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APPLETONS' 
 SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY. 
 
APPLETONS' SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 The following works of this new series will be im- 
 mediately issued ; others are to follow : 
 
 The Elements of Chemistry. 
 
 By Prof. F. W. CLARKE, 
 Chemist of the United States Geological Survey. 
 
 The Essentials of 
 Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
 
 By ROGER S. TRACY, M. D., 
 
 Author of "Handbook of Sanitary Information for Householders " 
 Sanitary Inspector of the New York City Health Department.' 
 
 A Compend of Geology. 
 
 By JOSEPH LE CONTE, 
 
 Professor of Geology and Natural History in the University of 
 California ; author of " Elements of Geology," etc. 
 
 Elements of Zoology. 
 
 By C. F. HOLDER, 
 
 Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences, Corresponding 
 Member of the Linnaean Society, etc. ; 
 
 and J. B. HOLDER, M. D., 
 
 Curator of Zoology of American Museum of Natural Historv 
 Central Park, New York. 
 
Jpletons' Btimtt fet-§0oks. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY 
 
 BY 
 
 C. F. HOLDER, 
 
 FELLOW OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, CORRESPONDING 
 MEMBER OF THE LINN.EAN SOCIETY, ETC., 
 
 AND 
 
 J. C B. HOLDER, M. D., 
 
 CURATOR OF ZOOLOGY, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, 
 CENTRAL PARK. 
 
 NEW YORK- 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 
 I, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. 
 1884. 
 
•^ A. 
 
 Copyright, 1884, 
 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In the present work, that is intended as a text- 
 book for schools and academies of all grades, the 
 design has been to present in concise and plain Ian. 
 guage, and in the light of the latest research and in- 
 vestigation, the life-histories of the various groups 
 that constitute the animal kingdom. Technical 
 terms have only been employed where there was 
 no simple equivalent, and the long tables of classi- 
 fication and formulae, that can only be understood 
 after a complete mastery of biological knowledge, 
 have been omitted, as tending to divert the atten- 
 tion of the student from the real issue. Professor 
 Huxley strikes the key-note of this question when 
 he says : " That the power of repeating a classifica- 
 tion, with all its appropriate definitions, has any- 
 thing to do with genuine knowledge, is one of the 
 commonest and most mischievous delusions of both 
 students and their examiners. The real business of 
 the learner is to gain a true and vivid conception of 
 the characteristics of what may be termed the nat- 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 necessary, and a carefully selected bibliography 
 will be found following each principal group of ani- 
 mals. In the matter of illustration, representations 
 of about five hundred animals and their parts have 
 been given. Many of the cuts are original, and 
 were designed especially to illustrate the habits of 
 the animals, their economic value, etc. Others are 
 from Buckley, Huxley, and various accurate sources 
 already acknowledged. 
 
 The valuable assistance of S. U. Holder is cor- 
 dially acknowledged, and thanks are returned to 
 Mr. Ralph N. Monroe for photographs of the Flor- 
 ida crocodile and for the loan of valuable specimens ; 
 also to Professor E. L. Youmans and Professor A. 
 S. Bickmore for pertinent suggestions and advice. 
 Acknowledgments are also made to Dr. E. P. 
 Wright, of the University of Dublin, for the meas- 
 urements of the gigantic shark Rhinodon ; and to W. 
 Morey, Esq., of Colombo, Ceylon, for the original 
 outline drawing. 
 
 C. F. H. 
 
 New York, November i, 1884. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction. page 
 
 Definition of the Subject i 
 
 The Cell i 
 
 Some Differences between Animals and Plants . . i 
 Classification 2 
 
 Chapter I. 
 Branch I. Protozoa 4 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Branch II. Sponges (Porifera) 11 
 
 Chapter III. 
 Branch III. Jelly-Fishes, etc. (Ccelenterata) . . .15 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 Branch IV. Crinoids, Star-Fishes, etc. (Echinodermata) 33 
 
 Chapter V. 
 Branch V. Worms (Vermes) 42 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 Branch VI. Shells (Mollusca) . . . . .51 
 
x CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter VII. page 
 
 Branch VII. Crustaceans and Insects (Arthropoda) . 76 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 Branch VIII. Sea-Squirts (Tunicata) 145 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 Branch IX. Backboned Animals (Vertebrata) . . .150 
 
ZOOLOGY 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Definition of the Subject. — The science that 
 treats of organic nature, or living things, is termed Bi- 
 ology. It is divided into Botany, that treats of plants ; 
 and Zoology, that relates to animals. 
 
 The Cell. — All animals are made up of one or more 
 cells, minute globules of a jelly-like substance called 
 protoplasm, as a rule inclosed in a delicate covering or 
 membrane. The protoplasm of genuine cells generally 
 contains minute moving granules, and a round transpar- 
 ent body termed the nucleus, that contains a dark ob- 
 ject, called the nucleolus. The lowest animals are single 
 cells, and are termed unicellular, but in the higher forms 
 the cells separate by self-division, and form two layers : 
 outer {ectoderm), inner (endoderm), while a middle layer 
 is called mesoderm. From these cell-layers bone and 
 muscular tissue are formed, and the animals are said to 
 be many-celled. 
 
 Difference between Animals and Plants. — It is 
 not difficult to distinguish between the higher forms of 
 animals and plants, The trees are sightless, have no 
 locomotive organs, and, as a rule, live upon inorganic 
 substances ; yet there are curious points of resemblance. 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 We know that a bird eats, moves, and breathes, and that 
 its blood circulates ; but plants also eat, respire through 
 their leaves, have a circulation of sap, and some are 
 endowed with locomotive powers. When we descend to 
 the lower forms of animal and vegetable life, the points 
 of similarity become almost identical ; the swift-mov- 
 ing diatom so resembling some of the lowest animal 
 forms that it is well-nigh impossible to distinguish be- 
 tween them. The plants, however, have no nervous sys- 
 tem, no special organs of circulation or digestion that 
 characterize the majority of animal forms, so that an ani- 
 mal differs mainly from a plant in possessing, as a rule, 
 a nervous system and special organs of circulation and 
 digestion. 
 
 Classification. — The animal kingdom, that is esti- 
 mated to contain one fourth of a million species, is sepa- 
 rated into two primary divisions : the Protozoa, or single- 
 celled animals, and the Metazoa, or those composed of 
 many cells. The latter are separated into eight branch- 
 es : Porifera, Coelenterata, Echinodermata, Vermes, Mollus- 
 ca, Arthropoda, Timicata, Vertebrata. These are in turn 
 divided until the varied forms are grouped, like with 
 like. This end is attained by comparison, and the result 
 is termed classification. Thus the dog, as distinguished 
 from a plant, is placed primarily in the animal kingdom. 
 Possessing a backbone, it is placed in the branch of 
 vertebrate animals. It differs from the fishes, reptiles, 
 and birds, by giving milk ; hence it is placed in the 
 class of mammals. Continuing our comparisons, we find 
 that, with the lions, tigers, and cats, it is a flesh- eater, 
 and so is placed in the order carnivora. From its gen- 
 eral appearance and form, it is associated with others 
 in the family of dogs. With others that have a similar 
 structure, it is given the generic name canis ; then, to 
 distinguish what kind of a dog it is, wild or domestic, it 
 is given a specific or specifying name, as the common 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 dog, Canis vulgaris. Hence we have the following classi- 
 fication : 
 
 DOG. 
 
 Kingdom : of Animals. 
 
 Branch : Backboned, Vertebrates. 
 
 Class : Milk-givers, Mammalia. 
 
 Order : Flesh-eaters, Carnivora, 
 
 Family : Dogs, Canidse. 
 
 Genus : Dog, Canis. 
 
 Species: Canis vulgaris. 
 
 Variety : Newfoundland. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 FIRST BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 PROTOZOANS (First Animals). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The Protozoans are one-celled 
 animals, in this differing from all others. The lowest 
 forms resemble microscopic bits of the white of an egg. 
 They have no definite shape, and move by a bulging out 
 of the body-mass into root-like projections called pseu- 
 dopodia, or false feet. In the interior are minute granules 
 that move about (circulate), and in all, except the lowest 
 protozoans, is seen a central oval body called the nucleus, 
 and a hollow, transparent space, that contracts and en- 
 larges with some regularity, called the "contractile vesi- 
 cle." The higher forms have silicious or calcareous shells 
 "and permanent organs. 
 
 Class I. — MONERS. 
 
 These are shapeless bits of transparent matter (Fig. i) 
 containing merely circulating granules. By extending the 
 body into pseudopodia, or false feet, and contracting them, 
 they glide slowly along. Their prey is seized by sur- 
 rounding it with the false feet, which fuse about it, and 
 the victim is absorbed into the body-mass. They repro- 
 duce by simple division, or as in Fig. i. The Moner as- 
 sumes a thick covering (becomes encysted), a, divides into 
 spheres., b, that burst out, c, d, e, and soon assume the 
 parent form,/ 
 
Fig. i. — Protomyxa aurantiaca. f, eating ; a and d, encysting ; c, devel- 
 oping into monad-like young. 
 
 Class II. — Rhizopoda {Animals with Root-like Feet). 
 
 General Characteristics. — Animals resembling the mo- 
 ners, but with a distinct outer and inner portion, the 
 latter containing, as well as granules, several nuclei 
 
PROTOZOANS. 
 
 Fig. 2. — a, Amoeba throwing out 
 pseudopodia ; d, encysted. 
 
 and contractile vesicles. They are either naked or 
 shelled. 
 
 Order I. Foraminifera {Hole- Bearers). — In the sim- 
 plest form, the Amoeba (Fig. 2), the body is divided into a 
 
 transparent outer covering, and 
 an interior portion containing 
 the nuclei,and circulating gran- 
 ules that appear to be kept in 
 motion by the pulsation of the 
 contracting vesicle. It moves 
 along by throwing out pseudo- 
 podia, or false feet, and ingulfs 
 its food — desmids, diatoms, and 
 other minute forms— as does the moner. The Amoeba 
 reproduces by simple division. 
 
 Shelled Amoebae. — These forms (Fig. 3) secrete rich 
 calcareous or horny chambered shells, from which are 
 thrown out the false feet, 
 extending in every direc- 
 tion in search of prey, and 
 fusing about it without the 
 shell. They are generally 
 minute, but one found off 
 Borneo measures two inch- 
 es across. They reproduce 
 in different ways ; in one, 
 the young resemble monads 
 (Fig. 6), finally assuming 
 the parent form. 
 
 Order II. Radiolaria 
 (Rayed Animals). — In these 
 
 animals (Fig. 4) the false feet are generally pointed, and 
 the shells, which are formed of silica, not lime, are richly 
 ornamented with spicules, or rays, and perforated with 
 openings for the pseudopodia, that secure their food, as we 
 have seen in the Foraminifera. They reproduce by di- 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 -Rotalia, with extended pseu- 
 dopodia. 
 
GREGARINIDA.— INFUSORIA. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 -Flint-shelied Radiolarian 
 ( Heliosphcera). 
 
 vision within the shell, the 
 young at first resembling 
 little oval bodies, with hair- 
 like tails. 
 
 Value. — The shells of the ma- 
 rine forms fall in a shower upon 
 the bottom, and form chalk-beds, 
 as the Dover cliffs, in England, 
 thus adding to the land of the 
 globe. The stone of the Pyramids 
 is made up of fossil Foraminifera. 
 
 Specimens for Study. — 
 The Amoebce, can be found 
 on leaves in fresh-water 
 
 ponds. Foraminifera can be caught with a fine net in the 
 ocean, or found in pools at low tide. The shells can be 
 ground and mounted for the microscope. 
 
 Class III. — GREGARINIDA. 
 
 General Characteristics. — These (Fig. 5) are minute 
 forms that take up their abode in lobsters, crabs, beetles, 
 cockroaches, worms, and other animals, 
 and lead a parasitic life, existing upon 
 the juices of the animals they inhabit. 
 They resemble minute worms ; one, 
 found in the European lobster, half an 
 inch in length, is called Gregarina gi- 
 gantea, being the largest single-celled 
 animal known. They undergo several 
 curious changes before reaching mature 
 growth. 
 
 Fig. 5. — Gregarina of 
 Nemertes Gesseri- 
 ensi's, showing- nu- 
 cleus and granu les . 
 
 Class IV. — Infusoria. 
 
 General Characteristics. — Animals of permanent forms 
 with cilia, or hair-like organs, for locomotion and procur- 
 ing food. They are either free or stalked. 
 
8 
 
 PROTOZOANS. 
 
 Order I. Flagellata (Monads). — If standing water is 
 examined with a microscope, it will be found fairly alive 
 with numbers of minute pear- and oval-shaped creatures, 
 
 having, at the place 
 where the stem would 
 be, alash, that vibrates 
 and whirls about as 
 the animal moves 
 along. One of. the 
 Monads, the Noctilu- 
 ca (Fig. 6), a giant of 
 its kind, lives in the 
 ocean, and in appear- 
 ance resembles a cur- 
 rant about the size 
 of a small pin-head. 
 On one side there is 
 a groove, from which 
 issues a single whip, 
 or cilium, that is a lo- 
 comotive organ, and 
 near where this joins the body is the mouth. The outer 
 surface of the animal is a firm membrane, beneath which 
 is the jelly-like mass containing numerous granules, from 
 which rises a regular network of fibers that lead over the 
 entire body. The young are produced by a mere break- 
 ing off of a portion of the parent. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Giant monad Noctiluca. e, gastric 
 vacuole ; g, radiating filaments. 
 
 Note. — As many as thirty thousand of these forms have been seen 
 in the ocean in a cubic inch, moving about with great rapidity, and 
 producing a most wonderful phosphorescent light. 
 
 Other monads are compound (several joined together), 
 as the Uvella, while others are fixed, attached to the bottom 
 by a slender stalk, as the Codosiga. Here the little hair- 
 like organ is used to throw food into the mouth. Others 
 of this order have their delicate forms protected by a hard 
 
INFUSORIA. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Acienttz. I 7 , attached by stalk ; 
 G, encysted. 
 
 shell, have one or several whips, or lashes, and a row of 
 cilia, with which they lash themselves along with great 
 velocity. 
 
 Order II. Suctoria. — This order is represented by 
 the Acienta (Fig. 7), beautiful, trumpet-like animals re- 
 sembling the purest glass. 
 From the body project 
 numerous slender tufts 
 that are not cilia, but hol- 
 low tentacles (arms), hav- 
 ing in some a sucker at 
 their ends. Their prey 
 is grasped by the arms, 
 that contract, each at the 
 same time sinking into 
 the body of the victim, 
 
 pumping or sucking out its juices. They multiply by self- 
 division, while some species have free-swimming young. 
 
 Order III. Ciliata. — These are the true Infusorians, 
 easily observed with a common microscope, a drop of 
 standing water furnishing myriads. They are either 
 free and covered with cilia, or stalked, with the cilia 
 about the head. They have a mouth, a digestive cavity, 
 or stomach, and multiply by self-division or budding. 
 Among the free swimmers, the Paramecium (Fig. 8) are 
 the giants, and easily observed if a little carmine is intro- 
 duced into the drop. As they dart about, we see that 
 they are oblong, narrowing at the head, the back rising 
 into quite an elevation, beneath which, upon the under 
 side, is the mouth. From the head and on all sides are 
 minute prolongations of the body, or cilia, arranged in 
 rows, organs of locomotion. The Vorticellce, (Fig. 9), or 
 bell animalcules, are bell-shaped, and held by a long, 
 slender, glass-like stalk, by which they contract. A colony 
 of them presents a curious sight ; the bells are continually 
 contracting, as if jerked from behind, the stalk forming a 
 
 
IO 
 
 PROTOZOANS. 
 
 perfect screw in the operation. They multiply by a sim- 
 ple division (Fig. 9, c) or by budding (d, d). 
 
 FlG. 8. — Paramecium 
 dursaria, showing 
 cilia, c, contractile 
 vacuole ; d, food. 
 
 Fig. 9. — Vorticellce. a, extended ; 
 fr, coiled ; c, division ; d, d, free- 
 swimming buds. 
 
 Works on Protozoans for further reference, 
 
 " The Atlantic, and Depths of the Sea," Sir Wyvillc Thomson ; 
 Carpenter " On the Microscope " ; " Mind in Nature," H. J. Clark ; 
 Leidy's " Fresh-Water Rhizopods" ; Pritchard's "Infusoria" ; " Man- 
 ual of Invertebrates," T. H. Huxley ; " Challenger Reports " ; " Even- 
 ings at the Microscope," Gosse ; Thompson's " Monthly Microscopical 
 Journal "; "The Quarterly Microscopical Journal"; Bastian's "Ori- 
 gin of Lowest Organisms, and Beginnings of Life " ; " Notices of Pro- 
 tozoa," by Professor Leidy, in " Proceedings of Philadelphia Academy 
 of Natural Sciences " ; " Water turned to Blood by Red Infusoria," in 
 " Popular Science Monthly," vol. iv, p. 202. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 SECOND BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 
 SPONGES (Porifera, pore-bearing). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The sponges were for many 
 years considered plants, but now they are known to be 
 many-celled animals. In the Ascctta (Fig. 10), we have 
 a vase-shaped cylinder, /, composed of cells arranged in 
 three layers. In the second or middle layer is developed 
 a network of ob- 
 jects of silex or lime, 
 called spicules (Fig. 
 it), that form the 
 skeleton, and sup- 
 port the cellular, jel- 
 ly-like mass. The 
 walls of the vase are 
 everywhere perfo- 
 rated with pores, J>, 
 through which water 
 passes, carrying food. 
 The cells of the in- 
 ner layer are pro- 
 vided with a cilium, 
 or lash, 777, and, 
 taken individually, 
 
 resemble monads. As food floats by, each cilium throws 
 the minute bits against its cell ; the soft portion is absorbed, 
 the harder parts being rejected, and, wafted along by the 
 cilia, find egress at the single large opening, O. In this 
 
 Fig. ii. 
 
 -Spicules of flint-sponges, highly 
 magnified. 
 
12 
 
 SPONGES. 
 
 Fig. io. — Ascetta primordialis. I. o, exhalent opening ; p, inhalent pores ; 
 g, ova. Star-like spicules are seen on the outside. II. Section showing 
 pores (p), with cilia of the cells extending into them. III. Cell show- 
 ing lash, or cilium. IV. Same, with lash retracted. V. Embryo of As- 
 cetta mirabilis. VI. Section of embryo. 
 
LIME-SPONGES.- CARNEOSPONGI^. 
 
 way the Ascetta feeds. Other sponges differ from it in 
 having a shapeless form, many large outlets instead of 
 one, and numerous sacs lined with ciliated cells. 
 
 Development. — The young are at first free swimmers, 
 being produced from eggs, 
 escaping into the water as 
 oblong little creatures, with 
 numerous cilia, V. They 
 soon become attached to 
 the bottom, spicules appear, 
 and they gradually assume 
 the parent form. 
 
 Order I. Lime-Spon- 
 ges (Calcispongioe). — In 
 these, the spicules are made 
 of lime, and the canals lined 
 with ciliated cells. They 
 are few in number, and may 
 be represented by the little 
 white sponge, Sycon ciliatum, 
 common in the sea-weed of 
 the Eastern Shore. 
 
 Order II. Carneo- 
 spongiae. — The spicules 
 of these forms are either 
 fibrous and horny, or sili- 
 cious, and the ciliated cells 
 are only found in little 
 cavities, or stomachs. To 
 this order belong a host of 
 beautiful forms : the com- 
 mon sponges of commerce, 
 the fresh-water Spongilla, 
 
 the wondrous Holtenia, and the Eupleciella, or Venus's 
 flower-basket (Fig. 12). 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 -Skeleton of Euplectella 
 speciosa. 
 
14 
 
 SPONGES. 
 
 Value of Sponges. — There are six species of sponges valued in 
 commerce ; three are found in America, in Key West and the Baha- 
 mas, the others coming from the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Nearly 
 all the flints are the remains of ancient sponges. 
 
 Specimens for Study. — Sponges are difficult to keep in 
 the aquarium. In our Northern fresh-water ponds, the 
 Siphydora is common, and, in streams, the Spongi/la, while 
 various kinds can be found along the coast. In default 
 of living specimens, the common toilet-sponge should be 
 used, and sections made with a razor for examination 
 under the microscope. 
 
 Works on Sponges for further reference. 
 " The Glass Sponges," by Rev. Samuel Lockwood, in " Popular 
 Science Monthly," vol. iii, p. 529 ; "The Common Fresh- Water Sponge, 
 Spongilla" by Professor W. C. Williamson, in " Popular Science Re- 
 view," January, 1868 ; " North American Poriferse," by A. Hyatt, in 
 "Memoirs of Boston Society of Natural History"; "Life Histories 
 of Animals," by A. S. Packard, Jr. ; " The Atlantic, and Depths of 
 the Sea," Sir Wyville Thomson. 
 
 A Syrian sponger. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THIRD BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 HYDROIDS, Etc. {Ccelenterata, hollow intestine). 
 
 General Characteristics. — A simple sac, as the Hydra, 
 composed of two-cell layers, possessing a stomach, or di- 
 gestive cavity. The mouth is encircled by tentacles, which 
 are hollow, and connect with the stomach. 
 
 Class I. — Hydrozoa. 
 
 Order I. Hydroids. — One of the commonest animals 
 of the aquarium, if the water is taken from the brook or 
 stream, is the Hydra 
 (Fig. 13)— a simple, 
 elongated stomach 
 one quarter of an 
 inch in length, end- 
 ing in a mouth that 
 is surrounded by from 
 five to eight tentacles 
 that are extensions of 
 the body, hollow, and 
 connecting with it. 
 If examined closely, 
 myriads of small cells 
 will be seen, many of 
 which contain deli- 
 cate threads or darts, called lassoes, that are thrown out 
 as weapons of defense (Fig. 14). By cutting a Hydra 
 
 Fig. 13. — Fresh-water Hydra viridis. 1. 
 Long-armed Hydra feeding on small ani- 
 mals, a. 2. Hydra fusca throwing off 
 young Hydra-buds. 
 
l6 LIME-SECRETING HYDRO IDS. 
 
 into sections, each will soon produce a crown of tentacles, 
 and grow into a perfect animal. The Hydra can be 
 turned inside out, and within an hour recover its natural 
 
 Fig. 14.— Lasso-cells of Hydra. 1. Arm of Hydra, containing cells. 
 2. Cell magnified. 3. Cell after bursting open. 
 
 position ; more marvelous yet, if when so treated it is spit- 
 ted with a pin or needle so that it can not turn, it will eat 
 and reproduce its kind as if nothing had occurred. Some 
 are solitary, while others live in colonies. They repro- 
 duce by budding (Fig. 13, b, b) and by eggs. 
 
 Lime-secreting Hydroids {Millepord). — Some of 
 the Hydroids secrete lime. They resemble true corals in 
 appearance, and were long considered as such. Under 
 the microscope, it will be seen that the lime secreted is 
 tunneled by numerous canals which in life are filled by the 
 animal. The polyps are of two kinds, and, in a millepore 
 found at Tahiti, they are in groups, the largest being stout 
 polyps, with four tentacles, a stomach, and mouth ; but 
 the polyps about it, rising from the smaller pores, have no 
 mouth or stomach, but many tentacles, whose duty is to 
 capture food for the short, thick-set polyp between them. 
 Some of the Hydroids, instead of bearing young like them- 
 selves, produce perfect jelly-fishes {Medusoe) ; such is the 
 Campanularia (Fig. 15), that throws off, by budding, a free 
 jelly-fish (3), that in turn produces eggs that become, not 
 jelly-fishes, but fixed Hydroids (1). This is called alternate 
 generation. The free-swimming young are often brilliant- 
 ly luminous, presenting a wondrous appearance on dark 
 nights. 
 
DISCOPHORA. 
 
 17 
 
 The Monocaulus is a gigantic Hydroid, seven feet high, 
 and nine inches across the expanded tentacles, living in 
 the Atlantic at a depth of four miles below the surface. 
 Many of the so-called mosses that are common on the 
 shore, and are pressed as sea- weed, are in reality compound 
 Hydroids enclosed in horny cells, as the Sertularia. 
 
 Fig 15.— Campanularia. 1. Natural size. 2. Animal magnified : S, sac 
 containing jelly-bell ; a a, animal feeding. 3. Free-swimming young, 
 magnified. 3', natural size of jelly-bell. 
 
 Order II. Discophora— We now come to jelly- 
 fishes that are developed directly from eggs, as Pelagia 
 campanella, or, as in Aurelia, produced from a Hydra 
 form (Fig. 17, 1). They vary in size, from the little 
 Lucernaria that attaches itself to weeds by a sucking 
 disk, to the gigantic Cyanea, that is from two to seven 
 feet in diameter, with tentacles over one hundred feet m 
 length. 
 
i8 
 
 HYDRO IDS, ETC. 
 
 These jellies are disk-shaped, the tentacles in Cya- 
 nea hanging in eight distinct bunches from the margin, 
 and armed with darts or lasso-cells, that form terrible 
 
 Fig. 16.— Adult Aurelia, showing the water-vascular canals. 
 
 weapons of defense. Around the fringed margin are 
 eight protected eyes. The mouth - opening is square, 
 leading into a large stomach, from which radiate four 
 branching tubes (Fig. 16) called water-vascular canals. 
 
 They form a network at the 
 edge, and connect with a tube 
 that encircles the margin of 
 the disk. Through these 
 branches digested food and 
 water circulates, or finds its 
 way over the body. A some- 
 what similar arrangement is 
 found in all jelly-fishes. In 
 swimming, the disk contracts 
 „ _ r A and expands in regular time, 
 
 Fig. 17. — Development of Au- r . 
 
 reiia. 1. Early stage. 2. averaging twelve or fifteen times 
 
 Jelly-fish ready to break off. a minute. 
 
FRESH- WA TER JELL Y -FISHES. 
 
 19 
 
 Note.— In specimens of Aurelia, 95.84 per cent of the animal is 
 water ; the solid matter in any jelly-fish is rarely over five per cent of 
 the whole. 
 
 Fresh-Water Jelly-Fishes— These have recently 
 been discovered in England. They are one third of an 
 
 FlG. 18. — A jelly-fish swimming {Pelagid). 
 
 inch in diameter, and probably come from some warm 
 climate, as they are only active when the temperature of 
 the water is about 85 . 
 
20 
 
 COMPOUND HYDRO IDS, 
 
 Developme?it of Discophora. — They multiply by eggs 
 that are deposited in the autumn, and are at first spheri- 
 cal, quickly changing to a pear-shape, and attaching them- 
 selves to rocks or weed. Now, 
 tentacles appear (Fig. 17, 1), 
 varying in number from eight 
 to twenty-four, and after eight- 
 een months the pear divides 
 off into disks until we have a 
 pile of scalloped saucers one 
 upon another (2). The high- 
 est one dies, while all the rest 
 break off and swim away, lit- 
 tle jelly-fishes, that in time 
 grow into the gigantic Cyanea 
 or others, as the case may be. 
 
 Value. — They form the food of 
 some whales and fishes. 
 
 Note. — The gigantic Cyanea af- 
 fords a home under its curtains for 
 numbers of fishes and several crus- 
 taceans, while in its mouth-folds 
 lives a long, tapering sea-anemone 
 {Bicidium parasiticum), that in many 
 cases mimics in color that of its 
 protector. 
 
 Order III. Siphonopho- 
 
 ra. — These are the most beau- 
 tiful of the Hydroids, and 
 are rarely seen in the North. 
 They are free-swimming colo- 
 nies. The Portuguese man- 
 o'-war, or Physalia (Fig. 19), is a mere bubble, seemingly 
 of the finest satin, that floats upon the surface. From the 
 upper portion rises at will a fluted membrane, colored with 
 delicate tints of pink, that is used as a sail ; from the low- 
 
 Fig. 19. — Portuguese man-o'-war, 
 Physalia Arethusa. 
 
SEA-ANEMONES AND CORAL POLYPS. 21 
 
 er portion extends a mass of tentacles of the richest blue, 
 and, from their armament of lasso-cells, of the most dan- 
 gerous character. They are called Zooids, and are of 
 four kinds. Some aid in locomotion, some are reproduc- 
 tive, while others are feeders for the entire colony. The 
 tentacles are dragged from twenty to one hundred feet or 
 more behind. The beautiful filaments form tempting baits 
 when lowered, and in this way the Physalia feeds. The 
 man-o'-war generally has several tenders, little fishes of 
 the genus Scombridce, of the exact color of the death- 
 dealing tentacles, that live under and among them, a won- 
 derful case of mimicry.* 
 
 Allied to the Physalia are the Porpita and Velella. 
 The latter also floats upon the surface, a raft bearing a 
 silvery sail, while beneath is the same rich coloring of the 
 Physalia. 
 
 Works on Hydroids for further reference. 
 
 " Acalephs ( Jelly-Fishes) of North America, with Pictures of most 
 of the Species in Catalogue of Museum of Comparative Zoology," by 
 A. Agassiz ; L. Agassiz, " Contributions to the Natural History of the 
 United States," vol. iv ; " Sea-side Studies in Natural History," 
 Agassiz ; " Sertularian Zoophytes of the Coast of England," T. 
 Hincks; "Popular Science Review," 1878, p. 223; Huxley's "Man- 
 ual of Invertebrates" ; "Challenger Reports." 
 
 Class II.— Sea-Anemones and Coral Polyps 
 {Actinozod). 
 
 General Characteristics. — These are well represented 
 by the sea-anemone, or Actinia (Fig. 20). In appearance 
 
 * The author once swam over the tentacles of a Physalia with an 
 almost fatal result ; the blue marks were plainly visible six or eight 
 months after. These fishes not only mimic the color of the tentacles, 
 but assume vertical positions, so that they seem actually a part of 
 them. I have often lifted the man-o'-war, which can be safely done 
 by the " sail," and the fishes that were previously unnoticed would 
 dart about in the greatest alarm. A more remarkable case of protective 
 mimicry is not known. 
 
22 
 
 HYDROIDS, ETC. 
 
 they resemble cylinders attached to the bottom, the oppo- 
 site end containing the mouth, which is surrounded by 
 numbers of hollow tentacles, armed with lasso-cells (Fig. 
 21), while near the base of the tentacles are the minute 
 
 Fig. 21. — Lasso-cell of an anemone. 
 
 Fig. 20. — Anemone with ten- 
 tacles expanded, attached 
 by sucking disc to the bot- 
 tom. 
 
 Fig. 22. — Cross-section of anem- 
 one, showing septa. 
 
 eye-spots. If a dead anemone that has become somewhat 
 hardened is cut open vertically, we first notice the stom- 
 ach, that, divided into mouth and stomach proper, seems 
 suspended in the body, held in place by six partitions 
 (Mesenteries) (Fig. 22), that divide it into as many sec- 
 tions, which are again divided by others. Each of the 
 six principal partitions is perforated with an opening, and 
 the chambers connect with the tentacles, so that water, 
 and food captured by the tentacles, is taken in at the 
 mouth, and penetrates, by the opening at the bottom of 
 the stomach, to every part of the animal. 
 
 The anemones vary greatly in size, from delicate un- 
 attached forms that live up among the folds of the great 
 jelly-fish Cyanea to enormous ones two feet across. The 
 
CORAL-MAKING POLYPS. 
 
 23 
 
 Cerianthus of the Philippine Islands, with its thread-cells, 
 builds a sheath or leathery tube one foot four inches in 
 length, that is sunk into the mud. 
 
 Developvient. — Anemones multiply by budding, or, if 
 pieces of the disk are cut or torn off, they will grow into 
 anemones. They also deposit eggs, the young being at 
 first free swimmers, by means of cilia, finally becoming 
 fixed upon the bottom, and assuming the adult form. 
 
 Note. — In their habits they are remarkable. One observed by 
 Dr. Collingwood in the China Sea was two feet in diameter, giving 
 shelter in its stomach to a little fish, that, when danger approached, 
 rushed into its protector, whose tentacles closed up like a door. A 
 fish, known as Premnas biaculeatus, also lives within the stomach of 
 the anemone, Actinia crassicornis. Some live a roving life, like the 
 Adamsia, that is often found upon the back of the hermit-crab, that, 
 upon leaving its shell, obliges its friend, the anemone, to change also. 
 The Urticina is luminous. 
 
 Value. — The anemones are great purifiers, and are eaten in vari- 
 ous parts of the world. 
 
 Coral-making Polyps. — The coral animal may be 
 considered an anemone that has the power of secreting 
 lime. In the star-coral (Astrea), the young is seen at the 
 end of June — a little oblong-shaped body, swimming about 
 by its cilia, or oars. It soon attaches itself to the bottom, 
 and, if in a few days it should be removed, there would 
 be found a little platform with radiating partitions of lime 
 alternating with the soft ones that we have seen in the 
 anemone. If allowed to grow, tentacles soon appear ; 
 other small partitions are now secreted, that extend to 
 the outer wall, which is also being secreted ; and, finally, 
 we have a coral polyp, from which others branch, until 
 large blocks are formed of many individuals, but all con- 
 nected. So it will be seen that the coral is not an insect, 
 neither does it erect or build its house any more than a 
 man builds his skeleton, but is a lime-secreting animal, 
 pure and simple. 
 
24 DEEP-WATER CORALS. . 
 
 The corals that we are familiar with have been bleached, 
 but when taken from the water they are of various shades 
 of olive and brown. 
 
 Single-Polyp Corals. — The Fungia, or Mushroom- 
 Coral, often attains a length of twelve inches, and is a sin- 
 gle polyp, in which the radiating septa are plainly seen. 
 They are the commonest forms of the greater depths ; ten 
 genera live in water a mile deep, four at nearly two miles, 
 while the Fungia symmetrica has been found in from one 
 hundred and eighty feet to three and a half miles of water. 
 The Caryophyllia is a common form in the Mediterranean. 
 Some are luminous. 
 
 Branch-Coral (Madreporidce). — The Branch or Tree 
 Coral of Florida (Fig. 23) is a familiar example, and the 
 
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 Fig. 23. — Madrepore. Dead and living branch. 
 
 sides of deep channels in the reef bristle with it, the coral 
 growing in perpendicular walls and covering the reef in 
 vast patches, affording protection to myriads of animals. 
 The Leaf-Coral spreads out in great leaves several feet in 
 width. The Branch-Corals grow seven or eight inches a 
 year, contrary to general belief. 
 
 Porites. — These polyps are extremely minute, having 
 twelve short tentacles, and form large oval heads, weigh- 
 ing many thousand pounds. Many die in the center, and 
 become hollowed out like gigantic vases, and are pene- 
 trated with worms, that, when expanded, resemble flowers 
 
BRAIN-CORALS.— STAR-CORALS. 25 
 
 Brain-Corals (Meandrina)* — These corals form in 
 great heads twelve to fifteen feet in diameter. The polyps 
 are arranged in trenches resembling the convolutions of 
 the brain, They grow rapidly. Fig. 24 shows a head of 
 Meandrina convexa that doubled its diameter in a year, 
 or grew at the rate of one inch a year under unfavorable 
 
 Fig. 24. — Meandrina convexa, Tortugas, Florida, growth of which was 
 watched by Dr. J. B. Holder and the author. 
 
 circumstances, being kept by the author in an aquarium, 
 
 or inclosure, of dead-coral rock, through which the tide 
 rose and fell. 
 
 Star-Corals (Astrea). — In the Astreas the polyps are 
 very large, some having a diameter of two inches, almost 
 as large as some anemones. The tentacles are of various 
 shades — green, purple, gray, and blue tints. They attain 
 a weight of several tons. 
 
 * Meandrina spongiosa, common on the Florida reef, floats upon 
 the surface when deprived of the animal matter, and is known as 
 floating coral. 
 
 2 
 
2 6 CORAL REEFS. 
 
 Northern Coral (Astrangia). — This beautiful coral 
 may be found in Long Island Sound, near New Haven, 
 and on the New Jersey shore. The polyps are pure white, 
 
 Fig. 25. — Astrcea pallida (living). 
 
 standing high above the cells. The tentacles are covered 
 with lasso-cells, each about t ^q of an inch in length. It 
 thrives well in the aquarium. 
 
 Coral Reefs. — These are banks or shoals of dead or 
 living coral at or below the surface. The tops of sub- 
 merged hills and elevations gradually approach the surface 
 by the accumulation of organic matter, principally from 
 the continuous falling* of shells of Rhizopoda and Fora- 
 minifera (Fig. 3), and other forms, until finally a platform 
 of limestone is built that reaches within forty or fifty feet 
 of the surface. Now, the reef-making corals, Madrepores, 
 etc., that do not flourish in deeper water, become fixed, 
 grow, and accumulate, with Gorgonias and other forms, 
 until they reach the surface. Seeds, perhaps of the man- 
 grove, now obtain a footing, and the reef in time becomes 
 a coral key or island. 
 
 * It has been estimated by Murray that, if lime-secreting organisms 
 are as numerous down to a depth of six hundred feet as they are near 
 the surface, there would be more than sixteen tons of calcareous shells 
 or carbonate of lime in the uppermost one hundred fathoms of every 
 square mile of the ocean. 
 
BARRIER REEFS.— ATOLLS. 
 
 2 7 
 
 Barrier Reefs. — This name is given to reefs formed 
 as above, but distant from the shore, and separated from 
 it by deep water, as the reef, one thousand miles long and 
 thirty miles from shore, on the Australian coast. 
 
 Fringing Reefs. — These are formed near the shore, 
 generally in smooth water, having no great depth between 
 them and the adjacent land. 
 
 Atolls. — When a reef reaches the surface, the waves 
 from the side of the prevailing winds grind up the dead 
 
 - 
 
 Fig. 26. — Atoll in the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 coral, and wash it over in the form of mud and sand, 
 where it settles in smooth water. Here branching corals, 
 that give shelter to innumerable animals, nourish, as well 
 as lime-secreting algae,* all continually growing and being 
 ground up by fishes and worms, and disintegrated by the 
 solvent action of the carbonic acid in the water, until 
 finally a shallow lagoon or flat is formed, wholly or partly 
 
 * This is one of the most important factors of lagoon and key 
 making. The keys of Tortugas, especially Sand Key, are made up 
 almost entirely of these limy plates, as well as broken shells. 
 
2 8 HYDROIDS, ETC. 
 
 surrounded by the reef (Fig. 26), and cut up by currents 
 into deep channels. Such is the atoll forming at Tortu- 
 gas, Florida, where the lagoon is fast filling up, and will 
 eventually become dry land. The shape of atolls is due 
 to the foundation upon which they are formed, currents, 
 winds, etc. 
 
 Note. — An important factor in mud-making is the Holothurian. 
 Those at St. Solomon Islands have been found to eject two fifths of a 
 pound of mud a day, so that sixteen animals would grind up a ton a 
 year ; and as in some places the bottom is fairly covered with them, the 
 amount of work of this kind done by a single animal can be imagined. 
 
 Works on Actinozoans for further reference. 
 
 Dana's " Corals and Coral Islands" ; " Our Sea- Anemones," by A 
 E. Verrill ; "American Naturalist," vol. ii, p. 251 ; " Sea-Anemones," 
 " Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii, p. I ; " Arachnactis Brachiolata, 
 a Floating Actinia," A. Agassiz, " Boston Journal of Natural History," 
 vol. vii, p. 525 ; " Animal Life," Semper ; " Sea-Side Studies," Agassiz ; 
 " Smithsonian Reports " ; " Challenger Reports " ; " The Atlantic, and 
 Depths of the Sea," Sir Wyville Thomson ; Darwin's " Structure of 
 Coral Reefs " ; " Fauna Americana," J. B. Holder ; " Transactions 
 American Academy," vol. xi, 1883, Agassiz ; " Proceedings of Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, i879-'8o," Murray. 
 
 Value of Stony Corals.— The stony corals form islands. The 
 fossil coral, Favosites, is polished and much used in jewelry. Fossil 
 coral found in Cuba is much used in building. Calcined coral is used 
 as a dentifrice and as an antacid. 
 
 Order II. Alcyonarians.— The animals that secrete 
 a horny or calcareous stock without true dividing parti- 
 tions or septa, are called Alcyonarians. Such are the sea- 
 fans (Gorgonias), yellow, lilac, and black, sea-pens, the red 
 coral of commerce, and many others. 
 
 Red Coral. — In the red coral, Corallium rubrutn (Fig. 
 27), the axis p is calcareous, and composed of fused 
 spicules, varying in color. When alive, the polyps, II, b, b, 
 which are pure white, are connected by a series of com- 
 plicated tubes, /. The tentacles are eight in number, and 
 
RED CORAL. 
 
 2 9 
 
 when spread out are extremely beautiful. The young are 
 at first free swimming (III and IV). Another curious 
 form is the organ-pipe coral, formed of upright tubes. 
 
 Fig. 27. — Red coral (C. rubrum). I. Branch showing polyps closed and ex- 
 panded : k, mouth. II. Section of branch: k, mouth; m, stomach; 
 /, canals ; /i, irregular canals ; P, hard axis. III and IV. Free-swim- 
 ming embryo, showing the cilia, or oars. 
 
30 GORGONIAS. 
 
 Value. — Eighty thousand pounds have been collected in one year. 
 In 1873 Algeria alone employed 311 vessels and 3,150 men, realizing 
 $565,000. The entire yearly collection is valued at over $1,000,000. 
 
 Sea-Fans {Gorgonias). — The Gorgonias (Fig. 28) grow- 
 in the shape of fans or plumes, branching like trees and 
 shrubs. The stock secreted is either horny or calcareous. 
 Those of the Florida reef are often three feet high and 
 two wide, while the Primnoa, found on the Banks of New- 
 
 Fig. 28. — Sea-fan. 
 
 foundland, grows to a height of over five feet, the branches 
 or stem being as thick as a boy's arm. Their surfaces 
 are network, through which are delicate canals connect- 
 ing the animals. On the Gorgonia fiabellum lives a shell 
 of the same color — a curious case of mimicry. 
 
 Value. — They are made into whips, canes, etc. 
 
 Sea-Pens {Pennatulidce). — The sea-pens are fixed or 
 free-swimming polyps. A gigantic one ( U7?ibellnlarid), 
 four feet high, lives in the Arctic regions, a mile and a 
 half from the surface ; another, ten inches long ( Veretil- 
 
COMB-BEARERS. 
 
 31 
 
 /urn), is found off the coast of Spain, and noted, as are 
 all the Alcyonarians, for its luminous properties.* 
 
 Class III. — Comb-bearers (Ctenophora). 
 
 These are jelly-like animals, having, as organs of loco- 
 motion, vertical rows of comb-like paddles, that move up 
 and down in exact measure as they 
 travel along, glistening with rain- 
 bow-like hues. So vast are their 
 numbers that in the North they 
 often color the sea. They are not 
 only iridescent but luminous, their 
 very eggs and embryos giving out 
 light. The Bolina, Beroe, Idyia, 
 Cestum y and Plenrobrachia (Fig. 
 29), are all common on our New 
 England shores. The eggs are de- 
 posited singly, as in Pleurobrachia, 
 or in strings, as in Boli?ia y in the 
 autumn or last of summer, the 
 young passing through no changes, 
 and resembling the parent as soon 
 as hatched. 
 
 Specimens for Study. — The Hy- 
 dra can be found in any pond during the summer months, 
 and the salt-water forms from old piles and rocks along 
 the shore. Jelly-fish can be preserved in alcohol by grad- 
 
 * All the Alcyonarians dredged by the Challenger were wonder- 
 fully luminous, and the bottom of the sea is undoubtedly lighted to a 
 more or less degree in this way. Great patches of light have been 
 seen sixty feet below the surface, while the small forms in shoaler 
 water vie with those of the greater depths. Professor Moscley exam- 
 ined the light of three Alcyonarians with the spectroscope, and found 
 it to consist of red, yellow, and green rays only. A glass containing 
 numbers of the Veretilhim has given out light sufficient to read by, 
 and was distinguishable for some distance. 
 
 Fig. 29. — Pleurobrachia. 
 
32 
 
 HYDROIDS, ETC. 
 
 ually adding it to the water they are in. Small jellies 
 should be treated to a weak solution of osmic acid, one 
 tenth per cent water ; this hardens their tissues. To pre- 
 vent animals from closing up, kill in chromic acid (one 
 and one half per cent), and place in alcohol. Living 
 coral (Astrangia) can be dredged in Long Island Sound. 
 Specimens can be hardened for sectional examination in 
 osmic acid. 
 
 A ship sailing at night through phosphorescent animals, as noctiluca 
 (Fig. 6), jelly-fishes, ascidians, etc. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FOURTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 
 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, Etc. {Echinodermata). 
 
 General Characteristics. — Marine radiate animals, hav- 
 ing a calcareous skeleton made up of many plates. They 
 possess a nervous system, and are distinguished, especially 
 from the former groups, in having a tube-like digestive 
 canal, distinct and separate from the cavity of the body. 
 
 Skeleton. — By making a vertical section of the common 
 star-fish (Fig. 30), we find that the skeleton is made up 
 
 Fig. 30. — Section of one ray of star-fish. A, central body ; S, stomach ; m, 
 mouth ; //, madreporic plate ; r, ring about the mouth ; B, ray ; sj>, 
 spines set in leathery coat ; c, pedicellariae ; e, eye ; /, t, tubular feet ; 
 v, v, vesicles for supplying feet with water ; z, liver. 
 
 of calcareous plates, connected by a leathery integument, 
 and covered by the skin, having spaces between them to 
 allow the ingress of water. The plates increase by addi- 
 tions to their edges ; thus their shape is preserved. The 
 si/ines, or defensive organs, sp (Fig. 30), work on a ball- 
 and-socket plan, and among them occur worm-like append- 
 
34 
 
 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 
 
 ages called pedicellaricz, c, having three calcareous jaws. 
 Between the arms, on the upper surface, is a hard, flat, 
 pinkish body, perforated with holes, called "the madre- 
 poric plate," h. The under surface of the rays is chan- 
 neled, the plates being pierced with four rows of minute 
 holes. 
 
 Internal Organs. — The mouth, //z, is on the under sur- 
 face, and leads into the stomach, s, which is seen ex- 
 tending into the rays, ending in a short intestine, to 
 which is attached the green, branching liver, /. About 
 the mouth extends a ring, that throws off a delicate 
 nerve to the eye, e, at the tip of each ray ; other cords 
 also extend to each sucker, / /, this constituting the nerv- 
 ous system. 
 
 Circulation. — There is a system of blood-vessels, but 
 
 Fig. 31. — Pentacrinus caput medusa. 
 
 what is called the water-vascular system is most impor- 
 tant, aiding in both locomotion and respiration. Water is 
 taken in at the sieve-like madreporic plate h, flows down 
 a tube, called the "stone canal," into the circular canal, 
 
STAR-FISHES. 
 
 35 
 
 r, that encircles the mouth ; here it flows into tubes that 
 branch into each ray, then into numerous sacs, or am- 
 pullae, v v, that have long extensions provided with suck- 
 ers. By the contraction of the sacs, water fills the exten- 
 sions that penetrate the four rows of holes, and they ap- 
 pear as feet, suckers, or locomotive organs, tt. 
 
 Class I. — Crinoids {Lily-form). 
 
 Eight living genera of these forms are known. One 
 of the most beautiful, the Pentacrinus, is found in deep 
 water off the West In- 
 dia Islands. They may 
 be described as inverted 
 star-fishes growing on 
 stems. Some are always 
 fastened to the bottom 
 (Fig. 31), while others 
 break off when attaining 
 a mature growth and 
 lead a wandering life, 
 as the Antedon. In the 
 Pentacrinus the stem is 
 about a foot long, resem- 
 bling pentagonal but- 
 tons piled one upon 
 another, sending off at intervals short whorls of branches 
 that are jointed in a similar way. The stem is rooted in 
 the mud, while the animal is cup-shaped, presenting the 
 appearance of a bunch of rich, waving plumes. These 
 are the arms, arranged about the mouth, closing over it, 
 or spreading out at will. The Crinoid {Antedon) is found 
 in the Gulf of Maine. They multiply by eggs, that pass 
 through several complex changes before assuming the 
 parent form. 
 
 Fig. 32. — Sand-star. 
 
36 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 
 
 Class II. — Star-Fishes {Aster oidea). 
 
 The star-fishes assume the most varied and curious 
 shapes. In Sand-stars (Fig. 32), the body is a mere flat- 
 tened disk, the arms branching out suddenly, often round 
 and snake-like, while the feet have no suckers, and appear 
 from the sides of the rays instead of the bottom. The 
 Ophiacantha spinulosa is not merely a star in shape, but is 
 highly luminous. Some, as the Ophiothcla, divide them- 
 selves spontaneously, the body looking as if it had been 
 chopped in two ; the two halves become separate indi- 
 viduals, new arms growing from the severed parts. In 
 one of the brittle stars, known as the basket-fish, the arms 
 are divided into many branches of twos — bifurcating, as it 
 is called — and resemble, when coiled, a bail of snakes. 
 They live in the coral reefs of the South, and are often 
 found off the New England coast. 
 
 Development. — The young are produced from eggs, some, 
 as OpMoeoma vivipara, appearing at once in adult form, 
 
 Fig. 33.— Development of common star-fish. A, free-swimming form ; 
 A', later stage settling on the bottom ; B, same assuming star- 
 
 shape. 
 
 while others (Fig. 33) are at first minute sacs swimming 
 by aid of cilia, undergoing many changes, finally in two 
 or three years assuming the adult shape. The common 
 star-fish (Fig. 34) preys upon the oyster. 
 
STAR-FISHES. 
 
 37 
 
 Fig. 34.— The star-fish at home (Asterias Forhsii), showing upper and 
 under sides. 
 
 Note.— Not all star-fishes have five rays. The Brisinga has 
 from nine to twenty, the Solaster, found on the New England coast, 
 eleven ; while others have thirteen or fourteen. The great star-fish 
 Asterias discoida is often inhabited by a living fish {Oxybeles lumbri- 
 coides). 
 
38 
 
 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 
 
 Class III. — Sea-Urchins (Echinoidcd). 
 
 General Cha7-acteristics. — The egg-shaped skeleton (Fig. 
 35) is made up of about six hundred hard, six-sided plates 
 in double rows, containing perhaps 3,720 pores for the emis- 
 sion of the tube-like feet. The star-fish is a sucker, but 
 the Echinus a biter, having five long calcareous teeth that 
 meet at a point, m (Fig. 35), and are renewed as they wear 
 away. They are moved by a 
 complicated system of mus- 
 cles, and held in place by a 
 leathery skin. The body is 
 
 Fig. 35. — Skeleton of sea-urchin 
 without spines, m, mouth ; 
 f h, foot-holes ; wh, madre- 
 poric plate ; e, eyes ; s, sock- 
 ets of large spines. 
 
 covered with about 4,000 
 
 spines, each of which is made FlG 36 ._ Jaws of p ed iceUaria. 
 
 up of hollow tubes, and works Highly magnified. 
 
 on a ball-and-socket plan, s. 
 
 Among these spines are over 2,000 suckers, or feet, of three 
 different kinds : 1, suckers proper ; 2, and most frequently 
 found near the mouth, pedicellariae (Fig. 36), whose calca- 
 reous jaws are continually opening and shutting in loco- 
 motion and defense ; and 3, stalked button-like bodies 
 called sphceridia, probably organs of taste. The same 
 
SEA- C UC UMBERS. 
 
 39 
 
 madreporic plate, w h, and a similar circulatory system are 
 found as in the star-fishes. 
 
 Development. — They are produced from eggs, the free- 
 swimming young passing through many changes (Fig. 37). 
 In some Echini the young are pro- 
 duced without changes. The Her- 
 miaster holds its young in a regular 
 sac, while the eggs and young in 
 others are held in place by the 
 spines that fold about them like so 
 many protective arms. 
 
 Class IV. — Sea -Cucumbers 
 {HolotJmroidcd) . 
 
 In these animals (Fig. 38) the 
 body is long and worm-like, and 
 resembles a rough-skinned cucum- 
 ber. Looking down upon the 
 mouth, that is surrounded by ten- 
 tacle-like gills, their radiate char- 
 acter is seen, and by laying open 
 the body a similar disposition of 
 muscles may be noticed. The 
 madreporic plate or strainer is in- 
 ternal. The feet are in five se- 
 ries, each consisting of five rows, 
 by which they move slowly along. 
 
 The skin of Holothurians is leathery, and contains num- 
 bers of curious bodies resembling dumb-bells, wheels, 
 and anchors (Fig. 39). The Holothuria Floridiana is in- 
 habited by a fish, the Fierasfer* In the Holothuria sea- 
 
 * In many observed by the author on the Florida reef they invariably 
 died as soon as taken from the Holothurians ; but in the aquarium at 
 Naples they have been seen to leave their home and return tail first, 
 the action of the Holothurian in taking in water helping them in. 
 
 Fig. 37. — Development of 
 sea - urchin. A, free- 
 swimming young ; 0, #, 
 lime rods ; b, urchin 
 forming within. B, later 
 form, showing spines. 
 
40 
 
 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 
 
 bra of Zamboanga lives an entirely different fish (Enchely- 
 op his vermicular is). 
 
 Fig. 38.— Sea-cucumber {Holothuria lutea), showing tentacle-like gills. 
 
 Note. — The common Pentactes of the North lies buried in the sand, 
 the tentacle-like gill, resembling mosses of various kinds. In some 
 species they look like toadstools ; others resemble broad leaves or short, 
 delicate shrubs, and, when concealed in the sand, these mimicking 
 mouth-parts are thrust up, and wave to and fro in the current, deceiv- 
 ing the shrewdest of their enemies. 
 
 Development. — The young are devel- 
 oped much as in the star-fishes ; some 
 are at first free swimmers by means of 
 cilia, and pass through change of forms 
 as curious and distinct as in many in- 
 sects (Fig. 40), while others appear at 
 first in the adult form, and are protect- 
 ed in nurseries called marsupiums. 
 
 Fig. 39. — Anchor- 
 plate in Synap- 
 ta, magnified. 
 
 Value. — Over 1,000 vessels are engaged in the trepang-fisheries 
 of the East. The yearly shipment of them from Macassar alone amounts 
 
SEA-CUCUMBERS. 
 
 to $600,000. Spines of certain Echini are used as slate-pencils in some 
 countries. 
 
 Fig. 40. — Development of sea-cucumber. A, jelly-like animal swimming ; 
 <z, sea-cucumber forming- within. B, later form, showing tentacles 
 and feet. 
 
 Specimens for Study. — Living crinoids are not generally 
 obtainable, but the fossil stems are to be found in various 
 localities (see " Geology "). The stomachs of cod and 
 other fishes often yield brittle stars not found near shore. 
 The anchors, dumb-bells, etc., of Holothurians can be seen 
 by treating the skin to a solution of potash, and should be 
 mounted for the microscope. 
 
 Works on Echinoderms for further reference. 
 
 " Challenger Reports " ; " Depths of the Sea," Sir Wyville Thom- 
 son ; "Smithsonian Reports"; Moseley's "Notes of a Naturalist"; 
 "Natural History of the Star-Fish," A. Agassiz, in "Memoirs of Mu- 
 seum of Compai-ative Zoology " ; " Echinoderms of New England," 
 A. E. Verrill, in " Boston Journal of Natural History," vol. x ; " In- 
 vertebrata of Vineyard Sound," Verrill ; "Seaside Studies in Natural 
 History," Agassiz ; " Homologies of the Pedicellarice," " American 
 Naturalist," vol. vii, Agassiz ; " Reports of the United States Com- 
 missioner of Fisheries." 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 FIFTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 
 THE WORMS {Vermes). 
 
 General Characteristics. — Animals that as a rule have a 
 head, tail, upper and lower surfaces (dorsal and ventral), 
 and generally made up of an indefinite number of joints 
 or segments. An idea of the internal structure can be 
 obtained from the section of a leech (Fig. 48). The di- 
 gestive organ is tubular, extending from the mouth to the 
 vent. The heart is a small pulsating organ above it, and a 
 system of vessels containing a clear red or green fluid lead 
 into the respiratory organs when present ; many worms, 
 however, breathe through the body-wall. The nervous 
 system consists of a white double chain of ganglia extend- 
 ing along the ventral surface. The brain is small, and 
 situated in the upper part of the head. In some, the eyes 
 are in different parts of the body — the head, tail, etc. ; in 
 others, they are absent. In the leech, they are confined to 
 the first three segments. In some, as the worms of the 
 first class, two branching tubes are found that constitute a 
 water vascular system similar to that of the Echinoderms. 
 All the worms are developed from eggs, and many pass 
 through remarkable changes before assuming the adult 
 form. The worms include many animals that, though 
 varying greatly in appearance, all possess certain charac- 
 teristics in common. - 
 
FLAT-WORMS, ETC. 
 
 43 
 
 Class I. — Flat-Worms, etc. (Platyhelminthes) 
 
 The Planarian worms are the 
 common forms of brooks and 
 streams, found clinging to the 
 floating twigs and leaves, resem- 
 bling slugs. Some are brown, 
 with from two to thirty black 
 eye-spots. The marine forms at- 
 tain a large size. Many are cov- 
 ered with delicate cilia and pro- 
 tective bristles, either spiral or 
 straight rods held in cells and 
 shot out like so many arrows as 
 a defense. They multiply in sev- 
 eral ways, that of self-division be- 
 ing the most curious : if divided 
 into several pieces, each one be- 
 comes a perfect worm. The flat- 
 worms are remarkable for their 
 
 changes during growth, some passing through as many as 
 seven. Many are parasitic, infesting other animals, as the 
 liver-fluke of the sheep (Fig. 41). 
 
 The metamorphosis of an allied form, Mo?wstomum mu- 
 tabile, is as follows : When the embryo escapes from the 
 egg, it is a ciliated form (Fig. 42, A). It swims about, 
 soon entering the body of some animal — in the case of 
 Fig. 41, the snail (Limax agrestis). It now produces a sac- 
 like larva called the nurse ; later, this is called the Redia, 
 then having a tadpole-shape, C, in which are seen germs, 
 a. The animal grows until it assumes the appearance of 
 D, when the young burst out as tadpole-like creatures 
 called Cercarice, E. They now leave their host, swim 
 about, are swallowed by some animal, as the sheep, and 
 make their way to the liver. Here the tail is lost, and 
 they become encysted, in time appearing as a perfect 
 
 Fig. 41. — Liver-fluke of 
 sheep twice the natural 
 size, a, mouth ; c, diges- 
 tive tube ; d, abdominal 
 sucker. 
 
44 
 
 THE WORMS. 
 
 fluke-worm, F, that finally escapes through the intestine, 
 and lays eggs in pools or ponds, thus completing the trans- 
 formation, that varies in different genera. The tape-worm 
 that comes from pork belongs in this class. 
 
 Fig. 42. — A, Monostomum mutabile. A, the ciliated embryo ; a, the nurse ; 
 b, nurse free ; C, Redia of Distoma pacificutn, containing germs of 
 other Redicz ; D, Redia containing Cerca7-ice (a) ; E, Cercaria ; F, Dis- 
 toma, which results from the metamorphosis of the Cercaria. (After 
 Steenstrup.) 
 
 Class II. — Round or 
 Thread-Worm {Nema- 
 tehninthes). 
 
 The pin-worm and Trichina 
 are examples. The Trichina 
 spiralis (Fig. 43), one twelfth 
 of an inch long, is the most 
 dangerous, becoming encysted 
 in the human muscles. The 
 eggs are eaten by rats, that in 
 turn are perhaps eaten by pigs, 
 so finding their way into the 
 human system. The Gordius 
 
 Fig. 43. — Trichina. 
 
WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 
 
 45 
 
 aquaticus is the thread-worm, common in many insects 
 and in pools. They are the so-called horse-hairs that do 
 not turn to snakes. 
 
 Class III.— Wheel-Animalcules (Rotifers). 
 
 The Rotifers (Fig. 44) are microscopic worms, some 
 being only T f-g- of an inch in length, having a membranous 
 covering. Upon the anterior por- 
 tion they have one or two disks, 
 surrounded by cilia (Fig. 44, A), 
 whose constant motion creates 
 the optical illusion of wheels re- 
 volving. They abound in the 
 ocean, and in standing fresh wa- 
 ter, and are so tenacious of life 
 that they recover after having 
 been dried for years, their sud- 
 den appearance after continued 
 droughts being attributed to what 
 is called spontaneous generation. 
 Under the microscope they as- 
 sume remarkable shapes : now 
 oval, caused by the upper and 
 lower segments shutting togeth- 
 er ; then leech-like, moving along 
 seemingly by suckers, or darting 
 off swiftly, propelled by cilia. 
 They are oviparous, and Ehren- 
 berg found that one species pro- 
 duced 16,000,000 young in twelve 
 days. 
 
 Fig. 44. — A Rotifer, highly- 
 magnified {Hydatina sen- 
 fa). A, cilia ; a, anus ; 
 d, contractile vesicle ; c, 
 water-vessels ; e, ovary ; 
 /, ganglion. 
 
 Class IV. — Moss Animals (Polyzoa). 
 
 These animals form a moss or coral-like growth, com- 
 posed of cells (Fig. 45), each of which contains a minute, 
 
4 6 
 
 THE WORMS. 
 
 worm-like polyzoan. They are the commonest objects of 
 the sea-shore, and are often pressed under the name of 
 sea-mosses. Some occur in fresh water. They multiply 
 by budding and by summer and winter eggs, the young 
 of the latter being at first free swimmers. 
 
 Fig. 45. — A moss animal (Plumatella repens), 
 zooids expanded and retracted. 
 
 Fig. 46. — Brachiopod 
 showing arms. 
 
 Class V. — Lamp Shells (Brachiopodd). 
 
 The Brachiopods (Fig. 46) are worms that secrete 
 enequivalved shells with or without hinges. The arms are 
 on one side of the mouth, and in some appear in spirals 
 supported by loops. By the motion of the fringes of the 
 arms, food is thrown into the mouth ; they are also re- 
 spiratory organs. The Lingula (Fig. 47) is an example 
 
 Fig. 47. — Lingula anatina. 
 
 common in the sand south of Cape Charles, where they 
 make sand-tubes about their peduncles or stems. The 
 young are at first free swimmers by means of cilia. Allied 
 
LEECHES, EARTH AND SEA WORMS. 
 
 47 
 
 to them are the Nemertian worms, acorn-tongue, and star- 
 worms, that form Classes VI, VII, and VIII. 
 
 Note. — Lingulae, quite similar to those of 
 to-day, are found in the Trenton limestone ; 
 2,090 species are known, of which 2,000 are 
 extinct. 
 
 (Z- 
 
 Class IX. — Leeches, Earth and 
 Sea- Worms (Annidatd). 
 
 The leech (Fig. 48) is a common 
 form of the higher worms. The body- 
 is flat and divided by numerous seg- 
 ments ; the head small, with ten small 
 and simple eyes ; the mouth bears 
 three teeth, arranged so that the 
 wounds they inflict ap- 
 pear as gashes radiating 
 from the center. Some 
 swim readily, while oth- 
 ers move by the use of 
 their suckers, that are 
 one or two in number. 
 The eggs are laid in sacs 
 in the fish-leech, Clepsine, 
 and when hatched the 
 young cling to the mother; others 
 are laid in small oval sacs (Fig. 49), 
 and deposited upon the stems and 
 leaves of water-plants. 
 
 Note. — Land-leeches are greatly dreaded 
 in the forests of India (Fig. 50), and in the 
 East India islands they exist in such vast 
 numbers that Semper, the naturalist, was 
 driven from the woods at Luzon by them, the 
 animals falling upon him like dew from the 
 
 Fig. 49. — 
 Egg-cap- 
 sules of 
 leech. 
 
 Fig. 48.— Section of a 
 leech. a, anterior 
 sucker ; b, posterior 
 sucker ; c , anus ; d, 
 d, d, stomach ; ce, 
 oesophagus ; z, intes- 
 tine ; s, s, glands of 
 the skin. 
 
4 8 
 
 THE WORMS. 
 
 shrubs and trees. According to the same authority, during the Sikh 
 rebellion an entire English regiment was forced to retreat before the 
 
 myriads of blood- 
 suckers. 
 
 Value. — Leeches, 
 from their extreme 
 sensitiveness to at- 
 mospheric changes, 
 are sometimes used 
 as barometers, but 
 their principal value 
 is in medicine. In 
 one year 7,000,000 
 were used in London, 
 at $10 per 1,000. 
 
 Earth-Worms. — The earth or angle-worms (Fig. 51) 
 are cylindrical, and composed of numerous joints or seg- 
 ments, each divided by a thin muscular partition. Upon 
 examination, the lower portion of the segments will be 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 -Land-leeches of India, racing to attack 
 some animal. 
 
 Fig. 51. — Earth-worm (Lumbricus terrestris). 
 
 found perforated with four rows of minute holes, through 
 which extend bristles that are really the feet. These curve 
 backward, and, by extending the head and throwing them 
 out, the remainder of the body is pulled along, a fresh 
 hold taken, and so on. They multiply by eggs that are 
 protected by capsules, those of some kinds containing 
 fifty eggs. 
 
 Value. — Eaten by the Indians, and valuable as preparing the 
 earth for the reception of seeds.* 
 
 * The amount of vegetable mold thus brought to the surface in a 
 single year by worms amounts, according to Darwin, in some places to 
 ten tons in a single acre ; they rarely go below six feet, and it has 
 
MARINE WORMS. 
 
 49 
 
 Marine Worms. — A common form on the sea-shore 
 is Nereis (Fig. 52) ; the body is composed of from one to 
 two hundred joints, each of which bears a pair of paddles ; 
 upon the head are four eyes, while the mouth is armed 
 with a powerful proboscis and two large cimeter-like teeth. 
 
 Fig. 52. — Sea-worm {Nereis). 
 
 They live in holes in the sand, lined with a fluid secretion. 
 They multiply by eggs. The Cirratulus also lives in a tube. 
 In the South some of these forms arrange a leaf of sea- 
 weed in the structure so that it falls over the mouth, form- 
 ing a door, and giving the entire tube the appearance of 
 sea-weed. The Serpulce (Fig. 53), that build stony houses, 
 have radiating coronets, dashed with rich coloring, for 
 breathing organs. The Pectinaria bears upon its head 
 a pair of combs of burnished gold, while with very few 
 exceptions all the worms are luminous — green, blue, 
 white, and yellow lights marking their movements under 
 the sea. 
 
 been estimated that they average about 100,000 to the acre. In 
 New Zealand 348,480 have been found in an acre of rich ground ; so 
 it will be seen that the upper crust is continually being eaten and 
 ejected by them, their myriads of holes conveying water to the interior 
 as well as air. The worms also drag vast masses of leaves under 
 ground, that enrich the soil. They cover up seeds, undermine rocks, 
 burying them up, and to their work is due the preservation of many 
 ruins and ancient works of art. Some of their casts found in India are 
 over a foot in length. In England, numbers of ancient Roman villas 
 have been discovered beneath the ground, their entombment, accord- 
 ing to Darwin, undoubtedly caused by the worms that undermined 
 them and deposited their casts upon the floors, until finally, aided by 
 other causes, they disappeared from sight. 
 
 3 
 
5o 
 
 THE WORMS. 
 
 Fig. 53. — Fixed tube-making marine worms (Ser -pules). 
 
 Value.— Food and bait. 
 
 Note. — The most brilliant light-givers are found in the families 
 Polynoidce, Syllidce, Chcetopteridce, and Polycirrus. If the first named is 
 watched in the aquarium, gleams of greenish light will be seen at the 
 attachment of each scale, and the separate organ glistens with pulsa- 
 tions of light at the ruptured surface. In the second worm the under 
 surfaces of the feet are the only luminous spots. In the third the light 
 is confined to the dorsum of the tenth segment or joint, while the Poly- 
 cirrus is phosphorescent over its entire surface, emitting a vivid pale 
 bluish light. 
 
 Works on Worms for further reference. 
 
 Verrill, " Invertebrata of Vineyard Sound," in "Report of United 
 States Commissioner of Fisheries," 1874 ; Verrill, " Parasites of Man 
 and Domestic Animals" ; " Planarise of our Ponds and Streams," E. R. 
 Lankester, in "Popular Science Review," October, 1867 ; "Alternate 
 Generation and Embryology of A ntolytus cornutus," A. Agassiz, " Bos- 
 ton Journal of Natural History," vol. vii ; " North American Fresh- 
 Water Leeches," A. E. Verrill, in " American Journal of Science," 
 1872, vol. iii, page 126; "Animal Parasites and Messmates," Van 
 Beneden ; "Formation of Vegetable Mold," Darwin. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SIXTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 
 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Getter al Characteristics. — Mollusks are soft, unjointed 
 animals enveloped by a muscular cloak or mantle, generally 
 protected by a shell. They have a well-defined nervous 
 system, a heart, arteries, and veins through which passes 
 colorless blood, a foot for locomotion, and eyes more or 
 less developed ; 20,000 living species are known, and 19,000 
 fossil. Those with two valves, as the oyster, are called 
 bivalves, and those with one, as the snail, univalves. The 
 former are called Lamellibranchs, from the folded plate- 
 like appearance of their gills. 
 
 Class I. — OYSTERS, etc. {Lamellibranchiatd). 
 
 General Characteristics— The Shell. — The shell (Fig. 
 54) is formed of carbonate of lime, secreted by the edges 
 of the mantle, which is divided into two halves on the 
 right and left sides, each one secreting a valve. The part 
 of the shell where growth commences is called the beak 
 (Fig. 54, a) ; that where the shell opens, the base, k. The 
 portion indicated by the direction of the beaks is the ante- 
 rior side ; the opposite, the posterior. Near the beaks is 
 the hinge b, and here the valves join by teeth, c, d d, that 
 fit into cavities on the opposite valve. A horny ligament, 
 h, connects the valves, always tending to throw them apart ; 
 thus, dead clams are always found open. In the interior 
 
52 
 
 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 of dead shells several scars are seen, some oval and others 
 mere lines ; the former are the marks of the adductor mus- 
 cles, e y e, that move the valves, opening and shutting them. 
 Near by are smaller scars, showing the position of the 
 pedal muscles that moved the foot. The line running par- 
 allel with the margin of the shell is called the pallial line, 
 /, and shows where the mantle was attached to the shell. 
 
 Fig. 54. — Bivalve shell, a, beak ; k, 
 base ; b, b, hinges ; c, d, d, principal 
 teeth ; //, ligament ; e, e, adductor 
 muscles ; /, lines of growth ; /", pal- 
 lial line. 
 
 Fig. 55. — Mollusk, without siphon. 
 S, shell ; m, lower half of man- 
 tle; m' , a piece of the upper half; 
 g, breathing-gills ; //, heart ; Iv, 
 liver ; Ip, lips ; o, opening of 
 mouth ; a, anus, where refuse is 
 thrown out ; ms, muscle hold- 
 ing shells together ; c, elastic 
 cushion forcing them apart. 
 
 Internal Organs. — Opening the valves, we note the two 
 leaves of the mantle, or body-wall, whose function is to 
 secrete and repair the shell. Removing these, we see the 
 gills (Fig. 55, g) or branchiae that are open in front and 
 joined at the back. They appear made up of minute 
 rods covered by a maze of veins, and are provided with 
 cilia. The siphon (Fig. 56, s), or so-called blackhead, 
 when present, projects through the mantle, and in the 
 clam is capable of great distention. It is divided into 
 
OYSTERS, ETC. 
 
 53 
 
 two parts, either double or single, and the orifices are 
 surrounded by tentacles. 
 
 Circulation. — The blood is purified (aerated) and food 
 obtained by the same action. Water is drawn into the 
 siphon opening farthest from the valve (Fig. 56, in), and, 
 wafted along by the cilia, is thus brought in contact with 
 the gills. The food-particles in the water are carried along 
 to the toothless mouth (Fig. 55, o) y that, guarded by two 
 pairs of sense organs (palpi), is placed at the end of the 
 shell opposite the siphon. They then pass into the stom- 
 ach and intestine that winds about and passing through 
 
 Fig. 56. — Bivalve with siphon, showing the foot. /, ligament ; F, foot ; m, 
 mantle ; s, siphon ; ex., excurrent orifice ; in., incurrent orifice. Except 
 the siphon and the large foot, the arrangement of organs is similar to 
 that of the oyster. 
 
 the heart finally connects with the siphon nearest the valve 
 (Fig. 56, ex.), out of which all rejectementa passes. Extend- 
 ing through the body is a glass-like rod, that is possibly a 
 brace or support. The heart lies near the hinge (Fig. 55, 
 k), and is composed of one ventricle and one auricle in 
 the oyster. In other species the heart is three-chambered, 
 or there may be two hearts of two chambers each. Arte- 
 ries lead from the ventricle over the body, and veins carry 
 blood to the gills g, where it is purified by the air in the 
 water — then passing back to the auricle. The nervous 
 system consists of three pairs of ganglia — cerebral, pedal, 
 and a pair that send nerves to the internal organs, gills, 
 
54 
 
 MOLL USC A. 
 
 etc. The eyes, when present, are in the borders of the 
 mantle, and often resemble gems. The foot is a muscular 
 organ that projects from the mantle nearly opposite the 
 siphon, by which the animal leaps, moves, or glues itself to 
 the rock, as the case may be. The ear is in the foot — a 
 transparent sac containing a clear fluid in which floats a 
 glassy globule. 
 
 BIVALVES WITHOUT SIPHONS. 
 
 Oysters {Ostreidce). — The oyster is found in great beds 
 upon the coasts of many countries. About 425 different 
 living species are known, and over 1,400 fossil, some of 
 the latter being of gigantic size. A single oyster will de- 
 posit during July and September over 1,000,000 yellow 
 eggs. At first they remain in the gills, but finally leave 
 the parent, and, after swimming about for a while by means 
 of cilia, during which their numbers are greatly dimin- 
 ished, they finally settle upon the bottom, and in five or 
 six weeks are as large as a grain of corn, three years, how- 
 ever, being required to attain full growth. They generally 
 lie upon their sides, and are often inhabited by one or 
 more small crabs (Pimwtheres). 
 
 Value. — Seven hundred and sixty-five million oysters are handled 
 yearly in New York alone, representing a capital of $1,577,000, the 
 industry giving employment to thousands. 
 
 Comb Shells (Pectens). — The Pectens are generally 
 
 round, with radiating 
 ribs from the valves, and 
 are noted for their loco- 
 motive powers, and the 
 luster and brilliancy of 
 their gem-like eyes that 
 dot the mantle. They 
 
 Fig. 57 .-Pecten swimming, by violently have also numbers of 
 opening and closing its valves. filaments that extend 
 
WING SHELLS. 
 
 55 
 
 from the shell — in the Lima Mans to more than its entire 
 length — and, by a vigorous opening and shutting of its 
 valves, this shell flies through the water, its long, golden- 
 red tentacles streaming behind. It also constructs a nest 
 by covering itself with stones, shells, etc., connected by 
 its byssus. The common Pecten is called the dancing- 
 scallop (Fig. 57), from its curious movements, darting 
 through the water and above it with the greatest ease. 
 
 Value. — Indian ornaments and articles of food. 
 
 Wing Shells (Aviculidce). — The Meleagrina or pearl- 
 oysters have obtained great prominence from their pearl- 
 bearing properties. They come from Madagascar, Ceylon, 
 Panama, etc. The pearls are formed of a pearly matter 
 called nacre, secreted by the animal. If a grain of sand 
 falls into the shell, the oyster envelops it with a pearly 
 coating to smooth off the edges, and layer by layer the 
 pearl grows. Imperfect pearls grow upon the sides of the 
 valves, and are generally the attempts of the oyster to re- 
 pel the advance of some boring parasite. 
 
 Note — One fishery in Ceylon recently produced $80,000 worth of 
 pearls, to obtain which 17,000,000 oysters were brought ashore. The 
 fisheries are under the government control. Mother-of-pearl is the 
 pearly shell of certain oysters, and valued in decoration. In one year 
 twenty tons of silver-tipped shells have been received at Liverpool 
 from the Society Islands, thirty tons of black-tipped from Manila, and 
 340 tons of a smaller kind from Panama. 
 
 Pinna. — These shells, common on many shores, are 
 wedge-shaped and horny, the hinge delicate, the beaks 
 forming a sharp peak. The foot is long and grooved. 
 Over thirty species are known, and are found buried in the 
 sand off shore. They attain a length of two feet. 
 
 Value. — The Pinna has long been noted for its silk, which is the 
 cable or byssus by which the shell attaches itself to the bottom. 
 Gloves and stockings of Pinna-silk can be seen in the British Museum. 
 Gloves so made cost $1.50 a pair, and stockings $2.75. 
 
56 
 
 MOLLl/SC A. 
 
 Mussels {Mytilidcz). — The black mussels with their 
 silvery interiors are the common forms on the rocks of the 
 Eastern Shore. They are covered with a thick leathery 
 skin, the hinge being without teeth. They are remarkable 
 for their climbing powers (Fig. 58, M). By means of their 
 foot, /, they fasten a silken cord to the rocks, then another, 
 and by continually stretching out cables ahead or upward. 
 
 Fig. 58. — Group of headless mollusks. c, cardium springing ; M, mytilus ; 
 s, pecten ; J?, razor-fish, solen ; _/, foot ; /, anchoring-threads ; st\ 
 breathing-siphons ; e, eyes of scallop. 
 
 and lifting and breaking off those below, they climb or 
 warp themselves along very much as does a ship on a lee- 
 shore ',217 living and 350 fossil species are known. 
 
 Value. — The edible-mussel fisheries afford employment to many 
 persons in Europe. 
 
 Fresh- Water Mussels ( Umonida). — These are 
 pond, river, and lake mussels, resembling in appearance 
 the edible mussel, black without and pearly within, tinted 
 with iridescent hues. About 550 living species are known 
 throughout the world, and 60 fossil. The sexes are dis- 
 tinct. The young are held in the gills of the mother in 
 
BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 
 
 5? 
 
 the winter and early spring. They live for ten or fifteen 
 years. 
 
 Value. — Unios produce pearls, and in St. Clair County, Illinois, 
 and Rutherford County, Tennessee, their collection is a profitable 
 business. In Scotland, $50,000 worth of fresh-water pearls have been 
 taken from unios during the summer. A pearl was taken from a 
 unio near Salem, New Jersey, a few years ago, that sold in Paris for 
 $2,000. 
 
 BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 
 
 Tridacna (Tridacnidce). — In the Tridacna gigas (Fig* 
 59), the largest living bivalve, the shells are often five feet 
 
 SCALE IN FEET. 
 
 Fig. 59. — Giant clam {Tridacna gigas). 
 
 long ; each valve weighing over 250 pounds, the animal 
 itself frequently 30 pounds, one serving as a meal for fifty 
 
 men. The shell is trigonal, 
 with deep radiations. They 
 are common in the Torres 
 Straits, where they are sunk 
 into the coral rock, present- 
 ing the appearance of huge 
 elongatedsea-anemones, the 
 mantle being of brilliant blue and green. So securely are 
 they imbedded that they have to be quarried out at low 
 
 c 
 
 Fig. 60. — Bivalve, with siphons, a, 
 excurrent ; &, incurrent ; c, foot. 
 
58 
 
 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 tide with axe and chisel. According to Moseley, they 
 attain an age of one hundred years. 
 
 Note. — So powerful are they that large sharks and rays that have 
 accidentally crossed them have been seized and held. The Tridacna 
 always harbors within its shell several crabs. The byssus is so large 
 that it can only be cut with a hatchet. Eight species are known. 
 
 Value. — The Tridacnse are often used as benetiers for holding holy 
 water. The natives cut the shell up into knives. 
 
 Razor-Shells (So/emda)— This shell (Fig. 58, J?) is 
 long, thin, and slightly curved, with two or three teeth in 
 each valve. They have a powerful club-shaped foot, do 
 not secrete a byssus, but lie concealed upright in the sand. 
 When placed upon the sand, they use the foot like an au- 
 ger, and rapidly disappear ; 60 or more living species are 
 known, and 350 fossil. 
 
 Fig. 61. — Pholas imbedded in a block of granite, showing section. 
 
 Boring Shells (Pholadid<z). — These have a thin, brit- 
 tle, and very hard shell, open at both ends, and armed with 
 file-like markings. The siphons are very long, and united 
 
BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 59 
 
 except at the tips. They are found in nearly all oceans, 
 about 80 living species and 50 fossil being known. They 
 are noted for their boring powers (Fig. 61), making their 
 way into the hardest rock. 
 
 Note. — The shells contain aragonite in their composition, and are 
 supposed by continual friction to wear away the hardest rock. Having 
 entered a block of gneiss, they grow and enlarge their hole, and so im- 
 prison themselves. The pillars of the temple of Serapis, in Italy, are 
 pierced by them, showing that the land was submerged long enough 
 for them to obtain a foot-hold. The Pholas emits a bluish-white light 
 when dead or alive, and they may be compared to miners with their 
 lamps. A single one placed in seven ounces of milk has been used as 
 a lamp ; faces near it were illumined, and the milk appeared trans- 
 parent. Another, placed in honey, retained its light over a year. 
 
 Ship-Worm ( Teredo).— The shell is composed of two 
 curved equal valves, open at both ends (Fig. 62). The 
 animal is worm-like, and not entirely covered by the shell. 
 
 Fig. 62. — Ship- Worm {Teredo navalis). 
 
 They bore into wood, incasing the tunnel with a limy 
 ceiling. The siphons are long, and where they separate 
 are protected with small calcareous bodies, called palettes, 
 which close the mouth of the tube. The foot forms a 
 sucker. The common teredo is at first free swimming, 
 passing through several changes before it assumes the 
 adult form. The Teredo gigantea, found at Sumatra buried 
 in the mud, is from four to six feet in length, the tube 
 three to four inches in diameter, and when covered with 
 other shells is extremely bulky and heavy. 
 
 Note. — The destruction t they cause seems incredible. A large 
 portion of a wreck stranded on the Florida reef, and examined by the 
 
6o 
 
 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 author twenty years ago, has now disappeared, having crumbled away 
 under their tunneling. Hulls that appear solid may be crushed by the 
 hand — completely honey-combed. In 1731 they nearly destroyed the 
 piles in Holland, threatening the country with destruction. They 
 attack floating wood, and so are carried all over the world. Docks at 
 Tortugas, Fla., were rendered unsafe in twelve months. Palmetto is 
 the most successful resistant. 
 
 Watering-pot Shells {Aspergillum). — In these shells 
 the two valves are imbedded in the lower part of the tube, 
 
 the beaks only being visible 
 externally. The tube which 
 incloses the siphon ends in 
 shelly expansions or ruffles ; 
 at the other or anterior end 
 it is club-shaped, and cov- 
 ered by a disk like the nose 
 or sprinkler of a watering- 
 pot, and perforated with 
 numerous holes in exactly 
 the same way. They are 
 found in tropical countries, 
 buried in the mud or sand, 
 the ruffled end containing 
 the siphon exposed. 
 
 SINGLE-SHELLED MOL- 
 LUSKS. 
 
 Class II. — Snails, etc. 
 {Gasteropoda, belly- 
 footed). 
 
 General Characteristics. 
 — Mollusks that secrete a 
 single shell. They have 
 ears and eyes upon a dis- 
 tinct head. The foot is 
 now a flat, creeping disk 
 
 Fig. 63. — The interior of a univalve 
 {Periwinkle), f, foot ; m, muscle 
 for drawing back into the shell ; 
 g, spittle glands ; the glands for 
 giving out slime are near the anus 
 tube ; t/i, throat leading to s, 
 stomach ; r, tooth-bearer rolled 
 up ; br, branchiae or breathing- 
 gills, which, when the mantle is 
 folded back in its place, lie over 
 the throat ; a, anus ; o, ovary car- 
 rying eggs. 
 
SINGLE-SHELLED MOLLUSKS. 
 
 61 
 
 (Fig. 63, /). They also have an odontophore or tooth- 
 bearer, and the shell is often closed by a plate or door 
 called the operculum ; 22,000 species are known, 7,000 
 of which are extinct or fossil. 
 
 Sea Wood-Lice (Chitonidoe). — In these (Fig. 64) the 
 shell is composed of eight transverse plates. The young 
 
 Fig. 64. — A gasteropod {Chiton). I. Adult, showing plates. II. Chiton 
 dissected : c, mouth ; g, nervous ring ; ao, great artery from the heart, 
 aorta ; c, ventricle ; c\ an auricle ; br, left branchiae ; od, oviducts. Ill, 
 IV, V. Development of free-swimming young. 
 
 (Fig. 64, III) at first have no shells, swimming about by 
 the aid of minute cilia ; 250 living species are known, 
 and 125 fossil. In the West Indies they are eaten by the 
 natives. 
 
 Ear-Shells {Haliotida) . — The Haliotis is a pearly ear- 
 shaped shell, with the outer lip perforated with holes ; 
 
62 
 
 MGLLUSCA. 
 
 they have no operculum. They are found in many seas, 
 196 living and 150 fossil species being known. 
 
 Value. — In California they are eaten. In 18S0, 6,372 sacks of Al- 
 balones, or Haliotis, valued at $46,179, were shipped from that State, 
 and probably as many more by rail. They find a market in New York 
 and Boston, where they are either cut or powdered and made into but- 
 tons, etc. 
 
 Violet Snails (lanthinidce).— These shells (Fig. 65, I) 
 float upon the surface of Southern waters, and are tinted 
 with purple and violet, the animal when pressed emitting 
 
 Fig. 65.— I, Ianthina, the ocean-snail : /, foot ; r, raft of air-bubbles, with 
 egg-bags hanging down. C, Carinaria : /, foot ; s, shell covering the 
 breathing-gills, g. Both these forms float upside down. P, Pteropod. 
 
 a rich purple indelible ink. They secrete by their foot 
 a curious raft, composed seemingly of bubbles of air in 
 transparent sacs. This buoys them up, and is also a nur- 
 sery, the eggs being attached to the under portion, the 
 entire family being at the mercy of the wind. 
 
SINGLE-SHELLED MOLLUSKS. 
 
 63 
 
 Cowries, or Egg-Shells (Cypraadci). — The Cowries 
 (Fig. 66, C), called in Florida micramocs, have richly enam- 
 eled and marked shells ; the spire is not seen, and the 
 opening is small. When living they throw out a coating 
 that completely covers the shell, protecting it from damage. 
 
 Fig. 66. — Flesh-feeding mollusks. W, whelk ; E, whelk-eggs ; C, cowry ; 
 0, operculum ; «, notch in shell ; st, siphon ; _/", foot ; s, head. 
 
 Value. — The Cyprcea moneta is used as money in some parts of 
 Africa. In 1848 60 tons of this money was sent out. 
 
 Fig. 67. — Toothed tongue of Buccinum undatum. B, one of the transverse 
 rows enlarged ; /, lateral teeth. 
 
 Whelks (Buccinidci). — Nearly 1,100 living species 
 have been found ; many are common on our shores. The 
 shell has few whorls, and the operculum is long or ovate 
 (Fig. 66, W, o). In some the tongue is long and contains 
 
64 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 ioo rows of teeth (Fig. 67). Some bore into shells, and 
 all are scavengers. 
 
 Value. — Many of the whelks afford a rich crimson dye, which in 
 16S4 was used in Ireland for dyeing linen. 
 
 Note. — Some of the Southern species, as Magihis, burrow into 
 coral, throwing out a tunnel as fast as the coral surrounds them, and 
 filling it up with shelly matter. 
 
 Diverse-footed Mollusks {Heteropoda). — These Gas- 
 teropods are all marine, and float upon the sea in trans- 
 parent shells of delicate and glass-like construction. In 
 some the foot forms in part a curious fin-like organ. The 
 eggs are deposited in long threads, the young passing 
 through many changes. The Carinaria (Fig. 65, C) and 
 Atalanta are the best known. 
 
 Gasteropods with Exposed Gills (Opisthobranchi- 
 aid). — We now come to the shelled or shell-less mollusks 
 that have gills more or less upon the outside. • 
 
 Sea-Pigeons {Aplysiadce). — These are also called sea- 
 slugs and hares. One, common on the Florida reef, is 
 as large as the closed fist, and somewhat resembles a 
 plucked pigeon. They are green or olive in color, and 
 when touched throw out as a defense a cloud of rich pur- 
 ple ink that completely surrounds them. They are found 
 crawling among the sea-weed, not in the coral. The skin 
 appears to cover the body in two folds lapping over the 
 back, and when the animal is lifted from the bottom is 
 vigorously flapped. 
 
 Sea-Slugs (£o/is, Don's, etc.). — These curiously formed 
 mollusks are found on sea-weed and in other localities. In 
 many the gills resemble plumes and leaves, so that the ani- 
 mals are almost perfect mimics of the weed, even in color. 
 Such is the luminous Scyllaza pelagica. The gills of the 
 Doris (Fig. 68, d) resemble a plant ; the Eolis (Fig. 68, e) 
 seems covered with grass ; while the Glaucus resembles a 
 lizard with three branching feet on each side. They are 
 
AIR-BREA THING GASTEROPODS. 
 
 65 
 
 shell-less except when very young. Eolis and Tritonia have 
 been heard to make audible sounds. The eggs of Doris 
 
 Fig. 68. — Naked-gilled mollusca, commonly called sea-slugs. D, Doris 
 pilosa ; E, Eolis coro7iata ; f, foot ; g, breathing-gills ; t, tentacles. 
 
 are incased in a ribbon and rolled up like a watch-spring ; 
 360,000 young are often produced, that are at first free 
 swimmers. 
 
 Air-breathing Gasteropods (Pulmonatd). 
 
 General Characteristics. — Mollusks possessing a single 
 lung, a chamber on the right side of the body near the 
 head, lined with a membrane containing blood-vessels. 
 The cavity is closed 
 by a valve. The shell, 
 when present, is gen- 
 erally thin and deli- 
 cate, and often highly 
 colored. 
 
 Pond-Snails „ r ,-,-,,. 
 
 , • 7 \ rp. Fig. 69. — a, egg capsule of a fresh-water 
 
 {LimncBtdcE) . — These snail . ^ ^ eggs> Mghly magnified> show- 
 
 are the common pond- ing the young snail. 
 
66 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 snails, interesting from the great variations of the shell. 
 The eggs are laid in capsules (Fig. 69), in a jelly-like 
 mass, late in the spring. In the winter they hibernate in 
 the mud ; 320 species are known. 
 
 Land-Snails (Heliadce). — Three thousand three hun- 
 dred and thirty-two species of these are known in various 
 
 FlG. 70. — Air-breathing gasteropods : Snails and slugs. A, garden snail 
 {Helix) ; B, B, slug Testacella — one disappeai-ing into the ground, and 
 only the tail showing ; C, the great gray slug (Limax) ; s, shell ; t, ten- 
 tacles ; e, eyes ; b, breathing-hole. 
 
 parts of the world. They are easily kept in a fernery and 
 their habits watched. Many of the snails (Fig. 70, A) de- 
 posit large white or yellow eggs with a calcareous covering. 
 The Bulimus (Fig. 71), an ally, rolls two leaves together 
 and fastens the eggs between. Some of their eggs are as 
 large as a pigeon's. 
 
AIR-BREATHING GASTEROPODS. 6j 
 
 A Group of Univalves. 
 i. Land mollusk of Philippines (Rhysota Antonii ). 2. Eulima, that 
 lives in Holotburians. 3. Chloroea. 4. Lymnea, 5. Chlorcza. 6. Cochlo- 
 styla stabilis. 7. Planorbis. 8. Succinea. 9. Amphidromous (Malay). 
 10. Xesta. 11. Physa. 12. Cochlostyla (Philippines). 
 
68 
 
 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 Value. — Cultivated for food — an important industry in France. 
 
 Note. — Most of the snails hibernate in the cold seasons, and will 
 live for years without food. The largest are the agate shells of 
 Africa, eight inches across ; the eggs an inch in length, with a 
 hard covering. The Helicarion gzitta of the Philippine Islands, ac- 
 cording to Semper, when caught by the tail, throws it off and so 
 escapes, the tail in time growing again. This is also the case with 
 a West Indian snail (Stenopus). Helix hortensis, common in New 
 England, was introduced years ago from England. Helix fi 'delis is 
 an albino, found in Washington Territory. 
 
 Fig. 71. — Bulimus rosaceus. 
 
 Land-Slugs (Limcidd). — These slugs (Fig. 70, C), of 
 which 116 different species are known, are common in every 
 garden, and their bright- 
 yellow eggs found under 
 old boards or buried in the 
 ground. They have, as a rule, 
 a rudimentary scale-like shell 
 (Fig. 70, S), long tentacles, 
 and are carnivorous, eating 
 worms and other animals. 
 They have a curious secre- 
 tion by which they lower 
 themselves from twigs and 
 leaves. It is also a defense, 
 and when applied to many 
 animals, as moles, is often 
 fatal. Limax noctiluca, from 
 Teneriffe, has a luminous 
 
 Fig. 72. — 0?ichidium tonganum, a 
 mollusk with dorsal eyes ; natural 
 size. 
 
SCAPHOPODA. 
 
 69 
 
 Fig. 73. — Section of dorsal or 
 back eye of Onchidium ver- 
 ruculatum. f, fibrous layer 
 of retina ; s, layer of rods and 
 cones inclosed in retina. 
 
 pore on the mantle, while the 
 eggs of Arion are luminous for 
 the first fifteen days. 
 
 Marine Pulmonata. — 
 The Peronia frequents the sea- 
 coast. The most remarkable 
 form is the Onchidium (Fig. 
 72), that, according to Sem- 
 per, has numerous eyes upon 
 its back (Fig. 73) in addition 
 to the usual pair upon the 
 head. They form the princi- 
 pal food of a fish, the Periop- 
 tkalmusy that leaves the water 
 and hops along the shore to 
 obtain them. 
 
 Value. — All slugs are scaven- 
 gers. Several kinds are dried and 
 eaten by the Indians. 
 
 Class II. — SCAPHOPODA. 
 
 Tooth-Shells (Dentaliadce). — These headless mol- 
 lusks have a tooth- or tusk-shaped shell (Fig. 74), open 
 
 Fig. 74. — 1, Dentalium entalis, natural size ; 2, shell magnified, and broken 
 to show animal within ; 3, animal projecting from the shell ; 4, animal 
 from below, magnified ; 6, same from above ; 5, same, showing internal 
 structure. 
 
;o 
 
 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 at both ends, with a foot greatly elongated and adapted 
 for boring in the sand, in which they live in from 60 to 
 600 feet of water on the sea-coast. The sexes are dis- 
 tinct. The young pass through several changes before 
 assuming the adult form. The shells form the wampum 
 of the Indians. 
 
 Class III. — SQUIDS, etc. {Cephalopoda, head-footed). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The Cephalopods are the 
 highest forms of mollusks. They are marine, and either 
 swim or crawl ; have long arms or tentacles arranged 
 about the mouth, armed with suckers or hooks, two par- 
 rot-like beaks, and a toothed tongue. They generally 
 possess ink-bags; have highly developed eyes, and a large 
 brain protected by a cartilaginous covering, calling to 
 mind the cranium of vertebrates. 
 
 Wing-footed Cephalopods (Fteropoda). — These, 
 the lowest and perhaps degenerate Cephalopods, are free- 
 swimmers, moving by two broad fins or wings upon each 
 side of the neck (Fig. 65, P). In Northern waters they are 
 found in vast swarms. The Cleodora emits a soft, clear, 
 phosphorescent light that gleams through the delicate shell. 
 The Clio, in swimming, almost touches its fins above and 
 below. It has a wonderful arrangement for seizing prey. 
 Each tentacle bears about 3,000 transparent cylinders, 
 each containing twenty stalked suckers ; and, as there are 
 six tentacles, the Clio can grasp its prey with 360,000 hands. 
 They have also a pair of many-toothed jaws, and a tongue 
 armed with recurved teeth — a terrible array for so small a 
 creature. They are eaten by whales. The young pass 
 through several changes. 
 
 Order I. Four-gilled Cephalopods {Tetrabranchi- 
 ata) ; Nautilus {Nautilidce). — Of 1,500 species that have 
 lived in past ages, only two are extant. The shell (Fig. 75) 
 is pearly, and divided into cells or rooms that are formed 
 
SQUIDS, ETC. 
 
 71 
 
 as the animal grows, the last one occupied always being 
 walled up or divided off by a partition called a septa. The 
 center of all the divisions is penetrated by a tube ; so, 
 
 though living in the 
 last chamber, the ani- 
 mal is still connected 
 with the first by a long, 
 delicate, fleshy pedicle 
 that extends through it. 
 The different air-cham- 
 bers are filled with gas, 
 and by them the spe- 
 cific gravity of the ani- 
 mal may be increased 
 or diminished. Beneath 
 the mouth is a siphon 
 through which water is 
 ejected, thus forcing 
 them along. On the 
 bottom they crawl with 
 the shell upward. They 
 have no ink-bag, and 
 in the female the tentacles or arms number ninety-four. 
 The great fossil Ammonites, three feet across, are extinct 
 relatives of the nautilus. 
 
 Value. — Shell in ornamental work. 
 
 Note. — The eye of the nautilus is remarkable in having no diop- 
 tric apparatus, being merely an elevation bearing a minute hole that 
 leads into the globe of the eye, which during life is filled with sea- 
 water, and thus, according to Hensen, in place of a refracting lense 
 and cornea, there is an arrangement for forming an image on the prin- 
 ciple of the pin-hole camera. 
 
 Order II. Two-gilled Cephalopods {Dibranchiatd) ; 
 Spirilla {Spirididce). — These small Cephalopods resemble 
 squids, but contain within their bodies a delicate cham- 
 bered pearly shell with separate whorls, the various rooms 
 
 Fig. 75. — Section of Nfiutilus pompiliits, 
 showing the chambers and connecting 
 tube containing the fleshy pedicle. 
 
72 
 
 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 or cells all connected by a tube or siphuncle, as in the nau- 
 tilus. The animal is rarely seen alive, though, after a 
 storm, the keys of the outer Florida reef are often lined 
 with their empty shells. 
 
 Ten-armed Cephalopods. — Small squids (Fig. 76) 
 are common in nearly all waters, but within a few years 
 specimens have been discov- 
 ered of gigantic size in the fiords 
 of Newfoundland and other parts 
 of the world. The largest found 
 was fifty-five feet long, the body 
 from the tip of the tail to the 
 beak twenty feet, and the long 
 tentacles thirty-five feet. The 
 body is bag-shaped, terminating 
 in an arrow-shaped tail ; the 
 head is distinct from the body, 
 with large, staring eyes ; about 
 the mouth are eight short and 
 two long arms, the former with 
 suckers on their entire length, 
 the latter having them princi- 
 pally at the ends. Beneath the 
 mouth is the siphon through 
 which they eject water and ink 
 — the latter when alarmed. The 
 long arms are used to secure 
 prey, drawing it within the reach 
 of the smaller ones and the 
 beaks, that resemble those of 
 
 a parrot, with the exception that the upper fits into the 
 lower. The body is supported internally by a long and 
 extremely delicate pen. They are carnivorous, living on 
 fish. The Loligo pallida is common on our coast. The 
 Cranchia has been seen to emit a faint phosphorescent 
 light. The large squids are extremely powerful, often 
 
 Fig. 76. — A, squid {Sepia offi- 
 cinalis) ; 2?, horny ring of 
 sucker, showing saw-like 
 
SQUIDS, ETC. 
 
 73 
 
 Fig. 77. — Pen 
 of Sepia offi- 
 cinalis. 
 
 weighing 2,000 pounds or more, and have 
 been known to attack boats. Each egg of 
 the Sepia is inclosed in a thick envelope 
 resembling India-rubber ; those of the Lo- 
 ligo in rows in a tough jelly, and glued to 
 the bottom in strings. 
 
 Value. — As codfish-bait. The sepia of the artist 
 comes from their ink-bags, and the cuttle-fish bone 
 of commerce is the pen of a certain species. The 
 pen of Sepia officinalis (Fig. 77) is made into pounce, 
 dentifrice, and polishing-powder. 
 
 Eight-footed Cephalopods (Octopo- 
 da*). — These, as well as the squids, are 
 commonly called devil-fishes. They live 
 
 Fig. 78. — Octopus punctatus^ showing the relative size,and the position when 
 crawling on the bottom. From the Emerton model at Yale College. 
 
 * A small one, speared by the author, lifted over twenty pounds of 
 coral when hauled in, throwing out ink that permeated the water in 
 all directions. In 1877 an Indian woman is said to have been drowned 
 by one at Vancouver Island. At Sitka the Octopus punctatus (Fig. 78} 
 is caught having, according to Dall, a total radial spread of nearly 
 twenty-eight feet. 
 4 
 
74 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 upon the bottom among the rocks. The body (Fig. 78) 
 is a simple sac, from which radiate eight sucker-lined 
 arms. They are very powerful, and when enraged waves 
 of color pass over the skin in rapid succession. When 
 attacked they eject a cloud of ink, and under its cover 
 crawl away, passing through incredibly small holes, and 
 so mimicking the colors of the bottom that an experi- 
 enced eye is necessary to detect them. They feed upon 
 crabs and other animals, and are mainly bottom animals, 
 though some species have web-like membranes between 
 their eight arms enabling them to swim. Each egg of the 
 octopus is inclosed in a thin, transparent, oval case, and 
 attached by a stalk with several hundred others to the 
 bottom ; sixty species are known. 
 
 Value. — The fisheries are important to the Chinese. 
 
 Argonaut (ArgonautidcB). — The Cephalopods of this 
 family are often incorrectly figured with sails raised in the 
 air. The shell is symmetrical and of great delicacy and 
 beauty. The animal rests in it, the two upper or dorsal 
 pairs of arms being developed at their tips into membranes 
 that are thrown back over the shell (Fig. 79), holding the 
 
 Fig. 79. — Argonaut swimming, showing the broad tentacles holding the ani- 
 mal in, instead of being used as sails, as sometimes incorrectly pictured. 
 
 Argonaut in. The broad tentacles also contain the shell- 
 secreting glands. The shell is likewise the nursery, the 
 eggs being attached within it and carried about. The 
 male secretes no shell, and is extremely small. They are 
 deep-water animals, and crawl about upon the bottom 
 
SQUIDS, ETC. 
 
 75 
 
 (Fig. 80), but are occasionally cast ashore on the New 
 Jersey and New England coasts ; four species are known. 
 
 I ~ --" ^ /x 
 
 Fig. 80. — A, showing position of Argonaut when crawling on the bottom. 
 B, Argonaut without the shell. 
 
 Works on Mollusc a for further reference. 
 " Challenger Reports " ; " Smithsonian Reports " ; " Semper's Ani- 
 mal Life " ; Binney and Gould's " Shells of Massachusetts " ; M Inverte- 
 brates of Vineyard Sound," Verrill ; " Terrestrial Air-breathing Mol- 
 lusks of the United States," W. G. Binney ; "Bulletin of Museum of 
 Comparative Zoology," vol. iv., 1878 ; "Fresh-water Mollusks," E. S. 
 Morse, "Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii, p. 563 ; " Natural His- 
 tory of the Oyster," " Popular Science Monthly," vol. vi ; " The Teredo 
 and its Depredations," " Popular Science Monthly," vol. xiii ; "De- 
 velopment of the Pond-Snail," E. R. Lankester, " Quarterly Journal 
 of Microscopical Science," 1874; Woodward's "Manual"; "Colossal 
 Cephalopods of the North Atlantic," A. E. Verrill, " Report of United 
 States Fish Commission, 1882 ;" " Discovery of an Octopus inhabiting 
 the Coast of New England," "American Naturalist," vol. vii ; " Em- 
 bryology of Fossil Cephalopods," A. Hyat, " Bulletin of Museum of 
 Comparative Zoology," vol. iii, No. 5 ; " Mollusca," ninth edition, 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica," E. Ray Lankester. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 EIGHTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS {Arthro^oda). 
 
 General Characteristics. — Animals having jointed feel- 
 ers, jaws, and legs, arranged in pairs ; skin hard, and body- 
 made up of rings or segments. The Arthropods are di- 
 vided into two classes : first, crustaceans, crabs, etc. ; sec- 
 ond, insects. 
 
 Class I. — Crabs, etc. {Crustaceans). 
 
 Getieral Characteristics. — Arthropods that breathe by- 
 means of gills attached to the feet, or in some cases respir- 
 ing through the body-walls, as in the Entomostraca. The 
 body is covered with a hard skin, composed principally of 
 carbonate and phosphate of lime. This forms an external 
 skeleton, protecting the soft body parts within. 
 
 Skeleton. — Taking the fresh-water craw-fish as an ex- 
 ample (Fig. 81), the body is seen to be divided into two 
 general regions : the cephalo-thorax (head and thorax) 
 and the abdomen, and as a rule made up of twenty dis- 
 tinct rings or segments often difficult to define. Upon 
 these the organs of locomotion are arranged in pairs, be- 
 ing modified for various purposes, as cutting and crushing 
 claws, paddles, stalked eyes, antennae, swimmerets, etc. 
 To the first segment of the head the movable and stalked 
 eyes are attached (Fig. 65, e). The next segment bears 
 the small and large antennce or feelers ; then follow six 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 77 
 
 pairs of jointed organs, fitting closely together, their office 
 being to take the food from the claws and prepare it for the 
 stomach. The first pair are the jaws proper, or mandibles, 
 
 Cephalo-thorax. 
 
 Abdomen. 
 
 Large antenna 
 
 Mandible 
 
 Maxilla; 
 
 Maxillipedesiti 
 (3 
 
 Fig. 8i. — Cray-fish seen from the side, with that portion of the carapace re- 
 moved which covers the branchiae, or gills. The appendages of the left 
 side only shown, s, region of stomach ; A, abdominal appendages ; B, 
 bases of the four small legs ; C, base of large claw ; /, " gill-bailer," or 
 flabellum, attached to the second maxilliped ; e, eye. (After Morse.) 
 
 that cut and grind the food ; the next two pairs, i and 2, 
 are assistant jaws, or maxilla. Below these are three pairs 
 of appendages called foot- jaws, or maxillipedes. These be- 
 long to the thorax, while the majidibles and pairs of max- 
 illa belong to the head proper. The segments of the ab- 
 domen fit loosely together, so that the " tail " can be bent 
 beneath the body, and by flapping it vigorously the craw- 
 fish swims, the five flattened appendages (Fig. 82) at the 
 end serving as fins. From the under portion of the cephalo- 
 thorax extend five pairs of legs : the first pair are the large 
 claws prominent in the lobster, where one is a crusher 
 
7» 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 and the other a cutter ; the other four pairs (Fig. 81, B) 
 are long and slender, the first two ending in nippers, the 
 hinder ones being provided with points or claws ; these 
 are the true organs of locomotion on the bottom. Each 
 segment of the abdomen except the last bears a pair of flat 
 appendages or swimmerets (Fig. 81, a), by which the craw- 
 fish can swim ahead, and to these the eggs are attached. 
 
 Digestion. — The digestive organs, seen in Fig. 83, con- 
 sist of the mouth, surrounded by the mandibles, that leads 
 
 Fig. 82.— Tail of a cray-fish, 
 showing flattened append- 
 ages for swimming. 
 
 Fig. 83. — Ideal section of prawn, 
 showing : s, stomach, below this 
 the mouth ; /, liver ; », intestine ; 
 //, heart ; g, chain of ganglia or 
 nerve-masses ; hg, head-ganglia. 
 
 by the oesophagus into the large stomach s j the latter is 
 provided with crushing teeth, by which food is still further 
 masticated, then passing through a strainer at the posterior 
 end, and so into the intestine 2, that leads into the telson. 
 The liver / is very large and of a dark-green hue. 
 
 Respiration. — The higher crustaceans breathe by gills, 
 the plume-like object in Fig. 81. They are attached to 
 the base of the legs, and are protected by the carapace or 
 shelly covering of the cephalo-thorax. Water containing 
 air reaches the gills by flowing under the edge of the car- 
 apace back of the great claws. In the oyster (Fig. 55), we 
 saw that cilia kept up a current over the gills, but here 
 there is a curious appendage attached to the base of the 
 second pair of maxillipeds (Fig. 81,/), called the "gill- 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 79 
 
 bailer," that moves back and forth, creating a current over 
 the gills that finds its way out through an opening near the 
 mouth. The colorless blood is pumped by the heart (Fig. 
 83, h) to the gills, where it takes up oxygen, returning to 
 the heart by numerous venous channels. 
 
 Nervous System. — The brain or head ganglia is seen 
 in Fig. 83, hg. Nerves pass to each eye, and others to 
 the four antennae, while a chain of nerve-masses extend 
 through the body (Fig. 83, g), having branches to the 
 principal parts. 
 
 Organs of Touch, Hearing, etc. — The ears are at the 
 base of the smaller or first antennas (Fig. 81), and are 
 little sacs in the upper side, containing a thick fluid, in 
 which float grains of sand. On a ridge projecting into the 
 interior of the sac are .numerous hairs, not over -^5- of an 
 inch in length, that are connected by nerves with the brain. 
 The sound-wave sets the sand-grains in motion, the vibra- 
 tion in turn affects the hairs, and the sound is carried to 
 the brain. 
 
 II. 
 
 \i ■..:_ 
 
 
 0000 000pp*9 
 
 2Z 
 
 &d 
 
 
 
 Fig. 84. — Stages of casting in the carapace of the freshwater cray-fish, from 
 Braun. I. First stage : a, the two old cuticular layers ; b, the layer of 
 casting hairs ; c, the epidermis cells. II. Second stage : a, 5, c } as in I ; 
 between b and c the new cuticle d has intervened. 
 
 The organs of touch are the delicate hairs about the 
 mouth-parts and legs. The organs of smell are supposed 
 to be on the under side of the outer branch of the small 
 antennae. Crustaceans moult or cast their shell at differ- 
 ent periods. The old shell is pushed up by what are called 
 
8o 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 " casting hairs " (Fig. 84). The soft-shelled crab is a re- 
 sult of the casting. They also have the faculty of throw- 
 ing off their limbs and renewing them again. 
 
 Development. — The young of most crustaceans pass 
 through many changes before assuming the parent form.* 
 The eggs resemble at first minute currants (Fig. 86), that 
 attach themselves by glutinous threads to the appendages 
 
 * The Australian Dromia is an exception, the young leaving the 
 egg in the adult form, and clinging to the mother. A similar case is 
 seen in the fresh- water cray-fish (Fig. 85), Astacus fltiviatilis ; the 
 young of some crustaceans (Balanus) appear at first in the Nauplius 
 form, with three pairs of legs. 
 
 Fig. 85. — Astacus fluviatilis. A, two recently hatched cray-fish attached to 
 one of the swimmerets of the mother ; e c, ruptured egg-cases ; B, chela 
 of a recently hatched cray-fish, x 10. 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 8l 
 
 of the abdomen (Fig. 85), and are carried about by the 
 mother. When first hatched they are generally in the 
 zoaea stage. The eyes of the zosea (Fig. 
 87, a) are large and black. From the 
 carapace extends upward a long horn, an- 
 other projecting downward like a tusk. 
 They moult several times, gradually chang- 
 ing to the megalops form (Fig. 87, b), and 
 finally, after successive moults, seek the 
 bottom and assume the adult shape (Fig. 
 87, c). 
 
 Order I. Barnacles (Cirripcda). — The 
 barnacles are fixed crustaceans, and partly from this cir- 
 cumstance were long considered mollusks. The adult 
 
 Fig. 86.— A few- 
 eggs from a 
 common crab, 
 enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 87.— Metamorphosis of the crab {Carcinus mcenas). A, zoaea stage : 
 B, megalops stage ; C, ready to seek the bottom. 
 
 Balanus (Fig. 88) is round, with a broad base, and at- 
 taches itself to shells or rocks. The newly hatched young 
 are free-swimmers (Fig. 89, A), but soon acquire a bivalve 
 shell, H, and attach themselves to the bottom by their 
 
82 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 antennae, that secrete a glutinous substance for the pur- 
 pose. C, B>, E show the successive stages to the adult 
 
 form, in which the shell is mul- 
 tivalve, the animal anchored by- 
 its head, and its feet modified 
 into cirri, that waft food into the 
 shell and mouth. Goose barna- 
 cles are connected with the bot- 
 tom or floating objects by long, 
 leathery pedicles. They have 
 no gills, breathing through their 
 skin. 
 
 Note. — Barnacles grow on whales, 
 turtles, and floating objects of all 
 kinds. Goose - barnacles have been 
 found six inches long groAving in the 
 mouth of a large sun-fish (mota), and 
 a barnacle is found on the feathers of 
 penguins in the South Atlantic. 
 
 Fig. 88.— Upper part of adult 
 barnacle, showing appear- 
 ance of cirri under the mi- 
 croscope. 
 
 Order II. Water -Fleas 
 
 {Entomostraca). — A common ex- 
 ample is seen in the Cyclops, 
 found in fresh water, that may be distinguished by its sin- 
 gle eye and egg-sacs. It is just visible to the naked eye. 
 Most of this order are parasites upon fishes. The Ler- 
 nozans (Fig. 90) live upon the gills of various fishes ; the 
 Caligus preys upon halibut, rays, etc., the Argulus upon 
 the alewife, the Penella upon the sword-fish and sun-fish, 
 while the Nogatus preys upon the man-eater shark. They 
 have no gills, breathing through the body-walls or skin. 
 
 Order III. Leaf-footed Crustaceans (Branchiopo- 
 dd). — These animals breathe by broad, leaf-like gills upon 
 their feet, and secrete a bivalve shell. The Artemia* or 
 
 * Artemia salina (Fig. 91, b) has been made to acquire the charac- 
 teristics of Branchipus (Fig. 91, d) by gradually diluting the water 
 until it was fresh. 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 83 
 
 Fig. 89. — Early stages of a barnacle. A, shortly after leaving the egg; 
 e, eyes. B, having acquired a bivalve shell, and just before becom- 
 ing attached, represented upside down. C, appearance after becoming 
 attached — side-view. D, top-view of still later stage, with the shell 
 forming around it. £, side-view of later stage, showing appendages 
 protruded. (The little marks at the sides of the figures indicate the 
 natural size of the object. A, B, highly magnified ; all of these views are 
 magnified, and, with the exception of D, are reduced from figures of 
 C. Spence Bate.) 
 
 2 
 
 Fig. 90. — A Lernsean (Tracheliastes) of a fresh-water fish (Cyp?'in<z). 1, 
 larva, as it leaves the egg. 2, larva, more advanced. 3, adult female, 
 showing the egg-sacs. (Nordmann.) 
 
8 4 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 brine-shrimp (Fig. 91), live in the brine-vats of various coun- 
 tries, the amount of salt sometimes determining the form 
 
 Fig. 91. — Brine-shrimps, a, Branchi- 
 pus stagnalis. &, Arternia salina 
 whose form depends upon the salt- 
 ness of the water. 
 
 Fig. 92 . — Fresh - water 
 crustacean, with bi- 
 valve shell, e, eye. 
 
 of the animal. They multiply by budding and by eggs. 
 The Estheria (Fig. 92) secretes a bivalve shell, microscopic 
 
 rings upon it indicating 
 the various moults, the 
 cast - off coat being ce- 
 mented to the new shell 
 which forms beneath. Si- 
 da and Daphnia are called 
 water-fleas from their ac- 
 tivity. The latter carries 
 its eggs upon its back. 
 The apus (Fig. 93) is an 
 interesting form, having 
 forty-seven segments and 
 as many as sixty pairs of 
 limbs. They withstand 
 remarkable extremes of 
 heat and cold, the eggs 
 hatching in snow-water 
 after being frozen for two weeks. The Nebalia, repre- 
 senting Order IV, Phyllocardia, has leaf-like feet, and 
 
 Fig. 93. — Apus. 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 85 
 
 passes through no metamorphosis. The body is com- 
 pressed, the rostrum distinct from the carapace. 
 
 Order V. Fourteen-footed Crustaceans {Tetra- 
 decapoda). In this order are the beach-fleas (Fig. 94), so 
 common among the weeds ; the pill-bugs and others living 
 in salt and fresh water. The Idotea phosphorea has an 
 acute tail-piece, and mimics the eel-grass and fucus with 
 its green, gray, and yellow col- 
 ors, at night gleaming with 
 vivid phosphorescence. They 
 live under stones and rock- 
 weed, and when touched curl 
 into a ball. The eggs are held 
 in a little brooding cavity un- 
 der the thorax between the 
 legs. Many species of Podo- 
 cerus and others build curious 
 nests in which they take shel- 
 ter. A gigantic amphipod has 
 
 Fig. 94. — Sand-hopper (Talitrus 
 salt at or). 
 
 Fig. 95. — Mantis shrimp 
 {Squilla mantis). 
 
 two enormous faceted eyes that entirely cover the head. 
 The Arcturus y from Arctic seas, mimics sea-weed with its 
 long antennas, and carries its young about on its back or 
 feelers. The Squilla, or mantis shrimp (Fig. 95), repre- 
 senting Order VI, Stomapoda, is an interesting form ; the 
 gills are attached to the base of the under abdominal feet. 
 They burrow in the sand below tide-water. 
 
S6 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Order VII. Ten - footed Crustaceans {.Decapodd) ; 
 Long-tailed Crustaceans {Macrura).— The shrimps 
 (Fig. 96) are common on nearly all shores. Some possess 
 
 Fig. 96. — Prawn (Palczmon j'amaz'censis), about £ natural size. A, 
 B, fifth thoracic appendage of male. (After Huxley.) 
 
 female. 
 
 the faculty of mimicry to a wonderful degree. The chame- 
 leon shrimp changes to green and brown, even becoming 
 transparent under certain conditions. Deep-red-colored 
 ones have been found in the Atlantic, and others from great 
 depths have remarkably developed eyes. Cray-fish in the 
 Mammoth Cave are blind, and the eyes of Willemcesia, 
 from the deep Atlantic, are rudimentary. Lobsters (Fig. 
 98) that are familiar on Northern coasts are in Florida re- 
 placed by the whip-lobster (Fig. 99), that " has long whips 
 instead of the large claws." 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 87 
 
 ■■[■■ 
 
 Fig. 97. — The Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus), 
 (After Huxley.) 
 
 \ natural size. 
 
CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 98. — The common lobster (Homarus vulgaris), \ natural size. 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 89 
 
 Fig. 99. — Marine cray-fish (Palinurus vulgaris), about \ natural size. 
 
 Note. — On the Florida reef nearly every coral head or branch 
 affords protection to one or more cray-fishes, as they are there called. 
 The animals partly undermine them, thus serving the coral by pre- 
 venting the fatal inroads of sand and mud. 
 
go 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. ioo. — Hermit out of the shell, showing soft abdomen, r, hardened 
 ridge which bears against the inner edge of the aperture of the shell ; 
 a, <*, appendages to which the eggs are attached. (After Morse.) 
 
 Fig. ioi. — Hermit-crab in the shell of a sea-snail. (After Emerton.) 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 91 
 
 Hermit - Crabs.— In the Hermits, that are either 
 marine or terrestrial, the abdomen is soft (Fig. 100), and 
 to protect it they take possession of empty univalve shells 
 (Fig. 101), or even old tobacco-pipes thrown overboard by 
 sailors,* while others bore into wood, sand, or sponges, the 
 
 Fig. 102. — The English edible crab (Cancer pagitrus), \ natural size. A, 
 dorsal view, with the abdomen extended. B, front view of " face " : as, 
 antennary sternum ; or, orbit ; r, rostrum ; i, eyestalk ; 2, antennule ; 
 3, base of antenna ; 3', free portion of antenna. (After Huxley.) 
 
 * The author kept a land hermit for several months that had taken 
 up its quarters in an old clay pipe. It crawled up a table daily to drink 
 from a saucer of water placed there for the purpose. 
 
9 2 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 large claw closing the entrance like an operculum. The 
 claws are often brilliantly colored blue, purple, and red. 
 
 Note. — On Bush Key, Tortugas group, the author has often ob- 
 served land-hermits and a Gecarcinus climbing bay cedars and rob- 
 bing young noddies of their food, despite their vigorous protests. 
 
 The largest ally of the Hermit is the Birgos latro, found 
 in the Spice Islands and various parts of the Indian Ocean. 
 The abdomen is protected by hard plates ; consequently, 
 they do not need a shell. They attain a length of three 
 feet. Professor Van Beneden states that one lifted a goat 
 from the ground by its ears. They subsist upon cocoanuts, 
 breaking the shells by hammering them with their claws. 
 They visit the water daily, but breathe air, the gills having 
 all the attributes of true lungs. 
 
 Short-tailed Crabs (Brachyura). — The short-tailed 
 crabs (Fig. 102) differ from the Hermits in having well- 
 developed hind-feet, an abdo- 
 men capable of being bent un- 
 der the body, and a broad and 
 flat carapace. 
 
 Marine Crabs. — The larg- 
 est of these is the Macrocheira 
 of Japan, that often measures 
 twenty-two feet between the large 
 
 biting claws, each of which is ten 
 Fig. 103.— Lupea, short-tailed , - lr r . _,, , , 
 
 crab, with the last two claws and a half f eet lon g' The bod y 
 
 adapted for swimming. is small, and resembles a moss- 
 
 covered rock. The claws are 
 adapted for crawling. The Lupea (Fig. 103) has the last 
 two claws adapted for swimming. 
 
 Note. — Some of the spider-crabs of our coast purposely plant sea- 
 weed upon their backs, where it grows, affording them effectual pro- 
 tection. A crab deprived of this growth will recover its carapace 
 immediately. Cancer ftilgens, according to Sir Joseph Banks, is lumi- 
 nous. The most remarkable luminous crustacean, according to Nor- 
 
CRABS, ETC. 
 
 93 
 
 denskiold, is the little Metridia armata, that exists in such quantities 
 in the snow on the shores of the Arctic Ocean that persons and ani- 
 mals appear to be walking in fire, the splashes of light presenting a 
 wonderful spectacle. The light is of a bluish-white tint, which in the 
 spectroscope gives a one-colored Labrador-blue spectrum. 
 
 Oyster-Crabs (Pinnotheres). — These are the delicate 
 forms commonly found in oysters and various bivalve 
 shells, as well as the water- 
 lung of Holothurians (Fig. B 
 1 04) . While the oyster-crabs 
 find protection in other ani- 
 
 FiG. 104. — A, Pinnotheres, living in a Holothurian {Pinnotheres holo- 
 thuritz). B, the zoea stage of the young of A, highly magnified. 
 
 mals, and the hermits steal shells to cover themselves, a 
 number of curious forms shown in Fig. 105 take up their 
 position upon a branch of coral, as Sideropora palmata, and 
 
 Fig. 105. — Crabs that form galls on corals, a, Cryptochirus (male) ; 6. 
 Coralliodytes (female) ; c, Hapalocarcinus marsupialis (female), that 
 carries its young in a sac or marsupium. 
 
 finally produce a gall, or are covered by the coral and live 
 so imprisoned, obtaining their food through a small hole or 
 
94 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 window. One of these crabs (c, Fig. 105) is remarkable 
 in having a pouch in which the female carries her young ; 
 the sac is formed by a prolongation of the lateral plates 
 
 of the abdomen. 
 
 Land-Crabs. — 
 Land-crabs are common 
 on all shores, many, as 
 the Ocypoda (Fig. 106), 
 living in holes, hiber- 
 nating in the winter, and 
 mimicking the sand in 
 their absence of color. 
 In the South the land- 
 crabs, Gecarcinus (Fig. 107), that live in the bushes, are of 
 various tints, equally protective among the leaves of the 
 dead bay cedars and the fruit of the prickly-pear, about 
 which they cling. They are all swift runners, and in 
 Ceylon, a large land-crab is chased on horseback. 
 
 Fig. 106.- 
 
 -Ocypoda, a marine crab that 
 lives on land. 
 
 Fig. 107. — Gecarcinus rustico/a, a land-crab. 
 
 Note. — At St. Paul's rocks Professor Moseley observed the richly- 
 colored Grapsus y a land and water crab, carrying off young birds ; and 
 at Ascension Island the large land-crabs even steal young rabbits from 
 their holes and devour them. 
 
CRABS, ETC 
 
 95 
 
 Order VIII. Merostomata.— The king or horseshoe 
 crabs (Fig. 108) attain a length of two feet, and have a 
 wide geographical range. The last segment of the ab- 
 
 FlG. 108.— Horseshoe crab. A, Limulus Mo/uccanus, dorsal view. B, 
 Limulus rotundicauda, ventral view (after Milne-Edwards) : a, ante- 
 rior ; &, middle division of the body ; c, telson ; d, subfrontal area ; e, 
 antennules ; f, antenna ; g, operculum ; k, breathing appendages. 
 
 domen forms a long, sharp spine. The cephalo-thorax is 
 broad, shaped like a horse's foot ; the feet are arranged 
 about the mouth. The abdomen bears six pairs of broad 
 swimming feet, the second pair having upon their under 
 side a set of about one hundred respiratory leaves or 
 plates. The young resemble the extinct trilobites, to 
 which they are allied. Some of the extinct forms, as Fig. 
 109, attained a length of nine feet. 
 
 Value of Crustaceans. — They are all valuable scavengers. The 
 crab, lobster, and shrimp fisheries give employment to thousands of 
 persons. The cocoanut-husks that the great Birgos tears up to line its 
 nest are used by the Malays in basket and mat making. Concretions 
 
9 6 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 from the stomach of the fresh-water cray-fish are used as an antacid. 
 The horseshoe is valued as guano. 
 
 Fig. 109. — Gigantic extinct crustacean (Pterygotus), nine feet long, swim- 
 ming among Crinoids. (After Buckley. ) 
 
 Specimens for Study. — In dissecting a crab, cray-fish, 
 or other specimen, the carapace should be carefully re- 
 moved with knife or scissors, the gills examined, the mouth- 
 parts removed and compared with cut No. 81, and the 
 difference between the parts noted. The claws should 
 also be compared, and their various offices thoroughly un- 
 derstood. The brain, stomach, and muscles can be stud- 
 ied by cutting away the red membranous hypodermis. 
 By injecting carmine into the arteries through the heart, 
 the arterial system can be traced. The eggs, eyes, etc., 
 can be hardened in alcohol, and cut in sections for micro- 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 97 
 
 scopic examination. The ear and other organs should re- 
 ceive particular attention. The smaller crustaceans found 
 in ponds, etc., should be examined alive under the micro- 
 scope. Barnacles can be found on oyster-shells at any 
 restaurant, and when placed in water show their cirri. 
 
 Works on Crustaceans for further reference. 
 " Challenger Reports " ; "A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," 
 Gosse ; " Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedition," J. D. 
 Dana ; " North American Astacidae " (Fresh-water lobsters), H. A. 
 Hagen, in " Memoirs of Museum of Comparative Zoology," vol. ii, 
 No. 3, 1871 ; "Habits of certain Cray-fish," C. C. Abbott, "American 
 Naturalist," vol. ix, p. 80 ; " Descriptions of the North American Phyl- 
 lopoda," A. S. Packard, Jr. ; " Report of Hayden's Survey," 1873, p. 
 613; " Report of Peabody Academy of Sciences," 1873 ; " Report of 
 United States Commissioner of Fisheries," 1874 ; " Crustacea," S. J. 
 Smith ; " The Lobster and Lobster-Fishing," W. W. Wheildon, " Pro- 
 ceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science," 
 vol. xxiii, 1874 ; " Early Stages of the Lobster," " Popular Science 
 Monthly," vol. iii, 1872, p. 401 ; " Barnacles," J. S. Kingsley, " Ameri- 
 can Naturalist," vol. xi, p. 102; "The Cray-fish," Huxley. 
 
 Class II. — Insects (Insect a). 
 
 General Characteristics. — Arthropoda, with the head, 
 thorax, and abdomen distinct ; breathing by air-tubes or 
 tracheae ; the young passing through changes called a met- 
 amorphosis. 
 
 Skeleton. — The skeleton (Fig. no) is external, and 
 composed of a horny substance called chitine. As in the 
 crustaceans, the body is made up of segments, numbering 
 in the winged forms generally four in the head, three in the 
 thorax, and ten or eleven in the abdomen. The mouth- 
 parts of insects consist, as a rule, of four separate divi- 
 sions ; namely, the upper lip, or labrum j a pair of crushing 
 or cutting jaws (mandibles) ; and a smaller pair (maxilla), 
 to which small jointed feelers called maxillary palpi are 
 attached. The lower lip, or labium, is in reality a pair of 
 jaws, and to it are attached another pair of jointed feelers 
 5 
 
9 8 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 known as labial palpi. Near the compound eyes rise the 
 sense-organs, or antenna. The thorax is separated into 
 three segments : the first, prothorax, bearing the first pair 
 of legs ; the second segment, or mesothorax, bears the elytra 
 or first pair of wings — in the beetles, hard, chitinous store- 
 house for the wings proper (here is also attached the sec- 
 
 Third leg. 
 
 Mouth-parts. 
 
 Fig. iio. — Skeleton of common beetle. (After Morse.) 
 
 ond pair of legs) ; the third segment, or metathorax, bears 
 the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings, that 
 are elastic membranes stretched over a framework of 
 tubes. The abdomen bears the sting, ovipositor, or spin- 
 nerets, as the case may be. The legs are generally com- 
 posed of from six to nine joints, and usually terminate in 
 two hooks, with perhaps pads or suckers (Fig. in). 
 
 Digestion. — The mouth-parts (Fig. 112, a) are modified 
 in different insects for sucking, biting, stinging, etc. The 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 99 
 
 Fig. iii. — Foot of house-fly, show- 
 ing the pads by which it clings. 
 
 food passes by the oesopha- 
 gus, b, into a membranous 
 stomach called the crop, c y 
 and thence, in the biting in- 
 
 Fig. 112. — Longitudinal and verti- 
 cal section of a female cockroach 
 (Blatta). I to XX, somnites of 
 the body; i to n, somnites of 
 the abdomen ; A, antenna ; lb, 
 labrum ; a, mouth ; b, oesopha- 
 gus ; c, crop ; d, proventriculus, 
 or second stomach ; h, intestine ; 
 t\ rectum ; /, salivary gland ; k, 
 salivary receptacle. By an error, 
 the duct is made to terminate 
 above instead of beneath the 
 lingua. H, position of heart ; 
 m, cerebral ganglia ; N, thoracic 
 ganglia ; /, chyle stomach. (Af- 
 ter Huxley.) 
 
 nit Vlll 
 
IOO 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 sects, into a second stomach, or gizzard, d, that is provided 
 with muscular walls and chitinous plates. From here it 
 passes to the true stomach/, and finally to the intestine h. 
 Circulation. — The heart, If, is tubular in shape, ex- 
 tending along the back, and composed of numerous sacs, 
 separated by valves that allow the blood to flow toward 
 the head, where it branches out, re- 
 turning through the tissues, there 
 being no true veins or arteries. 
 
 Fig. 113. — S, spiracle or breathing-plate, with 
 the slit in the center which opens to take in 
 air. T, part of a breathing-tube, showing 
 the spiral thread which keeps it in its round 
 shape. 
 
 Fig. 114. — Insect showing the spiracles, or open- 
 ings in the sides of the body which commu- 
 nicate with the air-tubes within the body : 
 w, showing where the wings were attached ; 
 h and m, where hind and middle legs were 
 attached ; s, spiracle on thorax ; /, tym- 
 panum. (After Morse.) 
 
 Fig. 115.— Tracheal or 
 air-tube system of 
 a larval dragon-fly. 
 Trachea? are shaded. 
 
 Respiration. — The insects all breathe by a system of 
 air-channels or tubes, and some, as the spiders, by lungs 
 as well. The air-tubes are called trachea, and are wound 
 with a minute thread (Fig. 113) that seems to preserve their 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 101 
 
 shape. The tracheae connect with the exterior at various 
 parts of the sides of the body, the openings (Fig. 114) being 
 called spiracles, stigmata, or breathing-holes. The tubes 
 extend over a greater part of the body (Fig. 115), bringing 
 fresh air in contact with the blood in the tissues. This is 
 even accomplished in the wings, so that they serve as 
 lungs as well as organs of flight. Breathing seems to be 
 accomplished by a contraction and expansion of the ab- 
 dominal segments. 
 
 Nervous System. — The nervous system of insects is 
 made up of a chain of ganglia that is connected by a 
 double nervous cord, and occupies the ventral portion of 
 the body. The portion above the oesophagus is called 
 the cerebral ganglia. Fig. 112, m, shows the brain; and 
 from here nerves pass to the various sense-organs. The 
 ganglia below is called thoracic (Fig. 112, N), and sends 
 
 nerves to the wings, 
 legs, and other 
 parts. 
 
 Development. — 
 
 Most insects are 
 
 produced by eggs, 
 
 while some appear 
 
 The changes through which 
 
 The butter- 
 
 Fig. 116. — Larva of insects. 
 
 directly in the adult form 
 the former pass are called metamorphoses 
 flies, beetles, etc., 
 pass through three 
 changes from the 
 egg to the perfect 
 insect. The first 
 stage is called the 
 larva — grub, mag- 
 got, or caterpillar 
 
 (Fig. 116). In this form it is worm-like, has numbers of 
 feet, eats voraciously, changes its skin (moults) frequent- 
 ly, and finally in many instances spins a silken case or 
 
 J 
 
 Fig. 117. — Cocoons. A, showing inside of co- 
 coon, containing the remains of a chrysalis- 
 skin. 
 
102 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 cocoon about itself (Fig. 117). The skin is now cast 
 again, and the insect appears a short, seemingly lifeless 
 pupa or chrysalis (Fig. 118), in which state 
 it remains a greater or less time, finally 
 shedding its skin and appearing a perfect 
 This is known as a com- 
 plete change. Others, 
 as crickets, dragon-flies, 
 grasshoppers (Fig. 119), 
 pass through a partial 
 change. Insects are found 
 everywhere ; far out at 
 sea, as the Halobates (Fig. 
 148), in deep caves, in hot 
 springs, and on the high- 
 est glaciers, as the gla- 
 cier-flea (Fig. 133). The bees and ants live seven years, 
 some locusts thirteen or seventeen years, while the May- 
 flies are born and die within twenty-four hours. In all, 
 about 19,000 species- of insects are known. 
 
 Fig. 118.— 
 Chrysalides. 
 
 Fig. 119. — Example of 
 incomplete change 
 or metamorphosis. 
 Young; grasshop- 
 per : w, wing just 
 appearing. 
 
 Sub-Class I. — Malacopoda. 
 
 Peripatus {Peripatidce). — The Peripatus is one of the 
 simplest insects, having a long, soft, and cylindrical body, 
 bearing from twenty-eight to sixty-six feet. Upon the 
 head is a pair of jointed extensible antennae ; the feet are 
 soft, and supplied with two claws. When alarmed, it in- 
 stantaneously ejects a secretion that seems to crystallize in 
 the air, forming a complete web in front. It is found in 
 the West Indies, Panama, and Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Sub-Class II. — Centipedes (Myriapodd). 
 
 General Characteristics . — Head free ; head and thorax 
 continuous ; joints cylindrical, and often numbering two 
 hundred, each bearing a pair of locomotive organs. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 103 
 
 Order I. Chilognatha. — In the Millepedes (Fig. 120), 
 the body is cylindrical, each segment bearing a pair of 
 
 Compound eye 
 
 Antenna 
 
 Fig. 120. — A common millepede. The line underneath the figure represents 
 the length of the specimen from which the drawing was made. A, a 
 magnified view of the head of the milleped represented above. B, a 
 magnified view of the left jaw. (After Morse.) 
 
 legs. They are vegetable feeders, and harmless. The 
 eggs are laid in the earth, and the. larva at first has only 
 three pairs of legs (Fig. 121). Spi- 
 rostrephon, from the Mammoth Cave, 
 is covered with hair. 
 
 Order II. Pauropoda. — The 
 Pauropus has only six segments be- 
 sides the head. The young have 
 three pairs of feet. 
 
 Order III. Chilopoda.— The 
 Centipedes (Fig. 122) attain a length 
 of ten or twelve inches, and have a 
 flattened body composed of from 
 
 30 to 200 joints or segments. In some the eyes are sim- 
 ple ocelli ; in others they are compound. The Scolopen- 
 dra heros is extremely poisonous, the glands being in the 
 two large fangs (Fig. 123). Cermatia forceps, of the Mid- 
 die and Southern States, is also said to be poisonous. 
 
 Fig. 121. — Highly magni- 
 fied figure of a very- 
 young millepede, short- 
 ly after hatching from 
 the egg. 
 
104 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Note. — Scolopendra electra is a luminous species, and is common 
 in England, Belgium, and France. It is \\ inch long, and has 140 
 legs. According to Phipson, the luminosity, like that of some min- 
 erals, is only evident after the insect has been exposed to the sun. 
 Another luminous species is found in Asia. 
 
 Fig. 122. — Centipede. 
 
 Fig. 123. — Scolopendra Hopei. Under 
 surface of head, showing poison-fangs. 
 
 Sub-Class III. — Spiders and Scorpions (Arachnida). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The body is in two sections, 
 cephalo-thorax, and abdomen ; four pairs of legs, simple 
 eyes, and no antennae. 
 
 Fig. 124. — Hydrachna geographica, a marine mite, and young enlarged. 
 
 Order I. Mites (Acarina). — The mites are mostly par- 
 asitic, as the cattle-tick ; others are the cheese and sugar 
 mites. The body is oval, and the thorax not separated 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 105 
 
 from the abdomen. Some are marine (Fig. 124). The 
 lowest forms are parasitic in the lungs and liver of man, 
 and in the horse and sheep. 
 
 Order II. Scorpions {Pedipalpi). — In the scorpions 
 the body is plainly segmented and large, the tail long and 
 slender, ending in a curved sting (Fig. 125) that con- 
 tains two poison-glands. They have crab-like claws, and 
 breathe by lungs as well as tracheae. In Ceylon they at- 
 tain a length of twelve inches, in Florida four. In striking, 
 the tail is rais-ed over the back and then struck down.* 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 -Scorpion with cricket in its claws, s, carapace 
 claws ; p, mouth ; d, poison-sting. 
 
 m c, mouth- 
 
 The young are born alive, and cling to the mother. 
 False or book scorpions (Chelifer) occur in books, under 
 stones, and in the bark of trees. They have no poison- 
 gland, and cast their skins in a delicate web, in which they 
 
 * At Loggerhead Key, the extremity of the Florida reef, it is inter- 
 esting to note that the scorpions have obtained a foothold and are very 
 common, living in board-piles, coming out at night, frequently being 
 found and killed in the house, the effect of the sting resembling that 
 of the wasp. The so-termed suicide of the scorpion is similar to the 
 action of a man tearing his hair or biting his tongue in agony, and 
 self-destruction is an accidental result. 
 
io6 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 126. — Spinnerets of a spi- 
 der, t, one of the tubular 
 hairs from the spinnerets, 
 magnified. 
 
 hibernate. In the whip-scor- 
 pions the abdomen ends in 
 a long whip or lash. The 
 " Daddy Longlegs " belongs 
 to this order, and, according 
 to Phipson, some are lumi- 
 nous. 
 
 Order III. Spiders (Ara- 
 neina). General Characteris- 
 tics. — Insects having an unseg- 
 mented abdomen connected 
 with the thorax by a delicate 
 
 Fig. 127.— Tarantula turricula (Treat) 
 and its tower-nest. 
 
 pedicel, and bearing several 
 pairs of silk - producing or- 
 gans — spinnerets (Fig. 126). 
 They breathe by lungs and 
 tracheae. The young pass 
 through no metamorphosis ; 
 600 or 800 species occur in 
 North America. 
 
 Tarantula. — The Taran- 
 tula (Lycosa) is a large, hairy 
 
INSECTS. 107 
 
 spider, Kving under rocks and in holes in the ground, which 
 they often excavate to a depth of nearly a foot, lining the 
 sides with silk, and covering the opening with a scaffold- 
 ing of mud and wood cemented together. The Tarantula 
 nidi/ex erects a tower over its tube, the foundation-pieces 
 of wood selected being generally the exact shape of the 
 hole. These are piled one upon another precisely as the 
 woodsman builds his log-cabin, until a regular chimney is 
 the result. T. turricula (Treat) (Fig. 127) erects a some- 
 what similar tower ; the 
 female carries the young 
 on her back. 
 
 Crab - Spiders (My- 
 gale). — These often meas- 
 ure six or seven inches 
 across, including the legs. 
 They are covered with FlG I28 ._ Poison _ fang of a spider 
 
 thick, reddish hair, and (Clubiona), highly magnified. 
 
 possess terrible fangs (Fig. 
 
 128). They have four lung-sacs and two pairs of spin- 
 nerets. They prey upon birds (Fig. 129) and various 
 small animals. 
 
 Mygale HenzH is common on our western plains and 
 in Utah. Some are called trap-door spiders, from the fact 
 that after their well-like nest is excavated they cover the 
 entrance with a circular door that works on a perfect 
 hinge. The dwelling is generally formed in gravelly 
 ground, and material moved piece by piece, until finally a 
 well is sunk perhaps a foot deep. To prevent the sides 
 from caving in, the spider now covers them with a coat- 
 ing of silk, so that the interior presents a perfectly smooth 
 surface. The door is formed of various material, all 
 wound about with silk in a firm, flat, oval mass, the spider 
 whirling itself about in the operation, finally producing a 
 door attached to one side by a silken hinge that fits ex- 
 actly, even keeping out water, and is so adjusted that it is 
 
io8 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 FlG. 129. — The bird-spider {My gale avicularia) capturing a humming- 
 bird. 
 
 self-closing. Upon the top, leaves or mosses are often 
 placed, evidently to disguise the entrance. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 109 
 
 Note. — Bates, the naturalist, found a tarantula eating a finch, 
 while near at hand was another finch entangled in a dense white web 
 that was stretched across a hole in a tree. The author once found 
 one, the only living creature, upon a dismantled wreck floating in the 
 Gulf Stream off the northwestern coast of Cuba. When placed in a 
 saucer, its legs extended beyond the edges. Some of this genus are 
 trap-door spiders. 
 
 Trap - door Spiders. — The spiders of the genus 
 Cteniza and JVemesia are remarkable for their nest-building 
 habits. The burrows differ greatly in different species. 
 Generally they are cylindrical shafts sunk into the ground, 
 lined with silk, and covered by a trap-door with a silken 
 hinge, that fits so closely that the opening is never sus- 
 pected from without. Some plant mosses, etc., upon their 
 doors to mislead enemies, and employ many devices. 
 
 Note. — On the Island of Timos a Cteniza comes out at night, fast- 
 ens the trap-door open by threads of silk, and spins a web about six 
 inches long. In the morn- 
 ing it is taken down, the 
 trap closed, and every ves- 
 tige of the nocturnal net 
 removed. 
 
 The Garden 
 Spiders construct 
 rich geometrical webs 
 (Fig. 130), so deli- 
 cately arranged that 
 the slightest touch is 
 noticed by the in- 
 mate. The spinner- 
 ets (Fig. T26) are 
 generally four or six 
 projections pierced 
 with numberless 
 holes, through which 
 a glutinous secretion is drawn that, upon exposure to the 
 
 Fig. 130.— Web of Nephila plumipes, in a 
 wire ring reduced, from a photograph. 
 (After Wilder.) 
 
no 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 air, hardens and forms a silken thread (Fig. 131, s) that is 
 seemingly inexhaustible. 
 
 Fig. 131.— Parts of a spider. 1, Under part of a spider's body : t, thorax, or 
 chest, from which the eight legs spring, and to which the head is united 
 in one piece ; f, fangs ; p, palpi, or feelers, attached to the jaws ; «, ab- 
 domen ; fr, breathing-slits ; s, six spinnerets with thread coming from 
 them. 2, Front of spider's head : £, eyes ; fl, palpi ; /, front legs ; h, 
 hasp of fangs ; _/, poison-fangs ; j, outer jaws. 
 
 A 
 
 Note. — Professor Wilder wound several miles of silk from the 
 Southern Nephila plwnipes, the largest spider in the United States 
 
 (Fig. 130). In the Pacific 
 
 C islands an Epeira spins a web 
 
 strong enough to catch birds. 
 
 Professor Moseley found a 
 
 finch entangled in one of 
 
 their webs. Some spiders 
 
 spin a web that bears them 
 
 away through the air like 
 
 a balloon. The Dolomedes 
 
 builds a raft of leaves and 
 
 silk, and launches it in search 
 
 of food. Many mimic their 
 
 surroundings, while others communicate so rapid a movement to their 
 
 webs as to become invisible. The Salticus leaps through the air after 
 
 Fig. 132. — Spiders' nests of different kinds, 
 containing eggs. A and C are common 
 nests in sheds and barns ; B was found 
 under a board in the field— the part 
 containing the eggs stands upon a stalk. 
 (After Morse). 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 its prey ; the Argyronetra aquatica lives in air-bubbles under water ; 
 and the Attus volans of Australia has flaps or wing-like extensions of 
 the abdomen, that it elevates or depresses during leaps from plant to 
 plant. The egg-sacs (Fig. 132, a) are sometimes attached to the webs, 
 carried about by the mother, or affixed to stalks (Fig. 132, b), and re- 
 semble small plants. 
 
 Value. — Spiders are useful in destroying other noxious insects. 
 The silk is of value to opticians as cross-lines in optical instruments, 
 also as a mechanical styptic. The silk of certain spiders has been 
 woven. One of the kings of France possessed a coat made of this silk. 
 In Bermuda the silk of Nephila has been used as sewing-silk. 
 
 Works on Spiders for farther reference. 
 " Structure and Habits of Spiders," J. H. Emerton ; " Harvesting 
 Ants and Trap-door Spiders," J. T. Moggridge ; "The Triangle Spi- 
 der," B. G. Wilder, "Popular Science Monthly," 1875; "Practical 
 Use of Spider-Silk," B. G. Wilder, the " Galaxy," July, 1869 ; " Pedi- 
 palpi of North America," H. C. Wood, Jr., "Journal of Philadelphia 
 Academy of Natural Science," vol. v ; " Mites, Ticks, and other Aca- 
 ri," "Popular Science Monthly," vol. xiv ; " Termayer's Researches 
 on Spiders' Silk," "Proceedings of Essex Institute," vol. v; " Pha- 
 langerae of the United States," H. C. Wood, Jr., " Proceedings of Essex 
 Institute," vol. vi ; " Harper's Monthly," vol. lx, Treat. Packard's 
 " Guide to the Study of Insects." 
 
 Sub-Class IV. — Six-Legged Insects (Ifexapcda). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The Hexapods have antennae 
 and two pairs of jaws or maxillae. 
 
 FlG. 133. — Glacier-flea {Desoria glacialis). 
 
 Order I. Spring-Tails \JTAysanura). — The spring- 
 tails are minute wingless forrn^yhat possess a forked spring, 
 
II2 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 held in place by a hook, that when released 
 sends them high into the air. A single Po- 
 dura will deposit 1,360 eggs. The glacier-flea 
 (Fig. 133), found upon the glaciers of Europe 
 and on snow-banks of North America and 
 Europe, belongs to the order. Some species 
 have bristles instead of springs, as the Cam- 
 podea, found under stones and old wood. 
 
 Order II. Lace- Winged Insects (Neu- 
 ropterd). — General Characteristics. — Insects 
 having four fine net-veined wings, generally 
 
 k 
 
 Fig. 134.— 
 
 a long, slender abdomen, and mouth adapted 
 
 Larva of . . 
 
 Ephemera. for biting. 
 
 May-Flies (Ephemera). — These remark- 
 able insects are of a greenish-brown color, with gauze-like 
 unequal wings dotted with brown spots. The larva (Fig. 
 134) is about an inch long, its sides bearing several plume- 
 like gills by which it breathes in the water. 
 
 Value. — In some countries they occur in such numbers that they 
 are used as guano. The Central Africans make bread of them. 
 
 Dragon-Flies (Libellulidd). — The darning-needles 
 (Fig. 135) are adorned with lustrous metallic tints and 
 lace-like wings. The abdomen is long and bears no sting ; 
 the eyes are compound and accompanied by three ocelli. 
 The eggs are deposited in the water, and are hatched into 
 flattened larvae (Fig. 135, a) that lead an aquatic life for 
 about two years. They secure their prey with a proboscis 
 with hooks and joint that when at rest folds over the face 
 and is called the mask, m. The pupa, b, finally creeps 
 up the stem of a plant, bursts from its old skin, and ap- 
 pears a perfect insect, c* 
 
 * In Lombok, Malay Archipelago, the natives catch the large 
 species and eat them. The American species are voracious ; the larvee 
 catch young fish, and the adult has been seen to take minnows from 
 a pond. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 "3 
 
 Caddis-Flies (Phryganea). — The caddis-flies often 
 have antennae twice as long as the body. The eggs are 
 
 Fig. 135.— Life of the dragon-fly, about one half life-size, a, grub living in 
 the water ; m, mask or long lower lip with which it seizes its prey ; b, dragon- 
 fly creeping out of its last grub-skin ; c, perfect dragon-fly on the wing. 
 
 carried about by the female, 
 
 attached to her abdomen, and 
 
 finally deposited upon some 
 
 water-plant where they hatch, 
 
 the larvae seeking the bottom, 
 
 where they build coverings 
 
 (Fig. 136) of wood, stone, 
 
 shell, or sand. When about 
 
 to change into a pupa they close the mouth of the case, 
 
 finally biting their way out, and crawling to the surface a 
 
 perfect insect. 
 
 Fig. 136. — Caddis-worm, with its 
 case, made of sticks. 
 
 
ii4 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Ant- Lion (Myrmeleon). — The ant-lion in its complete 
 state resembles a small dragon-fly. The eggs are laid in 
 dry, sandy places, the young larvae when hatched excavat- 
 ing a pitfall by whirling their bodies about, and throwing 
 the sand out (Fig. 137). The pit complete, the ant-lion 
 
 Fig. 137. — Ant-lion. Adult, and larva?, the forceps of one showing at the 
 bottom of the pitfall. 
 
 conceals itself at the bottom, only its forceps appearing, 
 ready to grasp the ants that tumble in. This hunting life 
 is led for two years, when it envelops itself in a round 
 ball of sand and silk, and in three weeks breaks out a per- 
 fect insect. 
 
 Note. — The aphis-lion {C/vysopa) lays eggs that mimic delicate 
 plants or fungi. They appear growing from the ground attached to 
 stalks, and are placed near food adapted to the young. 
 
 White-Ants (Termitidce). — These insects in North 
 America are generally of four kinds : winged kings and 
 queens, and soldiers and workers that are wingless. The 
 workers are the smallest and youngest, and build the nest, 
 attend the queen, young, etc. The soldiers are those that 
 have undergone the first metamorphosis.* They have large 
 
 * Packard considers the soldiers and workers specialized forms. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 "5 
 
 heads and powerful jaws. The African termites * build 
 immense nests (Fig. 138), and the queen is often 40,000 
 times larger than the workers. 
 
 Value. — Eaten in Central Africa, and the nests used as fuel. 
 
 Fig. 13S. — White ants, showing enormous queen, male, worker, and soldier, 
 and section of nest, showing the queen's cell. 
 
 * Their hills have been seen twelve feet high and nearly one hun- 
 dred feet in circumference. They are divided into various apartments, 
 the semi-egg-shaped cell in the center containing the imprisoned queen 
 who grows sometimes to a length of six inches. The workers attend 
 the royal chamber, removing the eggs that are laid by millions, and 
 placing them in nurseries or cemented cells made for the purpose. The 
 workers do great damage, and in the Isle of France a new building was 
 ruined in a few months by them. In Colombo, Ceylon, a large bouse 
 fell completely in pieces, the result of their ravages. 
 
n6 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Works on Neuroptera for further reference. 
 " Synopsis of described Neuroptera of North America," H. A. 
 Hagen, "Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," vol. iv, No. I, 1862 ; 
 "Transformations and Anatomy of Corydalus Cornutus," Holdeman 
 and Leidy, " Memoirs American Academy," vol. iv ; " Immature State 
 of the Odonata," L. Cabot, "Catalogue of Museum Comparative Zo- 
 ology," No. 5, 1872; "Caddis-Worms and their Metamorphoses," 
 " Popular Science Review," July, 1868. 
 
 Fig. 139. — Praying mantis. 
 
 Order III. Straight- Winged Insects {Orthopterd). 
 — General Characteristics. — Insects having four straight, 
 narrow, net-veined wings ; metamorphosis complete ; about 
 5,000 species are known. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 117 
 
 Mantis (Man-tides). — These insects (Fig. 139) have 
 elongated bodies, with the fore-legs toothed and adapted 
 for grasping their prey, and are remarkable for their 
 curious postures, that, with their coloring, is protective. 
 They are voracious, attacking their fellows and other in- 
 sects. Mantis argetitina, from South America, according to 
 Burmeister, catches small birds. The eggs are deposited 
 in oblong clusters on fences, assuming the general color 
 of the surroundings. 
 
 Note. — From the supplicating position of the fore-legs (Fig. 139), 
 they are called the praying mantis, and in Africa certain natives vene- 
 rate them. A pink mantis in Java mimics an orchid, and captures the 
 insects that alight on it by mistake. Another, in the Philippine Isl- 
 ands, resembles a dried leaf. 
 
 Walking-Sticks 
 
 (Phasmidce). — The walk- 
 ing-sticks (Fig. 140) re- 
 semble the Mantidce, but 
 the fore-legs are not adapt- 
 ed for grasping. They 
 are wonderful mimics, 
 their bodies resembling 
 old and new twigs. One 
 even mimics a moss- 
 grown stick, its legs and 
 body being covered with 
 curious irregular growths. 
 In the Malay Archipelago 
 and South America they 
 attain a length of four- 
 teen inches. 
 
 Walking-Leaves 
 [Phylliutn). — The wing-covers, in these insects (Fig. i4 x )> 
 so imitate leaves that they are readily taken for them. 
 Even the veins and midrib of the leaf are often perfect, 
 
 Fig. 140. — Walking-stick (P/iasma), 
 wingless orthopterous insect. 
 
n8 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 and mold-spots of various colors are also mimicked in 
 some, so that the insect resembles a dried leaf well de- 
 cayed. The eggs might even be taken for deeply-ribbed 
 seeds. 
 
 Grasshoppers (Acrydii). — The grasshoppers (Fig. 
 142) have a compressed body, short antennae, and hind- 
 legs adapted for leaping. Their noise, 
 which is often deafening, is made by rub- 
 bing the thighs (Fig. 143) against the fore- 
 
 Fig. 142. — Grasshopper. 
 
 Fig. 141. — Phyl- 
 Hum siccifoli- 
 um, feeds on 
 leaves, and 
 mimics fresh 
 leaves. 
 
 b 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 143. — Leg of a grasshopper, magnified, showing 
 ridge of fine teeth on the inside of the leg, marked a, 
 by which the insect rasps the wing; 6, c, different 
 views of ridge of fine teeth, highly magnified. 
 
 wings. Their eggs are deposited, 50 to 100 at a time, in 
 a cocoon-shaped mass, in the ground, though the female 
 has no produced ovipositor. The organs of hearing are 
 at the base of the abdomen. 
 
 Note. — Some species migrate in such vast numbers that they 
 have been known to darken the sun. Their bodies, once washed 
 ashore on the African coast, formed a wall fifty miles long and three 
 or four feet in height. Jaegar passed through a swarm in Russia 
 400 miles long and two feet deep. They threatened a famine, and 
 30,000 soldiers, armed with shovels, were sent out to reduce their 
 numbers. In 1478 30,000 persons starved to death in Russia, the 
 result of their raids. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 Iig 
 
 Locusts (Locustarid). — The green locusts (Fig. 144) 
 have large heads, long, slender antennae and legs. The 
 base of the ante- 
 rior wing is trans- 
 parent, forming 
 a drum, with 
 which the males 
 utter shrill calls, 
 the sounds in 
 some species be- 
 ing different at 
 day and night. 
 The female has a long ovipositor for boring holes in the 
 ground and wood for the reception of its eggs. The katy- 
 did is a familiar form, making the curious noise from 
 which they are named by rubbing the inner surface of the 
 hind-legs against the outer surface of the front-wings. 
 
 Note. — Mr. Belt observed a locust that so resembled a leaf that 
 the ants ran over it, completely deceived. 
 
 Fig. 144. — Meadow locust {Orchelimum vulgare). 
 
 Fig. 145. — 1, wingless cricket ; 2 and 4, field-cricket ; 3, house-cricket. 
 
 Crickets (Gryllidce). — The crickets (Fig. 145) have a 
 somewhat cylindrical body, large head, placed vertically, 
 
120 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 and long antennae, while the ovipositor is often as long as 
 the entire body. The shrill cry is the call of the male, 
 made by elevating the fore-wings and rubbing them on 
 the hinder ones. Their eggs often exceed 300 in number, 
 and are generally placed in the ground. 
 
 Note. — The mole cricket shows great affection for its eggs, placing 
 them in underground cemented cells, and moving them near the surface 
 or deeper, according to the weather. They have obtained such a hold 
 upon the extreme outer keys of the Florida reef that it is almost im- 
 possible to cultivate anything. 
 
 Works on Orthoptera for further reference. 
 
 " North American Orthoptera and Catalogue of New England Spe- 
 cies," S. H. Scudder, in " Boston Journal of Natural History," vol. vii ; 
 " Songs of the Grasshoppers," S. H. Scudder, "American Naturalist," 
 vol. iii, p. 113. 
 
 Order IV. Half- Winged Insects (Hemiptera). — 
 General Characteristics. — Bugs having the mouth-parts in 
 the form of a sucking beak ; the fore-wings thickened at 
 their base. 
 
 Bird-Lice (Mallophaga). — These are low forms, para- 
 sitic upon the hairs and feathers of other animals. Nirmus 
 lives on birds, Gyropus on the por- 
 poise, etc. 
 
 Bed - Bugs (Membranacei). — 
 In this family are found the flat- 
 bodied bed-bugs — Cimex (Fig. 
 146). The eggs are oval, the 
 young escaping by pushing up a 
 regular lid at one end. They in- 
 Fig. 146.— Bed-bug. fest wood-work, pigeons, swallows, 
 
 bats, and various animals. 
 Chinch-Bugs {Lygceida). — In the common chinch- 
 bug the female deposits about 500 eggs twice in a season. 
 They appear upon wheat in June, and afford a good ex- 
 ample of incomplete metamorphosis (Fig. 147). 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 121 
 
 Note. — In 1864 chinch -bugs caused a loss in wheat and corn of 
 $100,000,000 ; and in 1850 their ravages in Illinois alone amounted to 
 ,000,000. 
 
 Fig. 147. — Different stages of the chinch-bug. a, egg ; b, newly-hatched 
 larva ; c, larva after first molt ; d, larva after second molt ; e, pupa ; 
 /, perfect insect. 
 
 Water-Measure Insects (Hydrometridcz). — These 
 are narrow, boat-shaped insects, having long legs with 
 which they dart over ponds and 
 streams. The Halobates (Fig. 148) 
 is found on the ocean, hundreds of 
 miles from land, with its eggs. 
 
 Water-Boatman (Notonectidee). 
 — These aquatic insects dart about 
 upon their backs with great rapidity, 
 using their hind-legs, that are edged 
 with' strong cilia, and blade-like, as 
 oars. They fly, swim, and dive with 
 equal ease. The eggs are attached 
 to aquatic plants. 
 
 Harvest- Flies (Cicadidce). — 
 The seventeen-year Cicada (Fig. 149) 
 is wedge-shaped, with a broad head 
 
 and prominent eyes. The shrill sound is made by a drum 
 like organ at the base of the abdomen. The eggs, nura 
 
 Fig. 148. — Halobates, an 
 insect that goes to sea. 
 
122 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 149. — Seventeen-year cicada. 
 
 Fig. 150. — A portion of a grass- 
 stem, with the young froth-in- 
 sects (Ptyelus) magnified, <z, 
 . the insect reaching out the 
 hinder part of the body to se- 
 cure a bubble of air ; &, an in- 
 sect allowing a bubble of air 
 to escape in the fluid — the dot- 
 ted line b indicates the bub- 
 ble ; c, the mouth-parts, like a 
 sting, piercing the grass. (Af- 
 ter Morse.) 
 
 bering 400 or 500, are depos- 
 ited the last of May in holes 
 in the twigs of the oak, so 
 formed by the ovipositor that 
 the wood covers them. They 
 hatch in about six weeks, the 
 larvae burrowing in the ground 
 and remaining nearly seven- 
 teen years, then appearing in 
 the adult form. Allied to them 
 are the lantern -flies (Fulgo- 
 ridce)* 
 
 Leaf-Hoppers (Cercopi- 
 dcE). — The tree- or leaf-hop- 
 pers are remarkable for their 
 strange shapes. They are 
 small, with broad, triangular 
 heads, and hind-legs adapted 
 for leaping. The froth-insect 
 
 * The following authors have ex- 
 pressed their belief from observation 
 and other sources in the phosphores- 
 cent properties of the Fulgotidce : 
 Madame Merian, Dr. Donovan, au- 
 thor of " Insects of India," Marquis 
 Spinola, a colleague of Mr. West- 
 mael, Lady Seymour, and Dr. Phip- 
 son. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 123 
 
 (Ptyelus) is common in the grass in early summer. When 
 hatched, the young crawl up blades of grass, puncture 
 them with their mouths, and suck the juice, a watery fluid 
 escaping from various pores of the insect and completely 
 covering it. To obtain air, its tail is thrust through the 
 fluid (Fig. 150, a), seizing a bubble by means of claspers, 
 that passes along beneath the abdomen, entering the spi- 
 racles. After a time the liquid becomes filled with air, 
 b y and assumes the frothy appearance familiar as frog- 
 spittle, from which the perfect insect finally escapes. 
 
 Bark-Lice 
 ( Cocci dee) . — T h e 
 bark-lice are mi- 
 nute scale-like in- 
 sects, the males 
 alone having wings. 
 The cochineal 
 (Fig. 151) is a fa- 
 miliar form of the 
 family. 
 
 Value. — The coch- 
 ineal industry gives em- 
 ployment to thousands 
 of persons. From Coc- 
 cus siensis comes wax ; 
 400,000 pounds have 
 been obtained in a sin- 
 gle year, and made into 
 candles, etc. 
 
 Fig. 151 
 
 -t, Cochineal insects on a branch of 
 cactus ; 2, female ; 3, male. 
 
 Plant-Lice (Aphidai)— These insects (Fig. 152) have 
 flask-shaped bodies and a three-jointed beak. They mul- 
 tiply in a marvelous manner. Eggs are deposited by the 
 impregnated female in the autumn that hatch in the spring, 
 producing, as a rule, wingless forms, that in turn produce 
 not eggs but living winged or wingless young, that in ten 
 or eleven days produce others, and so on, so that the origi- 
 
124 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Fig. 152. — Aphis. 
 
 nal female may be represented in the twelfth generation 
 by one quintillion descendants, all born in a single sum- 
 mer. Upon the approach of cold weather, or from a lack 
 of food, males and females are pro- 
 duced by the viviparous form, and 
 eggs are laid that in the spring give 
 rise to successive broods, as above. 
 Order V. Beetles (Coleopterd). 
 — General Characteristics. — Insects 
 having their fore-wings thickened, 
 forming horny sheaths, called elytra, 
 or wing-covers for the hinder pair, 
 that are principally used in flight ; 
 mouth-parts adapted for biting ; 
 metamorphosis complete. 
 
 The Girdler (Ondderes).— This 
 beetle displays remarkable intelli- 
 gence in providing for its young. 
 The eggs are deposited in perforations in the tender 
 brushes of hickory, and, as the young require dead wood 
 to eat, the mother girdles the limb below the eggs with 
 her mandibles, so that it dies by the time the larva 
 hatches. 
 
 Spring-Beetles (Elateridci). — These beetles are light- 
 givers (Fig. 153), and when placed upon their backs have 
 the power of spring- 
 ing repeatedly into 
 the air by using a 
 spine situated be- 
 tween the legs. The 
 larvae are known as 
 wire-worms, and feed 
 upon vegetable mat- 
 ter, sometimes re- 
 maining five years 
 in the larval state. The yellow luminous spots are upon 
 
 Fig. 153. — A luminous beetle {Pyrophorus 
 noctiluciis). 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 125 
 
 each side of the thorax, and emit a vivid light visible even 
 in broad daylight. 
 
 Note. — The light of the common fire-fly {Lampyris) gives a spec- 
 trum from which blue and violet are omitted. Jaeger, the naturalist, 
 states that the Elaters were frequently the means of saving his life, 
 by lighting his way out of the dense forests of St. Domingo. 
 
 
 Fig. 154. — Diving-beetle ^Dytiscus marginalis). g, grub, showing pincers. 
 
 Diving-Beetles {Dytiscidce) — These aquatic beetles 
 (Fig. 154) are of an oval or rounded form, with the pos- 
 terior legs fringed for swimming, and feet provided with 
 suckers (Fig. 155). The larvae are ferocious creatures, 
 called water-tigers (Fig. 154, g), having flattened heads and 
 scissor-like jaws, with which they capture small fishes, tad- 
 poles, and insects. The body ends in a pair of respiratory 
 tubes, that are thrust into the air. When ready to change, 
 the larva creeps ashore, builds a round cell, and in five 
 
126 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 days assumes the pupa state, a few weeks later appearing 
 as a full-fledged beetle. Others of more or less interest 
 
 are the long-horned 
 beetles (Cerambyeidce), 
 weevils (Curculioni- 
 dce), tiger-beetles (Ct~ 
 cinde/a), ground-bee- 
 tles (Carabus), bury- 
 ing-beetles (Silphidce), 
 etc. 
 
 Works on Coleoptera for 
 further reference. 
 
 " List of Coleoptera of 
 North America," J. L. Le 
 Conte, " Smithsonian Mis- 
 cellaneous Collections," 
 vol. vi, No. 3 ; " Larval 
 Habits of the Blister-Bee- 
 tles, and Remarks on oth- 
 er Species of the Family 
 Meloidse," C. V. Riley, 
 "Transactions of St. Louis 
 Academy," vol. iii, No. 4; "Colorado Potato Beetles," C. V. Riley, 
 "Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii ; "Annales des Sciences Natu- 
 relles," 1869-70. 
 
 Order VI. Two-Winged In- 
 sects (Diftera). — General Charac- 
 teristics. — Two-winged insects with 
 mouths formed for sucking or lap- 
 ping, composed of from two to six 
 needle-like bristles forming a pro- 
 boscis encircled in a sheath ; meta- 
 morphosis complete. 
 
 Flies (Mused). — The common 
 fly hibernates in winter. The eggs 
 are deposited in offal about sta- 
 bles, remaining in the pupa state 
 
 Fig. 155. — Suckers on tarsus of fore- 
 limb of Dytiscus marginalis. 
 
 m> 
 
 Fig. 156. — Blue-bottle fly 
 {Musca vomitoria), larva 
 and pupa. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 127 
 
 Fig. 158. — Showing 
 compound and sim- 
 ple eyes of fly. 
 A, head, enlarged 
 8 times : c, com- 
 pound eye ; s, sim- 
 ple eyes. B, por- 
 tion of the surface 
 of a compound eye, 
 highly magnified. 
 
 Fig. 157. — Tongue of blow-fly. 
 
 (Fig. 156) about fourteen days. 
 The proboscis of the fly (Fig. 
 157) is a fleshy, tongue-like 
 organ bent under the head 
 when at rest. In flying, the 
 wings describe a figure 8 in 
 the air, making 19,800 revolu- 
 tions in a minute, or 9,400 
 simple oscillations. The eyes 
 (Fig. 158) are both compound 
 and simple. The feet (Fig. 
 in) have delicate pads for 
 clinging upon smooth surfaces. 
 Fleas (Pulicidce) . — The 
 fleas (Fig. 160) are wingless, 
 have a compressed body, and 
 
 Fig. 159. — Spiracle of a fly. 
 
 V ' 
 
128 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 , f :s^/^ 
 
 Fig. i6o. — Metamorphosis of the flea {Pulex trritans). 
 
 two simple eyes. The eggs of 
 the cat-flea are eight or ten in 
 number, oval, and ^ of an inch 
 long. The larva resembles a 
 minute caterpillar, and has four 
 long hairs on the side of each 
 joint. In twelve days in sum- 
 mer, in which time the larvae at- 
 tain their full growth, they in- 
 close themselves in a small silken 
 cocoon, remaining in this condi- 
 tion from eleven to sixteen days, 
 finally appearing in the pupa 
 form. 
 
 Note. — If a man could jump as high 
 in proportion as a flea, a leap over the 
 Capitol at Washington would be an easy 
 feat. A flea can draw one hundred times 
 its weight, and so easily tamed are these 
 minute creatures that a trained compa- 
 ny of them was exhibited in New York 
 a few years ago. Through a magnifying- 
 glass they could be seen standing erect, 
 drawing carriages in which were seated 
 
 Fig. 161. — Lancets of the fe- 
 male gnat : # , labium ; b, b, 
 mandibles ; c, c, maxillas ; 
 d, tongue ; c, labrum. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 129 
 
 other fleas ; others marched to and fro armed with spears and hauling 
 cannon, while others still, as prisoners, dragged about chains and balls. 
 
 Mosquitoes (Culirid<z).—The gnats and mosquitoes 
 have long and slender mouth-parts, the sucker consisting 
 
 Fig. i62.-Metamorphosis of mosquito. Eggs, larva, later stage on the 
 raft, and adult. 
 
 of six bristles (Fig. 161) folded together in a gutter-like 
 case Their legs are long, and body elongated and slen- 
 der, antenna fringed (Fig. 163). The eggs (Fig. 162) are 
 
130 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 deposited on the water, and the larvae breathe by a star- 
 shaped organ at the hinder extremity, through which air 
 passes to the tracheae. They finally shed their skins and 
 
 appear as pupae, in which state 
 they breathe through two tubes 
 in the thorax. In a few days 
 the skin breaks between the 
 breathing-tubes and the insect 
 emerges, and, after floating 
 about for a while on the old 
 skin as a raft, it flies away a 
 perfect insect. 
 
 Fi 
 
 163. — Antenna of mos- 
 quito, magnified. 
 
 Note. — In the small town of Elizabethport, Russia, in the month 
 of June, 1830, 30 horses, 40 foals, 70 oxen, 90 calves, 150 hogs, and 
 400 sheep were killed by mosquitoes alone. The females generally do 
 the most damage. 
 
 Works on Diptera for further reference. 
 
 " Transformations of the Common 
 House-Fly, with Notes on Allied Forms," 
 A. S. Packard, Jr., " Proceedings of the 
 Boston Society of Natural History," vol. 
 xv ; "Catalogue of Described Diptera of 
 North America," R. Osten-Sacken, in 
 " Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," 
 vol. iii, No. 1, 1S62 ; " Animal Parasites 
 and Messmates," Van Beneden. 
 
 Order VII. Butterflies and 
 Moths (Lep id op tera). — General 
 Characteristics. — Small-headed in- 
 sects with four wings, which with the 
 body are covered with scales ; the 
 tongue consisting of two tubular or 
 hollow threads adapted for suction, 
 and coiled when not in use ; meta- 
 morphosis complete, the larvae or 
 caterpillars having abdominal legs. 
 
 Fig. 164. — Head of Sphinx- 
 moth, showing; feathered 
 antennae, coiled tongue, 
 and pollen-masses at- 
 tached to the eyes that 
 have been taken from 
 some f.ower. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 131 
 
 Moths. — General Characteristics. — The moths are, as 
 a rule, nocturnal or night-fliers, and are distinguished from 
 the butterflies by their feathered antennae (Fig. 164). 
 
 Dwarf-Moths 
 (Tineida?). — The 
 common clothes- 
 moth deposits its 
 eggs in woolens, the 
 white larvae creat- 
 ing much damage 
 in making their co- 
 coons. 
 
 Silk-Worm Moths {Bombycidce).— 
 These large moths have heavy, thick bod- 
 ies, small heads, the tongue short and 
 almost useless. The eggs are deposited 
 upon the mulberry (Fig. 166) and other 
 leaves, the young worms eating for about 
 a month, and then forming a yellow or 
 
 Fig. 165. — Canker-worm moth, eggs, and worms. 
 a, female canker-worm moth laying her eggs, b ; 
 c, top-view, and d, side-view, of an egg, magni- 
 fied ; e, canker-worm eating its way out of the 
 egg, magnified ; f, magnified view of canker- 
 worm ; g, natural size of canker-worm after leav- 
 ing the egg ; h, male canker-worm moth. 
 
 Fig. 167. — Swing- 
 ing cocoon of a 
 South Ameri- 
 can moth. 
 
132 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 white cocoon. They now change to a chrysalis, and in 
 eight or nine months escape, a perfect insect. A South 
 American member of this family has a swinging, basket- 
 like cocoon (Fig. 167). 
 
 Fig. 166. — The siik-worm, moth, and cccoon, on a mulberry branch. With 
 view of silk works, illustrating the economic value of the worm. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 33 
 
 Note. — In France and Italy four days are required to form the 
 cocoon, while in England and certain parts of India forty-six days are 
 necessary for its completion ; 360 of these cocoons weigh i-J- pound. 
 In the United States the Telia polyp hemus is valued for its silk. Little 
 windows have been cut in their cocoons and mica inserted, so that the 
 growth of the chrysalis might be observed. 
 
 Value. — The silk goods produced yearly in the United States alone 
 are valued at $27,000,000. 
 
 Fig. 168. — Death's-head moth. 
 
 Hawk-Moths (Sphtngidce). — The hawk-moths are 
 large, swift-flying insects, with stout, spindle-shaped bodies, 
 the tongue remarkable for its length. The curious death's- 
 head moth (Fig. 168) belongs to this family. 
 
 Value. — The moths fertilize flowers, carrying pollen from one to 
 another, often attached to their eyes (Fig. 164). 
 
134 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 Butterflies (Papilionidce). — General Characteristics. — 
 The butterflies are day-flying Lepidoptera, and distin- 
 guished from the moths by their knobbed antennse. 
 
 Vanessa.— In this genus (Fig. 169) the wings are richly 
 marked. The larva is cylindrical, and covered with stout, 
 long-branching spines. The V. antiopa is one of the com- 
 monest forms, and famous for its habits of hibernation. 
 
 Fig. 169. — Metamorphosis of the peacock butterfly (Vanessa Id). 
 
 Sulphur-Butterflies (Colias).* — In this family the 
 wings are rounded, and form a gutter for the reception of 
 the abdomen. They are the commonest butterflies we have. 
 
 * In some countries they flock upon certain trees, completely 
 covering them, so that in the sun they appear to have a golden hue. 
 Darwin met a vast cloud of them, ten miles at sea, off the Bay of San 
 Bias, and as far as could be seen the swarm extended. Sir Emerson 
 Tennent observed a flock in India that was several days in passing a 
 given point at a high rate of speed. Sir Robert Schomburgh observed 
 a cloud of another genus crossing the Essequibo River, South America, 
 that was nine miles wide, and was nine hours in passing the stream. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 135 
 
 Leaf- Butterflies {Kallima). — When on the wing the 
 East Indian Kallima ftaralekta presents a brilliant purple 
 color, but when it alights it seems to disappear from view, 
 
 Fig. 170. — The protective resemblance of the leaf-butterfly (Kallima). (Af- 
 ter Wallace.) 
 
 so exactly resembling a leaf (Fig. 170) that persons fail to 
 see it when within a few inches. The tail of the hind- 
 
i3<5 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 wings is pressed against the limb, forming the stem and 
 completing the deception. 
 
 Note. — A butterfly observed by Wallace in the Malay Archipelago, 
 when pursued by birds, imitated the flight of a poisonous butterfly so 
 effectually that the pursuers gave up the chase. Kallima Hugeli, of 
 India, when not in flight, mimics dry oak-leaves, and can hardly be dis- 
 tinguished from a dead leaf. The Indian butterfly Melanitis mimics 
 various species of fungi, utterly disappearing from sight when it alights 
 a few feet away among the dry spikes of pine-leaves, etc. ; while in the 
 Indian Kallima machis no two species are alike, all resembling dead 
 leaves, even the minute fungi growing upon them being imitated in 
 various ways. 
 
 Works on Butterflies and Moths for further reference. 
 " List of Butterflies of North America," H. S. Scudder, " Buffalo 
 Academy of Science," vol. viii ; " North American Silk-Worms," L. 
 Trouvelot, " American Naturalist," vol. i ; " Silk-Worms and Silk- 
 Culture," in " Popular Science Monthly," vol. iii ; " Monograph of the 
 Geometrid Moths of North America," A. S. Packard, Jr., " Memoir of 
 Hayden's Survey," vol. x ; " List of Noctuidae of North America," A. 
 R. Grote, " Bulletin of the Buffalo Academy of Natural Science," vol. 
 ii, 1874. 
 
 Order VIII. Membrane -Winged Insects (Hyme- 
 
 nopterd). — General Characteristics. — Insects having trans- 
 parent wings with few veins. The mouth-parts adapted 
 for lapping, biting, or cutting. The females of some have 
 a sting or piercer. Metamorphosis complete. 
 
 Horn-Tails ( Uroceridd). — The males have a long 
 horn on the abdomen. The saw of the female is attached 
 to the middle of the abdomen, extending 
 far beyond it. 
 
 Gall- Flies {Cynipidce). — To these in- 
 sects (Fig. 171) are due most of the ex- 
 Fig. 171.— crescences called galls, found upon oaks 
 Gall-fly. and other plants. They have short, broad 
 
 heads, the thorax oval and thick, the ab- 
 domen compressed and attached to the thorax by a short, 
 delicate peduncle. The females puncture a leaf or branch 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 137 
 
 Fig. 172. — Ichneumon-fly, showing 
 mechanism of ovipositor. 
 
 with their ovipositors ; the blades of the latter divide, 
 and the egg is forced through this channel into the 
 wound. An abnormal growth of wood is formed about it, 
 from which in time the perfect insect escapes. 
 
 Value.— ^-A decoction of certain galls, with sulphate of iron, forms 
 the principal ingredient of ink. 
 
 Ichneumon-Flies 
 
 (Ichneumonidce). — These 
 insects (Fig. 172) are re- 
 markable for depositing 
 their eggs in other in- 
 sects, using for the pur- 
 pose a long ovipositor 
 that is protected by a 
 sheath composed of four 
 stylets. Rhyssa persuaso- 
 
 ria bores into solid wood in search of its prey. The 
 larva, a soft, footless grub, feeds upon its host, and when 
 
 about to become a pupa 
 spins a cocoon, from 
 which it escapes in the 
 adult form. 
 
 Ants (Formic aria). 
 — The ants, in the opin- 
 ion of Sir John Lub- 
 bock, stand next to man 
 in point of intelligence. 
 They erect wonderful 
 dwellings, store up food, 
 are agriculturists, keep 
 and tend their cattle 
 (Aphidce), seem to pos- 
 sess a sign-language, go 
 to war in organized bod- 
 ies, and in many ways show remarkable intelligence. The 
 
 Fig. 173. — Ant's head and foot. Head : 
 <?, e, eyes ; a, a, antennae ; m, m, man- 
 dibles ; /, /, jaws ; t, tongue. Foot : 
 s, spur ; <r, s, comb of spur ; /c, leg- 
 comb. 
 
138 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 head (Fig. 173) is generally triangular, the antennae are slen- 
 der, and the eyes of two kinds — compound and ocelli ; the 
 
 Fig. 174. — Foraging ants returning with slaves and captives after a bat- 
 tle (magnified). 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 J 39 
 
 former consist of many facets differing in different spe- 
 cies. They live in communities of often 500,000. Both 
 males and females are winged, while a third and wing- 
 less kind are called workers. These have the care of 
 the young, and are builders. In some ants the neuters 
 or workers have powerful jaws and are called soldiers, 
 defending the family. During the summer the males 
 and females leave the nest and fly away, soon losing 
 their wings. The females are taken by workers to form 
 new nests and become queens. They live seven or eight 
 years. 
 
 Foraging Ants. — In South America the Ecito?is are 
 greatly dreaded. They march against other ants, and car- 
 ry away their larvae (Fig. 174) and pupae to bring them up 
 as slaves. In the (Ecodoma the nest is of enormous dimen- 
 sions, extending one hundred feet or more beneath the 
 ground. They cut leaves from trees to thatch their nests. 
 The leaves are also used to encourage the growth of fungi 
 
 Fig. 175.— Living bottles — honey-ants expanded with honey. 
 
 upon which the young are fed. They tunnel under rivers, 
 as the broad Paraiba of Brazil, a fact proved by forcing 
 smoke through the tunnel. 
 
 Agricultural Ants.— The agricultural ants of Texas 
 
40 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 have regular farms on which they seem to cultivate the 
 plant Aristida stricta. 
 
 Honey-Ants. — In the Myrmecocystus melliger of Tex- 
 as, certain individuals are selected as storehouses by the 
 rest, filled with honey (Fig. 175), and suspended in special 
 apartments as living bottles. They are cared for and 
 tended by the others, and made to give up their honey 
 when it is needed. 
 
 Value. — The honey-ants are eaten as a delicacy in Mexico. For- 
 mic acid is obtained from the bodies of others. All are scavengers. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 76. — Mud-dauber wasp 
 building nest. 
 
 Mud-Wasps.— 
 
 These large wasps (Fig. 
 177, d) paralyze insects 
 with their sting, storing 
 them up in a benumbed 
 condition in the egg- 
 cells as food for the 
 future young (Fig. 177). 
 The nests are either 
 
 Fig. 177. — Showing a wasp's nest of four 
 cells cut open, #, representing a cell 
 with the egg at the bottom, and the re- 
 maining space filled with spiders ; b, 
 the larva full-grown, after having con- 
 sumed all the spiders ; c, the pupa ; 
 and d, the imago, or perfect mud-wasp, 
 ready to come out. 
 
 Fig. 178.— Mud-cells of a South American 
 wasp attached to a branch. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 141 
 
 built in the sand or gravel. Those of other species are 
 attached to various objects (Fig. 178). The sand, wood, 
 and paper wasps are other familiar forms. 
 
 Note. — The wasps live in temporary societies composed of males, 
 females, and neuters or workers. The sting of the latter is poisonous. 
 The males die at the approach of winter, the females hibernating. In 
 spring their nests, composed of ground vegetable matter or sand, are 
 formed, and the young reared. The first brood are neuters, and assist 
 in building a nest for the others ; finally, in the autumn, a third genera- 
 tion is produced, composed of males and females, the nest now contain- 
 ing perhaps one hundred cells. 
 
 Carpenter-Bees. — Among the bees, which constitute 
 the highest forms of the Hymenoptera, the carpenter-bees 
 (Xylocopa) are the giants. They bore tunnels in solid wood 
 at the rate of one quarter 
 to one half an inch a day. 
 In the Virginia carpen- 
 ter-bee the entrance is at 
 first against, then follows 
 the grain of the wood, the 
 tunnel often being from 
 one to one and a half feet 
 in length. This is divided 
 off into cells (Fig. 179), 
 each provided with its 
 pollen and egg ; the par- 
 titions in the tunnel being 
 formed of the powdered 
 dust formed in cutting 
 the tunnel. The larvae 
 feed upon the pollen. 
 
 Honey-Bees (Apia- 
 rice). — These insects (Fig. 
 
 180) are of three kinds — queens, workers, and males. 
 They live in communities of sometimes 20,000 individuals. 
 The cells are formed of wax secreted by the workers, and 
 
 Fig. 179. — Carpenter-bee, showing 
 eggs, pollen-heaps, and partitions. 
 
142 
 
 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 a queen is created by feeding a larva upon " royal food." 
 The eggs are oblong white objects, the larvae first resem- 
 bling maggots. They are fed by the workers, inclosed in 
 
 Fig. 180. — Common honey-bee. A, drone; B, queen; C, worker; Z>, leg 
 of worker, showing cavity for propolis ; £, cells for honey. 
 
 the cell, where they spin a cocoon, become pupae, and 
 finally appear as perfect bees. The leaf-cutters, humble 
 (Fig. 181), and mason bees are other well-known forms. 
 
 Fig. 181. — Humble-bee, showing its underground nest and eggs. 
 
 Value. — In fertilizing flowers. A single honey-bee farm in San 
 Diego, California, produces 150,000 pounds of wax and honey a year, 
 valued at $30,000. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 143 
 
 Note. — In New Zealand it has been found almost impossible to 
 cultivate red clover, from the fact that there are no humble-bees to 
 carry the pollen. It is said, however, that the flowers are changing, 
 so that other insects can perform the work. 
 
 According to Sir John Lubbock, the language of bees is expressed 
 by humming. " A tired bee hums on E', and therefore vibrates its 
 wings only 330 times in a second. A bee humming on A' will, on the 
 other hand, increase its vibrations to 440 per second." 
 
 Specimens for Study. — Insects, as the grasshopper, 
 should be spread as in Fig. 182, and the wings and ex- 
 terior parts studied. Fresh 
 specimens should then be 
 
 Fig. 182. — Grasshopper with the 
 wings of one side expanded. 
 _/, forward-wing; A, hinder- 
 wing. 
 
 Fig. 183. — Insect pinned. 
 
 separated, the segments, 
 joints, mouth-parts, anten- 
 nae, etc., pasted on a card, 
 numbered and labeled. The perfect insect should be 
 preserved as in Fig. 183, pinned to a section of cork and 
 glued in a covered box, a label with the name and 
 locality accompanying it. Longitudinal sections of speci- 
 mens hardened in alcohol should be made, the upper 
 portion of the integument cut off, leaving the delicate 
 hyperdermis. Lift this carefully and examine the heart, 
 ganglia, etc. The various organs should be compared 
 with Fig. no and drawn. In making collections, endeavor 
 to have all the different stages, telling the entire story 
 
144 CRABS AND INSECTS. 
 
 from the egg to the perfect insect. The eggs can be 
 pasted on cards, and the larvae preserved in alcohol. 
 
 Fig. 184. — Model of box for preserving insects collected. 
 
 Works on Bee' for further reference. 
 
 Langstroth " On the Honey-Bee "; " Sting of the Honey-Bee," " Pop- 
 ular Science Monthly," vol. xiv, p. 635 ; " Habits of the Humble-Bees, 
 and the Leaf-Cutting Bee," F. W. Putnam, " Proceedings of the Essex 
 Institute," vol. iv ; " Humble-Bees of New England and their Para- 
 sites," A. S. Packard, Jr., " Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv ; 
 " Ants," E. R. Leland, " Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii ; Lub- 
 bock's "Ants, Bees, and Wasps " ; " Agricultural Ants of Texas," H. 
 C. McCook, " Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy," and "En- 
 cyclopaedia Americana," vol. ii. 
 
 Works on Insects in general for further reference. 
 
 Packard's " Guide to the Study of Insects " ; Packard's " Half Hours 
 with Insects " ; Bunneister's " Entomology " ; Lubbock's " Origin and 
 Metamorphoses of Insects " ; Harris's " Insects of Massachusetts in- 
 jurious to Vegetation " ; Wood's " Strange Dwellings " ; Treat's " In- 
 sects injurious to Vegetation " ; the works of Professor Riley ; " Smith- 
 sonian Reports " ; " Annual Reports of the State of Missouri " ; " In- 
 troduction to Entomology," Kirby and Spence ; Wood's " Natural 
 History," and " Homes without Hands " ; " Malay Archipelago," Wal- 
 lace. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 EIGHTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 
 SEA-SQUIRTS (Tunicata). 
 
 General Charac- 
 teristics. — Though 
 the adult ascidians 
 possess little out- 
 ward resemblance 
 to the backboned 
 animals, the free- 
 swimming young 
 (Fig. 185, a), that 
 look like tadpoles, 
 have a gristly cord, 
 r, with a nerve-cord, 
 n v y above it like 
 the notochord that 
 we shall see in 
 the lancelet ; con- 
 sequently, they are 
 believed to repre- 
 sent the simplest 
 phase of backboned 
 life. They are bag- 
 or barrel - shaped 
 animals, sometimes 
 growing upon stalks; 
 1 
 
 Fig. 185. — Diagram of the growth of a sea- 
 squirt, orascidian. A, a, young free-swim- 
 ming stage (Claveltna). a 2 , intermediate 
 stage, when first settling down. B, b, full- 
 grown sea-squirt, m, mouth ; <?, hollow 
 brain with eye ; g, gill-slits ; //, heart ; r, 
 rod of gristle in free-swimming form ; nv, 
 nerve-cord in same ; /, tail in process of 
 absorption in intermediate form. (After 
 Haddon.) 
 
146 SEA-SQUIRTS. 
 
 again, swimming free, singly, in chains upon the surface, or 
 attached to the bottom. Fig. 185, B, represents a com- 
 mon form of a fixed ascidian or tunicate resembling a jar 
 or bottle with two mouths. 
 
 Covering. — In the simple ascidians (Fig. 185) the body 
 seems inclosed in two coats, a leathery outer one called 
 the test, composed mainly of cellulose, a substance usually 
 found in plants, and an inner muscular one. 
 
 Inter?ial Structure. — The sac is provided with two 
 openings, generally surrounded by short incurved tenta- 
 cles ; one is the mouth, 7/1, and the other for the passage 
 of rejected matter, the fertilized eggs, etc. The mouth is 
 generally the upper opening, and leads into a chamber 
 called the respiratory sac, g, whose walls are perforated 
 with a network of ciliated openings. An orifice in the 
 bottom of the sac leads to the gullet that connects with 
 the stomach and intestine, the latter bending and finally 
 leading to a chamber connected with the ex-current or 
 atrial orifice. The liver is large and of a vivid green 
 hue ; the ovaries yellow. When the tunicate is handled, 
 water is ejected from both openings : hence the name 
 sea-squirt. 
 
 Circulation. — The heart (Fig. 185, /i), by the beating of 
 which circulation is affected, is a straight, tubular, mus- 
 cular organ, open at both ends. For a certain number of 
 times in some species, the blood is thrown one way, then 
 the action is reversed and it is propelled in the opposite 
 direction, so flowing alternately. 
 
 Respiration. — The network that we have seen in the 
 branchial chamber is traversed by blood-vessels that here 
 are brought in contact with water that is wafted along by 
 the cilia ; the blood takes up oxygen, and so is purified. 
 As food is also brought in with the water, the sea-squirt 
 breathes and obtains food by the same action.* 
 
 * Compare this with the account of the oyster, on page 52. 
 
SEA-SQUIRTS. 147 
 
 Ncrvoits System. — In the simplest forms, the nervous 
 system consists of a simple cord ganglion, between the two 
 body-openings. 
 
 Development. — They multiply by eggs and by budding, 
 the young in some cases assuming at first a free-swimming 
 tadpole form (Fig. 185, a), finally becoming attached, a 2 , 
 the tail / absorbing, and the animal assuming the adult 
 form B. 
 
 Pyrosoma. — The pyrosoma (Fig. 186), or fire-body, is 
 a gigantic compound ascidian, sometimes five feet long, 
 twelve inches across, with walls three inches thick. It is 
 a colony of ascidians forming a cylindrical, barrel-shaped 
 
 Fig. 186. — Pyrosoma gigas, a luminous compound ascidian. 
 
 object open at one end. Here the circulation of water 
 aids in locomotion. The mouths, or the inhalent openings, 
 are upon the outside of the pyrosoma, and the exhalent 
 upon the inside. Each individual of the colony is con- 
 tinually engaged in drawing in water, sifting out the parti- 
 cles of food, and ejecting it from the interior opening, all 
 these little currents finding their way out of the single 
 large opening, the combined volume forcing the entire 
 colony along. 
 
 Note. — The pyrosoma is one of the most wonderful animals of the 
 sea in its illuminating properties. In the southern seas they resemble 
 bodies heated to a white heat, illuminating the greater depths, so that 
 the forms of sharks, porpoises, and other larger animals are seen dis- 
 tinctly far below ; and when at the surface light up the sails, masts, and 
 
1 48 SEA-SQUIRTS. 
 
 rigging of vessels, as if by magic. Bebra, the naturalist, wrote a de- 
 scription of one in his cabin by its own light, and read by their phos- 
 phorescence from his cabin- window. Professor Moseley wrote his 
 name upon one with his finger as it lay upon deck ; each letter 
 seemed to ignite, increasing in brilliancy, spreading over the entire 
 animal until it seemed at a white heat. They are found in nearly all 
 the southern seas, and are important factors in the illumination of 
 the submarine world. 
 
 Salpas. — These are minute pelagic, free-swimming as- 
 cidians. There are solitary and chain Salpa ; the former 
 (Fig. 187) are barrel-shaped, even the hoops being repre- 
 
 Fig. 187. — Doh'olum, an ascidian allied to the salpa. a, nerve ; d, mouth ; 
 £■, oesophagus ; z, stomach ; /, intestine ; r, heart ; 1 1, muscles. 
 
 sented by circular bands or muscles. In both, the open- 
 ings are at each end, and locomotion is produced by a 
 regular contraction and expansion of the mantle. The 
 salpa in its development affords another example of alter- 
 nate generations. The solitary asexual salpa, by bud- 
 ding, produces a family of chained salpae ; these in turn 
 produce, not buds, but fertilized eggs, that, after pass- 
 ing through several changes, assume the solitary asexual 
 salpa form. 
 
 Note. — They are brilliantly luminous, the chains stretching away 
 for great distances, resembling luminous snakes winding their way over 
 the sea. Their light in the darkest night rivals that of the moon upon 
 the water. 
 
SEA-SQUIRTS. 
 
 1 49 
 
 Appendiculariae. — These (Fig. 188) are the simplest 
 forms of the class, minute pelagic creatures with tadpole- 
 like tails. 
 
 Fig. 188. — Appendicularia flabellum. I. The entire animal, with the 
 "tail" in its ordinary position, or turned forward. II. Side view of the 
 body, with the "tail" forcibly bent backward. A, the body; B, the 
 tail ; a, oral aperture ; b, the pharynx ; c, an atrial opening ; if, the cor- 
 responding stigma, with its cilia ; f, rectum ; g, oesophagus ; //, t\ stom- 
 ach ; /, urochord ; in, cellular patch at the side of the oral end of the 
 body ; p, ganglion ; q, ciliated sac ; r, ear ; s, posterior nerve with its 
 ganglia, t; en, endoderm ; ec, ectoderm. (After Huxley.) 
 
 Works on Tunicates for further reference. 
 
 " Ascidians of the Coast of New England," A. E. Verrill, in " Ameri- 
 can Journal of Science," vol. i, 1871 ; " Structure and Affinities of the 
 Sea-Squirts (Tunicata)," J. C. Galton, " Popular Science Review," July, 
 1868 ; " Invertebrata of Vineyard Sound," Verrill ; " Development 
 of Salpa," Brooks, " Bulletin of Comparative Zoology," Cambridge, 
 1876. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 NINTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS {Vertebrata). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The Vertebrates are distin- 
 guished by the possession of a backbone, or vertebra, but 
 
 the fundamental dis- 
 tinction between them 
 and the preceding forms 
 lies in the fact that the 
 body is divided into two 
 tubes (Fig. 189) — the 
 upper, C S, containing 
 the nervous cord, and 
 the lower the heart, di- 
 gestive organs, etc. The 
 eyes, ears, and nostrils 
 are two in number, and 
 are placed in the same 
 relative position in all. 
 The eyes have movable 
 lids ; the mouth opens 
 transversely ; the lower 
 jaw is on the under part 
 of the head, and moves 
 up and down, instead of opening sidewise, as in the insects 
 and crustaceans. The jaws are armed with teeth. The 
 blood, except in the lancelet, is red. 
 
 Fig. 189. — A vertebra and a pair of ribs, 
 from a cat. C S, upper cavity, con- 
 taining cerebro-spinal cord ; and low- 
 er, containing: lunsrs, etc. 
 
LEPTOCARDII. 151 
 
 Skeleton. — The skeleton, that in the preceding forms 
 has been upon the outside, is now internal. In the sharks, 
 sturgeons, etc., it is soft, and composed of cartilage, while 
 in others it is of bone. The backbone is composed of a 
 row of bones, called vertebras, that extend from the head 
 to the tail, known collectively as the vertebral column. 
 In the upper portion of each vertebra, except those in the 
 tail, will be found a hole or arch (Fig. 189, C S), through 
 which extends a long, white cord, connected with the brain, 
 called the cerebro-spinal cord, that is thus protected from 
 injury. The various bones of the head, that are extensions 
 of the backbone, form a box or covering for the brain, 
 known as the cranium or skull. The limbs never exceed 
 two pairs, and are fundamentally the same in all Verte- 
 brates, merely being adapted to the habits of the animal 
 in flying, leaping, swimming, digging, clinging, or walking. 
 These are features that characterize all Vertebrates, except 
 the lowest forms. The peculiarities of structure that dis- 
 tinguish the different divisions will be treated under the 
 following heads, that represent the different classes of the 
 backboned animals : 1. The lancelet ; 2. The lamprey; 3. 
 The true fishes ; 4. Amphibians ; 5. Reptiles ; 6. Birds ; 
 and 7. Mammals. 
 
 Class I. — LEPTOCARDII. 
 
 The Lancelet {Amphioxus). — This worm-like creature 
 (Fig. 190) is the lowest animal in which we find a notochord 
 in the adult. The body is lance-shaped, having no skele- 
 ton, brain, cranium, or paired fins ; yet it has a backbone, 
 represented by a cartilaginous string, called the notochord 
 (Fig. 190, r\ with a nerve-cord, 11 v, over it. The heart 
 is long and simple, and the blood colorless. The mouth, 
 m, is oval, surrounded by delicate tentacles ; and the eyes 
 are mere specks, e. The young pass through a metamor- 
 phosis, being at first oval, ciliated bodies ; later, resem- 
 
152 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 bling a larval ascidian. They breathe by taking in water 
 at the mouth, m, that passes through the gill-slits, g, oxy- 
 genating the blood, then passing out through an opening, 
 
 Fig. 190. — The lancelet. m, mouth ; e, eye-spot ; f, fin ; r, rod or noto- 
 chord, the first faint indication of a backbone ; n v, nerve-cord ; g, 
 gills ; //, hole out of which water passes from the gills ; v, vent for refuse 
 of food. 
 
 h. Compare this with the respiration of ascidians (page 
 146). The common lancelet lives in the sand in the 
 shallow water of our coast, from Virginia to southern 
 Florida. 
 
 An Australian lancelet has a high dorsal fin, and about 
 Zamboanga one is found living in a sea-cucumber (Scabra). 
 
 Class II. — Pouch-Gilled Vertebrates {Marsipo- 
 branchii). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The animals of this class are 
 worm-like in appearance. They have no jaws, the mouth 
 being adapted for sucking. The respiratory organs (Fig. 
 191) are pouch-like cells or cavities, which open externally 
 by seven small holes in the lamprey, and internally con- 
 nect with the mouth and a cavity beneath the oesophagus. 
 The nasal aperture that, in the higher Vertebrates, is 
 paired, is here single, in the hag connecting with a sac 
 that leads to the mouth ; but in the lamprey there is no 
 such connection. 
 
 Hag {Myxine). — The hag is about a foot in length. 
 The eyes are minute and under the skin. They are gen- 
 
POUCH-GILLED VERTEBRATES. 
 
 153 
 
 erally found in deep water, where they are parasitic on 
 various fishes. The teeth are represented by two comb- 
 like rows on the tongue. There is also a single median 
 or middle tooth (Fig. 191, a). They secrete an enormous 
 quantity of slime, and a single hag has so filled four cubic 
 feet of water that the mass could be lifted out with a 
 stick, forming, according to Couch, a continuous sheet. 
 The eggs are large, and covered with horny cases, having 
 short filaments that wind about sea-weed. 
 
 Fig. 191. — Organs of respiration in the Myxine. a, single hooked tooth ; 
 b b b b, double rows of lingual teeth ; c, branchial cells ; d d d d, tentac* 
 ula ; e, mucous glands. 
 
 Lamprey {Petromyzon). — The lamprey eel (Fig. 192) 
 lives in both salt and fresh water, and attains a length of 
 three feet. When young they are blind and toothless, and 
 were long considered separate animals (Ammoccetes), (Fig. 
 192). The adults have sunken eyes, and teeth on the car- 
 tilage supporting the lips. The mouth is a sucker, the 
 tongue acting as a piston, and during the breeding-season 
 they use it to advantage in building their nests. They 
 follow the shad up rivers in the spring, deposit their eggs, 
 and return to the ocean in the autumn. They are eaten 
 in England. 
 
 Note. — The nests are formed of piles of rocks weighing several 
 pounds, which are brought from up-stream by successively lifting them 
 from the bottom, allowing the tide to carry them along. Some of the 
 nests are three feet high and four in circumference, and in some cases 
 the eggs are deposited in mere hollows in the sand. The young remain 
 in their castles until able to protect themselves, and do not assume the 
 
154 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 parent form for three years. For an illustrated account of nest-building 
 fishes see the article on the subject by the author in " Harper's Month- 
 ly," Christmas number, 1883. 
 
 Fig. 192. — Figure of a full-grown lamprey and of the young lamprey, for- 
 merly called A}nmocoetes, showing the seven holes through which it takes 
 in water to breathe. 
 
 Class III. — The True Fishes {Pisces). 
 
 Gericral Characteristics. — Aquatic Vertebrates with a 
 cartilaginous skeleton, as in the shark, or a bony one, as 
 in the perch ; as a rule, scaled, and breathing by means 
 of gills ; limbs represented by fins. 
 
 Skeleton. — At first glance, the skeleton of a bony fish 
 (Fig. 193) seems to have two backbones ; the lower, how- 
 ever, is the vertebra, that extends from the head to the 
 tail. The upper series, f and c, are median or middle fins, 
 supported by interspinous bones. The backbone is com- 
 posed of sometimes two hundred vertebrae in bony fishes. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 1 55 
 
 and over three hundred and fifty in cartilaginous ones, 
 that in the former are hollow upon each side, the inclosure 
 so formed containing a glutinous substance. The verte- 
 brae are all connected at their edges by ligaments, that 
 allow more or less lateral motion. To the central or ab- 
 dominal portion of the backbone the ribs are attached, 
 their lower ends hanging free in the muscles. The head 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 193. — Skeleton of the perch (Perca fluviatilis). Shows the jointed na- 
 ture of the vertebral column, and the facilities afforded for lateral motion, 
 particularly in the tail (</), dorsal (e,f), ventral (&, c), and pectoral {a) 
 fins, which are principally engaged in swimming. 
 
 is made up of a complicated arrangement of bones ; the 
 jaws armed with many rows of teeth, in some cases being 
 movable. The limbs or fins are formed of bony or carti- 
 laginous rays ; those in pairs corresponding to the limbs 
 of man. Thus, the pectoral fins (Fig. 193, a) correspond 
 to the arms. A pectoral arch, scapula, clavicle, and cora- 
 coid bones are found, and generally the ulna, radius, and 
 carpus. The lower portion of the fish is termed ventral, 
 and the ventral fins (Fig. 193, b) that are attached to 
 the pelvic arch represent the hind-limbs, though the bones 
 of these limbs are not present. The single fin (Fig. 
 193, e) is a lower middle fin, that is supported by inter- 
 spinous bones, that in turn are connected with the verte- 
 bra by ligaments. The tail or caudal fin (Fig. 193, d) 
 is formed of a number of spreading rays, and is of two 
 
i 5 6 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 distinct types : heterocercal, in which the lobes are un- 
 equal, as in the shark (Fig. 198), and homocercal, where 
 they are equal, as in the perch (Fig. 193). 
 
 Digestion. — The teeth that rudely prepare the food 
 for digestion are loosely attached to the bones of tha 
 
 Fig. 194. — Internal structure of the minnow, ribs removed, and the living 
 fish. A, «, nose-pit; e, eye-nerve; ea, ear-nerve ; g, gills; //, heart ; t, 
 food-tube ; j-, stomach ; k, kidney ; v, vent ; d a, dorsal artery ; a, air- 
 bladder ; £, backbone ; n v, nerve-cord or spinal cord. B, «, nose ; gc, 
 gill-cover ; a/, arm-fin ; //, leg-fins ; s /, single fins ; m j, mucous 
 scales. 
 
 mouth, and even the tongue, not being confined to the 
 jaws alone. Food passes into the food-tube (Fig. 194, /), 
 and thence into the stomach, s, the rejected portions being 
 expelled at v. The liver is generally large. The position 
 of the kidneys is shown in Fig. 194, k. 
 
 Circulation. — The heart (Fig. 194,/*), as a rule, consists 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 57 
 
 of two chambers — an auricle and ventricle. The former 
 receives the impure blood and pumps it into the latter. 
 From here it is sent into a chamber or arterial bulb that 
 divides into five pairs of branches, one leading into each 
 gill. The blood enters the gills, is purified, then by the 
 branchial veins passes into the dorsal artery (Fig. 194, da), 
 so finding its way slowly over the body and back to the 
 auricle. So slowly is this circulation accomplished that 
 the blood rarely attains a temperature above that of the 
 surrounding water.* Hence the fishes are said to be cold- 
 blooded. 
 
 Respiration. — Lifting up the gill-cover (Fig. 194, B, g c). 
 we see the gills, A, g, by which the bony fishes breathe. 
 They are blood-red, membranous leaflets, supported by 
 cartilaginous arches separated by sHts, the entire arrange- 
 ment placed on each side of the head in what are called 
 branchial chambers. Water is taken in at the mouth, 
 passes between the arches and over the gills, supplying 
 oxygen to the blood that has been pumped there by the 
 heart for the purpose, passing out again under the gill- 
 cover (Fig. 194, B, g c), so that there is a continuous cur- 
 rent of water flowing in at the mouth and out at the gills. 
 Most fishes have an air-bladder (Fig. 194, A, a) that con- 
 tains gases, principally nitrogen, that enable them to main- 
 tain a certain specific gravity. In some fishes it has the 
 attribute of a lung. 
 
 Nervous System, etc. — The nervous system of fishes con- 
 sists of a small brain and spinal cord (Fig. 194, A, nv), that 
 throws off delicate threads to the various parts, the fins, 
 the eye, A, e, the ear, A, ee, and the nose-pit, n. The na- 
 sal organs, except in the lung fishes and myxinoids, do not 
 connect with the mouth. They are represented by cov- 
 ered pits lined with nerves. Water laden with odors flows 
 
 * In the active fishes (Sco??ibridce) the respiratory process is so ener- 
 getic that the temperature of the blood is often higher than that of the 
 surrounding medium. 
 
158 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 in, and the news is telegraphed to the brain, just as the 
 impression of an object seen is carried by the optic nerve 
 e. The ears, A, ea, are little cavities placed on each side 
 
 of the head, containing a 
 liquid, in which float two 
 otoliths, or ear-stones. 
 
 Covering. — Fishes are 
 covered with scales (Fig. 
 195), that overlap each 
 other like shingles on a 
 roof, and grow, totally un- 
 like those of reptiles, out 
 of little pockets in the skin, 
 being kept soft and slimy 
 by a secretion under them, 
 but principally from that 
 which exudes from about the mucous scales (Fig. 194, 
 B, m s) . 
 
 DevelopTtient. — Most fishes deposit eggs or roe. Some 
 are ovoviviparous, while others, as the Zoarces, Ditrema, 
 etc., are viviparous, or produce their young alive. 
 
 Economic Value. — As nearly all fishes are valuable as food, refer- 
 ence to their economic value has not been given in every case. The 
 reports of the United States Fish Commission show the value of this 
 class of vertebrates to man. Artificial fish-hatching establishments have 
 been organized in nearly all the States. American fish-eggs are sent 
 to Europe, and others received in return, and the arrangements for the 
 prevention of the depletion of fisheries are becoming more complete 
 every year. 
 
 Fig. 195. — Scale of a flounder, highly 
 magnified, a, natural size. 
 
 Sub-Class I. Strap-gilled Fishes {Elasmobranchii). 
 
 General Characteristics. — In this class, we first meet 
 Vertebrates having paired fins and a genuine lower jaw. 
 The skeleton is made up of cartilage ; the ribs are small 
 and often rudimentary. The skull is a simple cartilagi- 
 nous box, and the jaws, and in fact all the parts, are 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 159 
 
 easily bent or cut with a knife. The bones that protect 
 the gill-openings in bony fishes are wanting, the gills being 
 mere slits,* from five to seven pairs, with intervening 
 straps. The lobes of the tail are generally unequal. 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 
 •A, egg of a shark, showing the anchor filaments, 
 shark, showing the external gills (dr). 
 
 B, embryo 
 
 Order I. Plagiostomi. Nurse-Sharks (Scymm'da). 
 
 — The nurse or sleeper is a sluggish shark found upon the 
 eastern coast of North America, occasionally attaining a 
 length of twenty feet. A nurse-shark of southern Florida 
 is extremely dark in color. The latter frequent the sandy 
 shoals in droves, and can always be seen asleep or quiet 
 upon the bottom. 
 
 Note. — Dr. Bennett discovered in Australian seas a small shark 
 (Sqtialus fulgcns), probably allied to this family, that was luminous 
 
 * In embryo sharks (Fig. 196, B) the gills are external, as in the 
 tadpole, etc. 
 
160 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 over its entire surface except a girdle about the throat ; it emitted a 
 light of great brilliancy. 
 
 Dog-Fishes {Spinacidce) — The Squalus Americanus 
 is a common American variety. They have a sharp spine 
 in front of each dorsal fin, capable of inflicting a danger- 
 ous wound. The young are born alive. 
 
 Note. — In August, 18S3, the effect of their arrival upon the Maine 
 coast was disastrous to many fishermen. Their vast numbers com- 
 pletely destroyed the fishing. They attacked oars, even biting at the 
 sails when hanging over, and several cases are known where in former 
 years they attacked swimmers and persons who had fallen overboard. 
 The fishermen gave up cod- and hake-fishing, and with wire-hooked 
 trawls captured thousands of the dog-fish, selling their livers to be 
 made into oil, while the bodies were carted upon farms and used as 
 guano. 
 
 Fig. 197. — Hammer-headed shark. 
 
 Hammer-Head Shark (Sphymidce) — The sharks of 
 this family (Fig. 197) have the head in the shape of a 
 hammer, the eyes being placed at the ends of the curious 
 prolongations. They attain a length of twelve feet, and 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 161 
 
 are found on both sides of the Atlantic, and from Brazil 
 to Cape Cod. They are very ferocious. Allied is the 
 thresher shark 
 (Fig. 198). The ^^gmm* 
 
 weapon when ^» 
 
 SWUng about by FlG - ^.-Thresher shark. 
 
 the powerful 
 
 fish. They attain a length of twenty feet. 
 
 Man-Eater Shark (Lamnidce).— The great Carcha- 
 rodon has been known to attack boats. Their enormous 
 mouths contain six or eight rows of serrated teeth. They 
 have a wide geographical range, are mainly pelagic, living 
 in the open sea. One species (C. gangeticus) lives in an in- 
 closed lake in the Feejee Islands, breeding above the falls. 
 It has also been found at Bagdad, three hundred and fifty 
 miles from salt water. A shark is also found in Lake 
 Nicaragua. The largest shark of this family ever caught 
 was thirty-six and a half feet long, from Australian waters. 
 
 Note. — In repeated observations of these and allied sharks attack- 
 ing objects on the surface and on the bottom, on the outer Florida reef, 
 in no case did they turn on their backs. In attacking a cow they ran 
 their snouts out of the water, and bit as do ordinary fishes, tearing and 
 shaking the body like a dog. One, caught after a struggle of two hours, 
 during which it towed the boat a long distance, contained among other 
 curiosities the hoofs of an ox, a mass of old rope, a tin can, and other 
 material obtained near a slaughter-house. They never attacked human 
 beings in this locality, though bathing and swimming from key to key 
 was often indulged in, where twelve and fourteen foot sharks were 
 observed only a few moments before. 
 
 Basking Shark (Cetorhinidcz). — Bone-shark, sail-fish, 
 and many other titles are applied to these sharks, that are 
 the largest of all fishes. One, captured by the schooner 
 
1 62 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 1 63 
 
 Virgin, off Block Island, was about seventy feet in length. 
 They are harmless, living upon small pelagic animals that 
 are strained into the throat through a series of hard, elastic, 
 whalebone-like fringes, that are arranged comb-like along 
 the large gill-openings. The teeth are small and compara- 
 tively useless. The Rhinodon (Fig. 199) is a similar form 
 of East African waters, and attains a length of sixty or 
 seventy feet. The mouth opens on a level with the snout. 
 When struck, they have been known to carry large boats 
 beneath the surface. 
 
 Value of Sharks. — They are all scavengers. The skin of dog- 
 fish and others is used as leather and shagreen. The oil of nearly all 
 the species is valuable, and the bodies as guano. The teeth of sharks 
 are used as weapons by the Pacific islanders. In China the shark-fin 
 trade is an important one, they being used as food. 
 
 Saw-Fishes (Pristidce). — These remarkable fishes 
 (Fig. 200) attain a length of fifteen feet, and are common 
 on the North American coast from Cape Cod southward. 
 
 Fig. 200. — Saw-fish. 
 
 The snout is prolonged into a sword, the edges being 
 armed with sharp, bony teeth. A species of saw-fish lives 
 in a fresh-water lake in the Philippine Islands. The saw 
 is used as a weapon by some tribes. They are vivipa- 
 rous. 
 
 Skates {Raiaidce). — These fishes are all notable for 
 the development of the side or pectoral fins that in some 
 species appear like wings. Their teeth are grinding plates, 
 adapted for crushing mollusks and crabs. Their eggs are 
 deposited in a dark, rectangular, parchment-like case, hav- 
 
164 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 ing four filaments that twine about the sea-weed, prevent- 
 ing them from washing ashore. 
 
 Torpedoes (Torpedimdci). — The fishes of this family 
 are electricians, and are common on the New England 
 
 coast. The electric ap- 
 paratus (Fig. 201) is situ- 
 ated between the head 
 and the bases of the pec- 
 toral fins, and is composed 
 of numerous hexagonal 
 membranous tubes placed 
 side by side at right an- 
 gles with the surface of 
 the body, and so close to 
 it that their ends are 
 often visible above and 
 below. The cells contain 
 mucus, and are traversed 
 by nerves that proceed 
 from the eighth pair. So 
 powerful is this battery 
 that fishermen have been 
 knocked over as if with 
 an axe, the shocks also 
 passing up the harpoon- 
 rope, or the knife used in 
 cutting them. Allied are 
 sting-rays (Trygon), cow- 
 nosed rays, etc. The 
 great devil - fish (Fig. 
 202), that has curious prolongations or claspers at 
 the head, attains a width of twenty-seven feet. They 
 have been known to tow large vessels against the wind 
 for long distances by fouling the anchor. The Japanese 
 use the skeletons of rays in the imitation of tortoise- 
 shell. 
 
 Fig. 201. — The torpedo, with its elec- 
 trical apparatus displayed, d, bran- 
 chiae ; c, brain ; e, electric organ ; 
 g, cranium ; m e, spinal cord ; n, 
 nerves to the pectoral fins ; n p, 
 nerves going to the electric organ ; 
 o, eye. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 165 
 
 Fig. 202. — Devil-fish (Cephalopterus diabolus). 
 
 Order II. Holocephali. — The Chimczra (Fig. 203) is 
 a northern representative of this group, while the curious 
 Callorhynchus is found in Antarctic regions. The gill- 
 openings are protected by a membranous covering, sug- 
 gesting the gill-covers of bony fishes. The teeth are curi- 
 ously arranged, there being four in the upper and only two 
 
 Fig. 203. — The Chimcera. 
 
 in the lower jaw. The air-bladder is absent. The male 
 Chimaera has a curious, comb-like, cartilaginous appendage 
 armed with hooklets on the top of the head, that is either 
 erect or hidden in a hook-armed groove. 
 
1 66 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Note. — The eggs of the Chimcera are deposited in thick, leathery- 
 cases, and those of Callorhynchus are remarkable for their mimicry or 
 protective resemblance, resembling the leaf of the fucus or sea-weed to 
 which they are attached. They form a long, depressed ellipse, with a 
 plicated and fringed margin, and, swaying in the current, their true 
 nature would never be suspected. 
 
 Sub-Class II. Bright-scaled Fishes {Ganoidei). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The Ganoids have hard, glis- 
 tening scales, cartilaginous or ossified skeletons, and one 
 pair of gill-openings, protected by opercular bones. 
 
 Fig. 204.— Sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus). 
 
 Order I. Chondroganoidei. The Sturgeons (Aci- 
 penseridce). — The sturgeons (Fig. 204) have cartilaginous 
 skeletons, the skin being armed with bony bucklers or 
 plates, arranged in longitudinal rows. The mouth is 
 toothless and under the snout, 
 and is adapted for sucking in 
 soft food (Fig. 205). The sharp- 
 nosed sturgeon attains a length 
 of eight feet. It breeds, as do 
 the entire family, in fresh water, 
 the female depositing millions of 
 eggs. The shovel -nosed stur- 
 geon and the curious spoonbill 
 {Polyodon folium) are found in 
 the Mississippi. Glue, cement, court-plaster, isinglass, 
 etc., are made from the air-bladders of sturgeons. 
 
 Note. — The Acipenser huso attains a length of twenty-five feet. 
 The fisheries at Ruibinsk, on the Volga, Russia, give employment, ac- 
 cording to Duncan, to one hundred thousand persons, and the fish have 
 
 Fig. 205. — The sturgeon's 
 head seen from below, 
 showing the tube - like 
 mouth and the four bar- 
 bels or feelers. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 1 67 
 
 been seen so packing a river three hundred and sixty feet wide and 
 twenty-nine feet deep, that the backs of the upper ones were out of 
 the water. 
 
 Order II. Lung-Fishes {Dipnoi). — The lung-fishes 
 are eel-shaped, and covered with large scales. Some, as 
 the Lepidosiren, have two perfect lungs, as well as gills. 
 When left dry in pools, they form cases in the mud, which 
 they line with a mucus, and lie dormant until the return of 
 the water. The Ceradotus of Australia (Fig. 206), discov- 
 
 Fig. 206. — The Ceradotus of Queensland, Australia, an air-breathing and 
 water-breathing mud-fish of the ancient type, with paddle-fins. 
 
 ered in 1870, attains a length of six feet. When under 
 water the heart pumps the blood to the gills, but when 
 they are deprived of it the gases from the air-chamber are 
 expelled with a loud noise, and fresh air taken in, the 
 blood being now carried the other way, or toward the 
 chambered, lung-like air-bladder, to become freshened. 
 
 Note. — The Protopterits, a lung-fish of Africa, has plume-like fins, 
 and is also noted for its burrowing habits, forming burrows a foot from 
 the surface. One, sent to England in its earthen case, came to life 
 months after, when soaked in water. Some remain in their dry nests 
 for several seasons. Many of the family have the faculty of reproduc- 
 ing lost fleshy parts of their fins, etc. 
 
 Order III. Branchioganoidei. — This order is repre- 
 sented by the Polypterus of the Nile. The dorsal fin is 
 broken up into numerous points, each being supported by 
 
1 68 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Fig. 207. — Young of the 
 Nile Polypterus, show- 
 ing external gills, dr. 
 
 a ray and spine (Fig. 207). The 
 young have external gills (Fig. 
 207, br). 
 
 Order IV. Garpikes [Byoga- 
 noidei). — The garpikes (Fig. 208) 
 have beak-like jaws with sharp 
 teeth ; the scales are large and re- 
 semble white enameled plates. The air-bladder is lung- 
 like, and the fishes are often seen at the surface inhaling 
 air. They occur in the Western and Southern rivers and 
 Great Lakes. The eggs are hatched the last of May. 
 The scales are used as arrow-tips by some Indians. 
 
 Fig. 208. — Garpike {Lepidosteus osseus). 
 
 Sub-Class III. Bony Fishes (Te/eostei). 
 
 General Characteristics. — In these fishes (Figs. 193, 
 194) bone takes the place of cartilage. The skull is com- 
 posed of many bones ; the optic nerves cross each other ; 
 the gills generally number four pairs, and have several 
 opercular or protective bones. 
 
 Eels (Afiodes). — The eels are without ventral fins. 
 The Anguilla is common in the United States, living in 
 fresh-water streams, but depositing its eggs, often 8,000,- 
 000 to a single fish, in the ocean, the young ascending the 
 rivers. The sexes are difficult to distinguish ; the females 
 have the highest dorsal fin, smaller eyes, and a lighter color 
 than the males, while the snout is generally broader at the 
 tip than in the male. The conger-eel attains a large size, 
 and ranges from Newfoundland to the West Indies. In 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 1 69 
 
 Southern waters the ferocious and snake-like Murtzna is 
 found, attaining a length of three feet. 
 
 Note. — In a pond near Wells, on the Maine coast, the eels inva- 
 riably go down into salt water at night, and, as the stream is narrow, 
 the sight is remarkable, thousands filling the channel, leaving the water 
 when alarmed and passing over the dry rocks to the ocean. The sound, 
 a single note, frequently uttered by the eel, is, according to Abbott, 
 more distinctly musical than those made by other fishes, and has a 
 metallic resonance. 
 
 Order III. Thread-jawed Fishes (Nematognathi). 
 Cat-Fishes (Siluridce). — The cat-fishes may be recog- 
 nized by the curious barbels or threads that hang from 
 their jaws. They have no scales, the skin being in some 
 species protected by bony plates. Some are marine, but 
 the majority live in fresh water. A blind cat-fish (Gronias) 
 inhabits a subterranean stream in Pennsylvania. The 
 Anus, of South America, carries its eggs in its mouth, and 
 even the young fish. In a species of Arius, in Panama, 
 the mother first carries them about in a fold of the skin, 
 and later the male receives them in its capacious mouth. 
 The female Aspredo carries its eggs about attached to dang- 
 ling capsules, that cover the fins and ventral surface of the 
 body, disappearing after the breeding season. The com- 
 
 FiG. 209. — An electric cat-fish (Malapterus electricus). 
 
 mon cat-fish carefully guards its young, while the South 
 American Doras and Callichthys build nests of leaves in 
 which the young are placed. These fishes also leave ponds 
 
 8 
 
170 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 y 
 
 that dry up, and crawl overland (see frontispiece) in great 
 numbers in search of water, during this time breathing air 
 directly. The Arges are almost blind forms, living in sub- 
 terranean streams. A cat-fish from the Nile, Malapterus 
 tlectricus (Fig. 209), is electric, the cells forming a layer 
 over the entire body except the head and fins. The South 
 American Lau-Lau, is the largest of the family, and pro- 
 tects its young in its mouth. The Corbetis fossilis (Fig. 2 10) 
 
 Fig. 210. — Cojrbetis fossilis. It swallows air-bubbles which pass through the 
 intestine, where the mucous membrane takes up the oxygen for respiration. 
 
 breathes air directly as well as taking it from the water. 
 
 The fourth order of fishes, Scyp/iop/wri, is represented by 
 
 the Nile Gymnarchus. 
 
 Order V. Perfect-headed Fishes (Teleocephali). — 
 
 General Characteristics. — This order embraces most of our 
 
 common fishes. 
 The skeleton is 
 bony, and the 
 name applies 
 to the diversity 
 and perfection 
 of the bones of 
 the head. 
 
 Gymnotus. 
 — The Gymno- 
 tus electricus 
 (Fig. 211) is 
 
 one of the lowest of the Teleosts. The batteries are 
 
 four in number, and situated, in pairs, on each side of 
 
 the body, occupying together nearly all the lower portion. 
 
 Fig. 211. — Electric eel {Gymnotus electricus). 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 171 
 
 Carps (Cyprinidce) . — The carps comprise many spe- 
 cies, and abound in nearly all streams throughout the 
 Old World and North America. They have weak, tooth- 
 less jaws. The 
 stone-toters (Ex- 
 og/ossum) build 
 nests by carrying 
 stones, which they 
 pile in heaps. The 
 dace (Fig. 212), 
 common minnows, 
 and shiners, are 
 all related. Fig. 212. — Black-nosed dace. 
 
 Note. — The dace (Rhinichthys atronasus) is one of the most inter- 
 esting of the nest-building fishes. During the breeding-season males 
 and females clear away a spot, perhaps under the water-lilies, and in 
 the oval depression the eggs are deposited, the pair covering them with 
 a layer of stones ; then another layer of eggs is deposited, and another 
 of stones, until a mound of eight or ten inches in height is the result, 
 and here the young are hatched. 
 
 Blind, Cave-Fishes (Amblyopidtz). — These comprise 
 three genera and four species of ghostly, sightless fishes 
 (Fig. 213) living in the limestone caves of the Middle and 
 
 Fig. 213. — Blind-fish (Amd/yopsz's) , Mammoth Cave. 
 
 Southern States. Though blind, they are supplied with 
 sense-organs so delicate that they are enabled to capture 
 fishes with eyes that have strayed into their domain. 
 
172 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Wyandotte and Mammoth Caves are noted localities for 
 them. The Amblyopsis is viviparous. ^ ^^maJ^is 4^4 Cm^s 
 
 Herring-Pikes (Elopidce). — This family includes the 
 tarpon (Megalops thrissoides) and the big-eyed herring. The 
 former attains a length of over eight feet, and is the most 
 beautiful of all fishes, ranging from Cape Cod to Florida. 
 An allied form, the Stydis or Piraruda, of South America, \ 
 attains a length of fifteen feet, and a Wight of four hun- 
 dred pounds. They have skeletons of most massive build. 
 The young, according to Schomburgh, enter the mother's 
 mouth in time of danger. Allied are the herrings {Clupei- 
 dce), shad, menhaden, and the gizzard-shad. They are 
 nearly all important food-fishes. Menhaden oil and guano 
 are valued. The scales of the tarpon are used in orna- 
 mental work. 
 
 Salmon (Salmonidd). — Salmon are found in Europe 
 and America, in the latter country from the polar regions 
 to Cape Cod. They live in both fresh and salt water. In 
 the breeding-season they ascend the rivers, leaping the 
 falls with great skill, and at this time are often caught. 
 The eggs are about the size of a pea, and are deposited 
 in depressions or nests. When very young, they are 
 
 banded and known as 
 parr (Fig. 214). At a 
 year old they are sil- 
 very, and previous to 
 descending the rivers 
 Fig. 214.— Young salmon {parr). are known as Stnolt. 
 
 When they return from 
 their first visit to the sea they are called grilse, only after 
 their second return being known as salmon. Allied is the 
 common trout, that lives permanently in fresh water, 
 breeding in the autumn and early winter. 
 
 Note. — Salmon are found in the Yukon River, Alaska, 3,000 miles 
 from the sea. In 1882 the Columbia River salmon-fisheries alone real- 
 ized in first hands $2,782,000, giving employment to 7,000 persons. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 1 73 
 
 Lamp-Fishes {Stomiatidce) . — In these and allied fishes 
 the skin is naked, or the scales extremely minute, and 
 nearly all have organs that look like pearl or glass buttons 
 imbedded in the skin. According to Leydig, they are of 
 three kinds : first, eye-like organs ; second, pearly, glass- 
 like organs ; and, third, luminous organs. According to 
 different authors, they are eyes, electric or light-giving 
 organs. Gunther considers them all luminous, and that 
 their function is to light the dark recesses of the submarine 
 world. 
 
 In the Stomias the pearly spots are along the ventral surface, a 
 veritable row of glowing lights. Allied to the Stomias is -the lamp- 
 fish {Scopelus) ; upon its head is a soft prominence that glows like a 
 head-light. Willemoes-Suhrn says, " One of them hung in the net 
 like a shining star." Other phosphores- 
 cent spots are scattered along the lower 
 surface of Scopelus Humboldti and Be- 
 noitii (Fig. 216). Another allied form 
 is the Bombay duck or Harpodon (Fig. 
 216), that is luminous over its entire sur- 
 face. The eyes of Ipnops are adapted 
 for receiving and perhaps emitting phos- 
 phorescent light, and a curious phos- 
 phorescent organ is found upon the head. Fig. 215. — Luminous org^n 
 Several species of the genus Echiostoma from side of Scopelus 
 
 live in Australian seas at a depth of two (j" l S- 2l6 > 8 )> 
 
 and a half miles. They are black, with 
 
 long, fringed barbels, and below the eyes and in other places are 
 several luminous spots. The Bathyophis ferox lives at a depth of 
 nearly three miles, the greatest depth attained by any fish. It has 
 long barbels or feelers, and rows of gleaming lights on its various 
 parts. Allied is the Chauliodus (Fig. 216, 1). The tips of the fins 
 are luminous, while a row of luminous spots extends the entire length 
 of the body. The little fishes Argyropelecus (Fig. 217) and Ster- 
 noptyx are found in the Mediterranean. The body is extremely deep, 
 rising suddenly and narrowing off to the tail. The luminous spots are 
 in groups from the head to the tail. Perhaps allied to this group is a 
 strange fish (Fig. 218) about twenty inches in length, with a pouch-like 
 mouth and no fins, found in water over a mile deep in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and also dredged off the American coast. It differs from all 
 
174 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 175 
 
 other known bony fishes in having six pairs of internal branchial clefts, 
 and consequently five pairs of gills. It has no swimming-bladder. 
 
 Fig. 217. — Argyropelecus Jiemigymnus, twice natural size, snowing groups 
 of luminous organs. 
 
 Fig. 218. — The Pelican fish {Eurypharynx pelecanoides). 
 
176 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Pikes (Esocidce). — The pikes (Fig. 219) have long, 
 depressed snouts, and with a single exception (Esox lucius) 
 belong to the United States. The Mitskallonge of the 
 Great Lakes attains a length of four feet. 
 
 Fig. 219.— Pike (Esox). 
 
 Note. — All the family are voracious, often attacking ducks and even 
 larger birds. They have been known to live over a hundred years. 
 The pickerel is common in the various rivers and lakes of North 
 America. A pike has been observed by an English naturalist to leap 
 a foot out of water, and take a young bird from an overhanging limb. 
 
 Flying-Fishes (Exoccetus) . — The flying-fishes range 
 from Cape Cod to Florida, and in many seas. The pec- 
 toral fins are developed in a remarkable manner, so that 
 they resemble wings. When the fish rises from the sea, 
 the tail is worked vigorously, the wing-like pectorals vi- 
 brate rapidly, and once clear of the water the fish soars 
 away, with or without the movement of the fins, either in 
 a straight line, or curving by a motion of the tail, often 
 clearing a distance of a quarter of a mile (Fig. 223). 
 
 Gar-Fishes (Belonidce). — The gar-fishes have long, 
 slender bodies, the jaws narrow, pointed, and armed with 
 extremely sharp teeth. They almost invariably lie at the 
 surface. They are green above and silvery beneath. 
 
 Note. — They attain a length of two feet and over. In the Pacific 
 they are of large size, and when alarmed leap away in a series of bounds 
 out of water, and very often, according to Moseley, occasion the death 
 of natives wading about by accidentally striking them, the bill piercing 
 the flesh like an arrow. The Hetnirhamphus has only the lower jaw 
 elongated, and is a light-bearer, having a gleaming, phosphorescent 
 pustule at the tip of its tail. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. 220. — Sticklebacks and their nest {Gasterosteus aculeatus). 
 
 Sticklebacks [Gasterosteidcz). — Sticklebacks are com- 
 mon in North American streams, and other species in 
 
178 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Europe (Fig. 220). The cheeks are mailed, and the single 
 dorsal fin is preceded by spines, the number of which vary- 
 in different species. They live in salt or fresh water, are 
 quite small, and noted for their care of young, and as 
 nest-builders. 
 
 Ribbon-Fishes {Trachypteridce). — In these fishes the 
 body is long and ribbon-shaped, the dorsal fin extending 
 nearly the entire length of the body, the caudal fins being 
 placed obliquely. 
 
 Note. — They are probably the origin of many of the sea-serpent 
 stories. According to Professor Wilson, of the University of Glasgow, 
 Lord Norbury's smack Sovereign captured an allied form off the Scotch 
 coast that was sixty feet in length, and from nine to ten inches in depth, 
 the dorsal fin being six or seven inches deep. 
 
 Remora (Echeneididce). — These fishes (Fig. 221), found 
 in many seas, have upon the top of the head a flattened, 
 oval disk, formed of pairs of transverse ridges or plates, 
 
 Fig. 221. — Remora, showing the sucking-disk by which it clings to sharks. 
 
 that are movable and directed obliquely backward, and 
 form vacuum-chambers, the whole constituting a sucker, 
 by which they attach themselves to sharks, turtles, and 
 various large fishes. 
 
 Note. — In Mozambique and other countries the remora is used to 
 capture turtles. A ring and string are attached to the tail, by which 
 the owner holds it, and when a turtle is sighted the fish is tossed ovei 
 and attaches itself to the victim, that is soon hauled on board. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 179 
 
 Perches {Percidce). — The perches are carnivorous 
 fishes of great variety, about one fifth inhabiting the fresh- 
 water streams of various countries, while the others are 
 marine. Perca fluviatilis is a common form in the United 
 States. They spawn during the winter, forming nests or 
 hollows in the gravel near the shore, in which they deposit 
 their eggs. Allied are the pond-fishes (Eupomotis aureus), 
 that are often richly colored. They are famous nest- 
 makers, both male and female aiding in clearing away the 
 refuse of the bottom where the nest is to be made. A de- 
 pression is then formed and the eggs deposited and care- 
 fully guarded. The spotted sunfish hibernates in the win- 
 ter, burying itself in the mud. 
 
 Bass (Labracidce). — The bass are mostly marine fishes. 
 The striped-bass attains a length of five feet, and ranges 
 from Nova Scotia to Florida. The white perch, yellow 
 pike-perch, and striped lake-bass, are allied forms. The 
 hard-scaled bass of Californian waters attains a length of six 
 feet and a weight of four hundred pounds. Allied are the 
 black sea-bass, groupers, etc. The Chromis (Fig. 222) of C^JL^ 
 Lake Tiberias, that carries its eggs and young in its mouth, 
 belongs to this group. Nearly all are important food-fishes. 
 
 Big Drum - Fish (Pogonfys). — The drum - fish is a \ ck 
 large, deep fish, attaining a weight of eighty pounds, and 
 remarkable as a sound-producer.* 
 
 * Sir John Richardson states that when aboard ship he has been 
 kept awake by their drumming. The noises are made, according to 
 some authorities, by beating their tails against the vessel, clapping to- 
 gether their pharyngeal teeth, or due to the action of the pneumatic 
 duct and swimming-bladder. The maigre is said to produce a flute- 
 like note, audible in twenty fathoms. Many fishes utter sounds, but 
 perhaps the grunt (Hcemulon), on the outer Florida reef, is most re- 
 markable for the variation of the sounds, that are so loud and striking 
 as to have caused the author, on more than one occasion, to toss the 
 fish back for its pains. The dog-fish utters a croak or bark. The 
 gizzard-shad, hippocampus, eels, cat-fish, porcupine-fish, sunfish, carp, 
 gurnards, etc., utter sounds, either accidental or intentional. 
 
i8o 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 181 
 
 Dolphins (Coryphcenidce). — The dolphins (Fig. 223) are 
 large -headed pelagic fishes, tapering to the tail ; the dorsal 
 fin high, and extending nearly the entire length of the body. 
 
 Fig. 223. — Flying-fish (Exocaetus) pursued by the dolphin. 
 
 Note. — They are justly celebrated for their wondrous colors, that 
 .defy description, especially when dying, the various changes being due 
 to the pressure of the convulsively contracted muscles on the chromato- 
 phores or pigment-cells. 
 
 Allied to them are the pompino and pilot-fishes (Nau- 
 crates). The latter are little fishes that resemble the blue- 
 fish in shape, and accompany large fishes, several always 
 being found with large sharks. 
 
 Mackerel (Scomber). — The mackerel is one of the 
 most valuable of the food-fishes. They are from ten to 
 eighteen inches in length, and richly ornamented with 
 steel-blue and pearly tints. They run in schools, ranging 
 
l82 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 from Greenland to Cape Hatteras. During the winter they 
 run in deep water, coming in-shore in May and June to 
 spawn, each female depositing from 500,000 to 600,000 
 eggs, that rise to the surface and float about. After spawn- 
 ing the fishes keep on up the coast until they meet cold 
 water, and at this time are taken all along the shore in vast 
 numbers, entire fleets of vessels being engaged in the trade. 
 Allied is the Spanish mackerel, the bonito, and the horse- 
 mackerel, that attains a length of twelve feet and a weight 
 of 1,200 pounds. 
 
 Note. — The mackerel is a light-giver (phosphorescent), and so 
 bright is the light of great schools that the fishermen see it at night 
 from aloft, and, by surrounding it with a seine, capture the school. 
 The large allied Jacks (Caranx), of the extreme outer Florida reef, in 
 feeding, rush in thousands upon the beach of the keys, driving schools 
 of small fish before them, leaping upon the sand, and striking the 
 water, creating a sound that can be heard a mile. The occurrence is 
 called a " Jack-beat." The fishes are utterly oblivious to their sur- 
 roundings, and fishermen stand knee-deep in the almost solid mass, 
 and spear or hurl them ashore with their hands. Pelicans, gulls, man- 
 of-war birds, and human fishermen, all know the sound, and gather 
 from far and near. 
 
 Sword-Fishes (Xiphiidoi). — The sword-fishes (Fig. 
 224) have the upper jaw developed into a long, sword-like 
 projection ; they attain a length of from eleven to twenty- 
 five feet, and the 
 different genera 
 are found in va- 
 rious seas ; they 
 feed upon mack- 
 erel and other 
 Fig. 224.— Sword-fish (Xiphias). fishes, dashing in- 
 
 to the schools, 
 cutting their victims down, and picking the dismembered 
 parts up at leisure. The sail-fish (ffistiophorus), of vari- 
 ous seas, has an enormous dorsal fin, that appears like a 
 sail when the fish is at the surface. The sword-fishes do 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 183 
 
 not breed on the North American shores, and a young 
 one has never been seen here. The latter are often very 
 unlike the adults. The young Histiophorus (Fig. 225) has 
 jaws almost equal, armed with teeth, and a long, tall dor- 
 sal fin. They are all valued as food-fishes. 
 
 Fig. 225. — Young sword-fish {Histiophorus), nine millimetres long. 
 
 Note. — The pugnacity of the sword-fish and its wonderful strength 
 have been shown on many occasions. The yacht Red-Hot, of New Bed- 
 ford, used by the United States Fish Commission, was sunk by a sword- 
 fish in 1871. A sword-fish also penetrated the ship Queensbury in the 
 same year, and the cargo had to be discharged in consequence. The 
 ship Fortune was pierced in 1827, the sword penetrating copper, an 
 inch board under-sheathing, a three-inch plank of hard wood, twelve 
 inches of solid white-oak timber, and, lastly, the head of an oil-cask. 
 
 FlG. 226. — Ch&todon rostratus, shooting a drop of water at an insect. 
 
1 84 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 For other accounts, and very complete history of the family, see " Re- 
 port of Fish Commission," 1880. 
 
 Angel-Fishes (C/uztodontidce). — The Chcetodon rostra- 
 tus of Java has elongated jaws, through which, according 
 to Cobbold and others, it can shoot drops of water at in- 
 sects on overhanging bushes (Fig. 226). The archer-fish 
 (Toxotes) has a prolonged under jaw, and by the same au- 
 thorities is also accredited with shooting powers. 
 
 Surgeon - Fishes (Acanthuridce). — The doctor-fish- 
 es are common on the Florida reef, and are at times 
 found farther north. They are from six to eight inches 
 long, and have at the side of the narrow, keel-like por- 
 tion of the tail a lance-like blade that can be thrown 
 out at will, and proves a dangerous weapon.* 
 
 C limbing- 
 & Fishes {Labyrin- 
 
 thici). — These fish- 
 es, mostly from the 
 East Indies, are 
 noted for their pow- 
 ers of living out of 
 water. To this end 
 they have accesso- 
 ry gill-cavities, or 
 labyrinthine organs 
 (Fig. 227) that con- 
 tain air and not wa- 
 ter, as often stated. 
 
 Fig. 227. — Anabas scandens : head, with k, the 
 gill-cavity, laid open, and /, cavity contain- 
 ing the foliated labyrinthine structure. 
 
 Note. — The Anabas (see frontispiece) has been known to live out 
 of water fcr five or six days, and makes long trips overland when 
 the pools dry up. In certain parts of India they have been seen leav- 
 ing the water in schools and crossing the country, using their pectoral 
 
 * In specimens kept in an aquarium on the Florida reef they were 
 found to be extremely pugnacious, striking their knives against all 
 new-comers, lacerating and cutting them severely. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 185 
 
 fins as feet. Daldorf, the Danish naturalist, captured an anabas climb- 
 ing a palm — the borassus. This latter performance, however, is not a 
 habit of the fish. 
 
 Allied to the Anabas is the Gourami, a valued food- 
 fish, that, though originally from the fresh waters of Cochin- 
 China, has been introduced into many other countries. 
 
 Note. — They are famous nest-builders, forming a nest out of grass 
 {panicuni) and mud, about six days being required to erect it. From 
 eight hundred to one thousand eggs are then deposited, the young ap- 
 pearing in about two weeks, and remaining in the nest, only venturing 
 out with the parents, who guard them with great vigilance. The Ophi- 
 ocephalus, an allied Indian fish, also builds a nest for its young by 
 biting off grass and weeds. It also burrows in the mud when streams 
 dry up, but does not migrate overland. 
 
 TautogS (Labridce). — The nipper, or cunner, is the 
 most familiar form of this family. The blackfish (Fig. 
 228), or tautog, is common in Long Island Sound, attaining 
 
 Fig. 228. — Blackfish, or tautog. 
 
 a large size. They spawn in May and June, depositing 
 their eggs in the eel-grass and other weeds. Allied are 
 the parrot-fishes of Florida, that have bony teeth fused 
 into a parrot-like bill, with which they attack the branch 
 coral. 
 
 Note. — The related Acara of South America builds a nest in the 
 sand, in which the eggs are deposited, while some species, after the *• * ' 
 eggs are laid, take them in their mouths. This is continued from time 
 
1 86 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 to time, and either eggs or newly-hatched young may be found in the 
 cavity of the gills or the space inclosed by the branchiostegal mem- 
 brane. The unhatched eggs, according to Agassiz, are always found 
 in the same position in the curious nursery — namely, in the upper part 
 of the branchial arches, protected or held together by a special lobe or 
 valve formed of the upper pharyngeals. Here they are held until the 
 young are able to care for themselves. 
 
 Sculpins (Cottidce). — These are marine fishes of fan- 
 tastic shape, each individual often varying in color. The 
 head and opercular bones are armed with sharp spines, 
 and the fishes resemble the mossy rocks amid which they 
 lie. The sea-raven, or yellow sculpin, is an allied form, 
 attaining a length of two feet, and is remarkable for its 
 grotesque coloring. The males of some species erect nests 
 for their young. Allied are the sea-robins {Triglidce). 
 The flying-robin (JDadylopterus) has enormous pectoral 
 fins by which it soars over the water like the flying-fish. 
 Sailors have been knocked over by them, and they are 
 frequently blown aboard vessels. 
 
 Gobies (Gobiidd). — The gobies are small fishes, in 
 which the thoracic ventrals are united, forming a hollow 
 disk. They have no air-bladders, and are remarkable for 
 their habit of leaving the water. The scaleless and black 
 gobies and several other species are found on the western 
 coast of North America. 
 
 Note. — In the Periopthalmus (frontispiece), common at the Feejee 
 Islands, Ceylon, and other localities, the pectoral fins are greatly devel- 
 oped, the head blunt, and the eyes staring and prominent. They leave 
 the water and hop along the shore so fast that it is difficult to catch 
 them, resembling frogs more than fishes. They feed out of water, pre- 
 ferring a shell-less mollusk, the Onchidium (Fig. 72), and insects. The 
 Boleopthalmns has similar habits. The blenny {Pholis) also leaves the 
 water at times. The black goby is said to build a nest for its eggs. 
 
 Lump-Fish (Cydopterida). — The lump-fishes range 
 from the polar regions to Cape Hatteras, and are clumsy 
 and shapeless, covered with tubercles. Their pectoral 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 187 
 
 and ventral fins unite in forming a disk or sucker by 
 which they attach themselves to rocks. The Liparis is an 
 allied form in which the ventral and pectoral fins also form 
 a sucking disk. The Lepidogaster has two sucking-disks. 
 
 Note. — According to Gunther, the male lump-fish forms a nest, the 
 female laying 150,000 eggs, and the former guarding them with jealous 
 care. The young follow the male, or, according to Duncan, cling to it 
 at first fey their suckers ; later they are often seen at the surface of the 
 water off shore on the New England coast. 
 
 Star-Gazers ( Uranoscopidce). — In these fishes the eyes 
 are placed upon the top of the head. They are armed 
 with spines capable of inflicting dangerous wounds. Al- 
 lied are the toad-fishes (Batrachidd) (Fig. 229). The fe- 
 male toad-fish ex- 
 cavates a hollow 
 among the rocks, 
 where the eggs are 
 deposited, and in 
 which the male 
 takes its place, de- 
 
 fendin°" the nurs- Fig. 22 9- — Toad-fish {Batrachus tau). 
 
 ery with great 
 
 pugnacity. The young when hatched cling to the rocks 
 by their yolk-bags. One of this family, from Panama, 
 has a perfect poison-gland, the spine calling to mind the 
 venom-fang of a snake. 
 
 Cod {Gadidce). — The cod is one of the most valuable 
 of all fishes. They attain a length of five feet and a weight 
 of one hundred pounds. They have three distinct dorsal 
 fins, and a barbel projects from the under jaw. Their 
 range is from Cape Hatteras north on both sides of the 
 Atlantic. In November they spawn in-shore along the 
 New England coast ; each female depositing about 9,300,- 
 000 eggs that rise to the surface and float, the young ap- 
 pearing twenty days later. In summer the fish seek the 
 
i88 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 cold waters from ten to fifteen miles off shore. The had- 
 dock belongs to this family, and closely resembles the cod 
 in habits and appearance. The tom-cod, ling, cusk, and 
 pollock, are all allied forms. 
 
 Note. — The Chiasmodus (Fig. 216) is a deep-sea ally ; the top 
 of the head, the under jaws, and the fins, all gleam with vivid phos- 
 phorescence ; but, more remarkable yet, their jaws work independently 
 and alternately as in the snakes, and the stomach is capable of such 
 distention that they can swallow fishes twice their own size. 
 
 Fig. 230. — Fierasfer and young, a fish that lives in holothurians and star- 
 fishes. A, adult ; B, young. 
 
 The Fierasfer (Fig. 230, A) is a silvery, eel-like form, 
 rarely found out of the digestive canal of holothurians 
 (see page 39). One species inhabits a star-fish (Culcitd). 
 The young (Fig. 230, B) pass through several changes be- 
 fore assuming the adult form. 
 
 Fig. 231. — Young flounder {P. Americanus), showing different positions of 
 the eye as it moves over. (After Agassiz.) 
 
 Flounders (Pleuronectidce). — When young, the floun- 
 der is somewhat cylindrical ; has an eye upon each side, 
 and swims vertically like other fishes. Later it sinks to 
 
THE • TR UE FISHES. 1 89 
 
 the bottom, lying upon its left side, the eye moving over, 
 the successive stages of the movement being shown in 
 Fig. 231, until both eyes are upon the right side, which 
 is now the upper portion. The mouth is generally twist- 
 ed to conform with the new position. On the lower 
 side the pigment-cells are not developed, and the skin is 
 white, but the upper surface is colored and susceptible 
 to change and adaptation to the prevailing color of the 
 bottom. 
 
 Note. — This protection, afforded many animals, is due to the con- 
 traction and expansion of the different colored pigment-cells that are 
 contained principally in the cutis. They contract or expand according 
 to the light reflected ; the impression is received by the eye and trans- 
 mitted by the sympathetic nerves. A blind flounder does not adapt 
 its color to the surroundings. By severing some of the nerves Pou- 
 chet produced, at pleasure, a fish striped on one side and spotted on 
 the other, etc. The experiment may easily be tried by placing floun- 
 ders on white, brown, and black bottoms, and changing them about ; 
 so also with the octopus, anolis, and many others. 
 
 Order VI. Pediculati. Walking-Fishes (Anten- 
 nariidce). — These are pelagic fishes, floating about upon 
 the surface of the sea among the vast fields of sargassum. 
 The body is compressed, and three or four inches long ; 
 the fins ornamented with barbels, so that they can be 
 scarcely distinguished from the weed, which they also 
 mimic in color. They are interesting nest-builders (Fig. 
 232), collecting the floating weed into balls as large as 
 a cheese, connecting it by bands of a glutinous secretion 
 probably taken from a special gland, as in the stickle- 
 backs (Fig. 206). The eggs are attached on the sides 
 and within. Allied are the anglers {Lophiidce) (Fig. 233), 
 so called from several spines on the head that have 
 upon their ends barbels of flesh. The spines move up 
 and down over the enormous mouth like a fishing-rod ; 
 the waving bait attracting the smaller fishes, that often 
 fall victims to the curious fisherman. Some of this fam- 
 
190 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 ily, discovered by the " Challenger," are bedecked on all 
 parts with fringes that exactly mimic sea-weed. The 
 
 Fig. 232. — The Antennarius marmoratus and its floating nest, formed of 
 gulf-weed. Fish natural size, the nest reduced. 
 
 young pass through many changes before assuming the 
 adult form. 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 I 9 ] 
 
 Fig. 233. — The angler {Lophius piscatorius). 
 
 Order VII. Lophobranchii. Sea-Horses {Hippo- 
 campidce). — These curious fishes have a fibrocartilaginous 
 skeleton. The gills take the form of tufted lobes on each 
 side of the branchial arches. The snout and lower jaw 
 are developed into a tube, at the end of which is the 
 mouth. The tail is prehensile, like an opossum's, and 
 by it they cling to plants, or swim upright by the dorsal 
 fin alone, their movements being slow and deliberate. 
 
 Note. — They are wonderful mimics. The leaf-finned sea-horse, or 
 Phylfopteryx eqties (Fig. 234), from Australian waters, is provided with 
 numbers of reddish streaming filaments that resemble plants, forming 
 a perfect protection to the fish as they float about. The male sea-horse 
 receives the eggs into a pouch on its ventral surface. "When they hatch, 
 it presses the pouch against a stone or shell, and forces them out. The 
 pipe-fish belongs to this group, and is also a mimic of the weed. The 
 male receive the eggs from the female and carries them in a pouch. 
 In the genera Nerophis and Protocampus the pouch is wanting, the 
 eggs being attached to the abdomen of the female. In the Soleno- 
 
: 9 2 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 stoma, an allied form of the Indian Ocean, the mother carries her eggs 
 in a pouch formed by the ventral fins, they being held in place by long 
 filaments extending from its sides. 
 
 Fig. 234. — Sea-horse {Phyllopteryx eques), that is protected by its resem- 
 blance to sea-weed. 
 
 Order VIII. Plectognathi. General Characteristics. 
 — In these fishes the scales are often modified into spines 
 or plates. The ventral fins are generally absent. 
 
 File-Fishes (Balistidce) — The file-fishes are remark- 
 ably deep and thin, and are often protected by plates 
 
 or spines re- 
 sembling those 
 of the Ganoids. 
 Allied are the 
 trunk -fishes 
 (Fig. 235) (Os- 
 tracionidce) , that 
 are inclosed in 
 a box or armor composed of bony plates or scales ; the 
 tail, mouth, and fins being the only parts movable. 
 
 Fig. 235. — Trunk-fish {Ostracion Yalei). 
 
THE TRUE FISHES. 
 
 193 
 
 Porcupine-Fishes (Tetradontidce). — These fishes are 
 often covered with sharp spines, and when removed from 
 the water they inflate themselves with air, resembling an 
 oval, spiny balloon.* Each jaw is divided in the middle, 
 so that they appear to have four teeth. The diodons are 
 allied forms. 
 
 Sunfishes f (Orthagoriscidce). — These are oval or ob- 
 long in shape (Fig. 236). The dorsal and anal fins are 
 
 Fig. 236. — Sunfish {Orthagoriscus mold). 
 
 * They are often figured in this shape, but it is unnatural, and 
 only attained when the fish is forcibly taken from the water. The 
 Diodon antennatus has undivided, teeth-like mandibles, so power- 
 ful that when swallowed by a shark they have been known, accord- 
 ing to Darwin, to eat their way out through the stomach and skin of 
 the fish. 
 
 \ They are sluggish fishes, rolling along at the surface, and are 
 quite common on the eastern coast of the United States and in 
 other seas. The body is covered with a thick mucus and infested 
 by parasites, goose-barnacles even living in its mouth. Semper and 
 Cobbold refer to its luminous qualities. They attain a height of six 
 feet, and weigh five or six hundred pounds. The liver alone is 
 valuable. 
 
 9 
 
I 9 4 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 alike and opposite each other, the caudal fin seemingly a 
 mere projective rim of the entire hinder part of the body. 
 Powerful muscles lead into it, but it is probably of little 
 use in locomotion. 
 
 Speciinens for Study. — The habits and exterior parts of 
 fishes can be studied from minnows, sunfish, stickle- 
 backs, etc., kept ' in an aquarium or a glass vessel of any 
 kind provided with aquatic plants to aerate the water. 
 Dissections of small specimens are best made in a dish 
 under water, when each part shown in Fig. 194 should be 
 determined. With a delicate knife, the various organs can 
 be exposed, as the brain, nostrils, ears, etc. In preparing 
 a first skeleton, boil the fish, and reconstruct the skeleton 
 as well as possible by (Fig. 193) marking all the parts and 
 observing their relations one to another. In studying the 
 circulation, inject into the veins some colored fluid, as ver- 
 milion. It is extremely important to make a drawing of 
 the fish or its parts. 
 
 Works on Fishes for further reference. 
 
 "Challenger Reports"; "Game-Fishes of the United States," 
 Killbourne text, by G. Brown Goode ; "Ameiican Fauna," by J. 
 B. Holder, M. D. ; " Fishes of Massachusetts," Storer ; Goode and 
 Bean, " List of Fishes of Massachusetts Bay and Adjacent Waters," in 
 "Bulletin of the Essex Institute," vol. ii ; "Reports of the United 
 States Commissioner of Fisheries and Various State Commissioners " ; 
 "Skates' Eggs and Young," F. W. Putnam, "American Naturalist," 
 vol. iii, p. 617 ; " Gar-Pikes, Old and Young," B. G. Wilder, " Popular 
 Science Monthly," vol. ii ; " Respiration of Amia," B. G. Wilder, 
 " Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of 
 Science," 1877, also in " Popular Science Monthly " ; " Blind Fishes 
 of the Mammoth Cave," " American Naturalist," vol. vi, p. 6, and 
 " Report of Peabody Academy of Science," 1871 ; " List of Fresh- 
 Water Fishes of North America," D. S. Jordan, " Bulletin of the Buf- 
 falo Academy of Natural Science," vol. iii ; " Introduction to the Study 
 of Fishes," Gunther ; "Development of Osseous Fishes," Agassiz, 
 " Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences," vol. 
 xiv ; and the works of Brehm, Wood, and Cassell. 
 
AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 
 
 195 
 
 Class IV. — Amphibious Vertebrates. Salaman- 
 ders, Toads, etc. (Batrachid). 
 
 General Characteristics. — The Batrachians are amphibi- 
 ous Vertebrates that breathe air by perfect lungs, though 
 some adult forms have gills. They pass through a distinct 
 metamorphosis. The higher forms have paired limbs, the 
 toes not being clawed as in the reptiles. They are gen- 
 erally oviparous. 
 
 Skeleton. — In the frog the skull is closely connected 
 with the body, and differs from that of higher Vertebrates 
 in being partly cartilaginous 
 (Fig. 237). The bones of the 
 limbs, when present, resemble 
 those of higher Vertebrates. 
 
 Tarsus. 
 
 Metatarsus. 
 
 Fig. 237. — Skull of the frog {Rana 
 esculenta), from below, showing 
 teeth and the cartilaginous gir- 
 dle-bone, y. 
 
 This is shown in Fig. 238, 
 which should be compared 
 with the limb of the cat. 
 
 Digestion. — The mouth is 
 generally large, and in the fro^ 
 are armed with delicate, saw- 
 
 Phalanges. 
 
 Fig. 238. — Bones of the right 
 leg of a young toad, greatly- 
 enlarged. The femur not 
 shown ; the tibia and fibula 
 are combined together. (Af- 
 ter Morse.) 
 
 I (Fig. 237) the upper jaws 
 like teeth. Tadpoles have 
 
196 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 the jaws enveloped in horny beaks. The liver is two- 
 lobed, and the intestine short and straight, not enlarging 
 into a stomach proper. Frogs and toads feed upon in- 
 sects as a rule. 
 
 Respiration. — At first Batrachians with few exceptions 
 breathe by means of gills, as the fishes, the breathing- 
 organs being external, as in the young of the curious 
 fish Polypterus (Fig. 207). Frogs, toads, and newts have 
 at first two sets of gills, an external and an internal 
 pair. The former disappear first. As growth progress- 
 es, they lose the latter also, then breathing by perfect 
 lungs. 
 
 Circulation. — When young and possessing the red gills, 
 blood is pumped to them as in the fishes, the heart then 
 possessing two chambers, an auricle and a ventricle. 
 Later, when the lungs appear, the auricle divides and the 
 heart becomes three-chambered ; the blood, on account of 
 its incomplete aeration, is cold. 
 
 Development. — The Batrachians pass through a distinct 
 metamorphosis. The eggs are generally placed in or 
 near the water, enveloped in some cases in a jelly-like 
 mass, the young first being water-animals, breathing by 
 external gills (Fig. 243), finally changing to the adult 
 form. 
 
 Order I. Trachystomata. Sirens (Sirenida). — The 
 sirens are long, slender creatures, with permanent gills. 
 They have no hind-limbs ; even the fore pair, which are 
 either three- or four-toed, are weak and almost useless. 
 The great siren (S. lacertina) attains a length of three feet, 
 is nearly black in color, dotted with light spots, the abdo- 
 men pink or purple. It has four toes on each fore-limb, 
 and is found in the muddy ditches and swamps of the 
 Southern States. A small siren {Pseudobranchus striatus), 
 with three toes, is found in the rice-field streams of 
 Georgia. 
 
 Order II. Proteida.— The Proteus (Fig. 239) is a 
 
AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 
 
 197 
 
 blind * Batrachian found in the subterranean caves of 
 Adelsberg in Carniola, Austria. 
 
 Fig. 239. — Proteus of Carniola caverns, showing the external gills. 
 
 Note. — They are pure white, have bristling gills and gill-openings, 
 and small teeth. The limbs are four in number, the fore pair having 
 three toes and the hinder pair two. They breathe under water by the 
 gills and above by lungs, while experiment has shown that the former 
 can be removed without injuring them. The mud-puppy {Necturus) 
 of the United States is a familiar form in the Mississippi country and 
 upper New York. The body is broad and flat ; each foot has four 
 toes ; they attain a length of two feet. They are extremely sluggish, 
 living in muddy water. The eggs are about the size of peas. 
 
 Order III. Tailed Amphibians (Urodela).— In this 
 order the gills are generally only present in the early 
 stages ; the body is slender and eel-like. The Congo 
 snake (Fig. 240) has extremely delicate limbs, and inhabits 
 the muddy waters of the Southern States. The hell- 
 bender, or Menoto?7ia, found in the Mississippi Valley, pos- 
 sesses permanent gills, is flat, with weak limbs and a prom- 
 
 * The eyes of the Proteus are destitute of a crystalline lens, although 
 they have a retina. 
 
198 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 inent tail. The gigantic Japanese salamander, over three 
 feet in length, belongs to this order ; they are incorrectly- 
 supposed to pass through fire 
 without harm. The largest sala- 
 mander in the United States is 
 the Amblystoma (Fig. 241). The 
 history of Amblystoma mavortium 
 is extremely remarkable. The 
 young for a long time were con- 
 sidered separate and distinct ani- 
 mals. They lived in the elevated 
 lakes, 8,000 to 9,000 feet above 
 the sea, from Montana to Mexico, 
 and were well known as axolotls, 
 {Amphiuma means). having external gills and true 
 
 FlG. 241. — Axolotl, a creature living and breeding for generations in the 
 water. Amblystoma coming out of the water — an axolotl which has lost 
 its gills and breathes by lungs alone. 
 
AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 
 
 199 
 
 lungs, yet living in the water. Finally some of them were 
 taken to Paris, where their gills shriveled, and they finally 
 left the water, becoming true lung-breathing animals, the 
 Ambly stoma ; so the axolotl was only the larval form, that 
 owing to the extreme dryness of the atmosphere in Mex- 
 ico never developed, but lived, multiplied, and died in 
 the water. 
 
 Note. — It is now known that in the lakes of Utah and Wyoming 
 other species attain the adult form. The eggs are deposited in masses, 
 the young appearing in July. They reproduce lost parts, legs and tail 
 if removed appearing a few weeks later. They are useful scavengers, 
 and are eaten by the Mexicans. If the lungs and gills of the axo- 
 lotl are removed, it still can breathe by absorption through the skin. 
 Frogs can breathe in a similar way. 
 
 Fig. 242. — The newt (Lissotriton punctahts). Male and young in the 
 water, female on the bank. 
 
 The tritons, or newts (Fig. 242), are common in vari- 
 ous parts of the world, and are often brilliantly colored. 
 A spotted newt in England bends up the side of a leaf, 
 gluing it together and forming a nest for a single egg, all 
 
200 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 the others being placed with equal care. Our common 
 triton lays its eggs singly on submerged plants ; others 
 are connected by a thread, whether on land or in the 
 water. 
 
 Order IV. Blind Snakes (Gymnophiona).— The ani- 
 mals of this order are only snake-like in external appear- 
 ance and in name, having elongated cylindrical bodies 
 destitute of legs. The skin is smooth, containing imbed- 
 ded scales, and some species secrete in small pores a vis- 
 cous secretion similar to that of snails. The eyes are small 
 and beneath the skin. The Cozcilia of the tropics attains 
 a length of several feet, and lives underground like the 
 earth-worm, feeding upon insects. A Surinam species is 
 viviparous ; the young are born in the water and have 
 external, leaf-shaped gills, that are absorbed as they 
 leave it. 
 
 Order V. Tailless Amphibians {Anura). — We now 
 come to the frogs and toads, in which the body is short, 
 thick, and tailless in the adults, with four limbs, the hind- 
 er pair adapted for leaping. The skin covers the body 
 loosely, the muscles not adhering to it. The tongue is 
 fastened to the front of the jaw, the tip pointing down 
 the throat ; as a rule, the lower jaw is without teeth. 
 The eggs (Fig. 243, e) are deposited in jelly-like masses 
 in some pool ; in two weeks, more or less, the young ap- 
 pear, those of American toads being darker than those 
 of frogs. They now cling to the weed by little suckers 
 near the mouth parts, 1 ; branching tufts now appear on 
 each side of the head — these are the gills, 2 ; the mouth 
 soon appears, the tufted gills are absorbed, and we have 
 the tadpole with six fish-like gill-slits. The legs are now 
 seen, 4, first appearing as little bumps under the skin, 
 and finally we have an animal resembling a lizard, with 
 four legs and a long tail, 5 ; the latter is gradually ab- 
 sorbed, 6 ; and the toad or frog crawls upon the shore in 
 perfect form, 7. 
 
AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 
 
 201 
 
 Fig. 243. — Metamorphosis of the frog, e, eggs ; 1, tadpoles just out of the 
 e gg ; 2 ) with outside gills ; 3, with gills hidden, and beak-like mouth ; 4, 
 hind-legs appearing ; 5, all legs grown, but fish-tail remaining ; 6, put- 
 ting on frog appearance, tail being absorbed ; 7, young perfect frog. 
 
 Toads {BufontdcE). — The toads in the adult form are 
 terrestrial, the toes are webbed, and the skin generally 
 covered with warty protuberances. The eggs of Pelobates 
 are deposited in the water in a loop. The male of the 
 Alytes of Europe winds the eggs about its body in strings, 
 and goes into the water, remaining until the young appear. 
 The spade-foot is noted for its sudden appearance in cer- 
 tain localities. It remains but a day or so in the water, 
 
202 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 where the eggs are hatched in about six days, the young 
 leaving the water in three weeks. The toads hibernate 
 during the winter in burrows, and often have special nests 
 for retreat during the day. 
 
 Note. — The tales concerning their poisonous properties, and power 
 of living in solid rock, are fabulous. A South American species mews 
 like a cat, while the European fire-bellied toad utters an extraordinary 
 moan. Toads are extremely valuable as destroyers of noxious insects, 
 and are in turn preyed upon by snakes. 
 
 Fig. 244. — Flying tree-toad of Borneo {Rhacophorus). 
 
 Tree-Toads (Hylidcz) — The tree-toads are the most 
 interesting of the order. They are all of small size, and 
 have the tips of the fingers and toes provided with a disk 
 
AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 
 
 203 
 
 with which they cling to trees and any surface. Their 
 habits are very singular. In tropical Africa, a species 
 (Polypedates) deposit their eggs on leaves by the side of 
 streams into which they are washed by the rain. In the 
 Island of Guadeloupe there are no marshes, and the young 
 tree-toads appear directly in the adult shape : this is called 
 a suppressed metamorphosis. A tree-toad in Martinique 
 carries its young tadpoles clinging to its back, presenting 
 a strange sight. In the Andes, a toad (Nototrenia) has a 
 sac on its back in which the young are carried. The most 
 remarkable tree-toad is a flier (R/iacop/iorus, Fig. 244) from 
 New Guinea. Its toes and fingers are completely webbed 
 so that they form parachutes, the little creature springing 
 from limb to limb like a flying-squirrel. They are four 
 inches in length, the web of the hind-feet expanding four 
 square inches. Nearly all tree-toads are green or brown 
 in color, adapted to the leaves or limbs of trees, thus escap- 
 ing their enemies. Hyla micans exudes a luminous secre- 
 tion that may serve to frighten its enemies, while a French 
 species exudes when attacked a strong, pungent odor. 
 
 Valxje. — The 
 tree-toads protect 
 the trees from 
 noxious insects. 
 Hyla arborea is 
 used as a barome- 
 ter, placed in a 
 bottle, with a small 
 ladder upon which 
 they ascend in 
 pleasant weather, 
 remaining at the 
 bottom if it prom- 
 ises to be inclem- 
 ent. In the Su- 
 rinam toad (Fig. 
 245), allied to the 
 family, the male 
 
 Fig. 245. — Surinam toad, showing young escaping 
 from the cells in the mother's back. 
 
204 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 places the eggs on the female's back, where they become imbedded, 
 cells growing up around them, the mother lying in the mud until they 
 appear, when a strange spectacle is seen, the young leaping from their 
 prisons in all directions. 
 
 Frogs (Ranidce). — The frogs are the highest forms 
 of the order. The upper jaw and palate have fine, sharp 
 teeth (Fig. 237), and the throats of the males are provided 
 with vocal sacs. The bull, marsh, and pickerel frogs are 
 our common species. Their eggs are laid in masses in 
 the water in April, May, and June. They hibernate in 
 the mud during the winter. The bull-frog has been known 
 to attain a length of two feet, and its noise can be heard 
 for over a mile. They mimic the color of the rushes of 
 the river-side in which they live. Their geographical dis- 
 tribution is wide. One species is found living in the hot 
 springs of Pisa where the temperature is 115 Fahr. They 
 Eve upon insects, but the great Indian tiger-frog has been 
 observed to capture sparrows. The American leopard- 
 frog is one of the most active, leaping ten or twelve feet 
 at a single bound. In the paradoxical frog of South 
 America, the larva, instead of growing, decreases in size 
 to attain the adult shape. 
 
 Value. — The capture of edible frogs forms a valuable industry in 
 France. 
 
 Works on Amphibians for further reference. 
 
 " Smithsonian Reports " ; Holbrook's " Herpetology of North 
 America " ; Allen's " List of Reptiles and Batrachians near Spring- 
 field, Massachusetts " ; Huxley's " Invertebrates." 
 
 Class V. — True Reptiles. Snakes, Lizards, etc. 
 (Reptilia). 
 
 Ge?ieral Characteristics. — The true reptiles, snakes, 
 lizards, and turtles, are distinguished from the Amphibians 
 by having scaled bodies, clawed limbs, and by not passing 
 through a metamorphosis or tadpole stage, developing 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 205 
 
 directly from the egg. They have many features in com- 
 mon with the birds, as true nostrils and a long windpipe. 
 About three thousand living reptiles are known. 
 
 The Skeleton. — The skeleton varies much in different 
 orders. The vertebrae in many of the snakes consist of 
 three hundred different bones working on a ball-and-socket 
 plan. The limbs in the various forms are adapted for walk- 
 ing or swimming, as the case may be. 
 
 Digestion. — With the exception of the turtles, that have 
 a horny mandible, the reptiles all possess sharp teeth, ar- 
 ranged either in rows or separate cavities, that are adapted 
 for crushing, cutting, or holding prey. The stomach of 
 snakes is but little removed from an ordinary intestine. 
 In the crocodiles it resembles the gizzard of birds. 
 
 Circulation. — In the crocodile the heart is four-cham- 
 bered as in the birds, while in other forms there is, besides 
 the two auricles that are always present, but one ventricle. 
 The blood is imperfectly aerated, consequently the reptiles 
 are cold-blooded. 
 
 Respiration. — The reptiles breathe by lungs alone ; and 
 here we first find a true nostril, as in the birds and higher 
 forms. In the snakes the lung is single. 
 
 Development. — The reptiles are oviparous, the egg-shell 
 generally being soft and crisp. Some are ovoviviparous, 
 or the young are developed before the egg is laid. 
 
 Order I. Snakes (Ophidic?) . General Characteristics. 
 — The snakes are distinguished by their long, cylindrical, 
 footless bodies. The bones of the backbone or verte- 
 brae join each other on a ball-and-socket plan (Fig. 246, 
 &, c), and often number 400. The bones of the lower jaw 
 are merely connected by ligaments, e, allowing great ex- 
 tensibility. The teeth are not set in sockets, and point 
 backward, being only used in holding prey. The tongue 
 is extensile, and held within a sheath. The eyes are with- 
 out movable lids, hence the staring expression of all snakes. 
 The gliding motion is effected by the successive advancing 
 
206 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 of the large ventral or lower scales. The skin is moulted 
 once a year, the process being assisted by the growth of 
 casting-hairs (Fig. 247) beneath the skin, that push it 
 
 Fig. 246. — Skeleton of a snake, sp, spinous processes of the joints ; r, ribs ; 
 q, quadrate bones, joining upper and lower jaws ; <?, front of the lower 
 jaw, where there is an elastic band in the place of bone ; &, ball end of 
 joint, facing the tail ; c, cup end of joint, facing the head. 
 
 Fig. 247. — Casting process in the skin 
 of the adder, h /i, the casting hairs ; 
 the portion of skin above them is 
 pushed away, and the hairs themselves 
 form the ridges on the new skin. 
 
 upward. In the North 
 they hibernate in win- 
 ter, and in the South 
 pass through a summer 
 sleep. Over one thou- 
 sand species are known, 
 one hundred and thirty 
 species being found in 
 North America. 
 
 The Vipers ( Fi- 
 peridce). — About twenty- 
 two species of these 
 snakes are known. In 
 the puff-adder, of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, the 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 
 
 207 
 
 poison -fangs are 
 
 extremely large, 
 
 and the snake is 
 
 much dreaded. 
 
 They are confined 
 
 to the Old World. 
 
 Rattlesnakes 
 
 {Crotalidce). — In 
 
 this family are the 
 
 rattlesnakes (Fig. 
 
 248), moccasins, 
 
 and copperheads, 
 
 forty species in 
 
 all, and extremely 
 
 poisonous. The 
 
 upper jaws con- 
 tain few teeth, but 
 
 have needle-like, 
 
 recurved, grooved 
 
 fangs, that are 
 
 raised at the 
 
 slightest alarm. The poison-glands (Fig. 249) are at their 
 
 base, and when the mouth closes upon an enemy the 
 
 muscles that ef- 
 fect it press the 
 gland, forcing the 
 poison into the 
 wound. They 
 have a pit or de- 
 pression between* 
 the nostrils. The 
 true rattlesnakes 
 
 rarely exceed 
 Fig. 249.— Jaw of a rattlesnake. //, N ^^ ^^ . q 
 
 poison-fangs ; g, gland secreting poison ; 
 
 c, canal leading from gland to base of fang ; length, and have 
 /, harmless tongue ; s, saliva-glands. the tail terminat- 
 
 FiG. 248.— Rattlesnake {Crotalus). 
 
208 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 ing in horny, button-like rattles (Fig. 248), incorrectly 
 supposed to indicate the age of the snake. The rattle 
 is sounded at the approach of danger. The bite of the 
 rattlesnake is often fatal if no remedy is at hand. They 
 hibernate in the winter, and the young have been seen 
 passing into the mouth of the mother for protection. 
 The fer-de-lance of the West Indies is deadly. It is 
 dark-yellow or brown, and attains a length of six feet. 
 It is viviparous, giving birth to fifty or sixty young. 
 Moccasins. — Water-moccasins are common in the South- 
 ern States, and are much dreaded. They are about two 
 feet in length, dark brown in color, with transverse bars 
 of black, and are extremely vindictive. The copperhead 
 is also dreaded. Both have been observed to receive their 
 young into their mouths, and so protect them. 
 
 Value. — Rattlesnake-oil is valued, and crotalin is obtained from 
 the snake. Oil of the copperhead is also used in medicine. Rattle- 
 snake leather is used in bags, cases, etc. 
 
 Sea-Snakes (Hydrophtdce). — These snakes, fifty spe- 
 cies of which are known, are found in the Indian, China, 
 
 Fig. 250. — Platurus vulcanicus, a sea-snake living in the fresh-water lake 
 of Taal (Luzon), and having a paddle-like tail. (After Semper.) 
 
 and Australian seas, and have been seen near Panama. 
 They only approach the shore to breed, and, with one ex- 
 ception (Fig. 250), are marine. They are extremely poison- 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 
 
 209 
 
 ous. The tail is laterally compressed, forming a paddle, 
 with which they swim. They attain a length of five or six 
 feet, and are viviparous. Pro- 
 fessor Semper found one at 
 Mindanao in the rocks, cov- 
 ered by twenty young, that 
 were all two feet long. 
 
 Allied are the Elapidce, 
 among the most deadly of all 
 snakes. The fangs are erect 
 and fixed. The £/aps, of 
 Central America, is richly col- 
 ored. The Naia haje, of Af- 
 rica, has a hood that is erect- 
 ed when it is excited. To 
 the early Egyptians it was an 
 emblem of divinity. The co- 
 bra,* or hooded snake (Fig. 
 251), is much feared in In- 
 dia. When enraged, it raises 
 a curious hood about the 
 head by drawing forward its anterior ribs. 
 
 Note. — Over 19,000 persons were killed by cobras in India in 1880, 
 and 2,000 head of cattle. During this time, 212,776 cobras were killed 
 by snake-killers, paid by the Government. Since 1870, 200,000 persons 
 have been killed by these reptiles alone. According to the Emperor 
 of Brazil, permanganate of potash is one of the most successful anti- 
 dotes to the venom of snakes. Large doses of whisky or brandy, 
 enough to intoxicate, are generally an antidote to the bite of the rattle- 
 snake. 
 
 Pythons (Pythonidci). — This family comprises the 
 largest and most powerful of all the snakes ; forty-six spe- 
 
 * Snake-charming in India is supposed by many to be a trick, but 
 this is not so in all cases. A missionary in Burmah found that he 
 could exert the curious influence over the cobra, and handle it without 
 fear ; he performed the same feats as the native jugglers. 
 
 showing the 
 
2io BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 cies are known, mostly inhabiting tropical regions. The 
 Python is found in Africa and the East Indies. The rock 
 python is a yellowish-brown color above, and inhabits the 
 rice-fields. It attains a length of twenty-six feet, and de- 
 vours large animals. The female lays about fifteen eggs, 
 coiling about them,* her body increasing in temperature, 
 and in this inclosure the young hatch in about fifty-six 
 days. They frequently find their way into native houses. 
 The natives seize them by the tail and rush off, dashing 
 them against the trees. The boa-constrictor is a native 
 of tropical America, and ranges from ten to forty feet 
 
 Fig. 252. — Anaconda, or water-boa. 
 
 in length. According to Wallace, Dr. Gardner measured 
 one of the latter length that had swallowed a horse, and 
 that they devour cattle is, he conceives, not improbable. 
 Some of them have rudimentary hind-limbs, or spur-like 
 hooks, that are used when the snake hangs from trees. 
 The boas burrow in the ground. The anaconda (Fig. 
 252), or water-boa, is common in tropical South America, 
 attaining a length of twenty feet, and preys upon large 
 animals. They enter the water freely, and when hang- 
 ing from the trees so resemble vines, their colors being 
 sombre, that they are perfectly protected. Numbers of 
 
 * This habit was observed at the London Zoological Garden. 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 211 
 
 authentic cases are known of boas having attacked human 
 beings. 
 
 Value. — The oil of the large boas is much used for various pur- 
 poses ; the skin is tanned, and made into boots, saddle-cloths, bags, etc. 
 
 Allied are the ground fanged snakes. The Tree- 
 Snakes (Dendrophidci) have long, slender bodies, adapted 
 for movement in the trees, and in many their rich green 
 coloring affords them complete protection. They are 
 tropical, and often found coiled up in birds' nests. About 
 thirty-five species are known. The whip-snakes are allied 
 forms. Fresh- Water Snakes (Homafopsidce). — In this 
 family of fifty species are snakes that live more or less 
 in fresh-water streams, and are found in all parts of the 
 world, but especially in the East. The desert snakes are 
 allied forms, and the curious Dasypeltis, that lives upon 
 eggs, swallowing them entire. 
 
 In the Columbridce, represented by two hundred and sev- 
 enty species, which include many of our American snakes, 
 there are no rudimentary limbs. Both jaws are armed 
 with teeth. The striped snakes, Eutcenia, a common form 
 in the Middle States, attain a length of two feet ; hiber- 
 nating in holes or burrows during the winter, appearing in 
 great numbers in early spring. They prey upon toads, 
 frogs, and other small animals. The garter-snake is vivipa- 
 rous, and often protects its young by receiving them into 
 its mouth. They are extremely prolific, bearing at times 
 seventy-eight young. The viviparous spotted spreading 
 adder is even more remarkable in this respect, producing 
 eighty-seven young at times. The hog-nosed snakes of 
 North America have a short, thick body, with a large head. 
 The black-snakes are a lustrous, metallic black, and attain 
 a length of five feet. They are harmless, preying upon 
 animals either in the trees or on the ground. The crack- 
 whip snakes are incorrectly supposed by some to seize 
 their tails in their mouths and roll along. 
 
212 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Order II. Lizards {Lacertilia). General Character- 
 istics. — The lizards (Fig. 253) are scaly reptiles with cy- 
 
 Fig. 253. — Skeleton of a lizard, sfl, spinous processes, which in the tortoise 
 are flattened into plates ; r, ribs ; s, shoulder-bone ; # , upper arm ; e, 
 elbow ; /a, forearm ; //, hip-bone ; (A, thigh-bone ; k, knee ; /, bones of 
 the leg ; g, quadrate bone between upper and lower jaw. 
 
 lindrical bodies, long, slender tails, and have usually two 
 pairs of feet. The jaws are not extensible, as in the snakes, 
 and are armed with sharp, conical teeth. The tongue is 
 free, long, and sometimes forked. All lizards are ovipa- 
 rous. Their eggs are deposited either in the ground or in 
 hollow trees. About seventeen hundred living species are 
 known ; eighty-two species are found in North America, 
 north of Mexico. 
 
 Chameleons (Chamceleonidcz). — These strange lizards 
 
 (Fig. 254) are 
 found in Africa 
 and Asia, thirty 
 species being 
 known. The 
 body is com- 
 pressed, the 
 skin rough, the 
 } tail round and 
 J prehensile; the 
 tongue is cylin- 
 drical, and ca- 
 
 1 ^K^siilllil] 2'. mi 
 
 FlG. 254. — The chameleon, showing tongue. 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 
 
 213 
 
 pable of projecting five or six inches, and covered with 
 a sticky secretion for the capture of insects. The eyes 
 are large, with a circular eyelid, and are independent of 
 each other. Their five toes are arranged in two oppo- 
 site groups of pincers. Their movements are slow and 
 deliberate, and their power of adapting their color to that 
 of their surroundings is remarkable. The eggs are round, 
 white, and deposited in the ground. In the Flying-Liz- 
 ards {Agamidce) of the East Indies (Fig. 255) the tail is 
 long and snake-like, while between the limbs extends a 
 membrane supported by the 
 much-prolonged fifth or sixth 
 hind-ribs. The female depos- 
 its three or four eggs at a time. 
 The frilled lizard of Queens- 
 land has hind-legs adapted for 
 leaping. The Moloch horridus 
 of Australia is a sluggish form, 
 completely covered with large 
 and small spine-bearing tuber- 
 cles. The Iguana* is found 
 in the tropical portions of North 
 and South America. It attains 
 a length of five feet, and is ex- 
 tremely powerful, inflicting ter- 
 rible blows with its tail. They 
 live among the trees, subsisting 
 upon the fruit, and are sought 
 
 after as an article of food. The Anolis (Fig. 256) of the 
 Southern States belongs to this family, and is noted for 
 its changes of color. The horned lizard (Fig. 257) of 
 Mexico and the Western States is covered with spines, 
 
 * John G. Bell, the naturalist and companion of Audubon in many 
 of his expeditions, saw an iguana rush across the surface of a river in 
 Central America, keeping upon the surface by the lightning-like rapidity 
 of its movements. A very few minutes sufficed to cross. 
 
 Fig. 255. — Red-throated flying 
 dragon (Draco), showing 
 membrane supported by ribs. 
 
214 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 and the head ornamented with spikes. They run with 
 great rapidity, and so resemble the dry ground that they 
 
 are indistinguishable a 
 
 few feet away. They 
 
 live upon insects, and 
 
 are easily domesticated. 
 
 Allied to the iguanas is 
 
 the great sea-lizard of 
 
 the Galapagos Islands. 
 
 They attain a length of four 
 
 feet. Their tails are flattened 
 
 and their feet partly webbed. They 
 
 take to the water readily, living upon 
 
 sea-weed. A land species lives in 
 
 burrows. 
 
 The Wall-Lizards {Geckoiti- 
 dce) * are short, flattened, and slow 
 
 * The middle of each caudal vertebra 
 has a thin cartilaginous partition. At this 
 point the tail is often broken, and eventu- 
 ally renewed, sometimes two tails growing. 
 According to Gunther, they are enabled to 
 throw off their tails spontaneously when pursued, the wriggling offcast 
 attracting the attention of the pursuer, while the gecko escapes. They 
 
 Fig. 256. — The Ameri- 
 can chameleon (Ano- 
 lis principalis). 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 
 
 215 
 
 of motion (Fig. 258). The toes are provided with cling- 
 ing ridges of bristles, by which they walk upon the walls 
 in search of insects, though in the forest species this ar- 
 rangement is sometimes absent. The jaws have small 
 teeth, and the tongue is not extensible. 
 
 Fig. 257. — Horned lizard {Phrynosoma cornutum). 
 Dorsal view and side view of head. 
 
 Fig. 258.— Gecko. 
 
 The Scinks {Scinktdce) are spindle-shaped (Fig. 259) 
 and covered with smooth scales. The five-lined and red- 
 headed scinks are common in the Southern States. The 
 Glass Snakes (Chalcidce) have no feet, the body being 
 serpent-like (Fig. 260). The glass snake 
 
 Fig. 259. — Scink {Scincus officinalis), showing structure of the feet. 
 
 have also been seen devouring their own cast-off skin and wriggling 
 tail. The geckos of the East Indies utter a shrill cry. The leaf-tailed 
 gecko is one of the most curious. One species is said to be luminous. 
 They are all insect-eaters. Two hundred species are known. 
 
2l6 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Fig. 260. — Glass snake (Ophisaurus ventralis). 
 
 of the Southern and Western States attains a length of 
 three feet, and is so fragile that the slightest blow severs 
 
 it in sections. The 
 upper surface is 
 yellowish green 
 spotted with 
 black. 
 
 Heloderma 
 {Helodermidce) . — 
 The " Gila mon- 
 ster," or Heloder- 
 ma (Fig. 261), is 
 the largest lizard 
 of North America, 
 attaining a length 
 of three feet, and enjoying the distinction of being the only 
 poisonous member of the order. In appearance they are 
 repulsive, being covered with scales, the whole resembling a 
 flinty, faceted armor. The general color is black, marked 
 with yellowish-orange or white interspaces. The tail is 
 cylindrical and clumsy. Their movements are slow and 
 uncertain, resembling those of a young alligator. The 
 teeth are fissured, and at the bases of the grooves are the 
 ducts from which the poisonous saliva passes into the 
 wound.* After biting, the heloderma appears sluggish, 
 
 * According to Mitchell and Reichert, the physiological action of 
 the poison is quite different from that of snake-poison. The latter 
 kills by paralyzing the respiratory center, while the poison of the helo- 
 derma paralyzes the heart. When injected subcutaneously it causes no 
 local injury, the effect being to arrest the motion of the heart, which 
 slowly becomes contracted, and the spinal cord paralyzed. It is not 
 necessarily fatal to human beings, though an American scientist, after 
 being bitten, was barely able to call assistance. In experiments tried 
 by Sir John Lubbock, a live frog when bitten died almost immediately 
 in convulsions. A Guinea-pig, bitten in the hind-leg, died in three 
 minutes, and young rats succumbed even more quickly. The specimen 
 kept in the New York Zoological Garden thrived upon hard-boiled eggs. 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 
 
 217 
 
 like many of the poisonous snakes. They occur in Mex- 
 ico, Arizona, and Lower California. Allied are the water- 
 
 I 
 
 c 
 
 >. 
 
 "5 
 
 o 
 
 lizards ( Varanidcz), the huge monitors, seven feet in length, 
 the gigantic lace-lizard, and others. 
 10 
 
218 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 The Double - Walkers (Amphisbcenidce) (Fig. 262) 
 are found in tropical America, often in the nests of ants. 
 They move in either direction with equal ease. Thirteen 
 species are known in Asia, Africa, and South America. 
 
 FlG. 262. — Amphisbcena fuliginosa. 
 
 Order III. Turtles (Clielonia). General Characteris- 
 tics). — The turtles (Fig. 263) are distinguished by the shell 
 or box-like covering that envelops them. The upper part 
 forms the carapace, r, the lower the plastron, //, the two 
 constituting a covering into which the head, tail, and limbs 
 can be more or less withdrawn. The generally arched 
 carapace is formed by the greatly expanding ribs, these 
 and the vertebrae being fixed and immovable. The plas- 
 tron is generally considered a greatly expanded sternum.* 
 The outer surface of the shell is made up of scales or 
 plates, or a leathery substance, as in the case of the soft- 
 shell tortoise. The jaws are toothless, being armed with a 
 horny beak, as in the birds. The eyes have three lids ; 
 
 * Some naturalists consider it a dermic growth. 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 
 
 219 
 
 Fig. 263. — Skeleton of the tortoise, from below. /, joints of the backbone 
 grown together ; r, ribs formed into a solid cover ; sh, shoulder-bones ; 
 h y hip-bones covered by carapace, which has grown over them ; pi, plas- 
 tron, or under cover. 
 
 the limbs are adapted to aquatic or terrestrial life, as the 
 case may be. About forty species are known in North 
 America, north of Mexico. 
 
 Marine Turtles {Cheloniidce). — This family has a 
 wide distribution in warm and tropical seas ; five spe- 
 cies are known. 
 The leather tur- 
 tle, or Sphargis 
 (Fig. 264), is 
 the rarest and 
 largest known. 
 The shell is a 
 thick, leathery 
 skin, composed 
 of six longitudi- 
 nal plates, form- 
 ing raised ridges. 
 
 Fig. 264. — Leather turtle (Sphargis). 
 
220 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Fig. 265. — Green turtle. 
 
 The eye-openings are placed vertically. They attain a 
 length of eight feet, and a weight of twelve hundred 
 pounds.* The loggerhead \ is nearly as large. Its shell 
 
 is made up of 
 scales. They 
 breed upon 
 Loggerhead 
 Key, Florida, 
 and other lo- 
 calities, bury- 
 ing their eggs 
 in the sand, 
 leaving the sun 
 to hatch them. 
 The digging 
 and covering is 
 done by the hind-flippers. The green turtle (Fig. 265) 
 is somewhat similar, though more delicate, the head and 
 flippers smaller. They feed upon algae, particularly Zos- 
 tera ?narina. The hawkbill % (Fig. 266) is distinguished 
 
 * The gigantic extinct Protostega gigas was allied to the Sphargis. 
 It measured seventeen feet between the fore-arms or flippers, and 
 was remarkable for the rudimentary character of the bones in the 
 adult. 
 
 f The loggerhead is extremely powerful, and I have found it diffi- 
 cult to turn one with the help of two men. By seizing them by the 
 shell just over the head I have been carried a long distance in the 
 water at a rapid rate. The steeds thus experimented upon were kept 
 in an inclosure half a mile long and eight feet deep, and when asleep 
 on the bottom could generally be caught by diving. Owing to their 
 sluggish natures they often fall a prey to sharks to the extent of their 
 flippers. I have caught them in the Gulf Stream with these organs 
 entirely bitten off. 
 
 \ Though the hawkbill is a vegetable feeder as a rule, they some- 
 times attack the Physalia (Fig. 19). One, two feet long, was found by 
 the author floating on the surface, insensible, its head covered by the 
 blue tentacles. By scraping them off with a knife the turtle recovered, 
 and was kept as a pet for a long time. 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 221 
 
 by its more elegant shape, hooked bill, and large scales, 
 having, like all the others, long, fin-like nippers. 
 
 Value.— The scales 
 of the hawkbill are 
 greatly valued in com- 
 merce. Oil from the 
 green turtle's eggs is 
 used in dressing leath- 
 er, and in the manufac- 
 ture of soap. The eggs 
 are not the luxuries gen- 
 erally supposed, and are 
 best when immature, 
 and dried in the sun. 
 
 Fig. 266.— Hawkbill turtle. 
 
 In the soft - shelled turtles ( Trionychidce) the body is 
 flat and circular, the shell being supple, like rubber or 
 leather. They are carnivorous, and one species is common 
 in the St. John's and other rivers of Florida and the South- 
 ern States. The American species are generally one foot in 
 length, but East Indian specimens have been caught weigh- 
 ing two hundred and forty pounds. Allied are the snap- 
 ping-turtles (Chelydidce), forty- four species of which are 
 known. The shell is elevated in front and low behind ; 
 the head large, and jaws strongly hooked, the neck long 
 and snake-like. They attain a length of five feet, and are 
 the most ferocious of their kind. The three American 
 species range from Florida to Canada. The eggs are 
 spherical, and deposited in the ground. 
 
 The land turtles (Testudinidce) have high, arched 
 shells, a broad sternum, and elevate the body in walking, 
 instead of dragging it along. One hundred and twenty-six 
 species are known. The terrapin, painted, spotted, and 
 box turtles are familiar American forms. The latter are 
 remarkable in that the plastron is composed of two parts, 
 movable upon a single axis, so that the soft parts of the 
 animal can be completely boxed in. They are found in 
 dry woods, and attain a great age. 
 
222 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Note. — The most remarkable land tortoise is the Testudo nigra, or 
 elephant turtle, of the Galapagos Islands. They attain a length of six 
 feet, and eight men can barely lift the largest. They feed upon the 
 cactus, and their paths from the springs can be seen all over the islands. 
 Though large and clumsy, they can travel eight miles in three days. 
 The eggs are spherical, and larger than a hen's egg. They are either 
 buried in the sand or dropped among the rocks. During the breeding- 
 season the male utters a hoarse roar or bellow. They are valued for 
 their flesh and oil. The Colossochelys is an extinct land tortoise of the 
 Tertiary period, found in India. They were twenty feet in length, 
 the shell being twelve feet long and six feet high, and would serve as a 
 covering for six or seven men. 
 
 Order IV (Rhynchocep/ialia) . — This order is represented 
 by a single animal — the Sphenodon punctatus, or Hatter ia, of 
 New Zealand. Its general appearance is like the iguana, 
 having a similar row of dorsal spines. It attains a length 
 of three feet, and forms a burrow, lining it with grass, 
 that is also occupied by three species of birds — petrels, 
 etc. The lizard occupies one side of the nest and the 
 birds the other. It is nocturnal in its habits, and lives to 
 some extent upon the food the birds bring in to their 
 young. 
 
 Order V. Crocodiles (Crocodi/ia). General Charac- 
 teristics. — The crocodiles and alligators form the highest 
 order of existing reptiles. The brain and heart closely 
 resemble those of the birds. Their skin is covered with 
 bony plates, and the teeth are lodged in separate sockets ; 
 the nostrils can be closed, and the feet are partly webbed.- 
 They lay twenty or thirty eggs, that are buried in the sand' 
 and hatched by the sun. 
 
 Alligators (Alligatoridce).— The alligators,* of which 
 ten species are known, are distinguished by having both 
 
 * Their nests are sometimes in the sand or in mounds of decayed 
 vegetation. In the colder months they hibernate in the mud. In 
 Nicaragua they have been known to seize human beings, pigs, and 
 even horses, often drifting down upon their prey, their bodies resem- 
 bling submerged logs. Their voice is a loud bellow like that of a bull. 
 
TRUE REPTILES. 2 2$ 
 
 large front teeth as well as the canines fit into pits in 
 the upper jaw. They are common in the Southern Unit- 
 ed States and tropical America, attaining a length of 
 eighteen feet. 
 
 Value. — Skin as leather, oil, and musk. 
 
 Crocodiles {Crocodilidcz). — These reptiles are found 
 in the rivers and marshes of nearly all tropical countries. 
 The lower canine teeth fit into notches in the upper jaw, 
 instead of pits. The muzzle is sharp and narrow. The 
 hind-legs have a fringe of compressed scales behind, and 
 the toes are webbed nearly to the tip. Twelve species 
 are known. A crocodile {Crocodilus acutus) (Fig. 267) is, 
 
 Fig. 267.— Head of Florida crocodile {Crocodilus acutus), from life. 
 
 though not generally known, quite common in the vicinity 
 of Biscayne Bay, Florida, and differs much from the alli- 
 gator in appearance and habits, living in salt marshes as 
 well as fresh, and being more or less marine.* 
 
 * The crocodile shown in Fig. 267 was fourteen and a half feet in 
 length, and was shot after being followed three successive winters. 
 The specimen is now in the Museum of Natural History, Central Park. 
 When shot and speared it towed the boat for some distance, and made 
 a desperate resistance, finally diving into a hole in the bottom. Its tail 
 protruding, a rope was fastened to it, and tied to a bent tree, and the 
 following morning the monster was found swinging partly in the air, 
 
224 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 In the breeding-season the female utters a bark like a 
 dog. The eggs, somewhat resembling those of a goose, 
 are deposited among leaves in heaps, and when hatched 
 the young are led away by the mother and fed upon 
 masticated food. The India crocodiles in the dry sea- 
 son hibernate in the mud, which hardens about them. 
 A tent pitched unwittingly over such a case was once 
 overthrown by the awakening hibernator. Allied are 
 the long-nosed crocodiles (Gavialidce), three species of 
 which are known, inhabiting the Ganges and rivers of 
 Borneo and North Africa. They attain a length of thirty 
 feet. 
 
 Value. — The teeth, flesh, hide, and oil, are all valued. 
 
 Specimens for Study. — In the spring months the eggs of 
 frogs and toads can be found in pools, and should be 
 placed in an aquarium or some vessel, and the changes 
 watched from day to day. In this way the history of the 
 animal can be followed from the egg to the adult, and the 
 habits, etc., observed. Eggs hardened in alcohol can be 
 cut into sections and examined. The simple skeleton of 
 the frog or toad affords an excellent object for study, and 
 should be prepared, the bones labeled and compared with 
 those of allied and higher forms, and the points of differ- 
 ence noted. Collections of the fauna of a neighborhood 
 or country are always valuable, and should comprise the 
 eggs, tadpoles in all stages up to the adult, preserved in 
 alcohol, and marked with locality, name, sex, etc. A book 
 of reference should also be kept, in which notes, observa- 
 tions, and sketches should be entered. 
 
 and dispatched. A smaller specimen, that was taken into the boat and 
 supposed to be dead, suddenly recovered, upsetting it, and throwing 
 the occupants into the water. The animals are extremely wily, and 
 capture birds by jerking them under water by the legs ; and, to show 
 their marine habits, specimens have been seen on the reef four miles 
 from land. 
 
BIRDS. 
 
 225 
 
 Works on Reptiles for further reference. 
 
 " Smithsonian Reports " ; " Tropical Nature," Wallace ; " List of 
 Reptiles and Batrachians near Springfield, Massachusetts," Allen ; 
 Holbrook's " Herpetology of North America " ; Agassiz, " Embryology 
 of Turtles," in "Contributions to Natural History of the United 
 States " ; " Check List of North American Reptiles and Batrachians," 
 E. D. Cope ; " Serpents," "Popular Science Monthly," vol. iv. 
 
 Class VI. — Birds (Avcs). 
 
 General Characteristics. — From the reptiles we pass to 
 the birds, that may be characterized as warm-blooded 
 feathered Vertebrates, having the fore-limbs adapted for 
 flight, the jaws inclosed in horny beaks, and the bones 
 hollow. 
 
 Skeleton. — In examining the skeleton of a bird (Fig, 
 268), we first notice its extreme lightness. This is due to 
 the fact that many of the bones that are filled with mar- 
 row in other animals are in the birds hollow air-chambers. 
 The skull-bones in the adult bird form a single piece, and 
 except in certain extinct forms (Fig. 274) the jaws are 
 toothless and inclosed in horny cases called beaks. The 
 lower jaw is not joined directly to the skull as in man, but to 
 a quadrate bone (Fig. 268, a), as in the reptiles and batra- 
 chians. The neck, consisting of from nine to twenty-four 
 vertebrae, is extremely long and flexible, so that the bird 
 can trim its feathers on any part of the body ; a knot can 
 almost be tied in the neck of the flamingo. The (dorsal) 
 vertebrse, from six to ten in number, are firmly joined 
 (anchylosed) in the flying birds ; but in the non-fliers, as 
 the emu and ostrich, they are movable one upon another. 
 The vertebrse between the dorsal and those constituting 
 the tail (caudal) are joined, forming a single bone called 
 the sacrum, which, joined with the innominate bones, forms 
 the pelvic arch to which is attached the first bone of the 
 leg or thigh (Fig. 268, th). To the thigh or femur is at- 
 tached the tibia, to which a small fibula is joined. The 
 
226 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 position of the knee is seen at k j then follows the foot, /, 
 or tarso-metatarsus, that in wading birds is very long, and 
 in powerful fliers, as the man-of-war hawk (Fig. 283), very- 
 short. The heel, h y is far from the ground, and to the 
 foot-bone are attached the two, four, or five toes, as the 
 
 Fig. 268. — Skeleton of a sparrow. a, quadrate bone, peculiar to reptiles 
 and birds and some amphibia ; d, breast-bone ; m, merry-thought or 
 collar-bone ; c, coracoid bone, over which the tendon works to pull up 
 the wing ; fi, plowshare-bone, on which the tail grows. Wing-bones : 
 a, upper arm ; e, elbow ; fa, fore-arm ; w, wrist ; t, thumb ; ha, hand. 
 Leg-bones : M, thigh-bone ; k, knee ; /, lower part of leg ; h, heel ; /*, 
 foot. 
 
 case may be, that are armed with scratching or clinging 
 claws that extend in different directions. Generally there 
 are three before and one behind, as in Fig. 268 ; others 
 have two before and two behind, or, as in the swifts, all 
 four extend to the front. To prevent birds from falling 
 while asleep on a perch, there is a wonderful arrangement 
 
BIRDS. 
 
 227 
 
 of the muscles, a number extending down the leg from the 
 pelvis to the outside of the knee, then winding around and 
 blending with the principal muscles of the toes. When 
 the bird settles in roosting, the leg is bent upon the thigh, 
 the weight of the bird acting as a lever that tautens the 
 muscles and draws the toes and claws tightly about the 
 limb or roost ; thus the bird can sleep while standing upon 
 one leg without fear of falling, being held fast by the 
 weight of its body. The tail or caudal vertebrae are mov- 
 able to some extent and end in the plowshare-bone, p, 
 that supports the large quill-feathers of the tail. On the 
 under portion of the skeleton we note the sternum, b, or 
 breast-bone, to which the wing-moving muscles are at- 
 tached. In the flying birds, as Fig. 268, it is keeled and 
 has a sharp edge, thus offering a greater surface of attach- 
 ment, but in birds like the ostrich the keel is absent. 
 Above the sternum are the ribs, that vary in number from 
 seven to eleven pairs. In front of the sternum the clavicles 
 join and form a V-shaped bone called the lucky or collar 
 bone (Fig. 268, m). The coracoid bone over which the 
 tendon works to pull up the wing, is seen at c, and this 
 and the scapula and clavicle constitute the " pectoral arch " 
 to which the humerus, a, or first bone of the wing, is at- 
 tached. The position of the elbow is seen at e ; then fol- 
 lows the fore-arm (ulna and radius), /#. The position of 
 the wrist is shown at w ; then follow the carpal and meta- 
 carpal bones, which are joined at the extremities. At the 
 upper end of the metacarpal bones there is a rudimentary 
 thumb (Fig. 268, t). It has a single joint and supports 
 what is called the false wing. The end of the wing (Fig. 
 268, ha) corresponds to the hand, and three rudimentary 
 fingers are generally observed, that correspond to the first 
 and third fingers of the human hand. The fingers only in 
 rare cases are clawed, and the arm, that in other animals is 
 used for digging, clinging, or crawling, is now only used to 
 propel the bird through the air or water as the case may be. 
 
228 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Digestion. — As the birds have no teeth, they either 
 swallow their food entire or tear it with the bill or claws. 
 The digestive organs are shown in Fig. 269, 1. The food 
 passes down the gullet and lodges in the crop, <r, that is 
 easily felt in chickens that have gorged themselves with 
 corn. From here it passes to the true stomach just be- 
 low, and is brought in contact with a secretion called 
 gastric juice. From here it passes to the gizzard, g, that 
 to all intents and purposes is an internal set of teeth or 
 grinders, being a muscular sac with a hard, horny lining 
 in which the grain or other food is completely ground to 
 a pulp. To assist in this operation chickens and other 
 grain-eating birds swallow gravel and pebbles. In the 
 flesh-eaters, as the eagles, the coat of the gizzard is not so 
 thick. The experiment has been tried of feeding gulls on 
 grain,* and it was found that the gizzard assumed the ap- 
 pearance and functions of that of true grain-eaters. When 
 the food is thoroughly ground, that which is not absorbed 
 as fuel for the system enters the small intestine and is 
 finally rejected. 
 
 Circulation. — In the birds we meet for the first time a 
 warm-blooded animal, the mean temperature of the blood, 
 which is red, being no° or 112 . This is due to the fact 
 that the birds are extremely active, and that the blood is 
 not only aerated in the lungs, but in the air-sacs of the 
 various parts of the body. Again, the feathers are poor 
 conductors of heat, and tend to keep up the body tempera- 
 ture. The heart is now four-chambered, composed of two 
 auricles and two ventricles. In circulating, the venous 
 blood enters the right auricle, flowing from here to the 
 right ventricle, from which it passes through the pul- 
 monic artery to the lungs. Here it changes into arterial 
 blood, passes to the left auricle, then to the left ventricle, 
 
 * A gull, Larus, at the Shetland Islands, lives on grain in the sum- 
 mer and fish in the winter, a habit that must cause a yearly physical 
 change. 
 
BIRDS. 
 
 229 
 
 that sends it 
 through the 
 great aorta in- 
 to numerous 
 branches that 
 lead all over 
 the body. 
 
 Respiration. 
 —The breath- 
 ing organs are 
 shown in Fig. 
 269, /, /. The 
 lungs, /, /, are 
 two in number, 
 spongy in con- 
 sistency, and 
 are attached to 
 the walls of the 
 cavity in which 
 they are placed. 
 
 The large air-passages of the lungs end in air-sacs, that 
 in turn connect with the cavities of the bones, so that air 
 taken in passes down the trachea, /, enters the lungs, /, /, 
 aerating the blood there, also passing into the 
 air-sacs and penetrating the hol- 
 low bones in every part of the body ; 
 thus the bird can alter its specific 
 gravity at will. The air-sacs are 
 nine in number ; two are placed in 
 the abdomen, four in the thorax, 
 and three near the wish-bone. 
 
 Nervous System. — The brain 
 (Fig. 270, 1) is larger than in the 
 reptiles, and has no convolutions. 
 
 Covering. — The birds differ from all other animals in 
 being covered with feathers (Fig. 271), that are modified 
 
 Fig. 269. — Parts of a bird. 1, digestive apparatus ; 
 c, crop ; g, gizzard ; t, trachea ; b, d, bronchial 
 tubes ; /, /, lungs ; 2, bones of the wings. 
 
 z 
 
 Fig. 270. — 1, Brain of a 
 bird ; 2, eye, showing nic- 
 titating membrane. 
 
230 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 scales or hairs ; developed, like them, in sacs in the skin. 
 They afford protection to the bird, determine its contour 
 or shape, and are the means of enabling it to soar in the 
 air, the long pinions being arranged to offer the greatest 
 
 Fig. 271. — Sparrow, showing the skeleton (Fig. 268) clothed in flesh, and 
 the graceful outline produced by the coat of feathers. 
 
 resistance. Taking a goose-feather (Fig. 272) as an ex- 
 ample, we find that it is composed of several parts. The 
 hollow, horny quill, 1, rests in a sac ; this leads to the 
 shaft, 2, which is horny, grooved, and filled with a sub- 
 stance resembling wood-pith. From the sides of the shaft 
 spring the barbs, 3, that are so delicate that it would nat- 
 
BIRDS. 
 
 231 
 
 urally be assumed that under the vigorous beating of the 
 wing they would form little, if any, resistance. There is, 
 however, a special arrangement, shown in Fig. 273, by 
 which each barb is locked with its fellow by little second- 
 ary branches called barbules, that are generally serrated 
 and provided with hooks, and in this way a strong surface 
 
 is presented to the wind. Plumes, as those 
 
 of the ostrich, are 
 
 feathers without 
 
 barbules. Down 
 
 is feathers in 
 
 which the barbs 
 
 are extremely 
 
 soft and free. 
 
 The feathers 
 
 shed water by 
 
 being oiled with 
 
 a secretion the 
 
 birds take from 
 
 an oil-gland near 
 
 the tail. After 
 
 the reproductive 
 
 season, birds gen- 
 erally moult or 
 
 shed their feath- 
 ers. Some birds, 
 
 as the ptarmigan, 
 
 times a year. 
 Senses. — The eyes of some birds are remarkably pierc- 
 ing, and their vision extremely acute. All possess a third 
 eyelid or nictitating membrane (Fig. 270, 2) that covers and 
 protects the ball of the eye, so that eagles can gaze directly 
 at the sun without blinking. The eyes of these birds and 
 their allies are also provided with a ring of hard plates that 
 forms an apparatus by which the bird can adjust its sight 
 to objects near at hand or at a distance. The penguin, 
 
 Fig. 272. — Parts 
 of a feather. 
 1, quill ; 2, 
 shaft ; 3, 3, 
 vane or barbs; 
 4, accessory 
 plume. 
 
 Fig. 273. — Barb from a 
 goose - quill, showing 1 
 the hooklets highly- 
 magnified. 
 
 do this two or three 
 
232 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 that passes so much of its time under water, has a similar 
 arrangement by which it is enabled to see equally well in 
 either element. There is, as a rule, no external ear. The 
 nostrils are slits situated in the upper portion of the man- 
 dibles, and are protected with bristles or scales. The 
 songs of birds constitute their language, this being par- 
 ticularly evident in the common fowl. The sounds made 
 when a hawk approaches, when an egg has been laid, 
 when calling their young, and the " song " on warm days 
 when in search of food, are all different expressions of 
 totally different emotions. The songs of birds have 
 been set to music by Mr. X. Clarke (see " American Natu- 
 ralist," vol. xiii, page 12). 
 
 Development. — All birds are oviparous. The eggs are 
 either hatched by the male or female, or both, or by the 
 sun (gulls), or artificial heat (brush-turkey). The young 
 are generally provided with a calcareous knob upon their 
 soft bill, as in some reptiles, with which they break the 
 egg and escape. Some are at first helpless, and have to 
 be fed, while others run (chickens) or fly (maleo) imme- 
 diately upon their escape. About seven hundred species 
 of birds are found in North America north of Mexico, and 
 in all about eight thousand distinct species are known 
 throughout the world, of which the following are some of 
 the most typical and interesting examples : 
 
 Sub-Class I. — Lizard-tailed Birds (Saururce). 
 
 The first and lowest forms of birds were extremely 
 reptilian in their characteristics. The Archceopterix is a 
 remarkable fossil form found in the Jurassic slates at 
 Sohenhofen, Germany. It attained the size of a crow ; 
 the beaks were armed with conical teeth ; the tail was 
 formed by a long extension of the vertebrae, the feathers 
 growing out upon the sides, and the wings were bird-like. 
 They are all extinct. 
 
TOOTHED BIRDS. 
 
 233 
 
 Sub-Class II. — Toothed Birds (Odontornithes). 
 
 These strange fossil birds 
 were discovered in the creta- 
 ceous beds of this country by 
 Professor Marsh. Their rep- 
 tilian and fish-like characteris- 
 tics are seen in the vertebras, 
 which are biconcave. The jaws, 
 long and slender, were armed 
 with teeth (Fig. 274) placed in 
 sockets as are those of the croc- 
 odile. Some were fliers and oth- 
 ers had rudimentary wings. The 
 Hesperornis was a large aquatic 
 bird about six feet in height. 
 Its jaws were supplied with 
 teeth set in grooves, the wings 
 were useless and rudimentary, 
 while the feet were like those 
 
 FlG. 274. — Bird with teeth, showing jaw with teeth, the sockets, a tooth 
 enlarged, and section of the backbone. (After Marsh.) 
 
234 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 of modern divers, so that the bird has been termed a 
 carnivorous, swimming ostrich. They are all extinct. 
 
 Sub-Class III. — Flat-breasted Birds {Ratitd). 
 
 General Characteristics. — Birds with rudimentary, use- 
 less wings ; the sternum, or breast-bone, not keeled ; legs 
 powerful, and adapted for running. 
 
 The Apterix (Apterygida), or "kiwi-kiwi" (Fig. 275), 
 is confined to New Zealand. It attains a height of two 
 
 ;*** ' 
 
 Fig. 275. — The Apteryx, a nocturnal ground-bird. 
 
 feet, is tailless, and the wings are rudimentary. The bill 
 is long, the nostrils placed at its tip. The feathers are 
 brown and hair-like. It is nocturnal ; the nest or burrow 
 is generally placed in the ground at the root of a tree ; 
 
FLAT-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 235 
 
 a single egg being deposited, that equals one fourth the 
 weight of the bird. The feet are powerful and adapted 
 for scratching.* A remarkable extinct form of this class 
 is the gigantic moa, of 
 New Zealand (Fig. 276), 
 that lived during the 
 time of the Maoris. The 
 largest (Dinornis gigan- 
 tetis) attained a height 
 of nearly ten feet. The 
 limbs and bones were 
 larger than those of an 
 ox. The Alpyornis, an 
 extinct bird of Mada- 
 gascar, was an allied 
 form, and supposed by 
 many to be the roc of 
 the Arabian tales. Re- 
 mains of its eggs show 
 one to have been equal 
 to one hundred and fifty 
 hen's eggs. 
 
 Ostrich (Struthio- 
 nidce). — This family is 
 represented in South 
 America by the Rhea 
 
 (Rhea Americana). It is about three and a half feet in 
 height, and differs from the ostrich in the possession of 
 three toes. The head and neck are covered with downy 
 gray feathers, those of the tail being absent. They live in 
 flocks on the pampas. The male excavates the nest, and 
 afterward sits upon the eggs, and, according to some au- 
 thorities, collects them when they are left scattered about 
 
 * It is a curious fact that when sleeping these birds endeavor to 
 put the head under the wing, though the latter is entirely useless as 
 such a protection. 
 
 Fig. 276. — Wingless birds of New Zea- 
 land. The giant moa {Palapteryx) 
 and the tiny apteryx. The moa is no 
 longer to be found alive. 
 
236 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 by the hen. During this time they are extremely fierce. 
 They readily take to the water and swim well. The 
 young differ in color from the parents. 
 
 The Emeu (Dromaius Nova Hollandice) is an allied 
 form from Australia, its feathers resembling a mat of 
 long black hair. The wings are rudimentary, the nos- 
 trils are not far from the tip of the upper mandible, and 
 the three toes are of equal length. They attain a height 
 of seven feet. As with the rhea, the male attends to the 
 eggs. The young at first have a protective marking, of 
 black stripes upon a white ground. 
 
 The Cassowary {Casuarius galeatus), found in the 
 Island of Ceram and in the Indian Archipelago, also has 
 three toes, but of unequal length, and attains a height 
 of five feet or more. The body is covered with long, 
 black, hair-like feathers, the wings being represented by 
 five stiff, cylindrical shafts, that are often used as a de- 
 fense. The nostrils are placed near the middle of the 
 upper mandible, and the head is ornamented by a large, 
 horny helmet. The eggs are protected by their grayish- 
 green color. 
 
 The Ostrich (Struthio camdus) * is the largest living 
 bird, attaining a height of eight feet. It is found in the 
 deserts of Africa and Arabia. The legs are extremely 
 
 * The general color is black and gray, the tail and wing feath- 
 ers being of great size and beauty. The nest is a mere hollow in the 
 sand, in which the eggs, about thirty, are laid, each one equaling 
 about two dozen hen's eggs, and weighing about three pounds each ; in 
 the day-time being kept warm by the sun, and at night covered by 
 the male. The eggs upon the outer row are often eaten by the old 
 and young birds. Their speed is greater than that of the fleetest 
 horse. In running, the wings are spread out (Fig. 277), and per- 
 haps used as sails. Their legs are also their protection in close quar- 
 ters. Edward Verreaux, the French naturalist, saw a native instantly 
 killed by a kick from one. Their food consists of herbage of all 
 kinds, while stones and various strange articles are swallowed to aid 
 digestion. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 237 
 
 powerful, and provided with only two toes, the inner one 
 being twice as long as the outer. 
 
 Value. — The oil, skin (leather), and feathers are all used, 
 triches are now farmed in this country for their feathers. 
 
 Os- 
 
 Fig. 277. — Ostrich (Struthio camelus) running at full speed. 
 
 Sub-Class IV. — Keel-breasted Birds {Carinatce). 
 
 General Characteristics. — All the rest of the birds are 
 included in this class. They are distinguished by a keeled 
 sternum or breastbone, the fore-limbs in the higher forms 
 being developed as organs of flight. 
 
 Order I. Penguins (Sp/ienisci) . — The Penguins (Fig. 
 278) are confined to the Antarctic region, and are remark- 
 ably fish-like in their habits. The wings are small, and cov- 
 ered with scale-like feathers, and are used, as well as their 
 webbed feet, as paddles. The king-penguin {Aptenodytes 
 longirostris) is one of the largest, attaining a height of three 
 
2 3 8 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 and a half feet, colored dark above, the breast white, a 
 black patch in front being surrounded by two narrow 
 bands of bright orange-yellow. They congregate in bands, 
 and from a distance appear like soldiers marching upon 
 the sands. On Marion and other islands they breed 
 in vast numbers, living in well-organized communities.* 
 
 Fig. 278. — Albatrosses and penguins. 
 
 * The cities or rookeries of the king-penguin are extremely inter- 
 esting. They are generally upon flat ground, and divided by mound- 
 like ridges into two irregular portions. In the Lirger stand the old 
 birds, their beaks pointing upward, not outward, as generally figured in 
 books. The smaller area is the nursery, and in it, crowded together, 
 are the young, and breeding pairs, that are exceedingly ferocious, fiercely 
 attacking young intruding males, and sometimes killing them. The 
 young are curious-looking creatures, covered partly with down and 
 feathers, giving them a grotesque appearance. The breeders carry the 
 single egg about with them in a pouch between the legs for seven 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 239 
 
 They deposit one egg, that, instead of being placed upon 
 the rocks, is held in a pouch until hatched. During this 
 time they hop along, the feet being close together to hold 
 the egg in ; at other times, when not holding the egg, they 
 walk like other birds. Allied is the jackass -penguin 
 (Sp/iem'scus Magellanicus) of the Cape of Good Hope and 
 Falkland Islands. The former makes nests for its eggs 
 in the rocks, of stones and shells of balanus that are washed 
 ashore. 
 
 The rock-hopper penguin * (Eudyptes saltator) is found 
 in vast rookeries at Inaccessible Island. From the sides 
 of the head projects backward, like a quill-pen, a tuft of 
 sulphur-yellow plumes. In the water the wings are used 
 as fins. The nests are shallow depressions, containing 
 two greenish-white eggs, that are incubated by both male 
 and female. 
 
 Value. — Oil, and the skin as fur. At Heard Island the skins are 
 used as fuel in the winter. 
 
 Order II. Pygopodes. General Characteristics. — The 
 birds of this order are aquatic, some with rudimentary 
 wings, that are used almost as fins, and covered with scale- 
 weeks, when the young appear, and during this time are probably fed 
 by the males. The egg is greenish-white and pointed at the end. 
 
 * The rookeries of the rock -hoppers at Inaccessible Island are of 
 vast extent, covering one quarter of the island, and giving shelter to 
 perhaps five hundred thousand birds, and formed in the vast fields 
 of tussock-grass, that is worn out into streets, alleys, and lanes, from 
 three to five feet in width. Along these streets the nests of the pen- 
 guins are placed ; and so fierce are they, and so vast their numbers, 
 that a passage through the bird-city is attended by the greatest danger. 
 From the sea to the rookery a roadway has been worn smooth by the 
 feet of the birds, and up this highway they are seen passing in compa- 
 nies and bands. In the water, their motions are similar to those of a 
 porpoise, leaping from it in a like manner. They are remarkable for 
 their migrations. They leave Inaccessible Island April 15th ; the 
 males return the last of July, the females August 12th. Where they 
 go is not known, and, as there are no landmarks, their return is a won- 
 derful example of instinct, and only comparable to that of the seals. 
 
240 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 like feathers. The bill is flattened and knife-like, the feet 
 webbed, and placed so far back that upon shore the birds 
 stand erect. The bones of this and the preceding order 
 are solid. 
 
 Auk (Alcida). — The great auk* (Alca impennis) (Fig. 
 279) is remarkable as having become extinct since 1870, 
 and hardly seventy perfect specimens are known in the 
 world. Its length was about three feet, that of the wings 
 four inches. The bill was powerful, wings small, the back 
 black and breast white. They laid a single egg, about as 
 
 large as that of a swan, 
 spotted with small, irregu- 
 lar blotches. The little 
 auk (Simorhynchus pusillus), 
 common in the Arctic re- 
 gions, is the smallest spe- 
 cies known, being only sev- 
 en inches in length. They 
 lay on the ice or rocks a 
 small, bluish - white egg. 
 Their cry is Roit-tet-tet-iet- 
 tet, continually repeated. 
 They are found in large 
 numbers in northern Nor- 
 way. The Guillemots ( Urid) 
 (Fig. 280, 5), six species of 
 which are known in the 
 Arctic waters, have long, straight, pointed, conical bills. 
 The general color is dirty black. They breed in vast 
 quantities on inaccessible cliffs, always facing the sea. A 
 single egg is laid, and, according to Sir John Richardson, 
 
 * Three hundred years ago they were caught by the boat-load by 
 the early fishermen, and now the preserved specimens are so rare that 
 $650 was paid for one in the Museum of Natural History, New York. 
 It formerly ranged the coast of Maine, where its bones are now some- 
 times found in the shell-heaps. 
 
 Fig. 279. — Great, auk, a bird that has 
 become extinct within fourteen 
 years. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 241 
 
 the mother of the British guillemot takes the young on its 
 back and carries it to sea on the first voyage. Under 
 water the wings are used as in flying. Allied are the 
 Puffi,ns {Fratercula) (Fig. 280, 4), that have short, deep, 
 
 Fig. 280. — A group of sea-birds. 1, cormorant ; 2, black-winged tern ; 3, 
 gulls ; 4, puffins ; 5, guillemots. 
 
 wedge-shaped bills. The common puffin, or sea-parrot 
 (F. Arctica), is common on the North Atlantic coast, at- 
 taining a length of thirteen and a half inches. Their 
 nests are tunnels in the ground, at the extremity of which 
 11 
 
242 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 the single egg is placed, 
 family of rabbits. 
 
 The nest is often occupied by a 
 
 Value. — Auk and puffin leather, oil, and fur. 
 
 Loons (Colymbidce). — The great northern diver or loon 
 (C. torquatus) is a familiar example, ranging throughout 
 the whole of North America. They dive with great skill, 
 and swim under water a quarter of a mile, faster than a 
 man can row ; are good fliers, but move slowly on land. 
 The Grebes {Podicipitidce) are abundant in northern 
 America, and common in many countries ; they are dis- 
 tinguished by the structure of their feet ; the membrane, 
 instead of uniting the toes, being 
 cleft nearly to the base of the lat- 
 ter, forming membranous margins 
 (Fig. 281). The bill is long and 
 slender. The crested grebe (P. 
 cristatus) attains the length of about 
 twenty-four inches, and extent of 
 wings thirty-four. The head is or- 
 namented with a large double crest 
 of brown feathers. They frequent 
 the fresh-water lakes and streams, 
 and are powerful swimmers, often 
 remaining under water with the tip 
 of the bill exposed when pursued. 
 The nest is formed of rushes in the 
 water, and often floats about. The eggs number from 
 two to seven, and the young follow the mother as soon as 
 hatched, often taking refuge upon her back. 
 
 Note. — The nest of the Castanean grebe (P. cornutus), according 
 to Fouray, is a perfect raft, and is paddled about by the mother. 
 
 The eared, horned, Western, and red-necked grebes are 
 American species. 
 
 Value. — Skin as fur, muffs, etc= 
 
 Fig. 281. — Foot of grebe 
 (Podiceps), showing 
 swimming membrane 
 on each toe. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 243 
 
 Order III. Longipennes (Long-winged'). General 
 Characteristics. — This order includes the birds with ex- 
 tremely long, slender, and pointed wings, generally aquatic 
 but not submarine swimmers. They have wondrous pow- 
 ers of flight, and long, slender, and compressed bills ; the 
 anterior toes webbed. 
 
 The Petrels (Procellariidce) are aquatic swimming 
 birds rarely approaching the shore, except to breed. The 
 bill is complicated, seemingly composed of several parts, 
 the nostrils opening from distinct tubes. The stormy 
 petrel,* or Mother Carey's chicken (P. pelagica) y is a typi- 
 cal form. 
 
 The Giant Petrel (Ossifraga gigantea), of the South- 
 ern Ocean, is the largest. They and their large allies prey 
 upon young gulls. Among the Antarctic ice is found the 
 snow-white petrel (Pagodroma nivea). 
 
 Note. — About Kerguelen's Land the petrels invariably burrow in 
 the ground, those of the genus Oestrelata forming burrows six inches 
 in diameter, ending in a round chamber in which is placed the nest. 
 The solitary petrel forms a burrow ten feet long. The diving petrels 
 (Pelecanoides) also burrow and are wonderful divers, unlike others of 
 the tribe. 
 
 The Prions are small, gray, petrel-like birds, with 
 boat-shaped bills, that honey-comb the ground at Kergue- 
 len's Land with their nests. 
 
 The Shear- Waters (Puffimts) somewhat resemble 
 the petrels. The wandering shear-water is common on 
 the Atlantic coast, and attains the length of twenty inches, 
 the wing fourteen inches. The Antarctic species burrow, 
 the peat-beds at Tristan da Cunha being entirely honey- 
 combed by them. The European species breed on the 
 rocks and in rabbit-burrows. The largest member of 
 the family is the albatross (Fig. 278), common in the 
 
 * Petrels when placed upon the deck of a vessel have great difficulty 
 in rising. 
 
244 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Southern Ocean. They are powerful fliers, rarely ap- 
 proaching the shore except to breed. The wings spread 
 often twelve or fifteen feet ; the bill is extremely power- 
 ful, curved, and acute ; the nostrils form two tubes at the 
 base of the upper mandible. 
 
 The Wandering Albatross {Diomedea exulans). The 
 male is snow-white, except the tail, which is dark ; the 
 females are sprinkled with gray, and the young are dark 
 gray. At Marion Island they breed in great numbers, 
 seeming to lose the power of flight during the breeding- 
 season. The nest is made up of tufts of grass and moss, 
 forming a mound one foot and a half in diameter at the 
 top. The one egg is about five inches long, with red 
 specks at the large end, and does not rest in the nest, but 
 is held in a pouch in the skin. 
 
 The Mollymauk (Z>. culminata) is about the size of a 
 goose. The nest is a cylindrical pile of grass and clay, 
 about fourteen inches in diameter and twelve in height, 
 hollow on top, the edges overhanging so that they form 
 good seats when deserted. The single egg is also held in 
 a pouch. These pillar-like nests are also found in the 
 streets of the penguin cities, the ground beneath them in 
 turn being burrowed by the holes of prions and puffins. 
 At Tristan da Cunha, the albatross-nests are found in a 
 dead crater 8,000 feet above the sea. Their food is gen- 
 erally fish. 
 
 Value. — The feathers are used for various purposes, the bones of 
 the great albatross as pipe-stems, the skin of the feet as purses and 
 pouches. The oil of the petrel is used for illumination in the Azores. 
 Guano is obtained from their resorts. 
 
 The Gulls {Stercorariidcs) are found in northern and 
 southern seas. The general color is various shades of 
 white and black ; the bill is shorter than the head, com- 
 pressed, the nostrils not forming tubes but slits ; the feet 
 webbed, and adapted for swimming. They are large and 
 buoyant and do not dive, though many plunge completely 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 245 
 
 under water after their prey (Fig. 280, 3). The common 
 tern (Fig. 280, 2) {Sterna hirundo) is found in Europe and 
 North America. The bill is long, slender, and pointed, 
 the tail long and forked. The nest is a mere depression in 
 the sand, three spotted eggs being laid in each. During 
 the day the sun warms them, the mother performing her 
 office only at night. The roseate tern is a familiar form. 
 
 The Noddy Terns (Anons stolidus) have a wide geo- 
 graphical range. They are mild and beautiful creatures. 
 At Tortugas they erect rude nests composed of twigs of 
 bay-cedar dropped together upon the bushes, upon the 
 top of which is laid the single, nearly white egg. At St. 
 Paul's Rocks the noddies build a fanciful nest of sea-weed, 
 cemented together and attached to the rock, a lace-like 
 fringe hanging down all around. Upon this platform or 
 bracket the single egg is placed. 
 
 The Laughing Gull (Zarus atricilla) * is found upon 
 the tropical and temperate coasts of North America. 
 
 The Arctic Tern {Sterna macrurd) is the only suc- 
 cessful enemy of the skua, pursuing it with extreme ferocity. 
 Its eggs are deposited among the stones and mimic the 
 lichen-covered pebbles, this protective mimicry being car- 
 ried out in the downy young. 
 
 The most powerful of the gull family is the skua (Ster- 
 corarius). It has a wide geographical range, the various 
 species being found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions 
 of various countries. 
 
 The Parasitic Jager, of the Arctic region of Europe 
 and North America, follows terns and gulls, forcing them 
 to disgorge their prey. 
 
 The Antarctic Skua (S. Antarcticus) has all the qual- 
 
 * At Tortugas they follow the brown pelican, systematically rob- 
 bing it. When the latter tosses a fish preparatory to swallowing it, 
 the laughing gull with its victorious " Ha-ha ! " alights on its back, leans 
 forward and snatches the morsel and flies away, generally to be robbed 
 in turn by the man-of-war bird (Fig. 283). 
 
246 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 ities of the eagle, being a bird of prey. The beak is 
 sharp and curved, the claws at the tip of the webbed toes 
 are sharp and talon-like. They prey upon the prions and 
 other birds, dragging them from their holes, or hunting 
 them after the fashion of the hawk. In general color they 
 are brown. They are so ferocious as to even attack man.* 
 In the penguin-streets of Tristan da Cunha the nests of 
 skuas are seen on mounds, surrounded by well-picked 
 skeletons of prions. The eggs are large and two in num- 
 ber. The northern skua {Lestris parasitica) is equally pred- 
 atory, attacking other birds, sucking the eggs of the eider 
 and other ducks often to such an extent that they can not 
 fly away. It breeds on the unsheltered rocks, forming no 
 nest, the eggs, two in number, being per- 
 fectly protected by their resemblance to 
 the ground. If, however, an enemy ap- 
 proaches, the skuas shuffle off as if wound- 
 ed, and thus avert the danger. 
 
 Order IV. Steganopodes {foot-cov- 
 ered}. General 
 Ch a racteristics. — 
 The birds of this 
 order are aquatic 
 and characterized 
 by short, partly - 
 hidden, completely 
 webbed feet, and 
 an unfeathered 
 
 pouch beneath the FIG. 282.— Brown pelican (Pelecanus fuscus). 
 
 bill capable in some 
 
 of extraordinary expansion. The tropic birds, gannets, 
 
 darters, and cormorants, are representatives. 
 
 * Professor Moseley states that at Kerguelen's Land and other 
 localities they had to beat them off with clubs, and that when a duck 
 was shot the skuas would often pounce upon it, so that two shots were 
 reauired to obtain a single bird. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 y A7 
 
 The Pelicans (Pe/ecam'dcs), of which two species are 
 known in the United States, are distinguished by their 
 long beaks hooked at the end, and enormous pouch de- 
 pending from the lower mandible. The brown pelican 
 {Pelecanus fuscus) (Fig. 282) is common in the South. 
 
 Value. — The oil of various gulls is used by the Esquimaux as 
 lamp-oil. The breast-feathers of gulls are valuable in trade and used 
 as " roll-plumes." 
 
 The White 
 Pelican {P. 
 
 trachyrhynchus) 
 ranges from north- 
 ern Florida north- 
 ward, and former- 
 ly bred about the 
 Great Salt Lake. 
 They never dive 
 for fish, but swim 
 along, plunging 
 their heads into the 
 water, relying upon 
 
 their quickness. They shed their crest in a manner some- 
 what similar to the casting of a deer's horns. 
 
 Value. — The brown pelican is eaten at St. Thomas, and the leather 
 of the pouch and fur is utilized. 
 
 The Frigate - Birds {Tachypetidce), or man-of-war 
 hawks (Fig. 283), are confined to the warmer regions. The 
 membrane beneath the throat is a bright vermilion. The 
 bill is long, sharp, and hooked at the end, the wings long 
 and extremely powerful,* the tail forked. On Ascension 
 
 * At Tortugas, Fla., it was the custom of a number of these birds to 
 station themselves over the lighthouse about two thousand yards up, 
 during the prevalence of the heaviest gales, and through the glass 
 they seemed to rest on the wind, the wings being merely outstretched, 
 and no movement being noticed except an occasional pitching down, 
 
 Fig. 283. — Frigate-bird {Tacky 'petes aquild). 
 
248 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Island they form nests in the guano-beds, and at Fernando 
 do Norhona the nests are built on the edge of high preci- 
 pices and contain a single egg. The T. minor, at Raine 
 
 
 Fig. 284. — Red-headed pochard (Fulzgula), showing position in 
 alighting. 
 
 Island, northeast Australia, builds as a nest a platform of 
 twigs about eight inches in diameter, raised in the bushes. 
 
 The American spe- 
 cies has a strong, musky- 
 odor. They follow gulls 
 on the Florida reef, forc- 
 ing them to disgorge fish. 
 Their oil is sometimes 
 used in medicine. 
 
 Order V. Ducks 
 and Geese (Lamelliros- 
 tres). Ducks (A natidce). 
 — About fifty-nine spe- 
 cies of ducks (Fig. 284) 
 are known in North 
 America. They are 
 swimming birds, and have a wide geographical range, all 
 
 Fig. 285. — Swan swimming, showing 
 the web expanded and closed. 
 
 then up. They faced the wind, which tended to blow them up and 
 away, but by pitching down slightly they seemed to ride on the gale — 
 like a kite — gravity acting as the string. They would retain this posi- 
 tion for hours, and it was never attempted except when the wind was 
 blowing a gale. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 249 
 
 the toes except the hind one being connected by a web 
 (Fig. 285). They are distinguished by the bill, which is 
 broad and flattened, covered with a tender, sensitive cov- 
 ering. The edges of both mandibles are furnished with a 
 series of fine, tooth-like plates that interlock and form a 
 strainer ; the upper mandible ends in a rounded nail. 
 
 The hooded merganser, eider-duck (Somateria mollis- 
 sima), and the Labrador duck (Camptolcemus), are represent- 
 atives ; the latter is remarkable as having become extinct 
 within a few years. It ranged as far south as New Jersey. 
 The wood-ducks (Aix sponsa) are found all over the United 
 States, and winter in the South. The nest is occasionally 
 placed in hollow trees, in which case they bring the young 
 down in their beaks. 
 
 The Kerguelen's Land teal (Q. Eatoni) * is peculiar to 
 that country and the Crozet Islands. 
 
 The Canada goose (Branta Canade?isis) is the common 
 wild goose of North America. They attain a length of 
 about three feet, and migrate south in the winter, flying 
 in long lines or triangles, generally led by a drake. They 
 nest in timber along streams. The brant, snow, ross, and 
 black geese are allied forms. 
 
 The swans are characterized by long, snake-like necks 
 that add to the grace and beauty of their appearance. The 
 trachea or windpipe is consequently extremely long, espe- 
 cially in the trumpeter, in which it enters a cavity in the 
 breast-bone, makes a turn, forming a large coil, finally lead- 
 ing to the lungs. 
 
 The whistling swan (Cygnus Americanus) ranges over 
 North America. 
 
 * In Three Isle Harbor, Kerguelen's Land, Professor Moseley ap- 
 proached a flock of these birds to shoot them ; having never seen man 
 before, they ran at him in lines, seven in a row, each led by a drake, 
 and gathered about him like farm-yard fowl, gazing with apparent aston- 
 ishment. When the nests were approached, they fluttered away, as if 
 injured, a trick common in many of our birds. 
 
250 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Y '^ The black swan 
 
 lHI (C. atratus) (Fig. 
 
 ^T 286) of Australia is 
 
 ■ ^ a beautiful bird. 
 
 jS They breed in the 
 
 Fig. 286.— Black swan of Australia. 
 
 the time of incuba- 
 tion being about 
 six weeks. When 
 the female leaves 
 the nest, the male 
 always takes her 
 place. 
 
 Value. — The flesh, quills, and feathers, and as game. 
 
 Fig. 287. — The flamingo, a wading bird. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 251 
 
 The Flamingo (jPncenicopterid<z) (Fig. 287) is common 
 in the warmer portions of America, also southern Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa. They connect the swimming with the 
 wading birds. 
 
 Value. — Feathers. 
 
 Order VI. Wading Birds {Grallatores). General 
 Characteristics. — The birds of this order are characterized 
 
 Fig. 2S8.— A group of wading birds. 1, stilt ; 2, avocet ; 3, peewit ; 4, 
 dunlins ; 5, curlew sandpiper ; 6, sanderling ; 7, oyster-catcher ; 8, curlew ; 
 9, turnstone. 
 
 by long legs and neck, bill generally long, body com- 
 pressed, the wings short and rounded. The rails are run- 
 ners, and the cranes essentially wading birds and slow fliers. 
 
 The Cranes (Gruidce) are large birds, the head 
 sometimes devoid of feathers, the legs long, the toes not 
 webbed, the hinder one being highly elevated. 
 
 The sand-hill crane (Grus Canadensis) is a common 
 American form. They attain a length of four feet, and their 
 
252 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 nests are built on open plains in the West, often six 
 thousand feet above the sea. Many winter in Cuba. The 
 whooping crane (G. America?ia) attains a length of four 
 and a half feet, and is found in the interior from the Gulf 
 of Mexico to Minnesota. The demoiselle crane {Balearica) 
 is a beautiful species from southern Europe and Africa. 
 The head bears a curious, straw-colored brush. The 
 South American trumpeter (Cariama) is an interesting 
 form found on the elevated plateaus. Allied are the cry- 
 ing birds (Aramidce), rails, gallinules, coots, etc. 
 
 The Gallinula gigantea in 1694 lived in the Mascarene 
 Islands, but is now extinct. It was a rail six feet in height. 
 Another allied form was the Notomis, supposed to be ex- 
 tinct, and known up to 1850 only by its fossil bones ; a 
 specimen was discovered alive in New Zealand in i860. 
 It is now probably extinct. 
 
 Value. — All are valued as game, and the rich feathers of the gal- 
 linules for various ornamental purposes. 
 
 Avocets (Rccurvirostridci) (Fig. 288, 2) are distin- 
 guished by their long legs and bills, the latter turning up- 
 ward. The American avocet (R. Ai7ierica?ia) ranges the 
 entire area of North America. Their general length is 
 eighteen inches, the wings eight inches. The head and 
 neck are colored a reddish brown, the wing-coverts and 
 back black, the lower portion white. The nest is formed 
 of dry grasses and weeds in the high grass near the water, 
 and generally contains four eggs. 
 
 Phalaropes {Phalai'opodidce) have toes with narrow 
 lobes or expansions as we have seen in the grebes and 
 coots, enabling them to swim and walk over the sea- weed 
 far out to sea. Only three species are known, and all 
 found in America. 
 
 In the Snipes (Scolopacidce) the bill is elongated and 
 soft-skinned. The sexes are generally alike. The Amer- 
 ica woodcock (Philo/iela minor) is found in eastern United 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 253 
 
 States, and other species in Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
 They go south in October, return in March, and lay in 
 April. The nest is on the ground and formed of leaves. 
 The eggs, generally four, are light reddish-yellow in color, 
 with red and brown protective markings. The mother- 
 
 FlG. 289. — Ruff {Machetes pugnax). 
 
 birds are noted for their care of the young, and have been 
 seen taking one between their legs and flying off at the 
 approach of danger. The American or Wilson's snipe 
 {Gallinago Wilsoni) is a typical form inhabiting the en- 
 tire continent. It attains a length of eleven inches. The 
 
254 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 bill is long and straight. Their flight is erratic. The 
 nests are in the grass and formed of leaves. The eggs, 
 usually four, simulate the color of the surroundings in 
 their greenish-white, gray, and brown tints. They affect 
 lameness and broken wings to attract attention from the 
 nest. Allied are the spoon-billed sand-piper, sanderling 
 (Fig. 288, 6), godwit, curlew sand-piper (Fig. 288, 5), and 
 the ruff (Fig. 289), the plovers, turn-stones (Fig. 288, 9), 
 oyster-catchers (Fig. 288, 7), and the curious sheath-bill 
 
 Fig. 290. — The sheath-bill (Chiornis minor) of Kerguelen Island. 
 
 (Chiomis) (Fig. 290) of Kerguelen Island. They are con- 
 fined to a few localities in the Antarctic regions, and are 
 so tame that they follow visitors about like chickens, and 
 are readily taken by hand. They are closely allied to the 
 oyster-catchers {H<z?natopodidcz). ■ 
 
 The Spoonbills (Plataleidce) have the bills com- 
 pressed and enlarged at the tip. The roseate spoonbill 
 (Ajaja rosed) is common in the Southern States, attaining 
 a length of thirty inches, the wing about fifteen, and the 
 bill seven and a half. The general color is a pale rose-red. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 255 
 
 A white species is found in Europe and Asia. They nest 
 in communities in trees, depositing from two to four thick- 
 shelled, whitish eggs with reddish-gray and yellow spots. 
 The ibis is an allied form. 
 
 The Storks (Ciconiidce) have long, slender legs, the bill 
 extremely stout and thick. The South American jabiru 
 (Mycteria America- 
 na) is the only repre- 
 sentative in Ameri- 
 ca. The Australian 
 jabiru is one of the 
 handsomest of the 
 family, and has a 
 wide range in that 
 country. The white 
 stork {Ciconia alba) 
 (Fig. 291) is a com- 
 mon Europeanform, 
 with strong, conical, 
 pointed bill. In the 
 winter they migrate 
 southward. They 
 frequent marshes. 
 
 Allied is the 
 pouched stork or 
 adjutant of India 
 (Fig. 292), that has 
 a curious skinny 
 pouch hanging un- 
 der the throat. 
 
 They attain a height of five feet. A tame one has been 
 known to swallow a whole boiled fowl, and to snap up 
 a live cat. Allied to this group is the remarkable whale- 
 headed stork {Balceniceps rex), in which the beak resembles 
 a wooden shoe. They frequent the banks of the White 
 Nile. The nest is a simple hole in the ground. The 
 
 Fig. 291. — The white stork. 
 
256 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 marabou stork, from which the feathers of that name 
 come, is the most valuable of the family. 
 
 Fig. 292. — The adjutant-bird, showing the foot resting from heel to toe 
 upon the ground. 
 
 Herons (Ardeidce). — The great blue heron {Ardea 
 herodias) is a familiar example in the Eastern States, rang- 
 ing as far south as Guatemala, Central America. They 
 
 Fig. 293. — European heron {Ardea cinerea) in full flight — a slow flier. 
 
 attain a length of four feet, and are slow fliers (Fig, 293). 
 The general color is grayish-blue, with black and white 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 257 
 
 markings. In the breeding-season the back of the head 
 bears a crest. They breed in Carolina near the sea and 
 in New Jersey in the cedar-swamps, returning to the same 
 locality for successive years. They feed upon fish and 
 various small water-animals. The Florida great white 
 and green herons are all familiar American forms. The 
 cattle-heron [Babulcus ibis), of Africa, follows herds of ele- 
 phants and buffaloes for the purpose of obtaining the in- 
 sects that infest them. The American bittern (Botaurus 
 minor) is found in all parts of temperate North America 
 and as far south as Guatemala. They are nocturnal, 
 feeding at night, and utter a strange, booming call or 
 note. They are known to nest at Hudson's Bay in June, 
 the nests being formed in swamps, and containing four 
 green eggs. 
 
 Value. — Feathers, and as game. 
 
 The Bustards (Otididce) of the Old World form, to 
 some extent, a connecting link between the wading and 
 scratching birds. 
 
 Order VII. Scratching Birds (Gai/incz). General 
 Characteristics. — These land-birds are poor fliers, have 
 short, stout bills, powerful feet for scratching, and the 
 hind-toe generally elevated. The domestic fowl is a typi- 
 cal form. 
 
 Fig. 294. — Red-legged partridge {Perdix rub?-a) in full flight— a rapid flier. 
 
 The Partridges (Perdicidtz) (Fig. 294) are small 
 birds of compact form, with short beak, the nostrils pro- 
 
258 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 tected by a scale. They have a world-wide distribution. 
 The Bob White (Ortyx Virginiand) is a familiar form, 
 about nine and a half inches in length, the general color 
 chestnut-red, barred and streaked with lighter tints below, 
 the head richly marked with black and white streaks. In 
 the female the white markings of the head are brownish- 
 yellow. They nest in the grass, laying from ten to fifteen 
 white eggs. To divert attention from the young, the 
 mother has been known to throw herself at the feet of a 
 sportsman and pretend to be dying, suddenly recovering 
 when the young had escaped. In Pennsylvania they are 
 known as partridges, and in New York as quails. 
 
 The plumed partridge (Oreortyx pictus) and the Cali- 
 fornia quail (Lophortyx) are other forms. 
 
 Value. — As game. The Chinese quail {Coturnix) is only four 
 inches in length, and is kept in cages for its fighting propensities, and 
 formerly for the singular purpose of warming the hands of its owner 
 in winter. 
 
 Grouse (Tetrao?iidce). — About fifteen species are known. 
 The prairie-hen [Cupidonia cupidd) is a familiar ex- 
 ample. Its length is about seventeen inches. From the 
 sides of the neck extends a tuft of pointed feathers, be- 
 neath which is a bare spot capable of inflation, and in- 
 tensely red. They range from the prairies southward to 
 Louisiana. In early spring they congregate, and are ex- 
 tremely pugnacious, fighting for their mates, and uttering 
 curious booming sounds that can be heard a mile. The 
 nest is formed, between April and May, of leaves of grass, 
 and concealed in the grass. The eggs, eight to twelve in 
 number, are light-colored, and are hatched in about nine- 
 teen days. The mother shows great intelligence in trying 
 to allure invaders from the nest. In most parts of the 
 Scandinavian Peninsula is found the noblest ally of this 
 family — the capercali (Tetrao urogallus). The black cock 
 (Lyrurus tetrix) of Europe is an equally rich form. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 2 $g 
 
 The white ptarmigan (Lagopus albus) somewhat re- 
 sembles the grouse ; the feet and toes, however, are cov- 
 ered with feathers. The general hue is a cinnamon- 
 brown, variegated with darker tints. The plumage changes 
 with the seasons, and in winter is a dazzling white, the 
 claws being shed also. They live in communities, and 
 during the breeding-season unite in large flocks. The 
 nests, of grass, earth, and feathers, are concealed with 
 great skill, and contain from twelve to sixteen yellowish 
 or reddish-brown, spotted eggs. 
 Value. — As game. 
 
 The Wild Turkey {Meleagris gallopavo) of the Unit- 
 ed States is an allied form, four feet in length, the general 
 coloring a glossy, coppery black. The neck is unfeath- 
 ered, the breast of the male bearing a tuft of long bristles. 
 There are only two species, and from the Mexican vari- 
 ety is descended the common turkey. They are strictly 
 American birds. The Pheasants (Phasianidce) form a 
 large and beautiful group of birds confined to the Old 
 World. The peacock (Pavo cristatus), that was first in- 
 troduced into Europe by Alexander the Great, is a familiar 
 type. The Argus pheasant {Argusianus giganteus), from 
 Sumatra, is one of the most remarkable. The Chinese 
 golden pheasant (Phaslanus pictus) is a resplendent species. 
 
 Value. — Peacock oil, fat, and feathers, are all valuable articles of 
 trade. Pheasants as game, and their feathers in decoration. 
 
 The Domestic Fowl (Gallinci) came originally from 
 the jungle-fowl of India. Allied are the Guinea-fowl. 
 
 Mound-Builders {Megapodidce). — This strange group 
 of Old World birds are allies of the preceding family, and 
 are confined to Australia and India. The wattled tale- 
 gallus (Talegallus Lathami) * in general appearance resem- 
 
 * In early spring the bird throws together a heap of decayed 
 leaves, etc., amounting often to two or three cart-loads, arranged in a 
 
26o 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 bles our common turkey, though smaller, being only two 
 and a half feet long. It is found in New South Wales, and 
 is remarkable for its method of hatching its eggs. 
 
 The ocellated leipoa {Leipoa ocellata) of western Aus- 
 tralia forms a mound of fine iron-stone gravel, mixed with 
 vegetable matter, forty-five feet in circumference and near- 
 ly five feet high, the heat developed in the interior being 
 
 Fig. 295. — Brush-turkeys and their egg-mounds. 
 
 pyramidal form four feet in height, the leaves being grasped in the 
 claws and hurled backward, as shown in Fig. 295. The mass soon fer- 
 ments, producing heat, and in it the white eggs are buried, fifteen 
 inches deep, in a circle, the large end upward, and from nine to twelve 
 inches apart, an opening being left in the center to govern the tem- 
 perature of the mound, the birds also exposing the eggs on warm days. 
 The young are hatched in thirty days, remaining in the mound twelve 
 hours after being hatched. On the second night they return to the 
 mound, and are partly covered by the male, the next day being able to 
 fly and remain with the parents. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 2 6i 
 
 about 89 . The light-brown eggs are placed in a circle, 
 the pointed ends downward, separated by about three 
 inches of earth, and about them are often seen the gal- 
 leries of the white ants, that form the first food for the 
 young. The young, when hatched, scratch out alone, and 
 are perfectly featherless. The mother, however, takes care 
 of the brood after they come out. 
 
 The megapodius (Megapodius tumulus), of Australia, is 
 about the size of a pheasant, of a reddish-brown color, and 
 a wily mimic when alarmed, alighting on a limb and crouch- 
 ing close, extending its neck so as easily to be mistaken 
 for a dead branch. The mounds are generally near the 
 water, and sometimes measure a hundred and fifty feet 
 in circumference and fifteen or twenty feet in height ; in 
 this case, probably, the w T ork of generations. The white 
 eggs are extremely large, and over three inches long, and are 
 placed in the top of the mound at intervals near the sides, 
 at a depth of six feet, the larger end being upward. The 
 young, as soon as hatched, are able to care for themselves, 
 though they undoubtedly follow the mother. 
 
 The breeding habits of the Maleo (Megacephalon ma- 
 /eo)* of the Island of Celebes, are still more remarkable, and 
 exactly like those of the turtle. They resemble the Guinea 
 fowl, but have a hard, round excrescence on the head. 
 
 Allied are the Curassows, the strange hoasin, in 
 which the keel of the breast-bone is cut away in front. 
 
 * In August and September they go to the shore, and male and fe- 
 male excavate a hole in the volcanic sand four feet deep, just above 
 high-water mark. A single pale brick-red egg is deposited and light- 
 ly covered ; ten or twelve days later the female returns, and so on 
 until six or eight have been laid, and several hens that have come 
 ten or fifteen miles for the same purpose may lay in the same hole. 
 The young birds are hatched by heat in the sand, and break the shell 
 and struggle up through the ground like turtles, where they are ena- 
 bled to immediately take wing — a wonderful and necessary provision 
 — as they never see the parents, and are at once thrown upon their 
 own resources. 
 
262 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Order VIII. Pigeons (Columba). General Charac- 
 teristics. — The pigeons (Fig. 296) and doves are charac- 
 terized by heavy bodies and short legs. The bill is short, 
 straight, and compressed, the nostrils protected by a fleshy 
 scale. They live in communities, and are, strictly speak- 
 ing, ground-birds. The rock dove is the progenitor of the 
 common stock. The ground dove {Cha?ncepelia passerina) 
 ranges the United States from Washington to the South 
 
 Fig. 296. — Wood-pigeon on her rude nest. 
 
 Atlantic and Gulf coasts. They attain a length of six 
 and a half inches. The general color is a grayish olive 
 with a bluish gloss, the bill black with a yellow tip, and 
 the iris of the eye orange-red. They congregate in flocks 
 of four or five, and nest in low bushes. The Carolina and 
 scaly doves are other American forms. 
 
 The passenger pigeon* (Ectopistes migratorius) is a 
 
 * These migrations are, as we shall see in the lemings, squirrels, 
 rats, etc., not confined to any special time, but are made to obtain a 
 new food-supply. Wilson estimated that a flock contained 2,000,- 
 000,000,000 birds, and consumed per day 17,427,000 bushels of corn. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 263 
 
 typical form, found east of the central plains of North 
 America. They migrate in communities of millions, cov- 
 ering every limb and branch of forests twenty or thirty 
 miles in extent, breaking down great trees and limbs, 
 rising in the air like clouds, darkening the sun, and creat- 
 ing a sound with their wings like the roaring of a hurri- 
 cane, or of distant thunder ; and so rapid is their flight 
 that they attain a speed of more than a mile a minute. 
 The nests are of twigs rudely placed together, often one 
 hundred in a single tree, in which two eggs are laid, pro- 
 ducing generally a male and female. They are fed with 
 a milky fluid from the stomach of the parents. 
 
 Of all the 
 pigeons of the 
 Old World, the 
 crowned pigeon 
 (Goura victor ce) 
 of New Guinea 
 and the toothed 
 pigeon (Didun- 
 culus sirigiros- 
 tris), of the Nav- 
 igator Islands, 
 are most re- 
 markable. 
 
 The famous 
 dodo (Didus in- 
 eptus) (Fig. 297) 
 
 lived upon the Island of Mauritius in 1598, but so com- 
 plete is its extinction by man that it is now only known by 
 a few pictures, bones, feathers, and other parts, in a few 
 museums. It was a pigeon-like bird as large as a swan, 
 with an enormous hooked bill and rudimentary feathers. 
 
 The solitaire (D. solitarius) and Nazarene (D. nazare- 
 nus) are other allies that have disappeared within com- 
 paratively a few years. 
 
 Fig. 297. — Dodo, an extinct giant pigeon. 
 
264 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Value. — As game. Pigeon-oil is used by Indians, and the birds 
 do a great work in dispersing seeds. After the Dutch Government at 
 the Moluccas destroyed all the nutmeg-trees on all the islands except 
 Great Banda, they were obliged to send a yearly commission to destroy 
 those that grew from nutmeg-seeds transported there in the crops of 
 the fruit-pigeons (Carpophaga concinnd). Coffee-seeds and many oth- 
 ers are in this way carried from place to place. 
 
 Note. — The Feejee pigeons {Chryscena) have remarkable feathers 
 upon the breast and neck. The barbs are devoid of barbules, having 
 instead small swellings arranged along at intervals, giving the plumage 
 a remarkably loose appearance. 
 
 Order IX. Birds of Prey (Raptor es). General Char- 
 acteristics. — The birds of this order correspond in their 
 habits to the carnivorous mammals. They prey upon 
 animals dead or alive, and for the purpose have hooked 
 bills, and powerful claws. 
 
 In the Vultures (Catkartidce), the head and part of 
 
 the neck is bare, 
 and the wings pow- 
 erful. The Califor- 
 nia condor (Pseudo- 
 gryphus California- 
 nus) rivals the great 
 condor of the Andes 
 in size, and four of 
 them have been seen 
 to drag a young 
 grizzly bear several 
 hundred feet. Their 
 total length is about 
 fifty inches, and the 
 spread of wings 
 nine feet. They 
 soar high and sight 
 their food, which 
 reat distances. The nest, 
 
 Fig. 29S. — Turkey buzzard. 
 
 consists of dead animals, from 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 265 
 
 rudely constructed of sticks, is placed upon rocks and 
 other eminences. 
 
 Note. — The author once made the acquaintance of a caged con- 
 dor that soon learned to recognize him, stretching out its head to be 
 scratched like a dog, delicately nibbling at his fingers, and showing 
 every evidence of good-fellowship. Its dignified movements are in 
 strange contrast to those of the shuffling, ungainly eagles. 
 
 Fig. 299. — Condor. 
 
 The turkey buzzard (Fig. 298) {Cathartes aura), the 
 condor (Fig. 299) of the Andes, and the king-vulture of 
 Mexico and South America, are other familiar forms. 
 12 
 
266 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Of the Old World vultures the Lammergyer (Gyfiaetus 
 barbatus) is the largest. 
 
 In Africa is found the long-legged secretary vulture 
 (G. serpentarhis). 
 
 Value. — They are scavengers, and the quills are used in trade. 
 
 Fig. 3C0. — Eagle, nest, and young. 
 
 The Falcons (Falconidce) have strongly-hooked beaks 
 and claws, and are adapted for securing living prey. 
 The bald eagle {Haliaetus leucocephalus) is a typical 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 267 
 
 form, ranging throughout temperate North America, and 
 attains a length of three feet and stretch of wing of 
 seven feet. The general color is brown, the neck, head, 
 and tail white after the third year. They are arrant cow- 
 ards, driven about by the small king-bird, and stealing 
 the hard - earned plunder of the osprey. The nest is 
 generally in a tall tree, composed of sticks, sods, etc., 
 and added to year by year, often assuming great pro- 
 portions. 
 
 In South America the harpy eagle ( Thrascetus harpyid) 
 is most formidable and preys upon the sloth, while the 
 sea, golden* (Fig. 300), imperial and African screaming 
 eagles are other typical forms. 
 
 The hawks are much smaller than the eagles, and, 
 including the latter, fifty-three species are known in 
 North America. The sharp-shinned hawk (Acdpiter fus- 
 cus) is common all over North America. The female, 
 contrary to the rule among birds, is larger than the 
 male. 
 
 The swallow-tailed kite {Elanoides forficatus) \ is pe- 
 culiarly an American bird. In their habits and flight they 
 resemble the swallows, and also feed upon insects, wasps, 
 and grasshoppers, and have been seen darting about in 
 a swarm of bees, catching them in their claws and eat- 
 ing them. The prairie falcon, sparrow hawk, osprey, gos- 
 hawks, harriers, etc., are other familiar forms. 
 
 * These birds are extremely powerful, and have been known to 
 carry off large animals and children, and in one instance a golden 
 eagle attacked a pig and was carrying it off when the owner rushed 
 out. The eagle then dropped the pig, and attacked the man wirh 
 such fury that only the timely assistance of several villagers saved his 
 life. 
 
 f Prof. Moseley saw a kite of another genus (Mihus) at Cape 
 Verd Islands that had the habits of a gull and flew about the ship, 
 picking up with its feet bits of garbage, eating also on the wing. 
 One of the birds was seized by a shark while it was fishing, and after 
 a short struggle drawn under water. 
 
268 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Note. — Over nine species of hawks and falcons were formerly used 
 in hunting ; as early as 400 B. c. this sport was indulged in, and in 
 the reign of Edward III to kill a falcon was punished with death. In 
 1290 Kublai Khan in Central Asia had no less than ten thousand fal- 
 cons. The khan rode upon an elephant, and his army of ten thousand 
 formed a great circle to catch the birds. The eight hundred falcons 
 of the King of Persia in the seventeenth century were trained to hunt 
 wild boars, asses, antelopes, and foxes, and to blind them. The sport 
 is carried on to this day near Abasheher, Persia. The Bedouins of the 
 Sahara capture large numbers to sell. 
 
 Value. — Hawk and eagle quills are valued in trade. 
 
 The Owls (Strigidce) have large heads, the eyes direct- 
 ed forward, the plumage soft, rendering the flight noise- 
 less, ear-tufts in some conspicuous, claws long and sharp. 
 They have a world-wide range, and are generally noctur- 
 nal. About forty American species are known. 
 
 The great horned owl (Bubo Virginiajius) (Fig. 301), 
 and the screech owls, are common American forms. 
 
 The snowy owl (Nyctea nived) is found in the northern 
 portion of both continents, and is generally pure white, 
 more or less barred with dark tints. It winters in New 
 England and as far north as Spitzbergen, living in the 
 ptarmigan fells, preying upon these birds and capturing 
 them easily. From its remarkable resemblance to them, 
 the ptarmigans often mistake it for one of their kind. 
 They see readily in the day-time, and in northern Asia 
 follow the lemmings and other small animals. 
 
 The burrowing owl * (Spheotyto cunicularia, var. hypo- 
 gad) is peculiar to America. They live in the burrows of 
 the prairie-dogs, often in company with rattlesnakes. 
 
 Order X. Parrots (Psittaci). General Characteris- 
 tics. — The birds of this order are characterized by heavy, 
 
 * In South America the burrowing owl {Athene) lives in the burrow 
 of the Lagostomus, the Agouti also making use of the den. That it 
 is laziness on the part of the owl is shown by the fact that if the Lagos- 
 tomus is not in its neighborhood, it digs its own burrow. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 269 
 
 p^" 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 301. — A group of night-birds — owls. 
 
 stout, often enormous bills, the base, as in the hawks, cov- 
 ered by a soft skin. The tongue is short and fleshy, and 
 the beak of the upper jaw is articulated to the skull so 
 that it is free to an unusual extent. They are, as a rule, 
 
270 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Fig. 302.— Carolina parrot. 
 
 poor fliers, and are remarkable for their gorgeous plumage 
 
 and their power of imitating the sounds of other animals. 
 
 The Carolina 
 parroquet [Conu- 
 rus Carolinensis) 
 (Fig. 302), and 
 perhaps two oth- 
 ers, that have been 
 shot in Texas, are 
 the only repre- 
 sentatives in the 
 United States. 
 The former is 
 about thirteen 
 inches in length, 
 the general color 
 green,* neck and 
 head yellow, the 
 face red, bill 
 
 white, wings blue and yellow. They fly in flocks, feed- 
 ing upon nuts and seeds, 
 
 and show the greatest 
 
 affection for their mates 
 
 or wounded companions. 
 
 They are' undoubtedly 
 
 doomed to extinction. 
 
 Allied are the cockatoos, 
 
 lories, etc. 
 
 Note. — One of the most re- 
 markable parrots is the kea 
 (Nestor notabilis) of New Zea- 
 land (Fig. 303). The general 
 colors are brown and gray, 
 the under portions red. The 
 upper mandible is extremely 
 long and sickle-shaped. Since 
 the introduction of sheep into 
 
 Fig. 303.— A carnivorous parrot {Nes- 
 tor mirabilis). 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 271 
 
 that country, these birds have developed a taste for them, and in con- 
 sequence are in a fair way of being exterminated. This habit was first 
 noticed in 1868, and the wound was always on the back in front of the 
 hips. In one station on the Matataapu, nineteen out of a flock of 
 twenty rams were killed by these parrots in a month. In another 
 flock of three hundred and ten young, two hundred and five were killed 
 in five months. Men are now employed to kill them. 
 
 Value. — Parrot feathers are used in trade, and the nestor is eaten. 
 
 Order XI. Woodpeckers, etc. (Picarice). 
 
 The Yellow-billed Cuckoo {Coccyzus Americanus) is 
 found throughout the whole extent of North America, 
 from Canada to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pa- 
 cific. They are twelve inches in length. They pair in 
 May, the rude nest* of twigs being often placed in an 
 apple-tree. The eggs, generally three or four, are of a 
 greenish blue. The female often feigns lameness in order 
 to divert attention from the nest. 
 
 The Ani, or tick-eater (Crotophaga am), of Florida, and 
 south to Brazil, is an allied form, and remarkable for its 
 thin, arched, sharply-curved bill. They may with many 
 others be termed guardian birds, as they are often seen 
 clinging to the ears, tail, horns, and hair of cattle, carefully 
 catching ticks and other parasites. 
 
 The Trogons (Trogonida) are found in North and 
 South America, India, and Africa. The Mexican trogon 
 
 * The Old World cuckoos are remarkable for their habit of slyly 
 depositing their eggs in the nests of other birds, thus shirking the 
 work of incubation. In Australia they are often placed in a nest hardly 
 large enough for one, and the knowledge of this seems to be instinctive 
 in the young, for as soon as hatched it tumbles out the young and eggs 
 that really belong there by pushing under them, and thus receives all 
 the food-supply. The English, nearly all the Australian, and the 
 Indian black cuckoos have this habit, the latter placing their eggs 
 in the nests of crows. An allied bird of Africa, the honey-guide, preys 
 upon the nests of honey-bees, and is protected by a remarkable cover- 
 ing of skin and feathers, the former so thick that a pin can hardly be 
 thrust through it. 
 
BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 ■ ^ 
 
 / 
 
 Fig. 304. — Trogon. 
 
 ( Trogon Mexi- 
 catius) is the 
 only species 
 found in North 
 America. They 
 have broad, ser- 
 rated mandi- 
 bles, are richly 
 colored, green 
 and carmine. 
 The nest is gen- 
 erally placed in 
 a hollow tree, 
 the eggs num- 
 bering three or four, resembling 
 those of a pigeon. 
 
 The Trogan resflendins, of South 
 America, is one of the most mag- 
 nificent of all birds. In the male 
 (Fig. 304) the two middle tail- 
 coverts are three times the length 
 of the bird, composed of long, 
 loose barbs of a rich metallic 
 green. 
 
 The Kingfishers (Alcedin- 
 have large heads, a long, 
 straight bill, powerful wings, and 
 weak claws. The belted king- 
 fisher [Ceryie alcyori) is the com- 
 mon American form, a little over 
 a foot in length, colored ashy blue 
 above with a bluish band across 
 the breast, and white below. Upon 
 the head is a crest capable of being 
 lowered or elevated. They are 
 found in the borders of streams 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 /o 
 
 and lakes, dashing 
 into the water for 
 their prey, return- 
 ing to devour it 
 upon some branch, 
 and uttering a harsh cry. 
 The nest is a tunnel often 
 six feet long, formed by 
 the male and female in a 
 cliff or bank adjoining the 
 -• ■■■:-.-.zz. The tee?, gen- 
 erally six, are pure white. 
 The Australian and 
 Indian kingfishers are re- 
 markable for their beauty 
 of coloring. The Aus- 
 rnliiz. '.i'izrJ.-z ;icki55 is 
 one of the largest, and 
 noted for its demoniac 
 i:..:rh:er. The n:ke:- 
 tailed kingfisher, of the 
 Malay Archipelago (Fig. 
 305), is one of the most 
 beautiful of the group. 
 
 : — 7h = fe; ' :: ; :.re 
 •_: s e rl : .~ :n:.;-. 
 
 The Toucans (Rham- 
 phasHda) are remarkable 
 for their enormous, ser- 
 rated, highly colored bills. 
 The tongue is long and 
 iz-.zzi -:':-!:. hi:": 5. They 
 are confined to South 
 America. 
 
 The reh-hkiei ::.::i~ 
 
 
 
274 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 {R. erythrorhynchus) (Fig. 306) is one of the most beautiful 
 
 species. They are fruit-feeders, but occasionally capture 
 
 insects and small 
 animals. The eggs 
 are laid in hollow 
 trees. 
 
 The Hornbills 
 (Bucerotidce) are 
 even more remark- 
 able than the pre- 
 ceding for the size 
 of their bill, that in 
 some seems almost 
 a deformity ; but, 
 unwieldy as it ap- 
 pears, it is filled 
 with air - cavities, 
 and light in the ex- 
 treme (Fig. 307). 
 
 They are confined to Africa and the Eastern islands. 
 The great two-horned hornbill* of India attains a 
 
 length of four feet, the 
 
 beak ten inches, and has 
 
 a second deck or ridge, 
 
 thus appearing double. 
 The Woodpeckers 
 
 (PicidcE) have straight 
 
 bills, adapted for ham- 
 mering on wood to ob- 
 
 Fig. 306. — Yellow toucan, showing enormous 
 serrated bill. 
 
 Fig. 307. — Section of skull of hornbill 
 (Buceros), showing air-cavities. 
 
 * Their nest-building is most remarkable and applies equally to 
 African species. A hollow tree is selected, in which the female takes 
 her place and forms a nest of feathers, the cavity being immediately 
 walled up with mud by the male, leaving only a small orifice for her 
 bill. The plaster soon hardens and she is a prisoner, fed by the male 
 through the hole until the eggs are laid, hatched, and the young fully 
 fledged. The young are perfectly naked at birth (Fig. 308). 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 275 
 
 tain the insects that are the objects of search. The tongue 
 is long, flattened, and barbed, and by a peculiar muscular 
 arrangement can be forced out with great velocity. 
 
 Fig. 308. — Hornbill and young, cemented in their nest by the male, who 
 feeds them through a hole left for the purpose. 
 
 The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) 
 is a typical American form, confined to the Southern States 
 
276 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 It is a large bird, twenty-one inches long, the general color 
 black with white markings, the crest bright scarlet in the 
 male. They cling upon trees, and bore and hammer out 
 the grubs and insects there concealed, and are so powerful 
 that in a few hours they have been known to tear off thirty 
 feet of bark. The nest is pecked out of the trunk of a 
 live tree, generally beneath a branch, first directly in and 
 then downward for two or three feet, and here the six or 
 eight w T hite eggs are deposited. Their cries are exceed- 
 ingly human, and like those of a hurt child. 
 
 Note. — The California woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivoms) is 
 remarkable for its habit of storing up acorns for winter food by boring 
 a hole in a tree and driving in the acorn so tightly that no other animal 
 can get it out. So frequent are these in some trees that they appear 
 as if studded with nails. At Mount Pizarro, where such storehouses 
 are found, the nearest oak-trees are in the Cordilleras, thirty miles dis- 
 tant ; thus each acorn required a 
 flight of sixty miles besides the labor 
 of boring the hole. 
 
 The generic name of the 
 Night Hawks (Caprimulgi- 
 dce) refers to a curious super- 
 stition that the birds milk 
 goats and cows. They are 
 generally nocturnal, have 
 short, triangular bills, enor- 
 mous mouths (Fig. 309) for 
 the capture of insects, and 
 soft plumage, that explains 
 their noiseless, quiet flight. 
 
 The whip-poor-will (Capri- 
 
 mulgus vociferus) is a familiar 
 
 form. The general color is 
 
 grayish, much variegated, the 
 
 ends of the outer tail-feathers white. In all the family 
 
 the color is protective, their crouching positions lending 
 
 Fig. 309. — Night hawk, feeding 
 on the wing. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 277 
 
 still further security. They are solitary birds, only com- 
 ing out at night, or late in the afternoon, then capturing 
 insect-food upon the wing, the lonesome cry — whip-poor- 
 will — being heard up to midnight. No nest is made, the 
 eggs having a protective coloring of greenish white, speck- 
 led and blotched with bluish gray and light brown, and 
 placed in the grass or fallen leaves. 
 
 Note.— According to Audubon, some take the egg in the capacious 
 mouth and flutter away. This has been doubted, but the careful ob- 
 server, Dr. Brehm, has seen the male and female night-jar each take 
 an egg in its mouth and fly away. Both parents assist in incubation. 
 The family is exceedingly large, and found in many countries. The 
 lyre-tailed night-jar, of Africa, is one of the most beautiful forms. 
 
 Value. — The oil of steatornis is used for illuminating purposes in 
 South America. The feathers of some are used. 
 
 The Swifts (Cypselidoz) * should not be confused with 
 the swallow, which they much resemble. The wings are 
 long, thin, and pointed, the feet weak, and the salivary 
 glands, used in nest-building, highly developed. 
 
 The chimney swift f (Choztura pelasgicd) is a typical 
 example. The general color is a sooty brown, the throat 
 lighter, the length five and a half inches. They are com- 
 
 * To this family belongs the famous edible-nest swift {Collocalia 
 nidified) of India and adjacent countries. The nests are confined 
 to certain localities, and generally placed in dangerous positions. The 
 nest is a thin, gummy shelf or basket formed entirely of saliva. The 
 bird hovers about the wall, presses its tongue to it, attaching a single 
 thread of gluten, that coagulates on contact with the air. By repeating 
 this for weeks the solid nest is finally formed, at first pure and clear, 
 but becoming later discolored by the birds. Many persons lose their 
 lives in collecting them, having to be lowered over precipices by rattan 
 ropes. 
 
 A Guatemalan swift forms a tube out of the down of plants, three 
 or four feet in length, on the under side of a precipitous reck. The 
 entrance is below, and the eggs laid on a shelf. A Brazilian species 
 fastens a similar tube to a tree-limb and covers the outside with feathers. 
 
 f Commonly called chimney swallow. 
 
278 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 mon in the United States, and seem to seek the company 
 of human beings. The nest is formed of twigs glued with 
 saliva to the chimney, forming a bracket and hardening 
 to the consistency of stone. They drink, bathe, and eat 
 on the wing, after the fashion of the humming-birds. 
 
 Value. — The nests of the edible species are valued at fifteen or 
 twenty dollars per pound in China. 
 
 The Humming-Birds (Irochilidce) are confined ex- 
 clusively to America, and generally the tropical regions, 
 several species being found as far west as Juan Fernandez, 
 and a few species in North America. The bill is gener- 
 ally long, straight or curved, the tongue capable of great 
 protrusion, wings long and powerful, and claws minute 
 and sharp. They are the smallest and most brilliantly 
 colored of all birds. Our best-known form is the ruby- 
 throat* (1'rochilus colubris), which attains a length of three 
 and a quarter inches. 
 
 Order XII. Perching Birds (Passeres). General 
 Characteristics. — The birds of this large order have the 
 feet adapted for grasping, one toe extending backward. 
 The bill is sharp, horny, and generally conical. They com- 
 prise the singers, and many are wonderfully musical, the 
 notes corresponding to our vocal expressions.! 
 
 * They nest in Massachusetts about the 8th of June. The nests, 
 as are those of almost the entire family, are adapted to the general 
 surroundings in color, and so protected. They are often attached to an 
 apple-tree, made up of matted layers of flying seed-wings, and lined 
 with the down of the mullein. The outside is covered with bits of 
 lichen, glued on, so that the nest resembles a part of the limb. 
 
 f It has been shown that young singing birds, as a rule, learn (as do 
 children) the language or note of the parent that brings them up. The 
 prolonged and convulsive laughter of man is equally as ridiculous, 
 when seriously considered, as the chattering of a monkey, or the so- 
 called laughter of some birds. It is merely a relief from mental strain. 
 (For experiments with young song-birds brought up by other parents, 
 see " Philosophical Transactions," vol. lxiii, by Hon. Daines Barring- 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 2/9 
 
 The Flycatchers (Tyrannidce) are a large family of 
 strictly American, insectivorous birds, with broad, triangu- 
 lar, abruptly-hooked bills, and small feet adapted for perch- 
 ing and grasping. Their notes are simple. The king- 
 bird (Tyramius Carolinensis) may be selected out of a mul- 
 titude of forms as a typical species. Their general color 
 is a blackish ash, the tail black with white tip, the breast 
 and lower portions white. They attain a length of nearly 
 nine inches, and prey upon insects, securing them upon 
 the wing. The nest is placed in a tree, and formed of 
 artificial objects, as tow, strings, wool, and lined with 
 fibers of wood, horse-hair, etc. The eggs, six in number, 
 are reddish white, marked with brown streaks. The male, 
 during the breeding-season, and at all times, is extremely 
 bold. It feeds its mate, and attacks crows, eagles, and 
 hawks with the greatest fury, ultimately driving them 
 from the vicinity. They migrate south earlier than other 
 birds. 
 
 The lyre-bird {Menura superba), of New South Wales, 
 is an ally of the flycatchers, and a giant among them. 
 The male has a lyre- shaped development of the tail-feath- 
 ers nearly two feet in length, composed of sixteen feathers. 
 The female is a small, unattractive bird. The nest is com- 
 posed of moss, twigs, and grasses, and covered by a dome- 
 shaped roof. The two eggs are white, speckled with red. 
 
 The Larks {Alandidce) are chiefly Old World birds, 
 four species only being found in America. The bill is 
 short, the nostrils concealed by the feathers, the hind 
 claw long and straight, the singing apparatus well devel- 
 oped, and all are remarkable singers. 
 
 The skylark {Alauda arvensis) is an immigrant to this 
 country, and common in Europe and Asia. While singing 
 it rises in the air with seeming bounds till far out of sight, 
 uttering a rich, melodious carol. The nest is formed in 
 
 ton. For songs of birds set to music, see "American Naturalist," vol. 
 xiii ; p. 21.) 
 
28o BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 May, and built by male and female upon the ground, 
 generally in communities, being a simple hollow in the 
 stubble, lined with horse-hair and grass. 
 
 Value. — Game, and as insect-eaters. 
 
 The Crows (Corvidce) are birds of large size, and 
 possess powerful bills ; the voice is harsh and unmusical. 
 The blue jay (Cyanocitta cristatd) is the best known of the 
 jays, and is widely distributed over America. The nest is 
 placed in trees, formed of twigs lined with grass and deli- 
 cate fibers, and contains four or five olive-brown, dark- 
 spotted eggs. They are migratory in the Northern States. 
 
 Note. — The Canada jay (P. Canadensis) is a guardian bird that 
 alights on the moose, hanging from its horns and fur in eager search for 
 parasites, an act of friendship the moose does not object to. Other 
 species in Europe perform the same office for the reindeer. 
 
 The common crow {Corvus frugivorus) is a familiar form, with a 
 purplish-violet plumage, attaining a length of twenty inches. They 
 are remarkably intelligent, and form vast rookeries, starting off each 
 day and flying for miles, returning at night. They build in trees, the 
 nest being composed of twigs and roots, and about two feet across. The 
 eggs, from three to six, are laid in April, and are bluish green with olive- 
 green or dark streaks. The male feeds his mate during the period of 
 incubation, seeds or animal diet being equally to their taste. They 
 have been seen to drop clams from a height to break their shells, and 
 the rocks about Ocean Point, Maine, are covered with Echini (Fig. 
 35) killed in the same way. 
 
 The raven is remarkable for its vocal powers, equaling the parrot. 
 The jackdaw, rook, and black-headed crow are other interesting allies. 
 
 The Birds of Paradise (Paradisece) are allies of the 
 crows, and confined to New Guinea and the adjacent 
 country. In their elaboration of plumage they are the 
 most remarkable of all birds. One of the most superb 
 forms is the ruby bird of paradise {Paradisea rubra) that 
 is found on the Island of Waigiou. They fly in flocks, 
 uttering a hoarse and harsh Whack-whack-whack ! that 
 can be heard for a long distance. They breed in May in 
 the North. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 28l 
 
 Fig. 310. — King bird of paradise. 
 
 Other remarkable forms are the resplendent epima- 
 chus, the rifle-bird, and the king bird of paradise (Fig. 
 310), their gor- 
 geous colorings a/ 
 defying ade- 
 quate descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 The Plan- 
 tain-Eaters 
 (Musofihagi- 
 dce)* are pecul- 
 iar to the Afri- 
 can continent. 
 They are about 
 the size of the 
 raven, and are 
 exclusively 
 fruit-eaters. 
 The eggs are 
 white, and deposited in hollow trees. 
 
 The Mouse-Birds (Co/idcs) \ are so singular that they 
 deserve particular mention. They are found exclusively 
 in Africa, and are allies of the preceding. They resemble 
 
 * M. Jules Verreaux is authority for the statement that the 
 coloring - matter of the red feathers of one of this family (Tura- 
 cus albocristatus) is soluble in water. Their red feathers may be 
 washed white twice in the same day, the color invariably returning 
 when dry. 
 
 f The wiriwa {Colitis Sencgalensis) is invariably found upon the 
 thickly-vined trees, darting in and out of the holes like a mouse. 
 They have been seen to roost in a most curious manner like bats, 
 clinging or hanging by their feet head downward, or in groups, cling- 
 ing to each other in clumps upon the branches ; the first bird grasping 
 the branch with one claw, supporting a second bird by entwining one 
 of its legs with its own, this bird in a like manner supporting a third, 
 and so on until they form a chain of living bird-links. They are fruit- 
 eaters. The nest is conical and placed in trees, and contains six or 
 seven eggs. 
 
282 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 swallows, with high crests, and have tails longer than the 
 body. The general color is a mouse-gray, the back-feath- 
 ers being so fine as to resemble hair. The striking char- 
 acteristic of the bird is the foot, that is bright red, and 
 exceedingly powerful. All four toes point forward, and 
 those at the exterior can be turned either way. 
 
 Starlings (Sturnidci). — The only member of this fam- 
 ily found in America is the European starling (Sturnus 
 vulgaris), that is an occasional visitor in Greenland. 
 
 Oxpeckers (Buphagince). — These African birds (Fig. 
 311) are allied to the starlings, and have strong, hooked 
 
 Fig. 311. — Oxpecker {Buphaga Africafia). 
 
 claws, and a generally brownish-gray color. They come 
 under the head of what we have termed guardian birds, 
 following camels, cattle, elephants, and rhinoceroses, cling- 
 ing to their ears, limbs, and fur, running over them like 
 woodpeckers over a tree, and often warning them unin- 
 tentionally of danger by rising with loud cries. 
 
 The Orioles (Icteridce) have generally melodious voices 
 and rich, lustrous plumage. 
 
 The crow blackbirds (Quiscalus purpureus) are familiar 
 members of the family, arriving in New England in April. 
 They are social birds, moving about in vast flocks. The 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 283 
 
 nest is generally built in a high tree, and resembles that of 
 the robin. Some, however, develop a curious friendship 
 for the fish hawk, and form their nests in among the in- 
 terstices of its large abode, living there in the greatest har- 
 mony. 
 
 The Baltimore oriole {Icterus galbula) is a familiar form 
 throughout North America. The length is about seven 
 and three quarter inches. They have singularly melodious 
 voices, and are remarkable for their architectural abilities. 
 
 Fig. 312. — Bobolink, or reed-bird. 
 
 The nest is the combined work of male and female, and is 
 hammock-shaped, swung from the branches, and made of 
 threads of flax, silk-weed or cloth, horse-hair, and other 
 material, the leaves of the trees forming a canopy over all. 
 
:8 4 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 The eggs, from four to six, are pale green, with dark spots 
 or streaks. The young are fully fledged in three weeks. 
 
 Allied is the bobolink 
 (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) 
 (Fig. 312), or reed-bird of 
 the Southern States, so 
 famous for its rich notes. 
 Allied to this family 
 are the several Australian 
 bower - birds, remarkable 
 for erecting play-houses 
 (Fig. 313) distinct from 
 the nest. 
 
 Fig. 313.— Bower-bird, showing the Note. — In the satin bower- 
 
 bower and the ornaments collected. bird the bower or play-house is 
 
 the work of the male or males, 
 and formed on the ground. The sides are made of twigs and small 
 branches, planted by the birds in the ground, joined at the top and 
 forming a tunnel, on the floor of which is placed bird bric-a-brac — 
 highly-colored shells, pebbles, white bones, parrot-feathers, and glit- 
 tering dbjects of all kinds. Here the male and female dance about, 
 changing the ornaments, and showing their delight in various ways. 
 It is, in fact, a bird ball-room. The nest is generally placed in the 
 near vicinity. 
 
 The Gardener- Bird * (Amblyornts inornata) is about 
 the size of the robin, of a rufous-brown hue, and is only 
 found on the Island of Papua. 
 
 * Instead of a bower, it erects a complete cabin (Fig. 314), and 
 plants a garden about it. A small tree is selected, and one foot and 
 a half from the ground a cone of moss is fastened to form a support 
 for the roof, the latter being built of slender branches of an orchid se- 
 lected for its vitality, the twigs resting against the moss, the other ends 
 entering the ground one foot and a half from the center-post, and ar- 
 ranged about until a perfect roof is the result, an opening on one side 
 being left as a door, as shown in Fig. 314. The roof is thatched and 
 interwoven with other pieces until weather-tight, the orchids continu- 
 ing their growth and forming a perfect roof. About the entrance or 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 285 
 
 Fig. 314. — The gardener-bird ; its house, garden, flowers, etc. 
 
 The Finches (Fringillidce) have the bill shorter and 
 more robust than in the preceding family, the corners of 
 the mouth drawn down. They have a wide range in every 
 country except Australia. 
 
 The cardinal grosbeak (Cardinalis Virginianus) is one 
 of our familiar birds. The general color is red, ashy on 
 the back, the chin and forehead black, the crest conspicu- 
 ous, and the beak a bright red. Their notes are extremely 
 melodious, especially in the breeding-season. The nests 
 are placed in trees, and contain from four to six grayish- 
 white eggs, with olive-brown markings. 
 
 door rich green mosses are planted and kept clean, and upon this 
 miniature meadow bright flowers and insects are scattered, which are 
 taken away and replenished as soon as they fade. In this curious 
 habitation the birds meet in social and aesthetic enjoyment, the nest 
 being entirely different and distinct 
 
286 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Note. — The English sparrow (Fig. 271), an importation, is a 
 grain-eater when grown, but as it breeds six and even seven times 
 a year, and the young are invariably fed upon insects, it is of 
 value. Public opinion is against the pugnacious immigrant, but 
 some naturalists who have made the subject a special study think 
 that the bird is a benefit to the country on the above grounds. In 
 the Central Park Zoological Garden they have taken possession of 
 the rafters of the eagle-house, while year after year a pair rear their 
 young on the back of the iron eagle over the door of the Arsenal. 
 (See "Report of American Ornithological Union," 1884.) 
 
 The Tanagers ( Tanagridd) include three hundred or 
 more species, confined to the warmer portions of America. 
 Their colors are brilliant, legs short, claws long, the bill 
 conical, and sometimes serrated or notched. 
 
 The scarlet tanager (Pyranga rubra) is a familiar form 
 in the New England States. The general color of the 
 male is scarlet, the wings and tail black. Their note is 
 Chifi-churr, repeated at short intervals, and at other times 
 exactly like that of a robin. They are more or less ven- 
 triloquists — a protective provision — their note sounding 
 far away when the bird is near at hand. The nests are 
 rudely made, the eggs marked with purple spots. 
 
 The Swallows (ffirundinidce) have a world-wide distri- 
 bution. The bill is broad, short, and triangular, the gape 
 wide, adapted for capturing insects on the wing, the wings 
 long and pointed, tail forked, and feet extremely weak. 
 
 The bank swallows (Fig. 315) are remarkable for their 
 digging powers, excavating holes in the face of banks, and 
 there forming the nest. The tunnels are often six feet 
 deep. 
 
 The barn swallow forms its nest of mud, brought in its 
 mouth and plastered against the wall, often assuming the 
 shape of that of some of the weavers. An entire nest is 
 frequently built in three days. 
 
 The Chatterers (A??ipelid&) have a short, broad, de- 
 pressed bill, opening to the eyes, the mandibles notched 
 with a tooth behind the notch, the head generally crested. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 287 
 
 Fig. 315. — Bank swallow, showing cave-nest and young-. 
 
 The cedar-bird (Ampe/is cedroriwi) is abundant in east- 
 ern United States. The nest is made in low trees or 
 bushes, and from three to four purplish-white and black 
 spotted eggs are laid. 
 
 Allied to this family is the cock of the rock * (Rupicold) 
 
 * They are remarkable for their " entertainments," or courtships. 
 Twenty or more of these birds have been seen standing in a circle, 
 some seated upon rocks, while in the center a solitary male hopped 
 
288 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 wMl 
 
 of South America (Fig. 316). It is. about twelve inches 
 long, red or yellowish in color, with a prominent crest. 
 
 The female 
 and young are 
 brown. 
 
 The umbrel- 
 la-bird (Cepha- 
 lopterus orna- 
 tus) (Fig. 317) 
 resembles a 
 crow, having, 
 however, a cu- 
 rious umbrella- 
 like crest that 
 completely cov- 
 ers the head. 
 
 Among the 
 remarkable al- 
 lies of the fam- 
 ily are the African Weaver- Birds, distinguished for the 
 intelligence displayed in their nest-building. 
 
 Note. — The social weaver-birds breed in regular cities, a joint 
 nest being formed generally in the aloe-tree. A thatched roof of 
 grass is erected, the entrances beneath leading into a corridor or street, 
 from both sides of which branch the nests, thus secure from snakes, 
 and containing three or four bluish-white eggs, with small brown 
 spots at the largest end. Year after year the nest is added to, often 
 fairly breaking down the tree. 
 
 Another peculiar allied South American form is the 
 bell-bird. 
 
 and leaped about, going through strange antics, spreading its wings 
 and waving its tail until exhausted, then walking around as if to re- 
 ceive applause, retiring to give place to another, who went through 
 similar antics, followed by all the rest in turn. They nest in the trees. 
 Their skin is in great demand. One of the state mantles of the Em- 
 peror of Brazil was made of them. 
 
 Fig. 316. — Cock of the rock. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 289 
 
 The Shrikes (Lanidcz) have hawk-like bills, abruptly- 
 hooked, the upper mandible toothed, and both notched. 
 They have a world-wide distribution. 
 
 The great northern shrikes, or butcher-birds (Zam'us 
 borealis), are about nine inches in length. They prey upon 
 insects, mice, and other birds, and are called butchers 
 
 Fig. 317. — Umbrella-bird. 
 
 from the fact that their surplus game, birds, etc., are im- 
 paled,* while yet living, on thorns, briers, or bushes. They 
 are great mimics, and extremely adept at learning notes. 
 The nest is placed in trees, the greenish-gray, brown -spot- 
 ted eggs^being from four to seven in number. 
 
 In the wagtails {Motacillidce) the bill is shorter than the 
 head, slender, straight, and notched at the tips. The feet 
 are strong, and adapted for walking. They are mostly 
 confined to the Eastern Hemisphere ; the name refers to 
 the habit of moving the tail up and down. 
 
 * A tame butcher-bird has been known to impale animals given it 
 on a sharp stick supplied for the purpose. 
 13 
 
290 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 The titlark {Anthus Ludovicianus) (Fig. 318) is a fa- 
 miliar American form. The nest is formed in the grass. 
 Allied is the tailor-bird, that, with its bill as a needle and 
 grass for thread, sews leaves together to form its nest 
 (Fig. 319). 
 
 The wrens (Troglodyiidce) are 
 chiefly denizens of tropical Amer- 
 ica, though a number of species are 
 
 Fig. 318. — American titlark. 
 
 familiar visitors about Northern 
 homes. The common house wren 
 ( Troglodytes cedo?i) is about five inch- 
 es long, and of a brown hue. The 
 nest is generally found near the 
 habitation of man, in holes or crev- 
 ices, in which five or six pale red- 
 dish eggs are laid. 
 
 Allied are the nuthatches, European hanging tit (Fig. 
 320), stone-chat, bluebird, and others. 
 
 The water-ousel (Cinclida) is essentially aquatic in its 
 habits, not only wading in the water, but flying into and 
 under it, using its wings as fins to reach the bottom and 
 obtain food. It is common about brooks. The nest is 
 placed near a cascade, and is a great globe of living 
 
 Fig. 319. — Nest of the 
 tailor-bird of India or 
 China. 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 291 
 
 moss ever kept green from the spray of the falls. The 
 entrance is a doorway formed in the moss, leading to the 
 interior, which is 
 lined with soft 
 grasses, and con- 
 tains four or five 
 pure white eggs. 
 
 The large fam- 
 ily of thrushes 
 (Turdidce) is rep- 
 resented by the 
 robin, mocking- 
 bird, cat-bird, 
 and others. The 
 wood thrush is 
 the highest of the 
 ciass of birds. 
 The pervading 
 color is cinna- 
 mon-brown, grad- 
 ing into olive on 
 the rump, the 
 breast blocked or 
 marked with dis- 
 tinct spots. They attain a length of eight inches, and are 
 noted for their glorious powers of song, resembling the 
 tinkling of a bell or the soft notes of a flute. The nest is 
 found in low hollows, and contains four or five blue eggs. 
 
 Speciniens for Study. — For purposes of study, the skele- 
 ton of a common fowl or other bird offers good material. 
 The flesh can be boiled away, and the bones arranged as 
 in Fig. 268 ; the limbs and skull should be compared with 
 the corresponding parts of reptiles and mammals, and the 
 difference noted. If the skeleton is to be mounted, the 
 bird should be skinned and macerated. The tools neces- 
 sary for work are a hook for suspending large specimens, 
 
 Fig. 320. — Bird architecture : Hanging tit and 
 nest. 
 
292 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 forceps, scissors, scalpels, and a syringe for injecting the 
 veins, etc. The student should be able to skin a bird, but 
 mounting can only be learned by practice. Several works 
 are published on the subject, as Maynard's " Taxidermy." 
 To skin a bird, first measure its girth over the wings. 
 Make an incision low on the breast ; skin carefully around 
 the wings, cutting the bone at the elbow (Fig. 268 e), 
 and the legs at the knee - joint, pushing the skin with 
 the handle of the knife in preference to cutting.. Care 
 should be taken with the neck, and, if the head is not 
 too large, turn the skin over it to the bills. Scrape away 
 all the flesh, being careful at the eyes and ears. Sever the 
 neck close to the skull, take out the brain, and powder 
 thoroughly all the parts — beak, wings, legs, and tail — with 
 powdered arsenic. Fill up the body in all parts with cot- 
 ton and sew up the incision. The feathers may be cleaned 
 by boiling in warm water. Oil-stains can be removed with 
 a solution of soda or potash, and colored feathers are 
 cleansed by using equal parts of warm water and ox-gall. 
 Finally, inclose the skin in a paper band the size of your 
 measurement, number and enter it in a blank book with 
 the common and scientific name, sex, locality, measure- 
 ments, and all the facts concerning its habits that you can. 
 In collecting eggs, divide fairly with the birds, and if pos- 
 sible do not take the nest until the brood is reared. Eggs 
 can be blown by making a single hole in the shell with a 
 tooth-drill or some such instrument, and with a glass tube 
 or straw the contents can be blown out. If the young bird 
 has formed and can not be removed, break the shell and 
 use it as an alcoholic specimen. 
 
 Works on birds for further reference. 
 
 " Key to Birds of North America," Elliott Coues ; " Birds of North 
 America," S. F. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway ; Huxley's " Manual of 
 Vertebrates " ; Owen's " Anatomy of Vertebrates " ; Audubon's " Birds 
 of North America"; "Animal Locomotion," Pettigrew ; "Elements 
 
KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 
 
 293 
 
 of Embryology," Foster and Balfour; "Comparative Embryology," F. 
 M. Balfour ; Yarrill's " British Birds " ; Samuels's " Birds of New Eng- 
 land," etc. " The Auk" is the official publication (Cambridge) of the 
 American Ornithologists' Union. Other magazines are " Nature," 
 " Science," " American Naturalist," " Popular Science Monthly," etc. 
 Good popular works are those of Brehm, Cassell, and Wood. 
 
 Note. — The Migration of Birds. — The majority of the birds that 
 breed in the northern and middle sections of the United States migrate 
 to the South at the approach of cold weather, and return in the spring, 
 thus making two long journeys every year. These flights are made by 
 night and day, and small birds have been seen at night through a tele- 
 scope at an estimated height of three miles. The great valleys, river- 
 courses, and coast lines are generally followed, but numbers of our 
 birds stop at Bermuda, showing that they either venture to sea, or are 
 blown out. Flocks of birds alight at Tortugas, Florida, during the 
 prevalence of northers, that must have flown across the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Many of the European birds spend the winter in Africa, 
 while those in the United States go as far south as Central America, 
 the West Indies, and even South America. During these flights they 
 often congregate at certain spots in vast numbers ; thus, on the Island 
 of Heligoland, that lies in one of these paths, hundreds of different 
 species are often seen resting, or at night whirling about the light- 
 house, dashing against the glass, so that their dead bodies are found 
 piled in heaps in the morning. 
 
 The primary cause of migration is probably lack of food as cold 
 weather comes on, while many other reasons are given. Tropical 
 birds that breed at home do not migrate, and many of our birds, as the 
 crow, English sparrow, and others, remain with us the entire season. 
 Many of the birds of the Rocky Mountain country have a limited mi- 
 gration, and some of the smallest birds make the longest journeys. 
 Thus, the warblers {Dendroecd) and others, that breed as far north as 
 Hudson Bay, winter in Mexico. As a rule, birds return to their sum- 
 mer homes with great regularity, many varying season after season only 
 a few hours. 
 
 For further information on this subject see report of the American 
 Ornithologists' Union ; " Distribution and Migration of North Ameri- 
 can Birds," Baird ; the works of Wallace, Von Middeldorff, Hodgson, 
 Giebel, Palmen, and Parker, and Newton's article on birds in " Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica," ninth edition, vol. iii. 
 
294 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Class VII. — Mammalia {Milk-givers). 
 
 General Characteristics. — We now come to the highest 
 and most perfect animal forms. They are covered with 
 hair instead of scales. The young are born alive,* and 
 nourished by a fluid called milk, secreted in the mammary 
 glands. About twenty-one hundred species of living 
 mammals are known, three hundred and ten inhabiting 
 North America. 
 
 Skeleton. — The skeleton, that in the majority of birds 
 is extremely light, is in the mammals solid, and the limb- 
 cavities filled with 
 marrow. Taking 
 the cat (Fig. 321) as 
 an example, we first 
 note the cranium, era, 
 or skull, that is united 
 to the backbone or 
 vertebral column by 
 two occipital con- 
 dyles. The lower jaw 
 is composed of two 
 pieces, and is joined 
 directly to the skull, 
 and not to the quad- 
 rate bone, as we have 
 seen in the birds and 
 reptiles. The back- 
 bone is divided into 
 five divisions : First, the cervical or neck region, where 
 the vertebrae generally number seven. In the cat they are 
 small, in the whale they are pressed together, while in the 
 long-necked giraffe each bone is lengthened out. Sec- 
 ond, the dorsal or back region, the vertebrae of which 
 generally number from ten to fifteen ; they support the 
 
 7 89654 
 
 Fig. 321. — Cat, with bones of right side drawn. 
 Cra, cranium ; sc, scapula or shoulder- 
 blade ; 1, humerus ; 2, radius and ulna ; 
 3, carpus ; 4, phalanges ; 5, femur ; 6, tibia 
 and fibula ; 7, tarsus ; 8, metatarsus ; 9, 
 phalanges ; /, innominate bone, a number 
 of bones combined, forming the pelvic 
 arch ; v, vertebral column. (After Morse.) 
 
 * See note on page 297. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 295 
 
 ribs, that in turn inclose and protect the chest. Third, 
 the lumbar or loin vertebrae, numbering from four to 
 seven. Fourth, the sacral bones, that are anchylosed and 
 form the sacrum ; these generally number from one to 
 nine. Fifth, the caudal or tail vertebras, that are more 
 movable one upon another than the others, and number 
 from four to forty-six. The tail is a very useful member. 
 In some of the monkeys it serves as a fifth hand ; in the 
 dog it is used to express emotion, and in the horse, ant- 
 eater, and many animals, as a protection from insects. 
 
 Limbs. — The mammals generally have four limbs, and 
 from this are termed quadrupeds, though in the whale the 
 hinder pair are not present, or are rudimentary. In Fig. 
 321 we see the fore-limb joined to the body by the shoul- 
 der-blade or scapula, sc, and the clavicle or collar-bone. 
 The first bone of the leg is the humerus, 1 ; then follow 
 two bones joined together, the radius and ulna, 2, followed 
 in turn by the carpus, 3, or wrist-bone, the metacarpals, 
 that form the upper portion of the hand, and the phalan- 
 ges, 4, or finger and toe bones. The hind-limbs in their 
 parts resemble the fore ones, and are connected to the 
 body by a number of bones that are joined together and 
 known as the innominate bone, *, and constitute the pelvic 
 arch. The upper bone of the leg is the femur or thigh, 
 5 ; then follow the leg-bones, similar to the ulna and 
 radius, but called the tibia and fibula, 6 ; then the tarsus 
 or ankle-bones, 7, the metatarsus or bones of the foot, 8, 
 and the bones of the toes or phalanges, 9. There are gen- 
 erally five toes, but there are many exceptions, as the 
 horse that walks on the toe-nail of its single toe, the ox 
 on two toes, etc. The limbs are adapted to the habits 
 of the animal. The sloths have long claws for clinging, 
 and the moles powerful digging-claws. In the whales and 
 seals they are paddles. 
 
 Digestion. — The jaws of all mammals, except the whale- 
 bone whales and a few others, are provided with teeth 
 
296 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 set in separate sockets. The first set, or milk teeth, are 
 finally discarded and a permanent set attained, general- 
 ly of four distinct kinds, adapted for various purposes : 
 incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. With these, 
 which differ much in different animals, the food is ground 
 up or torn, and rudely prepared, mixed with saliva and 
 swallowed, passing down the oesophagus into the stomach. 
 Here it is mixed with a secretion known as gastric juice, 
 and converted into chyme, finally passing into the smaller 
 intestine, where it is brought in contact with various secre- 
 tions, as bile, pancreatic juice, etc., and is known as chyle, 
 then passing to the blood-vessels through the lacteal tubes ; 
 thus a part of everything eaten is so much fuel for the 
 system. From the small intestine follows a larger one 
 through which all rejected matter passes. 
 
 Circulation. — The heart of mammals is four-chambered, 
 comprising two auricles and two ventricles. The blood 
 is hot, red, and contains two kinds of corpuscles, red and 
 colorless. The latter have a nucleus, are spherical, and ex- 
 hibit movements similar to those of the Amoeba (Fig. 2). 
 The red corpuscles are the most abundant, and are nearly 
 circular. The impure blood from the body pours into the 
 right auricle, from where it passes to the right ventricle, 
 and thence to the lungs. Here it is changed into arterial 
 blood by the oxygen of the air and passes back to the 
 left auricle, then to the left ventricle, and finally is driven 
 through the great aorta and sent flowing through innumer- 
 able branches all over the body. 
 
 Respiration. — The mammals breathe by lungs, two 
 elastic, spongy bodies permeated with air-cells, each in- 
 closed in a membranous sac called the pleura. They hang 
 free in the cavity of the thorax. Air is taken in at the 
 mouth and nostrils, and passes down the windpipe into 
 the branches or bronchi, that do not connect with air-sacs 
 in the body as in the birds. In this way the oxygen is 
 brought in contact with the blood and aerates it. 
 
MAMMALIA. 297 
 
 Nervous System. — The brain of mammals is larger than 
 that of any of the preceding or lower forms, and extending 
 from it is the long, protected cerebro-spinal cord with its 
 innumerable nerve-branches. All the impulses of animals 
 arise in the brain, that seems to send messages along the 
 nerves to the limbs and various organs, and in this way- 
 action is produced. That the nerves are the mediums of 
 communication can be shown by severing them, the part 
 so disconnected becoming powerless. 
 
 Organs of Sight, Hearing, etc. — The mammals all pos- 
 sess eyes, though in the mole they are almost useless. 
 With the exception of some seals, the whales, and a few 
 others, they have external ears. 
 
 Development. — All mammals are born alive,* and differ 
 from all preceding forms in nourishing their young with 
 the secretion called milk. In some Carnivora the young 
 are at first blind and helpless ; in others, as the herbivo- 
 rous animals, the young immediately follow the parent. 
 The young of marsupials are extremely minute and help- 
 less when born. 
 
 General Divisions. — The mammals are divided into 
 three sub-classes : 1. Ornithodelphia, represented by the 
 Monotremes ; 2. Didelphia, or the pouched animals ; 3. 
 Monodelphia, or the placental mammals. 
 
 Sub-Class I. — Ornithodelphia. 
 
 Order I. The Monotremes (Monotremata). General 
 Characteristics. — These strange animals, the lowest of the 
 mammalia, are noted for their bird-like characteristics. 
 They have long, flattened, or narrow beaks, and webbed 
 feet ; they are confined to Australia and Tasmania. 
 
 * As this work goes to press, a Sydney, Australia, scientist cables 
 to the biological section of the British Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, now in session at Montreal, that Prof. Caldwell has 
 made the remarkable discovery that the Australian monotremes lay 
 eggs, or are oviparous. 
 
298 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Spiny Ant-eater {Echidnidce)— These animals (Fig. 
 322, A) are covered with spines like the hedgehog ; the 
 bill is long, horny, and toothless, resembling that of a bird. 
 The tongue is long, like that of the ant-eater, and the pal- 
 ate armed with rows of sharp, tooth-like spines. Their 
 claws are powerful and adapted for digging into the ant- 
 hills where their food is obtained. They are valuable in 
 destroying noxious ants. Three species are known. 
 
 Fig. 322. — Group of egg-laying mammals. A, Echidna ; B, Ornithorhyn- 
 chus swimming and rolled up ; C, nest of duck-bill in section. 
 
 Duck-bill (Ornithorhynchidd). — The water mole (Fig. 
 322, B), as it is sometimes called, has a broad, duck-like, 
 horny bill (Fig. 323, A), containing eight broad, flat, horny 
 teeth. They have no external ear. The body is covered 
 with short, brown hair with an under-pelt ; the fore-feet 
 are webbed (Fig. 323, C) beyond the claws, the hinder 
 only to their base, the males possessing a bird-like spur 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 299 
 
 (Fig. 323, B). They live upon worms and vegetable mat- 
 ter. Their nests are long burrows in the banks of streams, 
 
 Fig. 323. — A, head of Ornithorhynchus, showing serrated bill ; B, hind-foot 
 with spur, «, found on the males only ; C, webbed fore-foot. 
 
 having an opening under water. At the farther end, twenty 
 or thirty feet from the water, leaves and grass are deposited 
 and the young reared. 
 
 Sub-Class II. — Didelphia. 
 
 Order I. Pouched Animals (Marsupia/ia). Gen- 
 eral Characteristics. — In these animals the young are born 
 in an immature state, in the great kangaroo being not over 
 an inch in length, and immediately placed 
 in a pouch or marsupium, where they re- 
 main attached to the teats at the bottom 
 of the pouch, the milk being forced down 
 the throat by the muscular action of the 
 mother. The young are prevented from 
 suffocating by a peculiar modification of 
 the breathing-organs. The pouch is sup- 
 ported by two long, slender bones project- 
 ing forward from and attached to the front 
 of the pelvis. 
 
 Opossum (Didelphidce). — In this fam- 
 ily is the common opossum (Fig. 331), the only marsupial 
 of the United States. It is about twenty inches in length, 
 
 Fig. 324. — Opos- 
 sum at birth. 
 
300 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 with a long, prehensile tail. The hair is white, tipped 
 with brown. They live in the trees, eating fruit, eggs, and 
 even small animals. When attacked, they feign death, 
 thus often escaping. The young (Fig. 324) are placed in 
 the pouch when extremely small, and nourished as other 
 marsupials, and when older are frequently seen clinging 
 to the mother, their tails curled about hers. The Yapock 
 is a water-opossum from South America. The feet are 
 webbed ; the tail is prehensile and scaly. They feed 
 partly upon aquatic animals. 
 
 Value. — In the United States about two hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand skins are used yearly. The hair is used in felting, hats, etc. 
 
 
 Fig. 325. — Chasropus. 
 
 Native Cats (Dasyuridce). — These are carnivorous 
 and insectivorous marsupials, ranging in size from a rat to 
 a wolf. The Tasmanian wolf (Fig. 328) is the largest form. 
 The marsupial bones are cartilaginous ; the pouch absent 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 301 
 
 or rudimentary ; the tail is long, powerful, and not pre- 
 hensile. The thumbs of the hind-feet are either wanting 
 or rudimentary ; the back is strongly marked with parallel 
 bars of black. They are nocturnal in their habits, and 
 confined to Australia and Tasmania. The Tasmanian 
 devil (Fig. 328) has similar habits. 
 
 The Bandicoots (Peramelidce). — The bandicoots of 
 Australia and Van Diemen's Land are small, insectivorous 
 marsupials, somewhat resembling kangaroos. The Chce- 
 ropas is a remarkable little creature, resembling a pygmy 
 deer (Fig. 325). All the toes but the fore ones are ex- 
 tremely minute, and it is the only animal that walks upon 
 two toes of each foot. It burrows. Allied to these forms 
 is the Myrmecobius, a beautiful animal with a long, bushy 
 tail and no pouch, the immature young clinging to the 
 teats, only protected by hair. It preys upon ants, and 
 only one species is known. 
 
 Kangaroos {Macropodidce). — The kangaroos are re- 
 markable for the development of the hind-limbs, by which 
 they take enormous leaps of twenty-five feet or more. 
 When resting, the hind-legs (Fig. 326) and tail form a 
 
 Fig. 326. — A hind-foot of kangaroo. 
 
 tripod. The tail is not used in leaping, as is generally 
 supposed. The fore-legs are short. They attain a height 
 of six feet, and are extremely fleet and powerful. The 
 young are carried in the pouch, and often feed on grass 
 from it as the mother moves along (Fig. 327), presenting 
 a curious appearance. In the tree-kangaroo the limbs are 
 
302 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 nearly of the same length ; the claws are long and powerful, 
 to assist in climbing. In strange contrast to the great kan- 
 garoo is the Pandemeleon wallaby, twenty inches in length. 
 The hare kangaroo is a powerful leaper. Mr. Gould re- 
 cords one as leaping over his head when chased by dogs. 
 Fossil kangaroos are found in Australian cave-deposits. 
 The Diprotodon was a kangaroo as large as an elephant. 
 
 Value. — Kangaroo fur and leather are somewhat used. 
 
 Fig. 327. — Australian marsupials. Kangaroos: 1, leaping; 2, showing 
 young in the pouch ; 3, flying phalanger ; 4, koala or native bear, with 
 a young one on its back. 
 
 Wombats (Phascolomyidce). — The animals of this 
 family are confined to Australia. They are tailless, about 
 the size of the badger, with flat heads, and short legs, 
 adapted for digging. They feed upon vegetation, and bur- 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 303 
 
 row in the ground (Fig. 328). An extinct wombat as 
 large as a tapir has been found in Australia. The wom- 
 bats are valued as food. Allied are the phalangers, the 
 koala that carries its young on its back (Fig. 327), and 
 many others. 
 
 Fig. 328. — Tasmanian marsupials. 1, wombats 
 Tasmanian wolf. 
 
 2, Tasmanian devil ; 3, 
 
 Sub-Class III. — Monodelphia {Placental Mammals). 
 
 General Characteristics. — In this sub-class are included 
 all the rest of the mammals. They are called placental 
 because the young, which are larger when born than the 
 preceding forms, and generally perfect, are nourished 
 up to the time of birth by a vascular membrane, pene- 
 trated by veins and arteries, known as the placenta. 
 
 Order I. Edentata {toothless). General Character- 
 istics. — The animals of this family have no incisor teeth, 
 some being entirely toothless. In some, scales take the 
 place of hair. 
 
304 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Sloths (Bradypodid<z). — The sloths are confined to 
 South America, east of the Andes. Their bodies are cov- 
 ered with long gray and black hair, that, in its resemblance 
 to moss and the bark of trees, affords them protection. 
 The three-toed sloth is called Ai, from the plaintive sound 
 it utters. Their limbs are long and slender, the hinder 
 pair the shortest, and armed with powerful claws, by which 
 they cling to limbs, passing their entire time in hanging 
 positions (Fig. 331), being helpless on the ground. The 
 two-toed sloth is similar in general appearance. The Me- 
 gatherium, a gigantic extinct sloth, was eighteen feet long 
 and eight feet high. The Megalonyx was as large as a 
 
 Fig. 329.— African imperfect-toothed animals. Aard-vark or Cape ant-eater 
 in the background, and scaly manis or pangolin in the foreground. 
 
 rhinoceros — huge creatures, that pulled down large trees 
 with their powerful limbs and claws. Sloths are eaten to 
 some extent. 
 
 Ant-Eat ers {Myrmecophagidce). — These remarkable 
 
MAMMALIA. 305 
 
 animals (Fig. 331) are found in South America. The muz- 
 zle is extremely long, the mouth toothless, the tongue of 
 great length and used to gather up ants, the capture being 
 helped by a viscid saliva that covers it. The body is cov- 
 ered with thick, coarse hairs, that are so developed upon 
 the tail that it completely covers the body, affording pro- 
 tection to the young that cling to the mother's back, the 
 family resembling a bush of dried herbage. The claws 
 are extremely powerful, and used in tearing open the nests 
 of ants, and persons have been killed by them. The little 
 ant-eaters have two toes, a prehensile tail, and live in trees, 
 finding protection in the resemblance to the bark and moss. 
 Allied to these is the aard-vark, or South African ant-eater 
 (Fig. 329), that has long ears, a pig-like snout, and burrows 
 in the ground, coming out at night to prey upon ants. 
 
 Armadillos (Dasyfiodidce). — These are the most won- 
 derful of all mammals, being covered with horny plates or 
 scales. The armor is arranged in different regions : one 
 shield covers the 
 head, another 
 the shoulders, 
 and another the 
 rump, while be- 
 tween the two 
 latter are several 
 bands allowing 
 
 free movement. FlG - 33°-— Glyptodon, a gigantic extinct armadillo. 
 
 The tail is pro- 
 tected by rings, and the legs by horny tubercles. The 
 muzzle is pointed, as in the aard-vark, the ears are long, 
 and claws powerful, adapted for digging (Fig. 331). The 
 giant armadillo attains a length of four feet. In the CJila- 
 mydophorus the back only is protected by an armor made 
 up of square, cubical plates, connected by a leathery de- 
 velopment. The fore-claws are very powerful. A fossil 
 armadillo, found near the La Plata, was as large as a 
 
306 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 rhinoceros. The Glyptodon (Fig. 330) had a solid armor 
 and was eight feet long. 
 
 Value. — The native Botocudos use the armor of the tail as a 
 trumpet, and the flesh is eaten. 
 
 Fig. 331. 
 
 opossum. 
 
 Imperfect-toothed animals : 2, sloth ; 3, ant-bear 
 4, armadillo. 
 
 Pangolins {Manidce). — These (Fig. 329) are the only 
 Edentates found out of America, living in Africa and 
 Asia. They are covered with scales arranged like tiles. 
 The tail is extremely long, the claws powerful and long, 
 so that they walk upon the sides of their feet. When mo- 
 lested they roll up into balls like the armadillo. 
 
 Order II. Sea- Cows (Sirenia). General Character- 
 istics. — The sea-cows are amphibious, milk-giving animals, 
 somewhat resembling the fishes in form. The teeth are 
 well developed, the molars having flattened or ridged 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 307 
 
 crowns, adapted for grinding food. The nostrils are 
 upon the upper part of the snout ; the fore-limbs are 
 fin-like, and they have five fingers ; the hind-limbs are 
 absent, their place seemingly taken by a horizontal, whale- 
 like tail. 
 
 Manatee (Manatidce). — The Florida manatee (Fig. 
 332), that is now extremely rare, ranges from the Amazon 
 
 Fig. 332. — The manatee, or sea-cow, grazing-. 
 
 to southern Florida, and attains a length of nine feet. 
 The tail is horizontal, and semi-oval in shape. Another 
 species is found in Africa. They occasionally come upon 
 the shore. The young, in nursing, are sometimes sup- 
 ported by the flippers of the mother. 
 
 Note. — Steller's manatee {Rhytina Stelleri) was an Arctic form of 
 gigantic proportions, attaining a length of thirty-five feet, and a weight 
 of nearly four tons. The skin was leathery, the fore-limbs without 
 fingers, but overgrown with coarse hairs ; the tail resembled that of 
 the whale. They had no teeth, but two horny masticating plates, one 
 in the gum and the other in the lower jaw. Herds of these animals 
 were discovered by Steller at Behring Island in 1741, and twenty-eight 
 years later they were extinct, having been destroyed by man. (For a 
 list of animals that have become extinct within a few hundred years, 
 see article by the author in " Lippincott's Magazine," June, 18S3.) 
 
3o8 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 The dugong is peculiar to the countries adjacent to the 
 Indian Ocean. The tail is shaped like that of the whale ; 
 the fore-limbs are short ; the muzzle protected by numer- 
 ous stiff bristles. They attain a length of twenty-five feet, 
 
 Fig. 333. — A, skull of female dugong ; the colossal tusks in the upper jaw- 
 never pierce the thick, fleshy lip, although they continue to grow with 
 the jaw. a, the root of the tusk ; Z>, the point. B, adult dugong, show- 
 ing whale-like tail. 
 
 and congregate in herds near the mouths of rivers, brows- 
 ing upon the aquatic vegetation. The tusks of the female 
 are completely incased in the upper jaw (Fig. 333). 
 
 Value. — Hide, oil, and bones. 
 
MAMMALIA. 309 
 
 Order III. Whales (Cetacea). General Characteris- 
 tics. — We now come to the largest living animals, milk- 
 givers, that live entirely in the water, and are in form fish- 
 like. The fore-limbs are paddles, having bones similar to 
 those of the arm and hand of man ; the hind-limbs absent 
 or rudimentary, the caudal extremity being provided with 
 a horizontal, fish-like tail that is the principal locomotive 
 organ. They are often confused with fishes, but are vivip- 
 arous, suckling their young (Fig. 334), giving rich, creamy 
 
 Fig. 334. — The humpback-whale suckling her young. (After Scammon.) 
 
 milk. They breathe air by means of lungs, having a pro- 
 vision that enables them to remain under water for over 
 an hour without breathing. This consists of a large num- 
 ber of reserve blood-vessels that line the interior of the 
 chest and spaces between the ribs, only a portion of this 
 blood passing into circulation from time to time. The 
 nostrils are upon the top of the head, and form blow-holes 
 through which vapor, not water* is forced. The jaws of 
 
 * This error is found in many works, but the whale no more spouts 
 water through its nostrils than can a human being. The so-called 
 spouting is vapor, the moisture of the breath and mucus from the 
 nostrils. 
 
3io 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 whales are either armed with conical teeth or plates of 
 fibrous matter called whalebone. The amount of blood 
 in the whale is enormous ; the aorta or great artery from 
 the heart being alone one foot across, and probably at 
 every pulsation of the great heart ten or fifteen gallons of 
 blood are thrown out. The cetaceans range in size from 
 
 Fig. 335. — White whale {Beluga catodon), a cetacean that has been carried 
 alive from America to England by steamer, covered with , sea-weed and 
 dashed frequently with water. 
 
 the porpoise, three to five feet long, to the rorqual, one 
 hundred and three feet in length. 
 
 Toothed Whales (Delphinoidea). — This group in- 
 cludes the dolphins, porpoises, white whales, etc. The 
 common dolphin has long, extended jaws armed with from 
 forty to forty-seven conical teeth, and a prominent dorsal 
 ridge or fin. The porpoises,* the orca,f or killer, the 
 blackfish, or round-headed grampus, the white whale, Be- 
 luga (Fig. 335), sperm-whale, and narwhal are allies. 
 
 * A friend of the author, in attempting to capture a herd of por- 
 poises, drove them into a creek, and the capture was about to commence, 
 when the porpoises rushed towai-d the boats, several leaping completely 
 over them, and thus reaching the sea. 
 
 f The orca also preys upon the young cf the walrus. In the 
 stomach of one have been found the remains of thirteen porpoises and 
 fourteen seals. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 311 
 
 Whalebone- 
 whales (Balcenoi- 
 
 dea). — In the em- 
 bryo whales of this 
 group minute teeth 
 are present. They 
 are absorbed before 
 birth, and after it 
 their place is taken 
 by baleen, or plates 
 of whalebone, that 
 grow out and hang 
 down upon each side 
 in from three to four 
 hundred plates, like 
 saws on a rack, often 
 attaining a length of 
 ten feet, weighing 
 in all one ton (Fig. 
 336). The outer 
 edges are smooth, 
 the inner frayed into 
 numerous bristles, 
 that form a rude 
 strainer. Ordinari- 
 ly, the lips of the 
 lower jaw cover 
 them, but, when 
 feeding, the enor- 
 mous lips flatten 
 out, presenting the 
 appearance of a 
 scoop with whale- 
 bone sides. Into 
 this trap myriads of jelly-fishes 
 tangled in the strainer ; when a 
 
 are swept, becoming en- 
 mouthful is obtained, the 
 
312 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 sides of the lips are raised, the tongue presses the water 
 out through the strainer, the jellies passing down the ex- 
 tremely small throat, that is only adapted for this kind of 
 food. 
 
 The Greenland whale (Balcena mysticcetus), Balcena cis- 
 arctica, and austra/is, are familiar forms. 
 
 Value. — A single whale, captured by a New London vessel in 
 1884, realized for whalebone, $12,230 ; oil, $3,490 ; total, $15,720. 
 Spermaceti and ivory are other productions. 
 
 Order IV. Insect-eating Mammals (Insectivord). 
 General Characteristics. — The animals of this order prey 
 
 upon insects almost entirely. 
 The teeth are well developed, 
 the molars being prism-shaped, 
 with acute cusps or points (Fig. 
 337). The feet are provided 
 with claws, often enormously de- 
 
 FlG. 337.— Skull of an insect- veloped. 
 
 eating mammal, showing S hreWS (&««<&).— In ap- 
 
 the numerous pointed teeth. . 
 
 pearance the shrews (Fig. 339) 
 resemble the rats. They have a wide distribution, but 
 are not found in Australia or South America. The broad- 
 nosed shrew (Sorex) is a common American form. The 
 nose is long, canine teeth absent, the ears large, tail con- 
 spicuous and scantily supplied with hair. This shrew is 
 one of the smallest quadrupeds on the continent, weigh- 
 ing only forty-seven grains. They secrete a protective 
 odor, contained in two glands at the base of the tail. They 
 burrow in the ground, and are mainly nocturnal in their 
 habits. Moles (Talpidce). — The moles are confined to 
 the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. In 
 America, the star-nosed mole (Condylura) (Fig. 338) ranges 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Its length is about four 
 inches to the tail, which is of nearly the same length. The 
 nose terminates in numerous star-like fringes, that aid it in 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 313 
 
 FlG. 338.— Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) : 
 a, jaws ; b, end of nose. 
 
 obtaining food. They are found near streams and moist 
 spots. The common mole (Scalops aquaticus, Linn.) (Fig. 
 339) leaves its 
 traces in up- 
 turned ridges in 
 every field of 
 the Eastern 
 States. They 
 attain a length 
 of five inches. 
 The fore -feet 
 are greatly de- 
 veloped for 
 digging ; their 
 eyes are com- 
 paratively use- 
 less, being ex- 
 tremely small,* 
 
 giving rise to the impression that they are eyeless. Their 
 nests are underground, and their principal food earth- 
 worms. 
 
 Allied are the Solenodon of Hayti and the Tanrec of 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Value. — Fur, and as insect-destroyers. A single mole is estimated 
 to eat 20,000 insects in a year. One has been known to devour 432 
 maggots and 250 grubs in four days ; another ate 872 maggots and 540 
 grubs in twelve days. In another instance two moles in nine days de- 
 voured 341 grubs, 193 earth-worms, 25 caterpillars, and a mouse, its 
 bones and skin. 
 
 * The eyes are deeply imbedded, but are perfect, the lens consist- 
 ing of a very small number of minute and little altered embryonic 
 cells. The retina is more simple than generally seen in other ver- 
 tebrates. In the embryo mole both eyes are connected with the 
 brain by optic nerves, but in adults the optic nerve has degenerated, 
 sometimes one and again both, so that, though the image may be 
 possibly formed in the eye, it is with difficulty communicated to the 
 brain. 
 
 14 
 
314 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Hedgehog (Erinaceidci)* — We now come to the 
 true hedgehogs (Fig. 339), that are not found in the 
 western hemisphere, and are characterized by a thick 
 
 Fig. 339. — A group of insect-eaters: 1, common shrew; 2, hedgehog; 
 3, mole ; 4, bat. 
 
 growth of sharp, spinous bristles upon the back, that, 
 when the animal rolls itself into a ball, form a perfect 
 protection. 
 
 Value. — Skin and spines. 
 
 * The nest is generally underground, and carefully made, and 
 here the adults, as a rule, pass the cold months in a state of hiber- 
 nation — a sleep so deep that no outward sign of breathing can be de- 
 tected. In Dr. Hall's experiments with a hibernating animal suddenly 
 decapitated, the heart continued to beat for a long time, as if possessed 
 with an independent life. In another, where the brain and entire 
 spinal cord were removed, the heart continued to beat for two hours, 
 as if nothing had happened, and twelve hours after would contract 
 when touched. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 315 
 
 Flying Colugo (Galeopithecidci). — The animals of this 
 family, found in Molucca, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philip- 
 pine Islands, are the highest forms of the Insectivora, and 
 are provided with a membrane similar to that of the flying 
 squirrel, except that it also connects the tail (Fig. 340) 
 
 f%^%% 
 
 Fig. 340. — A group of flying mammals : 1, taguan, or flying squirrel, 
 rodent ; 2, colugo, an insectivorous animal. 
 
 and the hind-legs, forming a complete parachute. When 
 climbing, the membrane is folded closely, but as they 
 spring into the air with limbs out it spreads out, support- 
 ing them in leaps of three or four hundred feet. In this 
 way they pass from tree to tree, carrying their young. 
 
 Order V. Bats [Chiroptera — Wing- handed). General 
 Characteristics. — From the Colugo we pass to the bats 
 (Figs. 339 and 341), which are characterized by a remark- 
 able modification of the fore-limbs for purposes of flight. 
 The fingers of the fore-arm are greatly elongated, and sup- 
 
3i6 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 port a thin, leathery membrane, that commences at the side 
 of the neck and extends to the hind-legs, partly or wholly 
 encompassing the tail, and is used with all the freedom of 
 
 a bird's wing. 
 The sternum is 
 slightly keeled, 
 as in the birds, 
 and the teeth 
 resemble in gen- 
 eral those of 
 the Insectivora. 
 They are noc- 
 turnal, and hang 
 by their hind- 
 legs or arms in 
 resting. The 
 t thumb is free, 
 
 and forms a hook for holding and walking ; the first 
 finger is also generally provided with a claw, and in mov- 
 ing on the ground the bat uses its thumb, while its other 
 fingers point backward. Some species have 
 peculiar disk-like clinging organs (Fig. 
 342). The eyes are extremely minute, es- 
 pecially in the long-eared bats, yet, even 
 when deprived of these organs, they show 
 marvelous skill in avoiding obstructions. 
 
 Fig. 341. — Skeleton of a bat (lettered to compare 
 with bird's skeleton, p. 226). fa, fore-arm ; ii\ 
 wrist ; t, thumb ; ha, hand ; h, heel ; f foot. 
 
 Fig. 342. — Suc- 
 torial disk on 
 the thumb of 
 Thyroptera 
 tricolor. 
 
 
 Note. — At the approach of cold weather the bats 
 are deprived of food, and, being unable to migrate 
 as the birds, retire to caves and secluded spots and 
 sleep away the cold months in a state of hibernation. 
 So perfect is this sleep, that the animals have been 
 placed in illuminating gas without perceptible effect ; 
 and in other experiments the air about them, upon being analyzed, 
 did not show evidences of having been breathed. They and other 
 hibernators are supposed during this period to obtain nourishment by 
 absorbing the fat that has accumulated on the under side of the neck, 
 in the so-called hibernation-glands. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 317 
 
 Order VI. Gnawing Animals (Rodentid). General 
 Characteristics. — The animals of this order have no canine 
 teeth, but in each jaw are two powerful, chisel-like incisors 
 (Fig. 343), that are renewed 
 as fast as they wear away. 
 The molar teeth are flat, 
 and seldom exceed four in 
 each jaw. The lower jaw 
 is so articulated with the 
 skull that the motion is 
 forward and back instead 
 of horizontal. The limbs 
 are adapted for walking, 
 
 flying, or bur- 
 
 Fig. 343. — Skull of a gnawing animal 
 (Rodent), showing the large chisel- 
 teeth in front, and the gap between 
 these and the hind teeth. 
 
 climbing, 
 rowing. 
 
 Hares and Rabbits (Leporidce). — The hares (Fig. 
 344) and rabbits have a wide geographical range, and are 
 distinguished by long ears, the presence of small teeth be- 
 hind each of 
 the incisors, 
 powerfully de- 
 veloped hind- 
 legs, and short, 
 bushy tails. 
 The fore - feet 
 are five -toed, 
 the hinder ones 
 having four. 
 Many have the 
 feet lined with 
 hair beneath. 
 The whi te 
 hare {Lepus 
 Americanus) 
 and gray rabbit are well-known species. The former 
 ranges from Virginia to Labrador. The water-rabbit of 
 
 Fig. 344. — European hare {Lepus timidus). 
 
3i8 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 the Mississippi region takes to the water when pursued, 
 and swims and dives equally well. The jackass-rabbit 
 (Z. callotis) is remarkable for its long ears, while in the 
 Alpine hare of the Rocky Mountains they are extremely 
 short. Hares generally nest on the surface, while rabbits 
 burrow. 
 
 Value. — Five million rabbit-skins are used annually in the fur- 
 trade, and four and a half million hare-skins. 
 
 Note. — The domestic varieties of rabbits have all sprung from the 
 English variety. They live in bands, burrow, and are so prolific that 
 it has been estimated that, under the most favorable circumstances, 
 the progeny of a single pair in four years would amount to a million ! * 
 
 Allied are the Cavies (Caviidce), found in South Amer- 
 ica and the adjoining islands, seemingly taking the place 
 of hares, the Agoutis, Guinea-pigs, the Capybara, the 
 largest rodent, and the Paca, that forms burrows in the 
 ground. Porcupines (Hystricidce). — These rodents (Fig. 
 345) have the body and tail covered with stiff, rigid, barbed 
 quills, from three to twelve inches in length. The molar 
 teeth are sixteen in number, and the tongue is rough and 
 armed with horny scales. They inhabit the temperate re- 
 gions of the eastern and western hemispheres, living in 
 burrows, and in the winter passing through a partial hiber- 
 nation. The white-haired or Canada porcupine is nearly 
 three feet long, including the tail. The spines are- white, 
 with darkened tips, the long hairs growing among them 
 being similarly colored, and the fur a dark brown. They 
 live upon bark and twigs, and also upon corn and various 
 grains. The yellow-haired porcupine is much larger. 
 The crested porcupine of Europe and Asia has spines 
 a foot long ; those upon the tail being hollow, open, and 
 attached by slender pedicles. When not in use the spines 
 lie flat, but are raised suddenly with a loud, crackling 
 
 * Rabbits have increased so in certain parts of Australia that a 
 famine is threatened. One colony has lost two thousand sheep from 
 starvation, the rabbits having eaten up the grass. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 319 
 
 noise. The accounts of their spines being thrown are 
 fabulous.* The Brazilian porcupine climbs trees and 
 clings to them by its prehensile tail. The young, general- 
 ly two, are produced in the latter part of spring. 
 
 Value. — Quills are used in commerce, as pen-holders, etc. 
 
 Fig. 345.— A group of rodants : 1, harvest-mousa ; 2, porcupine ; 3, mole- 
 rat. 
 
 Allied are the Chinchillas (Cfa'nc/iil/idce), that live upon 
 the Andes of Chili and Peru, at an elevation of twelve 
 thousand feet, Their fur is exceedingly valuable. 
 
 Note. — The allied Viscachas inhabit the lofty plateaus of the 
 Andes, sixteen thousand feet above the sea. They burrow, and have a 
 remarkable habit of collecting about their holes eveiy curious object, so 
 
 * In experiments witnessed by the author, a rabbit was pierced by 
 quills so quickly that it was easy to see how the illusion of their being 
 thrown first originated. The blows were struck entirely by the tail, 
 and so rapidly that the eye at first could not follow the movement. 
 
320 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 that quantities of material are found there. A watch lost by a traveler 
 was afterward found in front of a hole. 
 
 Squirrels (Sciuridce). — The squirrels have a wide 
 geographical range. They have powerful, compressed in- 
 cisor teeth, prominent ears, the snout and upper lip di- 
 vided, and long tails with hairs generally arranged along 
 the sides. The gray and black squirrels attain a length 
 of two feet, including the tail. They vary much in color, 
 from black to all shades of gray. The gray squirrels make 
 wonderful migrations, passing over the country in vast num- 
 
 FlG. 346. — American chipmunk. 
 
 bers, swimming streams, and divesting the land as they pass. 
 The tufted-eared squirrel, of the San Francisco Hills, is 
 one of the finest American species. The striped squirrels 
 (chipmunks) (Fig. 346) have enormous cheek-pouches, 
 used in carrying food to their nests. The flying squir- 
 rels (Fig. 340) have a fur-covered membrane, extending 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 321 
 
 Fig. 347.— Prairie-dog, and the owl and snake 
 that live in its burrow. 
 
 from the sides and connecting the fore and hind limbs, 
 which enables them to leap great distances, the membrane 
 acting as a parachute, held out by the limbs, and bony, 
 boom-like appendages attached to them. 
 
 The marmots are represented in this country by the 
 
 prairie-dog (Fig. 
 
 347). They in- _- _ ~ ^ / "~"V=-^U ^ 
 habit the plains cf 
 the West. The fur 
 is reddish brown, 
 and lighter be- 
 neath. They live 
 in burrows in com- 
 munities, and utter 
 a sharp chirp re- 
 sembling a bark. 
 The burrowing- 
 owls and rattle- 
 snakes live with them, the latter probably preying upon 
 the young of both. 
 
 The woodchuck is common in North America, attain- 
 ing a large size. Their fur is a grizzly color. 
 
 Value. — Six million squirrel-skins are used yearly by the trade. 
 The hairs of the tail are made into delicate paint-brushes. 
 
 Beavers {Castoridce). — The beavers are represented in 
 America by one species. They are characterized by a 
 broad, flattened, scaled tail, that is used as a scull in 
 locomotion. They have five toes upon each foot, those 
 upon the hinder ones being webbed. They are aquatic 
 in their habits, living upon the bark of trees and other vege- 
 tation, or meat, when domesticated. They are famed for 
 their industry and intelligence in the construction of their 
 homes.* The young, from two to eight, are produced in 
 
 * The beavers show great intelligence in making their habitations. 
 As it is necessary that the house should be under water, a small stream 
 
322 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Fig. 348. — The beaver (Castor jiber), a gnawing water-animal, showing its 
 dam and method of felling trees. 
 
 is selected and dammed. Large trees, eighteen inches in diameter, 
 are gnawed down (Fig. 348) and placed in position, and, if distant from 
 the stream, a canal is built, often five hundred feet long, by which logs 
 and food are floated to their homes. The logs are arranged against 
 the current, curving up-stream, the interstices being filled with mud 
 and other material. In working, the small matter is carried in the 
 fore-paws, the webbed hinder ones and the tail being the organs of 
 locomotion, and the latter perhaps used in moving logs and stones. 
 The dam completed, the house is built underwater, while burrows are 
 made in the neighboring banks to be used as a last resort. The houses 
 
MAMMALIA. 323 
 
 the month of May, attaining their growth in eighteen 
 months, and living for nearly twenty years. They were 
 formerly common in the New England States, where the 
 remains of their dams can still be seen ; they are gradu- 
 ally becoming extinct. Allied to the beaver is the curious 
 Sewellel (Haplodoji rufus) of the mountains of Oregon and 
 Washington Territory. It is nocturnal, burrows in the 
 ground, and is about the size of a muskrat. 
 
 Value. — Twenty thousand beavers are taken yearly in Asia, and 
 two hundred thousand in America. The incisors are used by the In- 
 dians as chisels, knives, and ornaments. Beaver-leather is used, and 
 castoreum in the manufacture of perfumery. 
 
 Fig. 349. — The Myopotamus coypu, a valuable fur-bearing animal, at home 
 in either salt or fresh water in South America. 
 
 Rats (Afuridd). — In this family are the rats, mice, 
 and their allies that are very generally distributed over 
 
 are made of mud, and two-storied, the upper being out of water, in 
 which the families live, while below are stored the provisions for the 
 winter. The doors or openings connect with the water. The dams and 
 home are repaired year after year, wood for the purpose being collected 
 in the autumn, and when frozen the work is extremely solid. 
 
324 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 the globe. The upper lips are divided, the snout acute, 
 and the ears generally naked. The Bandicoot rat is the 
 largest, attaining in India a length of fourteen inches. 
 The Norway rat attains a length of eight or ten inches, 
 and is of a rusty brown color. They are very intelligent 
 and prolific. They came originally from Central Asia, 
 appearing first in Russia in 1737, crossing in vessels to 
 America in 1775. This is the ordinary wharf rat. The 
 black rat emigrated to this country in 1544. The musk- 
 rat is an aquatic form, with a flattened tail and webbed 
 hind-feet, and erects houses under water similar to those 
 of the beaver. The coypu (Fig. 349), of the Chonos 
 archipelago, is an allied form, also common in the streams 
 
 :S\ I . _- 
 
 Fig. 350. — The lemming {Myodes lemmus). 
 
 of South America. The house mouse is an importation 
 from Europe and Asia. The European harvest mice (Fig. 
 345) are noted as nest-builders, forming them by weaving 
 spears of grass about stalks of grain. The American field 
 mouse {Arvicola) nests under ground in spring, on the 
 surface in midsummer, and on the surface beneath the 
 snow in winter. It does not hibernate. The lemmings 
 
MAMMALIA. 325 
 
 (My odes) of northern Europe (Fig. 350), famous for their 
 migrations,* are allied forms. 
 
 The Lophio7iiys Imhausi belongs to this family, and is 
 one of the most remarkable examples of defensive mimicry 
 in the animal kingdom. They inhabit the fissures of the 
 rocks in Nubia and Arabia. Allied are the pouched rats, 
 hamsters, and the jerboas, or jumping-mice, etc. 
 
 Value. — Three million American muskrat-skins are used as furs 
 annually ; also used as felting, and the musk in perfumery. The skins 
 of common rats are used as thumbs for kid gloves. 
 
 Order VII. Hoofed Animals (Ungulata). General 
 Characteristics. — The animals of this comprehensive order 
 are the most useful to man, as the camel, horse, pig, etc. 
 Some appear to walk upon their toes, which are incased 
 in horny hoofs, as the horse, while others are provided 
 with blunt, broad nails. 
 
 Hyrax (Hyracoidea). — These curious animals (Fig. 
 351) resemble somewhat the rabbit, and have feet that 
 recall the rhinoceros. They have long, curved incisors, 
 and feet provided with pads ; the toes being incased in 
 hoofs, four in front and three behind. They are confined 
 to Africa and adjacent countries, and conceal themselves 
 in holes and crevices, living in communities. When feed- 
 ing, one acts as a sentinel, giving a shrill, prolonged cry as 
 a warning. The Syrian Hyrax is supposed to be the shop- 
 
 * These migrations are caused by a naturally restless instinct and 
 often by a lack of food. The lemmings on the lower plateau move 
 first, and the numbers are gradually swelled, being added to by births 
 on the march. They swim rivers, and in coming to the sea are lost in 
 it, thinking it a river. In the Brazilian province of Parana a rat-plague, 
 that devastates the country, occurs about every thirty years, and is simul- 
 taneous with the dying out of the taquara or bamboo, upon the seeds 
 of which the rats feed. In Ceylon the dying down of Strobilanthes 
 every seven years causes a similar plague, and in Chili the rat-swarms 
 are coincident with the destruction of a species of bamboo (colligue) 
 every fifteen or twenty years. 
 
326 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 han of the Bible, and, as Solomon has said, they are " feeble 
 folk," although they have " their dwelling in the rock." 
 
 Value. — The Hyraceum in the manufacture of perfumery. 
 
 Fig. 2>5i-—Hy rax Capensis. 
 
 Elephants (Proboscidea). — The elephants are distin- 
 guished by their large size, often weighing three tons, and 
 the presence of a trunk or proboscis (Fig. 352), that is 
 
 a prolongation of 
 the nose and up- 
 per lip six or 
 eight feet in 
 length, made up 
 of forty thousand 
 or more muscles, 
 so arranged as to 
 give the greatest 
 diversity of mo- 
 tion. The ex- 
 tremity bears the 
 two openings of 
 the nostrils, and 
 is produced on 
 its upper surfaces 
 into a finger-like 
 process endowed with an exquisite sense of touch. The 
 upper incisor teeth are greatly developed into tusks, that 
 
 Fig. 352. — Various uses of the trunk of the ele- 
 phant : 1, drinking ; 2, pulling grass ; 3, wash- 
 ing. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 32/ 
 
 attain a length sometimes of nine feet, a girth of twenty- 
 two inches, and a weight of two hundred pounds each, 
 with which they can toss a tiger thirty feet or more. There 
 are no incisors in the lower jaw ; the canines are absent, 
 and the molars are large, ridged transversely, and filled 
 with cement or crusta petrosa. The head is extremely mas- 
 sive, but not indicative of the size of the brain, the upper 
 portion containing numbers of air-cells. The limbs are 
 powerful and five-toed, the feet resting on broad pads. 
 The Asiatic species has small ears and an oblong head, 
 
 Fig. 353. — Asiatic elephant, showing how used by man. 
 
 while in the African the ears are immense, the head round, 
 and the forehead convex. They roam in herds. The 
 young in the Indian species weigh about two hundred and 
 thirteen pounds at birth, and are thirty-four and a half 
 inches in height. Individuals have been known to live 
 one hundred and thirty years. 
 
 The mastodon and mammoth are extinct elephants of 
 this country, Europe, and Asia. The latter was hairy, and 
 
328 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 had tusks fifteen feet long. Several specimens have been 
 found in the ice in Siberia, and, though untold ages old, 
 were perfectly preserved. They were contemporaneous 
 with early man. An extinct pygmy Maltese elephant was 
 only three feet high. So-called white elephants are merely 
 albinos, and never pure white. 
 
 Value. — In 1880 nearly seven hundred tons of elephant-ivory was 
 imported into Great Britain alone, and to supply the yearly demand 
 one hundred thousand elephants are destroyed. They are also used as 
 beasts of burden and laborers (Fig. 353). 
 
 Uneven-toed Ungulates (Perissodactyld). Tapir 
 (Tapiridd). — The animals of this family are distinguished 
 by their short, fleshy, proboscis-like nose (Fig. 354). They 
 have four toes on each front foot, and three on each hind 
 one. The skin is dark and nearly hairless, the neck bear- 
 ing a fleshy crest. The South American tapir has a wide 
 range, and in the Andes is found twelve thousand feet 
 above the sea. Their habits are partly aquatic and noc- 
 turnal. The Malay tapir is black, with the exception of 
 a prominent white spot upon the rump. The young are 
 spotted and striped in a beautiful manner. 
 
 Rhinoceros (Rhinocerontidci). — The animals of this 
 family rank next to the elephant in point of size, and are 
 peculiar to Africa, India, and adjacent islands. They are 
 extremely bulky, with bodies covered with a naked, armor- 
 like skin deposited in folds. They have incisors in both 
 jaws; upon the muzzle grow one or two horns two or 
 three feet long, composed of agglutinated, hair-like fibers, 
 having no connection with the bone, and in some species 
 being movable. 
 
 The Indian rhinoceros (./?. Indicus) is one of the most 
 powerful, being nearly ten feet long, and attaining a weight 
 of three tons. They have a single horn, sometimes three 
 feet long, that forms a formidable weapon. The Sumatran 
 species has two horns. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 329 
 
 Note. — Remains of extinct rhinoceroses are found in England, 
 France, and Germany, that were contemporary with early man. In 177 1 
 a complete hairy rhinoceros melted out of the ice in the river Wilni, Sibe- 
 ria, where it had been thousands of years. The horn was four feet long. 
 
 Value. — Horns, hide, etc. 
 
 Horse (Equidce). — This family comprises the horse, 
 ass, zebra, and quagga, animals that have a single perfect 
 toe upon each foot. There are two undeveloped splints, 
 
330 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 however, under the skin, that tell an interesting story in 
 the ancestry of the family.* The domestic horse (E. 
 caballus) came originally from the Old World, and is not 
 found now in the wild state except where it has been re- 
 leased by man, as the mustang of South America and the 
 muzir of Tartary. 
 
 Ponies are dwarf horses, produced in cool countries, 
 as Shetland. The wild ass (E. onager) ranges in herds 
 from the Indies to Mesopotamia. They are distinguished 
 by long ears, the tail ending in a tuft. The hinny and 
 mule are hybrids of the ass (E. asinus) and a horse. Four 
 species of zebra are known in Asia and Africa. They are 
 striped transversely with dark and white bands. The 
 voice of the quagga of Africa resembles the bark of a dog. 
 The onagga of Africa is smaller than the ass. They are 
 dark bay with black stripes, the tail and legs being white. 
 The peculiar marking is protective. 
 
 Value. — Horses, mules, asses, etc., are the most valuable of do- 
 mestic animals ; almost every part of the animal is valued in trade. 
 
 * Professors Marsh and Huxley, especially the former, have made 
 interesting discoveries concerning the fossil horse, and its ancestry is 
 more complete than that of any other animal. The remains are found 
 in the Tertiary beds of North America. The earliest horse was the 
 eohippus (Eocene time), as large as a fox. The following is the gene- 
 alogy of the horse : 
 
 In Front Hind No. of In 
 
 America. Toes. Toes. Teeth. Europe. 
 
 Period. 
 
 ( Recent . . . 
 7. •< and 
 
 ( Upper Pliocene 
 
 6. Upper Pliocene . 
 
 5. Lower Pliocene 
 4. Upper Miocene 
 3. Lower Miocene 
 2. Upper Eocene 
 1. Lower Eocene 
 
 Equus ) 
 Pliohippus 
 
 2 splints 2 splints 
 1 1 
 
 2 splints 2 splints 
 
 1 large 1 large 
 
 Protohippus 7, lT 
 
 ^ 2 small 2 small 
 
 Miohippus 3 3 
 
 Mesohippus ^^ 3 
 
 Orohippus 4 3 
 
 Eohippus ^ ^i;^,: 3 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 Equus. 
 Equus. 
 
 1 splint 
 
 44 Hipparion. 
 
 44 Anchitherium. 
 
 44 — 
 
 44 — 
 
 44 — 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 331 
 
 Even-toed Ungulates (Artiodactyla). Hippopota- 
 mus {Hippopotamidce), two species. — These huge creatures 
 inhabit many of the great rivers of Africa. The body is 
 extremely large, the legs short, the feet having four toes, 
 each one being hoofed. The head is large, and the gape 
 enormous. The teeth are of large size, and often number 
 forty, and are used in cutting the bark from trees, which 
 forms a prominent feature of their food. They are noc- 
 turnal animals, and are aquatic in their habits. They 
 formerly lived as far north as England. 
 Value. — Hide, and ivory from the teeth. 
 
 Swine (Suidci). — The swine are characterized by four 
 toes upon each foot, the anterior digits being furnished 
 with strong hoofs. The head is pointed, the snout blunt, 
 terminating in an 
 organ adapted for 
 rooting, the ears 
 large, and the skin 
 covered with bris- 
 tles. The com- 
 mon hog is a de- 
 scendant of the 
 wild boar, an in- 
 habitant of the 
 forests of Europe 
 and Asia. The 
 latter is extreme- 
 ly fierce. The masked boar of southeastern Africa, the 
 Babiroiissa^ an inhabitant of the islands of the Indian 
 Archipelago (Fig. 355), and the wart-hog, are allies. The 
 peccaries (Dicoty/es) are American representatives of the 
 family, inhabiting Mexico and South America. 
 
 Value. — Flesh, hide, hair, hoofs, etc. 
 
 Deer (Cervidce). — These and the following hoofed ani- 
 mals are generally called ruminants, from the fact that the 
 
 i-IG. 355. — Babirous^a. 
 
332 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 food or cud is chewed twice before it is finally digested.* 
 The molar teeth have two double, crescent-shaped folds, 
 and, in biting, the incisors of the lower jaw are pressed 
 
 Ect. 
 
 B.U.' 
 
 Fig. 356. — Stomach of a ruminant (sheep) : a?, oesophagus ; Ru, paunch ; 
 ret, honey-comb ; Ps, manyplies ; a, true digestive stomach or rennet ; 
 du } beginning of intestine. 
 
 against the opposite and toothless gum of the upper. The 
 stomach (Fig. 356), with few exceptions, is divided into 
 four compartments : 1. The paunch, ru ; 2. The honey- 
 
 * The grass, partly chewed and mixed with saliva, is swallowed, 
 and passes into the oesophagus ; the latter is continued into a tube 
 with a long slit on its under side, whose lips fit closely, and are 
 water-tight. The tube thus formed leads naturally to the third stom- 
 ach, and here we see a wonderful provision. The coarse food as it is 
 swallowed at first, from its size presses open the slit, and drops into 
 stomach No. 1, or paunch, where it is mixed with water. From here it 
 goes into stomach No. 2, or the honeycomb, where the polygonal spaces 
 may serve to fashion it into pellets or cuds. Now, by a simultaneous 
 contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, a cud is forced 
 against the cardiac aperture of the stomach into the oesophagus, and so 
 into the mouth, where it is chewed by the molar teeth, and again swal- 
 lowed at last ready for digestion. As it passes down for the second 
 time, we would perhaps expect it to press open the slit and drop into 
 the first stomach again ; the second chewing, however, has reduced it 
 to a pulp, so that it is now not large enough, and it passes along the 
 tube over the slit and into the third stomach or manyplies, where it 
 is strained ; then passing into the true stomach, where it is mixed with 
 the gastric juice and absorbed. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 333 
 
 comb, ret (so called from the presence of polygonal 
 spaces) ; 3, The manyplies, ps ; and, lastly, the stomach 
 or rennet, a. 
 
 The deer are characterized by solid, branching antlers 
 or horns that are cast yearly.* They generally have sacks 
 beneath the eye, that can be opened or shut at will, con- 
 taining a waxy secretion, having a pungent odor, and are 
 called "tear-pits." The females, with the exception of 
 the reindeer, are hornless. The Virginia deer (Cariaais 
 Virginianus) is a typical American species, and one of 
 the most beautiful of the family. They attain a weight of 
 two hundred and fifty pounds, and vary in color with the 
 seasons ; being a light brown in summer and a reddish 
 gray in winter, the under part of the throat and tail being 
 a white at all times. The Wapiti (Fig. 357) is one of the 
 noblest American deer, and is closely allied to the Eng- 
 lish red deer or stag. They attain a length of nearly 
 eight feet, and a height of five feet at the shoulders. The 
 horns or antlers are shapely, with twelve points or more, 
 and are six to seven feet long, weighing at times nearly 
 eighty pounds. The tips or branches increase with years, 
 and forty-five have been seen on the antlers of an Eng- 
 lish stag. In the summer the wapiti are reddish brown, 
 and in the winter gray. They range the northern coun- 
 try east of the Missouri. The caribou is allied to the 
 European reindeer ; two species range our Northern for- 
 
 * Toward the end of spring there is an increased flow of blood to 
 the head, the blood-vessels being temporarily enlarged. Budding horns 
 now appear ; they are highly sensitive and delicate, covered with a 
 downy skin, called and resembling velvet, and permeated with blood- 
 vessels. They grow with marvelous rapidity, the antlers of a full-grown 
 stag being completely formed in ten weeks. When full growth has 
 been attained, a burr or ring forms at the base of each, that presses 
 and cuts off the blood-vessels ; the velvet then shrivels and peels off, 
 assisted by rubbing, the marks of the blood-vessels being now seen as 
 grooves. In the Indian deer, and perhaps some other tropical spe- 
 cies, the casting does not occur annually. 
 
334 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 ests. The antlers are thick and stubby, and vary greatly 
 in individuals. 
 
 Fig. 357. — Wapiti (Cervus Canadensis). 
 
 The reindeer of Arctic Europe are about four feet 
 long and three high, and the females also have horns. In 
 the summer their fur is brown and in winter lighter — a 
 protective measure. 
 
 The moose {Alee Americanus) (Fig. 358) is the largest 
 of the family, having immense broad antlers, that alone 
 weigh nearly eighty pounds, and resemble in shape the pine- 
 branches of the northern forests. Their muzzle is broad 
 and long, the legs long, the shoulders and neck covered by 
 a thick growth of coarse hair. Their color is a grayish 
 brown. They are extremely fleet, and step so high in 
 running that they pass over a five-foot wall or fence with- 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 335 
 
 out effort. They range from northern Maine to the Arctic 
 regions. In the winter the herds of moose often form 
 yards in the snow, trampling it down for several miles, 
 
 Fig. 358. — Moose {Alee Americanus). 
 
 banding together for protection against the wolves, to 
 whom they often fall victims in the soft, deep snow. The 
 great extinct Irish elk was an allied form, and their> re- 
 mains are now' frequently found in the Irish bogs. Their 
 horns often measured twelve feet from tip to tip, and were 
 so broad that three or four men could rest on them. They 
 were ten feet high, including the horns. The axis deer is 
 an Indian species, and is spotted with white, similar to 
 the fallow deer. In Java is found the Muntjac {Cervus 
 vaginalis) ; its horns are on bony pedestals, and the male 
 is remarkable for its long, protruding canine teeth in the 
 upper jaw. The musk-deer of Asia has similar teeth. 
 
 Value. — Fur, hides, horns, teeth, hoofs, sinews, musk, etc. 
 
 Hollow - Horned Ruminants {Bovidce). General 
 Characteristics. — This large family includes the buffaloes, 
 oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, distinguished from the 
 deer by the peculiar structure of the horns, that are hol- 
 low, and, as a rule, not shed. Two processes of the fore- 
 
336 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Fig. 359. — Rocky Mountain sheep {Capra 
 monta?ia). 
 
 head (frontal) bone 
 of the skull form the 
 cores that are cov- 
 ered by the horns, 
 that are special de- 
 velopments of the 
 outer skin or epi- 
 dermis. 
 
 Goats and 
 Sheep.— In the 
 Rocky Mountain 
 sheep, or big-horn 
 
 ( Fi g- 359), the horns 
 are extremely pow- 
 erful. In the fe- 
 male, the horns are 
 
 straight, and similar to those of a goat. Their height at 
 
 the shoulder is about three feet, and their weight three 
 
 hundred and fifty pounds. They are now confined to the 
 
 country west of the Missouri, and are fast becoming extinct. 
 &bout forty varieties of the domestic sheep are known. 
 
 Its origin is obscure, 
 
 but it is possibly a ~"~ - 
 
 descendant of an 
 
 Asiatic sheep (Om's 
 
 argali). The Bar- 
 
 bary sheep, or Mou- 
 
 flon, has soft hair' 
 
 of a reddish tinge. 
 
 From it and the Si- 
 berian Argali spring 
 
 the merino sheep of 
 
 the East ; their tails 
 
 attain a weight of 
 
 onehundred pounds, 
 
 and have to be sup- 
 
 Fig. 360. — Musk-sheep {Ovibos moschatus). 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 337 
 
 ported on racks harnessed to the animal. The musk- 
 sheep (Ovibos) (Fig. 360), or ox, as it is incorrectly called, 
 is confined to the Arctic region of North America. It is 
 a comparatively small animal, about the size of a cow, but 
 its long, brownish-black hair gives it a much larger appear- 
 ance. The horns are broad at the base, and bent down 
 upon the cheek, turning up again. They secrete a strong 
 musk, the flesh even being impregnated with the odor. 
 
 Fig. 361. — Chamois and ibex. 
 
 They assemble in herds, and are becoming exceedingly 
 rare. At the end of the glacial period an allied form 
 roamed the Middle States. The Angora goat, Cashmere 
 goat, and ibex (Copra ibex) (Fig. 361), are allies. 
 
 Value. — Sheep's wool. One hundred thousand Persian lamb-skins 
 are used annually by the trade ; six hundred thousand Astrakhan, and 
 two million European. From the goats come mohairs, cashmeres, etc. 
 Fifteen million pounds of Angora wool alone is used annually in the 
 trade. The horns, hides, and hoofs are all valued. 
 
 Antelopes. — The antelopes are remarkable for their 
 speed and elegant forms. The goat-antelopes are repre- 
 sented in America by the mountain goat (Aploceros mon- 
 15 
 
338 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 tanus). Its horns are jet black, slender, and slightly- 
 curved, resembling those of the Alpine chamois (Fig. 361). 
 Its hair is long and white. 
 
 The prong-horn is a characteristic American antelope, 
 and remarkably fleet. They are larger than the domestic 
 sheep, and covered with coarse, brush-like hair, that is yel- 
 lowish brown above, the under portion and a square patch 
 on the rump being pure white, while the horns, hoofs, and 
 parts of the nose are black. The horns bend slightly, and 
 midway to the tip is a small prong, from which they take 
 their name. The horns, though hollow, and having a 
 persistent core, as in the ox, are shed in the autumn. 
 
 Among the 
 gazelles, the Si- 
 berian antelope, 
 or Saiga (Fig. 
 362), is the most 
 striking. The 
 muzzle is bent 
 downward, and 
 the horns beau- 
 tifully shaped. 
 They are found 
 in Poland and 
 Russia, and are 
 the most north- 
 ern of the fam- 
 ily. 
 
 Allied are 
 the chamois of 
 Europe (Fig. 
 
 Fig. 362. — Siberian antelope, remarkable for its 
 curved muzzle. 
 
 oryx, 
 
 eland of Af- 
 
 361), the gnu. the pygmy antelope, 
 rica, etc. 
 
 Oxen (Bovina). — The domestic oxen do not present a 
 genuine species, but represent many races that have de- 
 scended from several extinct species. They are character- 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 339 
 
 ized by horns curving outward and downward, short tails, 
 and broad hoofs. The American bison (Bison America- 
 nits), or buffalo, formerly ranged from Virginia and Lake 
 
 Champlain to Florida, but are now confined to the far 
 West, and fast becoming extinct. They are of large size, 
 the head powerful and carried low. The forehead is 
 
3 4 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 broad, the horns small, tapering, and set far apart. Be- 
 tween the shoulders is a prominent hump which, with the 
 neck, head, and chest, is covered by long, shaggy hair, the 
 remainder of the fur being short and brownish in color. 
 They herd in vast numbers. Allied to them are the Eu- 
 ropean bison, or auroch* the Cape buffalo (B. caffer) of 
 South Africa, the Indian buffalo (B. bubalus), the yak, or 
 grunting ox — a native of Thibet — and the zebu of India. 
 Value. — Every part of these animals has its value. 
 
 Giraffes (CamelopardalidcB). — The giraffe is repre- 
 sented by a single species inhabiting the plains of Central 
 Africa. Its neck is of remarkable length, so that its head 
 is often eighteen feet from the ground ; the number of 
 vertebrae, however, is seven, as in other mammals, each 
 bone being lengthened out. The back slopes rapidly to 
 the tail, giving the impression that the fore-legs are the 
 longest, but they are of equal length. They have no horns, 
 but two long, solid appendages, attached partly to the 
 frontal and partly to the parietal bones ; these are covered 
 by the skin, and terminate in a tuft of bristles. In front 
 of them is a prominence caused by a thickening of the 
 bone that has been incorrectly described as a third horn. 
 The tongue is nearly seventeen inches long, and in its use 
 is not incomparable to the trunk of the elephant. 
 Value. — Skins, and the bones are made into buttons. 
 
 Camel {Camelidce)'.- — The camels have two incisor teeth 
 in the upper jaw, and six incisors below, canine teeth 
 in each jaw, and from eighteen to twenty molars. They 
 
 * The extinct Bos primigenius lived in Germany and England 
 during the time of Caesar, and is the m-tis of the Nibelungen song. 
 They are the ancestors of the half-wild cattle in English parks, and 
 the Holstein and Friesland breed. The European bison has only been 
 saved from extinction by the Emperors of Russia, who have preserved 
 eight hundred in the forests of Bialowicza, Lithuania, and have pre- 
 vented the destruction of those running: wild in the Caucasus. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 341 
 
 have either one or two humps upon the back, composed of 
 fatty matter ; in the paunch are several cells (Fig. 364, a) 
 
 Fig. 364. — a, Water-cells in the paunch of the camel ; b, foot, showing the 
 
 pad. 
 
 that contain a supply of water to last them in the dry coun- 
 try in which they live. Their feet (Fig. 364, b) are equally 
 adapted to the dry sand, the two toes uniting nearly to 
 
 Fig. 365. — The true camel {Camelus dromedarius). 
 
342 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 the point, forming a callous, elastic cushion. The drome- 
 dary, or single-humped camel* (Fig. 365), is found in 
 Arabia, Syria, Persia, and Africa, and is remarkable for its 
 speed, carrying a rider nearly one hundred miles a day. 
 In the caravan they carry a load weighing from six hun- 
 dred to one thousand pounds. The young are about three 
 feet high when born, and do not attain their full growth 
 for seventeen years. Their average age is fifty years. The 
 Bactrian camel, or two-humped variety, is eight feet high 
 between the humps, and about ten feet long. It came 
 originally from Central Asia. Allied are the llama of Peru 
 and Chili, the guanaco, and the alpaca. 
 
 Value. — Hide and hair, and as beasts of burden. In the Falkland 
 Islands, guanaco-bones are used as fire-wood. 
 
 Order VIII. Flesh-eating Mammals (Camivora). 
 General Characteristics. — This order includes the cats, 
 bears, seals, etc. — animals that feed mainly upon flesh — to 
 obtain which they have sharp claws (Fig. 373), fangs, and 
 cutting teeth (Fig. 375). The head is generally massive 
 and powerful, each jaw containing six incisors, behind 
 which is placed a long, stout canine. The number of mo- 
 lar teeth varies with the species, and they have trenchant 
 edges for cutting. 
 
 Sub-order I. Pinnipedia. Seals \ {P/wcidce). — The 
 common seal (Callocephalus vitulinus) has no external ears ; 
 the arms and legs are short, the latter being large and 
 fan-shaped ; the inner and outer toes are large and long, 
 the three middle ones shorter ; the palms and soles are 
 hairy, and the claws distinct and sharp. They are ex- 
 tremely intelligent, and susceptible of domestication. The 
 
 * These animals have been introduced into the deserts of Nevada, 
 and are rapidly increasing in numbers. 
 
 \ Members of this family have been seen in the Caspian Sea, 
 in Lake Baikal, and lately the harbor seal has been observed in Lake 
 Champlain, and other streams in central New York. The common 
 seal has been caught in Chesapeake Bay. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 343 
 
 general color is a dark, slaty gray, and their maximum 
 length about five feet. The young, generally two at a 
 birth, are white or a light yellow, a provision that renders 
 them inconspicuous on the ice. 
 
 Fig. 366. — Harp seal. 
 
 The harp seal (Pagophilus) (Fig. 366), the ringed seal, 
 the hooded seal (Cystophora) of Greenland and northern 
 
 
 Fig. 367.— Skeleton of a sea-lion, showing how the whole foot rests on the 
 ground, as in the bear family : th, thigh ; /, leg ; h, heel ; /, foot ; a, 
 upper arm ; fa, fore-arm ; ha, hand. 
 
344 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Europe, and the sea-elephant (Morunga), of Antarctic 
 waters, are others of the family. Then follows the walrus 
 (Trichechidd) (Fig. 368). 
 
 Eared Seals (Otariidd). — The sea-lion {Otaria) (Fig. 
 367) is a familiar example. The sea-bear (Callorhinus), 
 common in Behring Strait and Kamchatka, is one of the 
 famous fur-seals of commerce. 
 
 Value. — Hides, ivory, viscera, etc. One million Atlantic hair-seals 
 are killed annually, and two hundred thousand Pacific fur-seals, and 
 many more from the South Atlantic. 
 
 Sub-order II. The True Carnivora {Fissipedia).— 
 The Raccoons (Procyonidd) are bear-like animals with 
 sharp, pointed muzzles, ranging from Canada to Paraguay. 
 The common raccoon {Procyon) is found • throughout 
 the United States. They are nocturnal, vegetable or flesh- 
 eating animals, about a foot long, exclusive of the tail, 
 which is nearly ten inches in length. Their color is a 
 rusty gray with many black-tipped hairs, the tail barred 
 with five black rings. They bear from five to six young 
 in May, the nest generally being in a hollow tree. The 
 black-footed, crab-eating, and Californian raccoons are 
 different species ; similar in their habits. The coatimundi 
 (Nasua) is found from Mexico to Paraguay. The kinka- 
 jou and B assarts are allies. 
 
 Value. — Five hundred thousand coon-skins are annually used 
 as fur. 
 
 Bears (Ursidd). — This family has a wide geographical 
 range, being represented in all countries except Australia. 
 The white or polar bear (Fig. 368) ( Ursus maritimus) is 
 found in the Arctic regions. The body is large, and cov- 
 ered with white hair, the tail rudimentary, the foot enor- 
 mous, measuring one sixth of the length of the entire body, 
 and armed with powerful claws. They are particularly dis- 
 tinguished from other bears by having the soles of the feet 
 covered with close-set hairs — a provision that prevents 
 
MAMMALIA. 345 
 
 their slipping on the ice, while their white fur renders them 
 invisible at any great distance. 
 
 Fig. 368.— Polar bear and walrus, showing: how the bear walks with the heel 
 flat on the ground, and the walrus also. 
 
 Note.— Many animals that can not migrate and are deprived of 
 food by cold weather are enabled to enter into a state of torpor called 
 winter sleep or hibernation, and thus bridge over the foodless season. 
 In the extreme south certain animals during the dry period enter into 
 a summer sleep called estivation. In complete hibernation all the 
 functions of life are almost at a stand still ; the respiration is reduced 
 and irritability of muscular fibre increased. Hibernation is favored by 
 cold but not produced directly by it, and the hibernator is not insen- 
 sible to extremes. In entering the sleep the temperature of the body 
 sinks to nearly that of the surrounding atmosphere. If, now, the cold 
 is intense, they are awakened and then are frozen. According to Sem- 
 per, the zizel, or Sfermophihis, attains the lowest temperature in this 
 condition of any known animal, namely, 2" (centigrade), the exact tem- 
 perature of the outside air in one experiment, so that the animal maybe 
 
346 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 said to have become cold-blooded. The normal temperature of the zizel 
 is 32 (centigrade). As the cause of the sleep is not directly the result 
 of cold, neither is the awakening caused by a rise in temperature. In 
 experiments with the same-mentioned animal it awoke without any 
 change in the outside temperature, being two hours and forty-five 
 minutes in awakening. In the first hour and forty-five minutes the 
 body temperature rose 6.6° (centigrade), and in the following fifty 
 minutes 17 . It was accompanied by no vigorous movements or 
 quicker respiration. During hibernation animals can be placed under 
 water without ill effect, though it would be fatal in a few moments if 
 awake. According to Kirby, joint author of " Introduction to Ento- 
 mology," an authentic case is recorded of an instance of human hiber- 
 nation in India. The man was buried alive in the presence of Sir 
 Claude Wade, the grave guarded and watched for several months, and 
 the hibernator finally taken out, gradually awakening. 
 
 The black bear ( Ursits Americanus) is quite common in 
 northern New York. They attain a weight of four hundred 
 and fifty pounds and a length of eight feet, and are of a 
 dark-brown or black color. In extreme weather the fe- 
 males prepare a den, and as a rule pass into a state of 
 hibernation, during which the intestines are clogged with 
 vegetable substance, generally taken from the pine. In 
 January or February, generally every third year, the young 
 (three or four) are born, remaining under the mother's 
 protection for five or six months. They prey upon sheep, 
 calves, etc., and also eat berries, honey, ants, etc. The 
 grizzly bear ( Ursus ferox) of the western slopes of the 
 Rocky Mountains, the Syrian bear of Mount Lebanon, the 
 Malayan bear, and the sloth or honey bear {Melursus) of 
 India, are others of the family. 
 
 Value. — Oil, fat, skin, teeth, hair, and viscera. 
 
 Badgers, Otters, etc. (Mustelidci). — The true badg- 
 ers (Taxidea) are found in central and western North and 
 South America, and are thick-set animals about two feet 
 long, not including the tail, which attains a length of six 
 inches. The skunk {Mephitis), twelve different species, 
 ranges from Canada to the Straits of Magellan. The com- 
 
MAMMALIA. 34; 
 
 mon skunk is almost entirely nocturnal, feeding upon mice, 
 insects, and various kinds of food. They hibernate in 
 midwinter. 
 
 Otters. — The otter (Lutra) (Fig. 371) has representa- 
 tives in nearly every part of the globe. The North Amer- 
 ican species is generally found upon the banks of streams, 
 in which its burrow or nest is built. The sea-otter (Enhy- 
 dra) (Fig. 369) is twice as large as the above, attaining a 
 
 ;.- «-^m . 
 
 Fig. 369. — Sea-otter (Enhydra marina), showing the front paws and the 
 hind webbed feet. 
 
 weight of eighty pounds, and is found on the Pacific coast 
 of America and Asia. Its habits are almost identical with 
 those of the seal. In warm weather they proceed up the 
 rivers, returning to the sea in winter, passing nearly their 
 entire time in the water, eating and even rearing and 
 nursing their young in the kelp-beds. The front feet are 
 short with small claws, the hind ones being perfect swim- 
 ming-flippers with long toes and stout claws. Their teeth 
 are rounded and adapted for crushing crustaceans, mol- 
 lusks, or fish.* Their fur is an extremely rich brown. 
 
 * The sea-otters are remarkable for their playfulness. When ap- 
 proached, they place one paw over the eyes, as if shielding them from 
 
348 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Note. — The adaptation of the limbs in the sea-otter is extremely 
 interesting and worthy of special attention, and an advantageous study 
 would be a comparison of the limbs (Fig. 370) of different animals. 
 
 Fig. 370.— Feet of various animals compared. A, deer ; B, ornithorhynchus ; 
 C, otter ; D, frog ; £, seal. 
 
 The common mink of this country (Fig. 371) attains a 
 length of seventeen inches to the tail, which is eight inches 
 longer. The body-color is a dark chestnut-brown, the 
 tail black, and tip of the chin white. The marten or 
 American sable (Mustela) ranges from northern New 
 York northward, and is much valued. It attains the 
 same length as the common mink, the tail being about 
 two inches longer. Its color is a rich, glistening, golden 
 red, clouded with black ; the legs and tail are dark, a light 
 patch appearing upon the throat ; the feet are thickly 
 furred. They burrow, and nest in old trees, and bring 
 out a litter of from two to seven young in April. The 
 fisher, or pekan, weasels, etc., are allies. The most fero- 
 cious of the group is the glutton, or wolverine (Gulo). It 
 is confined to the cold regions of Europe, Asia, and North 
 America, coming as far south as the Great Lakes. In the 
 latter country it attains a length of three feet and a half 
 to the tail, which is about one foot in length and extremely 
 
 the sun, then scratch themselves on the limbs, twisting about in vari- 
 ous ways, and when just out of the water they are so absorbed in their 
 toilet that they can frequently be taken. The males and females show 
 the greatest devotion, kissing and patting each other like human beings. 
 The mother's antics with the young are equally amusing ; she tosses it 
 in the air, fondles it in her arms, catches it with her fore-feet like a ball, 
 and swims about with it clasped to her breast. The Chinese train the 
 sea-otter to fish, and many are used for the purpose. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 349 
 
 bushy. The paws are large and heavy, the soles densely 
 haired, and furnished with six small, naked pads. They 
 feed upon small animals, and the young, generally from 
 two to four, appear in May. They are to some extent ar- 
 boreal in their habits. The grison (Ga/ictis) of northern 
 and central South America is a fierce member of the group. 
 
 Value. — Fur and hide of all are valuable. 
 
 Fig. 371. — A group of valuable fur-bearers. 1, Arctic fox ; 2, silver fox ; 3, 
 sable ; 4, otter ; 5, mink ; 6, ermine. 
 
 Dog (Canidce). — This family comprises the dogs, 
 wolves, and foxes, and has a wide geographical range. 
 Nearly all possess the mechanism for retraction of the 
 claws, but the action is not sufficient to protect them from 
 wear; thus they are modified for purposes of digging. The 
 American red fox ( Vulpes) has a slender, pointed muzzle, 
 and is of a reddish-yellow hue. It preys upon domestic 
 fowls and small game of all kinds. The young are reared 
 in burrows in the ground. The Arctic fox (Fig. 371) is 
 white in the winter and brown in summer. They live in 
 
35o 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 burrows in communities of twenty or thirty.* The holes 
 are connected underground and generally found stored 
 with sea-birds. The prairie, swift, gray, coast, silver, and 
 cross foxes are familiar American members of the family. 
 The wolf (Fig. 372) (Cam's) somewhat resembles the fox, 
 but is larger and much more powerful. The coyote, or 
 prairie-wolf, is a typical American species. They attain a 
 length of thirty-eight inches to the base of the tail, which 
 is fifteen inches longer. They live more or less in com- 
 munities, and the young, often ten, are reared in burrows, 
 appearing in April. The gray, black, dusky, red, and 
 Mexican wolves are other species. The Asiatic wolves 
 are noted for their ferocity. The jackal is a wolf-like 
 creature of Asia and Africa. . The dog (Canis familiaris) 
 is probably a descendant of the wolf. 
 
 Value. — Skin, hide, oil, bones, teeth, and for domestic use. 
 
 Fig. 372.— The wolf {Cams lupus), showing the dcg-like form. 
 
 * These animals formerly existed in incredible numbers on Behr- 
 ing Island, and were so tame that they overran the camps, carrying 
 off hats, mittens, and clothing, nosing the sleepers in the night, and 
 having actually to be driven away with clubs. 
 
MAMMALIA. 35 1 
 
 Civets ( Viverridce). — This large family has no repre- 
 sentatives in America — the civets, genets, and ichneumons 
 being characteristic of Africa and the Oriental region. 
 Allied are the hyenas (Hyanidd), found in India and Asia 
 Minor and Africa. 
 
 Cat (Felidce). — The cats, of all the Carnivora } are the 
 most beautiful and active. Their bodies are shapely, 
 many presenting a noble appearance, the type of grace and 
 power. The head is short and broad, the feet armed with 
 powerful, retractile, sheathed claws (Fig. 373), five on the 
 
 FxG. 373. — Claws of the cat or tiger : A, claw held back by the strong liga- 
 ment /; B, claw pulled forward by the tendon t being drawn back, so 
 that / is stretched out. 
 
 fore-feet and four behind, the soles hairy, and provided with 
 soft, elastic pads that aid in their stealthy approach upon 
 prey. The tongue is provided wuth a rasping surface, 
 composed of sharp recurved prickles ; the limbs are power- 
 ful and adapted for prodigious leaps, for which nearly all 
 the family are noted. The hunting leopard (Felis jubata), 
 of southern India and Africa, is an interesting form, 
 and a rapid runner, being employed in hunting by the 
 natives. The claws are retractile,* but in their action more 
 like those of the dog. 
 
 The lynxes (Lynx), of which four species are known 
 in North America, are characterized by thick-set bodies, 
 the tail short and truncated, and ears ornamented with 
 tips. The American wild cat attains a length of about 
 twenty-eight and three quarter inches, the tail seven inches, 
 
 * Claws are retractile when they are held back naturally by the 
 muscles, and thus prevented from wearing away, only being extended 
 when wanted to secure prey or assist in climbing. 
 
352 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 height at shoulder fifteen and a half inches. The fur is 
 soft and thick, the color upon the sides a light red, over- 
 cast with grizzly gray ; below they are white and spotted, 
 the inner surface of the ear and the tip of the tail black. 
 They are powerful animals, and prey upon small game of 
 various kinds. They nest in hollow trees and logs. 
 
 The Canada lynxes (Fig. 374) are the largest, attaining a 
 length of three and a half feet. They are extremely pow- 
 erful, attack- 
 ing large ani- 
 mals, sheep, 
 etc. ; are good 
 swimmers, and 
 easily recog- 
 nized by their 
 gallop. They 
 produce their 
 young, general- 
 ly two, in dens 
 or hollow trees. 
 The red cat 
 and Texas wild 
 cat are other 
 
 Fig. 374. — Canada lynx (Lynx Canadensis). Species. 
 
 The domes- 
 tic cat (Fclis) has been domesticated for over a thousand 
 years, and was probably first used in Egypt. The ya- 
 guarundi ranges from southern Texas to central South 
 America. The tail is nearly as long as the body, the pre- 
 vailing color a grayish brown. The ocelot and tiger-cats 
 range from Texas southward. 
 
 The puma or panther is the largest and most powerful 
 true North American cat, equaling in size a large hound, 
 weighing one hundred and seventy-five pounds, and com- 
 mon throughout the less frequented parts of the country. 
 They are extremely powerful, leaping forty or fifty feet 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 353 
 
 or more from an elevation, and taking to trees and climb- 
 ing generally only when pressed. They prey upon various 
 animals, and have been known, though rarely, to attack 
 man. In southern Florida they swim from key to key 
 with perfect ease. The general color of the puma in best 
 condition is a rich mouse-gray with light beneath. The 
 jaguar is the American tiger, and differs from the puma 
 in being essentially arboreal. It ranges from Texas to 
 southern South America, and is the largest and hand- 
 somest cat in the Western Continent, attaining a total 
 length of over five feet, and is so powerful that it has 
 been known to kill a mustang, swim with it across a river, 
 dragging it into the bush beyond. The general color is 
 brownish yellow above, white beneath, with numerous dark- 
 er spots. The sides of the body are marked with a series 
 of irregular figures. They are accredited with wonderful 
 powers by Humboldt and other writers, in opening turtles 
 and catching fish with their powerful claws. The leopard 
 is perhaps the most beautifully marked of the family, and 
 ranges the jungles of Asia, Africa, and the Indian Archi- 
 pelago. The skin is richly marked with oval spots. The 
 black leopard * is singularly treacherous and utterly un- 
 tamable. The tiger f of India (Fig. 375), next to the lion, 
 is the most powerful of the cat tribe, majestic in appear- 
 ance, the type of agility, cunning, and ferocity. They are 
 as large as the lion, with a longer body and rounder head. 
 The color of the fur is a rich fawn above, striped and 
 barred irregularly with black, the under portion being 
 
 * Albinos are found among all animals, a condition generally the 
 result 01" a lack of pigment. Its absence in the eye produces the so- 
 called "pink" eyes. Albinism, then, is not properly a disease, and in 
 no wise affects physical or mental vigor. The black leopard is a sub- 
 ject of melanism, owing to an over-supply of coloring-matter in the 
 cells. 
 
 f The marks of the tiger, leopard, ocelot, and the color of the puma, 
 are all protective, and when crouching upon a limb or on the ground 
 help to render them inconspicuous. 
 
354 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 pure white. They are extremely ferocious, attacking the 
 largest animals. In 1881 eight hundred and eighty-nine 
 persons were killed by them alone in southern India, while 
 the leopards killed two hundred and thirty-nine. Wallace 
 records that, in one of the localities he was in (Singapore), 
 the tigers, on an average, killed one native a day through- 
 out the year. The young, generally two at a birth, are 
 
 Fig. 375. — The tiger, showing slim body, muscular thighs, strong front-legs 
 and paws, and short face with large teeth, all with sharp edges, especially- 
 one (the carnassiat) near the back in both jaws. 
 
 carried about in the mouth, after the manner of the do- 
 mestic cat. The ounce is an allied cat. The lion (Fells 
 leo) is the royal member of the cat family, and justly so 
 from its magnificent bearing. It is found in Africa and 
 Asia, the two probably being merely varieties. The Afri- 
 can lion is much more dreaded and displays greater 
 cunning than its ally. The largest of these attain a 
 length of nine feet, exclusive of the tail. The neck of 
 the male is protected by a thick mane, giving them a 
 
MAMMALL 
 
 355 
 
 ferocious appearance. The general color of the hide is 
 tawny ; the feet and paws are immense, the animal being 
 adapted for leaping and overpowering the largest game. 
 The females are somewhat smaller than the males, and 
 have no manes. About twenty extinct species of this 
 family have been found, resembling lions, tigers, etc. 
 The remains of a ferocious tiger (Machcerodus) have 
 been discovered in England and other countries. It 
 lived contemporaneously with man, and had serrated 
 teeth, and fangs eight inches long, more like sabers than 
 teeth. 
 
 Value. — Five hundred lion-skins are used annually by the trade ; 
 one hundred thousand wild-cat, and over one million skins of the com- 
 mon cat are made into cheap furs. 
 
 Order X. Primates. General Characteristics. — We 
 now come to the last and highest order of mammals, 
 represented by the lemurs, monkeys, and man. In the 
 higher forms of apes and monkeys a vast improvement 
 or advance is noticed. The body is now carried more 
 erect, claws are replaced by finger-nails, the fingers are 
 long and more perfectly adapted to a greater number of 
 uses than in the preceding forms, and the great toe of 
 the hind-feet is much enlarged and opposable to the oth- 
 ers ; the legs are exserted quite free from the trunk, the 
 brain is large, the ears rounded, having a distinct lobe ; 
 the body is hairy, the tail long or short, and the face in 
 many extremely human in its detail. The primates are 
 divided into two sub-orders : i. Prosimics, comprising the 
 lemurs ; and 2. Anthropoidea, including all the rest that are 
 divided provisionally into five divisions or families as fol- 
 lows : 1. The marmosets {Hapalidd). 2. The American 
 monkeys, having three true molar teeth on each side of 
 each jaw {Cebidce). 3. The Old World monkeys, except 
 the man-like apes {Cercopithecidce). 4. The man-like apes 
 (Simiidce) ; and, 5. Man (Homim'dc?). 
 
356 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Sub-order I. Prosimiae. Lemurs (Lemuroidea). — 
 The lemurs are the lowest of the primates, a group of beau- 
 tiful animals ranging in size from a cat to a good-sized 
 monkey (Fig. 376). The entire body is covered with hair, 
 and even the face in some. The head is small and fox- 
 like, the skull small, narrow in front, and flattened ; the 
 ears are conspicuous and often tufted. They are gregari- 
 ous, and diurnal in their habits, rarely leaving the tree- 
 tops, among which they leap with the greatest agility. 
 They are found in Madagascar, southern and eastern Asia 
 and Africa. Fossil remains of lemurs have been found in 
 North America. 
 
 
 Fig. 376. — 1, the aye-aye ; 2, lemur in the forests of Madagascar. 
 
 Aye-aye (Chiromyidci). — These interesting animals 
 (Fig. 376) are found in Madagascar, and are remarkable for 
 their enormous compressed, curved, incisor teeth, that have 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 357 
 
 persistent pulps and enamel in front only, as we have seen 
 in the rodents. The toes have claws, except the great ones, 
 which have a flat nail ; the digits are remarkably long and 
 slender, especially the middle and third of the fore-arms= 
 They are about the size of a cat. The general color is dark 
 brown, the long, loose, outer fur having a woolly under- 
 coat. They feed upon the succulent juices of sugar-cane, 
 also insects and grubs obtained from trees with their pow- 
 erful teeth. They are truly nocturnal. Their nests are 
 formed of balls of leaves lodged in the forks of large trees. 
 Lemur (Lemuridce). — The ring-tailed lemur {Lemur 
 cattd) is one of the most striking of the family, and is of 
 a beautiful gray color, its tail marked with alternate rings 
 of black and white, the face and inner surface of the 
 ears white, and the top of the head dark. It is the only 
 ground member of 
 the family, living 
 among the rocks 
 and bushes, walk- 
 ing on all-fours. 
 The upper canine 
 teeth are extreme- 
 ly large, the low- 
 er canine extend- 
 ing out horizon- 
 tally from the jaw. 
 The young, gen- 
 erally two, are at 
 first nearly naked, 
 and are carried 
 about in the arms 
 
 of the mother, later clinging to her long hair. They utter 
 loud cries, and feed upon eggs, young birds, insects, fruits, 
 buds, or flowers (Fig. 376). The Propithecus is a com- 
 mon form in Madagascar ; the Indris is the largest of the 
 group. Allied is the lori (Fig. 377). 
 
 Fig. 377. — Loris, showing (1) skull and (2) op- 
 posable thumb. 
 
358 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 Sub-order II. Man-shaped Animals {A?itkrot>oidea) . 
 Marmosets (Hapalidce). — The marmosets are confined 
 exclusively to South America, and are rarely larger than 
 large squirrels. They have long, non-prehensile tails, and 
 walk upon all-fours, the feet and hands being similar, and 
 the digits armed, with the exception of the great toes, with 
 nail-like claws. As the thumbs are not opposable, they 
 can not grasp with the facility of other monkeys. 
 
 Fig. 378. — A woolly monkey and young (Lagothryx Humboldtii), showing 
 grasping tail. 
 
 Weepers {Cebidce). — In this large family we first meet 
 the true monkeys, the family embracing all the South 
 American forms. They are distinguished by the posses- 
 sion of more molar teeth than those that follow, having in 
 all thirty-six teeth, while the rest have only thirty-two. 
 Many also possess a long, prehensile tail of so much use 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 359 
 
 in clinging that it serves the purpose of a fifth hand (Fig. 
 378). The red-faced spider-monkey (Ateles) is one of the 
 most remarkable for the attenuation of its form. The tail 
 is extremely long and bare upon its under surface, and 
 with it they swing from limb to limb with the greatest ease. 
 In walking upright, the arms are often held high in air, 
 and the long tail curled over the head. The horned 
 monkeys (Cebus), the bearded saki (Pithecia), and the 
 howling monkeys (Mycetes), are familiar forms. The voice 
 of the latter is so powerful that it can be heard a mile, the 
 hyoid apparatus and windpipe (larynx) being wonderfully 
 modified into a sound-producer, the body of the former 
 assuming the functions of a large bony drum or air-sac 
 connecting with the larynx. In the male these curious 
 vocal organs are one third larger than in the female. Fol- 
 lowing are the Cercopithecidce, a group of monkeys peculiar 
 to the Old World. The face of the dog-faced apes is pro- 
 duced into a dog-like snout, more or less blunt or truncat- 
 ed ; the eyes are small, deeply set, and placed close to- 
 gether. The wanderoo (Macacus), the Gibraltar monkey 
 {Macacus inuns), the mandrill and chacma, and the bab- 
 boon (Cynocefthalus), are familiar forms. Allied are the 
 Sleepers (Sernnoftithecidce), of Africa and Asia. 
 
 Apes {Simiidce). — The animals of this family in their 
 physical development show a near approach to the human 
 type. Their position is nearly erect, the tail absent, and 
 the arms are much longer than the legs. The gibbons 
 (Fig. 379) {Hylobates) attain a length of three feet. In the 
 siamang, when standing erect, the fingers drag upon the 
 ground, the limbs being used to swing them through the 
 trees ; the thumbs and great toes only have nails. In color 
 they are black, the hair being long, coarse, and glossy. 
 They live in troops in the forests of Java, Borneo, etc., 
 and are generally led by a chief, who gives warning at the 
 approach of danger. The females show great solicitude 
 for their young, and when in danger give vent to loud cries 
 
360 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 that, in this genus, are augmented by a large sac in the 
 throat that communicates with the larynx, which when 
 
 o « 
 
 filled with air is distended like a huge goitre in the neck. 
 The Hylobates agilis is remarkable for its leaps, clearing 
 
MAMMALIA. 361 
 
 spaces of forty or fifty feet, and, according to Darwin, they 
 are the must musical mammals next to man, " singing a 
 complete and correct octave of musical notes." The orang- 
 outang (Simid) (Fig. 379) is found in the islands of Bor- 
 neo and Sumatra. They attain a length of a little over 
 four feet, and a weight of one hundred and fifty pounds. 
 The number of ribs is the same as in man, and there is 
 some resemblance in the form of the brain, yet the capacity 
 of the brain of the orang is only twenty-five cubic inches, 
 while in man it is from seventy-five to ninety-two cubic 
 inches. The arms are extremely long, the knuckles 
 touching the ground in walking. The face is bare, the 
 skin shiny black, and under the throat hangs in loose, 
 flabby folds. The body is covered with reddish hair, 
 twelve or fourteen inches lcng. In the male Simia Wurmbii 
 the face is widened to an extraordinary extent by a hard, 
 gristly expansion of the cheeks, measuring across the face 
 thirteen inches. The female is smaller, the hair a lighter 
 brown. They are entirely arboreal, living always in the 
 tree-tops, never jumping, but swinging their heavy bodies 
 five or six feet at a time by collecting the branches. When 
 at rest or wounded, they break off branches and twigs and 
 form platforms or nests in the tree-tops. Their favorite 
 food is the fruit of the durian-tree. The voice is loud 
 and resonant, and can be heard for a long distance. 
 
 The chimpanzee (Mimetes) (Fig. 379) is found upon 
 the west coast of Africa, from the Gambia to the Benguela, 
 and inland to 2 8° east longitude. They attain a height 
 of nearly five feet, can stand or walk erect, but prefer to 
 bend forward upon the knuckles (Fig. 380). The face is 
 black and exceedingly human in its outline ; they approach 
 man, however, most closely in the character of the skull, 
 their dentition, and the proportionate size of the arms; the 
 brain capacity, however, is only twenty-six cubic inches. 
 The canine teeth are powerful, though their food is en- 
 tirely vegetable. They are arboreal, living in the trees, 
 16 
 
36: 
 
 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 and forming nests of branches in the crotches near the 
 ground. They are very intelligent, easily domesticated, 
 and often brought to this country and Europe. 
 
 Fig. 380 
 
 *, hand, 5, foot of chimpanzee. (After Vogt.) c, hand, d, foot 
 of man. 
 
 The gorilla {Troglodytes) (Fig. 379) is the largest and 
 most powerful of the order, though perhaps ranking with 
 the chimpanzee as regards its position in the scale of life. 
 They are also found in western Africa, and have a less ex- 
 tended range, being found only between the rivers Came- 
 roons and Congo, in the mountains of Guinea. Their hab- 
 its are similar to those of the chimpanzee, though living in 
 small communities, generally led by a single male. They 
 erect uncovered platforms in the trees upon which to rest, 
 deserting them during the day, and forming others at night. 
 They attain a height of five feet six inches, and a weight 
 of two hundred pounds. The color of the fur is a black- 
 ish dun, turning gray with age. The skin is black, the 
 ridges of the forehead (Fig. 381) prominent, the nose flat, 
 lips and chin protruding, and the expression of the face 
 demoniacal. The limbs are enormously powerful, and the 
 first joints of all the fingers and three of the toes are con- 
 nected by a strong web. While the chimpanzee resembles 
 man in the characteristics given, the gorilla is more human 
 in the proportions of the leg to the body and of the foot 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 363 
 
 to the hand, in the size of the heel, curvature of the spine, 
 the form of the pelvis, and the capacity of the brain, which 
 is from twenty-nine to thirty-five cubic inches. 
 
 Fig. 381. — The gorilla {Troglodytes gorilla). 
 
 Fossil monkeys have been found in the Selwalik hills 
 of India, in France, Greece, Italy, Germany, and North 
 and South America, none dating earlier than the Miocene 
 time of geology. 
 
 Value. — Skins, concretions, and as domestic animals. 
 
 Works on Mammals for further reference. 
 
 " Manual of Vertebrates," Huxley ; " Anatomy of Vertebrates," 
 Owen ; "Marine Mammalia," Captain C. M. Scammon ; " Osteology 
 of Mammalia," Flower ; " Antelopes and Deer of North America," J. 
 D. Caton ; " North American Beaver," Morgan ; " Fur-bearing Ani- 
 mals of North America," Elliott Coues ; " Standard Natural History," 
 
364 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 edited by Elliott Coues, M. D. ; " Mammals of the Adirondacks," C. 
 Hart Merriam, M. D. ; "A Naturalist's Rambles about Home," Dr. 
 C. C. Abbott. 
 
 Man (Hominidce). General Characteristics. — Man {Homo 
 sapiens) stands as the exponent of the highest perfection of 
 animal life, unique and distinct from all preceding forms 
 as regards his mental organization. In structure (Fig. 
 379) he differs but little from other primates. The gen- 
 eral physical differences are his erect position, the span of 
 the arms equaling the height. The forehead or cranial 
 box in man overhangs the orbits ; in the gorilla (Fig. 
 381) the forehead is hollowed out. The brain in man 
 is nearly twice the size of that of the gorilla, its capacity 
 being from seventy-five to ninety-two cubic inches, while 
 in the latter it is only thirty-five cubic inches. The brain 
 of the former shows a greater number of convolutions ; 
 and, finally, man alone possesses a perfect vocal commu- 
 nication, known as language. 
 
 The present human population of the globe is 1,433,- 
 887,500. Man represents but a single genus and spe- 
 cies. The different races are divided in accordance with 
 certain external peculiarities ; thus, according to Huxley, 
 two primary divisions are noticed : 1. The races with 
 crisp or woolly hair, Ulotrichi, represented by the Afri- 
 can negro (Fig. 382, 1, 2, 3), the Bushmen of ultra-Saharal 
 Africa, the Negritos of the Malay Peninsula and Archi- 
 pelago, and those of the Papuan Islands. They are char- 
 acterized by yellow, brown, or black skins ; the lower 
 part of the face protrudes, the waist is broader than in 
 the white race, and the fore-arm, hand, foot, and leg are 
 sometimes longer in proportion than Europeans. This 
 is also true of the Australians, The legs are a little less 
 than half the height, and the thigh-bone is flattened from 
 side to side as in the gorilla. The heel of the negro, 
 contrary to general opinion, is not longer in proportion 
 to the foot than in white races, the projections seen being 
 
MAMMALIA 
 
 Fig. 382.— Comparison of different races : 1, negro, West Africa ; 2, Ban> 
 long, South Africa; 3, Hottentot; 4, Gilyak, Northern Asia ; 5, Japa- 
 nese ; 6, Colorado Indian, North America ; 7. Eurooean 
 
366 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 fleshy, and an expansion cf soft parts due to not wearing 
 shoes. 
 
 2. Those with smooth hair, Leiotrichi, are divided into 
 four groups upon a similar plan : i. The Australoid group, 
 comprising the low Bushmen, in which the height averages 
 four feet seven inches, and the legs less than half the height 
 of the body. The hair, eyes, and skin are dark, the hair 
 wavy. The skull is long, and the brow-ridges extremely 
 prominent. The inhabitants of the Deccan belong here, 
 and from them have sprung, in the estimation of Pro- 
 fessor Huxley, the ancient Egyptians. The habits of the 
 Bushmen are more like those of the lower primates than 
 men. 2. The Mongoloid group. Herein are included the 
 Chinese and Japanese (Fig. 382, 5), Mongols, people of 
 Thibet, the Polynesians (Fig. 383), Esquimaux, and the 
 American tribes (Fig. 382, 6). The Patagonians are the 
 tallest people known, averaging six feet, the women, five 
 feet ten inches, while the Esquimaux and the Bushmen are 
 the smallest, averaging four feet seven inches. Three 
 hundred and ninety-one years ago nearly the entire conti- 
 nent of America was peopled with powerful native Indian 
 tribes, that have been gradually driven to the West, 944 
 individuals only being found now in the New England 
 States, 303,217* in the United States, and 103,969 in 
 the British possessions, 407,217 in all, in North America, 
 speaking about four hundred and thirty distinct lan- 
 guages. Their ultimate extinction or loss of individual- 
 ity is merely a matter of time. Among the typical tribes 
 the Pueblos of the Southwest, the Thlinkeets f of the 
 Northwest, the Utes, or Colorado Indians (Fig. sS^), are 
 prominent. All of this group have straight hair. The 
 North American Indians have a reddish skin, the Chinese 
 yellow, while the Polynesians are dark brown. 
 
 * Report of 1880. 
 
 f In early days the process of flattening the head was common 
 throughout North and South America. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 367 
 
 3. The Xanthochroic group (Fig. 382, 7), comprising the 
 Slavonians, Germans, Norwegians, Swedes, Anglo-Ameri- 
 cans, English, French, Italians, etc. These are the most 
 intelligent and advanced, and form the great and powerful 
 nations of the earth. 
 
 Fig. 383. — Colorado Indian. 
 
 4. The Melanochroi, or dark whites, including those 
 with dark hair and eyes, and generally long skulls ; such are 
 the Iberians, and the dark-complexioned though white 
 people of western Asia, Persia, etc. Besides these differ- 
 ences, that form the characteristics of races, there are oth- 
 
368 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 
 
 ers. Thus, the form of the skull differs greatly, even 
 among individuals. The Australians and Africans are 
 prognathous , or forward-jawed, while the Europeans are 
 orthognathous, or upright-jawed. When the skull is high 
 and narrow, they are said to be dolichocephalic, or " long- 
 headed." Others are termed br achy cephalic, or " short - 
 headed," while a medium is called mesocephalic x or middle- 
 headed. 
 
 Early Man. — Man was contemporaneous with the 
 cave-bear, the mammoth, and other huge animals that 
 lived during the Post-tertiary period. Fossil remains and 
 implements have been found in Quaternary deposits. The 
 oldest remains found in America, on the authority of Pro- 
 fessor Whitney, is a human cranium taken from a shaft 
 one hundred and fifty feet deep in Calaveras County, Cali- 
 fornia. It was imbedded in the gold-drift, and covered 
 with five successive overflows of lava. Another fragment 
 of a human skull was found imbedded one hundred and 
 eighty feet below Table Mountain, associated with bones 
 of the mastodon. According to Professor Whitney, these 
 finds date to the Pliocene time of geology, a time prior to 
 the volcanic eruptions that spread their lava over a large 
 portion of the State. 
 
 Specimens for Study. — The suggestions for the prepara- 
 tion of skeletons, on page 291, may be applied to mam= 
 mals also. 
 
 Works on Man for further reference. 
 
 " Hand-Book of Human and Comparative Histology," S. Strieker ; 
 " Human Physiology," J. C. Dalton ; " Elementary Lessons in Physi- 
 ology," Huxley ; " Natural History of Man," Von J. F. Blumenbach ; 
 Lyell's " Antiquity of Man " ; F. Cushing, " My Adventures in Zufii/' 
 in the "Century," February, 1883; "The Human Body," Martin ; 
 il Anthropology," Tylor ; " The Essentials of Anatomy, Physiology, 
 and Hygiene," R. S. Tracy. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
 Branch I. — I. What is a cell? 2. Mention some differences be- 
 tween animals and plants. 3. What are the characteristics of the sim- 
 plest animals? 4. Describe a moner ; its method of eating. 5. What 
 is a nucleus ? 6. Define a contracting vesicle. 7. Define an amoeba. 
 8. Describe a shelled amoeba. 9. What is a radiolarian ? 10. What 
 great work do these forms accomplish ? 11. Define a gregarine. 12. 
 In what are they remarkable ? 13. Define the infusorians. 14. How 
 do they differ from the preceding forms? 15. W T hat is a cilium ? 16. 
 Define a monad. 17. What is a compound monad ? 18. How does 
 the acienta differ from the monad ? 19. What are the characteristics 
 of the suctorians? 20. Describe the bell animalcules. 21. What is 
 meant by budding ? 
 
 Branch II. — 1. Describe the structure of a sponge. 2. What are 
 spicules ? 3. How does a sponge eat ? 4. Describe the different uses 
 of the large and small pores. 5. Explain the development of the 
 sponge. 6. Define a lime-sponge. 7. Give examples of other kinds. 
 8. How do they benefit man ? 
 
 Branch III. — 1. What are the genera 1 characteristics of coelente- 
 rates? 2. Define a hydra; show the use of its arms. 3. What is a 
 lasso-cell? 4. Describe a lime-secreting hydroid. 5. What is meant 
 by alternate generations ? 6. Give an example. 7. How do the dis- 
 cophores differ from hydroid medusae ? 8. Where are the eyes in a jelly- 
 fish ? 9. Describe the development of an aurelia. 10. Explain the use 
 of the water vascular system, n. Describe the physalia. 12. How does 
 it secure prey? 13. Define a sea-anemone. 14. What is a septa? 15. 
 Describe the development of sea-anemones. 16. How do corals differ 
 from anemones ? 17. About how fast does coral grow ? 18. Are corals 
 found out of the tropics ? Give example. 19. What is a coral reef, and 
 how formed? 20. What is an atoll? 21. Of what value is coral to 
 man ? Anemones ? 22. What is a gorgonia ? 23. Describe a sea-fan, 
 24. What are the general characteristics of the comb-bearers? 
 
3;o QUESTIONS. 
 
 Branch IV. — i. What are the general characteristics of echino- 
 derms ? 2. What is a pedicellaria ? How used ? 3. Describe the 
 water vascular system, and its use. 4. What is a crinoid ? 4. Define 
 an echinus. 6. How does it differ from star-fishes? 7. What is a 
 madreporic plate ? 8. Define a holothurian. 9. How do they breathe ? 
 10. What is the position of the madreporic plate ? 11. Describe the 
 development of holothurians. 
 
 Branch V. — 1. What are the general characteristics of worms? 
 2. Describe a planarian worm. 3. Give its life-history from the egg to 
 adult. 4. What fable is there associated with the Gorgius aquaticus ? 
 
 5. Define a rotifer. 6. Why are they termed wheeled? 7. What are 
 the polyzoans ? 8 In what do they differ from other worms ? 9. De- 
 fine a brachiopod. 10. Give examples. n. Describe a leech. 12. 
 What peculiarity is there about their teeth ? 13. Describe the eggs 
 and habits of young. 14. Describe an earth-worm. 15. How does it 
 crawl, eat, dig, etc. ? 16. For what are they valued by man ? 17. De- 
 scribe a marine worm. 18. What do you conceive to be the use of the 
 luminous property in worms ? 19. Give examples of luminous forms. 
 
 Branch VI. — 1. What are the general characteristics of mollusks ? 
 2. Describe the parts of a clam-shell. 3. Describe the internal organs. 
 4. How does the oyster breathe? 5. Describe the nervous system. 6. 
 Where are the eyes, and ears? 7. How is the foot of clams used ? 8. 
 How does the pecten move ? 9. What are the habits of the pholas ? io. 
 Define a univalve. 11. Mention a surface shell. 12. What is an oper- 
 culum ? 13. Define the heteropoda. 14. Define an air-breathing gas- 
 teropod. 15. Describe th.e land-slugs. 16. What peculiar secretion 
 have they? 17. Describe the eyes of the onchidium. 18. What are 
 the highest forms of mollusks? 19. Describe the nautilus. 20. Can it 
 leave its shell ? 21. Has it an ink-bag? 22. What peculiarity is there 
 about its eye ? 23. Describe a squid. 24. How does it differ from the 
 preceding forms? 25. How is the siphon used? The ink ? 26. How 
 is the body supported ? 27. Describe the octopus. 28. How does the 
 argonaut differ from the nautilus ? What fable is there about them ? 
 29. Where and how are the eggs placed ? 
 
 Branch VII. — 1. Define the arthropoda. 2. What are trie dis- 
 tinctive characteristics of crustaceans ? 3. Describe the skeleton of the 
 cray-fish. 4. How does it breathe ? 5. How is molting accomplished? 
 
 6. Describe the metamorphosis of a crab ; mention an exception. 7. 
 How are the eggs carried ? 8. Describe the growth of a barnacle. 
 9. What are cirri? 10. Mention some peculiarity about the brine- 
 shrimp. 11. What crustaceans secrete a bivalve shell? 12. Define the 
 decapods. 13. How do the hermits differ from preceding forms ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 371 
 
 14. Describe the oyster, land, and king crabs. 15. What are the general 
 characteristics of insects ? 16. Describe the skeleton ; of what is it 
 composed? 17. Describe the internal organs. 18. How do insects 
 breathe ? 19. Describe the metamorphosis of an insect. 20. Give an 
 example of an incomplete metamorphosis. 21. How does the peripa- 
 tus defend itself? 22. Define the myriapoda ; where are the poison- 
 glands? 23. Describe the scorpions. Spiders. 24. How is the silk 
 produced ? 25. Define the hexapoda, and give examples. 26. Define the 
 orthoptera. 27. Define the herrnoptera, and give examples. 28. De- 
 scribe the metamorphosis of the froth insect. 29. Mention some insects 
 that are particularly valuable to man. 30. Define the coleoptera. 31. 
 How does the diving-beetle cling ? 32. Define the diptera. 33. De- 
 scribe the metamorphosis of a fly. 34. What are the characteristics of 
 the butterflies? 35. How do they differ from moths ? 36. Define the 
 hymenoptera. 37. How would you preserve an insect for study? 
 
 Branch VIII. — 1. What are the general characteristics of as- 
 cidians ? 2. How do they breathe, eat, move ? 3. Give example of 
 compound ascidian. 4. Describe the salpa and appendicularia. 5. 
 How are they allied to vertebrates ? 
 
 Branch IX. — 1. Define a vertebrate? 2. Define the fishes. 3. 
 Describe the parts of the skeleton. 4. How do the fins compare with 
 the limbs of other forms? 5. Why are fishes cold-blooded? 6. 
 What is the use of the air-bladder? 7. Describe the manner of breath- 
 ing. 8. Describe the internal organs. 9. Do fishes ever leave the 
 water? Give examples. 10. What is meant by interspinous bones? 
 11. What is meant by a cartilaginous fish? a bony one? 12. What is 
 meant by a pouched-gilled fish ? 13. Describe the manner of breath- 
 ing in the lung-fishes. 14- In tne amphibious fishes. 
 
 Batrachians. — 1. Define the class batrachia? Give examples. 2. 
 How does the skeleton differ from that of other vertebrates? 3. How 
 do they breathe? 4 Describe the circulation. 5. Describe the de- 
 velopment. 6. What peculiarity is there about the axolotl ? 7. How 
 does a siren differ from a frog ? 
 
 Reptiles.— 1. What are the general characteristics of true rep- 
 tiles ? 2. In what do they resemble the birds ? 3- How do they dif- 
 fer from the batrachians? 4. Is the blood cold? 5. Describe the 
 manner of development. 6. Describe the moulting process of snakes. 
 7. Describe the color-changes of reptiles. 8. How do the teeth of 
 crocodiles and snakes differ ? 9. Are crocodiles found in this country ? 
 Where ? and what are their habits ? 
 
 Birds. — 1. Define the birds. 2. How do they differ from the reptiles ? 
 3. What modification of the limbs is observed ? 4. Describe the head, 
 
372 QUESTIONS. 
 
 wings, legs. 5. How do they roost when asleep ? 6. How does the 
 circulation differ from that of reptiles ? 7. Why are they warm- 
 blooded ? 8. How do they breathe ? 9. How are birds covered ? 10. 
 Describe a feather. 11. Describe the development of birds. 12. What 
 are the peculiarities of lizard-tailed birds ? 13. Describe the toothed 
 birds. 14. What is meant by fiat-breasted birds ? Give an example. 
 15. Define a keel-breasted bird, and give examples. 
 
 Mammals. — 1. What is meant by a mammal? 2. How is it 
 distinguished from the birds ? reptiles ? 3. Describe the skull. 4. 
 What is the use of the backbone ? the ribs ? tail ? 5. Describe the limbs 
 and their uses. 6. Describe the digestive process. 7. How does it 
 differ from that of birds? 8. Describe the circulation of blood. 9. 
 Is there anything about the blood-corpuscles that reminds you of the 
 amoeba? 10. Describe the process of breathing. 11. How does it 
 differ from that of birds? of reptiles, fishes, insects ? 12. What are the 
 uses of the nervous system ? Designate them. 13. Define the develop- 
 ment of a mammal. 14. What are the great groups of mammals ? 
 15. Define the monotremes. 16. In what do they resemble the rep- 
 tiles? 17. How does their development differ from that of other 
 mammals? 18. What are the general characteristics of marsupials? 
 19. What is a placental mammal? 20. Define the sirenians. 21. 
 What are the general characteristics of whales? 22. Do they spout 
 water? 23. How is whalebone used? 24. Define the insectivora. 
 25. How do their teeth differ from those of other forms? 26. Define 
 the bats. 27. How do they pass the winter? 28. How is the wing- 
 membrane supported ? 29. What organs for clinging have some bats 
 besides claws ? 30. Define a rodent. Give examples. 31. Does the 
 porcupine throw its quills ? 32. Define the ungulata. 33. Describe 
 the hyrax. 34. What are the characteristics of elephants ? 35. De- 
 scribe the tapirs, rhinoceroses, horses. 36. How do the hippopota- 
 mus, peccary, etc., differ from them? 37. Define a ruminant. 38. 
 Describe the process of digestion. 39. How are the horns of deer 
 reproduced ? 40. Is there an exception to their casting ? 41. What 
 deer has long canine teeth ? 42. How do the bovida differ from the 
 deer family? Give examples. 43. Define the carnivora. 44. How 
 do bears often pass the winter? 45. How do the seals differ from 
 other carnivora ? 46. Define the primates. 47. How may the monk- 
 eys be grouped? 48. What are the characteristics of the higher apes? 
 49. Into what general groups is the human race divided ? Give ex- 
 amples. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 Abdomen. (Latin, abdo, I conceal.) In mammals, that portion of 
 the body-cavity which is separated from the thorax or chest by the 
 diaphragm. 
 
 Acalephae. (Greek, akalepJie, a nettle,) Jelly-fishes or sea-nettles 
 that sting. 
 
 Acephalous. (Greek, a, without ; kephale, the head.) Without a dis- 
 tinct head, as the Lamellibranchiata. 
 
 Actinozoa. (Greek, aktis, a ray ; zobn, animal.) A class of Coelen- 
 terata. 
 
 Albumen. (Latin, a/bus, white.) Resembling the white of an egg. 
 
 Alveolus. A hollow cavity forming a socket for the teeth. 
 
 Anchylosis. The growing together of two bones to prevent motion. 
 
 Amoeba. (Greek, amoibe, a change.) One of the Rhizopods that is 
 continually changing its shape. 
 
 Amphibia. (Greek, amphi, both ; bios, life.) A class of vertebrates, 
 breathing in water while young and in air when mature. The 
 term amphibious is applied to fishes, mollusks, etc., that are capable 
 of changing the nature of their respiration at will. 
 
 Antennae. (Latin, antenna, the yard of a ship.) The jointed append- 
 ages on the heads of insects, crabs, etc. 
 
 Auricle. (Diminutive of auris, an ear.) The cavity of the heart that 
 receives the blood and transmits it to the ventricle. 
 
 Asexual. A term applied to animals, as Aphis, page 123, in which 
 the reproductive organs are imperfect, and the young are produced 
 by budding. 
 
 Artiodactyla. (Greek, ariios, even ; daktulos, finger or toe.) Even- 
 toed ungulates. 
 
 Bivalve. (Latin, bis, twice ; valvtz, folding-doors.) Shells with two 
 valves. 
 
 Branchiae. (Greek, branchice, gills.) Breathing-organs of fishes, etc. 
 
374 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Byssus. (Greek, bussos, flax.) Silk anchor-threads of the mussel, 
 etc. 
 
 Cilia. (Latin, cilium t an eyelash.) Hair-like organs of Infusoria. 
 
 Coelenterata. (Greek, koilos, hollow ; enteron, an intestine.) 
 
 Didelphia. (Greek, dis, twice ; delp/ms, the womb.) The marsupials. 
 
 Echinodermata. (Greek, echinos, a hedgehog ; derma, skin.) The 
 star-fishes, etc. 
 
 Elytra. (Greek, elytron, sheath.) Horny wing-covers of beetles. 
 
 Fauna. (Latin, fanni, rural gods.) The native animals of a certain 
 locality. 
 
 Foraminifera. (Latin, foramen, a hole ; fcro, I bear.) Rhizopods 
 with perforated shells. 
 
 Gregarinida. (Latin, grex, a flock.) A class of Protozoans. 
 
 Monodelphia. (Greek, monos, single ; delpkus, womb.) The division 
 including all the higher orders of mammalia. 
 
 Myriapoda. (Greek, murios, ten thousand ; pons, a foot.) Centi- 
 pedes, etc. 
 
 Monotremata. (Greek, monos, single ; trema, an opening.) An order 
 of mammalia in which the intestinal, urinary, and genital organs open 
 into a common cloaca. 
 
 Oviparous. (Latin, ovum, an egg ; pario, I bring forth.) Applied to 
 animals which produce eggs instead of living young. 
 
 Ovipositor. (Latin, ovum, an egg ; pono, I place.) In insects an 
 organ by which eggs are deposited in wood, etc. 
 
 Ovoviviparous. (Latin, ovum, an egg ; vivo, I live ; pairo, I bring 
 forth.) A term applied to animals which retain the eggs within 
 their bodies until they are hatched. 
 
 Pelagic. Living on the high seas in mid-ocean. 
 
 Perissodactyla. (Greek, perissos, uneven ; daktulos, finger.) Uneven- 
 toed ungulates. 
 
 Protoplasm. (Greek, protos, first ; plasma, I mold.) The primitive 
 basis of organic tissue. 
 
 Pseudopodia. (Greek, pseudos, false ; potis, feet.) Temporary foot- 
 like processes of Protozoans. 
 
 Rotifer. (Latin, rota, a wheel ; fero, I bear.) A class of worms. 
 
 Spiracle. (Latin, spiro, to breathe.) The breathing-pores of insects. 
 
 Septa. (Latin, partitions.) Applied to the walls of the chambers of 
 the Nautilus, etc. 
 
 Spicula. (Latin, spiculum, a point.) Applied to the pointed bodies 
 found in sponges. 
 
 Trachea. (Greek, tracheia, the windpipe.) The tube which con- 
 nects the lungs with the mouth. 
 
GLOSSAR Y. 
 
 375 
 
 Tunicata. (Latin, tunica, a cloak.) A branch of animals covered 
 with a leathery coat or case. 
 
 Ungulata. (Latin, ungula, a hoof.) The hoofed animals. 
 
 Univalve. (Latin, umts, one ; valvce, folding-doors.) A shell com- 
 posed of a single piece. 
 
 Ventral. (Latin, venter, the stomach.) Belonging to the lower sur- 
 face of the body. 
 
 Ventricle. (Latin, venter.} One of the cavities of the heart that 
 receives the blood from the auricle. 
 
 Vacuole. (Latin, vacuus, empty.) Cavities in the bodies of Pioto- 
 zoans. 
 
 Viviparous. (Latin, vivtis, alive ; and J>ario, I bring forth.) Applied 
 to animals which produce their young alive. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aard-vark, 305. 
 Acara, 185. 
 Acarina, 104. 
 Acipenser, 166. 
 Actinia, 21. 
 Acienta, 9. 
 Actinozoa, 21. 
 Adder, 221. 
 .'Epiornis, 235. 
 Ai, 304. 
 Albatross, 244. 
 Alca impennis, 240. 
 Alligator, 222. 
 Alytes, 201. 
 Ambergris, 310. 
 Amblyopsis spelaeus, 171. 
 Amblyornis, 284. 
 Amblyrhynchus, 214. 
 Amblystoma, 198. 
 Amceba, 6. 
 Ampelis, 287. 
 Amphibia, 195. 
 Amphioxus, 151. 
 Amphisbaena, 218. 
 Amphiuma, 198. 
 Anabas, 184. 
 Anableps, 184. 
 Anas, 248. 
 Angler, 191. 
 Anguilla, 168. 
 Animalcule, bell, 10. 
 Annulata, 47. 
 Anolis, 214. 
 Ant, 137. 
 Ant-eater, 304. 
 
 spiny, 298. 
 Antedon, 35. 
 Antelope, prong-horn, 338. 
 
 Antennarius, 1S9. 
 
 nest of, 190. 
 Anthropoidea, 358. 
 Anura, 200. 
 Ape, 359. 
 Aphis, 124. 
 Aphis-lion, 114. 
 Aphodes, 168. 
 Appendicularia, 149. 
 Apteryx, 234. 
 Apus, 84. 
 Arachnida, 104. 
 Araneina, 106. 
 Archaeopteryx, 232. 
 Architeuthis, 71. 
 Ardea, 256. 
 Argali, 336. 
 Arges, 170. 
 Argonaut?, argo, 73. 
 Argyropelacus, 175. 
 Arius, 169. 
 Armadillo, 305. 
 Arthropoda, 76. 
 Aitiodactyla, 331. 
 Ascetta, 12. 
 Ascidians, 145. 
 Aspredo, 169. 
 Ass, 330. 
 Asterias, 33, 36. 
 Asteroidea, 36. 
 Ateles, 359. 
 Atoll, 27. 
 Attus, in. 
 Auk, 240. 
 Aurelia, 18. 
 
 Australian lung-fish, 167. 
 Axolotl, 198. 
 Aye-aye, 356. 
 
378 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Baboon, 359. 
 Badger. 346. 
 Bakeniceps, 255. 
 Bandicoot 301. 
 Barnacle, 81. 
 Bass, 179. 
 Bat, 316. 
 Batrachia, 195. 
 Bear, 344. 
 Beaver, 322. 
 Bee, 141. 
 Beetles, 124. 
 Big-horn, 336. 
 Bird of Paradise 281. 
 Birds, 225. 
 
 eggs, 232. 
 
 feathers, 230. 
 
 migration of, 293 
 
 songs of, 232. 
 Birgos, 92. 
 Bison, 336. 
 Bittern, 257. 
 Blackbird, 282. 
 Blenny, 186. 
 Blind-fish, 171. 
 Bluebird, 290. 
 Boar, 331. 
 Bobolink, 283. 
 Bos, 339. 
 Box-fish, 192. 
 Brachiopoda, 46. 
 Branchiopoda, 82. 
 Branchipus, 84. 
 Branta, 249. 
 Brush-turkey, 260 
 Bubo, 268. 
 Bufo, 201. 
 Bug, 120. 
 Bulimus, 66. 
 Bustard, 257. 
 Butcher-bird, 289. 
 Butterfly, 134. 
 Buzzard, 264. 
 Byssus, 58. 
 
 Caddis- worm, 1:3. 
 Callichthys, 169. 
 Callorhynchus, 165. 
 Camel, 340. 
 Cancer pagurus, 91. 
 Canis, 350. 
 Capybara, 318. 
 Carcharias, 161; 
 
 Caribou, 333. 
 Carinatse, 237. 
 Carnivora, 342. 
 Carp, 171. 
 Cassowary, 236. 
 Cat, 351. 
 Catfish, 169. 
 Cebus, 358. 
 Cell, 3- 
 
 Centipede, 102. 
 Cephalopoda, 69. 
 Cephalopterus, 165. 
 Ceradotus, 167. 
 Cercaria, 43. 
 Cei-vus, 331. 
 Cetacea, 309. 
 Chalk, 7. 
 Chameleon, 212. 
 Chelifer, 105. 
 Chelonia, 218. 
 Chiasmodus, 188. 
 Chilognatha, 103. 
 Chilopoda, 103. 
 Chimsera, 165. 
 Chimpanzee, 361. 
 Chinch-bug, 121. 
 Chipmunk, 320. 
 Chiromys, 356. 
 Chiroptera, 315. 
 Chromis, 179. 
 Cicada, 122. 
 Cirripedia, 8 1 
 Clam, 52. 
 Clepsine, 47. 
 Clio, 69. 
 Cleodora, 69. 
 Clupea, 172. 
 Coati, 344. 
 
 Cobra de capello, 209. 
 Cochineal insect, 123. 
 Cod, 187. 
 Ccecilia, 200. 
 Ccelenterates, 15. 
 Coleoptera, 124. 
 Comb-bearers, 31. 
 Condor, 264. 
 Condylura, 313. 
 Congo snake, 198. 
 Copperhead, 207. 
 Corallium rubrum, 29. 
 Coral polyps, 23. 
 
 reefs, 26. 
 Cormorant, 241. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 379 
 
 Coryphaena, 181. 
 Cougar, 352. 
 Cow, sea, 307. 
 Cowry, 63. 
 Coyote, 350. 
 Crabs, 91. 
 Cray-fish, 89. 
 Crane, 251. 
 Cranchia, 71. 
 Cricket, 119. 
 Crinoidea, 35. 
 Crocodilia, 222. 
 Crow, 280. 
 Crustacea, 76. 
 Ctenophora, 31. 
 Cuckoo, 271. 
 Curassow, 261. 
 Curlew, 251. 
 Cuttle-fish bone, 72. 
 Cyclops, 82. 
 Cypraea moneta, 63. 
 Cyprinus, 1 71. 
 
 Dace, 171. 
 
 Daphnia, 84. 
 Dasypus, 305. 
 Decapoda, S6. 
 Deer, 331. 
 
 Virginian, 333. 
 Dendrceca, 293. 
 Dentalium, 68. 
 Devil-fish, 72. 
 Dibranchiata, 70. 
 Dicotyles, 331. 
 Didelphidae, 299. 
 Didus, 263. 
 Dinornis, 235. 
 Diomedea, 244. 
 Dipnoi, 167. 
 Diptera, 126. 
 Discophora, 17. 
 Dodo, 263. 
 Dog, 298. 
 Dog-fish, 160. 
 Dolphin, 181. 
 Doris, 65. 
 Dove, 262. 
 Dragon-fly, 112. 
 Dromia, 80. 
 Drum-fish, 129. 
 Duck-bill, 298. 
 Duck, 248. 
 Dugong, 30S. - 
 
 Eagle, 266. 
 Earth-worm, 48. 
 Echeneis, 178. 
 Echidna, 298. 
 Echinodermata, 33. 
 Echinoidea, 38. 
 Echinus, 3S. 
 Edentata, 303. 
 Eel, 168. 
 Elaps, 209. 
 Elasmobranchii, 158. 
 Elater, 124. 
 Elephant, 327. 
 Elk, 334. 
 Emeu, 236. 
 Entomostraca, 82. 
 Eohippus, 330. 
 Eolis, 65. 
 Epeira, no. 
 Equus, 329. 
 Ermine, 349. 
 Esox, 176. 
 Estheria, 91. 
 Euplectella, 13. 
 Eupomotis, 179. 
 Eurypharynx, 175. 
 Eutaenia, 211. 
 
 Falcon, 266. 
 Feather, 231. 
 Felis, 351. 
 Fierasfer, 188. 
 Finch, 285. 
 Fisher, 348. 
 Fishes, 154. 
 
 bony, 168. 
 
 viviparous, 158. 
 
 luminous, 173. 
 Fissipedia, 344. 
 Flagellata, 8. 
 Flamingo, 250. 
 Flat-worms, 43. 
 Flea, 128. 
 Flounder, 188. 
 Fluke-worms, 43. 
 Fly-catcher, 279. 
 Fly, 126. 
 Flying-fish, 176. 
 Foraminifera, 6. 
 Fox, 349. 
 Frigate-bird, 247. 
 Frog, 204. 
 Fungia, 24. 
 
38o 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gadus, 187. 
 Galeopithecus, 315. 
 Gall-fly, 136. 
 Gallinae, 257. 
 Gallinule, 252. 
 Gallus, 257. 
 Gannet, 246. 
 Ganoidei, 166. 
 Gar, alligator, 168. 
 Gar, silver, 166, 176. 
 Gardner-bird, 284. 
 Gare-fowl, 240. 
 Garpike, 168. 
 Gasteropoda, 60. 
 Gasterosteus, 177. 
 Gecko, 214. 
 Genetta, 351. 
 Gibbon, 360. 
 Gila monster, 216, 217. 
 Giraffe, 340. 
 Glass-snake, 216. 
 Glow-worm, 124. 
 Glutton, 348. 
 Goat, mountain, 337. 
 Goose-barnacle, 82. 
 Gordius aquaticus, 44. 
 Gorgonia flabellum, 30. 
 Gorilla, 360-2. 
 Gourami, 185. 
 Grapsus, 94. 
 Grasshopper, 118. 
 Grebe, 242. 
 Gregarina gigantea, 7. 
 Gregarinida, 7. 
 Grilse, 172. 
 Grouse, 258. 
 Guan, 252. 
 Guillemot, 240. 
 Guinea-hen, 259. 
 Gull, 228, 244. 
 Gulo, 348. 
 Gymnotus, 170. 
 
 Haddock, 188. 
 Hsemulon, 179. 
 Hag-fish, 152. 
 Hake, 188. 
 Haliotis, 61. 
 Harpodon, 173. 
 Hare, 317. 
 Helix, 66. 
 Hell-bender, 197. 
 Heloderma, 216, 217. 
 
 Helocephali, 165. 
 
 Hemiptera, 120. 
 
 Hermit-crab, 90, 91. 
 
 Heron, 256. 
 
 Hermiaster, 39. 
 
 Herring, 172. 
 
 Hexapoda, in. 
 
 Hinney, 330. 
 
 Hibernation, 134, 167, 202, 222. 
 
 Hippocampus, 191. 
 
 Hippopotamus, 331. 
 
 Histiophorus, 182. 
 
 Holothuroidea, 35. 
 
 Homo, 364. 
 
 Hornbill, 274. 
 
 Horns, 333. 
 
 Horn-tail, 136. 
 
 Horse, 330. 
 
 Horse-shoe crab, 95. 
 
 House-fly, 126. 
 
 Humming-bird, 
 Hydra, 15. 
 Hydrozoa, 15. 
 Hyla, 202. 
 Hylobates, 102. 
 Hymenoptera, ] 
 Hyrax, 326. 
 
 108, 274. 
 
 36. 
 
 Ianthina, 62. 
 Ichneumon-fly, 137. 
 Idotaea, 85. 
 Idyia, 31. 
 Iguana, 213. 
 Infusoria, 7. 
 Insectivora, 312. 
 Insects, 97. 
 Ipnops, 173. 
 
 Jager, 245. 
 
 Kallima, 135. 
 Kangaroo, 301. 
 Katydid, 119. 
 Killer, 310. 
 Kincajou, 344. 
 King-crab, 95. 
 King-fisher, 272. 
 Kiwi-kiwi, 234. 
 
 Labyrinthici, 184. 
 Lacertilia, 212. 
 Lamellibranchiata, 51. 
 Lamp-fish, 173. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 381 
 
 Lampreys, 153. 
 Lamp-shells, 46. 
 Lancelet, 151. 
 Lark, 279. 
 Lasso-cell, 22. 
 Leech, 47. 
 
 land, 47. 
 Lemming, 324. 
 Lemur, 356. 
 Lepidoptera, 13a. 
 Lepidosiren, 167. 
 Lepidosteus, 168. 
 Leptocardii, 151. 
 Lepus, 317. 
 Lernaea, 83. 
 Limnseus, 65. 
 Limulus moluccanus, 95. 
 Lir.gula, 46. 
 Lizards, 212. 
 
 horned, 213. 
 Llama, 342. 
 Lobster, 87, 88. 
 Locust, 119. 
 Loon, 242. 
 Lophius, 191. 
 Lori, 357 
 Lump-fish, 186. 
 Lung-fish, 167. 
 Lutra, 347. 
 Lycosa, 106. 
 Lynx, 352. 
 Lyre-bird, 279. 
 
 Macacus, 359. 
 Mackerel, 181. 
 Macrura, 86. 
 Madreporic plate, 34. 
 Madreporaria, 24. 
 Mseandrina, convexa, 25. 
 Malapterus, 170. 
 Malacopoda, 102. 
 Maleo, 261. 
 Mammalia, 294. 
 Mammoth, 327. 
 Man, 364. 
 
 difference from apes, 364. 
 
 races of, 364. 
 Manatee, 307. 
 
 Steller's, 307. 
 Manis, 307. 
 Mantis, 116. 
 Marmoset, 358. 
 Marsipobranchii, 152. 
 
 Marsupialia, 299. 
 
 Marten, 348. 
 
 Marine-worm, 49. 
 
 Mastodon, 327. 
 
 May-fly, 112. 
 
 Megapodius, 261. 
 
 Menhaden, 172. 
 
 Menopoma, 197. 
 
 Mephitis, 346. 
 
 Mesohippus, 330. 
 
 Metazoa, 2. 
 
 Mias, 361. 
 
 Millepedes, 103. 
 
 Millepora, 16. 
 
 Mimetes, 361. 
 
 Mink, 349. 
 
 Minnow, 156. 
 
 Miohippus, 330. 
 
 Mite, 104. 
 
 Moa, 235. 
 
 Mocking-bird, 291, 
 
 Mola, 193. 
 
 Mole, 313. 
 
 Mollusca, 51. 
 
 Mollymauk, 2440 
 
 Monad, 8. 
 
 Moner, 4. 
 
 Monkey, 355. 
 
 Monocaulus, 17. 
 
 Monodon, 311. 
 
 Monotremes, 297. 
 
 Moose, 334. 
 
 Mosquito, 129. 
 
 Mother Carey's chickens, 243. 
 
 Moths, 130. 
 
 Mound-bird, 260, 261. 
 
 Mouse, 319. 
 
 Mouse-birds, 281. 
 
 Mud-dauber, 140. 
 
 Mule, 330. 
 
 Mus, 319. 
 
 Musk-rat, 324. 
 
 Musk-sheep. 337. 
 
 Mussel, 56. 
 
 Mustela, 346. 
 
 Muzir, 330. 
 
 Mygale, 107, 108. 
 
 Myodes, 324. 
 
 Myriopoda, 102. 
 
 Myrmecobius, 301. 
 
 Myrmeleon, 114. 
 
 Mytilus edulis, 56. 
 
 Myxine, 152. 
 
382 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Narwhal, 310. 
 Nasua, 344. 
 Nauplius, 80. 
 Nautilus, 69. 
 Nebalia, 84. 
 Necturus, 197. 
 Nematelminthes, 44. 
 Nematognathi, 169. 
 Nephila, 109. 
 Nereis virens, 49. 
 Neuroptera, 112. 
 Newt, 199. 
 Night-hawk, 296. 
 Noctiluca, 8. 
 Nototrema, 203. 
 Nucleus, 1. 
 Nyctea, 268. 
 
 Octopus, 72. 
 Ocypoda, 94. 
 Odontornithes, 233. 
 Onchidium, 68. 
 Ophiacantha, 36. 
 Ophidia, 205. 
 Opossum, 299. 
 Oi-ang, 360. 
 Orca, 310. 
 Oriole, 282. 
 Ornithodelphia, 297. 
 Ornithorhynchus, 298. 
 Orohippus, 330. 
 Orthoptera, 116. 
 Osprey, 267. 
 Ostrich, African, 235. 
 
 South American, 235. 
 Otter, 347. 
 Ovibos, 336. 
 Ovipositor, 98. 
 Ovis, 336. 
 Owl, 268. 
 Ox, 339. 
 Ox-biter, 282. 
 Oyster, 54. 
 
 Palapteryx, 235. 
 Pangolin, 306. 
 Panther, 352. 
 Paper-nautilus, 70. 
 Paradisea, 280. 
 Paramecium, 9. 
 Parr, 172. 
 Parrot, 268. 
 Partridge, 257. 
 
 Pauropoda, 103. 
 
 Peccary, 331. 
 
 Pecten, 54. 
 
 Pedicellaria, 38. 
 
 Pediculati, 1S9. 
 
 Pedipaipi, 105. 
 
 Pekan, 348. 
 
 Pelican, 246. 
 
 Pennatula, 30. 
 
 Pentacrinus caput-medusa, 35. 
 
 Pentacta, 40. 
 
 Perca, 155. 
 
 Perch, 179. 
 nest of, 179. 
 
 Peripatus, 102. 
 
 Perissodactyla, 328. 
 
 Periophthalmus, 6S, 186. and front- 
 ispiece. 
 
 Petaurus, 246. 
 
 Petrel, 243. 
 
 Petromyzon, 153. 
 
 Phasma, 117. 
 
 Philohela, 252. 
 
 Phocidae, 342. 
 
 Phcenicopterus, 250. 
 
 Pholas, 58. 
 
 Phosphorescence, 31, 92, 8, 124, 
 32, 147, 67. 
 
 Phyllocarida, 84. 
 
 Physalia, 20. 
 
 Pig, 331. 
 
 Pigeon, wild, 262. 
 Pilot-fish, 181. 
 Pinnipedia, 342. 
 Pinnotheres, 93. 
 Pipe-fish, 191. 
 Pisces, 154. 
 Plagiostomi, 159. 
 Planarian worms, 43. 
 Plant-louse, 123. 
 Platyhelminthes, 43. 
 Plectognathi, 192. 
 Pleurobrachia, 31. 
 Plover, 251. 
 Podiceps, 242. 
 Podocerus, 85. 
 Podura, 112. 
 Polyodon folium, 166. 
 Polypterus, 167. 
 Polyzoa, 45. 
 Porcupine, 319. 
 Porcupine-fish, 193. 
 Porifera, 11. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 383 
 
 Pontes, 24. 
 
 Porpoise, 211. 
 
 Porpita, 21. 
 
 Portuguese man-of-war, 20. 
 
 Prairie-dog, 321. 
 
 Prawn, 86. 
 
 Primates, 355. 
 
 Pristis, 163. 
 
 Proboscidea, 326. 
 
 Prosimi;e, 356. 
 
 Proteus, 179, 196. 
 
 Protozoa, 4. 
 
 Ptarmigan, 259. 
 
 Pterygolus, 96. 
 
 Puffin, 241. 
 
 Pulmonata, 65. 
 
 Puma, 352. 
 
 Pygopodes, 239. 
 
 Pyrosoma, 147. 
 
 Python, 209. 
 
 Quail, 258. 
 
 Rabbit, 317. 
 Raccoon, 344. 
 Radiolaria, 6. 
 Rail, 252. 
 Rana, 204. 
 Rangifer, 333. 
 Rat, 323. 
 Ratite, 234. 
 Rattlesnake, 207. 
 Rays, 163. 
 Redia, 44. 
 Reindeer, 333. 
 Remora, 178. 
 Reptilia, 204. 
 Rhea, 235. 
 Rhinichthys, 171. 
 Rhinoceros, 328. 
 Rhinodon, 163. 
 Rhizopoda, 5. 
 Rhynchocephalia, 222. 
 Rhytina, 307. 
 Ribbon-fish, 178. 
 Robin, 291. 
 Rodentia, 317. 
 Rotalia, 6. 
 Rotifers, 45. 
 Round-worms, 44. 
 Ruff, 253. 
 Ruminantia, 331. 
 
 Sable, 347. 
 Salamander, 198. 
 Salmon, 172. 
 Salpa, 148. 
 Sandpiper, 254. 
 Sand-wasp, i_ I. 
 Saururse, 232. 
 Saw-fish, 163. 
 Scaphopoda, 68. 
 Scink, 215. 
 Sciurus, 320. 
 Scolopendra, 103. 
 Scomber, 181. 
 Scopelus, 173. 
 Scorpion, 105. 
 
 false, 105. 
 
 whip, 106. 
 Sculpin, 169, i£6. 
 Sea-anemones, 22, 
 
 cow, 306. 
 
 cucumbers, 40. 
 
 fan, 30. 
 
 horse, 192. 
 
 lion, 343. 
 
 squirts, 145. 
 Seal, 343. 
 Selache, 163 
 Semnopithecus, 359. 
 Septa, 22. 
 Serpulae, 49. 
 Sertularia, 17. 
 Sewellel, 323. 
 Shad, 172. 
 Sharks, 158. 
 
 basking, 161. 
 
 fresh- water, 1 6 1. 
 
 hammer-headed, 160. 
 
 thresher, 161. 
 Sheath-bill, 254. 
 Sheep, 336. 
 Ship-worm, 59, 
 Shrew, 312. 
 Shrike, 289. 
 Shrimp, 86. 
 Simia, 361. 
 Silk-wonn, 131. 
 Silurus, 169. 
 Siphonophora, 20. 
 Siren, 196. 
 Sirenia, 306. 
 Skate, 163. 
 Skua, 245. 
 Skunk, 346 
 
3^4 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sloth, 304. 
 Slug, 67. 
 Snakes, 206. 
 
 poisonous, 206. 
 
 viviparous, 206. 
 Snipe, 252. 
 Solaster, 37. 
 Solen, 56. 
 
 Sparrow, English, 230, 286 
 Spermaceti, 211. 
 Sphargis, 219. 
 Sphenisci, 237. 
 Sphinx, 133. 
 Spicules, 11. 
 Spider, 106. 
 
 bird, 108. 
 
 garden, 109. 
 
 trap-door, 107. 
 Spirula, 70. 
 Sponges, 11. 
 Spoon-bill, 254. 
 Spoon-bill fish, 166. 
 Spring-tails, 11 1. 
 Squalus Americanus, 160. 
 Squid, 71. 
 Squilla, 85. 
 Star-fish, 36. 
 Stegopocles, 246. 
 Stickleback, 177. 
 Stilt, 251. 
 Sting-ray, 164. 
 Stoat, 349. 
 Stomapoda, 85. 
 Storks, 255. 
 Struthio, 236. 
 Studis, 172. 
 Sturgeon, 166. 
 Suctoria, 9. 
 Sun-fish, 193. 
 Surinam toad, 203. 
 Swallow, 286. 
 Swan, 249. 
 Swift, 277. 
 Sword-fish, 182. 
 Sycon, 13. 
 Synapta, 40. 
 
 Tadpole, 201. 
 Tanager, 286. 
 Tape-worms, 244. 
 Tapir, 328-9. 
 Tarantula, 106, 107. 
 Tautog, 185. 
 
 Taxidea, 346. 
 Teleocephali, 170. 
 Teleostei, 168. 
 Teredo, 59. 
 Tern, 241. 
 Testudo, 221. 
 Tetrabranchiata, 69. 
 Tetradecapoda, 85. 
 Thrasher, 161. 
 Thread-worms, 43. 
 Thrush, 291. 
 Thysanura, ill. 
 Tick, 104. 
 Toad, 201. 
 
 flying, 202. 
 
 Surinam, 203. 
 
 luminous, 203. 
 Torpedo, 164. 
 Tortoise, 195. 
 Tortugas, 27. 
 Toucan, 273. 
 Trachystomata, 196. 
 Tree-toad, 203. 
 Trepang, 40. 
 Trichina spiralis, 44. 
 Tridacna, 57. 
 Trilobite, 95. 
 Triton, 199. 
 Tritonia, 65. 
 Trogon, 271. 
 Trout, 172. 
 Trunk-fish, 192. 
 Tunicata, 145. 
 Turkey, wild, 259. 
 Turtle, 218. 
 
 green, 220, 
 
 hawkbill, 221. 
 
 loggerhead, 220. 
 
 marine, 219. 
 Tyrian dye, 64. 
 
 Umbellularia, 30. 
 Umbrella-bird, 289. 
 Ungulata, 315. 
 
 odd-toed, 328. 
 
 even-toed, 331. 
 Unio, 56. 
 Urchin, sea, 38. 
 Uria, 240. 
 Urodela, 197. 
 Urticina, 23. 
 Uvella, 8. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 385 
 
 Velella, 21. 
 
 Venus's flower-basket, 13. 
 
 Vermes, 42. 
 
 Vertebrates, 150. 
 
 Viper, 206. 
 
 Viverra, 351. 
 
 Vorticella, 9. 
 
 Vulpes, 349. 
 
 Vultures, 264. 
 
 Walking-leaf, 117. 
 
 stick, 117. 
 Walrus, 344, 345. 
 Wapiti, 334. 
 Wasp, paper, 141. 
 Weasel, 348. 
 Weaver-bird, 2SS. 
 Whale, 309. 
 Wheel-animalcules, 45. 
 Whelk, 63. 
 
 Whip-poor-will, 276. 
 White ant, 114. 
 Willemoesia, 86. 
 Wolf, 299. 
 
 Tasmanian, 303. 
 Wolverene, 348. 
 Wombat, 302. 
 Woodchuck, 321. 
 Woodcock, 252. 
 Woodpecker, 229, 274. 
 Worms, 42. 
 Wren, 290. 
 
 Xiphias, 182. 
 
 Zoarces, 158. 
 
 Zoea, 81. 
 
 Zoological classification, 2. 
 
 Zoology, definition of, I. 
 
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