(lass L) 2. b Book .( x5 1886 THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 1— Lighthouse on the Island of Pharos, Alexandria. 4— The Temple of Diana at Ephesus. a— Statue of the Olympian Jupiter. 5— The Mausoleum of Artemisia. 3— The Colossus at Rhodes. 6— The Pyramids of Egypt. 7— The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. THE WORLD: HISTORICAL AND ACTUAL WHAT HAS BEEN AND WHAT IS. OUR GLOBE IN ITS RELATIONS TO OTHER WORLDS, AND BEFORE MAN. Ancient Nations in the Order of their Antiquity, the middle ages and their darkness. THE PRESENT PEOPLES OF THE EARTH IN THEIR GRADUAL EMERGENCE FROM BAR- BARISM INTO THE SUNLIGHT OF TO-DAY, AND AS THEY NOW STAND UPON THE PLANE OF CIVILIZATION. TOGETHER WITH USEFUL AND INSTRUCTIVE CHARTS, REFERENCE TABLES OF HISTORY, FINANCE. COMMERCE AND LITERATURE FROM B. C. 1500, TO THE PRESENT TIME. ^ numerous Elegaut Jllustratious. NEW AND REVISED EDITION BY FRANK GILBERT, A. M. Late Assistant Treasurer XT. S. at Chicago and Associate Editor of the Chicago Tribune; Author of The Manual of American Literature. CHICAGO, ILL.: FAIRBANKS & PALMER PUBLISHING CO X "3 V COPYRIGHTED BY FAIRBANKS, PALMER & CO. 1882. COPYRIGHTED BY FAIRBANKS & PALMER PUBLISHING CO. All Rights Reserved. .1. RESFIAiClE HIS age is at once busy and inquiring. The peo- ple have more thirst for knowledge than time to devote to its acquisition, and of that little, much must be given to the cur- rent topics of the clay as presented in the newspapers. The aim of The World is to meet the demand of this large class of the public for a volume which shall be ency- clopedic in its range of informa- tion, yet so written as to be an un- broken account of man's progress in the past and condition in the present. Each chapter forms an essay substantially complete in itself upon the subject an- nounced in the heading. It is also a link in a chain of intelligence which encircles the globe and binds in a grand unity all the known ages. This method, adopted with grave apprehension of its feasibility, was found to be natural and easy to follow. Preliminary to the history and introductory to the body of the work are presented such scientific facts in regard to the heavens above and the earth beneath as were deemed necessary to an intelligent understanding of man's environment. No attempt has been made to give instruction in the sciences, beyond the accomplishment of this object. Modern scholarship lias disclosed in dim outline the illimit- able field of prehistoric humanity, and a faint glimpse of that vast field is also afforded for the same introductory purpose. It will be observed that each country or people is presented in the order of its emergence from obscur- ity and followed in its development until the present time. Into the ocean of the Actual debouch the numberless streams of the Historical, from the Nile of Egypt to the Amazon of America. Care has been taken to give to each the relative prominence to which it is entitled by its real weight and influence in the scale of civilization. Separate facts, too, have been treated upon the same principle. There is wide latitude for honest and intelligent difference of opin- ion as to the importance of almost every event, and no two estimates would agree entirely upon details. Every subject which seemed to require pictorial representation to render it more intelligible and in- teresting has been illustrated. These illustrations are believed to add very materially to the intrinsic value, as well as the attractiveness of the volume. There are many subjects which cannot be fully pre- sented unless " the art preservative of art," as print- ing has been called, is supplemented and rounded out by the engraver's art. Of course in a volume covering a field so vast, many things which are in themselves highly import- ant must be passed over in silence or mentioned only briefly ; but the endeavor has been to avoid the omission of anything necessary to the general plan of the book, as set forth upon the title-page. In the verification of facts the author of a work which is telescopic rather than microscopic, cannot make original research, and often there is a wide di- vergence in the statements made by standard author- ities. In this book no statement will be found for which good authority could not be adduced, and in many cases (more especially in the statistical part) (iii) .\ IV PREFACE. oreat efEort has been made to determine the relative weight of testimony and conform thereto. In the preparation of this volume it has been assumed that the reader is far more interested in American history than in foreign history ; in mod- ern times than in antiquity. If the space devoted to art, for instance, in the United States is small, as compared with that given to the art of some other countries, while American industry is given especial prominence, the reason is that, much as might be said in praise of art in the United States, it is unde- niable that the typical American is an artisan rather than an artist, and his hands are more skillful in the use of tools and implements of industry than the brush and chisel of art. The earliest nation of which we know anything, Egypt, seems to have been mainly anxious to pre- serve the body after death ; the greatest of all nations in actual attainments, England, has devel- oped what might be called factory mechanism, — machinery which enabled the English to convert raw material into merchandise on terms to defy the competition of the world. America has wrought much in the English line, but the distinctive pecu- liarity of the United States is care for the number- less comforts and conveniences of life. In a word, it seems to be the mission of American industry and ingenuity to lighten the labors and enhance the happiness of the toiling masses of mankind. The truth of these observations is obvi- ous, and it only remains to say that throughout the volume the aim has been to bring out in due promi- • nence the distinctive characteristics of each people <>r period. It will be observed that the reading matter has been re-inforced by copious statistics, selected and arranged with reference to the general scope of The World, constituting • a compend of leading facts, relating to the past aud to the present nations of our globe. These tables, based on the latest attainable information, aim to make the book available for the purpose of reference, especially in connection with the index, and will meet, it is hoped, a want now felt by speakers, writers, professional and business men and others, whose limited time will not permit their consulting exhaustive treatises, but wlio demand that the salient points shall be so arranged as to be easily found just when desired. Bv the joint aid of the table of reference and the index, it is entirely feasible to almost instantaneously secure the information desired. The table of con- tents is designed to be a complete and ready guide to the reader in selecting topics about which to read, for the book is equally adapted to continuous and occasional reading. The author is under great obligations to " Gas- kell's Compendium of Forms," and such eminent statisticians as Mulhall, Nicliol and Walker, for tabular matter, also to L. T. Palmer, Prof. W. P. Jones and Hon. C. E. Jones, for aid in the chap- ters on China and Australia. Throughout, Hay- dn's Dictionary of Dates has been the authority on dates, and The Statesman's Manual on current statistics of foreign countries. It only remains to add that one more needed labor will have been performed if this book shall satisfac- torily fill the niche in the library and the place in the family-circle for which it was designed. ■•■mm, &m&s THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN II. THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN III. PREHISTORIC MAN IV. THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT EGYPT AT ITS BEST THE DECLINE OF EGYPT V. VI. VII. EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA EGYPT AS IT IS VIII. IX. ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS X. THE JEWS XI. HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS XII. ASSYRIA AND SYRIA XIII. PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZEND AVI'STA XIV. GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP XV. HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE XVI. STATE CRAFT IN GREECE . XVII. GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE XVIII. GREEK PHILOSOPHY' AND AET XIX. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY XX. THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS . PAGK 25 86 103 XXI. MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH XXII. ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME XXIII. SEMI-HISTORIC ROME .... XXIV. HOME AND CARTHAGE .... XXV. LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC . XXVI. OiESAR AND THE EMPIRE .... XXVII. LATIN* CLASSICS .... XXVIII THR EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC XXIX. PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY .... XXX. THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTL'iNITY" . XXXI. ITALY AND THE ITALIANS .... XXXII. THE DARK AGES ... XXXIII. THE SARACEN EMPIRE XXXIV THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE . . . . XXXV. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (TURKEY) XXXVI. RUSSIA XXXVIL POLAND AND THE POLES . . . . XXXVIII. MEDIEVAL GERMANY . XXXIX. GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION XL. NEW GERMANY PAGE 129 •33 ■38 I48 T (v) VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. XLI. INTELLECTUAL GERMANY .... XLII. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY XLIII. BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS XLIV. OLD FRANCE XLV. TRIUMPH AND DECAY OP FRENCH MONARCHY XLVI. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION . xlvii. NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS . XLVII1. LATTER-DAY FRANCE .... XLIX. CELTIC, GOTHIC, AND MOORISH SPAIN . L. FERDINAND AND ISABELLA . LI. CATHOLIC SPAIN LIE. PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE LIU. THE SCANDINAVIANS .... LIV. SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE . LV. OLD ENGLAND ..... LVI. OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS LVI I. MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS LANCASTER AND YORK LVIII. LIX. THE TUDORS LX. THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH LXI. PRESENT ENGLAND .... LXI I. LITERATURE OF ENGLAND . LXII1, SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH LXIV. IRELAND AND THE IRISH LXV. THE DOMINION OF CANADA . PAGE 242 33 = 339 36: 367 375 383 387 BRITISH INDIA LXVI. lxvii. AUSTRALASIA LXVIII. JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE LXIX. THE CHINESE EMPIRE .... LXX. THE CHINESE LXXI. MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA .... LXXII. MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS LXXIII. SOUTH AMERICA LXX IV. CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA LXXV. NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS LXXVI. EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES LXXVII. COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH LXXVIII. INDEPENDENCE AND UNION LXXIX. THE YOUNG REPUBLIC LXXX. THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE LXXXI. THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT . LXXXII. RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY r, xxxiii. THE PRESENT UNITED STATES I.XXXIV. GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES LXXXV PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS I. XXXVI. STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES LXXXVII. AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS LXXXVIII. AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART .... LXXXIX. AMERICAN LITERATURE xc. TABLES OF REFERENCE PAGE 4°0 46. 467 485 564 5&O 1^ 624 638 65O - — 4t. VI 1 PAGE. 1 Abbas, Khedive of Egypt 60 | Abdul Hainid II 20$ Abelardand Heloise ...193. 2 °3 Abica of Tyre 67 Aborigines of Germany 242 Abraham 6S Abu-Bekr Succeeds Mahommed 198 The Saracen Empire under 198 Re-arranges the Koran 197 Abyssinia, or Modern Ethiopia 66 Population and Area. 66 Acadia and the Acadians 395 Academies in France 270 Achaean League, The 107 Achilles 9 2 Acropolis at Athens, The 117 Actium, The Battle of 157 Adams, John 51S, 5S0 Adams, John Quincy S^ 1 Brickmaking in Egypt 47 Bright, John 373 British India .400 Britons, The Ancient ^^ Bronze and Stone Age 42 Bronte", Charlotte 381 Browne, C. F ,647 Brown, General 519 Brown, John $29 Browning, Mrs 380 Browning, Kobert 3S1 Bruce, Robert 345, 384 Brussa, City of 200 Bryant, William Cullen 645 Brussells, the City of. 255 Uprising in 255 Brutus, Junius.^ 13S Brutus, Marcus 157 Bruyere, La 270 Bubastis, Priests of 52 Buchanan, James 52s, 5S5 Buchner, Prof. 247 Buckner, General 533 Bucolics of Virgil 161 Buddhism in Japan 430 in China 45 1 Buel, General.. , 534, 53S Buenos Ayres, The City of 46S Buffon 271 Bulwer-Lytton 3S1 Bull Run, Battles of. 53 1, 536 Bull Fights of Spain 314 Bundesrathand Reichstag 251 Bunker, or Breed's Hill 505 Bunyan, John 37S Burgoyne, General 512 Burgundy, First King of 325 Duke of 25S Burke, Edmund 379 Burmah, or Farther India 454 Burmuda Isles, The 4^4 Burns, Robert . . 386 Burnside, Ambrose E 534. 537 Butler, Samuel 378 Butler, Benjamin F 534, 550 Byblus, City of 66 Byron, Lord 130, 3S0 Byzantine Empire, The 197, 200 PAGE. Byzantine Empire, Area and Conserva- tism of 200 Justinian and Belisarius 201 The Civil Law 201 Brazil Dynasty 202 The Comnenians and Latin Crusaders . . .203 Pala?ologi and the Turks arj Byzantium, City of 1C9, 200 Cabinet, The English 373 of the United States 575 Cabot, John 394, 491 Cabot, Sebastian 394, 468 Cabral, Pedro Alvarez 31S Cade Rebellion, The Jack 351 Caernarvon , The Castle of 344 Cssar, Julius... 48, 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 163,333 Caesar, Tiberius 165 Caisar, Caius or Caligula 165 Ges irea, The City of. 71 Cairo, Egypt.. . . 61 Cuius, Marin- 150 Caius, Ca?sar 165 Calais, City of 262 Calcutta, City of 40. > Calendar, The Gregorian ,35 The Russian $<, The Egyptian 4 S Caldcron 3i( Calhoun, J. C 523 California 594 Caliphs of Damascus 59 Caliph of Mahammed 107 Caliphs, First Four. , iqS Caligula, Emperor 165 Assassinated 166 Calmar, Union of 321 Calvin, John 265, 328 Calvinists and Lutherans 23a Cambyses 53, 65 Camden, Rattle of 513 Camillus Captures Veii 111 Camoens, Ttie Poet. 319 Canada, Dominion of 394 Census of 1SS1 394 English Discovery of. 395 Acadia and the Acadians 391; Champlain's Policy 390 British Policy 396 Old World Prejudices 396 The Indians of , 396 Manitoba and Hudson Bay ... .396 Political system of 397 VTrtinl Independence 397 Reciprocity 397 Cities, Education, Railroads 393 Labrador, the Esquimaux 399 Canaan, Land of 69 Canal, The Suez 60 The Cloaca Maxima 1S6 Candace, Queen 65 Candia, The Island of 126 Cann;e, Battle of 14'i Cantebury, Bishopric of. 334 Canute, the Dane 321 Rules, England . . 336 Cape of Good Hope 317, 45S Cape Verde Islands 317 Capetian Line, The 262 The Valois Branch 262 Captivity of the Jews 69 PAGE. Carlist War, The 312 Carlos, Don 312 Carlovingian Empire 257 Dynasty 26a Carlyle, Thomas 38!, 386 Carolina, North 613 South 616 Carolina, Colonial Historv 497 French Huguenots 498 Carnot, French Minister 278 Carthage, Rome and 143 Its Place in History 144 First Punic War 144 Hamilcar and Hannibal 145 Second Punic War 145 Hannibal Crosses the Alps 146 Battle of Cans 1 46 Fall of Carthage 147 Carthaginians, The 143 Cartier, Jacques 395 Casimir, The Restorer 21S The Great 218 Casimir IV 21S Castelar. 313 Castile and Aragon United 299 Castor and Pollux, Sudden Appearance of. 137 Cataline, The Conspiracy of. 152 Cataracts of the Nile. 62 Catherine de Medici 265, 267 Catherine u Catherine of Russia ..207, 213 War with Turkey 207 Petit : ons Poland 213, 220, 236 Cato the Censor 147 Destroys Carthage 1 47 The Younger . . 149 Cave Dwellers, The 4.87 Cavour, Italian Statesman 1S6 Cedar Mountain, Battle of. 537 Cedars of Lebanon, The 67 Celtic and Moorish Spain 294 Celts of Great Britain $$$ Celts and Celtic Progress 40 Census of Canada' , 394 of the United States 51S, 570 Central A:nerica 470 The States of. 47S Champlain Founds Quebec 396 Chancellon'Mle, Battle of 538 Channing, Dr 643 Chaldea S2 Chaldean Bricks $2 Charlemagne and Chivalry 190 and the Dark Ages 192 in Germany 22S at Aix la Chapelle 225 Dynasty 262 Charles XII 219 Charles VI 235 Charles VII 236 Charles VII. 2*64 Charles IX 26$, 267 Charles, Martel. 225 Defeats the Saracens 262, 225 CharlesX 289 Charles V 306 Charles IL 309 Charles XI ^23 Charles XI 323 Charles I., and Parliament 362, 363 s\er =sr7 INDEX. 4. PAOE. Charles I., at Marston Moor 364 Charles II 364 Returns From Hoi land 365 Charleston Attacked 506 Chart, A Geological 3S Charta, The Magna 341 Chants of Lindiis 125 Chasidium Sect 80 Chaucer, Geoffrey 347, 376 Cheops, The Pyramid of 46 Chicago Fire, The 564 Chickamauga, Battle of 54 1 Chilperic IV., King of the Franks 262 Chili, The Republic of 474 War with Peru 476 Chinese Empire 434 Its Territorial Extent 434 China Proper .434 The Shanghai Region 437 The Valley of the Hwang- Ho. 437 Interior China 437 Products ot China 437 Rivers, Climate, Forests, Flora 439 Minerals, Petroleum, Animals 439 Corea and Its Exclusiveness 440 Manchura and the Modern Tartars 440 Mongolia and the Mongols 441 Thibet and the Grand Llama 441 Chinese, The 442 The China of Fable 442 Trie Dynasties of China 443 Confucius and the Great Wall 443 The Most Civilized Land 443 Kublai-Khan and Marco Polo 443 International Commercial Intercourse. ..444 Population and Government. 445 Revenue and Taxation 446 Peculiarities — Occupation 447 Architecture and Art 449 Education and Office -Hoi ding 450 Hanlin University . .450 Religion of China 451 Eve of Great Reforms 452 Chivalry, The Age of 190 Chloroform Discovered 627 Chrisna, of India 174 Christ, Jesus the 173 Rome and 173 Four Biographies of 173 Paul Preaches 1 74 Christian Commission, The 549 Christian IV 232 Christian 1 321 Christian X 32 1 Christiana, Citv of 322 Christian Church, The 175 Churches, The Eight 174 Christians, Persecutions of by Pagans. . . .174 Christianity in Egypt 5S Constantine Embraces 169 Early Days of 174 Paul's Preaching .174 Catacombs of Rome 175 The Apostolic Age 1 76 Papacy and Modern 177 In Britain 334 In Scotland 3S2 Chrysostom 176 CWusan Archipelago 434 Church, The Greek 132 PAGE. Eight Christian 174 Its Primitive Simplicity 174 of the Catacombs 175 Apostolic Age 1 76 of Rome 177 The Russian 217 Churches, Strength of the i$3 Cicero 153, 157, 163 CIncinnatus 140 Cities of Ireland 390 of Japan 427 of China 444 of Italy.. 1S4 Civil Service of the U. S 571 Civil War in Portugal 31S In the United States.. 529 Civilization, The Area of. 38 Classics, The Latin 160 Clay, Henry 523 Claudius. 166 In Britain 333 Clement V., Pope 263 Clemens, Samuel L 647 Clisthenes of Greece 106 Cleopatra and Antony 157 Cliff" House Indians 486 Climate and Resources of Egypt 41 Clinton, General 509 Clinton, DeWitt 612 Cloaca Maxima 13^ Clothing of the Egyptians 54 Clovis, Meroveg 262 Clovis, Merovingian Dynasty 224 Accepts Christianity 261 Cnaeus Pompeius 151 Code Napoleon, The 27S Colbert, M 269 Coleridge, The Poet 3ST Colfax, Schuyler 554 Coligny, Admiral 266 Collins, Wilkie. 381 Colonial Policy, Roman 137 History of the U. S 491 Colonies of F ranee 293 of the Netherlands 256 of Spain 306, 314 of Portugal 317 of Sweden , 323 of England 373 Colorado 596 Colossus of Rhodes, The 125 Colt, Samuel . 625 Columbia, The United States of 47 1 Columbus, Christopher 302 Sails for the New World 303 Death and Disgraced 304 Comets 32, 35 Commerce of Europe 264 of Alexandria 57 of the Phoenicians 67 Commentaries, Blackstone's 370 Commons, House of 34 1 Commonwealth, The English 361, 364 Comnenus, Isaac 202 Compromise, The Period of. 542 The Missouri 522 Conception, The Immaculate 1S2 Confederacy, Rise and Fall of the 555 Confederation, The Swiss , ...32^ Confederate States, The 530 PAGE. Confession of Faith 386 St. Patrick's 38S Confucius, The Age of 443 Congress, First Continental 503 Second Continental 504 Under the Constitution 516 The Confederate 557 Conservative Leaders, English 372 Consini, Leonora 268 Conspiracy of Cataline 152 Constantine the Great 58 Succeeds Constantius 169 Declared Emperor 169 Embraces Christianity 169 Decree of Milan 169 Defeats Lucenius 169 Removes to Constantinople 169 Constantine IX 202 Constantine XIII 202 Constantine II 3S4 Constantinople Founded 169,200 Resists Repeated Sieges 198 Constantius and Galerius inq Constantius, Son of Constantine 170 Constellations of the Zodiac 32 Constitution, Canadian 397 of France 276 of the U.S 5i<;>569 Conti, Prince of France 210 Continental Army 505 Money 517 Consuls of Rome, First. 138 Continents and Population.. 3S Convention, The National 276 Cooper, J. Fennimore 641 Cooper, Peter 625 Copenhagen, City of 32 1 Copernicus 35, 24 -• Copts and Coptic Races 54, 63 Coptic Justice. 54 Copley, John S 637 Copperheads at the North g S Corday, Charlotte 27$ Cordova and Moorish Spain 296 and Its Literature 297 The Fall of.. 298 Corea, Island of. 440 Corfu, Island of. 126 Corinth, City of 1 29 Corinthian Architecture 130 Coriolanus 141 Cornelia 149 Corpus yitri" Civilis 20 1 Corn Laws in England .371 Cornwall, Duke of 226 Cornwallis, General 514 Corsica, Conquered . 145 Cortez and Mexico 462 Costa Rica, States of 47S Cotton Gin, The 523, 624 Cotton Industry, The 6$2 Cow pens, Battle of. 514 Cowper, William 3S0 Council, The Xicene 170 The Vatican 12S of Constance 228 Courts of the U. S., The 579 Cracow, City of. .218 Cracus 21s Cranmer, Thomas 356 5K * INDEX. f . PAGE. Crater, The Tycho 3t Creation, The Theories of. 37 Creed, The Nicene 17^ Crescent, Success of the 207 Cressy, Battle of 3-0 Crete, Island of 126 Crcesus of Lydia 9° Cromwell, Oliver 363 Dissolves Parliament 3' 5 Becomes Lord Protector 365 Cromwell. Richard 365 Crusade, The First 191 , 263 The Second 191 The Third 192 The Fourth 192 The Fifth 192 The Ei^ hth 192 The Latin 202 Cuba, The Island of. 4S0 Curtis, General 533 Curtis, George W 64S Cushites Dynasty, The 5 2 »°5 Customs of the Egyptians 54 Cuvier 39 Cynics, The 116 Cyprus, The Island of. 126 Cyrus the Great. 53, 96 Dagobert 224 Daixmos of Japan 4.32 Dakota Territory 598 Damascus, City of S4 Siege of. 192 and the Saracens 19S Dana, Richard H 641 Dana, James D 644 Danes in History 321 Dante 1S7, 193 Danton 276, 278 Darius Hystaspes S6, 97 Dark Ages, The. . . 1S9 Medieval Chaos 1S9 Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 190 Guizot on Feudalism iqo The Crusaders 190 Charlemagne 193 The Minnesingers 193 Witchcraft, Wesley 194 The Saracen Empire 1S9 Darwin, Charles 3S1 David, Kin;.; of Israel 70 David 1 3S4 David II 3S4 Davis, Jefferson 530, 555, 561 Daza 169 Deborah 70 Debt of Egypt ..60 of the Colonies 502 Decatur, Commodore 521 Declaration of Independence 506 Decline of Egypt 52 Decree of Milan 171 Decretals, Forged Documents 1S0 Defoe, Daniel 179 De Grasse, Count 514 De Kalb, Baron 51a De'Launay, Gov 275 Delaware 59S Delphi, Oracle of. 108 Delta of the Nile 62 Deluge, The .09 P*GE. Demosthenes 113 Denmark 321 Dennison A. L 624 Dentatus 140 D'Estaing, Count 512 Destruction of Jerusalem 7 1 Detroit, Surrender of 5 '9 Developments, Gradations of. 41 Developments, Geological 39 Diana of Ephesus 126 Dickens, Charles 3S1 Diderot 271 Diocletian 169 Directory of France, The 277 Fall of the 2S0 Discovery of the New World 303 Disraeli, Benjamin 373 as a Novelist 3 s 1 Dollinger 234 Domhrowka, Princess 21S Domesday, Book of England - 338 Dominion of Canada 394 Domitian 167 Donation, a Forged Document. ... - 1S0 Donelson, Capture of Fort 533 Douglas, Stephen A 527, 600 Dowiah, Surajah 404 Drake, Sir Francis 359 Drake, Joseph R 640 Draper, Dr.J.W 644 Dresden, Battle of. 2S5 Dryden, John 378 Druzbacka, Elizabeth .222 Dublin, The City of 390 The University of 391 Dufferin, Lord 397 Duncan and Macbeth 384 Durer, Albrecht. 259 Dustan 336 Dutch Republic, The 25S Commerce 258 in History, The 257 The Medieval 25S Acknowledged by Phillip II 30S Art 259 Dwellings of the Egyptians, The 54 Dynasty, First Egyptian 46 The Cushite 52, 65 of Fatimn, The 59 The Ptolcmic 55 The Ommiad 19S The Bazilian 202 The Palieologi 202 The Merovingian 224, 262 The Hohenstaufels 236 of Hungary, Arpad 250 The Hapsburg 250 Dynasties of China, The 443 Eads.John B 62S Earth Without Man, The 37 Its Surface in Square Miles 37 The Planet , .2$, 26 Earth's Strata, The 38 East India Company, Dutch 403 The English 404 Ecologues of Virgil, The 161 Ecuador, Republic of 471 Ecumenical Council of Constance 22S Edda, The Elder 324 Edict of Nantes 26S PAGE. Edinburgh, Founded - 334 Edmund 1 336 Edmunds, George F 566 Education in Turkey 209 in Germany 241 247 in Austria 253 in Belgium 256 in the Netherlands 257 in France 293 in Denmark 321 in China 450 Edward the Elder 336 Edward the Confessor 336 Edward I. of England 343 Annexes Wales 344 Scotland, a Dependency 345 Rebellion of the Scotts 345 Edward II 346 Defeated and Captured 346 Edward III 346 Lavs Claim to France 346 Defeats the French 346 Edward IV 352 Victory at Tewksbury 352 Defeated by Warwick 353 Edward V., murdered by Richard III 354 Edward the Black Prince 346 Edward V r I 35S Abolishes Mass 358 Lady Jane Grey His Successor 25S Edwardian Age of England, The 347 Edwards, Jonathan 639 Edwin of Northumbria 334, 3S3 Egbert, King of Wesscx 335 Egypt, The most Ancient 44 The Geography of. 44 Its Climate and Resources 44 The Rosetta Stone 45 First Egyptian Dynasty 46 Cheops, Pyramid and Sphinx 46 The Shepherd Kings 47 The Dawn of Thebes 47 The Memphian Kingdom 47 At Its Best 4 3 From Memphis to Thebes 4S Karnak and its Toinhs. 4S Cataracts of the Nile 4S Reform in the Calendar 48 Amanothph and the Exodus 49 A Glimpse of Greece 50 Rameses the Great. 50 Home Development and Conquest 51 Gold and its Influence. ■Si Decline of. ^2 Shishank and Bubastis The Cushite Period Commerce and Discovery Assyrian and Persian Wars Cambyses Work of Destruction and Greece University at Heliopolis 53 Coptic Justice 54 Clothing and Dwellings 54 Domestic Life in 54 Political Divisions in 54 Survey by an Eminent Writer. . . 54 and Glory of Alexandria 55 Alexander and Alexandria 55 Papyrus Making 55 The First of the Ptolemies 56 ^kz INDEX. t£. PAGE. Egypt, Alexandrian Commerce 56 Its Public Buildings S 6 The Museum, The Library 56 The Ptolemies and Science 57 Alexandrian Philosophy 57 Material Decline of Alexandria 57 Alexandrian Christianity 5§ Theological Warfare 5S Zenobia in Egypt - 5^ The Saracen Invasion 58 Present 59 Turkish Subjugation 59 The Present Dynasty 59 Debt and Political Consequences 60 Railroads and the Suez Canal 60 Cairo and Alexandria 61 The Nile's Natural Recources 62 Slave Trade and Education 62 The Present Population 6j The Fellahs, Copts and Turks 63 Elder Edda, The 3*4 Elgin Marbles 1 19 Eliot, John 63S Eliot, George 3S1 Elizabeth, Queen of England 35S Declines the Suit of Philip II 35S Defeats the Spanish Amada 35S Mary, Queen of Scots 359 Favorites of the Queen 359 Raleigh— Drake 359 English Literature 360 Elizabethan Age of Literature 360 Emancipation, The Proclamation of 538 Emanuel, Victor 186 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 645 Emigrants of France 276 Emigration of the Irish 390 Empire, The Roman 155 The Saracen 1S9, 195 The Byzantine 200 The Ottoman 205 The British 332 Emmet, Robert 393 Emperors from Augustus to Alaric 165 Encyclopedia of France 271 England, Old 33 3 Early Britons 333 Cxsar in Britain 333 The Druids 333 Roman Conquest 333 Advent of the Anglo-Saxon 334 Christian Evangelization 334 Irish and Roman Church 335 The Synod of Whitley 335 The Danish Incursion 335 From Alfred to Edward 335* 337 The Norman Invasion 337 Harold and William 337 Domesday Book and Realty 338 Henry I.. Long Reign 338 and thePIantagenets, Old 339 Thomas a Becket 339 Strongbow and Irish Subjugation 339 Henry II., Sorrows 340 Richard Crjeur de Leon. 340 John and the Magna Charta 341 Henry HI- and Parliament 34' Edward and the B irons 341 Roger Bacon, Scientist 34 2 Architecture and Free Masonry 34a England, Retrospect of Old 34 3 and the Plantagenets, Modern 343 Edwardl.and his Ambition 343 Llewellen, Welsh Policy 34-4 Arthurian Legends 345 Wallace, Bruce, Subjection of Scotland ..345 Edward and Scotch Independence 345 Edward II.— Edward III 346 France and the Black Prince 346 Chaucer— Wycliffe 347 Richard If., and Wat. Tyler 34^ Houses of Lancaster and York 349 Period of the Roses 349 Henry IV. and Wycliffe 350 Henry V. in France 351 Henry VI.— One Hundred Years' War. .351 Jack Cade's Insurrection 351 The War of the Roses 352 Edward IV 35* Warwick, the King Maker 352 Edward V.— Richard III 354 Bosworth Field 351 The House of theTudors 355 Henry VII. and his Times 355 Henry VIIL, his Character and Times.. 356 Edward VI. and Jane Grey . 35S Bloody Mary 35 1 Accession of Elizabeth 35S Philip of Spain 358 Mary, Queen of Scots 358 The Elizabethan Age 35S Under the Tudors. 360 Ireland under the Tudors 360 The Stuarts and Commonwealth 361 The Gunpowder Plot 361 Sir Walter Raleigh 361 Tob acco and Potatoes 1^2 King James Version 362 Virginia and New England 362 Charles I. and Royalty ..362 Cromwell, The Long Parliament 363 The Commonwealth 364 Charles II., James II 364 William and Mary- Anne 365 Close of Stuart Dynasty 366 At the Present Time 367 The Georges— William IV 36S Victoria and Prince Albert 368 Colonian Intervention t 371 Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 371 The Corn Laws 37' Political Parties and Leaders 372 Royalty, its Palaces and Revenues 373 Parliament, The Ministry 373 The United Kingdom and British Empire. 373 Colonial Possessions 373 England, The Literature of 375 Chaucer and his Times 37 6 Shakespeare and his Contemporaries ...376 Milton and his Contemporaries 37S Literature of the Restoration 378 Addison and the Spectator 379 Byron and his Peers 3S0 The Great Novelists 381 Contemporary Men of Letters 3S1 Latest Type of Literature in 3S1 English, William H 569 Ephesus, The City of 126 Temple of Diana 126 Epicurean and Stoic Philosophy 1 16 PAGE. Epictetus ... 161,163 Erfurt, The University of 230 Ergamenes 65 Eric of Denmark 321 Ericsson, John 533. 627 Erin, as Known to the Celts 3S7 Erostratus 126 Escurial, Palaces of the 30S Espartero, Regent 312 Esquimaux of Labrador 399 Essenes sect 74 Ethelbert, Earl of Kent 334 Ether, Discovery of 637 Ethiopia Subjugated by Egypt 51 Secession of 5 2 and the Phoenicians 64 and Egypt 65 Elective Monarchy 65 The Arts and Sciences of 65 Present Ethiopia or Abyssinia 65 Etrusci and the Etruscans 134 Romans Capture 141 Etruscan Art 140 Euripides no E11 taw Springs, The Battle of. 514 Evilmerodach 83 Executive Department, The 572 Exodus from Egypt, The 49 Exposition, The Centennial 565 Ezra the Scribe 7° Fabian Policy* The ...146 Fabius, Consul of Rome 146 Fable, The Golden Age of .40 Poland and Its 218 The China of. 442 Factory Svstem, The 624 Fairbanks, Thaddeus 626 American Scales 626 Fair Oaks, Battle of. 535 Karragut, Admiral 549 Farmer, From Shepherd to 42 F;i tima, The Dynasty of 59 Federalists of the U. S., The 517 Fellahs of Egypt, The 62 Fenelon 269 Fenian Brotherhood, The 393 Ferdinand of Germany 232 Ferdinand IV 250 Ferdinand and Isabella 300 Capture of Malaga 299 Ferdinand VII., of Spain 310 Fergus, The Celt 3S2 Ferrend, Extract From 220 Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 189 Defined by Guizot 190 in Poland «8 in the Netherlands 25S in Scotland 3*4 Fichte 246 Fifteenth Amendment 553 Fiji Islands, The 4§4 Fillmore, Millard 526, 5S4 Finances of the Confederacy 560 Fire Arms, The Manufactory of. 625 Fisher, Capture of Fort 559 Fisheries, Canadian 595 of the United States 629 Flanders, The Count of. 258 Flavii, a Roman Family 167 Flemish and Dutch Art 269 Tie- t INDEX. Xlll. Flodden Heights, Battle of. 3S5 Florence, The City of 1S6 Florida 49 s . 59 s Florida Purchased 3 ' ' Fontiine, La -27° Foote, Commodore S3 2 Forrest, General 545, 554 Forum at Rome, The 160 Fourteenth Amendment 553 France, Old ....201 Ancient Gaul 261 Clovis and the Franks 261 The Merovingian Line 262 Charles Martel and Saracens 262 Carlovingian and Capetian Dynasties — 26a The House of Valois 263 Abelard and Heloise 263 St. Louis, Molay, Serfs 203 Battle of Agincourt and Joan of Arc 26+ The Renaissance and Rabelais 264 The Vaudois and John Calvin 265 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's 265 Protestantism Organized in 266 Triumph and Decay of Monarchy 267 Henry of Navarre 267 Recantation and Toleration 268 Louis XIII., Richelieu 26S Louis XV 26S Intellectual Progress 26S Persecution and Oppression 269 Literati of that Period 269 Louis XV. aid John Law 270 Finance and Colonization 270 American Revolution 271 Great Revolutionary Writers 271 Colonies in America 271 Colony in India 270 The Revolution in. 272 States General — National Assembly 272 The Bastile —The Emigrants . . 275 Flight of the Royal Party 276 Legislative Assembly 270 Change of the Calendar 276 The Jacobins * 270 The Girondists and Paine 276 The Reign of Terror 277 The Directory 277 Napoleon and the Revolution 277 Notable Characters 27S The Code Napoleon 27S NapoleoD and His Campaigns 2S1 Latter Day 3S9 A Recall of the Bourbons 280 Louis Phillipe, King 2S0 Louis Napoleon 290 The Siege of Paris 291 Centralization in 292 Importance of Paris 292 Land and Rents 293 Religion and Education 293 Colonial Possessions 293 Contemporary French Literature. . 393 The Rise of the Republic 292 Jules Grevy, President .... 292 The Cities of 292 Franks Invade Gaul. 26 1 Franklin, Benj 507, 623, 639 Franklin, Battle of 546 Fredericksburg, Battle of . 537 Free Masonry in England 342 PAGE. Free Trade in England 371 Fremont, John C 52S, 532 French of Canada, The 395 Settlements in the Miss. Valley 409 French Revolution, The .272 France Declares War Against Germany 239 Francis, Joseph I., of Austria 251 Franks Allies of Rome, The 1S4 Under Charlemagne 1S4 Invade Gaul 261 Frederick I., called Barbarossa 225 and the Lombards 226 and the Crusades 226 Frederick II., and the Crusades 192, 220 Wears the Crown of Jerusalem 226 Drives Pope Gregory IX. From Rome.. 226 Establishes Court at Palermo. 22'i Frederick I., King of Prussia 235 Frederick William L, King of Prussia. ...235 Frederick William IV., King of Prussia.... 338 Frederick William, Crown Prince 240 Frederick II., Called Frederick the Great. . .236 War with Austria 236 The Seven Years' War 236 Division of Poland 236 Sympathy Tor America 237 Frederick III. of Austria 250 Fuller, Margaret 642 Fuller, Thomas 378 Fulton, Robert 623 Fushimi, Battle of 432 Gaelic Language, The 3S8 Gaines Farm, Battle of. 536 Galba, a Roman Imperator 166 Galerius, a Roman Imperator 16S Galileo 35 Galveston, Capture of 53S Gama, Vasco da . ...317 Gambetta 29 1 Games, The Four Greek 107 Garibaldi, of Italy ... is , Garfield, James A 532, 569, 5S5 Gates, General 512 Gaul, Conquered by Rome 261 Invaded by Germans 261 Invaded by Franks 261 Gauls Invude Rome, The 142 Genghis Khan, a Tartar Chief. 212 Genoa and Pisa, The Cities of. 1^4 Gfojrrap/iia, bv Ptolemy, of Alexandria 12S Geography of Egypt, The 44 Geological Periods 37 Chart 38 Developments 39 George I., Elector and King 367 South Sea Bubble 367 George II 368 George III 368 The Revolutionary War $'$ George IV }6S George, Prince of Denmark 131 Georgia 49S, 599 Georgics of Virgil, The 161 German Thought and Intelligence 242 Music and Literature 243 Universities and Libraries 247 Philosophy 245 Order in the North 227 Germans, The Medieval 223 Germany, Medieval 223 PAGE Germany, The Ancient Teutons 223 Introduction of Christianity 224 The Merovingian Kings 224 Charles the Hammer 225 Reign of the Stewards . 225 Charlemagne, Ludwig 225 Barbarossa, Otto 225 Inquisition and Frederick II 22f> Decline of the Empire ..226 The Hanseatic League 227 Conversion of Prussia 227 and the Reformation 22S John Huss at Prague 22S Byzantine Empire Falls ... 229 Invention of Printing and Paper 230 Martin Luther, Diet of Worms 2^1 Translation of the Bible 231 The Augsburg Confession ...2^2 The Thirty Years' War 232 Adolphus and Wallenstein 233 The Peace of Westphalia.. 233 The Lutheran Church 234 New 235 Military Beginning of New 235 Rise of Prussia, Frederick William 235 Frederick and Maria Theresa 236 ■ The Division of Poland 236 The French Revolution and 237 Napoleon in Germany - >7 Jena Blucher and Waterloo . . 237 The Uprising in 1S4S 23S William I. and Bismarck 23S Schleswig and Holstein 238 The Seven Weeks' War 239 The Hohenzollerns 239 The Franco-Prussian War 239 The Seven Months' War 2jo Paris, its Resistance and Capitulation . . 240 Alsace-Lorraine - 240 Present States and Reconstruction 241 Compulsory Education and Army 241 Area and Population 241 Intellectual 242 Development of German Thought z\2 An Intellectual Quadrangle 2\2 Attainment- in Music .242, 244 Philosophers of 245 Universities and Libraries of 247 Scholarship of. 24S Gettysburg, Battle of 53S Gibraltar .The Straits of 53, 309, 369 Gideon and His Band ..70 Gilbert of Ravenna, Pope 18b Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 49- Girondists of France 276 Gladstone, William E .372 Gloucester, The Earl of 351 I Gluck 245 j God Ammon, The 56 Thoth.The 49 1 Godfrey of Bouillon 191, 263 Gods of Mythology 120 Godwin, Earl of Wessex 337 Goethe 243 Golden Age of Fable 40 of Poetry 101 Golden Horde of Tartars 212 Goldsmith, Oliver 3S0 Goodyear, Charles 627 Gorilla, The 39 XIV. INDEX. Gothic Alphabet, The 223 Spain 294 Goths of Germany, The 22S Gondar, City of 66 Government of the United States 57 1 of Italy 1S6 of Turkey 20S Gracchus, Tiberius 149 Gracchus, Caius '49 Gradations of Development 41 Granada and the Alhambra 29S Grand Vizier, The ■zoS Grand Llama 44 1 Grant, U. S... 532. 534 539, 54°, 553. 554, 564, 5*5 Gratian, Emperor 17 1 Gravelotte, Battle of 240 Gray, Asa. 644 Gray, Thomas 3$o Great Britain, Territory of 33 2 Greece and Hero Worship 9° Its Pre-eminence 9° Grecian Peculiarity 9° Age of Fable and Poetry yo Its Political Divisions 91 Grote and Schliemann 9 1 H>*-oic Age and Hercules 91 Theseus and the Amazons 92 The Trojan Heroes. 9 2 Homers and the Heroic Age 9 2 The Siege of Troy 93 The Wanderings of Ulysses g\ Historic Wars 95 The Spartans and Messenians 05 The Four Great Wars of 9° Asia Minor and CrcL-sus 96 The Pet si. ins and Ionians 96 Persian Invasion 97 The Glories of Marathon 97 Thermopylae and Its Defense. 98 The Battle of Salamis... ....98 Themistocles and Greece's Ingratitude. ..99 The Peloponnesian War. 99 The Genius of Pericles oq Philip nt" Macedon 100 Alexander thj Great too Roman Conquest 102 Modern Greek Heroism 102 State Craft in 103 Lycurgus and His Laws 103 The Spartan Monarchy 10^ The Laws of Draco 105 Solon and Athens 105 The Constitution and Its Features 105 Solon and Lycurgus 106 Clisthenes and Democracy 106 Pericles the Statesman 106 The Four Leagues and Games 107 The Delphi Oracle 10S Classic Literature of 109 Homer in Literature 109 Hesiod, ./Esop, and other Poets no Sappho, Pindar, and the Lyrists no The Dramatists and Attica no Comedy and Aristophanes in Herodotus Xenophon and Plato m Aristotle and Philosophy 1 1 2 Demosthenes and Oratory 113 Philosophy and Art 114 Socrates and His Philosophy 115 Epicureans, Stoics and Cynics 116 PAGE. Greece, Painting and Sculpture 117 Orders of Grecian Architecture 11S The Elgin Marbles 119 and Rome, Mythology of. 120 Jupiter and Celestial Heredity .120 The Amours of the Gods 121 Olympus 122 Phaeton and His Presumption 124 Pegasus and Poetry 123 Centaurs and Other Monsters 123 The Riddle of the Sphinx 124 Orpheus and Eurydice 144 and the Greek Church 129 Corinth, Ancient and Modern 129 Byzantine and Moslem Rule 130 The Venetians and the Parthenon 130 The Greek Revolution 13 1 Intervention of the Great Powers 131 The Monarchy Established 131 Present Government of. . . 13 1 Condition of the Country 132 Greek Church and 132 Greek Church Elsewhere 133 Its Characteristics 13 2 Outer Greece 125 Greek Church, The 171 Poets and Philosophers 90 Greeley, Horace ...... . 564,644 Green, General 514 Greenland Discovered 324 Gregorian Calendar, The 35 Gregory XIII., Pope 35 Gregory The Great 179 Gregory II., Pope 1S0 Gregory VII., (Hildebrand) 1S0 War of the Investitures 1S0 Gregory 1X. ( Pope 226 Grevy, Jules 292 Grey, Lady Jane 35$ Guatemala . 478 Guiana, French, English and Dutch 470 Guinea, a Tract of Country in Africa 457 Guilford Court House, The Battle of 514 Guise, House of 266 Gunpowder, First Used 22S Gunpowder Plot of Guy Fawkes 361 Gustavus, Wasa 322 Gustavus, Adolphus. ... 323 Gutenberg, John 230 Hadrian, Emperor 16S Haeckel, Ernest *47 Hague, The City of the 256 Hale, John P.... 5 2 7 Halicarnassus, City of 125 I lalifax, Canada, The City of 39$ Hallam and the Dark Ages . . . 193 Halle School of Philosophy 247 Halleck, Gen. H. W 55° Halleck, Fitz Greene 641 Hamilcar '45 Hamilton, Sir William 3 s6 Hamilton, Alexander 517, 51S, 636, 640 Hamlet, Prince of Denmark 322 Hampden, John 3°3 Hampton, Wade 5 6 3 Hancock, General W. S 535,55°. 5°9 Hancock, John 5°° Handel 245 Hannibal M5» J 46 Hanno '45 PAGE. Hanseatic League 327 Hapsburg, The Dynasty of 25° in the Netherlands »5S Hardee, General 5^3 Harper's Ferrv, Brown at 529 Harrison, William H 521;, 5S4 Harte, Bret 649 Hastings, Battle of. 337 Haydn, Joseph 245 Hayti, The Island of 4S1 Havana, The City of 4S0 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 648 Hawthorne, Julian 64S Hawaiian Islands, The 484 Hayes, Rutherford B 565, 585 HeadleyJ. T 64S Headley, P. C 643 Heb-rt 277 Hebrew Nation, The 68 Bible, The 73 Literature an d Sects 73 Hegel 246 Heine, Heinrich... , 244 Heison II 126 Heidelberg, The University of. 24S Helen, Wife of Menelaus 93 Heliopolis, The City of 29 University of 53 Helenic University, The 57 Helveti and Switzerland 325 Hendricks, Thomas A 566 Henry III. of Germany 1S0 Henry II. of France 266 Henry III. of France 267 Henry IV. 49 Miltiades Defeats Darius 97 Milton, John, and His Writings 37S Minerals in the U. S '633 Ministry, The English 373 Minnesota 605 Minor Asia and Africa 45? Minute Men of the Revolution 504 Mirabeau 37 2 Missions, Modern 1S3 Missouri 60S Mitchell, S. A 35 Mississippi 605 Mississippi Valley, French Settlements in.. 499 Mithridates of Parthia S7 Mithridates Defeated by Sulla 151 Mockern, The Battle 237 Modern Egypt 59 Persia 89 Ethiopia 65 Greece 102 Greece and the Greek Church 129 Christianity, The Papacy and 177 Missions ^83 Mogul Empire, The 40S Mohammed, The Prophet 195 Names Kadijah 195 Begins Preaching 196 Seeks Safety in Flight 196 Builds a Mosque at Medina 196 War Upon the Christians 196 Captures Mecca 196 Death 106 The Koran of 197 Mohammed II., at Stamboul 207 Mohammedan Era Dates From 106 Mohammedanism, The Strength of. 197 Moliere, a French Writer 270 Molay, Jacques 263 Moltke, Von, a General 239 Monaco, Republic of 330 Mongolia and the Monguls 44 1 Monitor and Merrimack 533 ■^* ~sK XV111. INDEX. PAGE. Monmouth, Battle of ■. 5 12 Monroe, James 5 22 Monroe Doctrine, The 5 ' 7» 5^3 Montana Territory 609 Montenegro, The Principality of 331 Montpensier.The Duke of 3 12 Mont eal, The City of --39S Mons-Sacer, The Hill of 134 Moon, The Earth's 25 Neptune*s 25 Moons of Saturn, The 25 of Jupiter, The 25 of Uranus, The 25 Moors in Spain, The 295 Persecutions of the 301 Moore, Sir Thomas 357, 376 Moreau, Marshal 337 Morgan, General 539 Morgarten, Battle of 32S Moriscoes of Spain 301,30s Moroe, or Ethiopia 65 Morocco 457 Morris, George P ....64.1 Morris, Robert 5'3, 5'7 Morse, S. F. B 626 Moscow, The City of 213, 285 Moses, The Lawgiver 49, 69 Moslem, The Believer in 197 Mosque of St. Sophia 201 Moswijah 10S Motley, John L 644 Mound- Builders of America 4S6 Mount Cenis Tunnel — 327 Mowing Machine, The 627 Mozart 245 Muhlenberg and the Lutherans 234 Multiple Stars, The 32 Munda, Battle of 156 Murad V., of Turkey 20S Murfreesboro, Battle of 53$ Museum at Alexandria 5b Myloe, Naval Battle of 145 Mystics, The Sect of the 1S1 M y thology, Greek and Roman 1 20 of the Scandinavians 324. Nabonassor, King of Babylon 83 Nabopolassar, King of Babylon 83 Nantes, The Edict of a6S Napata, Temple of 5 2 Napier, Sir Robert 66 Napoleon Bonaparte and his Campaign 2S1 Appointed First Consul 277 Italian and Egyptian Campaign .77, 2S2 Elected Emperor 277 The Code Napoleon 27S At Austerlitz 237, 2S2 At Marengo 237,282, 277 At Jena 237, 2S5 Dissolves the Assembly 2S0 At Dresden 2S6 Victory for the Allies 2S6 Imprisoned at Elba 2S6 The 100 Days Campaign 286 Battle of Waterloo 2S6 Death at Helena 2S6 Napoleon III.— President 290 and the Coup d'etat 290 and the Crimean War 290 The Siege of Paris 291 Declares War with Germany 239,291 PAGE. Napoleon III.— Surrender at Sedan 240,291 Naseby, The Battle of .364 Nashville, The Battle of 546 Nassr-ed-Din 89 Natal, The Colony of 458 National Guard of France 272 Assembly of France 275 Convention of France 27^ Nature and Man 38 Naval Battles of the Civil War 549 Navy Founded by Henry V., The British. . ..351 Navy of the American Revolution, The 515 of the War of 1S12 519 Navy, the Secretary of the 57° Nebo, Temple of S3 Nebuchadnezzar S2 Nebula;, or Star Clusters V- Nebraska 609 NechoII 53 Nemean Games of Greece 107 Neoplatonism of Alexandria 57 Nepos, Cornelius 103 N eptune, The Planet 25, 26 Neriglossar. 83 Nero — The Emperor 166 Nerva, Roman Senator 167 Netherlands, Belgium and the 255 Typography and Resources ?57 The Dutch in History 257 Dutch Commerce 258 The Dutch Republic 2 5 s Nevada 6l ° New England, Early Colonial History of... 403 Landing of the Pilgrims 493 Plymouth Colony 494 Colony of Massachusetts Bay 494 Harvard College Founded 494 Settlements in Connecticut 495 The Charter Oak 495 Persecution of Roger Williams 495 KingPhil'p's War 495 The Illustrious Names of Early 4°6 The Salem Witchcraft 49° New Hampshire 610 New Jersey 610 New Mexico Territory 6'i New Netherlands Discovered 496 New Orleans, The Battle of 5'9 The Capture of 534 New-Stars 3* New South Wales, The Colony of 413 Area, Population, Government 413 The Mineral Productions of 414 Newspapers in U. S 636 Newton, Sir Isaac 35> 3°S New York, Early Colonial 49^ Henry Hudson Discovers 496 Trading Post Established by the Dutch. .496 The " Patroon 1 ' System Introduced 496 The Dutch Governors of 497 History 611 New Zealand, The Colony of 423 Nibelungenlied, Medieval German Poetry.. .242 Nicsea, The City of 202 Nicaragua 478 Nicene Creed, The 176 Nicene Council, The 179 Nicholas I., Czar of Russia 214 Nicomedia, The City of 202 Nightingale, Florence 214 PAGE Nihilism in Russia , 215 Nimrod, of Assyria 81 Nineveh, The City of. Si Ninus, King of Assyria Si Niphon, The Island of 427 Nitocris, Queen of Assyria 83 Normans, The 262 Normandy and Brittany 262 And the Norwegians 322 North Carolina 613 North, Lord 370 Norway, Consolidated with Denmark 321 An Independent Kingdom 322 And her Merchant Marine 322 and its Literature 322 Its Revenue and Resources 322 Nosks of the Zend Avesta 87 Novgorod, The Republic of 210 Nubian Kingdom, The 49, 64 Mines 45, 52 Valley, The 64 Numa Pompilius — King of Rome 136 Nuinidian Jugurtha 150 Obelisks of Egypt, The 49 O'Connell, Daniel 3S9 O'Conor, Charles 565 Octavius, Afterward Augustus Cajsar 157 Odyssey, Homer's 92 Ohio 613 Oimemepthah, King ot Egypt 50 Oimemepthah II 51 Olga, Regent of Russia 211 Olenburg, The Danish House of 321 Olympic Games of Greece, The 107 Omar, The Caliphat of 58 Omnibus Bill, The 526 Ommiad Dynasty, The 198 Opinion of Astronomers 25 Oporto ana its Wine 319 Oracle, The Del phic 108 Orange-Nassau Family, The 25S Orange River, The Teritory of 45S Orbit, Position in the 30 The Moon and Her 36 Orcban, The Sublime Port 206 Ordinance, The Northwest 522 Oregon 613 Origen of Alexandria. 176 Orleans, The Siege of Raised 264 The Duke of 270 Osci, Early Races of Italy, The 134 Osinta, King of Egypt 51 Othman Founds the Ottoman Empire 20S Olho of Bavaria 131 Otho, Imperator of Rome 166 Otho, the Great King of Germany 225 Restores Peace in Italy 184 Otis, James 507 Ottawa, Canada .- 39S Ottocar 249 Ottoman Empire, The 206 Ourique, The Battle of 315 Ovid, Roman Poet 162 Oxford, University of 342 Packenham, General 520 Padisha, or Sublime Porte 206 Paine, Thomas 276, 277,640 Painters, Celebrated Italian 187 Palaces of Egypt, The 54 of England, Royal 373 ^7^ INDEX. PAGE. Palicologi Dynasty, The 202 Palatinates, Poland Divided into 218 Palfrey, John G 642 Palermo, The City of. 1 So Palestine in the Time of Christ 172 Palmyra, Zenobia Queen of 5S The City of S4 Panama, Isthmus nnd State of 470 Pan- Slavonic Nation, A 221 Papacy and Modern Christianity 177 Its Slow Growth 17S Papal Infallibility, The Dogma 1S2 Paper, First Made 230 Papyrus, When First Used 55 Paraguay Republic, The 468 Paris, Siege of 240, 291 The importance of. 292 Paris of Troy and Helen of Sparta 92 Parker, Theodore 643 Parkman, Francis 644 Parliament Established in England 341 and Cromwell, The Long 364 Under Cromwell, The Rump 365 of Present England 373 Abolished, The Irish 3S9 The Canadian 397 The Australian 423 Parnassus, Mount 1 oS Parnell and the Irish 3S9 Parsees of Persia, The SS Parthenon of Athens, The 117 Parthia and the Zend Avesta S6 and Rome, Darius S6 Pascal 270 Pasha of Turkey, The 20S Patagonia and the Patagnnians 468 Patents and Patentees 622 Paul Preaches Christ 174 Paul, Cz-ir of Russia 213 Paulus, Consul of Rome 146 Pavia, The City of 1S6 Pea Ridge, The Rattle of 533 Pedro, Dom, Emperor 31S Pelasgi, The 134 Peloponnesian War, The 09 Pemberton, General 541 Penal Colonies of Austral. isia 411 Pendleton, George H 545 Penn, William 497 Pennsylvania 497, 615 People, A Peculiar 6S Pepin of Germany 225 Pepin, The Short 225, 262 Periander m Pericles and Aspasia 106 Period, The Cushite 52 of the Judges 69 of Com promise 522 of Conflict, The 5 29 Periods, The Geological 37 Perrault 270 Perry, Commodore M. C 43 1 Perry, Commodore O. H 510 Persia, Parthia and the Zend Avesta S6 its Early History and Wars S6 Physical Aspects and Conditions S6 Darius, Parthia and Rome S7 Zoroaster and the Magi S7 The Parsees and the Zend Avesta SS Summary of the Persian Bible S9 Persia, Comparative Antiquity S9 Present $9 Persian Invasion of Egypt ■ • ■ 55 Isolation 86 Literature S6 War with Greece 97 Persius, a Rorr_a.n Poet 162 Persecution of the Jews 72 of Christians 174 Persepolis, The City of. S7 Peru, Republic of 172 Francisco, Pizarro Invades 473 Mines and Guano Beds of 474 Peter The Great, Czar of Russia 212 Peter at Rome, Saint 17S Peter The Hermit 190, 203 Petersburg, Capture of 546 Petition of Rights, The y'-$ Phxdrus, Fables of 102 Pharaohs of Egypt, The 19 Pharisees, a Jewish Sect 74 Pharsalia,The Battle of. 152 Pharos, Lighthouse on the 5(1 Phidias the Sculptor 117 Philce, The City of '2 Philip of Macedonia 100, 102 Philip II. of Spain 258,306 Marries Bloody Mary 306 and Queen Elizabeth 307 Philip The Handsome 263 Philip VI., First Valois King 264 Philip III., King of Spain 30S Philip IV., King of Spain 309 Philippi, The Battle of 137 Philo and the Essenes 57» 74» l '7 Philosophy, Alexandrian School of 57 and Art, Greek 114 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians 64 The Cities of 66 Tyre and Sidon 66 Commerce and Enterprise. 17 The Colonies of 67 The Arts and Industries 67 Disappearance of the Phoenicians 67 Pickens, General 513 Picts of Scotland, The 3S2 of England, The 333 Pierce, Franklin 527, 5S4 Pillow, Massacre of Fort 542 Pindar no Pisa, The City of 1S5 Pittsburg Landing, Battle of 534 Pius Antonius .49 Pius IX., Pope (86 Dogma of Immaculate Conception 1S6 Dogma of Infallibility 1S6 Planets, The 25, 20, 36 Plates, Explanation of the Astronomical.... 36 Plato 112, 115 Plattsburg, Battle of. 519 Plautus 161 Pleiades, The 32 Plhehmen, Meiothph 51 Pliny 74, 164 Plow, The 624 Plutarch 103 Pocahontas and Capt Smith 492 Poe, EdgaT Allen 040 Poictiers, The Battle of 225 Poland and the Poles 217 PAGE. Poles, Their First Appearance 217 The Casimirs Feudalism 21S A Monarchical Republic 219 John Sobieski 219 Anarchy and Intervention 220 Stanislas and Neighboring Powe s.... 220 St. Petersburg and Warsaw 220 Fall of the Republic 220 Kosciusko 220 Polish Characteristics 221 Russian Policy, Pan Slavonic Dream.. . .221 Literature, Paul Soboleski 221 Polish Jews, Religious Persecutions 2.2 Polani or Poles, The 217 Pole Star, The 32 Poles, Poland and the . .■ 17 Policy, Roman Colonial 137 Polish Characteristics 221 Literature 22 1 Jews 222 Political System of Canada 397 Polk, James K 525, 5S4 Poll Tax Rebellion of England .347 Polybius, a Greek . . [44, 146 Polyc.irp, a Christian Martyr 176 Pompey the Graat 71, 152 Pompadour, Madam 270 Pompilius, Numa 136 Pontius Pilate 71 Pope, General 530, 550 Pope, Alexander 379 Popes of Rome, The 17S Population of Ireland, Increase of. 3S9 of the Japanese Empire 427 Porsena of Clusium 137 Porte, The Sublime 206 Porter, Commodore 549 Porter, Fitzjohn 537 Port Hudson, Capture of 541 Porto Rico, The Island of 4S0 Port Said, The Town of 61 Portugal, The First Appearance of 29S and the Portuguese 315 Alfonso of Leon and Castile 315 Maratime Supremacy 316 Zarga, daGama 317 and Colonial Possessions 317 Don Sebastian and Sebastianism 31S and Brazil 31S Civil War and England 319 Exportation of Wine 319 Portuguese Literature 319 Absorbed by Spain 31S Revolt Against Spain 318 Possessions of the Netherlands 250 Postmaster General, The 57S Potter, Paul 259 Powers, Hiram 637 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI 236 Prague, The University of ; . . 22S Great Riot at 232 Praxitiles, The Attic 117 Prebble, Commodore 521 Pre-historic Man. 40 Prescott, W. H 644 President, The Duties of the 572 Presidents and Presidential Elections 572 Presidential Electors 570 Prevost, Sir George 520 Priesthood, The Roman 177 \ ^ — - INDEX. PAGE. Primitive Savage, The 4 ! Agrarianism 136 Christianity 173, 177 Fathers, The 17' 1 Princeton, The Battle of 510 Printing Invented 22b Press, The 625 Proctor, Richard A 35 Products and Roads of Ireland 3S7 Protectorate of England Established 365 Protestant Reformation, The iS 1 War, The 22S Church in France 266 Protestants, The Early 1S1 The Persecutions of the 1S1 Protestantism in Germany 22S in France 266 and Wycliffe 35° Prussia, The Rise of 235 The House of Hohenzollerns 235 Declares War Against France 237 Defe ,ted at Anerstadt and Jena 237 Victories at Katzbach and Mockern 237 Blucher Defeated at Leipzig 2.17 Blucher at Waterloo 237 William I., King of Prussia 23S The Seven Weeks' War 239 Schleswig-Holstein War 23S North German Confederation 239 War With France 239 Battles Around and Surrender of Met?. . . 230 Sedan and Capture of Napoleon III 239 Siege and Capture of Paris 239 1 1 raw French Indemnity Required 240 A Part of the German Empire 241 Psammeticus I ■ • 53» °5 Ptolemaeus, Claudius 12S Ptoli maic System, The 128 Ptolemic Dynasty, The .55 Ptolemies, The First of the 56 and Science, The 57 Ptolemy, Epiphanes 45 Ptolemy, Philopater 45 Ptolemy of Alexandria 128 Public Domain of the United States. . 570 Pulaski, Count 512 Punic War, The First 144 The Second 1 45 The Third 146 Pyramid and Sphinx, Cheops 46 Pyramids of Egypt 45 Pyrrho, The Father of Skeptics i"3 Pyrrhus of Epirus 143 Pythia of Delphi 10S Pythian Games of Greece 107 Pythias 22S Quarles, Francis, English Poet 37S Quebec, The City of. 397 Captured by Wolfe 501 Montgomery before 5°5 Queens and, The Colony of 425 Area 425 Quiritary Land of Rome 139 Rabellais, Francois 265 Racine 270 Railroad, The Pacific 5^4 Railroad Strikes of 1S77 566 Railroad Industry U. S 633 Railroads of Canada, The 307 of British India 40S PAGE. Railroads of the Japanese Empire 433 Raleigh, Sir Walter, an English Statesman . . 359 Introduces Tobacco into England 362 Arrested by King James 301 Introduces the Potato into England 362 and Early Colonial History 491 Rameses I., of Egypt 50 Rameses The Great 50 Rape of the Sabines 136 Rassam's Discoveries in Assyria S3 Ravenna, Italy 171 Reconstruction Art, The 553 Reconstruction of the German Empire zt, 1 Reference Tables, See Tables of Reference.. Reformation, The Protestant 1S1 Under the Hussites, The 22S Regillus, Battle of Lake 137 Regnard, The Painter ..270 Regulus and the Punic War 145 Rei. hstag and Bundesrath, of Germany 241 Reid, The Philosopher 3S6 Reign of Terror in France 277 Religion in France 293 In Scandinavia 321, 325 in China 45' Religions of History, The Ten 175 Religions Toleration in Austria 253 Toleration in Belgium 256 Toleration in the Netherlands 257 Toleration in Spain 313 Rembrandt, Painter 250 Remus and Romulus 13 R( nftissance in France, The 264 in Japan 432 R< public, The Dutch 25S The Fall of the Dutch 250 The Bavarian 259 The French 276, 292 of Spain, The 312 The Swiss 325 of Andorra 329 of San Marino 330 The Roman -138 of Novgorod, The 210 of Poland 219 Republican Party Under Burr and Jefferson. 517 or Anti Slavery Party 527 Reservations of the U. S. Indian 489 Resources of Egypt, The 44 Restoration of the Jews, The 7'. 74 Revolution in Paris 240, 272 in Portugal Against Spain 31S Reynolds, General J. F =541 Rhacotis, Village of 55 Rhine, The Confederation of the 237 Rhode Island 616 Rhodes, The City and Colossus of. 12c; The Island of 193 Rhodolph, Count of Hapsburg 249 Emperor of Germany zi,Q Richard Cceur de Leon 3jo Richard II., of England 34S Richard III , of Englan 35+ Richelieu, Cardinal 232, 26S Richter 244 Riot, The Canadian 39S in New York, The Draft 542 Robert of Normandy iSq Robespierre and the French Revolution 276 Rochambeau, Count 514 PAGE. Roman Mythology, Greek and 121 Republic, The Last Century 14S See, The 1 79 Romanofs, The House of the 213 Rome, Ancient Italy and Primitive 133 The Peninsula of Italy 134 The Races and Cities 134 Latium and Alba Longa Compared 134 .Eneas and the Famous Twins ... '35 The Founding of 135 The Rape of the Sabines 136 The Reign of Numa Pompilius 136 The Tarquins, Lucius and Tullia 136 Primitive Agrarianism ..136 Roman Colonial Policy 137 The Public Highways •■'37 Tarquin the Proud 137 The Last of the Legendary Kings 137 Semi-Historic 13S Republicanism and First Consuls of 13S The Rivalry of Classes 138 Establishment of Tribunate 139 Agrarianism and the Plebs 139 Cincinnatus and Dentatus 140 Virginius and Virginia 140 Coriolanus and His Pride 141 Greek and Roman Ideals Compared 141 Invasion of the Gauls 141 The Gauls and Latins 142 and Carthage 143 Pyrrhus and His Elephants 143 Carthage and Its Place in History 144 The First Punic War .144 Hamilcar and Hannibal 145 The Second Punic War 145 Hannibal Crosses the Alps 146 The Battle of Cannae 146 The Fabian Policy 146 Scipio and the War in Africa 146 The Further Conquests of 147 Third Punic War, Fail of Carthage 147 Last Century of the Roman Republic. . . . 14S The March of Conquest 14S Area of the Republic I48 The Censor and Younger C ato 149 The Gracchi 149 Sulla and Marius 150 The Unification of Italy 150 Burning of 151 Sulla Dictator 151 Pompey the Great 152 Judea and Spain Taken 152 Cicero and the Conspiracy of Cataline. . 152 Julius Cassar, His First Consulate 1 53 Cxsar and the Empire 155 Ca;sar and the Calendar 155 Testimony of Froude ■ 56 The Age of Skepticism 156 The Assassination of Caesar 156 The Triumvirate 157 Cleopatra of Egypt 157 Augustus and His Policy.. 157 The Empire and the Senate 1 5S Popularity of the Emperor Augustus,. ..159 The Augustan Age 159 Latin Classics 160 The Emperors from Augustus to Alaric, 165 Tiberius Caesar and Caligula 165 Rome in the Days of Nero 166 The Siege of Jerusalem 166 ■f 6- \ INDEX. PAGE. Rome, From Vespasian to Trajan. ..■ 167 Hadrian to Marcus Aurelius 168 The Forum 168 The Age of the Antonines 16S Ulpian the Lawyer 168 Diocletian and Constantine 169 Julian the Apostate 170 Weakness and Dissension 171 Theodosius, the Permanent Division ot Empire 171 The Greek, and Roman Churches 171 The Last Days of Imperial 171 and Christ 173 and Primitive Christianity 173 The Papacy and Modern Christianity 177 The Early Popes 178 Popes Leo and Gregory 179 Papal Corruption and the Reformation.. 1S0 Protestantism in Italy 181 The Mystics and Inquisition i Si The Jesuits and Jesuitism iS( Philip SchafI on the Church of Rome.. . 182 Present Pope and the Vatican 183 Spiritual Divisions of Christendom 183 Modern Missions 1S3 Present Italy 1S4 Romerer, King of Egypt ^ 51 Romulus, The Founder of Rome 134 Rosecrans, General 541, 550 Roses, The War of the 352 Rosetta Stone, The 45 Rotterdam, The City of 256 Roumania 331 Rousseau, Jean Jaques 271 Rubens J $9 Rubber, Vulcanized 627 Rudaki, Persian Poet S9 Rurik, Grand Prince and Founder of Russia, 210 Russia, The Dawn of 210 Novgorod, The Great Republic 210 Grand Princes, From Rurik to Igoe 211 Olga's Revenge and Piety 211 Vladimir and Christianity 211 Genghis Khan and the Golden Horde.. .212 Ivan, Peter and Catherine 21a Moscow and Napoleon 313 Alexander I. and the Holy Alliance 214 Nicholas and the Crimean War 214 Alexander II. and the Serfs --215 Nihilism, Siberia 215; Present Condition of... 216 Greek Church in 216 Russian Calendar, The 3$ Saarbrucken, Rattle of 240 Sabbakon of Ethiopia 65 Sabelli Race, The 134 Sabines, Rape of the 136 Sadducees 74 Sadowa, Battle of. 230 Safes, American 626 Sahara, The Desert of. 457 Saida, City of 67 Sais, The Town of 50,53 St Albans, The Battle of 352 St. Augustine, in England 334 St. Bernard, Abbott of 191 St. Bartholomew, Massacre of 265 St. Clair, General 516 St. Columba, an Irish Saint •■$$$ St. Helena, The Island of. 460 PAGE. St. Johns, N. F., The City of. 39S St. John, The Knights of 193 St, Patrick and Ireland's Conversion 3S7 Confession of Faith 3SS St. Pelersburgh, City of 214, 220 St. Sophia, The Mosque of 201 Salad in Captures Jerusalem 192 Salamis, Naval Battle of. 99 Sallust 163 Salic Law of Spain, The 312 Samnite Race, The 142 Samson, the Israelite i. 70 Sandys, George 63S San Domingo. 4S1 Sandwich Islands, The 4S4 Sanitary Commission, The 549 San Marino, The Republic of. 330 Sanskrit of India, The 40S San Salvador 478 Santa Anna, President of Mexico 463 Sanskrit Language 87 Sappho no Saracen Empire, The - . 195 Mohammed 195 Mecca and Medina 196 The Strength of Islam 197 The Great Empires 197 Mohammed Morals, The Koran 197 The Caliphate and the Ommiad Dynasty. 19S Division and Fall of the Empire 19S The Saracens and Modern Civilization. . 199 Saracenic Glory and its Eclipse 199 Saratoga, Ba ttle of .512 Sardanapalus, King of Assyria S2 Sardinia Captured by the Romans 145 The Kingdom of iS6 Sardis, Capital of Lydia 97 Satsuma Rebellion in Japan, The 4^2 Saturn, The Planet 35, 36 Saul, King of Israel 70 Savage, The Primitive. .. 41 Savage Station, The Battle of 530 Savonarola, an Early And papist iSr Savoy, The House of 1S0 Saxe-Coburg, the Kingdom of 255 Saxe, John G 647 Scales, American 626 Scandinavia and the Scandinavians 320 Iceland and its Literature 320 The Danes in Historv 321 Norway and the Norwegians 322 Sweden and the Swedes 323 Mythology of 324 Greenland and the Norsemenin America.324 Schaffon the Roman Church 1S2 SchefTer 2^0 Schelling 246 Schiller, Von 240 Schleswig and Holstein Question 329, 321 Schliemann's Explorations at Troy 90 Science in England, Society for Promotion of.368 Scio, The Massacre of 131 Scipio in Spain 146 Captures Carthage 147 Scotland and the Scotch 3S2 Scotia and Nova Scotia 382 The Picts— The Anglo Saxon 3S2 Conversion to Christianity 3S2 Fergus the Scotch -Irish man 3S2 Edwin and Edinburgh 3S3 PAGE. Scotland, Constantine II. and England 3S4 Duncan and Macbeth 3S4 James I. — Feudalism 384 Bruce and Independence 3S4 Robert and the House of Stuart 384 David II., James V 3S4 Henry VIII. and the Scotch Crown. 385 Mary, Queen of Scots 385 James VI. Becomes James I. of England. 3S5 John Knox and Presbyterianism 3S6 Union with England 3S6 Scotch Literature and Writers 3S0 Scott, Sir Walter 386 Scott, General Winfield 519, 525, 531 Sculptors, Noted Italian 187 Scythia of The Ancients, The 1S7 Sebastian, Dora '. 318 Secession, Southern 530 Ordinance Repealed 553 Sects, Hebrew Literature and 73 Sedan, Battle of 240 Sedgwick, General John 545 Seleucidre, The Victory of *.. .. .S5 Seiim, Sultan of Turkey 85 Semiramis, Queen of Assyria Si Semmes Raphael 558 Sennacherib Sa Senate of the United States, The 572 Seneca 163 Senegambia, The Country of 457 Sepharvaim, The City of 84 Sepoy Mutiny of India, The 407 Septuagint, Hebrew Bible 73 Sepulcher, The Holy. . 192 Serfs, Liberation of Russian 215 of France Liberated 263 Serrano, President 31a Servetus Burned by Calvin.. 265 Servia, The Kingdom ot 330 Servilius, Consul of Rome 139 Servius, Tarquin ... 137 Servius, Flavius 169 Sevastopol Bombarded by the Allies 214 Sevechus of Ethiopia 65 Seven Years' War, The z$$ Severus, Alexander 16S Seward, William H 527 Sewer, The Cloaca Maxima 136 Sewing Machine 626 Sextus and Lucretia 137 Seymour, Horatio 55»4 Shakespeare, William 376 Sheba, The Queen of. 65 Shepherd, From Hunter to ... 41 to Farmer, From 42 Kings of Egypt . 47, 49 Sheik-uMslam 20S Shems-ed-Dim Mohammed S9 Sheridan, General Philip H 542, 553 Sherman, General W. T ..542,545, 550 Shillaber, B. P .647 Shishank and Bubastis 52 Siam, 1 he Kingdom of 453 Siberia, or Russia in Asia ..217 The Rivers and Mountains of 217 Area and Population 217 Sicily and the First Punic War 144 Sickles, General D. E 541 Sidney, Sir Philip 376 Sidon, The Cities of Tyre and 66 i 0) '- iK* ± XX11. INDEX. f PAGE. Sierra. Leone 457 Sigismund I., King- of Poland 219 Sig-ismund IE., the Last of thejagelloe 219 Sigismund, King- of Sweden 3^3 Signs of the Zodiac 3' Silesia, The Providence of 235 Silk Culture in the United States 632 Si] iman, Benjamin 644 Sintuism Worship 4»33 Siphara, The City of. 84 Slavs, The Polish 222 Slavonic Republic, The Dream of a . . .221 Slowacki, Julius 222 Smith, Adam 379 Smith, General Kirby 54 rt Smith, Captain John 49a Smugglers of Rhode Island and the Gospee.503 Sobieski, John, A Polish Ruler aiQ Defeats Ibrahim, The Devil 219 Defeats the Turks Under Mustapha 219 Sobieski, James, of Poland 219 Sobieski, Paul 221 Socrates .115 Solar System, The 26 Solomon, King 7° Solon and his Laws 105 Sol ymon The Magnificent 192, 207 Sons of Liberty, Organized 503 Soudan, Africa. 457 Smith America, The Countries of 467 South Carolina 616 South Mountain, The Battle of 537 Southey, Robert. 381 South Sua Company, The 367 Spain, Celtic, Gothic and Moorish 291 Iberia and the First Age of Spain 294 The Gothic Period 294 Theological Animosity. 294 Invasion of the Moors 295 The Moorish Kingdom Established.... 295 Averroes and Religious Reaction 297 Fall of Cordova and Rise of Granada. .298 The Alhainbra 29S The Fall of Malaga 299 The Conquest of Granada 209 Ferdinand and Isabella 300 and Portugal.. . 300 The Moors and Moriscoes 301 Persecution of the Jews 301 The Inquisition and Auto-da-fe 301 Christopher Columbus and his Career.. .302 Indian and African Slavery 304 The last Days of Ferdinand and Isabella. 304 Catholic, Chapter LI 305 Philip and Juana 305 The Escurial 307 Portuguese and Spanish Crowns 30S Decline and Loss of Territory 306 Napoleon and Spain 310 The Rulers from Charles V. to Isabella II.3 11 A Republic 313 Alfonzo and the Present Government., .31 j Art and Literature of 313 Sparks, Jared 642 Sparta, The Kingdom of... 95, 9S, 104 Spartans, The 95. T °4 Spencer, Herbert 3S1 Spenser, Edmund 37 n Sphinx, The Great Pyramid and 46 Sponge to Man, From the.. 39 PAGE. Spots on the Sun, View of 31 Spottsylvania, Battle of 545 Spurius Cassius 139 Stamboul, or Constantinople 204 Stamp Act, The 5°- Stanislas of Poland 220 Stanton, Edwin M 576 Star of Bethlehem, The 32 Stark, Col. John 512 Stars, The 25, 32 State, The Secretary of 573 State Sovereignty, The Doctrine of 556 States of the German Empire 241 of the United States 592 of Colombia, The United States 47 1 Steamboat, The 623 Stephen of Vendome 192 Stephen, King of England 33S Stephen I. of Hnngarv 250 Stephens, Alexander H 530, 555, 561 Sterne, Lawrence 3S0 Steuben, Baron 512 Stevens, Thaddens 553 Stewards, or Major Domi 225 Stewart, Commodore 5'9 Stilicho 171 Stockholm, The City of , 323 Stone and Bronze Age, l"he 42 The Rosetta 45 Stoneinan, General 535 Story, W. \V 637 Story, Judge .... .643 Stowe, Harriet B 64S Strasburg, The Siege of 240 Stratherne, Ancient 3S3 Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke 340 Stuart, General J. E. B 536 Stuart, Gilbert C 637 Stuart, Prof. Moses 643 Stuarts of Germany, The 225 of England, The 361 Subjugation of the Jews 70 Suetonius 164 Suez Canal and Town 60 Suffrage in the United States 579 Suffolk, The Duke of 351 Sulla, Cornelius 150 Sullivan, General 509 Sumner, Charles 527 Sumner, General E. V 536 Sun, The Children of the 25 The Paternity of the 25 Spots on the 31 Supreme Court, The 579 Sumter, Fort, Bombardment of 530 Swedes in America, The: 497 Swedenborg, Emanuel.. 323 Sweden, First Founded .322 and Protestantism 323 Gustavus Adolphus 323 The Literature of 324 Scandinavian Mythology 324 Swedenborg and the Church of the New Jerusalem 323 Swift, Jonathan 379 Swing, David 649 Switzerland and Lesser Europe 321; The Helveti and Medieval Switzerland. .325 The Story of William Tell 326 The Mountains of 326 PAGE. Switzerland, The Mt. Cenis Tunne. 327 and the Reformation 32S The Swiss as Soldiers ... 3^ Swiss Literature and Universities 329 Sydney, The City of i-l Sylvester 179 Syracuse, The City of 1 26 Syria, Antiochus, Epiphanes of 71 in its First Period Sr Under the Selucida: 84 Modern, and Syriac 85 Tables of Reference, Astronomical 30 of Ancient History and Literature, From B. C. 1500 to A. D 200 651-662 of American and European History and Literature A. D. 200 to A . D. 18S2 . . .663-6S4 The Principal Countries of the World. ..685 The Commerce of the World 6S5 The Legislatures of the World 686 Congressional Apportionment, Based on Census of 1SS0 6S6 The Industries of All Nations 6S7 Monev of All Nations, Compared With Population 6S7 Armaments of All Nations, or the Art of War 6SS The Capital or Wealth of AH Nations . .6SS The Earnings or Income of AH Nations, 688 The Increase of Railroads iince 1S70.. . .6SS The Food Supply of All Nations ^> The Food of All Nations 6S9 Agricultural and Pastoral Industries of the World 690 Increase of Population since 1S70 600 Consumption of Cotton, Wool, Flax, Etc 690 Manufacturers of All Nations. 690 Gold and Silver Production of All Na- tions 691 The Gold Coinage of the World 691 The Mint Coinage of the United States, 691 Increase of Commerce and Balance of Trade 692 Gold and Silver Coins of the U. S 092 Coin Minted and Production of Precious Metals 692 Production of Iron and Steel Works in U. S 692 U. S. Financial History ^93 U. S. Political History 694 U.S. Mi.itary History ^•r f ^ U. S. Naval History 700 Paper Money and Fractional Currency in U. S 701 Pension Statistics of the U. S . . 701 The Presidents and Their Cabinets, 702, 703 Right of Suffrage in States 704 New Testament Canon 704 The Chinese Empire 704 Foreign Exchange 710 Pay Roll of the Leading Civil officers U. S 710 Pay Roll U. S. Army, Navy and Marine Corps 710 Distances and Standards of Time 705 History of the Several States and Terri- tories 706 Population of the Several States 707 Population of the Leading Cities of the U. S 70S INDEX. PAOE. Tables, Population of the Cities of the World. 70S Religious and Educational Statistics of U. S 709 The Metric and Standard System of Measure ....711 Tacitus.. 164 Talmage.T. DeWitt 619 Talmud, The 74 Tamerlane 206 Tarakus of Ethiopia 65 Tarlton, General. ...... , 514 Tarquin, Lucius, King of Rome 136 Tarquin The Proud 137 Tarquin Servius 137 Tarquinius Collatinus 13S Tartar Invasion of Russia, The 212 Tasmania, 414 Tasso 1S7 Taylor, Bayard .645 Taylor, Jeremy 37S Taylor, Gen. Richard 546, 563 Taylor, Zachery 526, 5S4 Telegraph, The ...626 Tell, William, and Swiss History 326 Temples of Egypt, The 52, 5* Ten Tribes of Israel... 70 Tennessee 616 Tennyson, Alfred 3S1 Terence 161 Territory and Tribes, The Indian 489 Territorial Governments, The 579 Terror, The Reign of 277 Terry, General 559 Tertullion of Carthage 176 Tenure of Office Bill 553 Tetzel 231 Tewnk, Khedive of Egypt 59 Tewkesbury, Battle of 352 Texas, Republic of 525 Annexed to the United States 525, 617 Thackerav 3S1 Thales ol Miletus ...114 Thebes in Egypt 4S in Greece 91 Themistocles 99, 106 Theodora, Queen 201 Theories of Creation 37 Theodore II., of Abvssinia 65 Theodosius of Constantinople 171 Theseus the Pride of Athens *. 92 Theresa, Maria 336 Thermopyl.T', The Glory of 98 Th ses of Martin Luther 231 Thibet and the Grand Llama. . 441 Thiers, M., President of France 292 Thirteenth Amendment 553 Thirty Years' War 232 Thomas, Gen. Geo. H 539, 546, 550 Thoth, the Egyptian God 49 Thothmosis, King 49 Thothmosis IV 50 Thucydides 112 Thurman, Allen G 566 Tiber, The River 134 Tiberius Caesar 165 Ticinus, Battle of 146 Ti^l.tthpileser $4 Tilden, Samuel J 5^5 Tirhakus 65 Titus 71 , 166 PAGE. Tokio, Japan , 427 Toronto, The City of 39S The University of 39S Torquemada. 302 Tory Party Leaders of England m 372 Tower of Babel, The 69 Trafalgar, The Battle of 2S2, 31s Traja ■"7 Traslmenus, Battle of Lake 146 Trebia, The Battle of...... 146 Trent Affair, The 532 Trenton, The B ittleof 510 Treasury, The Secretary of the 574 Treaty of Berlin, The 253 Tribunatus Established in Rome 139 Tribes, The Ten 70 Tribes of the Atlantic Coast, The Indian 48S Tribune, The N. V 565 Trinity College, Dublin 393 Tripoli, a Country in Africa 457 Tripolis, The City of 66 Trojan War, The 92, 95 Trollope, Anthony 38 1 Trowbridge, J. T .64S Troy Captured by the Greeks 93 Troyes, The Treaty of 35 1 Trumbull, John 637 Tudors, The House of the 355 Tullia, Wife of Lucius 136 Tullius, Hostilius 136 Tullius, Servius 136 Tunis, Africa 457 Turkestan and Ancient Scythia 455 Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire ao6 Adrianople and Tamerlane 206 The Fall of Constantinople 207 Solyman the Magnificent 207 The Decline of the Empire 207 Religion and Intelligence in 20S Present Condition of 20S Area, Population, Government 208 Education, Railroads, Debt 209 Tycho, The Crater 31 Tycoon of Japan Established 432 Tyler, John 525, 5S4 Tyler, Wat, and the Poll Tax 34S Tyndall 3S1 Tyre and Sidon, The Cities of 66 Ulemaand the Koran 20S Ulfila 224 Ulpian 16S Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden 323 Ulysses of Ithaca 92 The Wanderings of . 94 Umbri, A Race of Ancient Italy.... 134 Unhistoric Man 43 Union of Sweden and Norway 323 United Kingdom, The 373 United States of Colombia, The 47 1 United States, Early Colonial History of the.4Qi England and English America 491 The Dutch and New Netherlands 496 The Spanish and French Settlements 49S Colonial Growth and Outgrowth 500 Board of Trade and Plantations 500 Intercolonial Wars ....500 French, Spanish and English Posses- sions 501 Capture of Quebec. 501 Colonial Delfts and Money 502 United States, The Stamp Act 503 Smuggling and the Gaspee 503 The Boston Tea Party 503 First Continental Congress 503 Minute Men and Paul Revere 504 Battles of Lexington and Concord 504 Continental Army Organized 505 The Battle of Bunker Hill 505 Evacuation of Boston 506 Charleston and Moultrie 506 Declaration of Independence .-S ' 1 Eminent Men ot the Period 506 Independence and Union 509 The Hessians and Indians 509 The Two British General Howes 509 The Battle of Long Island 509 The Defeat of Burgovne 510, 512 La Fayette and French Reinforcements. .53 1 The Battle of the Brandy wine 511 Battle of Gerrrantown and Evacuation of Philadelphia 511 The Battle of Bennington 511 Valley Forge and the Hour of Gloom....5ia Articles of Confederation Submitted 512 France Recognizes American Indepen- dence 512 The Battle at Monmouth 512 The Campaigns in the Scuth 513 The Treason of Arnold 513 The Surrender of Cornwallis 514 The Navy of the Revolution 515 The Adoption of the Constitution 515 The Young Republic 516 Election of Washington as President... 516 Hamilton and the U. S. Bank 51S The Period of Compromise 522 The Period of Conflict 529 The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy.. ^55 The Present 564 The Government ot the 571 The Presidents of the 5S0 The States of the 592 Inventions and Inventors of the 622 The Industries of the 629 American Literature 63S Universe, The Conception of the 23 University of Alexandria, The Hellenic 57 of Islam, Cairo 63 of Prague 22S at Leipzig- 22S Erfurt 230 Wittenburg 230 of Berlin 235, 247 of Jena 247 of Halle 247 of Heidleberg 24S of Copenhagen 321 of Toronto 39S of Hanlin, China 450 Universities of Germany, The 242 of Belgium, The 256 of the Netherlands.. 257 of Switzerland 329 of Ireland 391 Upsala, Sweden, The Library of 224 Uranus, The Planet 25, 26 Urban II., Pope 263 Uruguay, The Republic of 46S Utah Territory 617 Valentinian 171 -K. XXIV. INDEX. PAGE* Valentinian II.... 171 Valerius Corvu 1 1- Valerius, a Roman General 137 Van Buren, Martin $25, 5^3 Van Dieman's Land 411 Van Dorn, General 533 Van Dyck 259 Van Eyck, Hubert 259 Van Evck, Jan 259 Valencia, The Treaty of ...311 Valois Branchofthc Capetian Dynasty 263 Vatican Council, The rS2 at Rome, The 1S3 Vaudois, The, a Religious Sect 265 Massacre of the 265 Venezuela, The Republic of 470 Venice, The City of 1S4 Venus, The Planet 25, 26 Verdun, The Treaty of 262 Vermont 61S Versailles, Louis XVI Retires to 275 Vespasian 106 In Britain 333 Vestal Virgin 135 Vice President, The Duties of the 572 Vicksburg Captured. 541 Victoria, Queen of England 419 Marriage with Prince Albert 36S Victoria, The Colony of. 479 Vienna, The City of . . - 237, 249 Napoleon at 237 Vionville, The Battle of. 240 Virgil, a Poet of Rome 162 Virgin Islands, The 479 Virginia, First Settlement in 492 Captainjohn Smith and Pocahontas 492 Slavery Introduced into 492 First Indian War 49a The Colonial Governors of 4^3 Bacon's Rebellion in 493 History of 619 Virginia, The Death of 140 Virginius, a Roman Tribune 140 Volcanoes 24 Volcanic Eruptions 24 Voltaire 271 Von Humboldt 23 Vladimir of Novgorod 211 Embraces Christianity 211 Wagner 246 Wakefield, The Battle of 352 Waldo, of Lyons, Peter 1S1 Waldenes, The 1S1 Wales Absorbed by England 344 Wales, Llewellyn, Prince of J44 Wales, The First English Prince of 344 Wall of China, The Great 143 Wallace, William 345, 3S4 Wallenstein and the Reformation 33 Walpole, Sir Horace. ... 367 Walter, The Penniless 191 Walton, Izaak 37S War for Grecian Independence [30 The First Punic . , 144 The Second Punic 1 1 5 The Third Punic 147 of the Investitures i So The Crimean .. .214 The Hussite 22S The Thirty Years' 232 PAGE War, The Seven Years' 235 The Seven Weeks' 239 The Dutch . . 258 The Peninsula 311 of the Roses, The 352 The Mexican 463 of America, The Colonial 503 The Revolutionary 509 with England, The Second .5iS War, The Secretary of 576 Wares, Henry and William 643 Warren at Bunker Hill, General 505, 5o3 "Warren, Seth 512 Warsaw, The City of 220 Wartburg, The Castle of 231 Warwick, The Earl of 352 Washington Territory 620 Washington Selected as the Capital 510 Burnt by the British 521 Washington, George, and Virginia Militia, 501 Present at Braddock's Defeat 501 Takes Command at Boston 505 and the War of the Revolution 509 Inaugurated as President 517, 5S0 Watch -making in America 624 Waterloo, The Plain and Town of 260 The Battle 2S6 Watts, Isaac 470 Way, The Flarainian 145 The Appian 145 Wayne, General Anthony 516 Wea pons, Bronze and Stone .43 Webster, Daniel 523 Webster, Noah 045 Weimer, The Court of 243 Weisenberg, The Battle of 240 Wellington, Lord 311, 2S0 Welsh Chiefs at Caerna rvon 344 Wenda, Queen 21S Wesley, John and Charles.-. 3C39 West, Benjamin 637 West Indies, The 479 Westminster Abbey 337, 342 West Virginia 620 Westphalia, The Peace of 233, 323 Wieland 243 Wheeler, William A 566 Whig Parties of England 372 Party of the United States. 590 Whipple, E. P 646 Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania gir> Whitby, The Synod of 335 Whitfield, George, and Methodism. 369 White Plains, The Battle of. 509 Whitman, Walt 64S Whitney, Eli .624, 523 Whittier, John G 645 Wilberforce, William 370 Wilderness, Battle of the 545 Wilkes, Captain Charles S3 2 W illiam, Duke of Normandy ,263 Invades England 263 Claims English Crown 317 Defeats Harold at Hastings 337 Crowned at Westminster Abbey 337 The Domes- Day Book 33S William and Mary. . . 365 Victory of the Bovne 365 Act of Settlement Passed 365 William IV., of England 368 PAGE. William I., First King of the Netherlands . . .257 William II., of the Netherlands 257 William III., of the Netherlands 257 William of Nassau 2«;S William L, King of Prussia 23S Crowned Emperor of Germany 239 Receives the Surrender of Napoleon.. ..240 Williamsburg, The Battle of 535 Willis, N. P 641 Wilson, Alexander 640 Wilson, Henry 565 Wilson's Creek, Battle of. 532 Winchell, Alexander 644 Winchester, The Battle of 542 Wirt, William .5S9 Wirz, Henry 542 Wisconsin 620 Witchcraft of the Dark Ages 193 and King James' Version 104 Innocent VIII., Bull Against 194 Richard Baxter and John Wesley on. . . . 194 Salem, Massachusetts 194 Wittenberg, The University of. 230 Wolfe Captures Quebec . . 501 Wolsey, Cardinal 356 Wood, Jethro 624 Wood worth, Samuel 640 Wool Industry 633 Woolman, John 639 Worcester, J. E 643 Wordsworth, William 3S1 World of the Ancients, The 125 Outer Greece 125 Rhodes and its Colossus 125 Halicamassus and its Mausoleum 125 Diana of Ephesus 126 Syracuse and Archimedes 126 The Ionian Islands 126 Crete and Cyprus 126 Sc.mdia, Sarmatia, Dacia, and Thrace . . . 127 Scythia and India, Arya 127 Ptolemy and His Geography 128 The Ptolemic System 12S The Great Periods of the 24 Worms, The Diet of. 231 Worship, Greek Hero 90 Worth, The Battle of 240 Wycliffe, John 347 Wyoming Territory - 621 Massacre of 512 Xenophon 112 Xerxes the Great. ... 53 , 9S Ximenes, Cardinal of Spain 302, 306 Yaroslaf, Prince of Russia 211 Yesso, an Island of Japan 427 Yokohama, a Seaport Citv of Japan 427 York, Richard Duke of. 352 York, Edward Duke of 352 Crowned Edward IV 352 Yorktown, Cornwallis' Surrender at 514 Ypsilantis, Alexander, and Demetrius 102 Zahringen of Switzerland 325 Zama, The Battle of 147 Zend Avesta, Persia, Parthia and the S6 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra 5S Zerubbabel, The Jews Under 70 Ziska,John 229 Zoroaster and the Zend Avesta S7 Zulu land and the Zulus 45S Z wingle and the Reformation 32S s\\ #nniiic:^iiagiis^ N ^*-^^X;S^^«'«=H->^ V PAGE. The Principal Countries of the World. A Tabulated History. 687 The Commerce of the World by Countries 687 The Legislatures of the World 716 Congressional Apportionments of the United States 716 The Industries of all Nations 6SS The Money of all Nations Compared with Population and Trade.. 6SS The Armaments of Nations 689 The Capital and Wealth of Nations 6S0 The Earnings or Income of Nations 689 The Increase of Railroads. Total Cost and Traffic 690 The Food Supply of all Nations 690 The Food of all Nations too The Agricultural and Pastoral Industries of Nations 691 The Increase of Population 69 1 The Cousumption of Cotton, Wool, Flax, Jute, Etc 691 The Manufactures of all Nations 691 Available Water Power of Nations for Industries 692 The Number of Operatives employed by Nations 692 The World's Production of Coal, Iron and Steel 692 The Occupations of the World 602 The Mining of the World 692 The World's Production of Metallic Lead 692 The Steel Manufacture of the World 092 The Production and Consumption of Iron 693 The Production and Consumption of Beer 693 The Public Libraries of all Countries 693 The Universities of the World 693 Comparative Retail Prices of the Necessaries of Life 693 The Linen Manufacture of the World '"t Comparative Rates of Wages in Europe and the United States. . . oof Remarkable Iron Bridges of the World 64 The Cost of Living. Expenditure among Nations 694 The Cattle of all Nations 694 Percentage of Population to Age in all Nations 694 Sixteen Full Page Colored Diagrams .. 695-710 Elementary Education of all Nations 711 Expenditures for Public Schools in the United States 711 Ratio to Population of the Sexes 7 1 1 The Letters Employed in Languages 711 The Drink of all Nations 7' 2 The Growth of Newspapers of the World .. 712 The Principal Languages of the World 7 ' 2 Hogs, Number and Slaughtered of all Nations 712 The Religions of the Principal Nations 712 The Savings Banks of all Nations 712 The Leading Agricultural Crops of the World 713 The Land of the Principal Nations 7H The Houses and their Value, of Nations 7 '3 Sheep, Number and Slaughtered of all Nations 713 Production of Precious Metals all Nations 7*3 The Artillery of the World 7>4 The Public Works of Nations 7'4 The Postal Statistics of Nations 714 Vital Statistics of Nations 7'4 The Copper Production of the World 714 The Increase of Commerce and Balance of Trade 715 Gold and Silver Coins of the United States, Etc 7'5 TheCoin Minted since 1S70 7"5 Production of Precious Metals 7 ! 5 PAGE. Production of Iron and Steel Works in the United States 715 The Pyramid, Cathedrals and Arches of all A-es 716 The Great Assembly Rooms in the Old and New World 716 The Longest Rivers of the World 7'7 The Highest Mountains of the World 7 '7 The Largest Lakes of the World 7'7 Foreign Moneys and their English Equivalents 71S Value of Foreign Coins in United States Money JlS The Financial Hi-tory of the United States 71 > The Political History of the United States 720 The Principal Battles of the Revolution 721 The Chief Commanders of the United Slates Army 721 The Principal Battles of the War of 1S12 722 The Principal Battles of the Mexican War 722 The Length and Cost of American Wars 722 The Number of Federal Prisoners received at Andersonville 722 The Indian Wars of the United States 722 The Principal Battles of the Civil War 7 2 3-7 3 4 Total Number of Troops called into Service 724 The Total Cost of the Civil War 7*5 The Total Expenditures in the District of Columbia 725 The Federal Army during the Civil War 725 The Losses of the Government for every Administration 7 2 S The Navy of the Revolution 726 The Naval Battles of the War of 1S12 7 2 6 The Principal Naval Battles of the Civil War 726 The Federal Vessels Captured by Confederate Cruisers 726 The Vessels Captured or Destroyed for Violation of the Blockade 726 Paper Money and Fractional Currency of the United States 727 Pension Statistics of the Uuited States 7 2 7 The Presidents and their Cabinets 7 2S ~7 2 9 The Right of Suffrage in the United States 730 The New Testament Canon 73° The Area and Population of the Chinese Empire 73° No. of Electoral Votes of each State at each Presidential Election 731 Ratio of Representation in the Ho seof Representatives 731 Pay Table of the Leading Civil Officers of the United States 731 Population of the United States at each Census 732 Population of the United States in 1SS0 733 Population of the Principal Cities of the United States ... 734 Population of the Cities of the World 734 Immigration into the United States each year, 1S20— 1SS4 735 Immigration to the United States by Countries during 60 Calender Years 735 Nativities of the Foreign Born Population 735 Chinese Immigration into the United States, 1S55 to 1S84 inclusive 735 Total Native White Population of the United States 735 Total Number of Aliens Coming to the United States prior to 1S20 735 Tabulated History of the Several States and Territories 736 Distances and Standards of Time 737 Distances by Water from New York to various parts of the World 737 Air-line Distances from Washington to various partsof the World 737 Distances from London to various parts of the World 737 Standards of Time in the Principal Cities of the World 737 Rates of Mortality 73^ Table of Expectation of Life 73 s A Perpetual Calendar 73 s Metric and Standard Systems of Weights and Measures 737-739 71 Charts q f flN c i en t Uytebrtuke, ^l s t q e^ «-sS-£ Chart I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII The World before Rome, by Centuries 651 From the Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic 653 From the Roman Republic to Death of Alexander 655 From the Death of Alexander to end of third Punic War.. . 657 From the Destruction of Carthage to the Christian Era 659 From the Christian Era to A. D. 200 661 From A. D. 200 to the Norman Conquest 663 From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century , 665 From Middle of Fourteenth Century to end of Fifteenth Century 667 The Sixteenth Century 669 The Seventeenth Century 671 The Eighteenth Century to the American Revolution 673 From the War of the Revolution to 1S00 675 From A. D. iSooto A. D. 1S2S \ 677 From A. D. 1S25 to A. D. 1S45 679 From A. D. 1845 to end of the Civil War , 6S1 From End of Civil War to 1SS0 6S3 From A. D. 1880 to 1SS5 nS5 ^^^^>S^^7<^ ■ — »-<3e>-° — -TfT National Debts of the World 095 Wealth and Income of all Nations 695 Debts of Each State of the United States 696 Debts of the Principal Cities of the United States 696 State, County and Municipal Debts — 697 The Money of the World 698 Food Supply of the World 699 Population by Occupation "00 Manufactures of the World "01 Population of the United States by States "02 The Public Land— Where Located 703 Productions of Pig Iron in the World "04 Coal Productions of the United States TO6 Cotton Productions of the United States 706 Tobacco Productions of the United States 706 Consumption of Cotton in the World 707 Consumption of Wool and Flax in the World 707 The Religious Creeds of the World 70S Religious Denominations 709 Standard Time 710 V J- , M M W Wi M 1? - . * { $m mi jgsi m j^ ^CIENCE has dispelled the old delusion that all things were created for man, that he is the diamond of creation, all else being mere setting; but it is none the less true, that no conception can be formed of e universe, except in its human lations. It is equally true, that in der to follow the path of human progress intelligently, it is necessary to first glance at the vast field of knowledge, outside the domain of history, antedating all human rec- ords. Such a preliminary survey will serve as a fitting introduction to the specific inquiry in hand, and, indeed, forms an integral part of it. The great Von Humboldt may be said to have finished the demonstration of the fact that "the universe is governed by law," by which it is meant that all things proceed in an orderly and rational manner, as Great Britain or the United States may be said to be governed by law. It is the part of science to discover and disclose those laws, in their manifold relations. It is but yesterday that man began to unravel the mysteries of creation. For thousands of years the eye of genius was dimmed by the mists of absurd conceits and immemorial blunders. Albeit the ancient folly that the universe was made for man has been cast into the limbo of ex- ploded heresies, it is undeniable that the prepara- tions made for man were elaborate beyond all pre- conception. Whether one glance over the celestial field, and pause to ponder upon the wonders of the heavens, or delve deep into the earth to ascertain the marvels of geology and paleontology, one is alike impressed with the magnitude and minuteness of the preparations which rendered this earth habit- able by human beings. From the remotest star in the Milky Way to the tiniest spear of grass, all forms a part, necessary and correlative, in the mighty system of being over which man sways the scepter of superior intelligence. The antiquity of the human race is a problem thus far defiant of solution. Biblical chronology has been somewhat variously interpreted by differ- ent scholars, but science and scripture agree that man was the last and crowning result of creation. Vast eijochs intervened between the beginning and the end of the journey which began in the dim chambers of mere conceptive potency, and ended in humanity. It would be foreign to the object of this volume to discuss the polemics of science. The field of positive and definite information is far more inviting and profitable. It is wiser to calmly glean and garner the wheat of knowledge than to frantically thresh the tares of controversy. It may be, and doubtless is. a grander flight of genius to skim along the azure of philosophic thought than to wearily plod along the road of events; but as a preparation for the intelligent perusal of history, a few general facts of nature are vastly more help- ful than the sublimest disquisitions ujjon the ab- stract and the abstruse. The development of existing cosmos out of pri- mordial chaos, produced continents, oceans and mountains in the place of a vast globe of liquid (23) " Il'i f 24 I'.EFORE HISTORY. fire. The great mass of the earth is still in a fluid and fiery state, covered by a comparatively thin crust of cold and solid substance. In tracing the necessary course of this change from a molten to a solid condition, a scientific writer of our day re- marks: " As the exterior became hard and concrete by cooling, furrows, corrugations and depressions in the external crust of the globe would occur, causing great inequalities in its surface." Volcanic eruptions are simply the escape of the central fire, and liability to such eruptions would be propor- tionate to the thinness of the crust. Once this globe must have been little else than one universal volcano, belching fire and lava at every point. In the earlier stages of creation, volcanic action played the chief part, even after its general subsidence. As volcanoes were the great agencies of the geo- logical dawn, so glaciers came in the cool of the evening. The transition from more than tropical heat, the world over, to universal winter is sup- posed to have been sudden, and no satisfactory hyjrothesis has yet been devised for its explanation. Agassiz says of this era of frost: "A vast mantle of ice and snow covered the plains, the valleys and the seas. All the springs were dried up; the rivers ceased to How. To the movements of a numerous and animated creation succeeded the silence of death." It was in the period immediately follow- ing the general thaw, or springtime of that supreme winter, that the present civilization was begun. Nature having, as it were, frozen out, and gotten rid of her experiments, zoological and botanical, was ready to begin anew with "the remnant." In point of time, then, the great period of the world was before man, as well as before history. THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. ^>Tf CHAPTER I The Paternity op the Sun— Chief Members of the Solar Family— Peculiarities of the Sevehal Planets— The Properties of Matter— Density, Velocity and Diameter of Planets— The Moon— Sun-spots— Precession and Multiple Stars The Common Law of Planets— The Milky Way and Star-Clusters— Comets— Gravitation— Time— Noted Astronomers. 'IIOU hast set the solitary in families, was spoken of man, but it is quite as ap- plicable to worlds. Then' are, it is true, wandering stars which seem defiant of the law of association, as there arc human beings who shoot off on tangents of solitude, forming exceptions to the general rule of society. The rule itself is, however, none the less forcible. In the opinion of some astron- omers, there exists somewhere in the limitless and illimitable vast- ness of space a luminary which is the center and source of life, light and existence. But no eye has caught a glimpse of it, nor is there any likeli- hood of such discovery. The utmost stretch of astronomical intelligence goes to the ascertain- ment of suns which arc. each in its sphere, the head of a planetary system or family. Every fixed star that shines in the firmament is the father of a family of worlds, and the same is true of countless others which lie beyond human ken, however assisted the eye may be by the teles- cope. The chief body, the light and life of our system of worlds, is the Sun. The planets and satellites which belong to this system are absolutely depend- ent upon the father-sun for the necessaries of life, no less than for all the luxuries of planetary exist- ence. They can never reach " majority," but ever remain "infants." Children arc they of a parent whose patriarchal authority must lie respected for- ever. Without the heat of the Sun. every planet would become little else than a vast iceberg. There are many members of this family too small for observation from an earthly stand-point, and many which can be discerned by the telescope can not be explored by it. and are hardly worth mention. The recognized and important children of the Sun are Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Earth, Venus and Mercury, eight in all. Some of these have satellites of their own, or. as they might be designated, children. These grandchildren of the Sun. so far as discovered, are twenty. The Moon is the satellite of Earth. Venus and Mercury have none; Mars two; Saturn has eight moons or satellites, Jupiter four, Uranus four, and Neptune one. From observation by the naked eye, the Moon occupies a prominence out of all proportion to its real importance in the solar household. This planet of ours is somewhat below par in magnitude. It is, however, one of the more favored children of the Sun in point of relative position. Some of the planets are so far removed from the Sun as to suffer perpetual winter, while others endure a con- tinuous furnace heat. It would hardly be of interest to "go a-sailing all among the little stars," but some members of (25) _ s TDK* 26 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. the family deserve special attention, besides the Earth. Mercury, the smallest of the noteworthy planets, is the nearest to the Sun. "I am blinded The Earth. by my own light." says the Ormuzd of the Persian mythology, and Mercury might well say the same. This planet receives seven times as much light and heat as the earth does: making it uninhabitable by any class of beings that exist on our globe, unless the atmospheric conditions be such as to compen- sate for greater nearness to the sun. Venus receives twice as much heat as the earth does, and has a more dense atmosphere than ours. Some astron- omers have thought they saw mountains and numerous islands on her surface; but it is not cer- tain that telescopic ken has yet pierced the serial envelope of either of these two planets. Venus has "phases" like the moon, which Telescopic views of Venus. proves that her bright- ness is but reflected sunlight. The inference of the astronomers is that Venus is a very lovely world. Although destitute of moons, she has the benefit of reflections from Mercury and Earth. Mars is near the Earth, and presents close analo- gies to our planet, espe- cially in atmospheric phenomena and polar cold. It is believed to have a very light air. Continents and seas are distinguishable upon it. A fair idea of its topog- Telescopic View of Mats. raphy may be formed from a study of the map of North America, with this transposition: that the continent of one Telescopic View of Jupiter. stands for the water of the other. Science shows it to be a very old planet. The other planets, Neptune, Saturn. Ura- nus, and Jupiter, are so very far off that their pe- culiarities are less known than those of the other members of the family of the Sun. The rings of Saturn, however, deserve mention. The most plaus- ible theory is that each ring consists of an accumulation of satellites, completely tilling its orbit. These satellites, however, defy anything like definite observa- tion. In this connection, it may be well to give some facts general to the solar sys- tem. The prop- erties of matter are fourteen, viz.: Divisibil- ity, indestructi- Telescopic View of Saturn. bility, impenetrability (or the occupancy of space), variability (i.e., gas, liquid or solid), inertia, motion, force, gravitation, magnetism, electricity, heat, reflection, refraction, polarizing and absorb- ing, cohesion and repulsion. Taking water as a standard of unity, the density of the planets is as follows: Neptune, 1*35; Uranus, 1-28: Saturn, •75; Jupiter, 1-38; Mars, 4-17; Earth, 5-66; Venus, 4-81; Mercury, 6-S5. The velocity of planets, stated in miles per second, is as follows: Neptune, 3 '3G; Uranus, 4 - 20; Saturn, 5 "95; Jupiter, 8-06; Mars, 14-99; Earth, 18-38; Venus, 21-61; Mercury, 29 - 55. The average diameters of the planets, expressed in miles, are as follows: Neptune, 34.500; Uranus, 31,700; Saturn, 70,- 500; Jupiter, 80,000; Mars, 4,510; Earth, 7,918; Venus, 7,660; Mercury, 3,000; the Sun, 860,000. The Moon is too prominent a factor in the celes- tial problem which astronomy has been solving for thousands of years (but can never fully solve), to be overlooked. It is insignificant from the stand- point of the universe, or even from that of the Sun; but the Earth has special interest in it. Everybody has heard of "the man in the Moon," PLATE I. PLATE II. PLATE III. PLATE IV. THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 31 Wnt the wisdom of the telescope pronounces him a myth, or, if lie ever existed, it was ages ago. The Mi ion is set down as a vast charnel-house. It has neither air, water, nor life of any kind. Its awful crags are absolutely? desolate. The supposition is that it is an exhausted, burnt-out, and used-up world. If there is life at all, it must be utterly unlike any known to man. It is the Sahara of the skies. Distant from the earth only 240,000 miles, it is attracted and largely controlled by this planet. The term satellite is appropriate. It is not ex- haustive, however, for it, too, is a planet of the Sun. Although distant 93,000,000 miles from the head of the family, it is more influenced by it titan by the Earth. The action of the Moon ujjon this planet is chiefly in the ebb and flow of the tides. Its huge ^raters are, some if them, one ittndred miles in diameter, and part of the sur- face of the moon appears to be honey- combed by extinct vol- canoes. The Moon has its phases from full to crescent. The Crater Tycho, as seen by Telescope. >phev are tile dif- ferent portions of her illuminated surface, which she presents to the Earth in revolving around it- When the dark side is turned toward us the Moon is said to be new; then it is half-full and horned, and by these phases the revolutions of the Moon are ascertained. The time between full moons is 29£ days; a synodical mouth, or lunation. Sun-spots were first carefully studied by Fabri- cius in the seventeenth century. They have been observed very closely ever since. Those of to-day are not those of two centuries ago. Perpetual change goes on. They are the result of some kind of tre- mendous storms or cyclones. That vast furnace seems to be subject to inconceivable perturbations, by the side of which Vesuvius in action would be cold calm. The flames are supposed to rise to a height of 100,000 miles sometimes. The rents and chasms in that ocean of flame are measureless in width and c one chasm or spot that was found to be large enough to hold one h u n d r e d Earths. A still larger spot was measured in 1839, and found to be 186,000 miles in diameter. The speed or movement perceived in spots ex- Telescopic view of a Sun-spot. ceeded that of the most violent hurricanes, three to one. The term precession applies to the gradual fall- ing back of the equinoctial points from east to west. In his apparent annual revolution around the Earth, the Sun does not cross the equinoctial epth. Astronomers have measured .:.;:;--..-;';. . -^ , ; - ;..-'5S ^gl^ ''■'■'': ~?* 4&u ■mH^s | :-, _-^j BSP; : • -f?|. y sSs**w -::^S " - j --^1 mk > S^- J^ll .V-lPW^il BSPSpF^:-'-'.- 1 -'! S^^B*& *<*^ Libra. Scorpio. Sagittarius. Capricornus. Aquarius. Pisces. The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac. at the same points one year that it does the next, but drops to the west about 50 seconds a year. The 32 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. entire precession of the equinoxes requires a period of nearly 26,000 years. Consequently the apparent positions of the stars constantly undergo change, and the Pole-star, even, is not the same in all eons. For the convenience of astronomical study, the heavens are divided into distinct spaces, represented on the map by the figures of animals or other objects. These spaces, with the stars they contain, are called constellations. They are distinguished as northern, zodiacal, and southern, according to their positions in respect to the ecliptic. There are twenty-five prominent constellations in the north, twelve in the zodiac and eighteen in the south. Multiple stars are those which seem to the ordi- nary observer to be single, but which, when viewed through a telescope, appear to be two or more stars. If two revolve around each other, they are called binary stars. Variable stars exhibit periodical changes of brightness. Temporary stars are tbe celestials which make their appearance suddenly in the heavens, often very brilliant, but after a while fading away, or nearly so. If they do not dis- appear entirely they are called new stars. Astron- omers can arrive at no satisfactory solution of this mystery. Some stars known to the ancients are not to be found. They are called lost stars. There are certain well-established astronomical facts, common to all planets. Hind enumerates them thus: 1. They move in the same invariable direction around the Sun: their course, as viewed from the north side of the ecliptic, being contrary to the motions of the hands of a watch. 2. They describe oval or elliptical paths round the Sun, not, however, differing greatly from circles. 3. Their orbits are more or less inclined to the ecliptic and intercept it at two points, which are the nodes; one-half of the orbit lying north and the other half south of the Earth's path. 4. They are opaque bodies like the Earth, and shine by reflecting the light which they receive from the Sun. 5. They revolve upon their axes the same as the Earth. Hence, they have the alternations of day and night like the inhabitants of the Earth, but their days are of different length to ours. G. Agree- able to the principles of gravitation, their velocity is greatest at those parts of their orbits which lie nearest to the Sun, and least at the opposite parts, which are most distant from it. The planets move in ellipses, having the Sun as one of the foci. The squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the Sun. Beside the planets which belong to our system, and the suns of other systems, which are, for the most part, the countless stars of our firmament, is the Milky Way. That is too sharply defined in its individuality, as seen by the naked eye, to be passed over, although, in jioint of fact, no part of the solar system. It comprises luminous matter; aggre- gations of stars. As one writer expresses it, "The Milky Way presents patches of diffuse, luminous matter, and many millions of stars, some isolated, others formed in groups, and forming, in its total- ity, a kind of zone or ring, the diameter of which would be about six times greater than its thickness, and of which our sun would form a part. It has I icen estimated that light would not traverse the distance between those nebula? and the earth in less than sixty millions of years, while a cannon-ball wiiu Id require 37,000 millions of years to traverse the same distance; yet the limits of the universe would still be untouched. As Buchner and others contend, it is highly probable that the universe, like the earth, is a sphere, with no " jumping-off place " anywhere. Star-clusters are near of kin to the Milky Way. Some of these groups have been ascertained to contain no less than 25,000 stars, such as the Pleiades, the Hyades, and the group known as Berenice's Hair. These glob- ular clusters, or galaxies, are supposed to be held together by their motions and mutual attractions. Nebula is a word now used to designate a mass D Nebule viewed through of gas, instead ot Star Clusters, the Telescope. as formerly. The separate stars cannot be dis- tinguished. They form the extreme verge of celestial discovery, and serve to suggest the infinite spaces beyond the reach of scientific inquiry. By all ignorant people, great consequence is attached to comets. As a matter of fact, they are trifles, and literally lighter than air. They are small, irregular nebulae, which travel in space, and which, being within the sphere of the sun's attrac- tion, approach that body at an ever-increasing veloc- ity, revolving around it, at a varying distance from its surface, and again moving off toward other T PLATE,. V. it V k -qvxOS n% /v y^- *m V V/ I' a . ^r&i BiiliiiiiilililfiiiiliE^liilEgEilgEiEgE^i^ CHAPTER II. Matter and Motion-Theories of Creation-Geological Periods- Nature and Man-The Continents and Population- Geological Developments— From Sponge to Man-The Animal Kingdom. F the facilities for studying all the planets of our solar ^ system were the same, this world would dwindle into insignificance, being one of the smallest of the heaven- ly bodies. It is, however, able to boast a surface of 197,124,000 square miles, and a planetary mass amounting to 256,000 millions of cubic feet. All this matter is in constant motion. The " changeless , fltJiffi rocks" are never at rest, absolutely. 3*"'^ As the earth itself is in motion, so are its component parts. Gradual changes are being wrought through this activity. "Nature, immutable in its laws, but forever variable in its phenomena, never repeats itself." The rotation of the earth is around an ideal axis, passing through the two poles. The movement is from right to left, or from west to east, that is, contrary to the appar- ent motion of the sun and stars. J The origin of the earth is an unsolved, if not an insoluble, mystery. Ingenious theories on this sub- ject have been elaborated,- but none of them have been actually verified, j Kant, Laplace, and others, have devoted a good deal of study to the birth of the earth. Their ideas are interesting, without being satisfactory, or worthy of more than mere reference in this connection. We know that it was a slow development. That much is certain. The records of geology show that "in the beginning," must have been millions, and probably billions, of ages ago, and that the present life, animal and vegetable, of the world, including man, must be of comparatively recent date. The commonly re- ceived opinion is that originally the planets were sparks from the sun, vast gaseous or liquid matter, and that by a process of cooling and solidifying, was brought into existence the rocks, soil, and various transmutations which make up a habitable world. It is supposed that some planets are now going through the process of preparation for util- ity, and perhaps others, again, have literally out-, lived their usefulness. With a lamp of geological science for guide, one might, by descending a shaft sunk deeply in the earth, read, page by page, the history written in the strata penetrated. Each stratum represents and records a vast and distinct formative period. These strata may be classed as shown in the subjoined chart. The organic remains, animal or vegetable, which are contained in a greater part of these various formations, afford the principal data for ascertaining, frequently with absolute cer- tainty, the order of succession of the various lay- ers. There is, however, more or less lapping over, the ages not being so perfectly disconnected in pro- ductions as the scientists at one time supjiosed. (37) r 38 THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. " Tlie idea is not warranted," says Reclus, " which connects some kind of cataclysm with the end of each geological period, and continuity of life has linked together all the formations, from the organ- .Old Mai .SanrfjfonVi^il -Upper Ludlow Rock _ Aj i.mwtreu Lim es tone ^-^i^ -d ZaaraT Ludlow U arlc ' -^ « B zSSfrniock Limestone & SUale r^Caivdac ■.Sandiiorie 'Siluriun^ "" ^J7bwei> % THAl'E OF REPTILE. FISH (heterocerque). MOLLUSCA ( Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, Brachiopoda. INVEHTEBRATA. Crustacea, etc. Annelids, etc. Zoophytes, etc. "The Earth's Strata. (Hitchcock.) ized beings which first made their appearance on earth, down to the countless multitudes which now inhabit it." To this maybe added, in a general way. that the higher the organism is raised in the scale of being, the narrower the limits between which it is confined. Man, for instance, is found in all parts of the world, but the higher types of manhood are quite limited. Human remains are to be found, on the other hand, side by side with the bones of the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct species. About three-quarters of the earth's surface is covered by sea. No part of this surface is without its organic life, and beneath large portions of the land are deposited the vast stores of fuel and metals of every kind. Ample provision is made for the happiness of every kind of creatures. The underground resources belong exclusively to man. He alone can appropriate to his use coal, iron, copper, silver, gold, and kindred resources of nature. The relations man sustains to his sur- roundings form an interesting subject of study. It is only where all conditions are favorable that satisfactory results can be obtained. It is no less true that, were all nature auspicious, this very favorability would be paralyzing to human effort. Some obstacles must be encountered, or no triumphs are to be expected. Perpetual summer balm, plenty and pleasure unceasing, would undermine the char- acter and debilitate the system, while arctic winter, sterility and suffering are no less benumbing. On the American continent, the area favorable to civilization is small. In South America the temperate region is narrow, and subject to disad- vantages so seriousas to preclude the hope of great South American prosperity. North America is much more favored, and. with Asia and Europe, comprizes the great area for civilization, and it will be with these continents, for the most part, that general history must have to do, not only now, but during the ages to come. Man can adapt himself to almost any vegetable food nature furnishes. The potato, now as important as wheat, was un- known to our ancestors of a few centuries ago. If there were no wheat or potatoes either, we could gel on very well with some of the other cereals and roots.. Hut the continent of America tried in vain to produce a permanent historical civilization with- out that one animal, the horse. While, therefore, details of zoology would be out of place here, it is well, before proceeding to the records of man, to pause for a brief consideration of the animal kingdom by which man is surrounded, and upon which he is so dependent. ^J S THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 39 According to Cuvier, the greatest of all natural- ists, and second to none as a scientist, the living animals are divided into two great classes, those having backbones, and those destitute of the same ; vertebrates, and invertebrates. The former include fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, the latter being all those living things which nourish their young by direct food supply from the mother. The in- vertebrates take in mollusks, such as oysters, snails, cuttle-fish ; also spiders, lobsters, and insects gen- erally, including those half-developed, pulpy things called " radiated animals." One of the very lowest forms of life is the sponge, familiar to everybody as a toilet article. . The flint is a petri- fied sponge. The coral, as ornamental as the sponge is use- ful, is another petri- faction of animal life as found in the sea. | It is a popular theory with the sci- entists that one form of life develops into another, and that all, from man down, originated in the very lowest form of vitality, a form so very nearly akin to the vegetable kingdom as to be almost indistinguish- able from it. This is a theory, not an established fact. If it be true, then, we are not only descended from monkeys, but from a first parent lower in the scale of being than the dumb oyster, the useful sponge, or the beautiful coral. I The lowest form of man is about as much like the chimpanzee (the most human of animals) as he is like the civilized man. If this world were visited by a being of intelligence, or rather of capacity for intelligence, but utterly ignorant of what he was to find here, he would infer, as a strong probability, that the development from the least to the greatest was by gradual steps. He would nowhere find any " connecting link," however, but everywhere suggestions and family resemblances. The soft-footed animalculas, or rhizopoda, leading Female Hottentot. up to sponges, infusoria, corallines, corals, echin- odermata, and parasitic worms, constitute the different species of the first division of animals. The second division, with its countless sorts of worms, is just one step removed from insects, crabs, shrimps, and mollusks. The latter grade into fishes and reptiles. The progress to birds and animals of the mammal family is a much longer stride ; still the resemblances are preserved through- out. The embryo and the skeleton, however, show the kinship of nature more clearly than existence in its perfection. For instance, there is no mis- taking the man and the orangoutang, seen in any vitality, but their skeletons, with hands and feet cut off, are almost in- distinguishable. That any species ever passed over, by development, into another species, is a theory without the support of direct evidence. There is not an attribute of man, however, which is not found in rudimentary form in the brute creation. The old idea of instinct, in distinction from reason, has been abandoned. Rational use of intellectual faculties accounts for intelligence, judgment and efficiency, whether in man or beast, bird or insect. The animal kingdom has been compared to a great city. From it go out many thoroughfares, and each street has its own starting-point and des- tination, not necessarily separate in all respects, but maintaining individuality even in intersections. Along these streets are found all sorts of people, and all sorts of business. The Broadway of this city of Existence is Man. All other roads, whether parallel with or at right-angles to it, are tributary, and contribute to its supremacy. There is inter- dependence throughout, but all in consistence with the grand idea of climacteric unity in man's rule over " the earth and the fullness thereof." Female Gorilla. 452 The Golden Age of Fable— Primitive Savage— PnoM Hunter to Shepherd— From Shepherd to Farmer— Primi- tive Implements— Stone and Bronze — Gradations op Development, and Degrees of Savagery — Celts and Celtic Progress— Sir John Lubbock's Testimony— Prehistoric and Unhistoric Man. ^Hr3®£i~-^ 'HE poetic fancy in all ages has depicted primitive man as a delightful and angelic being. All civilized people have had their golden age of the past. If, as in the case of all Europe, the bar- baric age lapped on the age of civilization, compelling a recog- nition of ancestral savagism, still the imagination would trav- el back to a more remote ancestry ti> find an honorable origin. But now, the poetic faculty has been superseded by the scientific sense, and we must all admit, whatever our fancies and conceits, that man in his first estate was a savage of A few years ago, it would have been positively absurd in a historical work, to treat of prehistoric man. It would have been set down as self-evidently preposterous. But there is a history older than history. The annals of primeval man do not follow out any line of chronology with exact- ness, nor do they present to the mind individual types and details. They simply show us the stages by which the savage became a man capable of his- toric achievements. For this we are indebted to archaeology, which may be defined as the history of men and things which have no history. the lowest type. The Roman poet, Horace, was almost prophetic of what would be discovered centuries sifter him, when he wrote : " W hen these brutes, now called Mammoth (E. primiyeniw) and Mastodon {M. giganteus) Restored. men, first crawled out of the ground, a dumb and dirty lot, they fought for nuts and sheltering spots, with nail and fist; then with sticks; later, with arms forged of metal. Then they invented names and words. With language and thought, came cit- ies, and some relief from strife.'' In the days of the mammoth, in what seems to have been an almost totally distinct era, man lived in caves, and was on much the same plane of existence as the Fuegians when first discovered. He fed on fruits, (4o) ^ J£* PREHISTORIC MAN. 4 1 nuts, and roots, on fish or flesh, according to his opportunities and necessities. Emerging, by slow and gradual steps, from the cavern of darkest sav- agery, primitive man was still a hunter, living by the chase, or a fisher, as circumstances might deter- mine. What is now the recreation of the over- worked civilized man was the first employment of the race. A people dependent upon wild beasts of a cave, he has a tent made of the skins of beasts, rude in its simplicity, still a great improvement on a hole in the ground. It was a great step to go from wild to domestic animals. The brute and man meet on the same level when both live by rapine and violence. Grazing is an ascent toward the table-lands of civilization. The Hebrews can trace their descent from that Bedouin sheik, Abra- Prehistoric and fish for sustenance are necessarily migratory. They must follow the trail wherever it leads, and if neither the game nor the fish appear in their accus- tomed haunts, they must go in search of them. From hunting to pastoral life is the natural gradation. This, too, is somewhat migratory. The flocks must be led beside still waters and into green pastures, be the same far or near. The shepherd is some advance upon the hunter and fisher ; still, he is very near the bottom of the ladder. He can- not build him a house or form society. The shep- herd must be in constant readiness to move. Instead Man. ham, but we may all rest assured that in the far- awav ages our ancestors fed their flocks and pitched their tents in true Arabic fashion, however obscure the annals may be. The hunter maybe as isolated from the rest of his kind as the deer of the forest, mating only at the fierce impulse of a passing pas- sion, but the nomad belongs to a tribe. It may be small, or it may branch out into an imposing mul- titude ; it is surely a great improvement. There is a community of interest which begets society and stimulates progress. Most nations can be traced back traditionally, if not historically, to this prim- Jsls 42 PREHISTORIC MAN. itivc or tribal system. The father is the patriarch, and as sncli a little king, absolute, indeed, but with- out temptation to despotism. Poets love to picture the pastoral life. It has charms for romance and sentiment, especially when viewed from afar. To the pastoral life succeeds the agricultural phase of progress. Necessity is the mother of civ- ilization. It takes a great deal of land to maintain a very small pastoral population. With the increase of people, it becomes impossible to live by meat and milk alone. Very likely there have, almost from the first, been some crude attempts at tillage, hut, in proportion as the people improved, the cultiva- tion of the ground has always gained in relative prominence. It is only when agriculture is the chief reliance of a people that permanent habita- tions are built, and stable institutions are out of the question with vagrant tribes of flock-tenders. It may be said, then, that when a people have so Stone Ax. (Mound Builders'.) Stone Hammer. far prospered that they are tillers of the soil, farm- ers, properly so called, they have reached a stage of civilization which fairly takes them out of the pre- historic list. There is abundant evidence of the correctness of this theory of progress. We now give the more prominent facts in support of the foregoing obser- vations. The rude implements discovered in the valley of the Somme, in France ; at Hoxne, Santon, Down- ham, and Thetford, England, in conjunction with elephant remains, and those of other extinct ani- mals, raises a presumption which is irresistible : their makers were rude barbarians. Flint instruments, found in the gravel drifts at Ponte Molle, near Rome, attest the same facts. So do many of the relics of America. In fact, wherever science has explored, and, as it were, had access to the libraries of prehistoric man, the same line of facts has been ascertained. The nearest approach to an exception to this rule is found in America. Here, on this continent, there was once a progress reaching civil- ization, and that without the pastoral phase. There was, however, an intermediate phase, and the prin- ciple of gradation from low to high is perfectly traceable in the remains of the aboriginal Ameri- cans, and in Peru there were shepherds with vast flocks of sheep. Mention has been made of the flint or stone, and of the bronze age. Man seems to have been endowed with a strong predilection for some sort of imple- ment. The researches of archaeology have traced out five distinct stages of the stone age, and on so broad a scale as to show the operation everywhere Copper Relics from Wisconsin. of the same grand law of growth. First came the rudest flints, mere chunks of stone. Then came flakes chipped from the rock, and showing the dawn of the creative or fashioning faculty. The third stage indicates some skill and art in the fash- ioning of the flint. The idea of form and comeli- ness, of adaptability and convenience, crops out. The fourth age was the beginning of grinding or rubbing. The points are made sharp by attrition. The fifth stage brings us to the perfectly polished and quite artistic flint implements, which show constructive invention. Some of these flints are a rude sort of ax, one piece fitted into another, like helve and blade. One is impressed with the immense progress made from the use of a jagged A !£- PREHISTORIC MAN. 43 stone, such as an ape might use, to the somewhat curiously wrought and laboriously finished flint hatchet. While there are found these five gradations, there are indicated by them three stages of human prog- ress. The flints, implements of the cave period, show man at his worst; the flint flakes belong to a people devoted to the chase, while the ground, pol- ished, and fashioned stones bespeak a pastoral age. not unmixed with the initial steps of agriculture, The archaeological designations of these three ages are the palaeolithic, the mesolithic, and the neo- lithic. No nation has come up to civilization with- out passing through those primitive stages. Between the fifth or stone age and the bronze age intervened a sixth stage, transitional in character, in which copper, cold and crude, was hammered into shape. It was used like a stone, and not fused and fashioned in conformity to the peculiar prop- erties of metals. It was treated as a kind of mal- leable stone. Very little creative progress was made anywhere during this stage. This period is found everywhere, but evidently continued much longer in the new world than in the old. The Promethean gift of fire seems to have come much earlier to the barbarians of the East than to the savages of the West. The seventh stage opens to view the bronze age proper. Then began the fusing of metals. The soft copper and hard tin were blended into the bronze of the prehistoric age. That was probably the result of a lucky accident. When once the idea of melting and mixing metals was conceived, the skill slowly attained in the making of stone and copper implements was brought into requisition, and improvements were easy and inevitable. The world over are found traces of the birth of bronze, the dawn of its day. and the brilliance of its aurora. Manufacturing by molding began. The corner- stone of all construction was laid when smelting and molding commenced, and that corner-stone may be said to have reached around the world. It was at this point of development that the more advanced peoples became celts, i. e., tool-makers and users. Sir John Lubbock remarks that " the use of bronze weapons is characteristic of a particular phase in the history of civilization, and one which was anterior to the discovery, or, at least, to the general use, of iron. Soon after iron, came pot- tery. Man found, not only the advantage of soft- ening metals with fire, but of hardening clay with it. A mass of evidence proves that a stone age prevailed in every great district of the inhabited world, followed, as general progress was made, by the other ages named." As Figuier observes, " The development of man must have been doubtless the same in all parts of the earth, and in whatever country we may consider him, man must have passed through the same phases in order to arrive at his present state. He must have had everywhere his age of stone, his epoch of bronze, and his epoch of iron, in orderly succession." In a word, the pre- historic man of the past still lives in the unhistoric man of the present, and the march from savagism to civilization is over substantially the same road. >T Jj " -S S II JIIE' THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. **'"^HiifFssfi Tf & !!llll!!l!!!li!iil[inin;: .. '"i;ii:i. :: ii'inii! . >> :i. liiiimiii llliilill!: ill iliii:ii:il iilillli n niniliHiiiiiilillii!::!.; * fflli tfmnfmmfmtimtTitmfflmrowg^ ^ ^fc^&^^^ CHAPTER IV. THE FOUNTAIN-HEAD OF HISTORY— THE GeOGRAPHT OP EGYPT— CLIMATE AND RESOURCES— THE Rosetta Stone— First Egyptian Dynasty— Cheops, his Pyramid and Sphinx— The Shep- herd Kings— The Dawn op Thebes ^-#33£#~^ 'N attempt has been made to trace man in his civilized state to Ethiopia, but the nearest to that country that research has been able to ciiine is Egypt. The land H"5fc of the Pharaohs, the pyr- amids, the Sphinx, and the Nile, if not the veritable cradle of civ- ilization, was its earliest historic home. By civilization is here meant that stream of intelligence and betterment, which, trickling through the ages, has fertilized Europe and America. The myriads of China and Japan are not without a civilization, and it may antedate that of more Western peoples, but it does not belong to that steadily widening current of thought which gives a certain unity to all the lands and times, from the dawn of history to date. As a term in geography, Egypt represents almost as fixed and unvarying a quantity as America. Nature has determined its boundaries. It, is indeed the country of the Nile, or Egyptus, as that river was once called. From the seven mouths of that grand river, through which it debouches into the Mediterranean Sea on the north, to the cataracts or rapids of the south, which arrest navigation at Syene, and from desert to desert, on either side, extends this wonder-land. Upper Egypt is the region of the undivided Nile, and Lower Egypt of the vast delta, through which it flows in several streams, broadening the area of productiveness. Besides these, were a few green spots in the desert, and ports on the Red Sea. By its geographical position, the country was pro- tected from hostile incursions by a better than Chi- nese wall, and allowed to develop normally until a comparatively late period. Not that the same race maintained the ascendency all the time, but that the immunity from hostile incursion enjoyed by that people was such as no other nation ever enjoyed until the United States came upon the stage of national development, It was not necessary to exhaust the resources and ingenuity of the people in war. There was ample leisure for and incentive to the cultivation of the arts of peace. The Rainless Land might be the appellation of Egypt. The productiveness of the soil is not depend- ent upon capricious clouds. During our spring months the air is sultry and the ground parched. The rains of mountainous Abyssinia commingle in the upper Nile, and by about the middle of June the mighty flood reaches Egypt, and the overflow begins. The fields of the delta are one vast sheet of water during August, September, and October. The villages, built on raised mounds or artificial hills, are little islands. The water is red with Abyssinian mud. When the water disappears, early in Novem- ber, the alluvial deposit is the richest of soil, and (44) _V]g THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 45 the vegetation is prodigious. Two crops a year can be raised. First wheat and barley, then corn and rice. The latter crop is sowed to grow during the inundation, giving rise to the proverb about casting bread (seed) upon the water. It is harvested in time for the second crop to be put in, and matured during the same year. A country so fertile can support a very dense population, especially as the water affords facilities for transportation and exchange. For a long time gold and precious stones came from the south, and to some extent commerce is still maintained in that di- rection. The Nubian mines were the "bonanzas" of an- tiquity. To them Thebes was largely indebted for its opulence, being for five hun- dred years the richest city in the world. The water which overflowed the delta supplied the clay for most excellent brick, and a road- way for the stupendous blocks of stone which are still conspicuous and mar- velous in ruins. It is from the inscriptions on these monumental ruins that the oldest authentic history must be gleaned. Until a quite recent date those hiero- glyphics were a sealed book. The discovery and deci- phering of that key to the mysteries of Egyptian rec- ords, called the Rosetta Stone, led to the recovery of a lost treasury of knowledge. And here, an account of this pass-key to the historic treasures of Most An- cient Egypt can hardly fail to be read with interest. The Rosetta Stone was discovered in 1799, at Rosetta, a town on the delta of the Nile. It is sup- posed to have been set up originally in a temple, and was, in its perfect state, 3 feet 1 inch high, 2 feet 5 inches wide, and 10 inches thick. It has been broken, but has still 14 lines of hieroglyphics, 32 cursive Egyptian, the so-called demotic or enchorial writing, and 54 lines of Greek. The latter serve The Interior of the Great Pyramid. as the clew to the rest. From the Greek inscription it appears that it was erected in honor of King Ptolemy Epiphanes, in the ninth year of his reign, B.C. 196-7, by the priests assembled in synod. The birth of the king is narrated ; also the disturbances in Upper Egypt, the inundation of the Nile, the death of Ptolemy Philopater, the attack of Antio- chus, and especially that a copy of this synodical inscription should be carved on a tablet and erected in every temple of the first, second, and third rank, throughout the country. About one-third of the hiero- glyphic portion was pre- served, and nearly all the Greek and demotic versions of it. At the capitulation of Alexandria to the En- glish, not long after its dis- covery, it came into posses- sion of the conquerors, and in due time found its way to the British Museum and was published. It was at once recognized as a key to the decipherment of hiero- glyphics if only the com- bination of the lock could be discovered. Eminent Greek scholars succeeded in restor- ing the Greek text, and Egyptologists made some progress toward understand- ing the rest of the in- scription The demotic text is still somewhat inexplic- able, but finally, in 1851, Brugsch Bey is supposed to have completed the translation of the hieroglyphics, although the work was not really perfected until 1867. One year after, another tablet in three languages was found at San. The latter is in good preservation and has 37 lines of hieroglyphics, 76 lines of Greek, and 72 of demotic writing. The decree of Canopsus, served to complete and verify the progress already made in reading hieroglyphics. Between the two, it was positively ascertained that they were used for sounds mainly, or phonetically, not ideas, and the exact import of these sounds was determined. Interior of the Great Pyramid. 4 6 THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. Following the clew thus furnished, it has been discovered that the earliest dynasty to leave imper- ishable records was the royal house of Memphis, dating back to B. C. 4400, and coming down to B. C. 3300. The Memphian kingdom was Lower Egypt, now called " the Beharah " by the Arabs. The whole land was divided into states, much as the United States is. They are sometimes desig- nated nomes. These were, at the dawn of history, forty-two in number. Each enjoyed " state rights," but recognized the " national sovereignty " of the chief dynasty, wherever it might be located. The earliest monarch definitely outlined is Menes, the founder of Memphis, and constructor, it is .supposed, of the dyke of Co- chenke, which now regulates somewhat the overflow of the Nile. He caused tem- ples to be erected in every village or city, which were the main features of the towns. It may be observed that the ancient Egyp- tians were remarkable for their piety. Many of the priests were the scions of royalty, and the Pharaohs were often, if not usually, addressed as " Your Holiness." Memphis was a seat of learn- ing. A list of the kings who succeeded Menes could be given, but it would be barren of interest, for it is a list of names and nothing else for hun- dreds of years. There is a suspicious closeness of resemblance between the names of the first conquer- ors or founders of Egypt, India, Judea, and Greece, namely : Menes. Menu, Moses, and Minos. There were five Memphian dynasties, but only one successor of Menes who towered into the region of perpetual glory, Cheops, the master builder of all the ages. The crowning work of his reign was the pyramid bearing his name. It is 450.75 feet in height by 746 feet broad at the base. Surrounded by seventv minor pyramids, and companioned by that "monarch of the past." the Sphinx, it defies time or rivalry. High about it is piled the sand, but in vain the desert tries to entomb it. The builder of the Sphinx (called by the Arabs the " Lion of the Night") is not known. It has the form of a lion and the head of a man. It was hewn out of the solid rock, except that the fore-legs, which extend fifty feet from the breast, were added to the body. some idea of which can be formed from the fact that these legs are in good proportion to the rest of that ancient marvel. The great American humorist Samuel L. Clem- ens (Mark Twain), putting aside for the moment his cap and bells, thus eloquently gives voice to the sentiment inspired by the august presence of this gigantic work of art : " After years of waiting, it was before me at last. The great face was so sad, so earnest, so longing, so patient. There was a dignity not of earth in its mien, and in its countenance a benig- nity such as never anything human wore. It was stone, but it seemed sentient. If ever image of stone thought, it was think- ing. It was looking toward the verge of the landscape, yet looking at nothing — ope), :l .,d the sphinx. nothing but distance and vacancy. It was looking over and beyond everything of the present, and far into the past. It was gazing out over the ocean of Time — over lines of century-waves, which, further and fur- ther receding, closed nearer and nearer together, and blended at last into one unbroken tide, away toward the horizon of antiquity. It was thinking of the wars of departed ages; of the empires it had seen created and destroyed ; of the nations whose birth it had witnessed, whose progress it had watched, whose annihilation it had noted ; of the joy and sor- row, the life and death, the grandeur and decay, of five thousand slow revolving years. It was the type of an attribute of man — of a faculty of his heart and brain. It was Memory— Retrospection — wrought into visible, tangible form. All who know what pathos there is in memories of days that are ac- complished, and faces that have vanished — albeit only a trifling score of years gone by — will have some appreciation of the pathos that dwells in these THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 47 grave eyes that look so steadfastly back upon the things they knew before History was born, before Tradition had being — things that were, and forms that moved in a vague era which even Poetry and Romance scarce knew of— and passed one by one away, leaving the stony dreamer solitary in the midst of a strange, new age, and uncomprehended scenes. The Sphinx is grand in its loneliness; it is imposing in its. magnitude ; it is impressive in the mystery that hangs over its story. And there is that in the overshadowing majesty of this eternal figure of stone, with its accusing memory of the deeds of all ages, which reveals to one something of what he shall feel when he shall stand at last in the awful presence of God." An eminent Egypt- ologist describes as fol- lows the method of pyr- amid building : " First the nucleus was formed by the erection of a small pyramid upon the soil of the desert. It was built in steps, and contained a stone chamber, well con- structed and finished. Then coverings were added until the final size was reached, and at last all was inclosed in a casing of hard stone, deftly fitted together and polished to a glassy surface. The pyramid, thus finished, presented a gigantic triangle on each of its four sides. The stone used for the inner structure was found near the place of erection, but as the work progressed, better material was brought from the mountain quarries as far up the Nile as the modern Assouan." The granite last referred to was as hard as metal, and susceptible of an exquisite polish. The dates of construction of the Sphinx and the great pyramid are subjects of conjecture, and authorities widely differ in their conclusions. It is supposed that the tenth king of Memphis was reigning when Abraham, forced by the stress of fodder for his flocks, drove his herds to Egypt, there getting himself into trouble by pre- tending that his wife was his sister. It may be well, in this connection, to speak of an episode in Egyp- tian history which served to consolidate the country politically. We refer to the reign of the Shepherd Kings, or Hvcsos, who scourged Egypt for several hundred years. From the meager accounts pre- served, they must have been to that country much what the Golden Horde, or Tartars, were to Russia. A race of shepherds and traders, these Arabs gradu- ally gained a foothold in Lower Egypt. Some think they were the Philistines before they settled in Pales- tine ; others, that they were the Hebrews, between the time when Joseph, or, as the tablets call him, Zephnet-Phoenich — Joseph the Phoenician— was a member of Pharaoh's cabinet, and the subjugation of the Israelites. Be that as it may, for a century or so these interlopers maintained a certain sovereignty over the agricultural n Captives Making Bricks. and mechanical Egyp- tians. Salatis was the first of these Shepherd Kings, and five others are named in the chron- icles. Finally the peo- ple became so restive under foreign domina- tion that Upper and Lower Egypt joined forces and swept the enemy out of the land. The union thusform- ed included the minor states of the country, and survived its immediate occasion. The kings of Thebes now became m on arch s of all Egypt, much as Ivan the Great secured for the grand princedom of Moscow the sovereignty of all the Russias through the expulsion of the Tartars. The Pharaohs of Abraham, Joseph, and Moses, were the rulers of Memphis, or Lower Egypt, and it was doubtless for the pyramids that the Hebrew slaves were com- pelled to make " bricks without straw," and it was in all probability from the fecund ooze of the delta of the Nile that the magical and miraculous ten plagues sprung. And now, without wearying the reader with mere skeletons of facts, names, and dates, we take leave of Most Ancient Egypt, only pausing to make this remark, although Egypt has well been called "the monumental land of all the world," no con- temporary monuments of Menes, the first to reign over all the land, have been discovered. «^s .£, CHAPTER V. From Memphis to Thebes— Karnak— The Tombs and Cataracts or Upper Egypt— Reform |*-tJ-> mm} in the Calendar— Amanothph and the Exodus— A Glimpse of Greece— Rameses the ■\ 'I Great — Home Development and Conquest— Gold and its Influence. ^-%&t^-^ seven hundred years the scepter of national suprem- acy, so long held by Mem- phis, belonged to Thebes. It was not simply a political ascendancy. Memphis and Lower Egypt could boast gigantic works which were a triumph of architectural science, but art, in its more esthetic character, belonged rather to Thebes. That marvelous city, the miracle of history, even in ruins, represents an unbroken chain of reigns, and its tab- lets preserve the names of monarchs with the most meager details. Of course, the catalogue of those names would be te- dious and unprofitable. The city had a road of its own to the Red Sea, and thus not only commanded the Ethiopian trade, but had a seaport. It was a London with its Liverpool. Atone time Elephan- tine, built on an island of the Upper Nile, was the capital of a small kingdom, as was also Heracleop- olis, near Memphis. But Thebes and Memphis long enjoyed the sovereignty of Egypt. In the shadowy days of antiquity, the temple of Karnak " rose like an exhalation," and the countless tombs of Beni-Hassar were tunneled into the hills that form the site of Egyptian Thebes, for this antique city must not be confounded with the Thebes of Greece. These houses of death give a certain deathlessness to Egypt, for upon the walls are depicted the em- ployments and amusements of the people. The resemblance between Egyptian life thousands of years ago and to-day is wonderfully close. Indeed, about Thebes are evidences of the most mar- velous achievements in Titanic art. Vast and im- perishable stones, such as modern skill could not quarry, served to make the region of Upper Egypt a ceaseless source of interest. Without attempting to follow the political for- tunes of dynasties with closeness, it will be of interest to note the more important facts of this middle pe- riod of Egypt. It was in the year B. 0. 1321, that the new peri- od began. It was then the calendar was reformed, a work showing great attainments in science ; as- tronomy especially. It was almost identical with the calendrial reformation inaugurated at Rome by Julius Caesar, which is the real basis of modem com- putation of time. Caesar was little more than a borrower from " the wisdom of the Egyptians," learned while dallying with Cleopatra (for that greatest of Romans had a genius for combining pleasure with more substantial advantages). The fundamental and intimate relation of that old re- form in time-keeping with the present system, renders it worth our while to look somewhat minutely into it. The era of which we speak was called Meno- phres, and of it an eminent Egyptologist remarks (48: ^y As EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 49 (and we cannot do better than to quote his words) : ■• The observing man may note that every star rises to-day earlier than it did yesterday, and that- every morning a fresh set of stars peeps up from the hori- y.'in to be seen but for a moment before they are lost in the bright light of the day-break. The day on which a star is thus first seen in the east, is called its heliacal rising, and at the beginning of the era of Menophres, the first day of Thoth, the civil new year's day began, falling on the day the Dog-star was first seen to rise at day-break, which was held to be the natural new year's day, when the Nile be- gan to rise, six weeks before the overflow. This agreement between the natural new year's day and the civil new year's day may have happened simply by the motion of the civil year, but it was possibly accompanied by a reform in the calendar, and by fixing the length of the civilyear at 305 days, in the belief that the months would not again move from their seasons. Among the common names of the months, that of the last, the Bull, was clearly brought into use at this time, when the year ended with the rising of that constellation. The months, however, were left with the mistakes in their hiero- glyphical names, which had arisen from former change of place. The four months which were named after the season of vegetation fell during the overflow of the Nile ; the months named after the harvest fell during the height of vegetation, and those named after the inundation fell during harvest tune. But if no alteration was made at this time in the calendar, and the civil year already contained 365 days, the addition of the five days had probably been made five hundred years earlier, when the first month of the inundation would have The Egyptian God, Thoth. begun with the Nile's overflow. The Egyptian year was never altered. For the want of a leap year, 1401 civil years took place in 1400 revolutions of the sun; and in the beginning of the reign of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, the new year's day again came around to the season from which it moved in the reign of che Menophres. Again, Plu- tarch says, that the God Thoth, i. c. King Thothmo- sis, taught' the Egyptians the true length of the year ; and the figure of this king is often drawn with a palm-branch, the hieroglyphic for the word year, in each hand, hence it is probable that he is the author of the change in the calendar, made in the year B. C. 1331." This reformer of time was industrious in many ways. Cleopatra's needle (now in Central Park. New York), and other obelisks, date from his reign. From the lowest part of the kingdom t<> Nubia, are scattered unmistakable evidences of his constructive energy. At Heliopolis, Ombos and Samneh, temples which must have been marvels of architectural grandeur were erected. But it was during the reign of his son Amanothph II. that the arts were brought to a high degree of perfec- tion, especially the industrial branches. The paintings on the walls of the Thebau tombs show this. The artisan life these set forth, reveals ad- vanced civilization. It is supposed that under this king the Hebrew exodus occurred, and we have herein probably supplied to us a missing link in Biblical history. The Bible tells us when Joseph brought his father and brethren into Egypt, and when Moses led them out, but when the transition from pets to slaves occurred, and the intermediate steps, are not suggested in the sacred record. From Joseph, prime minister, and his brethren highly favored, to abject slavery, was a long stride. In the light of Egyptology it seems probable, almost to certainty, that they either were the Shepherd Kings or their allies, and that the period of actual bondage was very brief, less, perhaps, than one hun- dred years. Even if they were not at all connected with the Shepherd Kings, they were of the same Arab stock, and the Pharaohs of Thebes and Unit- ed Egypt naturally " knew not Joseph," belonging as he did to the Memphian kingdom. The mud of the Nile, mixed with chopped straw, and baked in the sun was used very extensively. The Egyptian version of the Exodus is quite unlike the Hebraic account. The priests of Egypt were prejudiced against them because of their religion, and secured their isolation and enslavement. Moses, a learned 'V EGYPT AT ITS BEST. priest of Heliopolis, preferred being the chief man among the despised Israelites, rather than one among many aristocratic priests. He espoused their cause, gave them a code of laws, and a reformed religion, encouraged them to form a hostile alliance with the Canaanites, and when they were beaten by Amanothph, he retreated with them into the desert, from which, after years of wandering and hiding from their adversaries, they succeeded in reaching the land of their allies whom in part they dispos- sessed. How much this history was a dis- torted account, \re leave the reader to judge. It is certainly in- teresting and cu- rious. The two peoples thus in- timately associ- ated in the far- off days may be said to ha v e given to Europe and America their great characteristics. To those fugitive slaves we owe our religion, and to their pursuers have been traced, through many a devious winding, the gen- eral civilization of modern times. It would be inter- esting to follow the Ex- odus to the Land of Prom- ise, but that would be a tangent, and we must now dismiss from our thoughts, in connection with Egypt, the children of Israel. Thothmosis IV. was the next king of Egypt. The temple which stands be- tween the fore-legs of the Sphinx, uear Memphis, was evidently the work of Dress of the King. his reign. That edifice shows, as has been observed, that " in this reign at least, though probably much earlier, the rock had been carved into the form of that monster." The next king, Amanothph III., was a great warrior, and did a great deal of temple and tomb building, of wall-painting and of obelisk-carving. He conquered numerous tribes of Ethiopian* His successor, Hornemnes deserves mention for the fact that he was unwittingly the father of Greek civilization. It was this way : Greek pirates, or sailors, much the same thing in old times, had established themselves at Sais, on the east of the Delta, and conducted t li e Mediterranean commerce of Egypt, being for the most part in- dependent and free. Gradually they spread and improved, enjoy- ing the privilege of intercourse with cultured Egypt for five hundred years. Finally, at the time at which we have arrived they incurred the enmity of the government, They belonged to Lower Egypt, and Upper Egypt ruled the country. They were driven out as the Hebrews had been before them. They returned to Greece, founded several cities (Boeotian Thebes among the number), and thus sowed the seeds of Greek civilization. Athens is sup- posed to owe its origin to that second great exodus. We come now upon the name which towers above all other Theban names — Barneses. The first king who bore that name achieved noth- ing, at least left nothing, which has survived the ravages of three chiliades. His son, Oimemep- thah, was an industrious builder, and the inscrip- tions upon the walls of his structures, are very useful in deciphering the religion of Egypt. The next king, Barneses II., brought the The- ban dynasty to its highest glory. War and architecture, sculpture and painting, united in making him the most illustrious of all the mon- COLOSSAL STATUE OF KAMESES THE GREAT. SnT EGYPT AT ITS BEST. >te arohs the Nile can boast. His name is hardly less imposing than that of Cfesar. He was succeeded by Plhehmen-Meiothph, Oimempthah II., Osinta, Ro- nierer, and four more kings bearing his own name, and then the glory of Thebes departed, not a sud- den and overwhelming calamity, like that which dimmed the light of Troy and Jerusalem, but else- where, and with diminished luster, shone the star of Egyptian Empire. The last of those kings was a contemporary of Priam, Achilles, Helen, and Ulysses. The period from Rameses the Great to Rameses the last, was nearly two hundred years. No nation of antiquity relied so much as Egypt did upon the development of its own resources for growth and splendor. Indeed, no other nation ever equaled it in this proud pre-eminence until the United States of America surpassed it. The mar- tial spirit was not wanting even upon the banks of the Nile. The tablets abound in evidences of con- quest. Rameses the Great seems to have inaugu- rated a somewhat new policy. Hitherto wars ap- pear to have been waged for defense, and against encroaching neighbors. But he marched forth up- on a campaign of subjugation. The carved and painted walls of Theban temples portray victory over the Ethiopians and the Arabs not only, but Tartars, or Scythians, Medes, Persians, Syrians, Lycians, and, in fine, the countries generally now known as Turkey in Asia, and Russia in Asia. How thorough were his conquests we cannot ascer- tain, but they were certainly extensive enough to give that king rank among the great soldiers of mankind. The art of war must have been much the same then as it continued to be, down to the invention of gunpowder. Steel was known and used both for offense and defense. The population of Egypt at its best, when the glory of Thebes was brightest, is supposed to have been about 5,500,000. This estimate is based on the registry of the crown tenants of the military age. The subjugation of Ethiopia brought the gold- mines of that country into the direct possession of the Egyptians. To realize the importance of this, one should recall the situation of this country before and after the Mexican war. Prior to that conflict the precious metals came into the coffers of the United States through commercial intercourse, but after that, the mines of California (a part of the territory secured from Mexico) were worked to the best advantage, and a new era in })rosperity was in- augurated. Those ancient mines diffused wealth over the known world. Even Palestine sat, as it were, under the drippings of the Egyptian mint, and so astonishing was the increase of wealth in Jerusalem, that the chronicles of the Hebrew kings declare that gold was as plenty as stones in the streets of that capital during the reign of Solomon. The Ophir of the Bible is supposed by some to have been simply a port on the Red Sea, the gate through which the gold of Egypt poured into Palestine in exchange for the prod- ucts of that " land flowing with milk and hon- ey." The exhaustion of those Nubian or Ethio- pian mines had much, perhaps most, to do with the decay of Egypt. We shall see further on in this history how Spain derived advantage from the mines of the new world, only to make its fall the greater. The light of three thousand years is too dim to admit of a close analysis of the causes of Egypt's fall, but certain it is, that its prosperity was not abiding, and that by the time the last of the Rameses passed away, the glory of Thebes, which had been gradually fading for a century and a half, suffered a permanent, but not a complete, eclipse. s'\ k. THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. ■ i!iii«iiiii!iiiii««viwi«i*i | ii««wiiii | iwi« | iii«Niii!i«««wnii > ; ;i|iiiiiiiiiiininii!aiii!iii!i!i««iwiiwii|!iiiwiiiiiiiii««iiwiwnawvi* ^-*^*#^^ ATIONS do not build monu- ments in honor of disaster, and the lights which fall upon the decline of Egypt are for the greater part side- lights. The nation was di- vided, and the glory of Thebes departed about 950 B. C. Shishank, of Bubastis, in Low- er Egypt, succeeded the dynasty of Ranieses, so far as that dynasty had succession in power. His capital was about sixty miles from one of the mouths of the Nile. It was very near, if it did not embrace in its im- mediate jurisdiction the land of Goshen, and was thus that part of Egypt from which the Jews derived many of their ideas, being next to Heliopolis. The TJrim and Thummim of the Hebrew priesthood was also worn by the priests of Bubastis. It is generally supposed that the whole history of the fall of man is of Egyptian origin, and the re- semblance between the laws, customs and rites of that country and of Palestine are striking, although in many particulars there is a sharp contrast, showing that Moses was no mere copyist. The kings of Bu- bastis could not extend their sway over the whole country, although they made some conquests abroad. Tanes and Mendes were independent cities and sov- ereignties, and Thebes was no inconsiderable power long after it had suffered eclipse. It faded out so grad- ually that it cannot be assigned a date of death. Shishank divided the temporal and the spiritual powers. The soldiers of the Bubastis were obeyed in the Thebaid, but the priests had no jurisdiction beyond their immediate parishes, as the modern term is. Soon after the death of Shishank, almost inter- minable civil war became chronic. No master- spirit arose to quell the storm. First one city and then another would be in the ascendant, and for- eign dependencies threw off the Egyptian yoke. Notable among these secessions was Ethiopia, and finally that southern nation became the master and Egypt the servant. Although independent, it was Coptic, and as a factor in the development of man, was essentially Egyptian. It contributed no new element to civilization. If, as some suppose, the Ethiopians, called also the Cushites, really ante- dated the Egyptians in civilization, their subsequent career added no lasting monuments to their glory. The Ethiopians waged fierce warfare with other na- tions far to the North, especially Assyria, now grown to greatness, but in all the arts followed the models of Egypt, feebly and far off. At the height of its glory, the Nubian gold-mines added to the resources of the kingdom, and some works still stand to attest the imitation of Theban grandeur, notably the temple at Napata, and the monarch of Ethiopia boasted himself to be the well-belovril of Athor, a Theban goddess. Sometimes the Cushite (52) src lU. THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. S3 kings established their court at Thebes, later in Memphis, and still later at Sais, in Lower Egypt. The Ethiopian conquerors, like the Normans who took England, were gradually absorbed, and as Nor- mandy was lost sight of, and conquered and con- querors became unified as Englishmen, so Cushite and native Coptic gradually merged in Egyptians. This Cushite period, as it might be called, was not without its glory. From the Greeks and Phoeni- cians the people learned navigation and caught the spirit of enterprise. The priests tried to discourage all progress, and did succeed in greatly hampering it. but some of the monarchs were great and secular. About the middle of the seventh century before the Christian era, Psammeticus I. encouraged in- tercourse with the Greeks. He employed them as soldiers, gave Greek names to his children, and al- lowed colonies from Greece to settle upon the Delta. His son, Necho II., sent a fleet on a voyage of dis- covery from the lied Sea, with a view to circum- navigate Africa, and see if there were not some •• Northwest" passage for commerce. The expedi- tion covered a period of three years. The Straits of Gibraltar were discovered and sailed through. As far as known, this was the most far-reaching voyage which had ever been undertaken at that time, and quite outstripped the "sailor's yarn " spun by Homer about the wanderings of Ulysses. Necho carried on extensive wars with the Assyri- ans, or, as by that time they deserved to be called, Babylonians or Chaldeans, for Nineveh had fallen. This line of military policy was carried on with va- rying fortunes, amid scenes no longer of much in- terest, till Cambyses the Mede crushed the liberties of Egypt. What he began, his son and heir fin- ished. He thoroughly overthrew the ancient em- pire of Egypt, and henceforth its most ancient form ceased to exist. The original, independent and African nation was no more. Afterwards Cambyses took Sais, captured King Psammeticus and over-ran and sacked the cities. From that time on, the Egypt of the pyramids has had only its past to boast of, and its ruins to glory in, and its subsequent achievements have been mainly due to foreign influences. It was in the year 523 B. C. that Cambyses inarched his conquering barbarians into Egypt, and 332 B. C, that Alexander the Great invaded the land of the Sphinx. During those two centuries the country was at the lowest ebb of happiness and the high-water mark of misery. The demoniacal Cambyses madly destroyed and desolated out of wanton savagery. The stupendous works of art at Thebes and elsewhere, were laboriously disfigured and defaced. His wanton Medes and Persians, the Vandals of their day, took special delight in break- ing off the heads of statues, the beard being held in as much veneration among them as the " pig- tail "is in China. No inconsiderable portion of the destruction now witnessed among the ruins of Egypt is chargeable to them, especially during the reign of the mad Cambyses. His immediate suc- cessor, Darius, was a mercenary ruler. He cared more for the spoils and revenue than for malicious gratification. Taken as a whole, that period of two hundred years was one long, relentless, and desolating tyranny, relieved briefly during the war of Xerxes with Greece, when the opportunity for revolt was improved, resulting, however, in no act- ual benefit to the Egyptians. That was a dreary period. Its details are unin- teresting in the extreme. It is only from the stand- point of general results that it possesses significance. What was really the most important thing of all, was the fall of Egypt as a vast schoolhouse of the nations. The pursuit of knowledge in that coun- try was beset with exceeding difficulty, especially for the Greek. The foreign student of philosophy, science, and art, would need true heroism to trust his life in any part of Egypt, especially if he were a Greek. That was an exceedingly fortunate thing for Greece and the whole world. It stimulated and developed the indigenous civilization of Greece, and contributed incalculably, although indirectly, to the glory of Athens. The intellectual scepter of the world passed from Coptic into Grecian hands, never to be regained. Henceforth the very glories of Egypt, if they do not really belong to Greece, are yet so very Hellenic as to have a distinctive type more suggestive of Athens than of Thebes or Memphis. It was during this decline of Egypt that the univer- sity of Heliopolis, was established, restoring largely to Egypt its educational functions. The schools of that city cannot be dated in their origin, but it is known that it was there that Solon, Pythagoras, Plato, and the learned Greeks generally, repaired to study not only " the wisdom of the Egyptians," but the science, philosophy, institutions and literature "7H ;FT 54 THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. of Assyria, and the whole world of existing civiliza- tion. There the scholars of the nations far and near repaired for study, as now they seek the uni- versities of Germany. There are some features of the laws of the Coptic period which merit attention, but which may be- long to the oldest empire, for a common law older than any record of it, is by no means peculiar to English-speaking peoples. The principle of crimi- nal law was retribution, not reform or mere re- straint in the future. It was " an eye for an eye and a tootli for a tooth." Slaves were far better protected than children or wives. Forgers were severely punished. Imprisonment for debt was not allowed. The most notable law was what in Brit- ish and American law is called " the statute of lim- itations," carried to the extreme that no debt could be collected at law unless it had been acknowledged in writing, provided the defendant denied the ob- ligation under oath. The clothing of the Egyptians was mostly linen, the women wearing a single garment extending from head to foot; the men. one of coarse texture and somewhat shorter. Sandals were worn gen- erally, but the head was bare, except that some- thing in the way of a badge of distinction was worn. The ordinary dwelling was a small plot of ground inclosed between four unroofed walls. A priest could marry only one wife, but poly- gamy was allowed to the secular part of the com- munity. The land belonged to the crown, the priesthood, and the soldiery in equal parts, the rev- enues of the government coming from the peasants on the crown lands. The area of civilization was not far from eleven millions of acres. For politi- cal purposes the country was divided into twines, or counties, varying from time to time in number from thirty to forty. There were also township di- visions for purposes of government. It may be added in conclusion, that the fine arts of this period compare poorly with the sculpture and painting of Greece ; the pupil far surpassing the master. Speaking of this period, an eminent historian writes : " We now possess but few traces of the Egyptian laws and customs by which to explain the form of government ; but there are two circumstances which throw some light upon it, and prove that it was a mixed form, between a monarchy and an aris- tocracy. First, every soldier was a land-owner, and arms were only trusted to those who had such an estate in the country as would make them wish to guard it from enemies from abroad and from ty- rants and tumults at home. These men formed a part of the aristocracy. A second remarkable in- stitution was the hereditary priesthood. Every clergyman, sexton and undertaker, every physician and druggist, every lawyer, writing clerk, school- master and author, every sculjjtor, jjainter, and land measurer, every magistrate and every fortune- teller, belonged to the priestly order. Of this sacred body the king, as we learn from the inscriptions, was the head ; he was at the same time chief-priest and general-in-chief of the army, while the temples were both royal palaces and Availed castles of great strength. The power of the king must have been in part based on the opinion and religious feeling of the many ; and however seltish may have been the priests, however they may have kept back knowl- edge from the people, or used the terrors of the next world as an engine for their power in this, yet such a government, while more strong, must have been far more free than the government of the sword. Every temple had its own hereditary fam- ily of priests, who were at the same time magis- trates of the city and the district, holding their power by the same right as the king did his. The union between church and state was complete. But the government must have been a good deal changed by Rameses II. and his father. After all Egypt was united under one scepter, the power of the monarch was too great for the independence of the several cities. The palaces built by these kings were not temples ; the foreign tributes and produce of the gold mines were used to keep in pay a stand- ing army ; and by a standing army alone could Rameses have fought his battles so far from home as in Asia Minor and on the banks of the Euphra- tes. The military land-holders were wholly unfit- ted for foreign warfare." There is no plainer les- son in history than this : However splendid and strong it may seem, a nation which employs for its defense foreign mercenaries, has entered upon its period of decline. r ^ EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. f^ CHAPTER VII. Alexander am) Alexandria— The Phyl.e— Papyrus Making — Alexander and Egypt- First of the Ptolemies — Alexandrian Commerce and Public Buildings — The Muse- um — The Library— The Ptolemies and Science — Alexandrian Philosophy — The Mate- rial Decline of the City — Alexandrian Christianity — Theological Warfare — Zeno- bia in Egypt — Persian Ravages — The Saracen Invasion. ML-- N the meteoric splendor of Alexander, Greece may well take perpetual pride. It is none the less true that he was by no means a typ- ical Greek. He belonged to barbaric Macedonia, which had little in corn- classic Athens, or the cul- has made the name of His exploits belong inon with tore which Greece illustrious. indeed to another portion of this his- tory, but we are now about to enter up- on a chapter of the past which consti- tutes the one grand monument to his glory. His dazzling splendors as a world conqueror will shine forever, but the kingdom was divided upon his un- timely death, and fell into fragments. It was saved from universal disgrace by the Ptolemaic dy- nasty, and the still greater and more enduring gen- ius of Alexandria (for there are local as well as per- sonal genii). We have seen Egypt rise and fall, being the world's greatest academy, even in its de- cline. But Persian oppression and the enervating influence of wealth had so vitiated the Coptic race that it seemed incapable of recovery. The new pe- riod of Egyptian greatness is more Hellenic than Coptic. It is Greece transplanted into Egypt, much as the glory of the United States is England trans- ~~ (55) ported to America. For three centuries the dynasty of the Ptolemies endured, and for nine cen- turies, Alexandria was the great literary and scien- tific metropolis of the world, rivaling in scholar- ship, if not original works of genius, Athens and Rome at their best. Hitherto, in our history, we followed the course of empire as marked out upon the tablets and memorial stones of royal association, but we may now pass out into the broader ocean of literature. About the time of the Persian invasion, papyrus became common and cheap in Egypt, and what is more, the use of letters took the place of picture writing with its slow work and unsatisfactory re- sults. The way was thus made ready for Alexan- dria with its libraries and book-lore. There are in Europe, to-day, no less than ten thousand Egyp- tian papyri. But our main concern is with Alex- andria, its kings and savants, its erudition and its literature ; in fine, the part taken by it in the devel- opment of man. Having established his sway over all Greece and the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, Alexander led his forces against Darius. His war upon the Persians endeared him to the Egyptian heart, so that when he went thither he was hailed as a deliverer. With a quick eve to the possibilities of empire, he deter- mined to erect a city worthy to perpetuate his name near one of the mouths of the Nile, where then stood the small village of Rhacotis. The site was ^ 56 EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. well chosen, and although he never returned to carry out the plan, his idea, barely begun in his life- time, bore fruit. Between that little village and the island of Pharos, the water was exceptionally deep and peculiarly well adapted for the harborage of ships. Alexander treated the Egyptian prejudices with respect, instead of trying to exasperate and hu- miliate the people. His victories over the Per- sians made secure his hold upon the land of the pyramids, and his reverence for Amnion and the other deities of the Nile, made his claim of sonship to Amnion a highly appreciated compliment. It was eight years after his entrance upon Egypt that he died at Babylon, during which period very little had been done to carry out his plan beyond preparing the way for it. His half-brother, Philip Arridseus, was declar- ed by his generals, assembled at Babylon, to be his successor. But in the course of a few years the empire fell into fragments, these generals dividing it between themselves. The province of Egypt fell to the lot of Ptolemy. From the first, he was virtually king of the country, and his dynasty continued with varying fortunes, until finally the imperialism of Rome absorbed the country. The city which he built and made his capital, survived the dynasty with which in glory it was indivisibly united for a brilliant series of centuries. The first of the Ptolemies, B. C. 332, was sur- named Soter, and the last in point of fact was Cleo- patra, who applied the fatal asp to her breast B. C. 30. The real glory of Alexandria faded gradu- ally as the light of Christianity obscured the bright- ness of pagan philosophy and science. No other date can be fixed for the final eclipse of its splen- dor so appropriate as the burning of its marvelous and vast library by the Arabs, A. D. 640. We Light-house on the Pharos.— (One of the Seven Wonders of the world.) shall not, however, in this chapter, catalogue the kings who ruled in Alexandria or the emperors who held it in vassalage, but endeavor to give an idea of the actual place held during these years by the city which may be said to furnish the connecting link between ancient and modern times. This city combined commercial with educational supremacy and in its palmy days, which were many, had about three hundred thousand inhabitants, which, by the way, is about its present population. It was laid out on a generous plan. The two main streets crossed one another at right-angles in the middle of the town, which was from the first, three miles long and nearly a mile wide, with streets wide enough for carriages. Upon the neighboring island of Pharos was erected (about three centuries before Christ) a gigantic light-house of white marble, which is class- ed as one of the seven wonders of the world. As described, the early citv must have been peculiarly mode r n . The public buildings which fronted the har- bor included a cham- ber of commerce, and beside the wharf and cemetery, there were theaters, circuses, race- courses, public parks, public libraries, public schools, and the temple of Therapis, which might pass for a cathedral. The chief of all these institutions was the University, generally called the Museum. This Museum was the home of philosophy and learning, the resort of students old and young. Its great hall was devoted to lectures, and was also used as a dining-room, for the physical necessities of the scholars were duly regarded. The state spent vast sums of money in maintaining this institution. On the porch and in the spacious grounds gathered " in groups and knots " the scholars and professors in the pursuit of knowledge. In the old Coptic uni- versity previously mentioned, the savants taught only what was, strictly speaking, " the wisdom of the i V \ ik_ EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 57 Egyptians;" but this Hellenic University was truly cosmopolitan. It drew knowledge from the whole world. Its library was early a large one and steadily increased with the growth of literature. It may be well to say here that the Alexandrian library was fired three times, and nearly destroyed each time ; first by Caesar, when lie conquered the city ; second by Christian fanaticism, and lastly by Mohammedan fanaticism, the loss being greater upon each repetition. This vast repository of liter- ature was open to the public for reading and for copying, and the latter was an important industry in those days of more thirst for knowledge than facilities for its gratification. The papyrus and the scribe of those days were the printing press and compositor of modern times. The first Ptolemy was a historian of no mean attainments, and the last to make that name illustrious was an astrono- mer second only to Galileo and Copernicus. It was not bravery alone which was rewarded in Alexan- dria, nor yet commercial enterprise. Neither was under-rated, but both were held in less repute than scholarship, art, and all which the term culture embraces. Sculptors, painters, poets, historians, linguists, scientists of all kinds, and every dweller upon the lofty table-land of intellectual life, were the real aristocrats of that city. Not only was Alexandria a repository for all the wisdom of Greece, but it embraced the body of Syrian and Assyrian learning and Jewish literature. The scattered writings of the Hebrew tongue were gathered into one book and translated into Greek (for Alexan- dria being a Grecian city, in fact, made Greek the language of general literature). That translation is known as the Septuagint, and is identical with our Old Testament. Jesus Christ and others in the New Testament, quoted from the Septuagint, when- ever they quoted at all from the scriptures of their own people, which shows that the Septuagint was the version used even in Judea. Never did a sovereign show more appreciation of intellectual superiority, regardless of nationality, than the founder of the great house of Ptolemy. He lived familiarly with the learned men of his capital, courting their society. He was not so much their patron as their friend, for he did not have the offensive ways suggested by the term " patronize." The list of eminent professors at Alexandria would be a very long one, covering the entire range of 'intellectual pursuits. The noble city was an asylum for the banished free-thinkers of other lands. None were more famous than the physicians. Anatomy was born at Alexandria, and so indeed was natural history. Mathematics was brought to a still higher degree of perfection there than ever before attained. The study of nature by patient analysis and consecutive observation was fair- ly begun there, without being carried to any very satisfactory degree of perfection. There was in the Alexandrian dissecting-rooms and zoological collec- tions the suggestions of modern science, but the difference is that between the gray of early morn and full sunlight. Unfortunately, between that twilight and this daylight was the almost rayless darkness of a thousand years. When Alexandria fell, night overspread the world, its mantle being finally lifted only by the invention of printing. The peculiarity of Alexandria as compared with other great cities of learning, ancient and modern, was the paucity and insignificance of its original literature. The copying business seemed to lie un- favorable to the development of originality. It can boast no Homer, no Plato, no Virgil, no Horace, no Tacitus. In the world of ideas, poetical or philo- sophical, its every contribution to literature might perish without any very serious loss. Much has been said of the Alexandrian school of philosophy, its Neoplatonism and its Agnosticism, but these terms suggest vast erudition, with a singular barrenness of ideas. Philo, the Jew, was second to no Alexan- drian in his philosophical ability, and his works are extant and accessible to English readers, but they are dreary and vapid. The attempt to adapt Pla- tonic thought to Hebraic theology was futile. The long list of writers, prose and poetic, contains no really great name. It is not for its productions of genius, but for the conservation of learning, that Alexandria is entitled to wear a crown of metropoli- tan supremacy. Its commerce continued with some interruptions, but without eclipse, until the trade of India and the far Orient began to go around the continent of Af- rica, instead of through its northern portion. The voyage around Africa and through the Straits of Gibraltar, jjreviously mentioned, bore little fruit, at least it had no direct connection with the discovery which left Alexandria stranded upon the desert, un- til the construction, or rather the reconstruction, of _ik ^L 58 EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. the Suez Canal by DeLesseps, since which time it has resumed some commercial importance. What has now been said of Alexandria as a seat of learning, prepares one to understand the part taken by that remarkable city in determiiring the character of Christianity, which service, be it good or ill, was the final glory of the city. The date of the introduction of Christianity into Egypt is uncer- tain. St. Mark has the traditional honor of its in- troduction. The first opponent of Christianity, the father of all who assail it, as unworthy the "divinity which doth hedge it about," was Celsus of Alexan- dria. He was answered by his townsman, Origen. That controversy partook of the metaphysical hair- splitting so popular in that university town. Hith- erto, the Christians had been content to be practical pietists. The scholarly and scholastic Alexandrians . raised and discussed matters of opinion, and inau- gurated the terribly demoralizing policy of excom- munication on dogmatic ground. Theology, as a field for dialectic combat and angry disputation, was born in the Museum, and was the natural offspring of the Alexandrian school of philosophy. It was there that Bishop Athanasius insisted upon the di- vinity of Jesus, and Presbyter Arius denied it, car- rying the controversy so far as to occasion the Ni- cene Council and Creed, and making a schism in the church, over a creedal point quite foreign to the simple thought of the primitive Christians. For a time Alexandria was the capital of Christianity, almost as truly as Rome afterwards became. But that proud position was only briefly held. When Constantine had established his court on the Bos- phonis, the city named in his honor became the seat of empire for the Greek Church, and Rome as a rival capital, became the metropolitan see for the rival western church. The opinion of Athanasius was espoused in Rome- and that of Arius in Constantinople, and Alexan- dria lost its prestige. Constantine sought to make his urban namesake a great, seat, of learning, the central point of Greek thought, and an intellectual, as well as religious center of influence. In this lie so far succeeded as to sap the life of Alexandria. What Roman conquest had hardly impaired, and Arab conquest subsequently attempted, the rivalry of Constantinople very nearly effected. The real secret, however, of Alexandrian decay wa,s the un- due prominence given to mere learning in distinc- tion from real thought, and polemical theology in distinction from actual religion. In the year A. 1). 270, occurred an interesting episode in Egyptian history. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, one of the most interesting characters in history, was acknowledged by all Egypt as queen. She made the country a province of Syria. Her reign was short, but its influence upon Upper Egypt permanent. Two years after her sovereignty began, she w;is taken captive by a Roman army and car- ried in triumph to Rome, to spend the rest of her days in enforced retirement. The Coptic element still clung to the idea of sep- aration from imperial Rome through Syrian leader- ship. This movement failed, but the Copts of Up- per Egypt were fired with a quenchless purpose to break the hated yoke. When, at length, the Ro- man Empire was divided, Egypt fell to the lot of the Eastern Empire. That was about the begin- ning of the fifth century. A century later, the Persians having conquered a large part of Syria, in- vaded Egypt. Temple ravages were committed, but the capital was not taken. Other raids followed, but no decisive advantage was gained. The country suffered terribly from the rivalries of Persia and the Eastern Empire. Then came the Saracen. One of the first countries to be conquered by the follow- ers of Islam, was the land of the Pharaohs, Alexan- dria only offering serious resistance. The Saracen commander who won this province was Amru. It was under the Caliphat of Omar. It was by Amru that the Alexandrian library was burned the third time, in obedience to the instructions of Omar, who said, '• If the books are the same as the Koran they are useless, if not, they are wicked, therefore they should be burned in any case." In this spirit did the Saracens ever rule all Egypt. It is none the less true, that ultimately, the treasures of Alexan- drian knowledge were largely preserved and dissem- inated in Europe by the Mohammedans rather than the Christians. The service to civilization rendered by the Moors in Spain, might be called without ex- aggeration, Egypt's last, best gift to mankind. ■?-< •i\AA±±AA*.A4jLji*.AAA*±jiAM£Lj!L&AiX'Xj:A\<' A* ______ '>mmmms CHAPTER VIII. Egypt, Geographically speaking— From Amru to Saladin— The Mamelukes and Turk- ish Subjugation— Present Dtnasty— Debt of Egypt, and its Political Consequences —Railroads and the Suez Canal— Cairo, and the Present Alexandria— The Nile- Natural Resources— Slave Trade and Education— Present Population, Fellahs, Copts and Turks. of the ;F all the countries world Egypt alone is the same, geographically speak- ing, "yesterday, to-day, and forever." Natural bounda- ries determine its area. Egypt As It Is, presents the same topographical pe- culiarities as did the Egypt of the Pyramids and the Sphinx. The coun- try embraced is the lowest or northern division of the valley of the Nile, from the lowest cataract, latitude 34° 3' 45" north, to the Mediterranean Sea, latitude 31° 35'. Measured on the meridian line, its length is 450 miles, but making due allowance for the windings of the mighty river, its length reaches 600 miles. The average width is eight miles, the maximum width being Kill miles. The whole area of the valley, in- cluding the Delta of the Nile, is only 11,351 square miles. There is a good deal of semi-desert country included in Egypt proper, on either side of the valley, which swells the area to 175.130 square miles. For administrative purposes, then' are thirteen provinces or counties. The jurisdiction of Egypt, as a nation, extends to some outlying regions. Nubia, Darfur and a vaguely defined territory, mostly barren sands, with occasional oases. Between the Egypt which Amru conquered and the present nation of that name, which came into existence, politically, during this century, and is now subject to a novel subjugation, retaining the sem- blance of independence without its reality, stretches a gulf which may be sufficiently spanned for our purpose in few words; for when Alexandria fell, Egypt became once more enveloped in "a darkness that might be felt." Under the Caliphs, alike at Damascus and Bagdad, it was a mere cipher. The Fatima dynasty of the Saracen Empire gained pos- session of the country in 909 under which Cairo was founded, and became, as it has remained ever since, the capital. That famous Payuim, Saladin, who did so much to baffle the Crusaders, obtained the sovereignty of Egypt, and a new era seemed about to dawn upon the land : but witli his death the Empire was dismembered, and Egypt again lapsed into utter insignificance. In 1250 came the regime of the Mamelukes. They were Turkish or Caucasian slaves, who became so strong, being trusted with the affairs of state by their enervated masters, that they rose in successful rebellion, deposing the Sultan who feebly reigned at Cairo. They were never fully conquered until Na- poleon won the victory of the Pyramids, July, 1798. The Ottoman Empire succeeded, however, in reduc- ing the country to a partial condition of vassalage. This reduction dates from 1517, Selim being the Ottoman sovereign under whom the subjugation was effected. The present Khedive (Arabic for king), Mehemet Tewfik, came to the throne in 1879, upon the abdi- vi * (59) r 6o EGYPT AS IT IS. cation of his father, Ismail. He is the sixth ruler of the dynasty founded by that truly great man, Mehemet Ali, who was appointed governor of Egypt, as viceroy of the Sultan at Constantinople, in 1806. His reign as a sovereign began Ave years later. Mehemet Ali remained upon the throne which he himself reared until 1848. His eldest son, Ibra- him, died the same year, and the crown passed to Abbas, Ali's grandson. He wore it until 1854, when his uncle. Said, a man nine years his junior, suc- ceeded him. In 1863 Ismail came to the throne, a man of such Oriental extravagance, both in public $500,000,000. The actual control of the nation is in the hands of an "International Commission of Liquidation," composed of seven members. The present Khedive has an annual allowance of $500,- 000 for himself, $200,000 for his deposed father, and $875,000 for other members of the royal family. The railroads of that country are the property of the state. They extend, all told, about a thousand miles. The great public work of Egypt, belonging to modern times and practical matters, is the Suez canal. It has a total length of ninety-two miles, Cairo. improvements and personal or household habits, that he became a hopeless bankrupt. His abdica- tion was the result brought about by the combined pressure of British and French creditors. One of the prodigalities of the Khedive was an agreement to pay the Sultan an enormous tribute in exchange for more perfect independence, for the indepen- dence achieved by force in 1811 left some vestiges of vassalage. In 1866 the almost complete disinthrall- ment was purchased by an agreement to pay a lib- eral annual tribute and furnish Turkey in time of war a contingent of Egyptian soldiers. In every- thing else the separation was absolute. The debt of Egypt at the close of 1880 was about and is wide and deep enough for the passage of large vessels. The sidings serve the same purpose as switches on single-track railroads. The number of vessels which passed through it in 1879 was 1,477, with a tonnage of 3,236,943. It was first opened for business in 1869. The cost, in round numbers, of this short canal was $100,000,000, so difficult was it to protect the channel from the drifting sand. This canal was a triumph of French engineering, its projector and constructor having been M. de Les- seps, the indefatigable head of the Panama canal project now being pushed for the uniting of the two great oceans. At the present time the Suez canal is under British control. More than three-fourths *7T« _s> L>- EGYPT AS IT IS. 6l of the shipping which passed through the canal dur- ing its first decade belonged to Great Britain. Port Said, on the Mediterranean end of the route, is one terminus, and Suez, on the Red Sea, the other. A new town, Ismailia, came into existence in connec- tion with the canal. None of these towns, however, can boast any real thrift and general business. Egypt has only two cities of any considerable size, Cairo and Alexandria. They are 117 miles apart. The discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497, was afar more serious blow to Alexandria than its capture by Amru. Its glory tions. But it is only in a commercial point of view that the Alexandria of to-day is an important city. The population of Cairo is about 350,000. It is the religious capital of Mohammedanism It is there that the great university of Islam is located. Not less than ten thousand students assemble there to study the Koran, and con the priestly lore of the Crescent. Saracenic architecture is exhibited in its highest degree of perfection in its numerous mosques and minarets, the most remarkable of the former being the one erected by Sultan Tooloon, in 879. An ancient Egyptian proverb exclaims, " What, Town of Suez. had indeed departed, but it was still an impor- tant mart of trade. The commerce of the East flowed through its port, and its marvelous light- house continued to be the great beacon of commerce. After Portuguese enterprise had wrought its work of revolution the city dwindled to a population of 6,000 a century ago. But since then it lias received a fresh lease of life. Ten years ago the population hail reached 220,000. Besides the Pharos, it has a breakwater two miles long which furnishes a road- stead for a very extensive commerce between Eu- rope and India. From its wharfs are exported large quantities of grain, sugar, cotton, and other produc- want ye wine who have Nilus to drink of ? " To no other country is any river anything like as impor- tant as the Nile is to Egypt. This mighty stream was long a profound mystery as to its source, and a prolific source of speculation, no less than a tempt- ing field for exploration. It is still somewhat of a mystery, but it is certain that the river is formed by the junction of the Blue and White Nile at Khar- toom, the capital of Nubia. The elevation at that point above the level of the sea is 1188 feet. After flowing northerly through about two degrees of lat- itude, it receives a third and final tributary at El Dumer, called the Black Nile. From this point it aj\* -• £> k- 62 EGYPT AS IT IS. descends, in a round-about way, througn several lat- itudes, forming the famous Cataracts of the Nile, the last being at Assonan, the boundary between Nubia and Egypt. For about fifteen hundred miles this majestic river receives no tributary. The White Nile is believed to be the parent river. It originates in a large lake, the Victoria Nyanza, sit- uated in equatorial mountains. The valley of the Nile, from Phike to Cairo, is hedged about by chains of hills. The Delta proper is. however, one dead level — a plain without so much are found in the desert. The crocodile and the hip- popotamus rarely visit the lower Nile. Wild hogs roam in the marshes bordering the Delta. Camels, donkeys and mules are raised in large quantities. The principal crops of the farmers are, to name them in the order of their importance, cotton, maize, dur- ra, beans, wheat, barley, rice, lintels, lupine, gar- den vegetables, clover, sugar-cane, flax, hemp, to- bacco, sesame, opium, henna, indigo, safflower, roses, melons, oranges and bananas. Sheep are raised largely, and it is a great country for poultry. Port Said, and the Northern End of the Canal. as a hillock. The desert between the Nile ami the Red Sea is somewhat diversified by hills. The usu- al rock formation of the country is limestone, with some granite in the southern portion. The only minerals found in quantities to yield revenue are salt, natron and r. "re. The plants which nature produces without tillage usually have hairy, thorny exteriors. The palm-tree flourishes with very little cultivation. Oranges, figs, and tamarinds abound and are of an excellent quality. Olive, mulberry, and poplar trees thrive there. Zoologically speaking, Egypt does not make very much of a showing. Gazelles, hyenas, and jackals The slave trade still survives in Egypt to some extent, but it is being suppressed gradually, and that mainly through British influence. A system of popular education, very imperfect and inadequate, still of vast advantage to the rising generation, has been adopted, and it is not too much to hope that Egypt may once more have a place among the really important members of the family of living nations. Of the present population, a modern writer has accu- rately, if somewhat floridly, remarked : " In the ill- paid fellahs who cultivate the soil and work the boats and water-wheels, who live in mud hovels, wearing very little clothing, we see the unprivileged IK* U£ EGYPT AS IT IS. 63 class, that has labored under various masters from very early times, unnoticed by the historian. These are the same in the form of the skull as the Galla tribe of east Africa, aud were probably the earliest inhabitants of the valley. Such were the builders of the pyramids, as we learn by comparing their heads with the great Sphinx. They suffer under the same plagues of boils and blains, of lice and of flies, as in the time of Moses. Their bodies are painted with various colors, pricked into their skin, as they were when the Israelites were forbidden to make any marks on their flesh. " In the industrious Copts, the Christians of the villages, the counting-house, and the monastery, with skull and features half European and half Eastern, we have the old Egyptian race of the Delta, the ruling class, such as it was in the days of Psam- metichus and Shishank. Between Silsilis and the second cataract we find, under the name of Nubians, the same old Egyptian race, hut less mixed with Greeks or Arabs. Such were the Nabatse who fought against Diocletian, and such in features were the kings of Ethiopia, Saba-Cothph. and Ergame- nes. We know them by their likeness to the stat- ues, and by their proud contempt of the Fellahs. They were both zealous Christians under Athana- sius ; but Christianity has only remained among the mixed race of the Copts. •• To the east of the Nile, near Cosseir, aud again throughout the whole of Ethiopia from Abou Sim- bel to Meroe, are the Ababdeh Arabs, brave and lawless. These were the Southern enemies con- quered by Raroeses, and they often fought against the Romans. They are the owners of the camels now, as they used to be, and are the carriers across t he sands of the desert. To the south of Syene, in the desert between Ethiopia and the Red Sea, are the less civ- ilized marauding Bishareen Arabs, the Bleminyes and Troglodytes of the Greeks. These Arabs seem to be less at home on the banks of the Nile than the Copts and the Nubians. They no doubt reach- ed the valley at some later period, when the others were already settled there, and reached not by pass- ing through Egypt, but by crossing over from the Arabian side of the Red Sea. Some modifications of this classsfication were among the results of 1882, which in a small way changed the political status of Egypt. In 1880 ef- forts were made to organize a National or purely Egyptian party, the aim of which was to rid the country of foreign influence. This movement cul- minated in 1881 in an im-urrectionary agitation, at the head of which was Arabi Pasha, who, born a Fellah, had risen througli service in the army to the rank of General, and had become the Khedive's Minister of War. After an open rupture with the Khedive, Arabi, having control of the army, ignored the authority of the Controllers General, appointed by England and France, and in this way came in conflict with those powers On the 25th of May 1882, France and England presented their ultimatum, demanding a restoration of the statu quo. Arabi declined to comply, and after weeks spent in fruitless negotia- tion. England decided on military interference. The war opened with the bombardment of Alexandria by the British Fleet under the command of Admiral Seymour July 11, aud closed with the capture of Tel-el Kebir Sept. 13. The Britisli force, under General Garnet Wolseley, had invaded the country from the lino of the Suez Canal, and General Wolse- ley attacked Arabi's army Sept. 10, with a force of 30,000 men aud 60 guns. The Egyptians were ! routed and Arabi surrendered. Cairo was occupied i Sept. 15, and within a few days all the insurgent I troops had laid down their arms. The Khedive was restored with the old powers, the army was reorganized under English supervi- sion, and reforms were undertaken in the civil ser- vice. Arabi Pasha and his leading associates were tried for treason and condemned to death. The Khedive commuted the sentence to banishment, and they were sent with their families to Ceylon. As a result of the war English methods of reorganization were introduced in Egypt, the Khedive and the Sultan of Turkey consenting. To the initial observation of this chapter, may be appositely added, that in comparative importance as a member of the household of nations, present Egypt is the greatest conceivable contrast to the Egypt of antiquity.* * See papre 309. _J is =S5* 4. C ETHIOPIA AND THE PH(ENIC\^ S 1 CHAPTER IX. Ethiopian and Ph(ENIcian Conjectures— Ethiopia and Egypt— Elective Monarchy and Glimpses op Civilization— Christianity— The Arts and Sciences in Ethiopia — Modern Ethiopia, or Abyssinia— Phoenicia, and Phoenician Cities— Tyre and Sidon — Commerce and Enterprise— Phoenician Colonies— The Arts and Industries op the Phoenicians — The Disappearance of this People. S^HN 3C *#*»-oi iF the honored names in the list of ancient nations and peoples, none are more shad- owy and vague than Ethiopia and the Phoenicians. The £5? former stands for a well-de- ^£n3 fined region of country, pri- marily, but is often confound- ed with Africa in general, and Egypt in particular ; the latter, applied to a people who can hardly be said to have had an abiding habitation. The Ethi- opians occupied a land now penned up YP-^ and isolated, but once the half-way pi V^-J house between interior Africa and India. There was, indeed, a Phoenicia, but the Phoenicians were free rovers Herein the two present the sharpest possible contrast ; but in the estimation of many, they are equally entitled to honor ; one for origina- ting civilization (an unsubstantiated claim for Ethi- opia), and the other for its dissemination. Books of ponderous size and great erudition, if somewhat fan- ciful in theories, have been written to show that even Egypt and Judea derived their civilization from Ethiopia or Cush, while whole libraries have been published to prove that the promulgation of progressive ideas must be accredited to the enter- prising Phoenicians. Without going into the dis- of the seas. cussion of those speculative themes, it may be of interest in this chapter to familiarize the reader with the lands and peoples suggested by the heading. In that southeast region where the sources of the Nile have been sought, mountains abound, and there are also rich valleys. From time immemorial, two distinct races have been found there, the Ethi- opians and the Arabs. The latter were ever nomads, but the former dwelt in cities, possessed governments and laws, left monumental ruins distinctively their own, and were once far-famed for their arts and cul- ture. The Nubian valley was once as fertile as the delta of the Nile. It is so still, except as the sands of the adjacent deserts have drifted on and overlaid the original soil. Cataracts impede navigation and make a strong barrier between Ethiopia and Egypt. Caravans have always been the dependence of Nu- bia for commercial intercourse. Camels and drom- edaries are river and sea to that country. At the southern extremity of the Nubian valley, the river spreads itself and incloses numerous fertile islands. Along the entire length of this valley, one may even now encounter a succession of grand ruins, monu- ments which rival in beauty and exceed in sublimity the marvels of Thebes. But for all that, Ethiopia can give no intelligible account of its youth and usefulness. Those monuments are dumb. No Ro- setta stone has unsealed their lips. We know from Egyptian records, that the Pharaohs early invaded (64) fv^ ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS. 65 the territory, subjugated the people and enriched their own country with the treasures of the van- quished. From scattered and brief mention here and there in the remotest ages of history, it is evident that the Ethiopians were a warlike people, and at one time masters of the navigation of the lied Sea, and a part of the peninsula of Arabia. They were indeed con- quered by Egypt, but later, when Egypt's conqueror, Cambyses, attempted to extend the sway of the Medes and Persians to that country, he failed. Nat- ural barriers were more potent, however, than hu- man prowess. At one period of Egyptian history the monarchs of that country were Ethiopians. This Cushite dy- nasty furnished three kings, Sabbakon, Sevechus, and Tarakus, the latter called in the Hebrew histo- ry, Tirhakah. In the reign of Psammeticus, the entire warrior caste of Egypt migrated to Ethiopia and became the military instructors of the people. [ The Ethiopian kings were elected. The electors were the priests, for there, as everywhere, the church sought to rule the state. A singular custom pre- vailed. If the ecclesiastics wanted a change in the administration they dispatched a courier to the mon- arch with orders to die. So potent was superstition and priestcraft, that this mandate appears never to have been resisted until as late as the reign of the second Ptolemy. During that sovereign's rule in Egypt, Er^amenes, of Ethiopia, received orders to 1 3 1 An Ethiopian princess traveling in a plamtram, or car drawn by ox- en. 2 Over her is a sort of umbrella. 3 An attendant. 4 The char- ioteer or driver. be his own executioner. But he was a Greek phi- losopher by education, and instead of meekly obey- ing, he slew the priests and instituted a new religionA This country, called also Meroe, was not averse to female sovereignty, if a stranger to female suffrage. More than one queen ruled the land of Cush. The Queen of Sheba is supposed to have been one of the number, and certain it is that Candace, who made war upon Augustus Caesar, was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of antiquity, scant as is our knowledge of her. She was indeed defeated by the world-conquering legions of Rome, but she was able to secure terms of peace which were highly honora- ble, and in strong contrast with the tragic fate of Cleopatra. It is highly probable that Ergamenes introduced the worship of Jehovah, among other gods, for un- der Queen Candace (the second probably of this name) we find, from the Acts of the Apostles, that her Secretary of the Treasury, as the officer would be called in this country, traveled by chariot to Jeru- salem for purposes of worship. The account rep- resents him as reading the scriptures as he jour- neyed (the Septuagint, probably), and as having been converted to Christianity by Philip. Traces of the Christian religion are to be found in Ethiopia, but the Ethiopians took more readily to the worship of Islam's prophet than to the fellowship of Jesus of Nazareth. That once grand and powerful country long since lapsed into barbarism and ceased to possess interest or importance. We cannot better close this account of Ethiopia in its relations to antiquity than by quoting Dr. Tay- lor's comments upon its arts, commerce and manu- factures : " The pyramids of Ethiopia, though in ferior in size to those of Middle Egypt, are said to surpass them in architectural beauty, and the sepul- chers evince the greatest purity of taste. But the most important and striking proof of the progress of the people in the art of building is their knowledge and employment of the arch. The Ethiopian vases depict- ed on the monuments, though not richly ornamental, display a taste and elegance of form that has never been surpassed in sculpture and coloring. The edi- fices of Meroe, though not so profusely adorned, rival the choicest specimens of Egyptian art. It was the entrepot of trade between the North and the South, between the East and the West. It does not appear that fabrics were woven in Ethiopia as extensively as in Egypt : but the manufactures of metals must have been at least as flourishing But Meroe owed its greatness less to the produce of its soil or its fac- i- 66 ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS. -k tories than to its position on the intersection of the leading caravan-routes of ancient commerce. The great changes in these lines of trade, the devasta- tions of successive conquerors, and revolutions, the fanaticism of the Saracens, and the destruction of the fertile soil by the encroachments of the desert- sands, are causes sufficient for the ruin of such a powerful empire. Its decline was probably accele- rated by the pressure of the nomad hordes, who took advantage of its weakness to plunder its defenseless citizens." with England which began early in 18G8. In a few months the conquest was complete, and rather than yield to Sir Robert Napier's demand for uncon- ditional surrender, Theodore committed suicide. Early in his reign he had shown some high qualities of statesmanship, and inspired the hope that Ethi- opia would Once more become a fairly prosperous country ; but that hope was doomed to disajipoint- ment. Gondar, the capital and chief city, once had a population of 50,000, but now it has hardly more than one-tenth of that number. Coast of Tyre. The population of Abyssinia, the present Ethio- pia, so far as there is a modern country correspond- ing to ancient Cush, is about 3,000,000. The com- mon people are industrious husbandmen, belonging, for the most part, to the Abyssinian Church, a branch of Christianity which retains the Oriental rite of cir- cumcision, as no less binding than baptism and the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. The government is an absolute monarchy. In 1855, Theodore III. was crowned king of Abyssinia, and under him the country came into considerable prominence. He conceived the idea of conquering Egypt. This really chimerical idea, and the imprisonment of certain British subjects, finally involved Theodore in a war Phoenicia was an insignificant tract of land in the north of Palestine, along the coast of the Mediter- ranean Sea, of uncertain extent. A plain twenty- eight miles in length and averaging about one mile in width, constituted Phoenicia proper, hemmed in between the sea and the mountains. Later, the term applied to a strip of country 120 miles long and some twenty miles wide. The modern Beirut is within its limits. So were the old cities of Byblus, Tripolis, and Aradnus. But the cities which made it illustrious were Tyre and Sidon, or Zidon, prover- bial in the days of our Savior for their wickedness. Both were great commercial cities, less than twenty miles distant front each other. The modern name ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS. 6 7 >1l+ of Sidon is Saida. Tyre is now in litter ruin. It was overthrown by Alexander the Great, and its destruction prepared the way for the supremacy of Alexandria. All the other cities of Phoenicia accepted the Grecian yoke without a struggle. Tyre regained somewhat its ancient prosperity, but never its relative importance. Its complete destruction occurred during the Crusades. The people became convinced that their position was a most unfortu- nate one, being especially liable to military depreda- tion, and so, as a Venetian historian expresses it, " the Tyrians, one day at vespers, leaving the city empty, without the stroke of a sword, without the tumult of war, embarked on board their vessels and sailed away, no more to return."' That was a proceeding eminently in keeping with the Phoenician spirit of adventure. They had always been a sea-faring peo- ple. They dwelt along a coast indented with harbors and bays, well supplied with timber suitable to shipping purposes. The famous "Cedars of Lebanon " belonged to, and largely explain the maritime enterprise of, the Phoenicians. Their cities were not parts of one great empire, but free and independent states, joined together by the loose tie of a confederate league, Sidon being the head-center at first, and afterwards Tyre. The people were sailors and merchants, and the dividing line between piracy and commerce was vague and uncertain. The earliest authentic history of the Phoenicians, is the account of the reign of Abica of Tyre (B. C. 1950). That was in the days of David. His son and heir, Hiram, was a broad-minded sovereign, as his negotiations with David and Solomon show. Under him, Tyre was the commercial capital of the world. One hundred and fifty years later, Carthage was founded. It was an offshoot of Tyre, and served an important purpose in the westward exten- sion of commerce. Its struggle witli Rome for the DO supremacy of the world belongs to a later period of this history. Apart from that struggle, known as the Punic Wars, the Phoenicians were content to confine their ambition to the water. That was their element. Of course they had a large land trade, for it was necessary to their merchant marine. That trade had three branches, — the Arabian, which included the Egyptian, and that with the Indian seas ; the Babylonian, or the heart of Central Asia and North India ; the Armenian, including what would now be called Southern Russia. What their ships did was to bridge the watery gulfs, which neither camels nor the fragile boats of the Nile could cross, and thus maintained commerce between peoples otherwise isolated from each other. Vast caravans from " Araby the Blessed" brought frankincense, myrrh, cassia, gold, and precious stones, cinnamon, ivory . ebony, and similar merchandise. Like the Jew of to-day, the Phoenician was to be found wherever there was money to be made in traffic, and since commerce is the great agency in the advancement of civilization, the corsairs of Tyre and Sidon were, in effect, however mercenary their designs, the great evangelists of antiquity, missionaries of learning and progress. They submitted to Nebuchadnezzar without serious resistance, and later, to Persia, but all the while maintained commercial liberty. The payment of tribute was exacted and complied with. All along the Mediterranean. Phoenician colonies were established, and trading-posts grew into cities. These colonies were to be found on either shore, and on mainland and island. They even pushed their ad- venturous keels through the straits of Gibraltar, estab- lishing trade with the Britons and the Scandinavians. * sh lit. ** CHAPTER X, A Peculiar People— The Fatherhood op Abraham— From Isaac to Moses— The Great Law- giver — The Period op the Judges — Saul and David — Solomon; King, Poet and Philoso- pher — Disunion and Subjugation — The Restoration and the Maccabees — Under the Roman Rod — The Destruction op Jerusalem — Persecution in Dispersion — Improved Con- dition op the Jews — Jerusalem no longer their Dream op Paradise. HE object of this chapter is to bring to mind the more important features of scrip- tural history, and such ma- terial trials and experiences as throw light thereupon, reserving for another con- nection that crowning glory of the Jews, Jesus Christ and his mission. Christianity belongs to the present, albeit its roots draw nourishment from the past. A Hebrew chronological table will be found in the Tables of Refer- ences. In taking a. general survey of the whole world, past and nationality stands out conspic- distinctive characteristics. The .lews are that nationality. They are indeed " a peculiar people." Despised and persecuted, dis- persed and maligned for nearly two thousand years, they remain steadfast and apart, clinging with tireless tenacity to their immemorial customs, the Hebraic blood unmixed and pure, always and everywhere. Wherever found (and they are almost ubiquitous) they are as distinctly " the children of Israel" as if intermarriage with other nations were present, one nous for its an absolute impossibility. With a history as spe- cific as if it were the record of a day, they take ns back to the very foundation of all existence, and show us the founder of the nation, Abraham, in his relations to the whole human family. He was an An Arah Sheik. Arab Sheik and belonged to a tribe of Bedouin shepherds, which sacrificed their first-born to ap- pease the gods of their idolatry. Abraham, who was born about B. C. 2200, enjoined upon his de- scendants the substitution of a sacrificial beast for a human being, assuring them that he did so by the express command of Jehovah, whom they should worship in all singleness of devotion. The story of the rescue of Isaac by divine interposition is told 68) V? Jq_ te, THE JEWS. 69 with minuteness, and must have produced a pro- found impression. Then, too, he took care to re- move to a region of country remote from his ances- tral home. When, in later time, the history of the Jews began to be written, the record was carried back to the very morning of creation, and each gen- eration given from Adam down, together with many details, such as the sacrifice of Abel, the wick- edness of the antediluvians, the Deluge, the Tower of Babel, and other incidents too familiar to be mentioned here, but all of which, taken together, tended to strengthen the hold upon the children of Abraham of the religious changes instituted, and out of which the distinctive nationality of the Jews grew, by a gradual process of development. The oneness of the Deity, and Abraham's abhorrence of human sacrifices, may be called the Joachim and Boaz of the Hebrew temple, the parent thoughts of the very nation itself. Isaac did not make any marked contribution to the nationality. He lacked the vigor and the personal power of his father Abra- ham, and his son Jacob, or Israel. The latter saw Arrival of Jacob's Family in Egypt. his somewhat numerous family, with their vast flocks, comfortably quartered on the rich pastures of Lower Egypt — Goshen — while one of the sons was prime minister of that great kingdom. That must have been a proud day for the patriarch. But he was not unmindful of the great mission of fidelity to Jehovah which his grandfather inaugurated, and with his dying breath he besought his children to be true to the great trust of nationality bequeathed to them. His eye of faith saw his descendants wend- ing their way back from Egypt to Canaan, there to make trial of a pure theocracy. It was four hun- dred years before that hope was realized. Some idea of what the Jews learned during those centu- ries may be inferred from a perusal of Egyptian history. How much of that time was spent in sla- very we know not, but it is safe to say that the He- brews had the full benefit of the discipline of bond- age, and also of association on terms of amity with the most civilized people then on the globe, and that by the time they returned to Palestine they were incomparably better prepared for the responsi- bilities of nationality than they would have been had they remained wandering shepherds, dwelling in tents and seeking new pasturage as immediate wants might dictate. Moses was a greater genius than Joseph, or any of his ancestors. He was a thorough scholar, famil- iar with all the learning of the day, and the laws, customs, and history of Egypt. To learning he added reflection. It was not in vain that he fed the flocks of Jethro forty years. During those years of seclusion he had time for meditation and the devel- opment of vast ideas. When, at length, the time came for him to lead the Hebrews out of bondage, he was prepared to be their great lawgiver. What- ever view one may take of inspiration, it must be conceded that the preliminary experience of Moses was admirably adapted to prepare him for the great work in hand, and here it may be well to say that it would be improper in a work of this kind to enter at all upon the discussion of the inspiration of the Bi- ble or the special interposition of Providence in Jew- ish affairs. Counting the years of captivity in Babylon, the Hebrew nation dwelt in Canaan about fifteen hun- dred years. It was B. C. 1450 when they crossed Jordan equipped with an elaborate code of laws and system of worship. It was to he a theocracy, the government acknowledging no king but Jehovah, the priesthood being the nearest approach to royalty. Moses was not the founder of a dynasty. From in- fancy to manhood the adopted child of a king's daughter, he still had no sympathy with the pomn, pageantry and luxuries of court. He tried to pre- serve the Hebrews from such an incubus. For a few hundred years the experiment of a pure theoc- racy, with leadeis called " Judges," worked well : at least, it gave satisfaction: but the people finally wearied of such Arcadian simplicity. There were fifteen judges, ending with Samuel, and including one woman, Deborah, and that strongest of men. Samson. That was a period of much conflict and not much real progress. The books of Joshua and THE JEWS. Judges reveal to us a people on the brink of utter barbarism, sunk in the depths of ignorance, and in imminent danger of lapsing permanently into idola- try. It was at the beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury before Christ, that Joshua led the people across Jordan, and the last of the eleventh century when Samuel, the last of the judges, delivered up the reins of government. To that period belonged Deborah with her song, Gideon and his band, Jeph- thah and his daughter, and Samson the strong; all so familiar to the reader as to call for only the brief- est mention. The first king, Saul, was evidently chosen for his great stature, while his successor, David, was a man of genius. From the • character given Saul one is not surprised that he failed to found a dynasty. David is spoken of as a man after God's own heart, by which it is not implied that Deity approved the many wrongs he did, but that he was the right kind of man to develop the rude Hebrews into an im- portant nation, and gain for that people recognition among the family of nations. It was during the reign of this sovereign that the Jews were able to secure diplomatic connection with Egypt, Phoenicia and other nations in the vicinity. David was a great warrior, a true statesman, and a good poet. He had a versatile genius. Some of liis psalms are too mil- itary and vehement to suit the present taste, but that he is entitled to high rank in the world of poe- sy is indisputable. As a statesman he was too much devoted to his own particular tribe, Judah, in distinction from Israel as a whole. The dismem- berment of the kingdom followed at the death of his successor and son, Solomon. The nation was never reunited politically, but all tribal distinctions were ages ago obliterated, and it is impossible to discriminate between the Jews proper and the Ten Tribes, that is, in dispersion. Solomon was another great genius. The prov- erbs attributed to him may he a collection of na- tional proverbs, but the song which bears his name attests the exuberance of his youthful imagina- tion, while the Ecclesiastes attests the profound philosophy of his old age. The young man who could sing only of love, and who had every oppor- tunity for enjoyment, recorded in his old age the utter vanity of earth. He was the great poet and the one philosopher of old Judea. From the death of Solomon to the overthrow of the independence of both branches of the Hebrew nation, about three hundred years, the Jews do not seem to have made much progress. They certainly made no impression upon the outside world. It was a constant warfare between monotheism and poly- theism. The people seemed to be infatuated with other religions, and in perpetual peril of losing their peculiar ideas, and of merging in the common herd of idolatry. But captivity in Babylon cured them of all disposition to forsake Jehovah. This was a very remarkable fact, quite inexplicable, indeed ; but whatever the reason, it is certain that those Jews who returned from the captivity were cured of all leaning towards other gods. A few of the older people could remember the old city of Jerusalem with its magnificent temple, and the horrors of the siege, the relentless cruelty of Nebuchadnezzar, and the sins for which the people were punished. But for the most part, all was new to the restored peo- jjle. It is thought by many that the Jews had no literature before this time, that the history, laws, and poetry of the nation had been preserved and banded down orally, but this is not probable. It is no doubt true, however, that contact for two gener- ations with the learned and polished Babylonians, had been of incalculable advantage to them, and very likely portions of the history were written for the first time by Ezra, the scribe. His name is borne by only one book, and several books are anonymous. He may have written those, and edited new editions, as we say, of all the Hebrew literature of that date, and all but a few of the minor proph- ets antedated Ezra. Several of the books of the Bible relate Lo the captivity and the restoration, after which the Bib- lical record is almost silent. Those of the minor prophets, which belong to the later period, throw very little historical light. It was in B. C. 536, that the Hebrews were authorized by Cyrus to re- turn to Judea, and many of them did return under the leadership of Zerubbabel. They formed a Per- sian province or satrapy, and so remained for over two hundred years, the high priests being allowed to act as governors, usually. The yoke of Persia was light. Alexander the Great received the sub- mission of Jerusalem, and after his death Ptolemy Soter took the city, carrying away one hundred thousand captives. Henceforth, until the Romans came into possession of it, Judea was the prey ■r r y » ^s= THE JEWS. 71 of rival powers, now Egypt and now Syria. Anti- ochus and the Ptolemies coveted it, and eacli thought they had a claim upon it. In B. C. 169, Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria took and plundered the city of Jerusalem, massacred vast numbers of the people, and desecrated the holy places. The sacrilege even more than the cruelties of the Syri- an despoilers aroused the national indignation. The Maccabean wars followed, in which the Jews under the Maccabees showed great heroism and bloody massacre followed. Herod was successful. This inhuman tyrant died in B. C. 3, and his suc- cessor, Archelaus, was the Herod who slaughtered the innocents, in the fiendish hope of killing the in- fant Jesus. In A. D. 6, he was banished for his cruelties. Then the scepter departed from Judea, and the next ruler was a Roman Procurator. Among the latter rulers was Pontius Pilate. In A. D. 37, Agrippa was made king of Judea, but upon his death, seven vears later, the pro-consul of Jerusalem, from valor. Under Judas Maccabees, favorable terms of peace were secured, lasting, however, only a short time. The Syrian power was irresistible by the Jews. When (B. C. 63) Pompey the Great de- manded the submission of the Jews to Roman sway he was hailed as a deliverer. But a few years later another Roman, Crassus, plundered the temple, robbing it of vast treasures. Troublous times again prevailed. The Asmodean family ruled as subject kings, and had done so for over one hun- dred years, but in B. 0. 37, Herod led a Roman army in an assault upon Jerusalem for the avowed purpose of dethroning the ruling dynasty. A Mount of Olives. Syria had Judea within his jurisdiction, and it has . been a part of Syria ever since. In A. D. 66, a rebellion broke out against Ro- man authority in Csesarea, a city established by the Romans among the Jews. Vespasian marched 60,000 soldiers into Judea to quell the uprising. After two years of ineffectual warfare hostilities were suspended until A. D. 70, when Titus, the son of Vespasian (the latter being then Emperor of Rome) laid siege to the city, and after a desperate resistance took it. So stubborn had been the de- fense that Titus determined to destroy the Jews, root and branch. He razed their sacred city to the ~- L^L 7 2 THE JEWS. ground aud dispersed the people. From this time on they have been a nation without a country. The history of the Jews in dispersion is the story of cruelty and injustice carried to the utmost verge. Rome persecuted them because they were such rig- id adherents to the worship of Jehovah, to the ex- clusion of all other deities. It was the custom to deify the dead emperors, aud pay to them certain homage, which to a Hebrew would be idolatry. To the Roman government, refusal to worship as pre- scribed by the authorities was treason. The Jews were free to worship their own God in their own way, and the Roman mind could not see why they should object to paying the prescribed respect to the memory of deceased emperors. Out of this state of affairs grew bloody persecutions which con- tinued down to the days of Constantine. The Christians could appreciate the conscientious scru- ples of the Hebrews. Indeed, they shared them, and were herein on a common level with them. They, too, had been persecuted much and often for refusal to conform to the religious requirements of the State. But none the less, they proved more cruel in their treatment of the Jews than the pa- gans had. It was for a very different reason. In- stead of being very grateful to them for being the " peculiar people " from whom they had derived their sacred book, their Deity and their Savior, the Christians seemed only to remember that Jesus Christ was crucified at the instigation of a Jewish mob. That all the patriarchs, prophets and apos- tles from Abraham to Paul were Jews, and even the Lord himself, had no mollifying influence. All through the ages the Jews were persecuted by the Christians, aud in this day there is a strong popu- lar prejudice against them all over Christendom, on account of one act of mob violence. There has been a gradual improvement in public sentiment towards the Jews, and for the most part the laws discriminating against them have been re- pealed. The progress made by them in attaining the front rank in all the higher walks of life is phenomenal. They hold the purse-strings of com- merce and finance generally, to such an extent that they may be called the bankers of the world. There are a great many Rothschilds on a smaller, yet large scale. In music the Hebrew genius has excelled. In statecraft the children of Israel are pre-eminent. In every civilized and half -civilized land they are a nation within a nation, a people within a people, neither seeking nor allowing as- similation with their neighbors. There are no in- dications of any tendency toward Gentilism. It may be added that since the rod of oppression has been broken, the Israelites show no longing to return to Palestine. On the contrary, they have a keen scent for any land " flowing with milk and honey," offering good opportunities for busi- ness. Modern Canaan is sterile and uninviting. Originally shepherds, then slaves in brick-kilns, later farmers, they are now wholly given to traffic and all the different phases of exchange, with every trace of the agriculturist obliterated from the na- tional character. It has been justly observed by a modern Hebrew writer that " the majority of in- telligent Israelites in the present have long since abandoned the work of building up an independ- ent national existence of their own. Their pa- triotism has been illustrated upon all the great battlefields of this century. The achievement of higher conditions of human life they are disposed to regard as the fulfillment of Messianic prophecy, and the furthering of this end in intimate union witn their fellowmen as the highest dictate of their religion." To the United States government is due the high honor of being the first Christian na- tion to accord the Jews absolutely full and equal rights before the law, and the example of this nation was eminently helpful to them in securing their rights in other lands. .4JBAMMA' \ ' ^sS -K~ HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. . t "* * — * — a — * — » » * uiii iiiiiiHiiiiiii niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiii igin ^F ^/ CHAPTER XI. The Intangible in Jewish History— The Hebrew Bible— The Septuagint— The Talmud— Sadducees and Pharisees— Essenes— Testimony op Pliny— Philo on the Essenes— Josbphus on Jewi-u Sects— The Chasidim— Felix Adler on the Jews in Literature and op To-day. 'HE chapter immediately preceding the present one was devoted to the out- ward facts of Jewish his- tory, omitting such details as belong more appropri- ately in the tabular state- ments yet to be made, also reserv- ing for a later chapter Christ and Christianity. The Founder of our religion was indeed a Jew by nativity, but he was also u. part of the Roman Empire. The Jews have been and are a mighty pow- er in the world, apart from their nationality and the religion which lias been adopted by the civilized world. Judaism must be classed among the supreme forces of mankind. One might be entirely familiar with Biblical and Chris- tian history without forming anything like an ade- quate conception of Jewish influence upon the gen- eral course of events. While this volume may well pass by many important matters, upon the suppo- sition that the reader will consult his Bible for de- tails of Hebraic history, there are phases of the case which serve to explain the otherwise inexpli- cable potency of the Hebrew nation upon which the sacred record throws but very little light. This class of facts will occupy our main attention in this connection. But upon the threshold of our present subject is the book of books — the Bible. The Old Testament is held in equal reverence by Jews and Christians. In each of those great churches some hold that volume to be the word of God in the fullest sense, while others see in it simply the most important part of the literature of a re- markable people. The Old Testament, as it is held by Protestants, consists of thirty-nine books, orig- inally written in Hebrew. Their age is uncertain in many cases. The oldest manuscript of the I lid Testament which is now known dates from 1100. It is the opinion of many learned scholars that the laws, history and poetry of the Jews were never re- duced to writing until after the Captivity. Others again, contend that Moses left behind him a body of laws, and a history up to date, to which anony- mous writers added from time to time, and this lat- ter theory is more consistent with the representa- tions of the Bible itself and with what is known of the Jewish people. Among the literary treasures of Alexandria was a translation into Greek of the Hebrew Bible. It is known as the Septuagint, from the tradition that the translation was the work of seventy per- sons. The quotations in the New Testament were made, as internal evidence proves, from that rather than from any original version. It varies only slightly from the Hebrew text. Next in rank to the Bible stands, in Jewish (73) f 74 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. esi imation, the Talmud. This is a library in itself, composed by many writers through a long jjeriod of time, covering the entire range of Hebrew thought, spiritual and secular, with some grotesque attempts at science. For many centuries it has served as an authority upon all matters of faith and religious practice among the Jews, and the great business of the educated priesthood was to ascertain and make known the contents of the Tal- mud. It has been compared to an ocean which only an expert mariner could navigate, and on which the unskillful and inexperienced would be lost. As a bond of national union the Talmud has been a'great power among the Jews in the disper- sion and persecution. In all the record, from Genesis to Malaehi, one finds no indications of sectarianism. In the New Testament we are confronted with Pharisees and Sadducees indulging in all the rancor of sectarian animosity. These sects seem to have come into existence between the Restoration ordered by Cyrus and the subjugation by Rome. The Sadducees were very conservative, tenacious for the laws and regulations of Moses, suspicious of any and every thing not distinctly based on the Pentateuch. The Pharisees were more inclined to adapt Mosaic ideas to current opinions. In time they came to substi- tute traditions not only for the more ancient law, but for the more modern thought. In the days of our Savior the chief difference between these sects was on the doctrine of the resurrection and immor- tality. The Sadducees rejected both, finding no warrant for either in the books of Moses, while the Pharisees accepted and taught both, finding noth- ing against either in Moses or the other prophets. Jesus was outspoken in criticism of both, but on i Imii' cardinal point of difference he was a Pharisee. The same was true of Paul, and all the early fa- thers. Indeed, so integral is the doctrine of immor- tality to the Christian idea of religion that it is difficult to understand how a sect which rejected that doctrine could be religious at all. and espe- cially how it could be ranked as the conservative or orthodox branch of the church. It may be said that Christianity has never been Sadducaical, but the Jews, as a general thing, are, and Pharisaism (using the term in no offensive sense) is a part of < 'hristianity. Another sect of the Jews, not mentioned in the Bible, and long neglected, is deserving of far more attention. We refer to the Essenes. That bril- iant essayist, Dj Quiucey, had the temerity to pro- nounce this sect a myth, or rather, a sort of for- gery. He may have been sincere, although this is open to doubt. However that may be, the hypoth- esis is simply preposterous. There are three dis- tinct and original sources of Essenic information, namely, Pliny, Philo, and Josephus. They are not entirely harmonious, but differ only as it would be natural for three writers to differ who had widely distant points of observation. Josephus, being a Jew who resided in Jerusalem, had the best means of information ; Pliny, who merely crossed the country, the least; Philo was an Alexandrian Jew. Pliny, the elder, born in Verona twenty-three years after the Christian era began, wrote in his natural history this passage : " Lying to the West of Aspeltetes, and sufficiently distant to escape its noxious exhalations, are the Esseni, a people that live apart from the world, and marvelous above all others throughout the whole earth, for they have no women among them ; to sexual desire they are strangers ; money they have norie ; the palm-trees are their only companions. Day after day, however, their numbers are fully re- cruited by multitudes of strangers which resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tem- pests of fortune, and wearied with the miseries of life. And thus it is that through thousands of ages, in t 1 1 i . . i v - to relate, this people eternally prolonged t.ieir existence without a single birth taking place there, so fruitful a source of population to it is that weariness of life which is felt by others." Except as to the antiquity of the sect, Pliny's idea of it was substantially correct. Philo's account is as follows : " Our lawgiver trained an innumerable bodv of his pupils to partake of these things, being, as I imagine, honored with the appellation of Essenes because of their exceeding holiness. And they dwell in many cities of Judea, and m many villages, and in great and populous communities. And this sect is not an hereditary or family connection ; for family ties are not spoken of with reference to acts volunta- rily performed, but it is adopted on account of their admiration for virtue and love of gentleness and hu- manity. At all events, there are no children among the Essenes ; no, nor any youths or persons only just -ii ;pr ^1~ HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 75 entering upon manhood. Since the dispositions of all such persons are unstable and liable to changes from the imperfections incident to their age, but t hey are all full-grown men, and even already de- clining toward old age. Such as are no longer car- ried away by the impetuosity of their bodily passions, and are not under the influence of the appetites, but such as enjoy a genuine freedom, the only true and real liberty. And a proof of this is to be found in their life of perfect freedom. " No one among them ventures at all to acquire any property whatever of his own, neither house nor slave, nor farm, nor flocks, nor herds, nor anything of any sort which can be looked upon as the foun- tain or provision of riches, but they bring them to- gether into the middle as a common stock and en- joy one common, general benefit from it all. " And they all dwell in the same place, making clubs, and societies, and combinations, and unions with one another, and doing everything throughout their whole lives with reference to the general ad- vantage; but the different members of this body have different employments in which they occupy themselves and labor without hesitation or cessation, making no mention of either cold or heat or any change of temperature as an excuse for desisting from their tasks. But before the sun rises they be- take themselves to their daily work, and they do not quit it until some time after it has set, when they return home rejoicing no less than those who have been exercising themselves in gymnastic contests ; for they imagine that whatever they devote themselves to as a practice is a sort of gymnastic exercise of more advantage to life and more pleasant to both soul and body, and of more enduring benefit and equability, than mere athletic labors, inasmuch as such toil does not cease to be practiced with delight when the age of vigor of body has passed, for there are some of them who are devoted to the practice of agriculture, being skillful in such things as the sow- ing and cultivating of lands ; others again, are shep- herds or cowherds, and experienced in the manage- ment of every kind of animal; some are cunning in what relates to swarms of bees ; others again are ar- tisans and handicraftsmen, in order to guard against suffering from want of anything of which there is at times an actual need ; and these men omit and de- lay nothing which is requisite to the innocent sup- ply of the necessaries of life. " Accordingly, each of these men who differ so widely in respective employments, when they have received their wages, give them up to one person who is appointed as the universal steward and gen- eral manager, and he, when he has received the money, immediately goes and purchases what is nec- essary, and furnishes with food in abundance, and all other things of which the life of man stands in need. And those who five together and eat at the same table day after day, contented with the same things, being lovers of frugality and moderation, and averse to all sumptuousness and extravagance as being a disease of both body and mind. Not on- ly are their tables in common, but all their dress, for in the winter there are thick cloaks found, and in the summer light, cheap mantles, so that whoever wants one is at liberty, without restraint, to go and take whichever kind he chooses, since what belongs to one belongs to all, and on the other hand, what- ever belongs to all belongs to each individual. "And again, if any one of them is sick, he is cured from the common resources, being attended by the general care and anxiety of the whole body. Accordingly the old men, even if they happen to be childless, as if they were not only the fathers of many children, lint were even also particularly hap- py in an affectionate offspring, are accustomed to end their lives in a most happy and prosperous and carefully attended old age ; being looked upon by such a number of people as worthy of so much hon- or and provident regard that they think themselves bound to care for them even more from inclination than any tie of natural affection. "Again, perceiving with more than ordinary acute- ness and accuracy what is alone, or at least above all other things, calculated to dissolve such associa- tions, they repudiate marriage, and at the same time they practice continence to an eminent de- gree ; for no one of the Esseues ever marries a wife, because woman is a selfish creature, and one addict- ed to jealousy in an immoderate degree, and terribly calculated to agitate and overturn the natural in- clinations of a man, and to mislead him by her con- tinual tricks ; for as she is always studying deceitful speeches and all kinds of hypocrisy, like an actress on the stage, when she is alluring the eyes and ears of her husband, she proceeds to cajole his pre- dominant mind after the servants have been deceived. "And again, if there are children, she becomes full ^r .£- 7 6 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. of pride ;md all kinds of license in her speech, and all the obscure sayings which she previously meditated in irony, in a disguised manner, she now begins to utter with an audacious confidence, and becoming utterly shameless, she proceeds to violence, and does numbers of actions of which every one is hostile to sucli association ; for the man who is bound under the influence of the charms of a woman, or of chil- dren by the necessary ties of nature, being over- whelmed by the impulses of affection, is no longer the same person towards others, but is entirely changed, having, without being aware of it, become a slave instead of a freeman. " This now is the enviable system of life of these Essenes, so that not only private individuals, but even mighty kings, admiring the men, venerate the sect and increase their dignity and majesty in a still higher degree by their approbation and by the honors which they confer on them." The foregoing extract is a fragment of the lost works of Philo, preserved by the historian of the primitive church, Eusebius. It may be found in the fourth volume of Yonge's translation of Philo's works. The following excerpt is from Philo's essay on " The Virtuous being also Free " : " Among the Persians is the body of the Magi [called in the gospel 'wise men of the East']. More- over, Palestine ami Syria too are not barren of ex- emplary wisdom and virtue, which country no slight portion of that populous people, the Jews, inhabit. There is a portion of that people called Essenes, in number something more than four thousand, in my opinion, who derive their name from their piety, though not according to any accurate form of the Greek dialect, because they are, above all men, de- voted to the service of God, not sacrificing living animals, but studying rather to preserve their own minds in a state of holiness and piety. These men, in the first place, live in villages, avoiding cities on account of the habitual lawlessness of those who in- habit them, well knowing that such a moral disease is contact with wicked men, just as a real disease might lie from an impure atmosphere, and that this would stamp an incurable disease upon their souls. Of these men some cultivate the earth, and others, devoting themselves to those arts which are the re- sults of peace, benefit both themselves and all who come in contact with them, not storing up treasures of silver and gold, nor acquiring vast sections of earth out of a desire for ample revenue, but provid- ing all things which are requisite for the natural purposes of life ; for they alone of almost all men, having been originally poor and destitute, and that, too, from their habits and ways of life, rather than from any real deficiency of good fortune, are never- theless accounted very rich, judging contentment and frugality great abundance, as in truth they are. "Amongthose men you will find no makers of armors or javelins or swords or helmets or breast- plate-; or shields; or makers of arms or military engines ; no one, in short, attending to any employ- ment whatever connected with war, or even to any of those occupations, even in peace, which are easily perverted to wicked purposes ; for they are utterly ignorant of all traffic, and of all com- mercial dealings, and of all navigation, but they repudiate and keep aloof from all that can possibly afford any inducement to covetousness ; and there is exercise to train them toward its attainment all praiseworthy actions by which a freedom which can never be enslaved is firmly established. " And a proof of this is that though at different times a great number of chiefs of every variety of disposition and character have occupied their coun- try, some of whom have endeavored to surpass even ferocious wild beasts in cruelty, leaving no sort of inhumanity unpracticed, and have never ceased to murder their subjects in whole troops, and have even torn them to pieces, while living, like cooks, cut- ting them limb from limb, till they themselves be- ing overtaken by vengeance of Divine justice, have at last experienced the same misery in their turn ; others again having converted their barbarian fren- zy into another kind of wickedness, practiced an in- effable degree of savageness, talking with the people quietly, but through the hypocrisy of a more gentle voice, betraying the ferocity of their real dispositions, fawning upon their victims like treach- erous dogs, and becoming the cause of irremediable miseries to them, have left in all their cities monu- ments of their impiety, and hatred of all mankind, in the never-to-be-forgotten miseries endured by those whom they oppressed ; yet no one, not even of those immoderate tyrants, nor of the more treach- erous and hypocritical oppressors, was ever aide to bring any real accusation against the multitudes of those called Essenes. or Holy. But every one being subdued by the virtue of these men, looked up to vp V HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 77 them as free by nature, and not subject to the frown of any human being, and have celebrated their manner of messing together, and their fellow- ship with one another beyond all description in re- spect of its mut'.al good faith, which is ample proof of a perfect and very happy life." Without pausing for any comment, we append now what Josephus says in his brief epitome of the three sects of the Jews : • •• There were three sects among the Jews who had different opinions concerning human actions. One was called the sect of the Pharisees ; another the sect of the Sadducees ; and still another the sect of the Essenes. Now for the Pharisees, they say that some actions, but not all, are the work of fate, and some of them are in our own power, and that they are lia- ble to fate without being caused by fate. But the sect of the Essenes affirms that fate governs all things and that nothing befalls men except with its deter- mination. And for the Sadducees, they take away fate, and say that there is no such thing, and that the events of human affairs are not at its disposal, but they suppose that all our actions are within our own power, so that we are ourselves the cause of what is good, and receive what is evil from our own folly." This brief and metaphysical comparison of the sects is found in the thirteenth book and fifth chap- ter of the Antiquities. But it is not all Josephus has to say on the subject. On the contrary, after a digression, he devotes considerable space to the sub- ject, and with that extended passage closes the full presentation of the original sources of Essenic infor- mation. This final excerpt is as follows : •• For there are three sects among the Jews, the followers of the first of which are the Pharisees, the second the Sadducees, and the third sect, which pre- tends to a severer discipline, are called Essenes. These last are Jews by birth and seem to have great- er affection for one another than the other sects have. These Essenes reject pleasures as an evil, but esteem continence and the conquest over our pas- sions as a virtue. They neglect wedlock, but choose out other persons' children while they are pliable and lit for learning, and esteem them to be of their kin- dred, and form them according to their own man- ners. They do not absolutely deny the fitness of marriage, and the succession of mankind thereby continued ; but they guard against the lascivious be- havior of women, and are persuaded that none of them preserve their fidelity to one man. " These men are despisers of riches, and so very communistic as raises our admiration. Nor is there any one to be found among them who hath more than another ; for it is a law among them that those who come to them must let what they have be com- mon to the whole order, insomuch that among them all there is no appearance of poverty or excess of riches, but every one's possessions are intermingled with every other's possessions, and so there is, as it were, one patrimony among all the brethren. They think that oil is a defilement, and if any of them be anointed without his approbation it is wiped off his body ; for they think to be sweaty is a good thing, as they do also to be clothed in white garments. They also have stewards appointed to take care of thei'- common affairs, who every one of them has no separate business for any, but what is for the use of them all. " They have no one certain city, but many of them dwell in every city ; and if any of their sect come from another place, what they have lies open for them, just as if it were their own ; and they go in to such as they never knew before as if they had been ever so long acquainted with them ; for which reason they carry nothing at all with them when they travel into remote parts, though still they take their weapons with them for fear of thieves. Ac- cordingly, there is in every city where they live, one appointed particularly to take care of strangers and to provide garments and other necessaries for them. But the habit and management of their bodies is such as children use when they are afraid of mas- ters ; nor do they allow the change of garments or of shoes until they be first entirely torn to pieces or worn out by time. Nor do they either buy or sell anything to one another, but every one gives what he hath to him that wants it, and receives from him in turn of it what may be convenient for himself ; and although there be no requital made, they are freely allowed to take whatsoever they want of whomsoever they please. " And as for their piety towards God, it is very extraordinary ; for before sunrise they speak not a word about profane matters, but put up certain prayers, which they have received from their fore- fathers, as if they made supplication to the sun for rising. After this, every one of them is sent away ^C ^ 78 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. by their curators to exercise some of those arts wherein they are skilled, in which they labor with great diligence until the fifth hour ; after which they assemble themselves together again in one place, and when they have clothed themselves in white veils, they then bathe their bodies in cold wa- ter. And after this purification is over, they every one meet together in an apartment of their own into which it is not permitted to any one of another sect to enter, while they go, after a pure manner, in- to the dining-room as into a certain holy temple, and quietly sit themselves down, upon which the baker lays their loaves in order ; the cook also brings a sin- gle plate of one sort of food, and sets it before every one of them ; but a priest says grace before meat, and it is unlawful for any one to taste food before grace be said. The same priest, when he hath dined, says grace again after meat; and when they begin and when they end, they praise God as He that hath bestowed food upon them ; after which they la\ aside their white garments and betake themselves to their labors again until the evening ; then they re- turn home to supper after the same manner, and if there be any strangers there they sit down with them. Nor is there ever any clamor or disturbance to pollute their house, but they give every one leave to speak in their turn ; which silence thus kept in their houses appears to foreigners like some tremen- dous mystery ; the cause of which is that perpetual so- briety they exercise ; and the same settled measure of meat and drink that is allowed them, and that such as is abundantly sufficient for them. "Ami truly, as for other things, they do nothing but according to the injunctions of their curators; only these two things are done among them at their own free will, which are to assist those that want it, and to show mercy ; for they are permitted of their own accord to afford succor to those that are in dis- tress ; but they cannot give anything to their kin- dred without the curators. They dispense their anger after a just manner and restrain their passion. They are eminent for fidelity and are the ministers of peace. Whatever they say also is firmer than an oath, but swearing is avoided by them, and they es- teem it worse than perjury, for they say that lie who cannot be believed without swearing by God is already condemned. They also take great pains in studying the writings of the ancients, and choose out of them what is most to the advantage of their soul and body, and they inquire after such roots and medicinal stones as may cure their distempers. "But now, if any one hath a mind to come over to their sect, he is not immediately admitted, but he is prescribed the same method of living which they use, for a year, while he continues excluded, and they give him also a small hatchet and the forementioned girdle and the white garment. And when he hath given evidence during that time that he can observe their continence, he ap- proaches nearer to their way of living, and is made a partaker of the waters of purification ; yet is he not even now permitted to live with them, for after this demonstration of his fortitude, his temper is tried two more years, and if he appear to be worthy, they then admit him into their society. And before he is allowed to touch their common food, he is obliged to take tremendous oaths that in the first place he will practice piety toward God, and then that he will observe justice toward men, and that he will do no harm to any one, either of his own accord or at the command of any one ; that he will always hate the wicked and be assistant to the good ; that he will ever show fidelity to all men, and especially to those in authority, because no one obtains the government without (rod's assistance, and that if he be in authority he will at no time abuse his authority, nor endeavor to outshine his subjects either in his gar- ments or in any other finery ; that he will be per- petually a lover of truth and propose to himself to reprove those who tell lies ; that he will keep his hands clean from theft and his soul from unlawful gains : and that he will neither conceal anything from those of ins own sect nor discover any of their doctrines to others; no, not though any one should compel him to do so at the hazard of his life. More- over, he swears to communicate their doctrine- t.> no one otherwise than as he receives them himself ; that he will abstain from robbery, and will equally preserve the books belonging to their sect and the names of the angels [or messengers]. These are the oaths by which they secure their proselytes to them- selves. '• But for those that are caught in any heinous sins, they cast them out of their society, and he who is thus separated from them does often die after a miserable manner, for as he is bound by the oath he has taken, and by the custom he hath engaged in, he is not at liberty to partake of that food that he tK- 9 «. iiL HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 79 meets with elsewhere, but is forced to eat grass and famish his body with hunger until he perish, for which reason they receive many of them again, and when they are at their last gasp, out of compassion to them, as thinking the miseries they have endured until they came to the brink of death to be sufficient punishment for the sins they had been guilty of. "But in the judgments they exercise they are most accurate and just, nor do they pass sentence by the vote of a court that is fewer than a hundred. And as to what is determined by that number, it is unalterable. What they most of all honor, after the name of rod himself, is the legislator Moses, whom if any one blaspheme he is punished capitally. They also think it a good thing to obey their elders and the majority. Accordingly, if ten of them be sitting together, no one of them will speak while the other nine are against it. They also avoid spit- ting in the midst of them or on the right side. Moreover, they are stricter than another of the Jews in resting from their labors on the seventh day, for they not only get their food ready the day before, that they may not be obliged to kindle a fire on that day, but will not remove any vessel out of its place, or go to stool thereon ; nay, on the other days they dig a small pit a foot deep with a paddle (which kind of hatchet is given them when they are first admitted among them) and covering themselves round witli their garments that they may not affront the divine rays of light, they ease themselves into that pit : after which they put the earth that was dug out into the pit, and even this they do only in the more lonely places which they choose out for this purpose ; and although this easement of the body lie natural, yet it is a rule with them to wash themselves after it as if it were a defilement to them. Now after the time of their preparatory trial is over, they are parted into four classes, and so far are the jun- iors inferior to the seniors, that if the seniors should be touched by the juniors, they must wash them- selves, as if they had intermixed themselves with for- eigners. They are long-lived also, insomuch that many of them live above a hundred years, by means of the simplicity of their diet ; nay, as I think, by means of the regular course of life they observe also. They contemn the miseries of life, and are above pain by the generosity of their minds. And as for death, if it be for them glory, they esteem it better than living always-; and indeed our war with the Romans gave abundant evidence what great souls they had, in their trials, wherein they were tortured and distorted, burnt and torn to pieces, and went through all kinds of instruments of torment, that they might be forced either to blaspheme their leg- islator, or to eat what was forbidden them ; no, nor once to flatter their tormentors, or to shed a tear ; but they smiled in their very pains, and laughed those to scorn who inflicted the torments upon them, and resigned up their souls witli great alacrity, as expecting to receive them again. " For their doctrine is this, that the matter they are made of is not permanent, but that the souls are immortal and continue forever ; and that they come out of the most subtile air, and are united to their bodies as to prisons, into which they are drawn by a certain natural enticement; but that when they are set free from the bonds of the flesh, that then they, as released from a long bondage, rejoice and mount upward. And this is like the opinion of the Greeks, that good souls have their habitations be- yond the ocean, in a region which is neither op- pressed with storms of rain or snow or intense heat ; but that tliis place is such as is refreshed by the gentle breathing of the west wind that is perpetu- ally blowing from the ocean ; while they allot to bad souls a dark and tempestuous den, full of nev- er-ceasing punishment. And indeed, the Greeks seem to have followed the same notion when they allot the islands of the blessed to their brave men, whom they call heroes and demigods, and to the souls of the wicked the region of the ungodly in Hades, where their fables relate that certain persons, as Sisyphus and Tantalus and Ixion and Tityus are punished, which is built on this first supposition that souls are immortal : and thence are those ex- hortations to virtue and dehortatioiis from wicked- ness collected whereby good men are bettered in the conduct of their life by the hope of reward after death, and whereby the inherent inclinations of bad men to vice are restrained by the fear and expec- tation they are in, that although they should lie con- cealed in this life, they should suffer immortal pun- ishment after their death. These are the divine doctrines of the Essenes about the soul, which lay an unavoidable bait for such as have once had a taste of their philosophy. " There are also those among them who under- take to tell things to come bv readinar the holv 10 L^L 80 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. books, and using several sorts of purifications, and being perpetually conversant in the discourses of the prophets ; and it is but seldom that they miss in their predictions. " Moreover, there is another order of Essenes, who agree with the rest in their every way of living and customs and laws, but differ from them in the point of marriage, as thinking that by not marry- ing they cut off the principal part of human life, which is the prospect of succession ; nay, rather that if all men should keep the same opinion, the whole race of mankind would fail. However, they try their spouses for three years, and if they find they have their natural purgations thrice, as trials that they are likely to be fruitful, they then actually marry tlum. But they do not use to accompany with their wives when they are with child, as a dem- onstration that they do not marry out of regard to pleasure, but for the sake of posterity. Now the women go into the baths with some of their gar- ments on, as the men do with somewhat girded about them. And these are the customs of this or- der of Essenes. " But then, as to the two other orders first men- tioned, the Pharisees are those who are esteemed most skillful in the exact explication of their laws, and introduce the first sect. These ascribe all to fate [or Providence] and to God, and yet allow that to act what is right, or the contrary, is princi- pally' in the power of men, although fate does co- operate in eveiy action. They say that all the souls are incompatible, but that the souls of good men only are removed into other bodies, but that the souls of bad men are subject to eternal punishment. But the Sadducees are those that compose the sec- ond order, and take away fate entirely, and suppose that God is not concerned in our doing or not do- ing what is evil ; and they say that to act what is good or what is evil is at man's own choice, and that the one and the other belong so to every one that he may act as he pleases. They also take away belief in the immortal duration of the soul, and the pun- ishments and rewards in Hades. Moreover, the Pharisees are friendly to one another and are for the exercise of concord and regard for the public ; but the behavior of the Sadducees one toward an- other is in some degree wild, and their conversa- tion with those who are of their own party is as barbarous as if they were strangers to them. And this is what I had to say concerning the philo- sophical sects among the Jews." At the risk of being somewhat tedious, we have presented absolutely all that is known of the sect of Jews whose peculiarities are most strikingly sug- gestive of Christianity. In these strangely neg- lected excerpts may be found a key to much which would otherwise be inexplicable in the connection of Judaism with the religion of modern Europe. The Chasidim is a modern sect of Jews. It is numerous among Polish, Hungarian and Russian Jews, but almost unknown elsewhere. It is fanat- ical in the extreme, and abject in subservience to the priests. The Chasidim have been compared to the Shakers in their eccentric religious practices. The most important sect of to-day is the Karaites, (sons of scripture) dating from the early part of the middle ages. Once powerful, their numbers are now insignificant, their importance growing out of their intellectual history. Rejecting the Talmud, they ever strenuously maintained the sole authority of " Moses and the Prophets." They were noted in a period of general darkness for lit- erary and scientific activity. Their literature has been lost, in large part, but very much still remains, a proud monument to the intellectual capacity of the Hebrew nation. At present the Karaites are almost extinct, except as found in the Crimea, where they are protected and prosperous. Eormerly they were doubly persecuted, the Christians hating them the same as any other Jews, and the Rabbinical or orthodox Jews seeing in them heretics worse than " Christian dogs." In discussing the Jews and their place in history, Felix Adler remarks : " Not only has their own literature been opened to scientific study by such men as Zunz, Geiger, Munk, Rappoport, Luzzato, and others, but they have rendered signal service in almost every department of science and art. I mention among the Philosophers, M. Mendelssohn, Maimon Herz ; in political economy, Ricardo and LaSalle ; in literature, Borne, Heine, Auerbach, Grace Aguilar; in music, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Halevy ; among the prominent statesmen of the day, Disraeli, Lasker, Cremieux," — and, he might have added, Gambetta. &r >: y K v c yc \