, who devote themselves to the discovery of improved processes and methods of manu- facture Speaking of this system, Professor Ostvrald says : "The research laboratory in such a Avork is only diffeient from one in a university by its being more splendidly and sumptuously fitted than the latter. I have heard from the business managers of such works that they have not unfrequently men Avho have w&rked for four years without practical success; but if they know them to possess ability, they keei) them notwithstanding, and in most cases with ultimate success sufficient to jiay the expenses of the former resultless years." When we bear iu mind that ''tliei'e are often more than one hundred Ph. D.'s in a single manufactory," and that this little array of qualified scientists is occupied solely in "making inventions," we begin to understand why it is that Germany is already preeminent in certain markets of the world, and is likely to become so in others before long. Invention is no longer left to the unaided efforts of the well- meaning but often uniustructed individual. In the special laboratory there will be no long hours of fruitless search for au object whoso supposed existence is based upon ignorance of the first princijiles of physics or mechanics. In this admirable combination of the skilled theorist and the trained mechanic there is little left to chance, and the development of an art is carried on by the sure and logical process of experiment, invention, and design. Of scarcely less importance in German industrial economy is her elaborate system for the fostering and extension of trade. This includes the founding, in certain industrial centers, of chambers of commerce. These institutions are intended to deal with questions of home and foreign trade in the broadest i)ossibie manner. EDUCATION m CENTRAL EUROPE. 147 "There is no question coiinected \vitli tbedcvelopnieiit of trade interests, of mauu- factnres, credit capacity of foreign countries, advantages to be obtained by treaty stipulations, injuries resulting from measures adopted by other nations in restraint of trade, Ayhich is not thoroughly discussed and carefully considered by the many German chambers of commerce scattered over the country. These bodies report to thomlnisterof commerce with regard to the influence and bearing of all such matters, as they are connected ^vith the commercial interests of the various localities; and by petition or otherwise they often secure action through their minister and the minis- ter of foreign affairs -which is of great advantage to them." As the necessary counterpart of this organization at home, the Germans are about to establish a system of commercial attaches, whoso agents shall be specially trained for the service and shall form a recognized part of the national representation in foreign countries. The work of the attache will be similar to that which is now embodied by our own consuls in their ''consular reports," many of which, be it said, are admirable documents and worthy of a wider circulation. Ho will furnish to the homo government a statement in detail of the particular commodities which are required in his district, and will keep it informed of the volume and nature of the trade done there by competitors ; and, indeed, ho Avill rei^ort any facts which might bo of service for disseminatioji among the various local boards of trade above men- tioned. Visitors to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago will remember the truly magnifi- cent display that was made by Germany, and particularly the collection which figured so prominently in the Liberal Arts Building. It was a special effort, care- fully planned and effectively carried out, and German foreign trade is feeling the stimulus of that costly disjilay at the present moment. Our brief consideration of this subject suggests that, while it more immediately concerns the commercial supremacy of Great Britain, it has also a practical interest for the United States. In our future commercial development and expansion we shall certainly enter into a most active competition with the two nations above mentioned. It is a question which we shall do well to ask ourselves, whether our native inventiveness and mechanical skill should not be stimulated and rendered more efficient by such a triple alliance of s"cience, industry, and organization as is now carrying Germany to the front by leaps and bounds. Salaries of Teachers in the People's Schools in Ger3iany. The question of raising tlie salaries of teacliei's has of late been a subject of discussion in legislative bodies of the various German States, especially in Prussia. A bill laid before the Prussian Diet during its session in 1896 regulates the salaries, but in every case it refers to the minimum beginner's salary, and leaves the adjustment of the maximum sum to the communities. The following tables, vith explanations, are gathered from an article by Kector J. Tews, of Berlin, who carefully compiles and critically analyzes the educational statis- tics of his native country from official nnd private sources. He says: In order to present the situation as it novr actually exists in Germany, it is neces- sary to bring together as many statements as possible. There are varied opinions as to what constitutes the proper pay for elementary school teachers. From some States it was impossible to obtain the statistics, namely, from Alsace-Lorraine, Meck- lenburg, Schaumburg-Lippe, and Waldeck. Little irregularities could not be 148 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. .ivoided ; tliey are explained in the text acconipauying the tables. It is qiiite aston- ishing to see how many teachers are paid minimum salaries. According to the tables from Wiirtemberg that refer to the year 1891-92, there were 3,406 teachers, of whom 511 were marked as belonging to the eleventh year of service, yet these 511 were still drawing the minimum salary. Besides, Wiirtemberg had in the same year 1,280 teachers not definitely employed who had been teaching between one and ten years. In Saxony, during the j'ear 1894, Mr. Rocke prepared a statement from which it is seen that among 8,239 teachers there were 1,902 definitely engaged and 336 assistants who were still drawing the lowest salary, which is equal to 28.3 per cent of the whole number of teachers in Saxony and 26 per cent of the assistants. The tables following on pages 153 to 155 are arranged according to the annual increases pre- scribed by law or governmental regulation. 1. Only the minimum salaries, with regular increases owing to the age and length of service which are required by law, are recorded in this table. No voluntary addition to the salary voted for by communities has been considered. Though these cases are quite numerous, it did not seem to be correct to consider them, inas- much as it is the object to state the legal requirements only. 2. Wherever in any State, as for instance in Hessia, Gotha, and Weimar, higher salaries are fixed by law for the cities and lower salaries for rural schools, the lower salaries have been inserted in the table in preference to the higher, the latter being in the minority. 8. Where professional teachers, such as assistants, adjuncts, substitutes, etc., receive a salary fixed by law, these salaries have been recorded in the proper col- umn. Where promotion to a definite appointment is not regulated by law, the average provisional period is assumed. 4. Where free fuel is granted in addition to the salary of teachers, 100 marks is added in the salary in the table, and 50 marks to that of assistants. This has been done with statements from Sondershausen and Liibeck, and also Saxony. For Hamburg a different figure had to be taken, namely, 150 marks for teachers and 50 marks for assistants, since these are the actual sums paid. 5. Wherever the teacher acts as organist or sexton and receives extra pay for such work, the pay is not mentioned in the tables, because, practically, it has nothing to do with the actual school work and its remuneration. Special notes are made with reference to each separate State: Bavaria: This Kingdom has no maximum salary fixed by law. The law prescribes increases of 90 marks at intervals of five years. After forty years service the Bava- rian teachers draw 1,720 marks; after forty-five years, 1,810; after fifty years, 1,900 marks; while the teachers in the Palatinate draw only 1,620, 1,710, and 1,800 marks, respectively. This necessitated a double entry in the table for Bavaria. In Wiirtemberg the beginners in the prolession draw 620 marks per annum dur- ing the first five years, and 790 marks until they reach the tenth year. Aside from the salary, they are provided with a furnished room, fuel, and light. The compiler has estimated the cost of this at 70 marks, hence the figures in the column will be found to be 690 and 860, respectively. Definitely appointed teachers are allowed by law supplies to the amount of 70 marks. In Saxony the assistants are granted free fuel or a sum of 50 marks. Very few communities in Saxony have gone beyond the minimum salaries prescribed by law. In Baden the candidates, that is, the beginners, receive 800 marks, and after having passed their State examination the salary is increased to 900 marks. For older assistant teachers many communities pay as much as 1,100 marks, which is the begin- ning salaries of rectors or principals. Rent is calculated at 150 marks for such teach- ers. Principals in schools with four teachers receive 100 marks, and where the school has more than four teachers 200 marks, additional. If the teachers serve in supplementary schools and evening classes the work is paid for by the year, namely, 100 marks. If he teaches gymnastics an additional 25 marks is paid. Since most EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 149 teachers in smixll coniiiumitics act ;is organists, aud some as sextons, their income is increased to a much greater sum than is stated in the table. In Hessia a new hiw has been passed which will come into force April 1, 1897. Definite appointment of the teacher is calculated from the date of passing- the second State examination, while in otlicr States il^ is the first examination. 'Jliis examina- tion is usually passed at the expiration of two years after graduating- from the normal schools. In larger communities much higher salaries are x>iiid, but since it is the object to show the minimum salaries they are omitted from tlio table. Oldenburg : The teachers in Oldenburg are classed as head teachers and assistants. Head teachers are the principals of graded schools and the teachers of ungraded schools in the country ; all other teachers are called assistants. The minimum salary of a head teacher is 900 marks, but in the cities 180 to 300 marks are added. To the minimum (or "stock") salary are also added six increases at 75 marks each after five, ten, fifteen, twenty, twenty-five, and thirty years of service, counted frojm the definite appointment. The teachers are employed temporarily for nearly four years. There is a further classification of the assistants into those of the first and second class. This makes it difficult to calculate the salaries for insertion in the table. The increases are not in most cases regulated by law but depend upon the good will of the authorities in office. Hence the table contains statements for Oldenburg, with reference to the first ten years of service, that may not in every case be correct, but they are the result of careful computation. The higher salaries could not be stated with exactness either, since in most cases a local increase is voted which is rarely less than 300 marks. In graded schools the second teacher draws the salary of a head teacher. The principal receives an indemnity of 90 to 120 marks if his school, or rather his residence, is not provided with an extensive garden in which to raise vegetables and fruit. This indemnity for land is invariably inserted in the table and quoted at 90 marks. The Government of Oldenburg is at present engaged in preparing a bill to regulate the salaries of teachers. In Weimar there is a distinction made between rural districts and towns of the third, second, and first class. The minimum salary fixed for towns of the third class ranges between 860 and 1,710 marks, in towns of the second class between 890 and 1,860 marks, and in towns of the first class between 920 and 2,010 marks; obtainable after twenty-seven years of service, counted from the day of graduation in the nor- mal school. There is a movement on foot in the duchy to. do away with the differ- ences and place the teachers all on the same level with those of towns of the first class. The teachers also claim remuneration for service in church, either as organist or sexton, or whatever other service the church insists upon. In Brunswick the city teachers have between 750 and 2,100 marks; besides that they enjoy free rent, which in the country is paid "in natura" and is estimated at 150 marks, or an indemnity of 90 marks for the first five years, 120 marks for the second five years, 150 marks for the third five years, and 180 marks after the eighteenth year of service. In Anhalt the teachers are not paid extra for rent. Where there is a residence for the teacher connected with the schoolhouse, rent is deducted from his stock salary. If he draws less than 1,500 marks, the sum of 60 marks is deducted ; if he draws more than 1,500 marks, 90 marks is deducted for the use of tlie residence. In the table these sums are already deducted. There is a slight difference between the salaries paid in small cities and. in larger cities, but the teachers are endeavoring to equalize tlie salaries and the Government is willing to meet the teachers in this. In Gotha there is a higher scale of salaries for the three cities^ Gotha, Ohrdruf, and Waltershausen, than the table contains. In Coburg the scales for city teachers are considerably higher than those mentioned in the table. lu Meiningen the Gov- ernment gives the teachers an additional salary of from 100 to 200 marks and 200 marks indemnity for rent. In Altenburg the rural teachers are classed with the teachers of towns of the third 150 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1895-96. class, .and it is this miuiimim that is contained in tho table. Jn Reuss (senior line) the head teachers receive an additional salary of 69 marks for sniiervision of their schools, l)ut tho cities pay the salaries. In Schwarzburg-Soudershausen rent is not paid, hut fuel and light are allowed. These dilferences have been adjusted in the tables. Schaumburg-Lippe has not been inserted in tho table because there was found no basis of comparison between the teachers called head teachers and assistants and between teachers of the various classes of towns. It may be stated, however, that the salaries range between 850 and 1,200 marks, and increase at intervals of five yeara 100 marks each time. Increases are calculated from the day of definite appointment, and church service is calculated at 300 marks per year. The salaries of rural teachers of the State of Hamburg are as follows: Assistants froui six to eight years receive between 800 and 1,000 marks, a furnished room, and 50 marks for fuel. Among the definitely appointed teachers, the following categories are to be distinsjuished: TeacluTs in ungraded scliools with loss than 35 pui)ils : Minin2um Maximum Teachers in ungraded schools -nith more than 35 inipils: Minimum Maximum Head teacliers in graded schools: Minimum Maximum 'Stock" salary. 2Iarks. 1,000 1,200 1,200 1,500 1,500 2,000 After 3 years. Marks. 1,100 1,320 1,320 1,650 1,650 2,200 After G years. Marls. 1,200 1,410 1,440 1,800 1,800 2,400 After 9 years. Maris. 1, 300 1,560 1,560 1,950 1,950 2,600 After 12 yeara. Marks. 1,400 1,680 1,680 2,100 2, 100 2,800 To these sums must be added a fixed sum for rent for unmarried teachers, or a free dwelling, with garden and fuel, for married teachers. Where these can not be fur- nished in close pi'oximity to the schoolhouse, an adequate sum of money is paid as an indemnity. At present the school council of tho State of Hamburg is consid- ering a new scale of salaries, in which the minimum salax'ies are greatly increased. The so-called free city of Hamburg consists of the city i^roper, with about 500,000 inhabitants, and a surrounding territory called Hamburg land; both together form one of the constituent States of the German Empire. Bremen: Tho figures quoted in the table for Bremen contain tho sums paid for rent; hence they appear greater in comparison than they ought to be. It is reason- able to deduct 20 per cent to arrive at the actual salary and thus make them com- parable with the other salaries granted. Llibeck : Tho rural teachers of tho country districts of the free city of Liibeck havo free dwelling, fuel, and not less than 25 acres of garden and field. This is very much more than is comprised in the provisions for Prussian teachers, since Prussian teachers are provided with the kitchen garden, but certainly not with 25 acres of field. Fuel for the teachers in Liibeck has been calculated at 100 marks, hence the scale quoted should read 1,000 to 1,-500 marks, beginning with the fifth year of service. Though all these A'arious calculations, which were unavoidable iu the attempt to equalize tho figures so as to enable comparison, may not in every case be abso- lutely correct, they are certainly as near the trutli and the actual facts as possible. Essential errors are excluded and the figures submitted in tho following tables, therefore, with the possible exception of Oldenburg and Bremen, olfer a safe basis for comparison. The first of the two tables following makes possible the reply to a number of important questions, for instance: What salary is offered a teacher at an ago when marrhxgo seems proper and advisable? Let us take a completed twenty-eighth year EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 151 of life, w'liicli v/ould l>o about the uintli year of service as a teacher, and we shall SCO that (excluding Bremen) Ilessia stands at the head "with 1,200 marks, Trhile Prussia falls short of that hy 220 marks. After twenty-five years of service the teachers in Anhalt are at the head with 1,860 marks, while those of Prussia fall short hy 420 marks. The figures in fall-face typo indicate the date at which the maximum salary is reached. ITero wo notice enormous differences. Hamburg (land) stands at the head with from seventeen to twenty years of service; Wiirtemberg at the foot of the scale Avith thirty-six years of service. Bavaria has no maximum salary fixed at all. The second table contains the total sums paid for salary as well as average sums. These figures appear to bo of greater A-alue than those of the first table, inasmuch as they exemx)lify the actual value of certain orders or classes. In both grand totals, namely, in that of twenty-five years and that of fifty years of service, the little State of Anhalt is at the head, while Prussia remains behind with 227 and 323 marks, respectively. If the numerical relation of the Prussian teachers is taken into consideration, a greater emphasis must be laid upon the salaries up to the twenty-fifth years of serv- ice; greater, certainly, than upon the increases ofiered after that time. For this rea- son in the year 1891 there were engaged of every 100 teachers — In first to fifth year 22. 421 ^g g-? In sixth to tenth year 20. 80 J In eleventh to fifteenth year 15. 421 ^~ o~ In sixteenth to twentieth year 10. 43 J In twenty-first to thirtieth year 15. 98 15.98 In thirty-first to fortieth year 10. 571 In forty -first to fiftieth year 3. 98^ 14.95 More than fifty years 4oJ Total 100.00 100.00 The salary reached after the thirtieth year of service is drawn only by one-seventh of the total number of teachers, while two-thirds of them reach the salary offered at fifteen years of service. The figures in the tables must not bo mistaken to mean rainimi^m income, but they are to represent the salaries only. There are other sources of income for teachei's, and their normal school training prepares them for that purpose. The iirofessioual preparation of a teacher includes instrumental and vocal music, particularly the playing of the organ. AVe quote a few figures showing what income teachers in Germany derive from this church service; but it must bo understood that the figures are all minimum not maximum salaries, since it is the intention to show the mini- mum income of German teachers. In Bavaria service as organist or sexton is jiaid for only in a few communities, and the compiler is unable to state the salary with any degree of accuracy. In Wiirtemberg the teacher is expected to serve in church without any special pay whatever. In Saxony the income from church service is calculated only when it amounts to more than 900 marks. In Baden all church service on the part of the teacher is prohibited except that as organist, and the least salary paid for that is 100 marks a j'ear ; but in most cases it is much more. In Ilessia the same conditions prevail. In Oldenburg the highest salary for service in church is jiaid in the Prot- estant communities, namely, 300 marks. In Catholic communities the payment of salary is not regulated, and varies considerably. In Weimar the teachers' p.ay for serving in church is not regulated either. In Brunswick 200 marks, in Anhalt between 100 and 150 marks are paid, while in Gotha the rural districts pay only 93 marks. In Coburg the salaries for church service vary and are not regulated. In Meiningcn the salaries for church service in rural districts amount to 175 to 250 marks. In Altenburg no salary is paid, and in Eeuss (senior line) 240 marks while 152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. iu Keuss (junior line) 200 marks are paid. Schwarzbiirg-Roilolstadt pays from 100 to 150 marks. In Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 200 marks ; in Lippe, according to the sizeoftlie congregation, from 70 to 250 marks; iu Schaumberg-Lippe, 300 marks; in Bremen (rural districts) between 200 and 600 marks. These sums must be divided by four to express them in American money, but that procedure would not approx- imately come near the real state of afiairs, because the purchasing power of money is very much greater in Germany than it is in America; however, while the neces- sities of life, such as bread, fruit, and meat, are only a little cheaper than in this country, everything that bears the character of luxury or contributes to comfort is vastly cheaper than iu this country. One more point may be stated, and that is the number of years after which a definite apijointmeut can take place That period is counted from the date of grad- uation from the normal school. Bavaria, after seven years; Wiirtemberg, after nine to ten years; Saxony, after three years; Baden, after eight years; Hessia, after four to five years; Oldenburg, after four years; Weimar, after two years ; Brunswick, after five years; Anhalt, after two years; Gotha, after two years; Coburg, after two years; Meiuiugen, after two years; Altenburg, after two years; Reuss (senior line), after two years ; Reuss (junior line), after two years ; Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, after two years; Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, after two years; Lippe, after four years; Hamburg (land), after five to eight years; Bremen (land), after five j-ears; Lubeck (land), after four years. We add a list of German cities with the statement of average salaries paid to teachers in elementary schools. This list has been compiled, from a work entitled "Die Gehaltsverhiiltuisse der Volksschullehrer," by H. Henck aiid H. Ischerlaud. A cursory glance at this table will show that the teachers in cities are not as well provided for as they deserve. AVERAGE SALARIES IN GERMAN CITIES IN 1880. As a basis of calculation it is assumed that the average length of service of teach- ers in Germany is thirty years. Calculations made in this Bureau from oificial tables published by the minister of education in Berlin make this appear correct, for the result arrived at was twenty-nine years and five months. The following list states the amount of salary only, and does not include any indemnity for rent, which is almost invariably paid, in addition to the salary, at the rate of 20 per cent of the latter. For the convenience of American readers the amounts are ex[)ressed in dollars and cents: Frank Ibrt on the Main $743.50 Leipzig 701.00 Berlin 700.00 Hamburg 694 . 00 Mannheim 673.75 Regensburg 644.00 Munich 638. 75 Maycnce 626.25 Carlsruhe 621.25 Dresden 617.00 Nuremberg 606.80 Darmstadt 606. 50 Ludwigshafen 603. 50 Freiburg 595. 50 Chemnitz 590.60 Charlottenburg . . 590. 00 Cologne 582.00 Wurz burg 582. 00 Elberfeld $581.00 Barmen 58 LOO Bremen 577. 00 Liibeck 576. 00 Off^enbach 574.25 Fiirth 572.40 Kiel 503.25 Essen 563.25 Brunswick 560.00 Worms 559. 00 Cassel 558.00 Dortmund 555.50 Augsburg 550. 00 Diisseldorf 542.00 Coblenz 541.50 Strassburg 536.50 Duisburg 535. 75 Miilheim on the Rhine 534. 50 Ulni $534. 00 Hamm 528. 50 Miilhansen 528.25 Altona 527.60 Hof 520.75 Breslan 526. 75 Aix la Chapelle . . 517. 00 Burtscheid 517 00 Llanover 515.00 Bayreuth 515.00 Bremerhafen 515. 00 Posen 510.00 Wiesbaden 504.00 Bochum 502.50 Ansbach 498. 00 Diiren 494.00 Hanau 492.25 Schalke 486.00 Heilbrom 484.00 EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 153 Willielmshafen . . . $478. 00 Hagen 478 00 Rostock 476.00 Siegen 475. 50 Speier 475.50 Remscheid 474. 50 Saarbriicken 474, 00 Stettin 471.50 Glogau 471.50 Cannstadt 470. 50 Gmiind 470.00 TubiDgen 470.00 Halle 468.00 Milllieim on the Ruhr 467.00 Soliugen 465. 00 Bielfekl 462.00 Gelseukirchen.... 460.00 Hameln 459.50 Magdeburg 458. 50 Neu Brandenburg . 458. 25 Gottingen 456.25 Scbwerte 453.25 Hildeslieim 452.00 Potsdam 4.'i2, 00 Osnabriick $452. 00 Gorlitz 452.00 Jiihch 450.00 Passau 445. 00 Neuss 442. 50 Bingen 442.50 Celle 441.25 Liineburg 441. 75 Liegnitz 441.00 Stade 435. 75 Altenburg 435.25 Spandau 434.25 Emden 431.00 Elbing 431.00 Eberswalde 423.00 Nordliausen 423. 00 Bromberg 423. 00 Erfurt 418. 75 Glaucbau 417.50 Scbwerin 417.00 I Kupeuik 415.50 Ballenstedt 415.25 Beruburg 415. 25 Cotben 415.25 Zerbst 415.25 Da,uzig $405.75 Paderborn 405.75 Lippstadt 404.50 Verden 404.50 Brandenburg 403. 25 Hirscbberg 400. 00 Griinberg 392. 75 Goslar 392. 75 Thorn 392.75 Coslin 391.00 Luckenwalde 390.50 Marburg, 389.00 Blinde 382.25 Angermund 383.00 Halberstadt 381. 00 Hochst 379.75 Frankfort on the Oder 379. 75 Konigsberg 377. 25 Coburg 377. 00 Lauban 367. 00 Wernigerode 364. 00 Soudersbausen . . . 362. 50 Wittenberg 354. 00 Buuzlau 353.25 Table 1.- -Minimum teacher »' salaries in German States, in mai increases. including periodical [Sums expressed in marks, equal to 23.8 cents in American money. Add about 20 per cent jjaid for rent.] State. Prussia, bill of 1896 Bavaria, regulation of 1893-94 Palatinate, regulation of 1893-94 Wiirtemberg, law of 1895 Saxony, law of 1892 Badeu, law of 1892 , Hessia, bill of 1896 Oldenburg, law of 1888 Saxe Weimar, law of 1892 Brunswick, law of 1895 Anhalt, resolution of 1892 Gotha, law of 1892 Coburg, law of 1 895 Meiningen, law of 1894 Altenburg, law of 189y Eeuss (senior) , law of 1891 Reuss (junior), law of 1893 SchwarzbTirg-Eudolstadt, law of 1891 Scb warzburg-Sondershau sen, law of 1896 Lippe, law of 1891 Hamburg (rural), 1879 Bremen (rural), 1891 Liibeck (rural), 1892 Year of service, counted from the date of graduation from normal school. 7201 817 640 69o! 7701 800] 7C01 4951 850' 720, 840 ' 720; 650 750' 720 ! 690, 900 720 817 640 690 770 800 700 495 850 720 840 720 050 7501, 720 1, 690 9001, 720 817 640 690 770 1 900 900 525 950 900 940 880 800 000 050 840 000 750, 750 900 858 720 850 100 1, 000,1, 858| 72o; 850; 858 720 850 720 817 640 690 , 000 900 900 655 950 900 940 900 900 817; 889; 640] 702! 690 860 1 ,000 1,000 1, 9001 9oo; 900 1, 100 1, 685' 700; 950; 950' 900 1, 0001, 9401, 0401, 880 8801 800 800 1,000:1, 1,000 I, 000 1, OOOil, 1,050 1,050 1, 050J1, 8401 840i 840 1,0001,0001, OOO'l, 900 889 702 860 000 9U0 100 850 950 0001, 0401, 880 1, 000 1, 100 1, 0.50 1, 840 0001, 980 000 900 860 0001, 9001, 100; 1, 850 0901. 000 1, 040; 1, 0301, 000 1, 1001, 0501, 990 150 1 10. 11. 12. 13, 900 1,003 720 850 1,100 ioo;i, 1(10 (500 1,000' 1,000 900 1,003 820 850 1,100 1,100 900 1,145 820 850 1, 500 1,100 900 975 1, 145 1, 145 820 1, 000 1, 150 1, 150 l,500l 1,500 1, 10011, 163 9801, 1, 000 1, 900 1 800 I, 1,0001, 1,100,1, 1,200 1, I, 065 1, 1,090 1, 1,100 1, 1, 140 1, 1, 030il, 1,000 1, 1,100 1, 0501,100:1, 990 990| 150 1,1501, 0601, 090 1, 9901 150,1, 200;i, 1001, 975 1,145 1,000 1,150 975 200 065 090 100 140 030 150 100 100 990 1501 975 O60 1, 060 090|1, 180 990 990 150 1, 150 200 1,200 200 1, 2C0 3001,300 065 1, 065 090'], 180 20011,200 290 1,290 030 1, 180 1501,150 250 1, 250 1001,100 9901,140 150 1, 300 975 1,288 1, 145 1, 288 1, ooo:i,oooji,ooo 1,2501,250 1,250 l,750|l,750jl, 750:2, 000 1,163 1,163 1,225 1,225 1,050 1,288 1,150 1, 350 2,000 1,225 154 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-93. TaTiLt:: 1. — 2/i»imn:n ieaclurs' salaries in German Slates, in marls, indudliKj periodical increases — Contiuued. Stale. rrnssi.1, bill of 189G Uaviiria, regulation of 1893- 04 ralatinate, regulation of 1893-94 Wiirtemberg, law of 18^5 .. Saxonj-, law of 1802 Baileii, law of 1893 Hcssia, bill of 1S95 Okl(ji!burs, law of 1888 Sase-AYoimar, law of 1892 .. Brunsv.'ick, law of 1895 Anlialt, resolution of 1892 . . Gotha, law of 1892 Coburg, law of 1895 Meiniugen, law of 1894 Altenburg, law of 1893 Keuss (senior), law in CI O i.-^ ^- cs ccj i-^ i:r^ c; - - -f ^ r-( — ( r^ : i:r^ o o c: 1-- — ci o C-5 « O W O CV r; O OS rH iH rH iH rH iM I ow^oooooooooooooo ococoooooi-o-^ocooo-rrom I* rf CC ^ O »0 r:? 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These classes vote separately on election day, aud the intelligence of the teachers iu xK)litical aflairs is not without influence, as is plainly seen in large cities, such as Vienna. The constantly increasing number of women teachers also is au impor- tant social factor. At present the number of women teachers is a little less than one-fifth of the total number. The numerical relation of the EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 157 female sex in tlie various grades of the profession may be seen from the folio VA'inar table: Principals and head teachers . . . Teacliers Assistants, definitely appointed Assistants, jiro visor j' Total Men. Women. Total. 8,284 15,318 5,276 5,121 447 3, 820 1,770 1,768 8,731 19, 138 7,04C 0,889 7,805 I 41,804 This table shows that the position of women uuiong the head teachers is a subordinate one, since in the highest grade, in that of principals and head teachers, the women are represented only by one-twentieth of the number; in the next lower grade, in that of teachers, they are represented by only one-fifth of the number; but in the next lower grade, in that of assistants, they are represented by one-fourth of the number. The cause is, partly, that the women in Austria have only recently turned to the profession of teaching; hence those engaged in it are not experienced — that is to say, not old enough to have been promoted to the highest grades of the profession. But the cause may also lie in the fact that tlie governmental authorities do not consider women adapted for executive duties. A better insight into the social position of the teachers in Austria, and partly into the difference existing between the social position of the two sexes, is gained by a study of the following table, based upon official data of 1890 : Salaries of teachers in elemeutar)/ and burgher schools in Austria, 1890. Salaries. Number of men. Number of women. Eatio of- Men. Women. 200 florins 200 to 249 tlorins 250 to 299 florins , 300 to 349 florins 350 to 399 florins 400 to 450 florins 450 to 499 florins iJOO to 549 flcjrins 550 to 599 florins 600tO'649 florins 650 to 699 florins 700 to 749 florins 750 to 799 florins 800 to 849 florins 850 to 899 florins 91)0 to 950 florins 950 to 999 florins 1,000 to 1,099 florins . 1,100 to 1,199 florins . 1,200 to 1,299 fliirius . 1,300 to 1,399 florins . 1,400 to 1,499 florins . 1,500 to 1,599 florins . 1, 600 to 1,G19 florins . 1, 700 to 1, 79'.; florins . 1,800 to 1,899 florins . 1, 900 to 1, 999 florins . 2, 0(10 florins and luore Total 593 408 520 180 718 055 215 219 074 240 349 979 091 514 198 191 041 216 015 308 449 356 294 125 58 90 40 101 830 256 559 674 344 1,019 561 344 321 685 401 278 179 184 197 206 135 280 273 39 31 6 3 Per cent. 1.7 1.3 4.4 6.4 8.0 10.8 3.6 6.5 6.1 6.6 6.9 5.8 5.0 4.5 3.5 3.5 3.1 3.6 3.1 1. ] 1.3 1.0 .9 .4 !3 .1 Per cent. 10.6 3.3 7.2 8.6 4.4 13.1 7.2 4.4 4.1 8.8 5.1 3.6 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 1.7 3.6 3.5 !5 .4 .1 33, 990 158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-98. If the foregoing data are gToupecl we obtain tLc followiug represen- tation : S;ilaries. Men. "Women. Less than 600 florins Per cznt. 48.8 42.5 8.7 Per cent. 62 9 COO to 1,000 florins 30 G More than 1,000 florins - 4 5 100 100 This sliows that nearly one-half of the men and two-thirds of the women teachers receive the "minimum of existence," which statisticians have estimated at G30 florins (.$303.GG); 42^ per cent of the men ar.d 32.G per cent of the women receive salaries ranging from 600 to 1,000 florins. This again shows a very disadvantageous x)Osition of the female sex, which is particularly noticeable in the highest group, where only 4J per cent of the women are ranged, while 8.7 per cent of the men are found there. The foregoing tables plainly exhibit the fact that the income of teachers, be they men or women, is low, about G50 florins at an average. Although the sum total paid to the teachers amounts to nearly 26,000,000 florins, and although this social class has become an impor- tant political factor, it must still be admitted that the pecuniary condi- tion of many teachers in Austria is very modest indeed. This is the more striking as the school laws passed in 1868 lifted the profes.sion of teaching to a new social footing. The appropriations and taxes voted for and paid by communities, districts, and Crown lands for school purposes, and which have during the last thirty years added new burdens to the taxpayers, are constantly increasing. Modern life lays claims upon the exchequer of the modern State which were unknown in former times. The new school buildings, furniture, and equipment require enormous sums; so that interest-bearing debts increase the annual appropriations for school purj)Oses and even frustrate the best intentions of raising the salaries of the teachers. Austria has just cause to be proud of its enormous expenditures for school purposes in recent years, and particularly for its magnificent school buildings. The teachers of Austria stand foremost in the i)rofession and command the respect of the world for their heroic efforts in behalf of public education. Eefoem Schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden, Germany. The system of reform schools^ in the Grand Duchy of Baden in Ger- many is regulated by law of May, 1886, which began to operate January, 1887. The secretaries of the departments of justice and the interior ' These data are translated from a German magazine of recognized anthority in statistics, Jalirbiicher fiir National Oekonomio und Statistik, Volume XIII, Heft 3, page 446. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 159 prepared tlie rules and regulations necessitated by tlie new law. The law is similar to paragraph 55 of tlio Imperial Criminal Code, adopted February 2G,.187C. According to this code, persons who commit a crime beibre tliey are 12 years of age can not be tried for crime, but naay be kept in custody for tlie i^urpose of reforming tbem, according to the s]>ecial law of the separate State. Such children nniy bo idaced under reform training, if both the criminal and the orx)han court have so decreed. The Baden law goes two steps farther than the general imperial code: (1) It fixes the maximum time limit at 10 years of age; that is to say, juvenile criminals are not prosecuted or tried for crime in Baden if less than IG years of age, but are retained in reform schools. (2) The law does not confine its operations to criminal acts, but requires that youths up to 16 years of age be assigned to reform schools for moral misde- meanors, provided (a) that parents or guardians endanger the moral life of the children by misuse of their authority or by neglect; or (&) that the conduct of the children proves that neither the good efibrts of parents and guardians nor the means of discipline in school are adequate to prevent their moral depravity. The Baden law (section 12) further decrees that if a person accused of crime between 12 and 18 years of age' is acquitted owing to his tender age and want of good judgment, the court shall state whether he is to be returned to his famil^^, or i)laced in custody of another family, or be detained in a reform school. The execution of the law is left in the hands of the county courts (criminal and probate "Bezirks-Aemter"). The courts are charged with the careful investigation of the conditions of the child's liome environments, in order to decide whether the home gives proper assur- ance of wholesome influence in the future. In aggravated cases of moral depravity, which require constant supervision and strict disci- pline, the culprit is to bo sent to a reform school without further delay. Concerning the age of reform school i)upils, only the maximum (IG or 18 years, respectively) is clearly defined, while with regard to the mini- mum the law is silent; but the ministerial regulations state that chil- dren under G years should be sent to reform schools only in specially urgent cases. The law specifically states that poorhouses, hospitals, and asylums for persons of defective senses are not to be regarded or used as reform schools in the sense of the law; but it admits to legal recognition as reform schools all institutions established by corpora tions and i)rivate persons or through endowment which have the i)ur- pose of saving morally depraved children and training them to be useful citizens and members of society. This recognition is granted by the secretary of the interior; courts are not x)ermitted to designate any institution as a reform school so long as the secretary of the interior withholds his recognition. ilu exceptioual cases tlie time limit is exteuded to 19 years. 160 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. The State's right to educate '^by force" (that is, in reform schools) ends with the completed eighteenth year of the juvenile offender. Pupils may be dismissed from reform schools before they are 18, if the purpose of their reform training has been accomplished, or if it is rea- sonably secured by other means. This release is revocable at first, for if inquiry reveals that the guardians fail to follow u^) the good work of the school, a pupil may be brought back by the police. One- third of the costs of this compulsory training is borne by the poor fund of the town or district from which the pupil comes. In case the parents can afford to defray the expense, the town may collect from them, and the State bears two-thirds of the expenses, except the cost of traveling, which must be borne by the town or district. So much concerning the legal requirements. Now let us see what the results of this compulsory training are. According to official state- ments (year 1893) the number of pupils in the various institutions for that purpose and under the charge of families, was : Xiimber of pupils under reform training. Tear. 1887 3888 3889 389.1 1891 18.12 1893 Boys. Girls. Total. Legiti- mate. Illegiti- mate. 69 48 117 96 21 181 88 269 224 45 30.-$ 138 441 368 73 410 191 601 507 94 505 229 734 622 112 583 267 850 721 129 697 341 1,038 893 145 Ratio of illegiti- mates. Per cent. 18 16.7 15.6 15.6 15.3 15.2 14 From this table it is seen that more boys than girls were subjected to compnlsory training. In 1893 the number of boys amounted to 07.2 per cent of the total number, hence more than two-thirds. It is of inter- est to note, also, that the percentage of illegitimate children decreased from 18 to 14 per cent within six years. It is evident that family life in Baden has improved even in the strata from which refractory and depraved children are taken to reform schools. The official statement from which the contents of this article are drawn gives no information concerning the occui)ation or profession of the fathers. With reference to the kind of provision made for the children in need of compulsory training, it is stated that 440 (36.5 per cent) of the total number in 1S93 were assigned to private families and 703 (03.4 per cent) to institutions, so-called reform farms or reform schools. Of the whole number (1,038), the majority (namely, 888) were less than 14 years old, and of these 336 (37.8 per cent) were placed in private families, while 552 (02.2 per cent) were assigned to institutions. Of the 315 who had i)assed the fourteenth year of life, 104 (33 per cent) were placed in families, and 211 (67 per cent) in institutions. Year after year, as tlie operation of the law became more effective, and the number of children assigned to comijulsory training increased, the number of EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 161 those assigned to reformatory iiistitutious remained in the majority. The hitter proportion amounted to 57.3, 61, C0.8, (58.4, 65.7, 68.2, and 61.3 per cent in the successive years from 1887 till 1893. At the (ilose of the year 1893, 19 pupils (1.9 per cent) of reform schools or given into custody of private families had escaped from supervision. Of the 290 boys over 14 years of age assigned to families, 224 were apprentices learning trades; 114 in cities, 110 in the country. Of these apprentices 144 were between 14 and 16 years of age, while 68 were 17 years, 6 were 18 years, and 6 were 19 years of age. The causes which induced the authorities to assign these boys to reformatory training were (a) degrading influence on the part of the parents in 71 cases, (&) depravity of the children despite good home influence in 153 cases. The conduct of 180 apprentices out of 224 (83. per cent) was re^iorted to be good or satisfactory. Forty trades or occupations were represented by the apprentices; 33 were employed as stable boys, 23 as farm hands, 19 learned the cobbler's trade, 18 were in joiner's shops, 17 were bakers, 17 tailors, 11 saddlers, etc. Of the 82 girls over 14 years of age assigned to families, 40 were employed as house servants, 3 as factory hands, 6 as dressmakers and seamstresses. Of these 55 pupils, 42 were between 14 and 16 years of age, 9 were 17, 3 were 18, and 1 was 19 years of age. The causes for which they had been placed under compulsory train- ing were {a) degrading influence on the part of the parents in 33 cases, (b) depravity of the children despite good home influence or neglect in 22 cases. The conduct of 45 (81.8 per cent) proved very satisfactory. The official data give no information concerning the occux)ation of children under 14 years of age, but it is presumed that they attend school. Considerable difi:'erences are noticeable in the ages of the pupils. They are here tabulated in percentages for each year that the law has been in operation : Jge of pupils under reform training. Tear. 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 189;i Average Under 10 years. Per cent. Z5 28. G 31.5 21.3 24.3 20 19.8 10 to U years. Over 14 years. Per cent. 47 57.8 49.7 51.1 46.1 44.1 46.8 Per cent. 18 13.6 18.8 27.6 29.6 35.9 33.6 25 26.2 Total. • ce.nt. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 While the annual number of children between 10 and 14 years of age remained at about one-half of the sum total, the numbers of those under 10 and over 14 show an almost uniform change, the former of descend- ing the latter of ascending tendency. From this it is seen that the authorities commit young children to compulsory training much more ED 96 6 162 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. rarely of late years tliau seemed desirable at the begiuning. It is iwssible that tlie cost of maintenance of these children induces the authorities not to resort to reform training. German g'overnmental authorities recognize in their statistical tabu- latious only three religious denominations: Catholic, Protestant, and Jews, to which sometimes they add a column for Dissenters " or others." The i)roportion of Catholics and Protestants among the children under discussion Avas as follows: Year. 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 Catliolics. Per cent. 58.1 66.9 CI. 9 72.4 Co. 7 Ci.7 64.7 Protestauts. Per cent. 41.9 33.1 38.1 27.6 34.3 35.3 35.3 This proportion is very nearly analogous to the proi^ortion of Catholics and Protestants in the population Avhich was in 1890, 3G per cent Protestants and G3 per cent Catbolics. It is interesting to observe how many of the children under reforma- tory training had parents. At the time when the courts decided upon their fate there liad-:- Year. 1887 1888 1S89 1890 1891 1892 1893 Total Both parents. 92 109 Only father. Only mother. 25 30 21 48 31 02 28 67 38 55 20 44 55 GO 224 372 Neither father nor mother. Of the total number 4G,3 per cent had both i)areuts living, 18.G per cent had only father left, 30.9 per cent only a mother, and 4.2 x^er cent were orphans. The remarkably greater representation of children who had no father is exi)lained by the relatively large proportion of illegiti- mate children, partly owing to the relatively larger number of widows. The census of 1890 showed that Baden had 29,521 widowers and 70,23G widows. Another cause of the api^arent disproportion may be found in the fact that woman's hibor is i)oorly paid, hence that lone mothers are not always able to properly train and look after their children. Likewise interesting is the fact that among the 224 children who had only a father 29 per cent were girls, and that among the 372 who had only a mother 35.5 per cent were girls. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 163 The following table gives iuformation couceniing tlie causes that made reformatory training necessary : Year. Parents ondan- gcring children's chai'acter. Depravity or inadequate liomo training. Criminal acts. K"umber. Eatio. Kuniber. Katio. Xumber. Eatio. Iggy 77 82 80 75 09 07 93 Per cent. 05.8 53.2 44.2 43.1 40.9 39.4 39.1 39 71 97 94 94 98 138 Per cent. 33.3 40.1 53.6 51.0 55,0 57.7 58.0 1 1 4 5 G 5 7 Per cent. 0.9 ] 888 .7 18«9 2.2 1890 2.9 1891 3.5 1802 2.9 1893 .' 2.9 Total 543 45.2 031 52.4 29 2.4 The length of reformatory training in 26 cases was less than one year ; in 44 cases, one to two years 5 in 05 cases, two to three years ; in 51 cases, three to four years; in 41 cases, four to five years; in 17 cases, five to six years, and in 5 cases, over six years. Children released were returned to their x)arents in G3 cases ; given over to relatives or guard- ians in 16 cases; 121 entered some sort of service; of the remaining 32 cases, 5 " went to America;" 9 having learned a trade, became travel- ing journeymen; 3 remained in the institutions to learn housekeeping; 3 were sent to asylums for idiots or insane; 7 escaped; 4 were taken to prison, and 1 girl was " lost in bad company." Of all those who since 188S had been released, 125 (among whom were 13 girls) entered upon some kind of industrial pursuit; 23 (only boys) chose farm labor ; 41 (of 70) gh-ls entered upon domestic service. These facts give hints as to the strata of society from which the chil- dren came. The results or effects of reformatory training depend essentially \\\)0\\ the causes which necessitate it, that is to say, whether the children are subjected to dangerous x)arental influence, or whether their home influ- ence, though not vicious, is nevertheless injurious, because inadequate, or whether their own depravity is so great that society is endangered by them. It depends, furthermore, upon the sex, age, and method of training of the pui)ils, and, lastly, upon their being assigned to an institution or to a private family. "With regard to these various influ- ences, the statistical data at hand state results which may be tabulated. To facilitate comparison ratios are emx>loyed. Of every 100 pupils the effect was — Satisfac- tory. Doubtful. Xot satis- factory. TTnknown. Per cent. 77.1 78.8 Per cent. 12.1 7.8 Per cent. 10.4 13 Per cent. 0.4 2.4 164 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Generally the effect ayus satisfactory. Of every 100 pupils — Of all the pupils Of bov s Of iiirls Of childveu under 11 > Of cliiklieu ovei' 14 Of boys under 14 Of boys over M Of gi lis uuder 14 Of uirls over 14 Of cinldren admitted because endangered by parents (cause a). Of ( liildren admitted owing to inadequate home trainiug or viciousuess (causes b and c) Of boys (cause a) Of boys (causes b and<:) Of girls (cause a) Of girls (causes 6 and c) Of released pupils: Total...: Bovs Girls In families. In reform schools. Per cent. Pe • cent. 85.2 71.7 84.2 71.6 87.6 71.8 92.3 69.1 82.1 74 91.2 67.5 81.9 75.8 93.9 72.1 82.7 71.6 88.2 80.2 82 ee. 1 85.6 78.4 83.1 68.3 92.3 82 77.2 61.8 75. 6 88.3 76.7 84.4 72.7 93.8 Average. Per cent. 76. 76 78. 78. 75. 76. 76 The (lata show that the effect of compulsory training' is not the same for both sexes, nor the same with regard to institute and family train- ing. Generally speaking, the results are less favorable with the boys than with the girls; much more favorable with children under 14 years of age than with those over 14, and less favorable among those who were admitted owing' to inadequate home influence or their own depravity. In viewing the effects of family and institute training it must be borne in mind that (1) the worst characters are assigned to institutions — chil- dren who could not well be put in families, and (2) that the opinion concerning what is satisfactory conduct in institutions and families is not in all cases equally well based. The expenditures for the support of pupils under compulsory training amounted to — Year. In families. In institu- tions. Total. Per cap- ita. 1889 $9, 857 14, 504 10. 935 20, 697 19, 826 $22. 71 22 16 1890 $3, 731 4,087 5,083 3,549 $10, 773 12, 848 15, 614 16, 277 1891 21 12 1892 21. 74 1893 19 10 The decrease in expenditures is explained bj^ the more frequent assign- ment of children to families who desire to take them free of cost, a practice which does not recommend itself, since experience shows that the children thus assigned are unduly burdened with work and merely used as drudges, and that the families who petition that pupils be assigned to them do not always exercise the most wholesome educa- tional influence upon their charges. It is a matter of self-evidence that the cities furnish a larger propor- tion of pupils who need reformatory training than the rural districts. Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Freiburg, and Heidelberg are represented with EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 165 37 per cent of the sum total of pupils, tliougli these cities have only 23 per cent of the population of the Grand Duchy. The population of the United States is about thirty-six times greater than that of Baden; hence we ought to have 39,oG8 children under reformatory training, taking the number Baden represents as a cri- terion, while actually we have only 20,201, according to the statistics offered in the Annual Eeport of the Commissioner of Education for 1893-94. These 20,201 children cost the States (m 1893) $2,562,411, which is $120.85 per capita, cost of permaneut improvements for groun# O ; i-^ Tjl •ejossgjojd 1 ^ ^ ^ jC.iBnipioLU'ixa; 1 CM rH rH rH H? rH rH COrH^ Cl rH CM •saossoj 1 « • • • rH ■ rH ■ (M | "' : ■ 00 •Bjoseej -ojcl j^jumpjo .-O»Ot~CS 1-1 rH f-1 rH O O t> O o LO rH "3 o ■fco o "o . 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MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. Contents. — Introduction. — Opinion of T. W. Surette. — Historical review of singing in German schools. — Present state of metliod in Germany.— Selection of matter for singing. — Methods of instruction in the United States. — Methods of iustrnction in Germany. — Value of folk songs in school. — List of German iioets and compos- ers. — Literature: German books on theory and method. — German song collec- tions. INTRODUCTION. The study of musie in the schools of this country is attractiug special attention among teachers, especially since the department of music of the National Education Association has been makiug inquiries into the history and methods of this branch of study. The situation is rather emphatically stated in an article in The Citizen (June, 1896) by Prof. T. W. Surette. The author asks: WHAT PART SHOULD iVIUSIC HAVE IX EDUCATION? Looking at the present condition of music in America— taking the country as a whole — one is struck by the fact that in spite of our great progress there does not yet exist any real relation between music and life. By this I mean that we have not yet apprehended what music really is; it appeals to most of us only as an inno- cent sort of amusement, and the idea of giving it any place in education and think- ing of it as a potent factor in civilization, is only in its infancy. It seems timely, therefore, to say a word as to what may be done in the way of Ijringiug music more closely to people, so that a better use may bo made of its great power as an educational factor, and to show wherein that power lies; to explain, as far as may be, just what the relation is betAveen music and life, aud how it may reach us and help us. It is not difficult to understand why music is universal. It antedates laugnage. It is the cry, in its infancy nothing but a wild chant of joy or sorrow, analogous to the cry of animals; afterward the rude song of victory or the wail of death; then the fisherman's song, the reaper's, the soldier's— each giving expression to those feelings for which speech is inadequate; without art, but true to nature. Through all these stages of civilization it has been increasing its power of expression, keep- in"- pace with the widening range of human activity, with the spread of knowledge, "•rowing as naturally as a tree grows, having a form as beautiful and well ordered as any form nature has molded. Where once it expressed the emotions of rude peoples, it now has come to be the voice of our highest aspirations, to x>icture for us what we should, without it, never see. As Carlyle puts it, " It takes us to the edge of the iUiinito and lets us for moments gaze into that." 187 188 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. It is the language of tlio emotious; in its highest expression it gives yon the v'ery essence of beauty. Take the Heroic Symphonj^, for example. If yon under- stand it, j'ou get from hearing it a picture more vivid and real than any verljal description could be of that turbid, litful, solitary, and tragic thing which is the life of a great man. No words can convey to you as this music does the heroism, beauty, and love which are there. The inevitable and onward marching fate, the very ideal of it all — its essence — is perfectly expressed by the music. Words are but symbols through which the ideas and emotiohs try to find vent; music is their natural and real voice. Every other medium gives them to you at secondhand. But of what ijractical use is all this? you say. What relafciou between music and life have you established by this statement of what music is? How does it affect morals or conduct? It all depends on your point of view. If you think education consists in knowing facts; if your idea of a thorough preparation for life is a knowledge of geometry, history, and the other things usually learned in school and college, then you will not agree with rae that music should find a place in our scheme of education. Music will not make two cabbages grow where there was only one before; it will not sat- isfy you as a good dinner will; it will not give you the consolation to be derived from a spring bonnet. But if education is tliat sweetening of life which comes from happy surroundings, from a home where only the most refined influences gather; if it is the broadening of your mind and heart from love of nature, from observation, from experience; if it is the growth in your soul of the love of beauty ; in short, if it is all those things which tend to make you a better man aud a better citizen, then music is a serious, a logical, and a powerful factor in it. I don't 8ui)pose any argument is necessary to prove the influence on character of great poetry, painting, or sculpture. What I desire to show is how much more active the influence of music is; how thoroughly wholesome, and how easily obtained. There is a whole side of our nature which is left tintouched by the ordinary affairs of life, and you find men who have devoted themselves to business exclusively, or ta the pursuit of knowledge in one form or another, in whom the jierception of beauty, with all the inspiration which comes from it, is alinost totally inactive. It is perhaps a rather extreme case, but an interesting one, which Darwin's life pre- sents. He says in his autobiography that up to the time he was 30 he derived great pleasure from Milton, Byron, Wordsworth, and Shelley; that Shakespeare gave him intense delight, and that he was fond of music; but in later life he could not endure to read a line of poetry; Shakespeare nauseated him, and he had entirely lost his taste for music. "My mind," he says, "seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large collections of facts. If I had to live my life over again I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once a week; for perhaps the part of my brain now atrophied would thus have been kept active through use. The loss of these tastes is a loss of happiness, and may possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the moral character, by enfeebling the emotional part of our nature." This is, perhaps, too negative an illustration to carry conviction with it; but a positive expression of what the eftect would be if one were to hear music continually is a little difficult. You can not measure such things by the rule of three. A tape measure is not of much use in estimating the beauty of the Venus of Milo, but there is no doubt that we are moved to the depths of our natures by the visions which we are vouchsafed by great music. When we are educated to listen to it, it touches us as nothing else can. For this reason, as well as because it is a so much more common factor in life than painting or sculpture — so much more easily obtained — I believe it should be an active influence in education. For you may reasonably hope to do more with an art which appeals to the mass of the people than with one in which only a few are interested. In addition,. there is MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 189 this further point: The influeiuo of music is witliout taiut; it does not give you immorality uudcr the guise of art. But you may say that music is fast becoming all that it is claimed it should be. We have our seasons of opera, our great orchestras ; we crowd to the recitals of a famous pianist, and from one end of the country to the other thousands of people are engaged in teaching music; every country village has its half dozen prol'essors, and altogether it seems as if wo were really making music .1 factor in education. And there is no doubt whatever that we have advanced very much in the last twenty- five years; we have passed through the stage when Monastery Bells was a classic. But there is one fundamental difBculty with it all; we are on the wrong track. We are not making music a logical factor in education ; we do not study it, nor under- stand it in a logical way ; we do not even look on it as possessing the quality of logic, and we take it, or tolerate it, as a harmless kind of amusement. There is no doubt, for example, that in our church services, where it plays so important a part, it is simply tolerated by many people, even by some of the clergy. The names of the men who have written great church music are, in many cases, entirely unknown. As a consequence of this ignorance, a great part of our church music is vapid, not to say irreligious, and it rarely appeals to you as an integral part of the worship. Of course, if it is to be the factor in education which we have here jiroclaimed it, it must possess the qualities of greatness. To be great an art must be capable of quickening the imagination; it must present beauty which compels you in spite of yourself; it must give you a consistent, logical, and satisfying picture; it must have a physiognomy, a plan, a consistent purjjose throughout. Everything great has these qualities, this organic nature. Without it nothing can exist, neither an insti- tution, nor an art, nor the human body. Furthermore, it will be conceded that some understanding of this organic nature is necessary if we are to derive great good from the thing which possesses it, and, in the case of music, the conditions which surround it as an art are so peculiar that an iinderstanding of its organism is absolutely necessary. A symphony possesses to an eminent degree the qualities I have enumerated as essential to a great piece of art, and, to a less degrep, the same thing may be said of all music. A moment's thought about the manner in which our impressions from music are received, however, will convince anyone that order and balance are absolutely essen- tial to it. A piece of music which lasted ten or fifteen minutes, in which those qualities were absent, would be meaningless to everyone. The very nature of a musical phrase demands its repetition in some form or another in order to have con- tinuity; otherwise it would not remain in the memory. In a symphony or sonata the themes are changed, thrown into new lights, dismembered, enlarged, treated in a dozen different ways, not unlike the manner in which ideas are developed in a sermon, or characters in a book or play. But it is all done in the ten or iifteen min- iates, and when it is over you have only a faint notion of a tune here and there and of a hopeless noise which has seemed confusing and meaningless. Most persons who have never studied music in a system.atic way are incapable of recognizing a theme when it is changed, however slightly. Consequently, when they listen to a piece of music, they are like a person who enters a theater in the middle of a play and who has no programme and does not know what it is all about. These qualities, then, which distinguish great music, which are essential to its greatness, must be apprehended by us — we must be instructed in its form and manner of speech; then it will educate us. Wo must take it out of the place it now occupies as a parlor accomplishment, or as the pleasure of the passing hour, and study it understandingly. Our chief aim should be appreciation of the masterjjieces of the art. » * * # * « # University extension suggests a right method of dealing with this music question. If we can get our audiences to see the value of a musical education, and how much 190 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. that is good and wliolesome may le 'broviglit into tlieir lives and tLo lives of tlieir children by cultivating the musical faculty with vshich they are endowed, Ave shall have carried out the legitimate function of university extension. If our colleges, besides teaching harmony and counterpoint to a few students, would have courses in analysis in which the form and structure of music is explained, and the pieces i)erformed so that an intelligent understanding of them were possible, the amount of real education to be derived from the music courses would be incal- culably increased. As they now stand, they occupy no vital relation to the college life and work. If we can convince the jieople that there is more in music than mere pleasure; if we can make them see that their children may all have something of its blessings iu their lives; if wo can substitute for or join with the conventional music lesson a study of musical form, an understanding of the way musical ideas are presented, we shall be in a fair way to make music a factor iu education. Music having been raised to the highest degree of perfection by the Germans, it wouhl seem proper to inquire into the methods of teaching employed iu the schools of that country. This inquiry will naturally first turn to the history of musical education. The best statement on this point is found to have been published by Dr. Johannes Plew, pro- fessor in the lyceum in Strasburg, Alsace, Germany. Some results of his i^rofound historical researches, as well as those of Prof. J. Helm, of Schwabach, are translated here in introducing a sketch of matter and method of musical instruction. HISTORY OF SINGING IN GERMAN SCHOOLS, In the school of the Middle Ages singing was, next to Latin, the most important branch. The reason of this is found in the fact that teachers and scholars were servants of the church. The church demanded of its servant, the school, that it prepare its pupils fur singing during religious services. How generally this was regarded one of the chief objects of the entire instruction may be seen from the fact that Pope Gregory I, who is considered the founder of church music, is also revered as the patron saint of the school in Catholic countries. But since the services of teachers and pupils were required several times a day, and also occasionally in civil life, it was not always possible to let the whole school xiarticipate ; and since not all voices were suited for figurate counterpoint, differentiation and selection took xdace, which resulted in the establishment of permanent choirs, variously called "chancery currende" or "symphouiaci." These choirs were recruited chiefly from iudigent but highly talented students. In payment of their services as choristers they received free tuition and board. A source of private income was offered to singers by i^erforming at all kinds of festive occa- sions in private houses. Instrumental music was not known. People even danced to the accompaniment of songs. The importance given to the instruction in singing in school had, however, another reason — one that is often overlooked nowadays. It is that music belonged to the liberal arts, and that no student could acquire the degree Artiura Magister (A. M.) unless he had mastered the MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 191 art of vocal music. It Avas the general opinion that no one could be a good theologian or a teacher without being a trained musician. Hence musical knowledge and skill became a "conditio sine qua uon" for appointment. All through the sixteenth century this opinion prevailed. The great division in the church during that century affected music least of all the liberal arts, and if it be remembered that two of the greatest musical compositions known, namely, Bach's High Mass and Groll's Mass in sixteen part music,^ that is, two masses for Catholic church service, were composed by Protestants during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it maybe claimed that the great schism never actually affected the musical domain. Luther, as is well known, desired that Catholic church music be retained in the Protestant churches, and hence we see that the compositions of the old masters kept their promi- nent i^laco in school till far into the nineteenth century. According to school, regulations in forc©^ in 1559, the pupils sang in church "The < Magnificat,' a hymn corresponding to the pure divine scriptures, a 'responsorium;' on Sundays and minor festivals a 'kyrie eleison,' and on higli festivals a Christian 'sequence' (sic) or '• gradual.'" Luther also utilized school singing as an essential agency in intro- ducing chorus singing of church congregations. School singing was not only intended to prepare for participation iu congregational sing- ing, but also to prepare the choirs for fignratc counterpoint, and for leading the chorus, for the organ as an accompanying instrument came into use much later. Music was not only required for Protestant church service, but for the religious instruction of children it was found indispensable, since hymns and other church music awakened veneration of God in the hearts of the young. Luther, making the school the most important pface, next to the church, for the teaching of the Gospel, considered school-singing the highest and most elevating expression of filial piety. "School," he said, "shall be the means to promote the art of music and through it the true recognition of God, the Creator and Saviour." Heijce, because music had an effect similar to that of theology, as he thought, he gave to musical exercises a place next to religious instruc- tion. If thus it would appear that Luther valued music only for its religious effect, we have evidence of his valuing it as important for education in general, and in this he was quite in harmony with the views of former times. Numerous expressions of his in confirmation of this might be quoted. Two will suffice: To keep music in school is a necessity and yonth should bo kept practicing this art, for it makes skillful, genteel people of them. A schoolmaster must be able to sing,, or I would not recognize him. Music is a disciplining mistress that makes people gentle, tender-hearted, sweet- mannered, and rational. 1 A composition in which soprano, alto, tenor, and bass are each subdivided into four-part music. 192 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The methods of teacliiiig thus far Lad tended more toward stunting than developing tlie mind. Not a trace in tiie schools of that time can be found where instruction conformed to the laws of growth. During the century marked by the thirty years' war all promising germs of popular education and good tendencies toward the cultivation of the people declined. With the close of the war (1G48) the desire to live and to attend to education and culture returned. According to the scliool regulations of this period, the teachiiig of singing was compul- sory. The most important pedagogical theorist of the seventeenth century, Johanu Amos Comenius, includes singing in his course of study. In the eighteenth century, the Pietists made school instruction ill music successful. Their laying stress upon individual feeling led to individualism in all teaching. They had a singular abhorrence to wholesale or class instruction, and hence studied and influenced each individual pupil. This had its effect upon music in their s*-hools; songs adapted for individual feeling, arias, and melodies received the most attention. Methods of teaching greatly improved in the eighteenth century. The dull, mechanical singing by rote was set aside in a regular system of instruction. Normal' schools, though inefficient and imperfect as they were at the time, included singing among their studies, and en- deavored to make excellent singing masters of their students. In the appointment of teachers musical ability was taken into consideration. The relatively best standard was attained by the institute of August Hermann Francke (1C33 to 1727). Boys and girls received two hours' instruction a week in vocal music. That for the girls was limited to the practice of common hymns, while the principles of flgurate counter- point -were taught in the boys' schools. Instruction in counterpoint began with the singing of the diatonic scale represented by letters on the lines, and followed by the chromatic scale and exercises in intervals. The technical exercises were connected with the singing of familiar melodies from notes which were followed by such new melodies as required similar notes for their expression in writing. Pupils were also taught pauses, tempo, and the different values of notes. The more advanced classes rendered religious airs of two parts in f and f time. Increased attention was given to singing also in other parts of Ger- many during the eighteenth century. The school regulations of Hesse- Darmstadt (1733), Brunswick (1753), and Prussia (1794) are explicit on this subject. Singing was also advocated by Eochow (1734-1805), who urged special attention to church music. Eousseau makes his "Elmile" cultivate a "pure, even, flexible, pleasing voice," and an ear for harmony and time. A systematic course of musical instruction was likewise pursued in the schools of the Philanthropinists, followers, and apostles of Kousseau in Germany, as in the schools of the Austrian reformer, Ignatius von Felbiger (1724-1788). That these well-intended attempts toward improving instruction in singing brought about few results (for MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 195 it must be candidly admitted tfiat at tlie close of the eigliteentli cen- tury vocal music generally was below par) only proves bow difficult it is to carry thought and honest efforts into effect, even when they are accredited true and just. The most important epoch in the history of the development of instruc- tion in singiug dates from the time of Johann Heiurich Pestalozzi (174G-1827). Pestalozzi maintained that elementary education " should develop and perfect the inborn talents and powers of the human being — that is to say, the talents and powers of the mind, the heart, and the baud." For elementary education to attain this end, "observation (Anschauung) must be considered the absolute foundation of knowl- edge." By "Anschauung" Pestalozzi understands "the cognizance of external objects directly by means of the senses, and the consequent action of consciousness through the impressions received." As a mat- ter of course, instances of the visible occur oftenest. Still the "simple presentation of sounds to the ear and the action of consciousness result- ing from the imi)ression received through the sense of hearing is just as much perception for the child as the perception of objects through the eyes." Likewise, in advancing and originating the proposition, "from per- ception to idea," Pestalozzi maintained induction to be the only method conformable to the natural laws of development of a child's mind, and turned the course of instruction into exactly the oppowsite direction from that hitherto pursued. With the inductive method a new and broad field was opened to the teaching of singing. The increased interest awakened by Pestalozzi for enabling and educating the young in Germany benefited instruction in vocal music, too. School authori- ties paid greater attention to singing and how it was taught, and pro- vided for a better musical education of elementary teachers. The best and most prominent men of the nation commended the art of singing as one of the most effective means for cultivation and education. That precious pearl of German life, the "folks' song," which had been forced into the background by church music, gained in importance and was looked upon as a valuable object of study. School authorities devoted more minute attention to vocal music in their plans of organization; the most imi)ortant, however, was the development of a literature on the art of singing and its methods of instruction, which in a compara- tively short time made such progress as to promise a rational system of instruction for even the most insignificant village school. The earliest production of this literature is the Art of Teaching Singing, by Pfeififer and IsTaegeli. Pestalozzi himself thus commented on this work : "There is promise in this work of excellent and welcome results for the educator and musician alike." These expectations were not realized, principally because Pfeififer and Naegeli, as well as Pestalozzi, saw in music only an accomplishment easily acquired, if one had learned a little arithmetic and to measure. This narrow view ED 90 7 194 ' EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. of tlie essence of music led to an t)vervaluation of rhythm and a depreciation of melody and harmony. The Art of Teaching Singing, by Naegeli, is synthetic thronghout. The first part, ^'Elementary work," is in two divisions, general and &\)G- cial theory of music. The first division treats of the duration, pitch, and strength of tones, the combination of these three elements, and the written characters for tones. Each new chapter is preceded by a thorough review of the iirecediug one. The second division, the spe- cial theory, treats of the methodical combination of text and melody. Single vowels, then syllables, words, and finally connected sentences, are set to tones and combinations of tones. Meter, breathing, analysis of text, etc., are taught in connection with the foregoing exercises. Written especially for i)eople's schools, it was just in these schools that it could not be used. As excellent as are its details — the chapter in notation, for instance, is valuable for all times — as a whole it is too comprehensive. Its methodic arrangement, moreover, contradicts Pes- talozzi's " principle of sense-perception," particularly in that the beauti- ful in art in its perfection is withheld from the pupil until he has learned all its forms. Ehythm, dynamics, and melodies are, as the words betray, not objects perceived directly through the senses, but results of thought; in other words, abstracts derived from the i>roduction of music. A sufficient number of examples of melody and harmony should be presented for direct sense-perception before the discussion of scales, keys, strengtli, pitch, and the like is admissible. Thus the merits of IsTaegeli narrowed down to the deep reflections which he aroused on the methods to be employed in teaching. The demand for a method of instruction in singing which retained what had been approved in the works of Naegeli, and which covered their deficiencies by better and more practical suggestions, was met by B. C. L. ISTatorp in his instructions for the teaching of singing. Natorp also presents his exercises in rhythm, melody, and dynamics separately; and his exercises in rhythm and dynamics are, on the w^hole, similar to I^aegeli's; in everything else he and ISTaegeli diifer essentially. The latter begins at once with theoretical instruction, whereas Natorp pref- aces every lesson with introductory exercises, confined wholly to sing- ing by ear. Beginning with single vowels, and proceeding to syllables and words, these i^reparatory exercises were always to be used with accompanying text, so as to insure a i)ure, distinct enunciation, and a natural and easy intonation. Texts and combinations of tones should be taken from what comes within the compass of a child's life. Children, in this way, acquire an amount of musical material by experience that forms the foundation for a later knowledge of the elements of music. They have sung and heard many " thirds," before they are required to form the idea of a "third;" and often perceived two and three part music through the senses, before they are expected to distinguish the difference clearly and distinctly. MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 195 Auotlier advantage is that Natorp, unlike Naegeli, does not conclude tlie subject of rhythm before proceeding to melodj^, and so on. He grades the different exercises proceeding from the first grade of rhythm to the first grade of melody, and from this to the first grade of dynamics. With melody, I?}"atori) for the first time introduces the tones of the major chord for understanding and i)ractice, first \rithout, then with regard to rhythmic order. The other tones of the diatonic major scale follow the tones of the major chord. From here on the instruction con- sists altogether of practice. Nothing is offered but sougs which con- tain elements that have been explained and practiced during the preceding lessons. Natorp uses dynamic exercises in combination with other elements, or in special lessons combined with melody. He uses ciphers as written characters instead of the customary notes. x^atorp's book is obscure on the iisychological relation between the systematic or technical exercises and the songs and melodies learned. Nevertheless, the work met with general approval. For several decades it, together with Naegeli's "Art of Teaching," was considered authori- tative on the teaching of singing; it molded the literature on the sub- ject. The many text-books that appeared in the second and third decades incline either to Natorj) or Naegeli. x\ll deal with their sub- ject synthetically; none proceeded from songs to study by way of analysis, in order to arrive at the elements of melody, rhythm, and dynamics. Educators in Germany continued to interest themselves in methods of singing during the years from 1840 to 1850. Ernst Hentschel (musical director and teacher of the normal school in Weissenfels) brought about the next and most effectual measures for further improve- ment. He found fault that ''in some schools i^upils scarcely get as far as singing songs and hymns, being constantly kejot at exercises in pitch, tempo, and note reading, etc. In many other schools singing of cheerful melodies was x^ersisted in to the utter neglect of the formal end to be gained." Hentschel maintained that "the elementary course should combine technical exercises with singing of melodies, for both are imx>ortant. Both should be taught during the entire school course. During the first two years, however, the pupils should slug by rote only; after that they should be taught altogether from notes." He urged that young children had enough difficulties in mastering the symbols of reading (letters) and arithmetic (ciphers). An 8-year old child might begin another set of symbols, the musical notes. Hentschel's claims were soon admitted, and received full considera- tion in the " Course of study in singing for x^eople's schools " by Fried- rich Wilhelm Schuetze. He proceeded from the fundamental thought that " a child first receives the imi)ression of an object in its entirety; after which it ana.lyzes its individuality and examines the different parts severally." " Musical education, therefore, progresses conform- ably to natural law, if, as soon as sound becomes perceptible to a child, 196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. repeated single tones, a succession of tones, sounds in rliytlimic form, or, as sliould oftenest be tlie case, real musical comi)Ositions are pre- sented to it, and it is thus first of all brought into contact with the world of sound." Consequently, " children must first become familiar with musical language in learning to sing by ear," and " subsequently in singing fiom written characters." The valuation set by Hentschel upon songs as essential material for instruction in the theory, which valuation has remained unchanged to the x)resent day, created the demand for suitable collections of songs. This demand was speedily supplied, and continues to act as a stimulus to composers. Though it is a lasting honor for Hentschel to have assigned the proper place for songs in the course for people's or ele- mentary schools, and to have pointed out their educational value, it is still claimed that the complete banishment of the technical exercises from the primary school is a mistake, because it breaks the uniform connection of instruction. During the last ten years authorities in the method of singing, almost without exception, have decided upon the union of both. Hentschel himself modified his first opinion. As a rule songs are so combined with the elementarj^ exercises that a greater or smaller number of exercises are directly supplemented by songs and hymns, the melodic and rhythmic construction of which embodies the elements of the preceding exercises. The only difference is that some lay the greater stress on the exercises, while others attach greater importance to the songs, to which the technical exercises are consid- ered secondary. This naturally depends upon the musical education of the individual teacher. To the text-books which make songs the living center of instruction belongs among others the "Theoretical and practical singing school,'' by Johann Rudolph Weber. This book advocates that the teaching of singing should be nothing more than "instruction which helps pupils on to songs." "The singing of songs and technical instruction in sing- ing should be combined and support each other." " In every grade, the essential material of the organic (elementary) exercises consists of the elements of songs to be i)racticed and learned by heart, because to tbese as an entity in art the exercises are most easily applied." "Instruction must show the pupil how to perceive and recognize sounds severally in regard to time, tone, and volume." All the material for singing must be made " elementary." The simplest element, rhythm, forms the begin- ning. In connection with melodies the pupil becomes acquainted with major and minor chords, the chord of the dominant seventh, as well as with the foundation of all melodies, the major scales. Departing from custom, J. G. F. Pflueger has adopted an analytic- synthetic method in his "Introduction to the teaching of singing in schools." After several introductory exercises, consisting of children's songs, the text and melody of which must be learned by ear, he develops the theory for the holding of tones, for pitch and volume, and the ideas MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 197 of scales, time, cliords, aud i)auses; liis lessons ou notes, intervals, and the most familiar major and minor scales are directly connected with, the preceding songs and hymns. Pflneger advocates the method of indnction, proceeding from simple tones and combinations of tones to the chief elements of mnsic. A warm interest is being shown at present in singing and in the instruction of vocal mnsic. A number of practical educators are assiduous in their efforts so to plan instruction in singing in people's schools that it must lead to faA'orable results. Psychology and peda- gogy suggest the principles for the perfection of methods. (1) Instruction in singing must not be isolated; by moans of song texts it must bo kej)t in touch "with, other subjects. (2) The concrete material for instruction in singing in sacrctl and national hymns and those peculiarly popular songs which in Germany for a long period of years have j)roved to be a real production of art. (3) All technical exercises should proceed from songs and lead back to them; the elements for comparison in the process of abstraction should be taken from the melo- dies practiced. (4) Symbols of tones, bo they notes, ciijhcrs, or letters, should bo nothing more to the pupil than visible signs and forms for the special sensations of sounds. The eye should only support the ear. PRESENT STATE OF METHOD IN GERMANY. Dr. G. A. Lindner, in his Cyclopedia of Education, sketches the present state of method in teaching school singing in Germany. His sketch is here presented in translation : In modern times instruction in singing has become an integral part of the course of study in common schools, because it is generally recognized that it forms the taste, ennobles the emotions, and proves to be also a good means of discipline, since it concentrates the attention and forms a means "which will unite many into a com- munity. The object of this instruction is to awaken a sense of melody, to promote the ajsthotic and emotional training of children, aud to stimulate patriotism. In singingwe recognize three elements : (1) the melodic, which refers to the pitch of tone; (2) the rhythmic, which refers to the duration of tone; (3) the dynamic, which refers to the strength and volume of tone and also to correct exjiression. Melody gives life to the song, rhythm gives regularity, and expression causes impression. These three elements must be considered by the singing teacher. It will not do, of course, to treat the one element exclusively until all necessary information is given and then take up the next, but the essentials of each of the three elements are to be given, which are then followed by more difficult work; but whatever song is taken up, it is first the melodic, then the rhythmic, and, lastly, the dynamic element which must be considered. In other words, first the melody is taught, then the proper time, and, lastly, the expression by means of variations in the volume of tone. For the common school the melody is not only the most essential, but almost the exclus- ive element, for tempo and expression are subject to individual preferences and emotional conditions. Concerning the method and the course of study for lessons in singing in the public schools, the following points may be considered to have found gcnci'al approbation in Germany. During the first two years of school, singing is practiced by rote. The chief object here is the development of the voice aud the musical oar; later on Instruction is based ujiou the foundation of reading music. It is generally conceded 198 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-9G. best to confiue tlio cliildren'3 knowledge to ouo key, making- tlie Do movable as occa- sion requires. In German sehools a number of popular songs of interest to cliildreu, both with reference to text and melody, are firmly memorized and frequently prac- ticed. Above all, it has been found necessary to begin the singing of pleasant, catchy airs quite early, so that the musical ear bo trained, and since Germans, as a rule, are very musical, it is found that mothers and nurse girls vrork hand in hand with the school teacher. A second and higher stop in the singing lessons is singing from notes. The piipil is introduced into the laws and symbols of the art of music. A song which he has learned by rote is analyzed into its elements, and the elements thus obtained are reduced to the scale, sharps and flats are introduced, and the various keys developed. Instruction in singing from notes should not be neglected, because the subsequent musical training of the pupil makes it very desirable that he have knowledge of music. Methodical instruction in singing by means of which the pupil obtains a clear consciousness of the intervals, time, etc., is notx)ossible without the ability to read music. Moreover, in practicing songs of two, three, and four parts, it would be exceedingly tedious to learn the several parts by car only, since the accompany- ing parts rarely carry melody, and thus will allure those who cannot read music to sing the treble "unisono." The success of any instruction in singing, however, lies not in the skillful reading of music, but in the production of melody ; in other words, not in the notes, but in the tones. It is therefore very essential that the teacher should sing, or that he play a musical instrument, and thus make his pupils hear the tones which they are to sing. In the lower grades of the school the greatest simplicity is the greatest art. In the selection of songs much care, taste, and tact are required. Cheerful, joyous songs are to bo preferred, especially when they have some reference to nature and the seasons; also patriotic songs, and airs which exi^ress general human sentiments, such as popular airs. In the selection of these songs the scoije of the voices of children must be considered. In schools where music is read, the various symbols or signatures are to be considered in class before the melody of the song is taken up. In order to secure iirmness and skill in singing, songs that have been learned should be frequently practiced in class, especially if they are sung in two or three parts, because the musical ear, while very faithful to melody, is less efficient in retaining accompaniments. The ISTational Teacliers' Association of Germany, in its meeting of 1879, i)assed a number of resolutions, a declaration of principles, as it were, concerning tlie instruction in music in tlie elementary schools. These theses deserve to be translated and reproduced here, since they express the theory and method followed generally in German schools. (1) School should educate and instruct for life; hence for the instruction in music the same principle should prevail. (2) School instruction in singing should, first of all, nurse German popular songs (Volksliederj. (3) Artistic results can not bo expected and must not be demanded, but an aspira- tion for musical perfection should be awakened in the i^upils. (4) No songs should bo taught and practiced which are not of undoubted poetic and musical value. (5) In the teaching of even the simplest poijular song the object must be to express that which poet and composer intended. The technique is not to be an aim but a means. («' (6) Music is not only to create pleasure in melody and harmony, but must have an ennobling efl'eot iipon the heart. 'f' (7) Pedagogical treatment in music lessons presujiposes a teacher who is profes- sionally prepared and skilled in the art of music. MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 199 (8) Tlie education of tlie Germau nation by means of music and throu<>li music has a national significance. (9) Singing should bo taught in every school, not in lessons after school hours, but during school sessions. (10) Instruction in singing should be given with the aid of a musical instrument, be that the violin, jjiano, or organ, and such instruction can bo successful only "when the teacher is well trained in the use of his instrument. (11) Every normal school should have an experienced singing teacher, who has been well trained both in music and pedagogy, is acquainted with the methods of comi)osition, and understands the value of popular airs and hymns. (12) It is the duty of school authorities to see to it that in every schoolhouse at least one teacher be engaged who is trained in music. (13) No pupil shall be excused from taking part in singing lessons. (14) Exercises in reading music should be a part of every singing lesson all through the course. (15) As to the matter of instruction, jiopular airs (Volkslieder) and hjinns should be preferred in elementary schools. (16) Only such songs should be practiced whose texts express noble, refining sen- timents. The texts must bo brought to the comprehension of the pupils before they are memorized. (17) Punishment should rarely bo administered during singing lessons, corporal punishment never. (18) Lessons in singing are most suitably reserved for the last hour of the forenoon or afternoon, since they servo as recreation after severe mental work. SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF MATTER. Mr. J. Helm, of Scliwabach, Bavaria, Germany, au antliority on school singing and mctliods of teacliing, says •witli reference to tlie proper selection of songs tliat it is defined by tlie educational signifi- cance of singing and also by tlie position it occupies within the system of education. A translation of his opinion on this subject seems desirable, and is here inserted: The beautiful is the sister of the good. The contcmxilation of the beautiful awak- ens a feeling of satisfaction similar to the contemplation of the good. ^Esthetic enjoyments elevate and idealize ; they belong to the highest pleasures of life. Though moral education is the highest of all human education, the cultivation of taste and artistic schooling are by no means suxierfluous. Occupation with art refines the mind, ennobles the emotions, and makes the individual more sensitive to the highest, which is moral beauty. Within the wide compass of art, music, next to jioetrj', can be brought within easy reach, of tho young, and within the extensive domain of music nothing is better adapted for class instruction than singing. The combina- tions of tones which instruction in singing presents to the ear excite involuntary pleasure in the pupil, and offer him elements for his ideas of the beautiful. Singing delights the human heart and enlivens and animates the emotions. It is the language of feeling, the expression for pleasure and sorrow. There is no purer or more productive source of pleasure, and no nobler or more beautiful form of expression for the feelings than song. Singing combines melodic, dynamic, rhyth- mic, and text elements in such perfect symmetry, and so smooths contradictions and restraints by harmonic combinations that nothing else can provoke greater aesthetic pleasure. If technically correct relations and combinations of tones are often brought to bear upon tho i^upil's mind, more agreaable feelings will predominate to the prob- able development of a bright and cheerful disposition. The latter factor, however, is one of tho most important presuppositions for the development of the interest and 200 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the education of the Avill. Singing and. the art of music sliould therefore not be Tvithheld from the young. However great the pedagogical value of instruction in singing may he estimated, it can not he admitted that it follows musical laws exclusively, or satisfies its own demands alone. Consideration for the general aim of educational factors makes it necessary for instruction in singing to heej) in touch with other studies. Its texts malic tliis possible. Instruction can bo purely musical only with reference to melody, rhythm, and dynamics, Avhile with reference to the text it must consult the sentiments expressed as well as the special claims of school life. Where this rule is observed, the songs to be practiced are adapted to feelings and moods of the pupils awakened by preceding lessons. They are then received with more interest, sung with greater feeling, and a deeper meaning is attached to their study. A lasting disposition of mind can be awakened by instruction only when the subject treated, to which inter- est is attached, is of such a nature that it appears of value not only to the child but also to the adult. The greatest attention must therefore be paid to the selection of texts. Only such songs should be chosen in Avhich text and melody are fosthetic, and have been proved to be productions of true poetical and musical art. Moreover, texts and melodies should be in proportioned relation to individuality of mind and vocal organ ; other- wise songs can never become flesh and blood, so to speak; or, as the psychologist has it, can never be apperceived by children. If these claims are justifie^l, the elementary schools must abandon all attempts at presenting and studying complicated works, as well as songs of four parts, as they are above the capacity of the pupils. They must also set aside all songs specially composed and set to music for "school purposes," because they are seldom poetic in thought or musical in form, and, as a rule, rarely meet the requirements of a noble art. Moralizing songs must likewise be omitted, since they never originate in a healthy, strong, or vigorous sensibility, and therefore soon become distasteful to children. The source upon which instruction for people's schools should draw, can and must be no other than the national song, sacred or profane (secular). "National songs are irreproachable music of God's grace; their author and con- tents are everywhere and at all times the same — the nation itself and the spirit of national life embodied in song. Whatever events excite national feeling, whatever affects the heart of the people, or is treasured in its mind in thoughtful moods, forms the inexhaustible contents of its songs and life."— (A. B. Marx.) The architecture of the national song is so transparent and so simple, the glorified deeds and events cele- brated appear so plastic to the eye in their poetic garb, that it seems highly adapted to a child's perception; it is besides an inexhaustible spring of aesthetic and moral pleasure, truly classic in form and content, and never losing its magnetic force and its vivifying and refreshing charm for the mind. Only those national songs (which term includes some of oiar church hymns) should be accepted as suitable for elementary schools which in the course of time have been permanently approi>riatcd by the people, and have entered abidingly into mind and heart. The sacred church hymn must be sung and studied in its original form, which is rhythmic. Melody, rhythm, and text are the essential elements of every song, and can not be separated without offending a cultivated ear. They exert a beneficial influence on taste and excite aesthetic pleasure only when they cooperate and leave the impression of mutTiality. The movement and complexity of the rhythmic hymn is conformable to musical law, and therefore uniform; the restfulness and sameness of the hymn without meter and proper tempo end in a monotony calculated neither to thrill nor to animate. The hymn without rhythm dates from the time in which the life of the church and religious feeling had degenerated, and therefore can never be considered the result of a healthy, historical development. It is the consequence of religious indifterence, and an idle self-relinquishment. That the rhythmic hymn is not above the ability and comprehension of the pupils in elementary schools is MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 201 sufficiently proved by the fact that many of oui- national songs^ as tlicy are sung ia Bcliools, display as great a diversity in rhythmic forms and as much interchange of accentuated and quantitative rhythm as the rhythmic hymn. The fact that church congregations in a large part of the Empire observe the rules of rhythm in their singing goes to prove that no insurmoiiutable obstacle prevents its adoption in the course of school singing. Material for instruction iu singing may be divided into the poetical and the musi- cal. The poetical half, the texts of songs, should be derived from object and lan- guage lessons. These studies should be so arranged that before a child begins to learn the singing of a song it has already become acquainted -n'ith the form and con- tents of the text. AVhere instruction iu singing has not received this consideration, it must analyze the text. A systematic acquisition of the text by the mind of tho pupils — not mere thoughtless memorizing — must under all circumstances be insisted upon. Neither iu language nor in singing lessons should an incomprehensible jumblo of mere -words be jiermitted. The chief duty of instruction in singing is to give out the melody, and in such a way that the pupils not only understand it, but are capable of repeating it with technical correctness. Involuntary pleasure on the part of the pu^iil created by the melody is to be developed gradually to a>sthetic jileasuro based upon comprehension. This is possible only when the pupils are made to understand tho technique of music in an elementary way. Hence it will not suffice to teach by rote songs of one and two parts, but the elements of melodies, dynamics, and rhythm must be taught, supijlemented, perhaj)s, by the barest elements of harmony. DETAILS OF THE AMERICAN METHOD OF TEACHING SINGING. Before the very successful mode of teaching singing iu German schools is presented in detail it may be well to quote an American opinion on this subject. Dr. Edward Brooks, superintendent of public schools of Philadelphia, in a special report to the board of education of that city described the methods in vogue in America. This report, by showing how singing is taught in some cities, incidentally bears witness to the advanced state of method in this country. The author says: Two distinct systems of reading vocal music have been current among musicians and have divided the judgment of the musical world. These two systems have each intelligent and earnest advocates, and it is therefore necessary to compare their merits and reach a conclusion as to which one is best suited to the work of the elementary schools. The method of staff intervals.— The old system, which may be called the Italian system, taught singers to read music by the intervals of the staff, somewhat as in playing an instrument. Tho intervals between the lines and spaces iu the natural key were learned and readily applied to music written iu this key. In the different keys the intervals were determined by the flats and sharps of the signature, and these intervals were sung without regard to the key in which tho music was written. Music was conceived as made up, not of scale intervals, but of a succession of tones without any relation to the tonic of the scale iu which tho music was Avritten. That the method presented great difficulties is shown by the fact that comparatively few persons taught by this method ever became ready readers of music by sight. Most of them required tho use of an instrument to learn new pieces, and many singers read music through the instrument which they played, imagining how it would Bound upon the instrument. In this system, when the syllables do, re, mi, etc., were used, these syllables were fixed for tho natural key and remained stationary throughout all the dil'ferent keys, the system being known as that of the "fixed do." ED 9G 7* 202 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-98. Tliis system lias Ijeen advocated by mauy of tLo leadiug musiciaus of tliis couutry and of Europe. This advocacy is not unnatural or surprising, as most of these musi- cians arc instrumentalists, and the instrumentalist does not necessarily think of Lis scale or key note; ho sees the noto and touches the key or string which corresponds to it on his instrument, sharping or flatting in accordance Avith the signature of the key. He plays, or may play, entirely unconscious of scale relations, thinking only, of the note on the staff or upon his instrument. It is entirely natural, therefore, that he should regard a method of singing hy means of a movable scale as unneces- sary and inconvenient. Especially if the syllables do, re, mi, etc., are used, does it seem to him not only inconvenient but absurd to change the position of these sylla- bles for the different keys in -svhich the music may bo written. This system of singing by staff or tone intervals is the one that has been generally used by those v-'ho train to artistic singing. The object in this instruction is not "sight singing," but vocal culture and the artistic use of the voice. Such singers are seldom ready readers of music; they depend on the instrument to give them the tune, their aim being the beautiful and artistic rendering of the music. Even the great singers like Patti are said to be very poor or indifferent readers of music, their dej)endence being upon the instrument in learning a new score. These facts demand cur attention, so that the popularity of this method among so many eminent musi- cians may bo clearly understood and jiroperly estimated. The advocates of the method are largely instrumentalists and have not been interested in sight reading of a vocal score; or, when they were teachers of singing, the object was not to make independent readers of music, but artistic performers. Their views ujion the subject are thus not only natural, but, under the circumstances, entirely reasonable. The method of scale intenmls. — The second method of reading music is that of scale intervals and the movable scale. This method does not think of musical sounds as intervals ur)on the staff or as abstract tone intervals, but as degrees of the scale in their relation to one another and to the tonic. The scale is regarded as a musical unit of thought, and each tone is considered or conceived in relation to this unit. The mind thus thinks music through scale relations, conceiving a tone as the second, third, fourth, etc., of the scale. The course of instruction begins with drilling the pupil upon the major scale of eight notes until he has mastered it and its intervals. These intervals are learned in relation to the fundamental note of the scale as well as in relation to one another. Having mastered this scale, which is purely a vocal exercise, the pupil is taught how to represent it on the staff" in what is called the natural key. He is then drilled in reading by the degrees of the scale until he can tell at a glance the jiosition in the scale which any note upon the staff' indicates. Knowing the sound of the different tones of the scale, ho can then readily read any score of the major scale in the natural key set before him. He is then taught the use of flats and sharps and drilled upon the simpler inter- vals of the chromatic scale. The nest step is to show how these flats and sharps, placed upon certain degrees of the staff, give a scale beginning on some other degree of the staff than C. For example, ho learns that with the signature of JP sharp the scale starts on G, with the signature of I'' sharp and C sharp the scale begins on D, etc. He is then drilled upon reading in the different keys, naming successively the degree of the scale indicated by the notes, reckoning from the location of the tonic, precisely as ho did in the natural key of C. In all this work he reads and sings not by staff' intervals or tonic relations, but by scale intervals. In looking at a new score he looks at the signature, determines the place of the keynote or tonic, and counts the degree of the scale from that place of the keynote. He docs not think of F sharp or B flat, etc., but of the degree of the scale which the noto represents. Thus in the first two or three measures of "Home, sweet home," no matter in what key it may bo written, his thought would be one, three, four, six, fire, three, five, four, three, four, two, three; or if he uses the syllables Vv'hich arc often employed to designate the degrees of the scale, he thinks do, mi, fa, la, sol, mi, sol, fa, mi, fa, re, 7ni, MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 203 This method, it ■srill ho seen, is eutirely different from tliat of toue or staff reha- tions; it is based npon tho musical scale and conceives of tho different notes of the melody in their relations to the scale. If tho syllables do, re, mi, etc., are used, do is always tho first of tho scale, mi the third, sol tho fifth, etc. If tlie scale begins on C, then a note on C is called do; if the scale begins on F, as in the key of one flat, then a note on -Fis called do, a note on A is called mi, etc. The do thus naming the first degree of tho scale is moved with the movable scale, from which tho system has been called that of tho "'movable do." The difference between the two methods may be illustrated by the reading of the following exercise: By the method of scale relations and tho movable scale this would be read as follows; One-three | five-three ] four-six | five || five-six | four-seven | two-one j five II five-one j seven-four j three-two | one || . By the method of tonic or staff relations one would think and read as follows : Eb-Cr, a major 3d j Bb, a minor 3d-G, a minor 3d | Ah, a minor 2d-C, a major 3d | Bi,, a major 2d I Bb-C, a major 2d | Ab, a minor 3d-Db, an extended -Ith | F, aminor3d-Eb, a major 2d I Bb, a 4th || Bb-Eb, a 5th | D, a minor 2d-Ab, a diminished 5th | G, a minor 2d-F, a major 2d | Eb, a major 2d jj . I have merely named tho intervals between successive notes, without indicating whether they are ascending or descending. It will be noticed that in reading by tho method of tonic intervals one must distinguish between major and minor sec- onds, major and minor thirds, perfect, augmented, and diminished fourths; perfect, augmented, and diminished fifths, etc., a thing not difficult for tho accomplished musician Avho is familiar with an instrument, but exceedingly difficult for the ordi- nary reader of vocal scoi'cs. By the method of scale relations these intervals pre- sent no difficulties to tho singer. The method of the movable scale, as stated above, is usuallj- known as that of the "movable do." This name does not characterize it fully, however, as tho method of scale relations may bo employed without the use of the syllables do, re, mi, in which case of course there is no do to be moved. While it is believed that there are advan- tages in using these syllables "trith beginners to indicate the different degrees of the scale, yet many good teachers of the method of scale relations use other syllables, as la or ta, for all the degrees of the scale. The essential nature of tho method is not indicated by the use of the syllables ; it consists in the conception of sounds in respect to their relations to the scale, this scale being moved on the staff" as indi- cated by the signature of the key in which the music is written. These two methods have been and to a limited extent are still competitive for public favor. While both have strong and intelligent advocates, the tide of opin- ion is now setting strongly in favor of the "movable scale" system. This is the method that is generally used in the elementary schools of Switzerland and Ger- many. In Franco the same sj^stem is gaining ground under the name of tho Cheve method, which is so well represented in this city by Professor Zobanaky. In England the old system was found so difficult that in order to simiilify the work of popular musical instruction they dropped not only tho staff" relations but tho staff" itself, giving rise to Mr. Curwen's method, known as the "tonic sol-fa s^vstem." Tho method of tho movable scale was introduced into the United States largely through tho influence of Dr. Lowell Mason, one of the most accomplished Pcstalozzian instructors that this country has produced. The widespread introduction of musical instruction in the public schools of the United States is largely an inheritance from and an outgrowth of tho labors of Dr. Lowell Mason. The tonic sol-fa method. — In this discussion a passing word should be said in respect 204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. to tlic touic sol-fa system. This metliod originated ■with a Miss Glover, of Norwich, England, but is generally credited to Rev. John Curwen, through -whose influence it has been so widely introduced. The method is based on scale relations, and there- fore in pure musical conception agrees with the method of scale relations already described. It differs in the representation of music to the oyc, introducing aa entirely different notation from the one in general use. This notation is simple and readily learned by the pupil; and it is this simplicity, especially as contrasted with the method of intervals, which has given it so large a degree of popularity. The objection to the method is that it does uot present a universal musical language or onethat can ever become universal. Modern instrumental music would be impossible by this system. A person when taught to sing by this method must afterwards learn the generally accepted notation, or be restricted to a very limited number of musical compositions. The present mode of writing music has been accepted by the musi- cians of every country; and a person taught only by the tonic sol-fa method would be unable to read the simplest score Avritten in the common notation. The method is, however, extensively used in England and Canada, and is widelj" recommended and strongly indorsed by some of the leading musicians and educators of both Europe and America. It is especially commended as an introduction to the staff notation. This reference to the method is not designed as a recommendation of its introduction into the elementary schools, but is merely given because in the discus- sion of systems this is too conspicuous not to receive a passing notice. Even if it were thought best to use it in teaching the elements of music to little children, it should be regarded merely as a stepping-stone to the generally accepted system of musical notation. In the introduction of music into the public schools of the city it is necessary to decide upon the merits of the two principal systems described and to determine which one should be adopted. My own judgment, based on a wide observation and the experience of several years in early life in teaching music, is strongly biased in favor of the method of scale relations and the movable scale. Children, even those who have not much natural ability for music, can be readily taught by this method to read music by sight. The other method presents far greater difficulties to the learner, and is entirely unsatisfactory for use in the elementary schools. The argu- ments in favor of the method of scale relations and the movable scale seem to me to be conclusive. The method is simple and logical and in accordance with the esseutial principles of the art of music. The unit of the system is the scale, which is the foundation of all musical compositions. Each tone of the scale has its relation to the tonic and should bo so conceived. "When the key is changed, and thus the posi- tion of the scale upon the staff is changed, the relations of the tones to the keynote arc always the same; the scale is simply started from another pitch indicated by another degree of the staff. Furthermore, all work in harmony is based on the scale rather than the staff relations ; the chord of the tonic, the dominant, the subdomi- nant, etc., are all conceived in scale relations as these expressions indicate. Indeed, it seems almost impossible for anyone to have an intelligent idea of either melody or harmony without thinking of them in their relations to the musical scale. The foregoing description of Dr. Brooks is inserted because it will aid us in understanding the subsequent statement by Prof. J. Helm of the details of the method in vogue in elementary schools in Germany, which is offered in translation: DETAILS OP THE GERMAN METHOD OF TEACHING SINGING. It will be generally conceded that teaching singing in school has a double purpose in view, the acquisition of a number of songs and knowledge of the elements of music. In regard to the place songs are to occupy in the method, ojjinions differ as much as they do in regard to the understanding and presentation of the relation MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 205 "whicli eleiTientary tecLuical exercises are to maiutaia to the songs. However, one thing seems to be decided. For the xmrposo of imparting knowledge of the musical system, anthorities on the method of singing have during the last ten years decided uj)on the organic combijatiou of exercises v.ith songs. As a rule this combination is effected by connecting a number of elementary exercises from the beginning -with songs and hymns in the melodic and rhythmic construction of which the elements of the preceding exercises are applied. A difference of opinion exists in that some lay the greater stress on the elementary exercises to precede the song, while others give the preference to songs as a starting point. Pflueger and Eeissmann propose a. different method. They suggest that the technical exercises depend entirely upon the elements of music found in the songs. Anything of musical notation, etc., not found in the songs presented to the children should not be taught. " Climb the hill ■when you get to it." Dornstedt maintains that as botanical knowledge is gained by the observation of single plants and parts of plants, geographical knowledge by the observation of the earth, by the study of relief maps and flat-surfaced maps and api^aratus, .and a knowledge of language by the study of classic extracts in prose and verse, so all musical knowledge should be gained from the study of songs and their notation. All technical exercises should be derived from simple songs and their analysis into the melodic and rhythmic elements. Eegard for the iiupils' interest alone can decide the method. A tone in itself is no more calculated to arouse a child's interest than a separate letter or single sound. Pleasure is involuntarily excited by a natural, and, at the same time, technical combination of tones only. The compass of musical thought, too, is enlarged only by combinations of tones. The musical judgment of the pupil, in other words, his comprehension of the musical system, should be developed by the study of combinations of tones .T»sthetical in every sense. Interest is aroused by the concrete; the abstract in itself is not interesting. Consequently, the ele- ments of melody, dynamics, rhythm, and probably musical notation are of direct interest to the pui^il only when they rest upon a concrete foundation of songs. For this reason the technical course should depend upon songs, and with a few incidental exceptions, the systematic instruction of singing should ever proceed from songs and lead back to them. Though detached from the melody the technical exercise may reduce the elements of songs to single tones and intervals, they yet apjiear to the pupil as parts of a whole which it has learned to like. It is this which assures the interest and atten- tion of children. The objection can not be made that an "analytic consideration" of a song robs it of poetic form and artistic character, as the song itself is not the object of systematic instruction, but is only used as a starting point and to furnish rhythmic and tonic elements. Truly systematic instruction can only be given after the pupil has learned a number of songs ; singing in elementary schools should there- fore begin with songs. The only question is whether G and 7 year old children are capable of comprehending and reproducing easy songs without having practiced preparatory exercises. I believe that experience has found it to be so. Children 2 and 3 years of ago are able to rei^eat short songs, which they hear at home, quite correctly with reference to tone and rhythm. And what the family and kindergarten can accomplish is certainly possible in the lower classes of elementary schools. It stands to reason that great versatility and thoroughness can not be required of children. The very name of the "elementary" school precludes that. A child knows the difference among a hundred trees and shrubs before it ia expected to distinguish typical leaf forms. The first is in reality easier, although a tree is far more complex than a leaf. It is much more difficult for the uncultivated ear of a child to detect intervals when they are isolated than when they occur in the phrases of a song. The clearness of any idea, and hence that of a distinct idea of sound, depends not only upon the light and distinctness which the idea itself pos- sesses, but also upon that which it receives from combinations with and relations to other ideas that throw light on it from many sides. Thus a pupil is more easily 206 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-98. impressed Avitli tlie methodic succession of tones in a cliord -when it is studied as a part of a phrase in song than when it is presented as a separate chord. It Avould not ho impossihlo to hegin the teaching of singing in elementary schools, and con- tinue it corrclativcly T\ith the suhsequent technical course in such a way that the separate exercises may prei)are for the reading and singing of ue%v songs, and these again apply to those exercise^ from which the technical work of musical instruction must he ahstracted or derived. Hearing is the sense of music. The deaf are incapalde of musical education. Ideas of music can not he gained through any other sense than that of hearing; hut as the idea of an ohject becomes clearer and livelier in the mind it can ho more easily retained if the ohject has been presented to the mind simultaneously, or in direct sequence, through more than one sense; thus other organs of sense arc a helii to the ear; in other words, impressions of sound are clearer and more easily repro- duced when comhined with other impressions. This is the psychological Tcason for using characters to represent sound in the teaching of singing, motions of the hand and other gestures to indicate height or depth of tone, intervals, etc. It necessarily follows that the symbols used, be they figures, letters, or notes, can be no more than visible signs for definite sensations of sound. The eye can only support the car, never take its place. As with all objects of ideation, so with music. AYe distinguish between ideas belonging to immediate knowledge and originated by perception through the sense of hearing and ideas that form a part of mediate knowledge and are originated by reason. Symbols are required for both kinds of musical ideas. The ideas gained by immediate perception and apprehension are defined in the genesis of sensations of sound. The matter for hearing is sound, in the same sense that color is a m.atter for sight. Every sound is produced by the impulse and vibrations of elastic bodies. These impulses and vibrations are communicated first to the air surrounding the oscillating bodies; their motion to and fro displaces the particles of air, thus causing conden- sation on the one side and rarefaction or expansion on the other. Thus the stratum of air surrounding the vibrating body alternately condenses and expands, producing a wave-like motion which extends to all sides. If these waves reach the tympanum of the ear they impart to it, to the air confined in the drum, and to the four small bones their vibrating motion, which continues to the labyrinth and the nerve fibers of the cortical organ. This causes an excitement of the nerves which, as soon as it is iierceived by the mind, is recognized as a sensation of sound. If the vibrations of the elastic body and the air waves have been regular— that is, repeated in equal periods of time and in the same manner — wo call the sensation a musical sound. Every impression of sound bears an adequate relation to the air waves by which it was produced. Consequently, there are just as many kinds of sensations of sound as there are kinds of air waves. According to present investigations, the nerve fibers of the ear seem to possess in groups a limited specific sensibility for similarlylimited groups of sound waves. The diftering in groups of this sensibility of the nerve fibers of the oar has, as a consequence, that every tone quality is actually represented to us simultaneously by a sum of qnantitively similar sensations Avhich collectively are apprehended only as a more forcible single concept. But if two kinds of sound or air waves strike the car, they produce two sensations of difterent cxuality, which at first, like other sensations simultaneously presented, leave a single impression; subsequently, however, when the mind has developed sufficiently for discerning between them, the distinction affords a criterion for farther judgment. If we try to reduce the qualities of sound, like those of color, in a comprehensive scheme, all noises, namely, those sensations of sound Avhich arc produced by irregular vibrations and are capable of no qualitative fixation and comparison, must be omitted. Every sound sensation, called musical tone, progresses in two opposite directions. If we continue this progression for any great length, wo have a straight line that extends infinitely in both directions, but in which every sensation of sound, by MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 207 reason of its quality, lias a distinct place; that is to say, is assigned to a definite height or dejith. This line should really he conceived as a continuity "vrithout break or demarcation of single iioiuts. Still, in the scale empirically presented, wo find single points separated and defined hy special names. These jioints — absolute tones — form the elements of our musical system. They are likewise the foundation of all empiric musical knowledge. Though we are not able so to perceive and retain all of the sensations of sound unlimited in both directions of the lino as to recognize in them a part of immediate knowledge, it certainlj' is possible to make clear to our consciousness the above- mentioned points of the lino, when they are presented again and again at the same height. After a little practice, wo can easily perceive them, and do not confuse them with other sensations. We easily succeed in this, if we call upon the eye to help the ear, and if we fix the marked points of the series of sensations of sound in the scales in writing. A definite sensation of sound and a definite sensation of sight are, then, associated; but it is always presupposed, as a most essential condi- tion, that the tone which is fixed by a special name and symbol must invariably bo presented at the same height. If this is tho case, these tones, in which wo see the elements of the musical system and the perceivable material for practical music, gradually become more clearlj^ distinct from the combinations and series of sound sensations. If this were not the case, sound sensations would not be qualified to form rcsthetic relations. The firmly established and finelj^ articulated contrasts of tone qualities specially adapt sensations of sound for such relations. If several sensations of sound are jiroduced simultaneously by dissimilar sound waves or in such quick succession that we arc still conscious of the preceding sensa- tion when the next one is perceived, there arises a complex idea of sound, Avhich is presented to consciousness as a concrete relation as soon as tho mind has been suffi- ciently exercised in making distinctions to be able to recognize single tones as members of a relation. Every concrete relation is an object of perception, a unit of its kind, strikingly individual, and can only be represented by sj^mbols in fixation of its members. In the apprehension of the elements of our musical system and all concrete sound relations, the miu'd can be supported by written characters only, i. e., by musical script. Tho presentation of absolute tones and concrete relations of tones and exercise in their apprehension sharpen the hearing and acquaint the pupil with the diversity of musical material. An insight into the inner connection of this material and musical ideas, laws, and rules can only be gained by comparing absolute tones and concrete relations, and by abstracting what is common to include it in higher unities. To these higher unities belong tho ideas of scales and keys, and particularly the ideas of intervals, as seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths, etc. As the ideas of scales and keys are formed by comparing single phrases Avith regard to their material and accomi^anying concrete tone relations, we gain the ideas of difi'crent intervals as they occur in any scale, and by comparing tho intervals of dilTerent scales wo retain what is common to them, namely, the uniform distance of tones (intervals) among all scales. Like any other material of thought, these higher unities can be retained by fixation in language only. They are named, and thus a common understanding is established concerning them. We then get names for both the tones and their symbols. Absolute tones and concrete relations are best represented by notes, because they arc used exclusively in practical music ; but intervals and abstract relations by fig- ures, because figures are familiar to the pupil and express the rise and fall iDeeuliar to tone relations. The fact that it is difficult to comprehend absolute tones, because of their limited individuality, so as to reproduce them exactly, is no sufficient reason to omit symbols of tones from instruction in singing, and to use only the symbols of intervals. The ability to comprehend a comTunation of tones does not imply the ability to reproduce it. It is easily possible to understand a series of tones i^erfectly without being able to reproduce them. We are able to recognize them again, however, and 208 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. cau tell witli certainty whether they have heeii heard in the same or another key. How else could we speak of character in reference to keys, or he differently affected hy hearing an adagio played in A (natural) which is familiar to us in A flat? The ability to reproduce presupposes more than the correct understanding of what has been heard. It is, moreover, dependent upon the anatomical and x^hysiological construction of the voice, which is not at all essential for musical comprehension. The gift of understanding combinations of tone is much more frequent, and is gen- erally found in a higher degree than the ability of musical reproduction. It is in the nature of instruction in singing to require both accomplishments of the pupil. There will be greater and more pleasing success if the ear be supported by the eye, sensations of sound by tlieir symbols, and if the ear bo continuously exercised in perceiving not only what is general, but what is distinctive in tone relations, i. e., the height and depth of their members. Any writing of symbols of intervals represents what is distinctive in concrete relations of the same kind, and therefore does not exercise the car in the apprehen- sion and distinction of different keys. Ideas of intervals can only bo gained by hearing absolute tones. They fix only what is general to concrete combinations, namely, abstract ideas of sound. The characters receive sense and meaning by the ear's perceiving a succession of absolute tones; that is to say, of any one of the dia- tonic scales to the parts of which the letters or figures refer. A system of instruc- tion which fixes in writing musical ideas, wholly notional, acquaints the pupil with the unity of the musical system before he has learned its concrete elements. " The psychological medium that should lead to the heights of perception is overleaped," and this results at last in a weakening if not in a complete stunting of musical sen- sibility. For this reason no symbols of intervals can replace notes, though they may contribute to the advancement and thoroiighness of musical education if they follow the learning of the customary notation, or supplement it. The matter of which instruction in singing treats belongs to mediate and partly to immediate knowledge. With the latter the inductive method should be followed ; hence the elements of mediate knowledge must be derived from the immediate. If the combinations and relations of tones belonging to immediate knowledge include what is abstract thought (definition, law, or theory), then the development and fixa- tion in the memory of this abstract element must directly follow upon the presenta- tion and fixation of the knowledge gained concretely. The presentation and learn- ing of concrete relations and combinations, and the development and learning of musical ideas and laws, become in this way a series of school occupations which are in harmony with the inherently connected psychological processes of perception and conception, apperception, abstraction, and secure retention of what is general. From this it follows that the laws of intellectual growth require instruction in sing- ing to adhere to the formal steps of analysis and synthesis, association, system, and application. Analysis is divided into the analysis of text and musical analysis. Analysis of text must precede musical analysis, so that the pupil may imbibe the poetic spirit of the song at the very beginning of the lesson. If the text be familiar to the pupils, a short review will suffice. If not, the form and contents must be studied. In this case, analysis consists in the reproduction of those concepts and ideas which are related to the song text, so that when the new text is given out correlative thoughts are fresh in the mind of the pupil, and it need not be feared that its apperception is hampered by distractions and contradictions. Musical analysis aims at enabling the pupil to comprehend and reproduce the new melody; to reproduce the rhythmic and melodic elements already familiar, in so far as they are found to exist in the new melody, and may be freshened in the pupil's mind. Musical analysis does not consist in a reproduction of previously studied matter, but it refers in a special manner to that knowledge already acquired which is suggested by the new subject. As soon as the pupils are acquainted with scales and the chord of three, analytic exercises should commence. The tones of the MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS 209 diatonic scale aud of tLo tonic triad (in tho same key, of conrse, as the new song) must bo so combined that tho melodic turns and phrases which tho song contains aro heard in the analytic exercises. Tho chief tactic motive of the song to bo learned must be the foundation for tho rhythming of scales and triads. Musical analysis necessarily presupj)oses a certain development of musical thought. During the first year of the school course it is therefore impossible to any desirable extent. Under- standing of aud feeling for what is uovel are only conceivable whou there is a resi- due of apperception material in the mind. But as most newly entered x^upils have verj' few or uo musical ideas new concepts must bo developed from correct percep- tions and sensations, although aids to apperception can uot be readily supplied, because relative as well as opposing conceiits are wanting. So long as instruction iu singing has not develoiied tho most important elements of musical knowledge — the ideas of scales, keys, measure, time, etc. — musical analysis must be confined to reviewing previously practiced songs of similar tempo, which begin and cud with the same tone and include similar series of tones. A recapitula- tion of all that the pupil knows of the laws of tones, of musical construction, enun- ciation, accentuation, and notation belongs to analysis, iu so far as it is important in connection witb what is to be learned, and only for so long as the pupil is not sure of applying his knowledge. Synthetic instruction is modified and ruled by the pupil's advancemeut and tho subject to be considered. If the text is uew, form aud contents must be studied and learned by heart. The melody must be then practiced, aud tho other stanzas of the text learned. It is of great iuiiiortance that the new melody bo presented pure, uamcly, without the mixture of alien elements. The teacher must render it correctly and as finished as possible, either by voice or on au instrumeut. Pupils are then involuntarily pleased, the new melody enters their minds, and is appreciated with jjroper sentiments. The more beautiful and perfect the song at first appears, tho more earnestly will the pupil strive to learn it. If the new melody is short and simple, so that tho children are still conscious of the first tones while the last are perceived, then, for a deeper a-sthetic effect, the whole should be at once presented to tho ear. Practice, however, must always follow the law of successive clearness, line by line. The iiresentatiou aud practice of new melodies must continue in tho prescribed manner until the pupils are familiar witb the written music. After that, new means of imparting must be resorted to out of consideration for the pupil's self-activity. The melody is then presented to the eye in writing, aud the pupils, under their teacher's direction, must convey the meaning of the notes, line by line, in corresponding tones aud successions of tones or phrases. After having learned tho melody, the pupil's attention is directed to the time or rhythmic construction. While the teacher or different jiupils sing the others observe whether au accented be followed by one or two unaccented tones, or whether the different tones of a phrase have the same value or uot. After some thoroughness in this has been attained, the pupils may begin to reproduce the melody iu writing, under the teacher's direction. Synthesis concludes with the writing of the melody aud the study of the text. In tho first, probably iu tho second, school year, during which periods the foundation of musical knowledge is laid, tho study of melodies can not successfully be carried beyond synthesis. But from the moment in which the eye supports tho ear, or nota- tion is made use of, tho teacher may go beyond synthesis. Is it necessary, however? It has been said that involuntary pleasure can only develop into .esthetic, rational pleasure after the pupil has an insight into the musical system, and that therefore instruction can not rest with the practice pf a number of songs, but must acquaint the pupil with the elements of melody, rhythm and dynamics, etc. These elements are the fouudatiou ; they have the force of musical laws of general value and neces- sity iu tho world of sound. Tho concrete includes this pleasure; but it is clearly and distinctly defined by cousciousuess only when separated from the concrete, or what is accidental aud individual. It receives a -'general value "only after it has 210 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. proved to be the same always ia concrete comLiuatious of tones, or after it is found to lie a common attribute of relations of tone. Tlio next step in instruction is to compare tlie concrete tones bitherto practiced, or tbe i)brases of the songs learned (step of association). The combinations of tones submitted for comparison can be taken eitber from tbe last or earlier syutbetic exercises or from airs learned at borne. In any case, only sucb series of tones sbould be compared with wbicb tbe pupils are familiar. Comjiarisons may follow in differ- ent directions and may extend to melodic succession, rbytbmic form, strength, temj)o quality, etc. Tbo results of tbeso comparisons are lixed in projier tecbnical language. AVbatever bas proved to bo common or general value in tbo step of association must be isolated and learned in tbe shortest and most concise form — be it an idea, as key or time, or a law, such as '' every measure bas tbe same value," or "a word must not bo torn asunder by taking breath." This work forms the next step, that of systematizing or generalizing. Although, in general, it must be maintained that musical ideas and rules, like all that is abstract, cau only be derived from the concrete, now and then, for the par- pose of rounding off knowledge, a new idea may bo presented, when ideas of similar origin are discussed, which may "absorb or apperceive"a new but relative idea. Thus, for instance, the idea of A major may be suggested if the pupils have in the conrseof their exercises met with those of C, G, F, D, and B major and abstracted the general law. What tbo jiupil has found common to all lessons he may note in a separate book. In this way he writes a kind of ''singing school" for himself. As the different parts of synthesis can be treated with a regular insertion of correl- ative analytic material, so a definite part of the step of systematizing can be directly anticipated by concrete associate material; in other words, every lesson in singing and technical exercise can be followed by an abstraction of its salient j)oints and general facts. Thus, if, by way of examj)le, the newly learned song be compared with one pre- viously studied in regard to quality of tone, what is fouud to be common may at once be defined in a statement, as, "Both songs are in the key of G;" or "Both songs have f measure;" or "Both are to be snug allegro," etc. Several songs being compared, this statement may follow: "All these songs begin and end with C, hence ai'o written in tbe key of C." The comparison is continued, and inter- rupted by a process of abstraction. Thus, by induction, and according to tbe laws of intellectual development, the pupils become possessed of many fundamental musical ideas, laws, and rules. This knowledge would be w^orth little if the ele- ments of music could only be applied to that concrete material from which they ■were derived. If, for instance, tbe key, kind of key, measure, and time could only be applied to those melodies -wbich formed the stock of the puiiil's knowledge of songs, tbo musical education would be sadly deficient. The pupils must, therefore, be dii'ected and i>racticed in observing and reading other combinations and melodies, and apx)lying the rules and laws to new phrases and songs. Reading easy melodies and "second parts" must be aimed at. This work forms the last of tbe formal steps — that of application. If these exercises are extensively practiced during the last year of school, the pupil will be able to tell with tolerable certainty the signature of a new iiiece, whether it be major or minor, the kind of meter or tempo, etc., and he W'ill, slowly perhaps, but correctly, read the scries of tones, i. e., read the notes while singing; ho will also observe the rules of breathing, voice culture, and enun- ciation in songs on which be has received no special instruction. The exercises in application also include tbe transposition of a melody from one key to another; transcription of a phrase in the different symbols for notes and intervals; the sing- ing of different texts to the same melody; the reproduction of scales, ascending and descending, and using tones as the tonic; the singing of the tones of the triad and MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 211 its inversion, etc. This is a comprcliensive iirogrammc of v.-orli, but German tcacli- ers succeed in carrying it on in elementary schools. The matter gone over in the music lessons is, comparatively speaking, very insig- nificant. The children learn a far greater number of facts in arithmetic, geography, and grammar. Tho only difference is that the application of the facts learned is more difficult, owing to tho frequent undeveloped musical ear; hut as the sense of hearing is developed tho difficulties disappear. THE VALUE OF FOLKSONGS (VOLKSLIEDER). From tlie foregoing expose of the German method of teaching sing- ing in schools, and from other authoritative sources, it is seen that the Germans pay much attention to their national airs in school, both to sacred and secular songs. It is done upon the principle that in elementaiy schools it is not the chief object to increase the store of knowledge of the children, but to train their minds to correct modes of thinking, to build up their characters and will i)ower for correct action, to ennoble the emotions to perceive refining sentiments and guide the will, and to generally educate the young rather than instruct them, to use these terms as the Germans do in imi)lying a differentiation which we in this country do not usually accept. In literature, and even in simple language lessons, we naturally use the best selections from the works of classic native Avriters; in geography we direct the child's attention, first of all, to his home surrounding and the topographical conditions of his own country 5 in history it is the events and memorable deeds of his own forefathers and countrymen which he studies, and so on through the course of study. We always bear in mind that the civilization and culture of his own nation are the sources from which his own culture derives its strength. Precisely so the Germans proceed in the teaching of music in elementary schools. Of course, music may be severed from its national influence and taught purely as a science and an art, but if taught in that way it does not serve the purpose of a school study which purposes to aid in the child's mental and moral development. Every study in elementary school must do that. The reasons for using the musical treasures of the nation are pedagogical and ethical and eminently sound. The national airs of every nation reflect, more than anything else, its peculiar traits of character, both in text and music. The Slavic songs, mostly written in minor keys, reflect the melancholy mood of these peoples; the wild, weird ditties of Hungary reflect the fierce character of the Magyars; the placid temper of the Scandinavians is seen in their sweet hymns; the Scotch Highlander's sturdiness is noticeable in his songs; the gaiety of the southern Frenchman, the cheerfulness of the Tyrolean and the Swiss — all these peculiarities are plainly discern- ible in the native songs and lays of these peoples. The vast treasures of mind, soul, and heart of the German nation have from time immemorial been reflected in its folksongs, or popular melo- dies and rhymes, most of which were composed no one knows by whom, 212 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. but wliicli were suug by all. From the fourteenth century to the pres- ent day the treasures of German popular airs have been increasing. The German "Yolkslied" runs through the entire scale of internal and external life of the nation; it courses through feeling and tliinking of all layers of society, and it is always true to nature, always grown on home soil, always genuinely German. The popular airs of Germany, both text and melody, are the most fragrant blossoms of the civilization of that country. In these songs, the sources of which never clog, the sounds of joy and merriment are as genuine and sincere as those of sorrow and grief; the tones of mockerj^ and defiance as true as those of wrath and complaint. The heart of the German people pulsates in these songs, and he who studies them will find revealed in them the German nation in all its strength and weakness, in its virtues and faults. A collection of German " Volkslieder "' may be considered the secret history of the peox)le. He who knows history can see in these songs that long chain of remarkable historical deeds that have made Germany famous, from the " jSTibelungen Saga" down to the ^'Wacht am Ehein." Everywhere along the line traces are found of events and deeds which alternately raised and degraded the nation. The period in which the sources of popular airs and popular poetry were most i^rolific was the second half of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century (the era of Seformation). The dried-up court poetry of chivalry in the castles of knights and princes was superseded by the people's poetry; the middle ages were sung to their grave and a new era was welcomed. But like the ancient stories of classic Hellas and mythical Germany, so have the songs and airs changed by adapting themselves to many new moods, conditions, and sentiments. Most of the airs now in use were composed or remodeled during the second half of the eighteenth and the first half of tbe nine- teenth centuries. Of most of these we are able to state definitely both, poet and composer. A list of these is here added. List of Poets of German Folksongs. Adrian, J. V. Aiischiitz, Ernst. ArncTt, E. M. Arnim, Achim von. August, E. F. Baggcsen, Jens. Becker, Wm. G. Becker, N iklas. Binzcr, Aug. vou. Bornemann, Wm. Brcntano, Clemens. Bretzner, Chr Fr. Brun, Fricderike. Biihl, J. L. am. Burger, Gottfr. A. Cbamisso, Adelliert von. Claudhis, Matthias. Cramer, K. G. Croustein, Heuriette von. Dacb, Simon. Dirnbuck, Jacob. Dissclboff, August. Drlmborn, E. G. Dunker, B. A. Eberbard, G.A. Eicbendorff, Jos. von. Eisenbart, Job. Andr. Ekscblager, A. Falk, Job. Feucbtersleben, Ernst von. Fink, G. W. Fiscber, Carl. Franz, Agnes. Freiligratb, Ferdinand. FreseniuR, A. Geibel, Emanuel. Gellert, Cbr. F. Gcrbard, Wilbelm. Geriko, J. L. Gleim, J. W. L. Goeckiugb, L. Fr. Goetbe, Wolfgang von. Goettling, K. Griese, F. Griibel, Job. C. Giill, Fr. Habu, Carl. Halem, G.A. vou. MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 213 List oi<' Poets of German Folksongs — Contiuued. Hunckc, G. B. Hasclika, L. Lcop. Hauff, Wilbclui. Haug, J. C. Fr. Hell el, J oh. Peter. Heckcr, L. Heim, lieiur. Heine, Hciur. Hell, Tbeodor. Herder, J. G. von. HerlcssohU; Carl. Hermes, Job. Tbim. Hicmcr, Franz C. Hinkel, Carl. Hofi'iuann von Fallers- leben. Hofling, Engen. Holtei, Carl von. Holty, Ludw. C. Jacobi, J. G. Jiiger, Daniel. Jiinger, Fr. Keil, Georg. Kerner, Justinus. Kind, Friedr. Klcinscbmidt, E. C. Klesbeim, Anton von. Kletke, H. Klopstock, Fr. G. Kopisb, August. Korner, Tbeodor. Kosegarten, L. Th. Kotzebue, August. Kruiumacbcr, Ad. Kugler, Franz. Kubn, Gottl. J. Langbein, August. Lange, Friedr. Lappe, Karl. Lavater, Job. Kaspar. Lessing, Gottl. Epbr. Liiwe, Feodor. Ludwig, Fritz von. Maas, J. G. E. Mablmanu, Aug. Mattbison, Fr. von. Mctbfessel, A. Miller, Job. Martin. Morbof, Dan. G. Moscn, .Julius. Mnecbler, Carl. Mueller, Fr. Mueller, J. JI. Mueller, Peter. Mueller, Wenzel. Mueller, Wilbelm. Niinuy, J. C. Nesnuieller, E. Nicolai, Fr. IS'iebuscb, Karl. Niemann, August. Nostiz, G. A. E. von. Novalis, Fr. von Harden- berg. Opitz, Martin. Opitz, Moritz. Overbeck, Cbrist. A. Periuet, Joacbim. Pfeffel, Gottl. C. Praetor i us, Jobanu. Raimuud, Ferdinand. Rccke, Elisa von der. Reiubard, K. Reinick, Robert. Roquette, Otto. Rlickert, Friedr. Rudolpbi, Caroline von. Runge, Pbil. O. Salis, Yon. Salomon, Elias. Sauter, Sam. Fr. Scbenkendorf, Mas von. Scbiller, Fr. von. Scbmidt, Cbrist. Scbmidt, Geo. Pb. Scbmidt, Klamer. Scbneckenburger, Max. Scbonbutb. Otto. Scbreiber, Aloys. Scbubart, Cbr.F. D. Scbubartb,(?). Sc'bwab, Gustav. Seume, .Job. G. Seyfertb, Carl. Simrock, Karl. Smets, Wilbelm. Stamford, Ileinr. Wm. ntarkc, Gottb. W. Chr. 1 )tein, K. I !teinbausen, Fr. Wm. iStockbausen, A. C. Stolbcrg, Fr. Leop.Graf zu. Strakerjan, Cbr. Fr. Straube, Karl. Sturm, Cbr. Cbr. Sturm, Julius. Sturm, Marcellin. Tenner, C. Cbrist. Tieck, Ludwig. Tiedge, Cbrist. Aug. Ueltzcn, Wilbem. LIbland, Ludwig. Urncr, Barbara. Usteri, Martin. Veitb, Emanuel. Yoigt, Friedr. Voss, Job. Heiurich. Vulpius, August. Wiichter, Leonbard. Wackernagel, Pbil. AVackernagel, Wm. Wagenseil, Cbr. Jacob. Wagner, Heinricb. AVeidling, Wilbelm. Wciglc, Gottlieb. AVeissc, Cbr. Felix. Wiesener, M. Wolf, P. Alexander. Wyss, Job. Rud. Zarnack, August. Zebelein, Justus Fr. List of Composers of German Folksongs. Note. — Many German '* Volkslieder '' are .adaptations, botb in text and music, of songs in voguo during tbo Middle Ages and tbo time of tbe "Minnesiinger/' bence some modern composers are credited witb baving composed tbo music and some poets of baving written tbe words to songs tbat bear evidences of a mucb older age; but tbero is no way of arriving at definite conclusions concerning tbeir origin, bence the names of poets and composers to wbom tbe songs are credited nowadays are men- tioned in tbis list. Tbero arc numerous songs of wbicb neitber jioet nor composer are known ; they have been collected by noted musicians, such as tbe brothers Ludwig 214 EDUCATION nnd Friedr. Erk, as Grimm collected tlio German fairy stories by listeuing to theif recital by jrrandmothers and villagc-sases. Abt, I'rauz. Ahlstroem, J. A. Albert, Heinricli. Andre, Anton. Andr»'^, Jobann. Arndt, E. M. Aiiberlen, S. G. Becker, Wm. Gottl. Beethoven, L. van. Beneken, Fr. B. Berg, ( ?) Berger, Ludwig. Bergt, August. Boris, Job. End. Beruer, F. W. Bornbardt, Job. H. Carl. Briesewitz, ( f) Burgwedcl, Karl von. Call, Leonbard von. Coron, Ales E. Dietricb, Friedricb. Ditters, Carl. Dobbelin, Karl. Drecbsler, Josef. Dliriiiger, Pbilipp J. Ebers, Karl Friedr. Eberwein, Max. Eidenbenz, Cbr. Gottl. Erk, Friedricb. Erk, Ludwig. Etzler, Karl Fr. T'eska, Friedr. Ernst. Fink, G. W. Fiscber, Ludwig. Flemmiug, Fr. F. Fuss, Jobaun. Gackstatter, J.G.D. Gebrickc, (?) Gersbacb, Jos. Gerstenberg, I. D. Gilbert, Hermann. Gliiser, K. L. Tr. Gluck, Cbr. von. Gliick, Friedricb. Grauu, Karl H. Greitb. Jobann. Groos, Carl. Grosbeim, G. Cbr. Haibel, Jacob. Hanitscb, Georg F. Harder, Angustin. Haydn, Joseph. Hering, Carl G. Hiller, Job. Adam. Himmel, Fr. Heiur. Hisel, (?) Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Hoffmeister, F. A. Hurka. Fr. Franz, Keller, Carl. Kempt, F. A. Kiruberger, Job. Pbil. Klein, B. Klein, Christ. Ben. Kuuig, Karl Gottl. Kreipl, J. Kretzscbmor, Audr, Kreutzer, Conrad. Kiicken, Friedr. AVm. Kiicken, Heinricb. Kublau, Friedricb. Kuhn, Gottl. J. Kunze, G. Liudpaiuter, Peter von. Lo trier, A. Mendelssohn - Bar t hold i, Felix. Methfcssel, Albert. Moritz, C. T. Mozart, "Wolfgang Ama- deus. Miiller, Peter. Miillcr, Wcnzel. Niigcli, Hans Georg. Natbusius, Slaria. Naumann, J. A. Pilz, Carl Pbil. Em. Pobienz, August. Pathko, (?) Eegnart, Jacob. Peicbardt, Gustav. Reicbardt, Job. Friedr, Kcicbardt, Luise, Reissiger, Carl G. Rigbini, V. Rollc, Job. Heinr. Rust, Fr. Wm. Schneider, Friedr. Schneider, J. G. W. Schneider, Wilhelm. Scbnorr, Heinr. Christ. Schnyder, von War ten see, X. Schubart, Cbr. F. D. Schubert, Franz. Schultz, Christ. Scbulz, Job. A. P. Seckeudorff, Fr. L. A. von. Seidel, Fr. Ludwig. Seydler, Ludw. Carl. Sievers, J. F. L. Silcber, Friedricb. Spazier, Carl. Spohr, L. Steifensandt, Wm. Sterkel, Job. F. Xaver. Streber, Valentin. Tbiimmel, Julius. Tiirk, Daniel G. Weber, B. A. Weber, Carl Maria von. Weiss,, Fr. Wm. Werner, H. Wilhelm, Carl. Winter, P. von. Witthauer, Job. Geo. Wolf, Ernst Wm. Wollank, Friedricb. Zabu, Christ. Jacob. Zcltcr, Carl Friedr. Zumsteg, J, R, MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 215 BiBLioGiiAi'HY or German Books. ''MUSIC schools" axd discussions of method. Albrccht, F. A. UeLangen und Lietler zu ciuem mcthodiscbcu Gesangmitcrricht ia Schnlo iiud Haus. Four iiarts. Earner, A. (a) Methodisclio Anleitnng zur Ertheilung dcs Gesangiiuterriclits uach dem Geliore. (&) Gesanglehro fiir die Yolksschiilo. Two x)arts, (a) for teachers, (&) for tlie pupils. Baumcrt, L. Der Gesaugnnterricht iu der Volksschnle. Bell, A. Auleitimg zur Ertlieilurig des Gesangunterriclits in dei- Yolksscliiile, ncbst Yertheilung dcs Lelirstoffs. Boenicle, G. Der Gcsangnntcrriclit nacli dem Gehore. Braun. Die Ziffernmetbodo Leini Untcrricht im Singen. Drath, Th. Der Gesanglehrcr und seine Metliode. Elinl, J. A. Stufenmiissig geordneto Gesanglehro fiir den Schulgehraiich. GeVnausen, J. Abhandhing iiber die ueucsto Gesaugsmctbode. Grell, Fr. Gesanglehro fiir Yolks- nnd Biirgerschnleu. Hanslil:. Yom Mnsikaliscb-Schonen. Hartmann, F. Gesangunterricht fiir Scbuleu. Three parts. Holimann, Chr. H. Praktischer Lehrgang fiir deu Gesangunterricht in den Yolks- scbulen. Four courses. Jeltsch, Max. Der Gesangunterricht in der Yolksschulo. Jimmerthal, H. . Gesanglehro und Liederbuch. Four parts. Eehr, C. Two vols, (a) Geschichto der Methodik. (Z>) Praxis der Yolksschule. Koihe, B. Yademccuni fiir Gesanglehrer. Theoretisebes und Metbodisches. Kotlie Win. Theoretiscb-praktiscber Leitfadeu fiir die metbodischo Behandlung des Gesangunterrichts. Kuhn, E. Gehor- und Stimmiibnngen. Kuntze, E. Uobuugsbuch beim Gesangunterricht nach Noten. Lange, Bud. Winko fiir Gesanglebi'er in Yolksscbulen. Langc, Bud. Lebrplau fiir den Gesangunterricht. Lclnnann, J. G. Grundziigc zur mctbodischen Behandlung dcs Gesangunterrichts. Linnarz, B. Metbodik des Gesangunterrichts. Manss, Aug. Liedei'scbule. Theoretiscb-praktische Auleitung. MiUJcr-Brnnau. Tonbildung oder Gesangunterricht? Nierendergcr. Waudtafeln fiir den Gesangunterricht. Twelve charts. Oshurg, Deutsche Gesanglehro. PjUiger, J. G. F. Anleitung zum Gesangunterricht in Scbulen. Ban, C. G. Singtafel fiir Yolks-, Real- und Lateinschulen. Beichelt, G. Gesanglehrer und Gesangunterricht der Yolksachule. Bein, Plckel and Scheller. Theorio und Praxis des Yolksschulunterrichts. Beissmann, A. Elementargesanglehre fiir Schule und Haus. Bidder, E. Anweisung zum Gesangunterrichto in der Yolksschule. Sacher, Hans, Ueber den Gesangunterricht, insbesoudere das Treft'cnlebren. Schdubliu, J. J. Gesanglehro fiir Schule nnd Haus. Schdnblin, J. J. Dreissig Tabellen fiir den Gesangunterricht. Schiitze, Fr. JVm. Pi-aktiscber Lehrgang fiir den Gesangunterricht. Sering, Fr. TFm. Der Elementargesang-Uuterricht. Bedeutung und Aufgabe. Scriitg, Fr. TVm. Kurzo theoretiscb-praktische Anleitung fiir ratiouellen Gegangun- terricbt. Sering, Fr. Din. Die Kunst des Gesanges. Yollstiiudigo ^Slctliodik. Stieliler. Das Lied als Gefublsausdruck. Toss, Heinricli. Praktische Elementargesaugscbule. Weber, Joh. B. Anleitung zum rationellen Gesangunterricht. 216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. TVidniatiii, Bencdilct. Praktisclier Lclirgaug fiir eiueu ratioDellen Gesangunlerricht in luelirklassigen Scliiilen. Widmann, Bencdilct. Kleiue Gesanglehrc fiir die Hand der Schiilcr. Widmann, BcnediJct. VorLereitungskursus fiir den Gesangunterriclit. Widmann, Bencdilct. Gebor- und Stimmbildung. COLLECTIONS OF SONGS FOR SCHOOLS. Anding, J. M. ScLLulliederl)ucli. Five parts. Baitke, Gustav. Jugendfreimd. Three parts. Baumcrt, L. Deutsclie Yolkslieder fiir Schulgebrauch. Bell, A. Liedersammluug fiir die Volksschule. Berger, Gustav. Liederscbatz fiir die deutsclie Jugeud. Berger, Gustav. Jugendkliiiige. Blied, J. Liederbucli fiir Yolksscliuleu. Two parts. Boiifficr, Fr. Liederbucli fiir Miidchenscliulen. Brdhmig, B. Liederstrauss fiir Tucliterschulen. Five parts. Christ, Bernli. Auswahl zweistimmiger Yolkslieder. Damm, Gust. Liederbucli fiir Schulen. Drath, Theo. Scbulliederbuch. Eric, L., and Greef, Wm. Singviigeleiu, Sauimlung von Liedern. Eric, L., and Greef, Wm. Liederkranz. Auswabl lieiterer uud ernster Gesiinge. Eric, Lud., and Jacoh, Aug. Deutscher Liedergarten fiir Miidclienscliuleu. Franlccnberger, H., and Kaiser, J. Liederbuch fiir Schulen. Friclce, W, Liederscbatz fiir Scbule und Leben. Tbreo parts. Goethe, E. Kleine Gesangscbule fiir Stadt- nud Laudscbulen. Two parts. Goct:e, Heinr. Liedersanimlung fiir mebrklassige Scbulen. Groffmann, C. Liederscbatz fiir Deutscblands Yolksscbulen. Two parts. Hamma, Franz. Liedersammluug fiir den systematischen Gesaugunterricht. Three parts. Helm, Martin. Liederbuch fiir Mittelscbulen. Hentschel, Ernst. Liederbain. Three parts. Hcntschel, Ernst. Kinderbarfe. Hcring, Carl. Sang and Klang fiir Miidchenscbulen. Two parts. Janson, Friedr. Deutsche Scbulgesange fiir Miidcbcn. Four parts. Jessen, A. Chr. 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Liederbuch fiir Biirgerschulen. Pfliiger, J. G. F. Liederbuch fiir Scbule uud Leben. Three parts. Schdublin, J. J. Liedor fiir Jung und Alt. Three parts. MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 217 Schneider, F. Liederbucli fiir A^olksscliuleii. Tlirco parts. ScTitvalm, Boh. Yolkslieder und. Gesiinge. Seegcr, Karl. Dcr Liedcrfreund. Two parts. Seeger, Karl. Liederbucli fiir Yolksscliuleu. Se'idel, 0. Liedcr fiir die Volksscliule. Three parts. Seidel, 0. Volksscliulliederbucli. Sering, F. W. Liederbucli fiir drei- und mclirklassige Volksscbulen. Five parts. Sering, F. W. Elsass-Lothriugischer Liederkrauz. Three parts. Sering, F. 71'. Gesangswerk fiir hiJhere Tiichterschulen. Sjpeyer, J. Jugendlieder. Three iiarts. Stein, Karl. Volkslieder fiir Kuaben- und Miidcheuschuleu. Steinhaitscn, K. JTm. Zweistimmigo Liedcr fiir deu Schulgebrauch. Four parts. Stoffregcn, H. A. Deutschcr Liederschatz fiir Schule, Ilaus und Lebeu. Three parts. Thoma, B., Kittel, TV., and Milncli, J. 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