■REPORT OF i SURVEr Of fUBLIG EDUCATION IN OKUHOMIi, 1922 Glass, Book A-M^ ^M. '\Z'L (( i I Fz.. / / DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U ^ . BUREAU OF EDUCATION PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA A REPORT OF A SURVEY OF PUBI^IC EDUCATION IN THE STATE OF OKLAHOMA, MADE AT THE REQUPIST OF THE OKLAHOMA STATE EDUCATIONAL SURVEY COMMISSION, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE UNITED STATES COMMIS- SIONER OF EDUCATION. WASHINGTON DECEMBER 11,1922 .A3 LiSRAKY 0' ,,,ESS Rcceivto ^:ov2 1; 1023 j)OCUM£i\TS DiVlSlON, CONTENTS. Letter of Commissioner Tigert to the Chairman of the Oklahoma State Survey Commission v Letter of Transmittal vii Members of the Survey Staff ix I. Introduction 1 II. Historical Background 6 III. Problems of Financing Public Schools _ 26 IV. Financial and Accounting Procedure _ 76 V. Organization and Administration 119 VI. Higher Education 128 VII. The Rural Schools _ 197 VIII. Village and City Schools 279 IX. Education of Indians 309 X, Education of Negroes 325 XI. Educational Tests and Measurements 351 XII. Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations 359 Appendix A. Legislation Affecting City School Systems 406 Appendix B. Statement of Untaxed Indian Lands in Oklahoma 416 Appendix C. Plan for Distribution of Aid from the Julius Rosen wald Fund _ _ _ _ „.„ 419 iii LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Bureau of Education Washin^on Letter of Commissioner Tigert to the Chairman of the Oklahoma State Educational Survey Commission. Honorable Robert H. "Wilson, Chairman. Oklahoma State Educational Survey Commission, Oklahoma Cit^, Oklahoma. My dear Mr. Wilson: In accordance with the agreement entered into with the Okla- homa State Educational Survey Commission, I have caused a care- ful study to be made of public education in Oklahoma, and have received and given due consideration to the reports made to me by members of the Survey Staff designated to make the investigation. I take pleasure in transmitting this report for consideration by your Commission, and, in due time, by the people of Oklahoma. Permit me to express appreciation of the cordial spirit of co- operation with the Survey manifested by all concerned with edu- cation in Oklahoma. The Bureau of Education and the people of Oklahoma are under obligation also to those State and City de- partments of education, and educational institutions, which have co-operated by making it possible for represientatives to serve on the Survey Staff. Educational experts from seven widely separat- ed States (Minnesota, Kansas, Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky, New York, Georgia) have participated in this investigation, under the direc- tion of the Federal Bureau of Education. By adding their counsel to that of representatives of the Bureau it has thus been possible to bring to bear on the problems of public education in Oklahoma the lessons of experience drawn from all parts of the United States. I trust that the results of our efforts may play some appropri- ate part in the educational awakening for which the people of Ok- lahoma appear to be ready. Cordially yours, JNO J. TIGERT, Commissioner. Washington, December 11, 1922. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Hon. J. B. A. Robertson, Governor of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City. Dear Sir: In accordance with the provisions of Senate Bill No. 19, enacted by the Special Session of the State Legislature of Oklahoma, the Educational Survey Commission, at its first meeting held November 15, 1921, requested the United States Commissioner of Education to make the necessary arrangements and conduct a survey of pub- lic education in Oklahoma. The Educational Survey Commission, on November 30, 1921, elected Mr. John S. Vaughan Executive Secretary for the Commis- sion and authorized him to represent the Commission in carrying out the details of the survey. Complying with the request of the Survey Commission, Dr. William T. Bawden of the Bureau of Education, met with the Com- mission in Oklahoma City, January 2-3, 1922, and presented in de- tail plans and terms for making the survey. The Survey Commis- sion formally accepted the terms as presented by Dr. Bawden, and requested that the Bureau of Education make all necessary arrange- ments for completing the survey. During the months of April and May, 1922, a comprehensive series of tests was given to selected groups of children, in all types of public schools, in all sections of the State, by a group of Oklahoma educators, under the direction of the United States Bureau of Edu- cation. The committee was organized by Dean W. W. Phelan, Col- lege of Education, University of Oklahoma, who served as chairman until his departure from the state. He was then succeeded by Henry D. Rinsland, director of educational research, public schools of Ardmore. In view of the desire of the Commission to include in the sur- vey a study of the special problems of education for Indians in Oklahoma, the cooperation of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs was sought, through the Department of the Interior. This request was immediately granted, and Commissioner Burke des- ignated Mr. Peairs as his personal representative for this study. vii The field Avork of the survey began on October 16, 1922, with a conference with the Commission in Oklahoma City. Approximately five hundred twenty-three days were devoted to field work by nine- teen mem,bers of the Survey Staff; most of the visiting being done between October 16th and November 11th. Schools were visited in forty-six of the seventy-seven counties of the state. On Thursday, December 14, 1922, Dr. Bawden presented his report as Director of the Survey to the Oklahoma Educational Sur- vey Commission in executive session in Oklahoma City. After listening to a reading of the report by Dr. Bawden, a motion was duly made and seconded that the report be accepted and printed, and a copy delivered to the Governor, with the request that he present this report to the Legislature for its serious consid- eration. The motion was unanimously carried and in obedience thereto we submit herewith a copy of the report. Dr. Bawden was requested by the Commission to prepare a digest of the report, and that same be released to the newspapers on Sunday, December the 24th. The Commission requested the Secretary to have one thousand copies of Chapter IX. relating to "The Education of Indians" printed, and that copies of same be furnished to the Senators and Congressmen for consideration. The Commission is convinced that the bureau of Education has made an earnest endeavor to give the state of Oklahoma a survey free from bias and in the interest of its public schools. We trust that the Legislature and the citizenship of the state will accept the survey in the spirit in which it has been made and apply these standards to our present school system. Respectfully submitted, EDUCATIONAL SURVEY COMMISSION. R. H. WILSON, Chairman, GEO. F. SOUTHARD, Member. CHAS. L. BROOKS, Member, J. A. DUFF, Member, CYRUS S. AVERY, Member. JOHN S. VAUGHAN, Executive Secretary. December 18, 1922. Vlll MEMBERS OF THE SURVEY STAFF. The members of the staff appointed by the Commissioner of Education to make the survey of the public schools, the higher educational institutions, and the Government Indian Schools in the State of Oklahoma, and to report to him their findings and recom- mendations, are as follows : From the United States Bureau of Education. Dr. "William T. Bawden, Assistant to Commissioner, Director of the Survey. Dr. George F. Zook, Chief, Division of Higher Education. Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Rural Schools Division. Dr. Willard S. Small, Chief, Division of Physical Education and School Hygiene. Mrs. Henrietta W. Calvin Specialist in Home Economics. William R. Hood, Specialist in Educational Legislation. Miss Maud C. Newbury, Assistant in Rural Education. E. E. Windes, Assistant in Rural Education. Lloyd E. Blauch, Specialist in Charge of Land-Grant College Statistics. Major Alex Summers, Collector and Compiler of Statistics. From Outside the United States Bureau of Education. Dr. Frank L. McVey, President, University of Kentucky, Lex- ington, Ky. Raymond M. Hughes, President, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Dr. Fletcher Harper Swift, Professor of Education, College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis'. Ralph Bowman, Consulting Accountant, and member of staff of United States Bureau of Efficiency, Washington, D. C. J. W. Gowans, Superintendent of Public Schools, Hutchinson, Kansas. Dr. E. E. Lewis, Superintendent of Public Schools, Rockford, Illinois. George A. Works Professor of Rural Education, Cornell Uni- versity, Ithaca, New York. H. B. Peairs, Chief Supervisor of Education, United States In- dian Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D, C. Herbert C. Calhoun, Supervisor of Schools for the Five Civil- ized Tribes, U. S. Indian Service, Muskogee, Oklahoma. R. M. Spalsbury, Supervisor of Schools, U. S. Indian Service, Lawrence, Kansas. Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones, Director, Phelps-Stokes Fund, New^ York City. Miss Bertha Eckert, Secretary, Indian Department, National Board Y. W. C. A., New York City. "Walter B. Hill, State Supervisor of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Atlanta, Ga. citaptp:r f. INTRODUCTION. The Oklahoma State Leg-islature, in Special Sestsion, 1921, passed an "Act creating a Commission of Educational Survey, nam- ing the duties, providing for an educational survey of the State school system of Oklahoma and making an appropriation of twenty thousand dollars ($20,000)." The members of the Commission, appointed by Governor J. B. A. Roibertson are as follows: Robert, H. Wilson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Oklahoma City, Chairman ex-officio. George F. Southard, Enid. Charles L. Brooks, Sapulpa. J. A. Duff, Cordell. Cyrus S. Avery, Tulsa. Later, the Commission appointed J. S. Vaughan as its Executive Secretary/. The first meeting of the Commission was held at Oklahoma City on November 15th, 1921, at which time the chairman was directed to open negotiations with the U. S. Commissioner of Education. On December 10th Governor Robertson conferred with Commissdoner Tigert in Washington concerning the major problems which it is hoped the Survey, might assist in solving. After some correspond- ence, a second meeting of the Commission Avas held at Oklahoma City on January 2, 3, 1922, at which a representative of the Bureau of Education was present for conference on details) of the survey. At this meeting "a resolution was unanimously adopted by the Survey Commission inviting the Bureau of Education at Washing- ton to direst and make the Educational Survey of the State as indi- 2 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA eated by the law passed by the last session of the Oklahoma State Legislature, and that the Commission pledges whatever support it can give to the Bureau of Education in the Survey to be made." 1 (1) From letter of Secretary Vaughan to Commissioner of Education. In view of the desire of the Commission to include in the Sur- vey a study of the special problems of education for Indians in Oklahoma, the co-operation of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs was sought, through the Department of the Interior. This request was immediately granted, and Commissioner Burke desig- nated Mr. Peairs as his personal representative for this study. On January 17th, 1922, the Commissioner of Education accept- ed the invitation to make the Survey, and steps were taken at once to organize a staff of investigators. On August 21st a partial list of names was submitted to the Commissioner for approval, with the understanding that additional names would be submitted later. During the months of April and May a committee of Oklahoma educators, under the direction of the Bureau of Education, conduct- ed a series of educational tests and measurements in public schools in various parts of the State. Dean W. W. Phelan, of the Univer- sity of Oklahoma, served as chairman of this committee until his de- parture from the State, when he was succeeded by Henry D. Rins- land, director of educational research in the public schools of Ard- more. In August, 1922, Governor Robertson pledged an additional sum from contingent funds to be available, if necessary, to meet the extra expense incurred by reason of including a special study of education for Indians. THE FIELD WORK. The field work of the Survey began on October 16th, with a conference with the Commission at Oklahoma City. Conferences of the Survey Staff were held each Saturday until the close of the field work. INTRODUCTION 3 Approximately 523 days were devoted to field work by 19 members of the Survey Staff, most of the visiting being done be- tween October 16 and Novemlber 11. Schools were visited in 46 of the 77 counties of the State, as follows : Number of Counties Number of Members of Staff Visiting 1 19 2 10 1 9 2 8 2 6 2 5 5 4 8 3 6 2 17 • 1 Total number of counties visited 46 Aggregate number of visits, at least 179 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA P H Eh o o INTRODUCTION 5 THE SURVEY BUD GET. The principal items of expenditure in connection with the Sur- vey, to date, (December 11, 1922) may be summarized as foUoAvs: Transportation of 19 members of staff $ 2,648.80 Honoraria and subsistence of 13 members of the staff not connected with the U. S. Bureau of Education 8,618.00 Subsistence of 6 members of the staff from the U. S. Bureau of Education 1,536.50 Educational tests (Dean Phelan's Committee) estimated. 4,000.00 Expenses, Secretary's office, (Mr. Vaughan) estimated 4,800.00 Printing report (estimated) 2,500.00 Clerical assistance ("Washington - tabulating question- aires) 746.00 Miscellaneous expenses, supplies, etc; _ 85.11 Total :...: ;.. ...................$24,934.41 CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. OUTLINE OF POLITICAL, HISTORY. Area and Early Beginnings. Oklahoma, a word of Choctaw In- dian origin, means "Land of the Red Men." As a name for a ter- ritorial area it is said to have been first suggested by members of the Choctaw Commission to Washington for the purpose of form- ing a new treaty between that Indian nation and the United States after the close of the Civil War. Its first legal application to a political division was to the territory comprising the unassigned and certain other lands near the center of what is now the State of Oklahoma when that territory was provided with a form of govern- ment by act of Congress in 1890. Congress in 1830 (1) authorized the President to set aside (1) 4 Stat. L. 411. lands "of any territory belonging to the United States, west of the river Mississippi, not included in any State or organized territory, and to which the Indian title has been extinguished," for the pur- pose of exchange for the lands of Indians where they then resided, the intent of the act being the removal of the Red Men of the eastern States, particularly those of the southeast, to points west of the Mississippi. Four years later (2) Congress declared to be (2) Ibid., 729. "Indian country" all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi and not within the States of Missouri and Louisiana or the Territory of Arkansas. This act regulated trade with the In- dians, but set up no territorial government. The Indian tribes, which at that time were in process of settling in the West, retained their own tribal organizations. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill approv- ed May 30, 1854, fixed the 37th parallel of latitude as the southern boundary of Kansas, and thus the "Indian country" was restricted HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 7 to that part of the United States which was bounded on the east by- Missouri and Arkansas, on the north by Kansas, on the west by the Texas Panhandle, and on the south by Texas. Within the territory thus outlined the State of Oklahoma de- veloped. Speaking generally, its area originally comprised three divisions. First was the Indian Territory, which at the time of the admission of the State extended over the eastern half and was occupied by the Five Civilized Tribes and a few less important tribes whose reservations were comparatively small. The reservations of the civilized tribes — Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek and Seminole — formerly extended to the Texas Panhandle, but after the Civil War the necessity for negotiating new treaties between those Indians and the Government arose, and as a constequence their ter- ritory was curtailed, and the western section was assigned to vari- ous "plains Indians" such as the Comanche and Arapaho. This western section thus became the second division here thought of and constituted the main area of the Territory of Okla- homa as organized by Act of Congress of May 2, 1890 (1) and (1) 26 Stat. L. 81. later enlarged. In the assignment of lands to the plains Indians, an area of about 3,000 square miles near the center of the present State had been overlooked or otherwise left unassigned. This un- assigned area was opened to settlement April 22, 1889, and was soon occupied by thousands of settlers, but the people were temporarily left to govern themselves, as no legally formed government was pro- vided until the passage of the act organizing the Territory of Okla- homa the following year. By subsequent "openings" of land to settlement, including the Cherokee Outlet along the Kansas line and the Kiowa-Comanche country to the southward, the Territory of Oklahoma was enlarged until in 1901, when the "openings" were practically completed it included the entire western half of the present state. The third division was the rectangular strip about 35 miles wide and 160 miles in length lying along the north side of the Texas Panhandle. This w^as known as the "Public Land Strip" and was included in Oklahoma on the organization of that Territory, This strip is the only part of the present State which was not within the Louisiana Purchase. With other Mexican possessions north of the Rio Grande and the mouth of the Colorado, it was acquired by the S PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA United States under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. But since it lies north of latitude 36° 30', slavery could not exist there under the terms of the Missouri Compromise, and in consequence Texas, after some controversy, ceded it to the United States in 1850, Neither of the Territories of New Mexico and Kansas, w^hich were organized in 1850 and 1854, respectively, included the Public Land Strip, hence it was left outside the limits of any legally or- ganized political division and came to be popularly known as "No Man's Land." An attempt was made to organize the "Territory of Cimarron" there in 1887, but this was without legal authority. The total area of Oklahoma as made up of the three divisions described above is 70,057 square miles. The Indian Territory. The eastern half of the present State, which for a long time was popularly known as "Indian Territory," was in fact never a Territory in the ordinary sense of first organ- ization as a prospective State. It never had a full Territorial form of government such as existed in other States before their admis- sion to the Union. The Indians had their own tribal governments, sulbject of course to the authority of the United States and to treaty agreements, and all the Five Civilized Tribes, except the Seminole, had progressed so far as to have written constitutions under which executive, legislative and judicial branches of govern- mental functioning were in operation ; but for the white population which had filtered in there was little legal regulation. This condition, however, tended to change. The same act of Congress which gave a form of government to the Territory of Ok- lahoma also contained provisions affecting the Indian Territory. These provisions extended the jurisdiction of the Federal Courts in that Territory and made applicable there numerous Statutes of Arkansas. The Arkansas statutes thus made applicable related to various civil matters, such as the transfer of property, guardians and wards, marriage and divorce, and to criminal law and pro- cedure. In 1893 Congress provided for the so-called Dawes Commission, The purpose of this Commission was, in general, to make various needed adjustments in Indian affairs. The Commission settled num- erous questions of tribal relationship, arranged for the allotment of tribal lands to individuals, and adjusted many problems of the white population as well. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 9 A very important act, so far as the Indian Territory was con- cerned was that of June 28, 1898 (1), which enlarged the jurisdie- (1) 30 Stat. L. 495. tion of the Federal Courts, authorized the incorporation of towns and cities and the maintenance of schools therein, further extended the application of the Statutes of Arkansas, discontinued the en- forcement of tribal laws by the courts of the United States, abol- ished all tribal courts, and otherwise 'provided "for the protection of the people of the Indian Territory." Following this act, other legislation was enacted from time to time until the Indian govern- ments were virtually abolished and Federal laws put into operation. STATEHOOD. As there was for a decade or more continuous agitation for the opening of the unassigned lands in what came to be Oklahoma Territory, so agitation for Statehood was incessant through a rela- tively long period. Much has been said and written of the reasons why Oklahoma was so long denied admission to the Union, but with these we are not concerned here. By act of Congress approved June 16, 1906 (1), the people of Oklahoma Territory and the Indian (1) 34 Stat. L. 267. Territory were authorized to form a cons1;itution and State gov- ernment and to be admitted to the Union as the State of Oklahoma "on an equal footing with the original States." Accordingly, del- egates to a constitutional convention were elected on November 6, and soon thereafter convened and remained in session several months. Finally adjourning in July, 1907, the convention by ordin- ance submitted the constitution to the people at an election to be held on September 17 and also provided that State officers be elect- ed at the same time. The people adopted the constitution by a large majority and President Roosevelt issued a proclamation de- claring Oklahoma a State and naming November 16, 1907, as the date when the State government should be inaugurated. Thus ended the long struggle, first for the ascendency of the "White man in the Indian country, and then for Statehood along with the other 45 commonwealths of the Nation. Probably no other State had experienced so much difficulty in reaching that goal ; certainly no other State entered the Union with so large a popula- tion — nearly one and one-half mllions. The State's total popula- tion was 1,657,155 in 1910, and 2,028,283 in 1920. 10 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Aside from its entry into the Union with a large number of inhabitants, making it an important State from the 'beginning, Okla- homa presented on its admission several other notable features. Of all the States, it contains the largest and most important Indian population, the peoples of the Five Civilized Tribes being almost wholly within its borders. A second feature of note is seen in the character of its white people; few, if any, new States' have drawn their settlers from so wide an area or so many different parts of the country. The character of its development had a marked effect upon its laws, for the period of want of legally organized government in the western half and the existence of only codes of Indian laws in the east left little opportunity for the evolution of a legal system out. of the people's own experience. In consequence, when Congress finally responded to the need for a Territorial government, it was found necessary to borrow laws directly from other States; and thus a practice was begun which by no means ended with the pass- age of the "Organic Act," and which to the present time marks the State's legal system with some of the aspects of patchworli. The Oklahoma constitution attracted wide attention at the time of its adoption, not only because of certain "progressive fea- tures," as its friends doubtless regarded them, but also because of its length and the large amount of detail which it embodied. With regard to the former, it has been suggested that these merely repre- sent an effort of the people to make sure of certain guaranties by writing them into the State's organic law (1). The latter character- (1) See "Comments on the Constitution of Oklahoma," by R. L. Owen. Pro- ceedings of the American Political Science Association, 1908, p. 185. istic simply exemplifies and carries further the tendency, noticeable in this country for a third of a century or longer, to write statutory matter into constitutions. Oklahoma put a mass of detail into its constitution and then made this easy for the people to amend. INDIAN EDUCATION. The beginning of grants of land from the public domain for the endowment of the common schools represented the inauguration of the Federal Government's first policy with respect to public ed- ucation. Its second such policy is seen in the various provisions which it has made for the education of dependent peoples, including Indians. As early as Revolutionary times, the Continental Congress HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 11 made appropriations for such purposes as hiring teachers for cer- tain Indian tribes and for the instruction of Indian youth at Dart- mouth College, but the Government can hardly be said to have em- barked as early as that upon a plan of education of the Red Race. In January, 1818, the 'House Committee on Indian Affairs re- ported in favor of the "establishment of schools at convenient and safe places amongst those tribes friendly to us": (1) and on March (1) American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 151. 3, 1819, the first general appropriation for Indian education was made by Congress, (2) the appropriation then made being "the an- (2) 3 Stat. L. 516. nual sum of $10,000." By act of July 9, 1832, (3) Congress author- (3) 4 Stat. L. 564. ized the President to appoint a Commissioner of Indian Affairs who was to perform his duties under the direction of the Secretary of War, (4) and in 1834 the powers of the Indian Office were en- (4) The Indian Office remained under the Secretary of War until the organi- zation of the Department of the Interior in 1849, when it was transferred to that Department. larged. (5) Thus were made the beginnings of the Governments 's (5) 4 Stat. L. 729-38. system of Indian education which has continued to the present time. Usually, in making treaties with the various tribes and nations, the Government made some provision for the education of their chil- dren, or indicated measures looking thereto, and the appropriations made by Congress for the "education and civilization" of the Indian have been augmented from time to time until the present annual to- tal is more than $5,000,000. Even 'before the removal of the Five Civilized Tribes from their original seats in the Carolinas, Georgia, Tennessee. Alabama and Mississippi, these peoples showed considerable interest in educa- tion. This was particularly true of the Cherokee and Choctaw na- tions, which at that early time maintained a few schools of their own, or subsidized those established by missionaries. After their removal to the West, which occurred for the most part in the fif- teen-year period beginning with 1825, the Civilized Tribes continued the development of their civilization, and schools and churches were IZ PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA not infrequently seen among the other marks of advancement. But, with the devastation of the Civil w^ar, in which the Indians of the Territory were largely allied with~the Southern Confederacy, dis- aster befell them, and such educational systems as they had were practically swept away. After the close of the "War and on the conclusion of new treat- ies, however, one of the first things to. which the Tribes turned their attention was the rehaibilitation of their schools. In 1886, some 20 years after the conclusion of the post-war treaties, many schools, ■both boarding and day, were maintained. The summary given be- low shows something of the extent of educational facilities among- the Five Civilized Tribes at that time (1). (1) See Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1886. Cherokee : Tribal boarding schools 3 "Public" schools (day) 100 Mission schools (exclusive of some not reporting) 7 Choctaw : Tribal Boarding schools 3 "Public" schools (day) 146 High schools 4 Mission schools (a) Chickasaw : Tribal boarding schools 4 "Public" schools (day) 14 Mission schools (a) Creek : Tribal boarding schools 5 "Public" schools (day) 22 "Public" schools (colored) 6 Mission and private (exclusive of some not reporting) _• 6 Seminole : "Public" schools 4 Mission schools 2 (a) Some maintained but not reported. It will be noted that these schools were, in general, of two classes : First, those maintained by the tribes themselves, and sec- ond, those maintained by missionary endeavor. The tribal schools were often let out under contract to persons who agreed to conduct HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 13 them as stipulated, and on the other hand, mission schools some- times received subsidies from tribal funds. The settlement of the "plains Indians" in the western section of the Territory, which took place within the ten-year period following the clo&e of the Civil "War, led to the establishment of mission schools and Govern- ment schools for Indians at various tribal agencies of that section. Generally speaking, the policy adopted by the Federal Govern- ment was one of encouraging the tribal schools of the Indians more advanced in civilization and of providing school facilities with Government appropriations where the Indians were uncivilized or where such provision was otherwise advisable. On the organiza- tion of Oklahoma Territory in 1890 and the contemporaneous ex- tension of Federal authority in the Indian Territory, the Govern- ment's system of Indian education was continued and remained practically unchanged as to policy until the passage of the "Curtis Act" of June 28, 1898 (1). (1) 30 Stat. L. 495. This Act, to which reference hasi been made in a previous para- graph, took a long step toward the abolition of tribal governments and the consequent transference of the tribal school systems to the complete control and supervision of Federal agencies. By Act of April 26, 1906, (2) the Secretary of the Interior was authorized to (2) 24 Stat. L. 140. assume "control and direction" of the schools in the Five Civilized Tribes, "with the lands and all school property pertaining thereto," and to conduct the system until such time as a public school system should be established under a Territorial or State government, and "proper provision made thereunder for the education of the Indian children of said Tribes." Under the terms of this Act the Secre- tary immediately assumed general supervisory control of the Indian schools, and this arrangement continued until March 22, 1910, when entire charge of the schools was assumed. It should be observed that the admission of Oklahoma as a State did not materially affect the Government's system of educa- tion for the Indians. At present, the Indian children may be re- garded as falling within two general classes : Namely, those who attend the public schools of the State, and those who attend board- ing schools conducted for them by the Federal Government, the former being by far the larger number, approximately 22,000, as 14 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA compared with 3,500 in the boarding schools. Those of the former class, whether Government wards or not, are generally admitted to the piiblie schools under existing law of the State, (1) but inasmuch (1) Oklahoma Constitution, Art. 1, sec. 5. as very many do not pay taxes, the Federal authorities each year have rendered considerable pecuniary assistance to the public school districts, admitting these children. THE STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM. TERRITORIAL PERIOD. The Act of Congress of 1890 organizing the Territory of Okla- homa extended to the new Territory various laws of Nebras'ka in so far as they were ''locally applicable" and provided that these should remain in force until after the adjournment of the first ses- sion of the Territorial legislature. Thus the Oklahoma scliool sys- tem received a distinctly Western flavor at the beginning, and Western characteristics have continued to the present time. From the opening of the unassigned lands in 1889, Oklahoma Territory was settled very rapidly, and a growing need of schools was soon evident. From April 22, 1889, when the first lands were opened to settlement, to May 2, 1890, when the Territory wasi organ- ized, no legal form of government existed, and the maintenance of an adequate school system was impossible. However, schools main- tained by subscriptions or like means were organized in several of the towns. The Federal act organizing the Territory empowered the legislature to provide for a school system, reserved sections 16 and 36 in each township ''for the purpose of being applied to public schools in the State or States hereafter to be erected," and appro- priated $50,000 for the immediate use of schools to be established by the legislature. The school lands reserved by this act could not be sold, but Congress by Act of March 3, 1891, authorized their lease for the benefit of the Territorial School System. (1) (1) 26 Stat. L. 1026. The first legislature, which was in session in 1890-91, passed a detailed school law making the township the local unit of school organization, providing for a Territorial board of education and for a Territorial superintendent and county superintendents of schools, prescribing a system of certification of teachers, and otherwise setting the school system in motion under Oklahoma enactments. The township form of organization, however, remained in operation HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 15 only two years, for the new school law of 1893, which was in large measure the basis of the present school code, displaced the town- ship with the district unit of local control, and the latter has re- mained to the present time. It was in the Territorial period that the State's system of higher education had its principal beginnings. The first legisla- ture provided for the establishment of the State University at Nor- man, the Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Stillwater, and a State Normal School at Edmond. Other normal schools were es- tablished, respectively, at Alva, in 1897, and at "Weatherford, in 1901. The Colored Agricultural and Normal University at Langs- ton was established in 1897. The University Preparatory School at Tonka wa came into existence by legislative act of 1901. What may be regarded as the Territorial period in Oklahoma can hardly be applied to the Indian Territory, so far as education was concerned, for, as Ave have already seen, the w^ant there, of gov- ernmental organization other than tribal, rendered the maintenance of a proper school system for white children impossible. The "Curtis Act" of 1898, however, authorized the incorporation of town and the maintenance of town schools, and a number of schools of this character were established, but for the rural communities there was no legal provision for a public school system for white children up to the time of the State's admission. THE SCHOOLS UNDER STATEHOOD. The Act admitting the State to the Union included several important provisions relating to edacation. Forem.ost among these was the grant of sections 16 and 36 in each township oC land which had been "reserved" for school purposes by the "organic act"; but this grant did not apply to the land of the Indian reservations in the eastern part of the State. Consequently, "in lieu of sections 16 and 36 and other lands of the Indian Territory," Congress appro- priated $5,000,000 in money for the common schools o: the State and provided that this sum sliould be a part of the permanent school fund, as should also the proceeds of the sale of the school lands. For the benefit of the higher institutions, th*^ act irranted pec- tion 13 in each township of certain opened Indian reservations and of all other lands opened to settlement in the Territory of Oklahoma. These lands were allotted as follows: To the University of Okla- homa and the University Preparatory School, one-third ; to the normal schools, one-third; to the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 16 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA lege and the Colored Agricultural and Normal University, one- third. (1) A grant of section 33, previously reserved for charit- (1) For statute, see Bunn's Supplement, 191S, sec. 7660. able and penal institutions and public buildings, was made, and the legislature was authorized to apportion this grant as it saw fit (2). (2) The legislature In 1911 constituted the proceeds of these lands a "Public building fund," and educational institutions have from time to time re- ceived parts of this. A third important land grant made by the ''Enabling Act" was that "in lieu of the grant for purposes of internal improve- ment" and of swamp and overflowed lands, which was made for educational institutions. This was of certain specific amounts of land without regard to their location in townships, as follows: The University, 250,000 acres; University Preparatory School, 150,- 000 acres; Agricultural and Mechanical College, 250,000 acres; Col- ored Agricultural and Normal University, 100,000 acres ; normal schools, 300,000 acres. Moneys derived from this source came to be known as the "New college fund." Of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections, the State Depart- ment of education reported 1,413,862 acres in 1918, and according to the same report, the permanent school fund, including the Con- gressional appropriation of $5,000,000, then amounted to $12,660,- 811. The "EnaHing Act" also contained the usual provision grant- ing an amount equal to 5 per cent of the proeeeds of the sale of public lands within the State. The fund thus accruing was "to be used as a permanent fund" for the benefit of the common schools. LIMITATIONS ON TAX LEVIES. The State Constituion as adopted in 1907 contained three ar- ticles vitally affecting the school system. These were Article X, "Revenue and Taxation"; Article XI, "State and School Lands": and Article XIII, "Education". The provisions relating to taxa- tion were of the nature of maximum limitations, and school taxes were subjected to the limits thus fixed. The total permissable State levy was placed at 3 1-2 mills on an ad valorem basis, but no State tax specifically for school purposes wa's mentioned in this connection. A county tax of two mills was authoried "for county high school and aid to the common schools," HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 17 and the provision was added that not over one mill of this could be used for high school purposes. District levies, including those of town and city districts, were authorized up to 15 mills, and an additional ten-mill levy was permitted for building purposes. The legislature was empowered to provide for poll taxes on voters under 60 years of age, but has never exercised this power. An amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1913, provides for a tax on public service corporations, and directs that the proceeds' of this tax where the corporation operates in more than one county be paid into the State common school fund; but the legislature has not taken the necessary action to give effect to this amendment. In this connection, it may be noted that in 1909, (1) the legislature (1) Session Laws of 1909, ch. 38, p. 600. provided for a State school tax of one-fourth of one mill. Article XI of the Constitution accepted all grants of land and moneys made by the United States and pledged the faith of the State to preserve these lands and moneys and the proceeds of the sale of lands as a sacred trust to be used only for the purposes for which they were granted. FREE PUBLIC SCHOOLS FOR ALL CHILDREN. The article on "Education" directed the legislature to estab- lish and maintain a system of free public schools for all the chil- dren of the State, to establish and inaintain institutions for the care and education of the deaf and the blind, to provide separate schools for white and colored children, to enact school attendance legislation for children between the ages of 8 and 16, to provide for a uniform system of text books, and for instruction in the common schools in agricultural subjects and household arts. Another pro- vision of this article was one for an ex-officio State board of edu- cation to have the "supervision of instruction in the public schools" and to retain its composition as then prescribed until otherwise pro- vided by law. Some other important educational provisions of the Constitu- tion were those respectively vesting the control of the Agricultural and Mechanical College in the State Board of Agriculture, creating a board of commissioners of the Land Office to have charge of school and other State lands and of the funds derived therefrom, and providing for the popular election of a State superintendent of pub- lie instruction and a county superintendent in each county. 18 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA ORGANIZATION AND EXPANSION. The first State legislature mot in the fall of 1907, and continued in siession until the spring of 1908. This legislature enacted no very fundamental amendment of the school law as it existed under ter- ritorial government at the time of admission, but some important additions to the State's educational system as a whole were made. These included provision for the establishment of the Industrial In- stitute and College for Girls. (1) The School of Mines and Metal- (1) This institution was by Act of March 27, 1909, conditionally located at Chickasha, and in 1916, its name was changed to Oklahoma College for Women. lurgy, at Wilburton, the Oklahoma School for the Deaf, the Okla- homa School for the Blind, the Whitaker Orphans' Home at Pry or Creek, and an orphans' home for colored children. It may be noted here that, with the establishment of the college for girls and the school of mines, the system of State-supported higher institutions as they exist at present was practically com- pleted, though the normal schools at Ada, Durant and Tahlequah were not provided for until 1909. It may also be noted that, owing to the establishment of the college for girls and the school of mines after the admission of the State, these institutions received no Fed- eral land grants. Among other noteworthy enactments of the first State legisla- ture was the Act to put into force Section 7, Article XIII, of the Constitution, which requires instruction in agricultural subjects and household arts in the common schools, and to provide for the estab- lishment and maintenance of courses of such instruction in the nor- mal schools, and for the establishment of agricultural schools of sec- ondary grade in the several supreme court .judicial districts. The four district agricultural schools existing at the present time there- fore had their beginning in 1908. The act to provide for compulsory school attendance of chil- dren between the ages of 8 and 16, in accordance with section 4 of Article XTII of the Constitution, was also passed by the first State legislature. In 1909, when the second legislature was in session, an Act of March 8, 1901, authorizing the establishment of a county high school in each county of 6,000 inhabitants or more was repealed, but there was added a proviso that schools already organized under the re- pealed act should not be affected. An important bill which became HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 19 a law at this session was that "to regulate salaries and expenses of county superintendents." This provided a salary schedule for those officers, the rates of pay being 'based on the population of counties, and allowed additional amounts for clerk hire and travel- ing expenses. Other enactments of thisi legislature provided for the establish- ment of three additional State normal schools, the Eastern Univer- sity Preparatory School at Claremore, an institution for the feeble- minded, and an institution for the deaf, blind, and orphans of the colored race. Under the head of "penal institutions," the volume of session laws of 1909 contains an act establishing a "State train- ing school," an institution designed primarily for delinquent boys, 'but to which delinquent girls might be committed until such time as the board of control, with the approval of the governor, might cease to receive girls. Thus was made the beginning of the State's system of correctional institutions, of which there are now four. THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. The year 1911 was an epochal one for education in Oklahoma. The State's educational system had for a period of about five years been in the making under Statehood, and all branchesi of a system such as is generally found in other states, from the University down through teacher-training, correctional, and other special institu- tions to the common schools, had been provided for by law. There- after there was to be a period of possible expansion and develop- ment. An important feature of the legislation of this year was that the marked decentralization of control of educational institutions and affairs now begun to break down. The Act of 1911 which was most far reaching in its effect was that "To provide for a State board of education." The Constitution had created an ex-officio board to continue until otherwise provided by law. The board created by this act was to be composed of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex-officio, and six members appointed by the governor for overlapping terms of six years. In addition to having general supervision of the public schools, including the formulation of courses of study and the certification of teachers, the new board succeeded to the older board of education, the text book commis- sion, the regents of the University, the regents of the University Preparatory Schools at Tonkawa and Claremore, the board of con- trol of normal schools, the regents of the Industrial Institute and 20 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA College for Girls, the regents of the School of Mines and Metallurgy, the regents of the Colored Agricultural ana i.>orixiai «^njivorsiiy, and the boards of control of the School for the Deaf, the School for the Blind, the Boys' Training Schools, the Orphans' Home, the In- stitution for the Feeble-minded, and the Institute for the Deaf, Blind and Orphans Home for colored children. Other important acts of the legislature of 1911 included pro- vision for a bond issue of $3,000,000 in anticipation of the growth of the "Public building fund" derived from the grant of section 33 in certain townships of the western part of the State, provision for the maintenance of public libraries in cities of over 2,000 inhabit- ants, the creation of a State-aid fund to be known as the "Union graded and consolidated school fund" from the proceeds of section 33 in each township of Greer county, and an act making it the duty of district boards of consolidated districts to provide transporta- tion for pupils living 1 1-2 miles or more from school. An act of some importance in the legislation of 1913 was that which added to the "Union graded and consolidated school fund" the remainder of the "Public building fund" made up of the pro- ceeds of the grant of lands in sections numbered 33. This remaind- er was not to include amounts necessary to meet outstanding obli- gations, and the sum transferred to the imion graded and consolidat- ed fund was to be used only to assist in providing buildings in con- solidated districts. The legislature of this year also proposed two amendments designed to improve the system of school support. One of these proposals sought to empower the legislature to levy a State school tax and prescribe the manner of apportionment and to provide State aid for districts unable with a ten-mill levy to maintain school five months ; but this amendment failed when sub- mitted to the people. The second proposed amendment provided that the tax on public service corporations operating in more than one county be paid into the State distributive school fund. This was ratified by the people, but the legislature has never passed the necessary supplementary legislation. The educational legislation of 1913 required more space on the printed page than that of 1911, but one may seriously question whether it was more important. Oklahoma enacted its "new school code" in 1913, but this was marked by no especially progressive features or basic changes of any kind. Some of its important omis- sions may serve to indicate its general character. The State's share HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 21 of the burden of school support was uot increased ; the school term remained too short as under older laws; school attendance was re- quired for only 66 per cent of the term ; district boards* were left without authority to provide free textbooks for any except indigent children; provisions for schoolhouse planning and the construction of rural school houses in particular remained inadequate; high school provisions fell considerably short of the need, as shown by later enrollment; the district system of local control was. left un changed; the sections on transportation in consolidated districts merely directed the school board to furnish conveyance for pupils living more than two miles from school; the want of authority to maintain school libraries was still evident as under the older law. Coming to the year 1915, we find noteworthy acts relating to high sichools and to consolidated school districts. The former act authorized the State Superintendent to issue teachers' certificates to graduates of the district agricultural schools and fully accredit- ed high schools where the courses offered, including pedagogical training, met the approval of the Superintendent ; and thus teacher training in schools of secondary grade was encouraged. Three acts related to consolidation and transportation. By these the procedure in effecting consolidation was revised. State aid was extended to schools with two teachers; districts were auth- orized to provide conveyance for pupils under ten years of age re- siding less than two miles from school, the requirement of convey- ance for all pupils residing more than two miles being left intact; and union graded districts were authorized to provide high school work. Another act of 1915 authorized the State Superintendent to issue certificates valid for teaching in high schools to graduates of approved higher institutions of learning. The establishment of a State Training School for delinquent negro boys was author- ized in this year. At a special session of the legislature held in 1916, a ''gross production tax" was provided for. This is a tax on the produc- tion of asphalt, certain metal-bearing ores, crude oils, and natural gas. The proceeds are distributed as follows: Two-thirds for current expenses of the State government, one-sixth for roads and bridges, and one-sixth "in aid of the common schools" of the counties in which it accrues. School laws passed by the legislature of 1917 made no funda- mental change in the State's educational system, but various sub- 22 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA jects of legislation were treated. It was provided that no district maintaining school less than three months should receive any State or county school funds; and another act repealed the act of 1913 which transferred to the "Union graded and consolidated school fund" the remainder of the "Public building fund." An important act pertaining to higher education was that which authorized certain designated institutions to confer degrees and empowered the State Board of Education to approve other institutions for degree-conferring purposes. Military and athletic training was provided for in the high schools, and competitive drills and contests were authorized under the supervision of a board created for that purpose. The provisions of the "Smith Hughes Act" of congress providing for the promotion of vocation- al education in the States were assented to, and a "State Board of vocational education" was created. This legislature provided for the establishment of two more correctional institutions — one for white girls and one for colored girls. The West Oklahoma Home for White Children was also provided for in 1917, the Connell School of Agriculture being converted into this home for Orphans. SEPARATE BOARDS OF TRUSTEES PROVIDED. As the year 1911 showed a marked tendency toward central- ization of administrative control and supervision of the State's educational system, so the year 1919, showed a tendency back to- ward decentralization. For every State institution of higher learn- ing, excepting the Agricultural and Mechanical College, which re- mained under the State Board of Agriculture and the normal schools which the State Board of Education retained, a separate board of regents was created; and the Oklahoma Military Acad- emy (1) and the School of Mines at Miami which were established (1) Prior to this time, the Eastern University Preparatory School. in this year were each provided with its o^vn administrative board, as was also the University Preparatory School at Tonkawa. Nor did decentralization stop with the higher or academic institutions. a "board of managers" was created to have the "general manage- ment and supervision" of the State's four correctional institutions, the two orphans' homes for white children, and the Deaf, Blind and Orphans Home for Colored Children. As a last step in the decentralizing process the State Board of Public Affairs was made the board of control of the Institution for the Feeble-Minded. Thus the State Board of Education, which had for eight years ex- HISTORICAL. BACKGROUND 23 ■ercised general administrative control over the State's entire sys- tem of educational institutions, was now left with only the normal schools and the schools for the blind and the deaf white children. Legislation of 1919 which affected the public schools was like- wise important; some new phases of legislation appeared at this time. One of the most important acts of the new group was that relating to the construction of school buildings. It fixed certain standards and provided that ajl school houses costing more than $400 must conform to those standards. The State Superintendent was directed to prepare and furnish plans in accordance with this. act. Other acts of 1919, which are noteworthy as presenting new phases of legislation in this State, were the teachers' pension law^ providing a State teachers' retirement and disability fund, and the continuation school law, requiring certain districts to main- tain part-time schools or classics, and making attendance thereon compusory for employed minors between 16 and 18 years of age and with educational qualification below two years of high school work. A compulsory attendance law of this year requires attend- ance of minors between the ages of 16 and 18 unless they have completed the work of the eighth grade and are lawfully employed or unless the work of the high school has been completed, but this law requires attendance for only two-thirds of the term. The County high school again made its appearance in Okla- homa law in 1919. An act of that year authorized any county having scholastic population less than 2,000 to establish and main- tain a high school. The State's system of aid to rural schools was temporarily improved in 1919 when the legislature provided out of general State funds additional aid amounting to $100,000 for each of the fiscal years, 1920 and 1921. An appropriation of $185,000 for the same purpose was made by the legislature of 1921 for the fiscal year ending on June 30 of that calendar year, but with the allow- ance then extended this source of State aid for rural education was discontinued. With the adjournment of the legislature of 1919, the Okla- homa educational system, as constituted at present was practically completed, for the legislature of 1921 effected nothing fundament- al in the system. The Panhandle Agricultural Institute at Good- well was raised to junior college grade, and a few other acts of 24 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA some importance was passed, but on the whole tne legislature left the schools about as it found them. A constitutional amendment proposed by this legislature would raise from 15 to 25 mills the permissible district levy for school maintenance, but the Governor has not as yet (July 1922) submitted this amendment to a vote of the people. PRESENT SYSTEM IN PERSPECTIVE. After tracing the development of the Oklahoma education^* system, the following general observations are suggested : 1. The system is not homogeneous. As one studies educa- tion in Oklahoma, the impression comes that many of its parts *'just happened that way," or that they came into existence as matters of expediency. True, the State has had a varied career particularly in the days when it was merely the Indian Territory, "No Man's Land" and what not; and its population comes from various races and various lands, but with 15 years of Statehood now in history, the State's School system still displays a want of homogenity that is hardly less than subsersive of the best in educa- tional provision. 2. Closely related to this want is the palpable absence of 'Consistency of educational policy. As an example of this, note the trend toward centralization of educational control in 1911, .and th,e very opposite trend eight years later. Another example is seen in the embarkation upon a policy of maintaining district agricultural schools of secondary grade, and the conversion later of two of these schools into institutions of other types; and still another, in the adoption by the people of a constitutional amend- ment applying to the schools the proceeds of a tax on public ser- vice corporations, and the subsequent failure of the legislature to make this tax available for the .schools. 3. Oklahoma is one of the few States in whieh the State as :such contributes very little toward the maintenance of its common schools. Of the total school funds provided by State, counties, ;and local districts, the State's contribution is only about 31-3 per >cent. And when Federal contribution is considered, it is found that the National Government is paying, through land and money grants heretofore made, more than three times as much as the State itself pays for common school education within its borders. This comparison is only the more striking when it is remembered that at leasit three well defined efforts have been made in Okla- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 25 homa to increase the State's share of the burden of public school support, and all of these have come to naught. 4. The district system of local school administration is seen in Oklahoma in its strongest form. Both the power of control and the burden of support lie heavily on the district. With respect to control, every local community is allowed wide discretion. Dis- trict taxes are limited as to the maximum rate, hut no minimum is fixed, and in consequence a district may provide a very short school term, in fact, may receive State funds for a term as short as three months and niggardliness may be evinced in other ways. No coun- ty board is given adminisitrative functions in connection with the common schools ; and districts, far from being required to perform certain important functions as in some other States, are not even authorized by law to perform them. For example, free textbooks for other than indigent pupils, and the proper care of the health of the school child, are not provided for by law. As regards school support, the local community in Oklahoma is paying about 80 per cent of the total cost of its school, and as a result inequality of educational opportunity obtains in the State. 5. It has been seen that the Oklahoma Constitution contains numerous provisions that might have been left to statutory law. Among these, as many authorities on school administration would hold, is the provision for the popular election of the State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, and county superintendents in the counties. Under the Oklahoma plan, the State Superintendent, an of- • ficer elected by popular vote, and therefore subject to the hazards and influences of partisan politics, is president of the State board of education and head of the State's educational system. County superintendents, likewise elected and amenable to political vicissi- tudes, have no county administrative boards associated with them. The State's plan of school administration is, therefore, open to crit- icism as lacking proper organization and co-ordination. Under the circumstances, the Oklahoma school system is prob- ably as good as should have been expected; that it is not so good as the people of a large and promising State should wish is shown in other parts of this report. CHAPTER III. PKOBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS. THE PRESENT SITUATION. No one realizes better than the citizens of Oklahoma them- selves that the financial situation of the pu'blic schools is far from satisfactory. In 1920 the people of Oklahoma voted on a pro- posed amendment to the Constitution which would have authorized the State Board of Equalization to levy not to exceed six mills tax on all property of the State for the support of the public schools. This amendment was defeated. In 1922 an effort was made to raise the present constitutional limit of 15 mills to 25 mills. This amendment was lost. What is the present situation? From every part of the State come reports of inadequate funds, shortened school terms, underpaid and untrained teachers. Over against these conditions is placed the fact that Oklahoma's expenditures for public schools during the last decade have risen by leaps and bounds. In 1910 Oklahoma spent approximately $6,700,000 for public schools. In 1920 she spent more than three times as much ; namely, $22,900,000. In 1910 she spent approximately $16 for each child enrolled in school; in 1920, approximately $39. In 1910 she had invested in school property approximately $13,000,000 in 1920, nearly $36,000,000. Figure 2, which follows, shows, in a concrete way how enor- mous this increase in investment and expenditures has actually been. Table 1 shows the same facts in a somewhat different form, together with the per cent of im-rease in each item. 26 PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 27 8 o o o o' m «> o o o o* 8 o o u5 4 C) '^ o -J s s < s H > "^ ^ IX -r U ± a i^c^ 8 o o o o o o o C5 o o o* m c ■9 8 o' o o 8 u D h O Z u a J < D Z Z < § Si§ m J O O X. J <-' ^^ o o o o 8- o o o o K Z "* u ~ - z Su u a < X a o (2 O o o 28 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE 1. Oklahoma's Increase in Expenditure and Investment for Public Schools. 1910—1920 Expenditure Value of Public School Property Year Total Per child Total Per child i ! enrolled enrolled 1920 $22,906,219 ' $38.87 $35,895,481 $61.00 1910 : 6,739,216 ' 15.95 13,310,040 32.00 Increase- _$i6,167,003 $22.92 $22,585,441 $29.00 Per cent of Increase-- 239.9 143.7 169.7 90.6 I^atio of 1920 to 1910 3.40 2.43 2.70 1^1 For every dollar which Oklahoma spent on Public Schools in 1910 she spent $3.40 in 1920. For every dollar which Oklahoma invested in Public School prop- erty in 1910 she had $2.70 invested in 1920. ABILITY VERSUS EFFORT TO PROVIDE SCHOOLS. Table 3, which follows, shows for the year 1920-21 how much Oklahoma spent for all types of public schools, rural and city, col- ored and white, together with her expenditures for maintaining the State Department of Education, Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, and county superintendents. It should be noted that many of the expenditures included in these last three items do not appear in the amounts shown in the bienniel reports of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The salaries and expensesi of county superin- tendents are paid out of the county general funds, not out of the school funds. A number of appropriations made to the State Board of Education, as well as funds derived from private sources, such as the General Education Board and Rosenwald Fund, are not in- cluded in the ordinary statements. In table 3, however, all money's , devoted to public schools, from whatever source derived, are in- cluded. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 29 TABLE 2. Public School Expenditures in Oklahoma. 1920 - 1921 All schools, rural and city, colored and white; and all superintendents' offices, state, county and city. Elementary High Amount Per cent General control $ 1,026,449.72 3.76 Instructional Service $13,871,477.17 .$3,045,837.13 16,917,314.30 53.83 Operation of Plant 1,492,060.13 345,897.95 1,837,958.08 5.84 Maintenance of Plant 1,272,287.03 195,883.40 1,468,170.43 4.71 Fixed Charges: Rent & Insurance 263,370.22 50,077.99 313,448.21 .99 Capital Outlay 2,149,924.72 1,856,956.21 4,006,880.93 12.75 Auxiliary Agencies — __ 762,657.01 200,992.73 963,649.74 3.16 Total $26,778,094.64 Debt s.ervice (Int. and reserve) 4,642,136.84 14.96 Grand Total $31,420,231.48 100.00 ABILITY VERSUS EFFORT TO PROVIDE SCHOOLS. Figure 2 and the two preceding tables show not only that Ok- lahoma is spending a large amount of money for public schools, but that she has made vast increase in expenditures during the last eleven years. In view of the unsatisfactoriness of the situation and the conditions now confronting hundreds and hundreds of dis- tricts throughout the State, a question far more important than how much Oklahoma has increased her expenditures for public schools is how does the amount compare with her ability to provide school revenue. Is the financial crisis which the public schools are facing inevitable? Is Oklahoma exerting herself to the full meas- ure of her ability? The ability of a State, a county, or a district to provide schools does not depend chiefly upon its total assessed valuation. If two districts each have a valuation of $20,000, and one of these districts has to educate 50 children, and the other, 150 children, it is easy to see it would be very unfair to consider them equally able to pro- vide schools of the same standard. One of these districts ought to pro- vide at least two teachers, the other, at least six, allowing twenty- 30 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA five pupils per teacher. For this reason, it is customary to take as the measure of the ability of a State, a county, or a school district to provide schools its wealth per child. We may regard the wealth of the state, county or district as a bank account upon which it may draw for the support of public schools, and the wealth per child as the bank account upon which it may draw for the education of each child. OKLAHOMA COMPARED WITH OTHER STATES. One way of answering the question whether Oklahoma is exert- ing herself in proportion to her abilit}^ is to compare her with other States. In making such a comparison it would, of course, be thor- oughly unsound to take the assessed valuation as a measure, for in some States the assessed valuation represents the actual selling price. (That is, 100 per cent of the true valuation) of property. In other States property is assessed at 60 per cent, and in still others at 30 per cent, and even 20 per cent of true value. For this reason we shall take the estimated true wealth per child of school age as a measure of ability. As a measure of effort we shall take the amount expended for public schools on each $1,000 of true estimated wealth. STATES SELECTED FOR COMPARISON The question at once arises, with which States in the Union ought Oklahoma to be compared? Oklahoma entered the LTnion less than twenty years ago, and was given a vast endowment in lands and moneys, for supporting public schools. This endowment has steadily increased. Moreover, from the start she has believed whole heartedly in public, universal education, and has had no battle to fight against organized opposi- tion to the public school idea. In view of all these facts, we may say that there is only one satisfactory basis upon which we may make our selection of States for comparison : Namely, ability to provide school revenues, as represented by estimated true wealth per child, 5 to 18 years of age. On this nasis Oklahoma ranks twelfth. Professor F. F. Blachly of the University of Oklahoma in his monogj-apli The Financial System of the State of Oklahoma, Chajjter 1, shows that Oklahoma ranks fourth as to estimated wealth per capita of total population and that 25 States had a greater net debt per capita. In Table 3, which follows, Oklahoma is compared with six other States which rank respectively, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18, as to estimated true wealth per school child. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 31 o v. .S"S So" fi ■^■o S « g S >-rtS C~ T-tTHT-lrHrHrHrH o as L - c 3 as rt cs o > (0 O I- o o o 3 0) "O tak ion, W •M CM M n o c — o o ■- o 3 a (0 03 1< 5< a _ > re 3 W ., c M o= oooooo© -^j- f^ M „ tao u. °* cm' t-: cc t>: ?o CO !>: o „, O » o 3 oa r ■ w- w H C^ K S S""' C0C--05OCD5C100 IM^^rQ ^ 1^ g 5 ii "3 „.^^ 25 N M^-a -^Iw Wg-gS^^SS U5 « °° ^. ^ =? -1 «=. .«S ►Jo -a Mo M Sf-^-s = o S""* '-' =^ " ^ "^ '^ ■" "c 2 cdj 3— oot-«5Mc--*t~ 3"- ^ yCSS 3 = 5 rt ,-( ,1 rt rH 3 • 1 g S « 2 £ I a I ^ s 2 ^ w og§ai;2;^^;2;5e 33 3ii^5 32 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA From Table 3 we see that in the group of seven States, among which Oklahoma ranks first as to ability to provide school revenues, she ranks seventh as to the effort she is making ; seventh as to the amount of money she is expending on each child enrolled ; seventh as to the per cent of population 5-18 years of age, who are attending school; and seventh as to the average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled. In all these respects she ranks at the very bottom of the scale. Indeed, she ranks lowest in every item except one; namely, the average annual salary of teachers, and in this re- spect she ranks next to the lowest. It is evident that, in proportion to her ability, Oklahoma is mak- ing far less effort than other States in the Union with which she ought to be compared. Let it he borne in mind that every State with which we have compared her ranks lower in ability, as well as high- er in effort and results. Let us now ask the same question regard- ing Oklahoma when compared with the United States as a whole. Table 4 answers this question. TABLE 4. Where Oklahoma Stands Among- the 48 States as to Ability, Effort, and Results (1920) Ability Rank in United States. Estimated true wealth Per child (a) $12,468 12 Per capita (b) 3,821 14 Effort Expenditure for Education for each $1,000 « of the estimated true wealth 2.88 42 Amount expended per child enrolled 38.87 34 Value of school property per child enrolled, 5-18 years 61.00 37 Results Rank in United States Per cent of population, 5-18 years attending schools 72.5 33 Per cent of enrollment in average daily at- tendance 60.4 48 Average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled 100.5 38 (a) 5-18 years. (b) Total population, 1919. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 33 From Table 4 we see that whereas Oklahoma ranks twelfth in the United States with respect to her abilitj^ to provide school rev- enue, she ranks forty-second as to her expenditure for each $1,000 of estimated true wealth ; thirty-fourth as to the amount which she expends per child enrolled; and thirty-seventh as to the value of her school property per child enrolled. In education, as in other stable enterprises, we get what we pay for. This statement is borne out by the results which Oklahoma secures, for we discover that with respect to the percent of population which is attending school she ranks thirty-third in the Union ; thirty-eighth as to the average number of days attended by each pupil; and forty-eighth, or lowest, as to the per cent of enrollment which is in average daily attendance. EQUALITY IN EDUCATION. Every great American Democrat, from Thomas Jefferson to Woodrow Wilson, has insisted that without a system of free uni- versal education, democracy is doomed. Equality in education is a brief, but accurate statement of the supreme educational purpose of every State in our union. Even approximate equality in education can never be secured throughout a State, until school revenues, and school burdens are equalized. The extent to which school revenues are equalized will depend upon at least three things : First, the equality in ability of the local units which furnish the revenues (In Oklahoma districts and Coun- ties) ; Second, the comparative effort made by such local units to provide revenues; and, third, the extent to which the State evens out inequalities in ability and effort existing among the local units. "We must pause, therefore, at this point to consider briefly the situation with regard to these factors in Oklahoma. CONDITIONS IN NINE REPRESENTATIVE COUNTIES. In order to gain an accurate idea of the actual conditions an intensive study was made of nine representative counties. These counties were selected on the basis of their ability to provide school revenues ; i. e., on a basis of wealth per school child in average daily attendance. The counties selected include the three richest, three poorest, and three of middle rank, as measured by their wealth per child. s. s. 2 34 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Table 5 shows the nine counties selected, the wealth per child, and the rank of each county among Oklahoma's 77 counties on the basis selected. TABLE 5. Nine Representative Oklahoma Counties. (Selection based on ability to provide school revenues.) Wealth Per Child or Ability to Provide Schools. Rank among State's 77 County Amount Counties Cimarron ^1^10,039.00 1 Grant 9,022.00 2 Alfalfa 7,268.00 3 Cotton 3,985.00^ , 38 Kiowa 3,571.00 39 Carter 3,284.00 40 LeFlore 2,233.00 75 McCurtain 1,982.00 • 76 Haskell 1,590.00 77 Table 5 shows us that Cimarron County is more than five times as able to provide school revenues as McCurtain, six times as able as Haskell, and nearly three times as able as Kiowa. In view of these, and other wide variations revealed by Table 5, it would be reason- able to expect that the expenditures for public schools would vary widely also. This expectation is borne out by the facts, thus: Whereas, Cimarron County spends $97.00 for every child in average daily at- tendance: IMcCurtain County and Haskell spends approximately $35.00; Carter County $71.00; Kiowa County $43.00; and Cotton County $40.00. It would seem reasonable, also, to assume that the expenditure for public schools in various counties would be directly proportioned to their wealth. How far this is from being the case is discovered as soon asi we turn our attention to this point. Thus, Carter Coun- ty, which in our group of nine, ranks sixth as to ability, ranks fourth as to its expenditure per child; Grant County which ranks second as to ability, ranks third in expenditures, and is almost equaled by Carter County. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 35 O O o U z z u I- u < u CC h LJ Z - < -1 O (O u ■— ' a u t Z 5 " z u a x: u r < > ■■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •J 51 ■ 1 |C= mil £ 03 c II «3 f_ ■ ^Bi ^ «J t^ 1 ^ L^ C-; ^-1 CO V ■ I^B « ^1 — g ^.fl ■ m S C^ Qd h u z u n (O < a V u H P:: _l u ta z < Z o o o o o o o o o o o O' o o C) o c_> (3 o o o o o o o o o ' — t o OS cCJ (-'■ o lO" ^ ^ o o 9 o o o «o — v ^ nil c u I i-i u i: pel «ft In Figure 4 we have two upright bars for each county. The first of these bars represent the county's wealth per child in average daily attendance; i. e., it's ability to provide school revenues. The second bar represents the average school tax levied by the district within the county. From Figure 4 we see that, with the exception of Cimarron County and Carter County as ability (i.e. wealth) decreases effort (i. e. the average tax rate) increases. The situation in Carter Coun- ty is due to the fact that she receives, from the gross production tax on oil, nearly $15.00 per child. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 37 o o o ^ o ^ f" o Q g^ -J -J :> Q CO cr> ■u C in s c ^ a. y: p ■D 1— ' 1~- c . M Cu ;^ § R .^ ^r CvJ 8 ..• < S Q X < o o Q o o 8 o 8 o § o o 8 g g s ^ n S' o' PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 41 TABLE 6. Oklahoma Counties Arranged in Nine Groups on Basis of Valuation Together with Average District Tax Rate Levied by Common School Districts in Each Group. Typical Valuation Average per Child District Number of of Counties Tax Rate Group Counties in Group A (Mills) 1 1 (Garfield) $7,200 3.7 2 6 6,500 5.1 3 13 5,200 6.4 4 7 4,600 9.5 5 12 4,500 7.4 6 8 3,800 8.6 . 7 21 3,200 11.8 8 7 2,600 10.5 9 2 2,200 14.5 (A) Valuation employed here is the approximate median valuation. Figure 7 shows that whereas the richest rural district in Grant County has $82,000 back of each school child, the poorest has only $3,000. In 1922 the richest district in this county levied a tax of 5 mills; the poorest levied a tax of more than 9 mills. In Ejowa County the richest district has back of each child $20,000 and levies a tax of less than 5 mills ; the poorest has back of each child only $2,000 and levies a tax of 15 mills. It is in Haskell County again where we find the heaviest tax rate levied. The richest district in Haskell County has back of each child only .$7,000, yet, levies a tax of 21 mills ; the poorest has back of each child only $1,000, yet, levies a tax of 16 mills. It is unnecessary to prolong our discussion of Figure 7, the facts are too evident to need enlarging upon. Attention, however, may w^ll be called to at least one more sit- uation. The richest district in Grant County is eighty-two times as able to provide school revenues, as the poorest in Haskell County, yet, it levies a tax of less than one-third the rate levied liy this poor- -est of all districts. 42 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA u «J ^ Q § l- H < >] < Q u SO ^D 1 q; a u H •n Ifi c D -S5 c = U a Cb g (O a; u (SJ "S u a (VI c^ u o <0 1 X NJ -a < < G^ c ^§ 3 ^ E .< SjcvJ ^Q I 915 in o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^' 1 « 1^ CO §1 «* o^^^^^H , 1^^ f 8| |L -H. o| ■^ -1 S| iHlri^H^^^H^^^^^^BMl • 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (O £i • i^ r, . w .■52 _J < -^r" ^ Q n Si In ^ < tH a c2 f2 >- s: ^ t c .0 1 fi:. a C tn 3 c cd VaJ Child t- u ■n t. Qi r^ b _' in u < c i2 o o o o o ac. CJ rt » o :;3 g K S iS '-i^ ■« <1 " '-*" '^ <^ ^ t-" '^ -2 CO 00 2 - C0rH-a<00C^ ^ 33 '"' d o w S "•^ "^ V s "^ ■- >> '^ .««■ o .2 M -c — Ph Z c t. g , J? o ^ ^ WQ 3-j;Qc S-^fioio ooin «o ■<< ^ §. t- ^'2 s «-i CO c pq -t t/j ogs~'Lr5mco'^u:>uocoi-': Ohh o5-'''-l'-l'-lrHrHrHC-J'-i 72 ^ tj^ in 5--i3 CO «o t- l-H 00 CO oi _CSS 5 — OcO(MO5 rn" iH «0tD0V0vr-C-C<105 i"^"OiiH oe Miam Anads Helen 60 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA From Table 14 we see that Helena, which in 1922 levied a total district tax rate of 23.5 mills and expended nearly $65 per school child, receives from the State only $1.80 per child in average daily attendance; whereas. Wagoner which levied 10 mills' less (13 mills), spends only $44.42 per child, receiving $2.55 from the State. A comparison' of Walters with Vinita and Ramona Avill shoAV still further the unfairness of Oklahoma's method of distributing State aid. Walters levies a total tax of more than 19.3 mills, but is able to spend not quite $39 per child. Vinita, which levies 16.2 mills, is able to spend nearly $100 and Ramona whose total tax is only 15 mills spends $163 per child. Yet the amount of State aid per child in average daily attendance received by Ramona and by Vinita is larger than that received by Walters. DECREASING SHARE OF SCHOOL BURDEN BORNE BY THE STATE. Previous paragraphs have shown that one of the chief causes of inadequate school funds and inequalities in Oklahoma is the dis- trict system. This system throws the responsibility of providing school revenues upon units so absolutely unequal in wealth, not to mention educational zeal, that it is humanly impossible for them ever to provide equal school funds. Worse still is the situation which we find in the poorest districts where even taxes exceeding the lawful limits do not provide adequate revenues. Not only is Oklahoma today throwing the major portion of her school burden upon these the most unequal of all possible units, but the tendency throughout her history has been for the State to contribute a less and less proportion of the school funds and thus to force the dis- tricts to assume a heavier and heavier burden. Thus we find that, whereas, in 1910 the State furnished $16 out of every $100 provided for schools, in 1920 she provided only $3.20. Again, whereas, in 1910 the districts furnished only $76 out of every $100, in 1920 they furnished $80.40 while the counties furnished $12.10, thus making the total furnished by local units, counties and districts $92.50. We frequently hear citizens complain over the vast increases in the school moneys furnished by the State. It is true that the amount which the State has furnished ha^ steadily increased, but this amount has failed increasingly to keep pace with the enormous in- PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 61 creases in sichool expenditure, and particularly with the increases in the school moneys furnished by the local units, districts and counties. The story of this declining importance of the State as a provider of public school revenue in Oklahoma is shown by Figure 11 which follows. Proportion or Oklahoma School Durdcns Dorne: by Local Unit3 (Districts and Counties) and by thl 5tatl 1910-19£0 1910 1920 Inequality in Ability or Oklahoma Countieis TO Support Schools [9n-[9lL FIGURE 11. There is no reason to believe that school costs in Oklahoma will increase any less rapidly in the future than they have in the past. Indeed, all the facts before us leave no room to doubt that if Okla- homa is in any sense to measure up to the other States with which her wealth compares she must increase her school expenditure many times. If she is to do away with short school terms, under-trained teachers, and a multitude of other evils she must spend many times the money which she is at present expending. That she is able to do this was made evident in Table 4. Table 4 showed that, whereas, Oklahoma is exceeded by only eleven States in the Union as to ability to provide school revenues, she is exceeded by forty-one with respect to the amount of money she is spending for each $1,000 of her wealth. One of the most important questions which Oklahoma must face when she undertakes to pro- vide these increased revenues is, where shall the money come from. 62 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA To attempt in the future to continue the policy of depending upon school districts for the major proportion of school revenues, can lead only to inequalities and to failures even greater than those which mark the present situation. It is absolutely essential that Oklahoma adopt as her local unit from which to derive school rev- enues, one far more capable than the district of equalizing school funds. That the county is such a unit has already been shown. "We have also pointed out definitely how the county would do this. Let us now ask to what extent will the adoption of the county unit result in equalizing school revenues throughout the State and in equalizing school burdens and educational opportunities. WILL THE COUNTY ITNIT EQUALIZE EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA? There can be no doubt as to the great superiority of the county over the district as the unit of local organization and support for public schools. Nevertheless, facts already presented have shown that the counties of Oklahoma are very unequal in wealth and conse- quentlj^ very unequal in their ability to provide school revenue. However much Oklahoma may improve her educational situation by abolishing school districts and establishing the county as the local unit, flagrant and disastrous inequalities will continue as long as the schools of Oklahoma are obliged to depend upon local units, even though these units be counties for the major portion of their sup- port. Neither the county nor any other local unit which might be devised can equalize school revenues, school burdens, and educa- tional opportunities. The State and only the State can do this. The truth of this assertion becomes increasingly evident the mom- ent wp survey Oklahoma's seventy-seven counties as is done in Figure 11. Figure 11 shows the seventy-seven counties of Oklahoma ar- ranged in nine groups. The first of the columns at the left indi- cates the number of counties included in each of the nine groups; the second column, the per cent of Oklahoma's total enumeration included in the total number of counties in each group. The third column shows the valuation per child enumerated in the richest and in the poorest county in each group. Tliis is further repre- sented by the bars composing the figure. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 63 Incquality in Ability or Oklahoma Countieis TO Support Schools 19^1-19^2. Number Ftercznt of Counriej of in Oroup Total enumeration Valuation per Child flnum- crated *0 -Counties in Nine Groups- Richest and Pooresf County in Lacb Group '1,000 ^£,000 * 3.000 ^4.000 ^5,000 ^6000 ^TOOO 11 11 14 16 15 15 15 HL ■»a407 4.769 4,415 4. DO 4.050 3.794 3.116 2.997 £.507 1.71(0 £.007 1.937 1.533 1.497 1.037 965 905 _L *0 •«1000 ■8£000 ^3.000 •*4.000 *5,000 *6,000 *7,000 FIGURE 12. EXTREMES OF INEQUALITY AMONG THE COUNTIES. Figure 12 shows us that the richest county in the State is more than seven times as able to provide school revenue as the poorest county in the State. Of all the children in Oklahoma, 74 per cent live in counties where the valuation back of each child enumerated is less than $3,000 ; 44 per cent live in counties where the valuation is less than $2,000 ; 26 per cent live in counties where the valuation back of each child enumerated reaches from $3,000 to $6,000. See Figure 13. The impossibility of ever equalizing .school revenues by setting up as the source from which the major portion of school funds is to be secured, units as unequal in wealth as the counties of Oklahoma, is too evident to require additional comment. No further argument should be necessary to convince every citizen of Oklahoma that even the abolition of the district and the establishment, in its place, of the county unit, although it will be a most important step in the right direction, will never equalize school revenues. Neither school 64 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA burdens nor educational opportunities will ever be equalized as long as Oklahoma depends for the greater part of her public school rev- enue upon local units of any sort. The State and only the State will ever be able to bring about such equalization. Mow Oklahoma Dividcs her School Rcvcnuc^ 26% or OKLAHOMAb School Moncy 60C5 TO 16% or HER CHILDREN The3<2 children live in ,5fx oounrfcs: AlRalfo CnzeK Oklahoma Okmulgee Obo^ Tulsa FIGURE 13. PROBLEMS OF PINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 65 PUBLIC EDUCATION IS A FUNCTION OF THE STATE. PUBLIC SCHOOLS ARE STATE INSTITUTIONS. Public education is a function of the State, and public schools are State, not local, institutions. This declaration is not based upon theory, for the matter has been tested in the supreme court, and the court has ruled that public schools are State institutions, and that the powers exercised by local units are distinctly delegated powers. The wealth within a State available for taxation for the support of public schools belongs to the State, i. e., to all the children of the State. The district system is an inheritance from colonial days when schools were regarded, controlled, and supported as local charit- able and semi-church institutions. That day is past, and Okla- h()]na should free herself from the shackles of a system' which makes equality of educational opportunity impossible. Equality of educational, opportunity for all the children of the entire State, and equality of school burdens sustained by lo- cal scliool units, the counties, and the districts, constitute a brief but correct statement of the aim underlying general, that is State and county, aid. Equality implies much more than universal education and State-wide equality in the length of the school year. It means equality of conditions under which children study and play. It means trained teachers, and healthful, well-equipped, inviting schoolhouses and yards, equality in the scope, vitality and richness of studies. The only possibility of approaching equality in this broad sense lies partly in proper organization and administration of school units, and partly in equality of school support. Equality in school support means equal distribution of economic responsibility and economic power. Such economic equality can come only if the amount of aid granted to the school unit is determined on the basis of the ability (i. e., the financial resources) and the effort of this unit. WHAT SHARE OF THE SCHOOL BURDEN SHOULD BE BORNE BY THE STATE? Equality in educational opportunity will never be secured until the schools cease to be in the last analysis, both from the standpoint of control and from the standpoint of support, dominantly local in- stitutions and until the State provides, supports, and directs those s. s. 3 66 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA factors upon which equality primarily depends, and which may, therefore, be termed the minimum essentials of educational equality. "What, now. are the factors which to the largest degree make the educational opportunities offered within the various communities of a State equal or unequal? Without a moment's hesitation we answer: The number and quality of teachers employed, the length of school term, the effectiveness of general administration and su- pervision, and the quality and adequacy of the apparatus directly related to instruction, including especially such materials as text- books. It is well known that teachers' wages constitute the largest single item of school expenditure in every community and, also, that as is the teacher so is the school. Studies made in comparative- ly recent times have shown further that the quality of instruction is largely determined by the quality of supervision. Place upon the State the responsibility of furnishing funds to provide every school with enough money to pay a minimum salary to every teach- er for an entire school year of uniform length, such minimum vary- ing with the qualifications of the individual teacher and further, place upon the State the responsibility of providing the materials directly related to instruction, and the moneys necessary to guar- antee the scientific supervision of every school — and existing edu- cational inequalities will be rapidly evened out. Let us now turn directly to the question, what proportion of total school revenue will the State be required to provide under this proposed plan, and what proportion will be furnished by the local school units? We can best answer this question by finding out Mdiat per cent of the total annual expenditure for public schools is devoted to the items just named. For this purpose we may consider the United States as a whole, and California, a State whose standards with respect to teachers' salaries are exceeded by none and a State, moreover which furnishes free textbooks. In 1915, practically 60 per cent of the total school costs in the United States were de- voted to teachers' salaries and textbooks; in California approxi- mately 55 per cent. In 1918, the per cents were, respectively, 58 for the United States ; 61 for California. In 1920, California devoted a little less than 63 per cent of her total school revenues to teachers' salaries and textbooks. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 67 In general, we may say that from 60 to 65 per cent of total school costs, would, under normal conditions, be devoted to teachers' salaries and textbooks. Were we to add to these items the costs of adequate supervision and apparatus, other than textbooks, directly related to instruction, the per cent would probably range from 65 to 70; In any case, the proportion will vary from year to year and from community to community and consequently must be de- termined from time to time. The first step which the State must take is to determine the amount Avhich she will provide for each teaching position or each unit of full attendance, and then adopt ways and means of insuring this annually to the schools. If Oklahoma is not yet ready to go as far as the present report advises, which is to place upon the State from 65 to 70 per cent of the burden, then let her adopt such a policy as California has effectively carried on for many years and which has placed her among the very first States of the Union educationally. This policy, as we have already stated, guarantees $1,400 a year to every ele- mentary teaching position in the State, $700 from State sources and $700 from county sources. ESTABLISH AN INTERIM COMMISSION ON SCHOOL FINANCE. Oklahoma should provide for the establishment of an interim legislative commission on school finance, one of whose functions shall be to determine as nearly as possible the amount of money needed during the next biennium to pay the State's share of the costs of teachers' salaries, free textbooks, supervision, and other projects to be financed by the State. Such a commission should report this amount to the legislature at each session, and the legis- lature should fortliAvith take steps to provide the necessary revenue. It should be understood that the policy proposed here would not prevent counties from paying salaries above the minima fixed by the State where the electors of the county or the county school board should determine this to be advisable. In fact, the State should pro- vide a fund for subsidizing counties which employ teachers whose qualifications exceed the minima set by the State Board of Edu- cation. Massachusetts has clearly shown what excellent results may be accomplished from such a policy. 68 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA WHERE SHALL STATE SCHOOL MONEYS COME FROM? Any x^roposal to have the State furnish out of State funds from 65 to 70 per cent of the total revenue needed for the support of public schools at once raises the question from what sources shall the State derive these funds. Oklahoma has long had the reputation, both within her own borders and throughout the United States, of being possessed of a magnificant endowment for public schools, consisting of lands and moneys granted to her by the federal government at the time of her admission into the Union. At the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 1921, this endowment amounted to approximately twenty-nine million dollars, as is shown by Table 3. Far more important than the value of Oklahoma's endow- ment is the question whether the per cent of the total school revenue derived from this endowment is increasing, or decreasing. In other words, the question can Oklahoma depend more and more upon this endowment, or must she depend less and less upon it? According to the data reported by the United States Bureau of Education in 1910, out of every $100 provided in Oklahoma for public schools $15.80 was furnished by the State. Not all, but by far the major portion, of this amount was derived from the per- manent school fund. In 1915 the permanent school fund furnished approximately $12 out of every $100 of public school revenue, and in 1920, $3.20. In view o:^ these facts it is evident that if the State is to furnish an increasing proportion of the total school revenue this increase is not to be derived from the permanent school fund. Let us now consider from what other sources Oklahoma might de- rive school revenue, A STATE TAX, OR LEGISLATIVE APPROPRIATIONS? There has been much discussion as to which is the better method of providing school moneys for State aid, by making appro- priations out of the general fund or by providing for a State tax, the proceeds of which shall be devoted to schools. In favor of the State tax versus State appropriations it has been urged that as the wealth, school population, and school costs increase, the income provided for the schools increases; also that whereas appropriations frequently depend upon the mood and some- times even upon the whim of the legislature, a State tax is stable and its proceeds assured. Undoubtedly influenced by these consider- PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 69 ations the Minnesota State Board of Education in 1920 in its re- port upon The Revision of State Aid urged the substitution of a State mill tax for existing biennial appropriations. On the other hand, Illinois and California, after experimenting with the State school property tax, both abandoned it in favor of State appropriations. A very serious objection to the State school tax of a fixed rate is that there is no guarantee that it will furnish the amount of money necessary. This difficulty may, however, be avoided. Instead of fixing a definite rate, the laws may provide for the levying of a State mill property tax sufficient to raise a fixed sum, or, better yet, sufficient to enable the State to fulfill its obli- gations to the public schools. Four States in the Union are already levying State school taxes of this sort; namely, Arizona, which levies a State tax sufficient to provide $20 per child in average daily attendance ; Utah, which levies to tax of undetermined rate sufficient to raise $25 per child from 6 to 17 years of age ; Washington, which levies a tax sufficient, when added to the income of the permanent school fund, to produce $20 per child of school age; and Wisconsin, which levies a tax sufficient to pay State aid to public schools. The problem of providing school revenue is inseparable from the general problem of public finance. It is evident that if the State is to assume from 65 to 70 per cent of the burden of school costs, she must either discover new sources of school revenue sufficient to produce the increased funds which she is to provide, or she must be allowed, in case these new sources are inadequate, to draw more heavily upon the sources which at present are furnishing State revenues. Among the new sources of revenue which we recommend to the careful consideration of the Oklahoma Legislature, is a State graduated income tax. This is now effectively and satisfactorily employed as a source of school revenue in Massachusetts and Dela- ware, Oklahoma levies a gross earning tax of 3 per cent on oil and other natural resources. Of this the State retains 2 per cent, and returns 1 per cent to the counties from which derived. The county devotes one-half of its quota to roads and the remaining one-half is distributed among all the districts of the county on the basis of school enumeration. It is impossible to discuss here many questions pertinent to the gross earnings tax in Oklahoma. The very fact that 70 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA the State retains two-thirds of the proceeds is a definite recognition that she regards these natural products as belonging primarily and chiefly to the State and not to the communities in which they are located. This suggests at once the possibility of increasing State school revenues, by reapportioning the gross earnings proceeds. A survey of Table 13, (see page 57) will show that in some cases the districts which derive large revenue from the gross earnings tax are among the wealthier districts and therefore, have less need of revenue from this source than districts which receive nothing from the proceeds of the gross earnings tax. Only a careful study of the situation could determine whether or not the gross earnings tax could be advantageously reapportioned, and if so, how, NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE STATE SHOULD BE TREAT ED AS PERMANENT ENDOWMENT. Attention should be called to the fact that the gross earnings tax is levied upon products which are severed from the soil, and that the removal of these products permanently impoverishes the State. The natural resources of a State should not be regarded as belong- ing to any single generation, but rather to all generations. For this reason Oklahoma should follow the example of Minnesota and cer- tain other States, and devote the proceeds of her gross earnings tax to her permanent educational endowment funds. This would deprive the State and the schools of a large amount of current revenue. It must be evident, hoAvever, that in using the proceeds oC the gross earnings tax, Oklahoma is using up what is essentially a reserve fund. Li a State which is still as largely agricultural as Oklahoma, undoubtedly the major portion of all revenue must come from a general property tax. The rate of this tax, as has been suggested, should not be fixed. On the contrary, it should be determined bien- nially on the basis of the amount of money which the State needs, in order to insure to each school the funds sufficient to equalize educational opportunities. AVith the abolition of the school district, every county should be required to levy a county school tax of a minimum rate. The revenue provided by the State should be turned into a State equalization fund. Out of this fund there should be insured a minimum sum for every teaching position in the schools. In addi- PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 71 tion, the State should provide an equalization fund to be distributed among those counties which levy a prescribed county rate and are yet unable to raise a sum per child, or per teacher employed, suffi- cient to provide satisfactory facilities ; i. e., facilities measuring up to the standards established by the State Department of Education. In striking contrast to Oklahoma's present policy of depending less and less upon the State for school revenues, we may note a marked tendency in more progressive States, such as Washington, California, Montana, and Texas to increase greatly the quota of State school moneys. California in 1921 increased the amount to be furnished by the State from $15 to $30 for every pupil in average daily attendance in high schools, and from $17.50 to $30.00 for every pupil in elementary schools. Every county in California is required to levy a tax for elementary schools sufficient to provide $30.00 per pupil in average daily attendance, and an additional tax sufficient to pro- vide $60.00 per high school pupil in average daily attendance. Col- orado, by legislation enacted in 1921, placed at the disposal of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction a portion of the income from her permanent school fund to be used if necessary to insure the maintenance of minimum standards as to teachers' salaries. RECOMMENDATIONS Preceding pages have described existing educational conditions in Oklahoma and present policies; they have not only pointed out the defects but have in many instances suggested remedies. They have also explained the reasons for many of these recommendations. It is desirable to bring together here at the close of this chapter a brief resume of the recommendations offered. There are added to the recommendations already specifically presented, certain others which, although not stated, are, by implication or as a consequence of principles laid down, contained therein. (1) Abolish the present antiquated, unfair methods of appor- tioning State school moneys, and adopt modernized, scientific methods which mil recognize variations among the local school units, as to length of school year, assessed valuation per child in average daily attendance, local tax rate, aggregate days of attend- ance, number and qualifications of school officers and teachers employed. (2) Abolish present plan of school district organization. 72 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (3) Establish the county as the local school unit. (4) Remove all limitations on State and local taxation. (5) Establish eight months, 160 days, as the minimum school term, beginning in 1924-25, and nine months thereafter. (6) Require a minimum county school tax of not less than ten mills, the proceeds to be distributed among the schools of the county on a per-teacher basis, and in such a manner as to recognize the principles set forth in Recommendation 1, in so far as these principles have application within the county. (7) Extend to counties taxing and bonding powers for school purposes. The plan here proposed of abolishing school districts and of establishing the county as the local unit of support Avill equalize local rates of taxation within the counties. (8) Provide a State equalization fund to be apportioned among those counties which levy a county school tax of 15 mills or more but are unable to produce thereby for every child of school age resident in the county a quota equal to the State average county quota per child derived from proceeds of such county taxes. (9) Empower and require the State Department of Educa- tion to fix and to modify from time to time, as conditions seem to warrant, the requirements and standards which counties must meet in order to receive quotas of State moneys. (10) Require county and all other school boards to prepare annually a budget of estimated school costs for the next succeed- ing year, such budget to be submitted to the proper authorities and used as a basis for levying taxes. (11) Require the counties to formulate and provide for the carrying out of a county building program, to provide new build- ings and other new school property. (12) Abolish the office of county superintendent as an elec- tive office, and place the appointment and fixing of the salary of the county superintendent in the hands of the County Board of Education, subject only to the limits as to professional qualifica- tions and minimum salary fixed by the State Board of Education. (13) Establish an amount not less than that paid to city superintendents in first class city systems as the minimum salary of county superintendents. The office of county superintendent should be thoroughly professionalized. Nowhere is skilled supervision more important than in rural communities, owing to the large num- bers of untrained and inexperienced teachers to be found in sucJi PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 73 communities. Specific and high professional qualifications should be prerequisites for eligibility to the office. (14) Provide for every county supervisors or teacher-helpers of qualifications sufficient to entitle said supervisor to a salary not less than that paid to expert supervisors employed in first class city school systems, appointment to be made by county board of educa- tion on nomination of the county superintendent upon the basis of qualifications fixed by the State Board of Education. (15) Provide for a State graduated income tax upon the pro- ceeds of which public schools and other educational institutions shall have first claim. (16) Create a State special commission on taxation. Such a commission is needed at the present time in Oklahoma to make a thorough study of her system of assessing property and levying and collecting taxes. The State Board of Equalization insists that property is now assessed at its fair cash value. Members of the survey staff frequently heard it stated by individual citizens that property is assessed at not more than one-third its true value, and striking examples supporting these statements were given. (17) Create a State interim legislative educational budget commission, which shall prepare and recommend to the next legis- lature an educational budget. (18) Provide for the raising by State taxation of funds suffi- cient to finance all educational projects, positions, and institutions subsidized by the State. (19) Provide for the State Department of Education funds sufficient to enable it to dispense entirely with aid from private foundations. (20) Place the appointment and the fixing of the salary of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction in the hands of the State Board of Education. (21) Provide a salary fund for the State Department of Edu- cation sufficient to enable the State Board of Education to employ a State Superintendent capable of commanding from $7,000 to $10,000, and to pay other members of the staff proportionately, in each case the salary to be determined on the basis of professional qualifications. (22) Establish and provide for the maintenance of a Division of School Buildings within the State Department of Education. 74 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (23) Provide for State continuing appropriations sufficient to match federal, private, and all other subventions the receipt of which requires moneys provided from within the State. (24) Abolish 6 to 21 years as the scholastic age, and establish in its stead as the scholastic age, 5 to 18 years. (25) Provide that State tax rates for educational projects shall be determined biennially on the basis of the amount of money required, in addition to that available from the endowment fund and all other continuing sources, to provide adequate funds for all educational projects to be subsidized by the State. (26) Provide State funds to grant special additional aid to encourage consolidation, transportation, free textbooks, and em- ployment of teachers, superintendents, and other school officers of qualifications higher than the lawful minimum, and to subsidize new and progressive types of educational effort. (27) Empower and require the State Board of Education to establish and modify from time to time, as conditions warrant, a scale of educational and professional requirements for all positions to be subsidized entirely or in part by the State, and a correspond- ing salary scale in which salaries paid shall vary according to the professional preparation, experience, and class of certificate of the incumbent. (28) Provide for an adequate and reliable school census. (29) Require the State Department of Education to prepare a uniform system of recording receipts and expenditures, and an accompanying handbook of detailed instructions such as have been compiled by the State departments of New York and Peinisylvania. (30) Require the State Department of Education to furnish free to counties all forms for financial accounting and reporting. (31) Summarizing the most important tendency of forward looking legislation which underlies many of the recommendations contained in the preceding sections, a tendency which must be recog- nized and accepted before school burdens and educational opportuni- ties can be equalized in any thorough-going manner: Place upon the State (which is the only unit capable of equal- izing school burdens and educational opportunities) the major por- tion of the burden of school support by requiring the State to fur- nish funds sufficient to pay the minimum wage to which every in- cumbent of an educational position is entitled by reason of his qual- ifications, professional, and otherwise. This recommendation covers PROBLEMS OF FINANCING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 75 salaries of superintendents, assistants, rural supervisors, and all members of the staff of the State Board of Education. The important items of expenditure which would be left to the local communities to subsidize, if this recommendation be adopted, would be school buildings, sites, equipment, cost of furnishing re- pairs and operating school buildings, as well as all fixed charges. CHAPTER IV. REPORT ON THE FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCi:i) URE OF THE SCHOOLS OF THE STATE OF OKLAHOMA. INTRODUCTION. The question as to what could be covered most effectively and be of the most service to the people of Oklahoma, in a survey of the financial and accounting procedure of the schools of the state, within the limited time allotted, was decided in favor of the elementary and secondary schools. Much that applies to tlie larger and independent school organizations of cities is also appli- cable, to a greater or less extent, to the institutions of higher education. Accordingly, aside from a cursory examination of the financial and accounting procedure of the normal schools, colleges, and of the university, on the one hand, and of the special and separate schools, on the other hand, attention was centered on the financial and accounting procedure of the elementaiy and secondary schools of the cities, towns, and rural districts, selecting for this purpose typical city and county school systems. The result of this study is incorporated in the following re- port, which consists of: First, a general statement of existing organization and procedure ; and Second, criticisms of the con- ditions found, and constructive suggestions as to their betterment. Supplementing the latter, various financial statements have been prepared as graphic examples of the suggestions made, and these statements are submitted in the form of exhibits accompanying the report. The general statement of organization and procedure covers the forms of school organization, jurisdiction and general control, custody and disbursement of funds, financial control and budget procedure, acquisition of property, and accounting methods. Criticisms and constructive suggestions are presented under three heads, budgetary procedure, accounting methods, and financ- ing methods. Under these heads the criticisms in brief are as follows : FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTINrx PROCEDURE 77 A. Budgetary Procedure, 1. Organization fur financial control erroneous. 2. ]\Iethods of presenting information regarding school finance tend to confuse rather than to inform the pub- lic. 3. Methods of estimating revenues extraordinarily conserv- ative. 4. Duplication of appropriation accounts. B. Accounting- Methods. 1. Practice of reporting revenues and expenditures only under heads of General Fund and Sinking Fund er- roneous. 2. Appropriation accounts reflect objects of expenditure Mith little regard to purpose and character. 3. Appropriation accounts not followed explicitly when in- curring expenditures. 4. Financial statements issued in the form of balance sheets without being accompanied by operation statements. 5. Financial statements showing functional expenditures can be developed to further advantage. 6. School annual statistical reports to State Superintendent of Education subject to improvement. C. Financing Methods. 1. Bond issues permissible on too liberal a basis. 2. Authorization to use sinking funds to pay judgments unsound finance. 3. Policy in regard to investing sinking funds questionable, 4. The issue of sinking fund bonds a costly method of finan- cing. In making these criticisms and suggestions, it is to be under stood that they are predicated upon a very hasty examination; and that the financial reports have been prepared with equal rapid- ity. These financial reports may contain minor errors due to the fact that in many instances they have been compiled from incom- plete records and from records not designed to give financial data in the form here presented. Any such errors, however, if th6y should exist, would be immaterial and have little effect upon the general conclusions. In the main, however, it is believed that these statements are as near correct as is possible under the circumstances. "^■8 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA It is also to be understood that these criticisms are in no sense criticisms of individuals, but of methods and procedure. In fact, in numerous instances, individuals Avere found to be producing re- markable results considering the difficulties under which they la- bored. Questions were answered freely, information was given willingly, and there was no hesitation whatever about exliibiting any and all records requested for examination. GENERAL STATEMENT OF ORGANIZATION AND PROCED- URE. A. FORMS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. A discussion of school systems from the financial and account- ing point of view begins with the forms of school organization. The common school organizations of the state of Oklahoma may be primarily classified under two heads, independent school dis- tricts and non-independent school districts. An independent school district is one that maintains a four- year high school fully accredited with the state university, and contains an incorporated town. Independent school districts are divided into : 1. City school districts which consist of municipal corpor- ations of more than 2,000 population and which also have a city charter. 2. Town school districts which consist of either incorporated towns of more than 2,000 population which have no city charter, or incorporated towns of less than 2,000 population, and in either case maintain an accredited high school. 3. United school districts which are composed of one or more adjacent independent school districts united for the pur- pose of maintaining a stronger school system. Non-independent school districts consist of district schools, union graded schools, consolidated schools, and separate schools which are as follows : 1. District schools located in towns, villages, or in the countrjj and serving an area of not less than six square miles. They are for the most part elementary schools although some maintain certain high school grades. 2. Consolidated schools consist of one or more adjacent district schools combined and serving an area of not less than twen- ty-five square miles, and authorized to provide free trans- portation of pupils to and from school. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCE^)URE 79 8. Union graded schools consist of two or more adjacent dis- trict schools maintaining one central school in which in- struction is given to pupils above the sixth grade to and including high school work. 4. Separate schools Avhich consist of: (a) Schools for children of negro blood, whether district schools, consolidated schools, or union graded schools, and whether located in cities, to^Anis, villages or in the country; except in cities and incorporated towns where a majority of the population is negro, in which case the negro schools may constitute the independ- ent school district. (b) Schools for children not of negro blood, located in cities, incorporated towns, village or rural districts, where the majority of the population is negro and in Avhich the schools for negro children constitute the independent school district. B. JURISDICTION AND GENERAL CONTROL. Independent school districts are under the jurisdiction and gen- eral control of boards of education as follows : 1. In cities of more than 50,000 population the board con- sists of two members elected from each ward, provided the number of wards do not exceed five, who hold office four years, one being elected at each biennial election. 2. In cities of less than 50,000 the board consists of one mem- ber from each ward and one from the outlying territory, all serving four years, two being elected at one biennial election and the balance at another; provided that in cities of less than 5,000 population, if there be no outlying district, one member shall be elected at large. 3. Instead of the above, any city may adopt by popular vote a charter containing such provisions as to membership of boards of education, terms of office of board members, and time of election, as it may desire. 4. In imited school districts the board of education is compos- ed of one member from each ward in each city of the united district, the term of office and the time of election of each member being the same as provided for boards of edu- cation in independent school districts. 80 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 5. As to boards of education of independent school districts in incorporated towns, the school law does not appear spec- ific; but in view of the provisions in the school law regard- ing school boards in cities school districts, it is reasonable to assume that the intent of the legislature, in framing the law, was to prescribe the same kinds of boardvs of education for town independent school districts as regarding authority. The boards of education in all independent school districts are by the school law given to a limited ex- tent a general grant of power. Non-independent school districts are under jurisdiction and general control as follows: 1, School districts, consolidated districts, and union graded districts are each governed by a school board of three mem- bers, consisting of a director, member and a clerk. They are elected by popular vote, each in a different year, and each serves three years. Their duties are specifically set forth in the school law, those of the director being to preside at all district meetings and meetings of the board, and to sign warrants which have been prepared by the clerk after their authorization in a district or board meeting. 2. Separate schools are under two forms of control : (a) Schools for negro children, in a city whose charter so provides, are under the board of education of tlie independent school district comprised of schools for children not of negro blood. (b) Separate schools, not in cities, for negro children and likewise for children not of negro blood are collect- ively under the jurisdiction and general control of the superintendent of education of the county in which the separate schools are located. That official is elected by popular vote and serves a term of two years. C. CUSTODY AND DISBURSEMENT OF FUNDS. 1. Independent school districts. ■ In cities, unless their charters provide otherwise, a school treasurer is elected at large by popular vote and serves a term of three years. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 81 Elsewhere than in cities, boards of education are authorized to elect a school treasurer, not a member of the board. School treasurers receive the school funds of their re- spective districts, including the taxes which are collected by the county treasurer and periodically turned over to them ; and disburse the same on warrants signed by the pres- ident of the board, or, in his absence, by the vice-president, and countersigned by the clerk. 2. Non-independent school districts. The county treasurer acts as treasurer for all the non- independent school districts and separate schools in the county. He is authorized to disburse the funds of each school district on warrants signed by the director and clerk thereof, and to pay interest coupons and bonds of the dis- trict. He is required on or before the first Tuesday in July to furnish to each school district board of his county a certified report show^ing the moneys received and dis- bursed by him during the fiscal year ending June 30th, and the amount of all assets on hand at the close of such fiscal year available for that district. The county treasurer also acts as treasurer for the separate schools in his county. He disburses the funds of these schools on warrants issued by the county clerk and countersigned by the county superintendent of education, provided the county clerk draws no warrant for a greater amount for teachers than is paid the like number of teachers for like service in other schools for that county. The school law does not appear to require the county treasurer to make any statemnet to anyone of the financial condition of the separate schools. D. FINANCIAL CONTROL AND BUDGET PROCEDURE. In each county of the state there exists a county excise board which exercises financial control over all common schools in the county whether the schools be independent or non-independent, whether they be city, town, village, rural, or separate schools. A county excise board is composed of seven members, consisting of a county clerk, county treasurer, county superintendent of edu- cation, county judge, county assessor, county attorney, and a desig- 82 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA nated member of the board of commissioners, which latter board is the county legislative body consisting of three commissioners. The budgets of all common schools within a county must be submitted by their boards of education to the county excise board for approval, Avith the exception of separate schools not in cities. The budgets of these separate schools are submitted to the county excise board by the county superintendent of education. The procedure for the preparation of school budgets is as fol- lows : 1. For independent school districts. The board of education of each city independent school district is required to prepare, on or before the second Tuesday in May of each year, a statement of the financial condition of the school dis- trict together with a detailed estimate of receipts and proposed ex- penditures for the ensuing school year, i. e., July 1st of the current calendar year to June 30th of the following year ; and in the event that the assessed valuation of the said school district is not suffi- cient by a levy of five mills to create a fund necessary for the sup- port of the common schools of the district for the ensuing year, the board has the authority to call an election on or before the second Tuesday in May and thus submit the question of an excess tax levy to popular vote. Whether or not an excess tax levy is necessary, the board of education is required to submit to the county excise board, on or before the second Tuesday in July, its budget for the new fiscal year beginning on July 1st; and if an excess tax levy election has been held, to notify the excise board of that fact and of the result of the election. The county excise board meets on the last Saturday in July and continues in session, adjourning from day to day, until it has exam- ined tlie estimates and determined the appropriations for the new fiscal year. The appropriations for boards of education of inde- pendent school districts are required to be itemized so as to show separately the amount of funds appropriated for : (1) Salaries and compensation of officers and clerical em- ployees. (2) Salaries and compensation of teachers. (3) Office supplies, blank books, stationery, and printing. (4) Light, fuel, and water. (5) Library and school apparatus. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 83 (6) Furniture and fixtures. (7) Building sites and other real estate. (8) Construction of new buildings, with the appropriation for each building separately stated. (9) Maintenance and caretakers. (10) Other expenditures. Regardless of the items for current expenses or any vote there- on, the excise board is authorized to appropriate annually the amounts required for a sinking fund to pay bond interest and prin- cipal and for the payment of judgements. 1 1 Session Laws, issue of 1921, Chapter 226 The excise board has the authority to revise and correct any estimate by striking items therefrom, increasing items thereof, or adding items thereto, when in its opinion the needs of the municipal- ity shall require ; with the exception of where an excess tax levy has been approved by popular vote. In this event the excise board has neither the power to reduce the estimate unless the levy so voted shall be insufficient to meet the estimate. When the excise board has determined the appropriations for current expense and sinking fund purposes ''with ten per cent added thereto for delinquent tax, they shall make the levies there- for, after deducting from the total so computed the amount of any surplus balance or levy, ascertained to be on hand from the pre- vious fiscal year or years, together with amount of the probable income of each from all sources other than ad valorem taxation, provided that in no event shall the amount of estimated income ex- ceed the actual collections from such source for the previous fiscal year. The rates of levy for current expense purposes and sinking fund purposes shall be separately made and stated and the revenue accruing therefrom shall be known as the general fund and sinking fund respectively".! 1 Session Laws, issue of 1921, Chapter 226 When the estimates approved by the excise board have been certified to by the board of education, they become the legal appro- pi-iations within which the schools must be operated. No appro- l)riation may be used for any other fiscal year or purpose whatever, and no warrant issued in excess thereof. 84 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Subsequently, Avhatever the needKS of the school district shall require, the excise board may convene and make supplemental ap- propriations for current expenditures, provided that all such appro- priations come within the limitations of the Constitution and are not in excess of the school district revenue provided or accumulated for the year. The procedure incident to the request for and the granting of supplemental appropriations is similar to that incident to original appropriations, in that boards of education are requir- ed to file a statement of the financial condition of the school dis- trict at the close of the month next preceding the filing of request for supplemental appropriations and a statement of the amount and purpose of the requested appropriations. On the other hand, if the excise board ascertains the surplus revenue is insufficient for any additional needs of the county or other municipal subdivision, that board appears to have the author- ity to revoke or cancel in v^^hole or in part any appropriation or appropriations or parts thereof previously made to any school district and to make in lieu thereof such supplemental appropri- ations as in their judgment the interest of the public may require ; provided that no appropriation or part thereof may be revoked or cancelled against which there may be an unpaid claim or contract pending. It is to be presumed from the above that the excise board has the authority to convene and sanction the requests of the board of education for transfers from one appropriation to another pro- vided the funds exist and the aggregate of the original appropri- ations is not exceeded. The board of education of each town independent school district appears to function according to the same procedure in regard to estimates and appropriations as that prescribed for cities, includ- ing the authority to submit to popular A'ote the question of an excess tax levj^ not to exceed ten mills. 1 1 School law, issue of 1921, Sec. 438. 2. For non-independent school districts. (a) Each school district board of a non-independent school district is required to present at the annual meeting of the school district on the last Tuesday in March of each year a statement of the money raised by the district in the year and the purpose for which it was raised, and of the warrants drawn on the custodian for the past fiscal year. The board is required to meet also on the FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 85 second Tuesday in July of each year and through its director present to the county excise board the budget of the school district for the fiscal year just beginning. The details of the procedure, including style of financial statements and estimates of receipts and expenditures, are very much the same as for independent school districts. The non-independent school districts also have the authority to levy by popular vote a ten mill additional tax. 1 1 School law, issue of 1921, Sec. 438 and State Constitution, Article X, Sec. 9. (b) The separate schools which are under the jurisdiction of county superintendents have their budgets prepared by those offic- ials. The budgets of all separate schools are prepared in practically the same way and are subject to practically the same restrictions as the budgets for other schools. After appropriations to a sepa- rate school have been made by an excise board, that board at a subsequent meetmg may increase, revise, or reduce the appropri- ations. E. ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY. 1. By Taxation. The school district board of any school district or the board of education of any independent school district, when the question has been submitted to and approved by popular vote, is authorized to contract for or acquire necessary buildings and additions there- to, to be paid for by an annual rental, and to levy an annual tax of not more than three mills for the payment of such rental ; provided the total tax levy is within the constitutional mill limitation. When such a contract is entered into and the total amount cannot be paid within ten years by the three mill levy, the question of an additional three mill annual levy may be also submitted to popular vote. The total amount of the increased levy, however, together with other indebtedness, must not exceed five mills on the dollar of the as- sessed value of taxable property in such school district. 2. By bond issue. Any school district may issue bonds for the purpose of pur- chasing school sites, purchasing or erecting school buildings, pur- chasing furniture, or for repairing school buildings and grounds provided the amount together Avith existing indebtedness does not exceed five per cent (5 per cent) of the valuation of the taxable property within such school district as shown by the last preceding assessment for state and county purposes; and provided that the 86 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA question has been submitted to popular vote and received tbe ap- proval of three-fifths of the voters voting theron. When the vote on such a question is in the affirmative, such approval carries with it the authorization annually of an additional tax levy sufficient to pay the interest on tlie bonds and to create a sinking- fund for the payment of the principal. When bonds are issued by independent school districts of cities, they must be payable within twenty-five years from date of issue, the interest on same may be not more than five per cent per aimum, and the bonds sold at not less than par. When bonds are issued by non-independent school districts, they must be payable within twenty years from date of issue, the denominations of the bonds limited to not less than one hundred dollars each, the interest on same limited to seven per cent per annum, and the bonds must be sold at not less than par; and if any commission has been allowed on their sale, the proceeds after deducting the commission must be equal to the par value of the bonds plus the accrued interest thereon. The provisions regard- ing the issuing of bonds by independent school districts in towns appear to be the same as those for cities. Every school district is authorized to refund not only its bonds, provided they have been outstanding not less than two yeai*s, but also other indebtedness including judgments and warrants; and to issue new bonds therefor to run for a period not to exceed twenty-five years, with interest thereon not to exceed six per cent, and the bonds to be sold at not less than par. The treasurers of independent school districts, and the county treasurers who are the treasurers of non-independent school dis- tricts, are authorized to invest sinking funds in United States bonds, the bonds or w^arrants of the state, county, city, town, town- ship, or school districts, provided the same are purchased at not less than par and accrued interest ; and all such treasurers are re- quired to deposit daily at not less than four per cent interest per annum all uninvested sinking funds, with the proviso that any school treasurer who fails to make such deposits is liable for double the amount of the interest lost. F. ACCOUNTING METHODS. The accounting methods of various schools visited vary from the elaborate and complex to the simple, elemental, and meagre. FINANCIAL, AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 87 The accounts of the schools maintained by the clerks of the boards of education appear to be designed primarily to show the costs of objects of expenditure ; i. e., salaries, heat and light, supplies, repairs, and the cost of each building and site, equipment, etc., etc., which accounts, of course, reflect the budgetary appro- priations. In only the larger school systems apparently are ac- counts maintained from which a balance sheet or an operating statement can be dra"\\ai. This is true also of the separate schools. The accounts of school treasurers vary between a duplica- tion of the detailed accounts of the clerk of the board of education to a maintenance of but two accounts one representing receipts and expenditures pertaining to the general fund, and the other representing the receipts and expenditures pertaining to the sink- ing fund. The school treasurers to a large extent are bank officers who, through their election as treasurers, bring the school accounts to their banks, which means that the school depositories are po- litically selected. All county treasurers in preparing their annual statements of school receipts and expenditures, which they are required to trans- mit to boards of education, use special accounting forms prescribed by the State Examiner and Inspector. In the offices of the county clerks, records are also maintained of school expenditures for not only the separate schools but also the district, to"vvn and city schools, both independent and non-independ- ent. These accounts are maintained as information for the county excise boards who exercise jurisdiction over the appropriations of all the schools. CRITICISMS AND CONSTRUCTIVE SUGGESTIONS. A. BUDGETARY PROCEDURE. The zeal with which Oklahoma has committed itself to the idea of budgetary control of public expenditures, as evidenced in the written law of the State, is deserving of the highest commend- ation. The preparation of a plan in regard to expenditures, and its review before adoption, are unquestionably good business, pro- vided the plan is not so elaborate and involved that its substance is obscured in a maze of detail. The incorporation of so much detail as to the presentation of budgetary data, which appears in the statutes of Oklahoma, and the forms of organization procedure prescribed for their re- view in so* far as they relate to the schools, is open to serious 88 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA question. The effect of this policy is that the school law of Oklahoma abounds with financial restrictions and limitations. Un- qestionably every one of the restrictions and limitations has been inserted in the law with the belief and expectation that it would prevent loss or fraud. Undoubtedly, in numerous instances that has been the result ; but on the other hand these restrictions, which unfortunately are interwoven with conflicting ideas, have put the schools in such a financial straight- jacket that they have discourag- ed initiative and stunted the growth of individual responsibility, thereby reducing efficiency. 1. Organization for financial control erroneous. The arrangement of financial control of the schools by the county excise board, from the viewpoint of education is erroneous for the following reasons : (a) The possibility of development and growth of educational policies is negative, by reason of the fact that the group is com- posed of conflicting interests, only one member of tlie board, the county superintendent of education, having any particular interest in educational results. (b) Authority of the excise board to revise and correct any school estimate by striking items therefrom, increasing items there- of, or adding items thereto, means that the management of the schools is virtually in the hands of that board, whereas only one member of the board, the county superintendent of education, has any responsibility for educational results. Only when an excess school tax, together with the financial statement which accompanies it, is endorsed by popular vote, and there is no question as to the funds being sufficient, is the excise board prohibited from exercising the above control. Otherwise the board has the power, if it desires to use it, to dictate educational policies and programs by determining salaries, kinds and quanti- ties of supplies, by deciding building, building site, and equipment acquisition, or repairs, and by influencing appointment and period of service of personnel. In so far as tlie separate schools are concerned, the county excise board has the authority at any time during a school year, to revoke and cancel a school's appropriation either in whole or in part, unless the same has been obligated by contract, if the board deems such action in the interest of the public. Upon this basis an excise board can withdraw money from the schools, whicli has been FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 89 raised specifically for school purposes by taxation, and use it for building roads, maintaining the county jail, or any other county pur- pose, that the board may consider of greater importance than operat- ing the schools. During the school year of 1921-22 the excise board of Oklahoma County withdrew and cancelled forty nine hundred dollars in school appropriations. Whether or not the funds withdrawn were used for other than school purposes was not investigated. But it was reported that the excise board of one county in the State levied a school tax with no intention of using it for school purposes, but witli the intention of building a bridge with it, which they did. Whether or not this report is true, the possibility for such action • exists, and it violates a fundamental principle of taxation that the funds raised for a specific purpose are not avail- able for other purposes. Obviously any oth/n* action is breaking faith with the public. CONTROL SHOULD BE VESTED IN BOARD RESPONSIBLE FOR RESULTS. Instead of the schools of the towns and rural districts includ- ing the separate schools, being under the control of the county excise board, they should be under the jurisdiction of a county board of education. This board of education should be composed of members elected by popular vote. Their election should not be held when other public officials are being elected. Within certain mill limitations, the action of such a board of education as to budgetary appropriations, and the tax rate necessary there- for, should be mandatory upon the county excise board, assuming that the latter board continues to fjinction as a tax levying agency. Such an arrangement would make for public discussion of specific school problems and policies, would permit definite public decision in relation to those matters, and would establish definite responsi- bility for the execution of educational policies and programs. The above arrangement practically exists now as to boards of education of independent school districts which annually vote an excess school tax levy, except that the members of those boards are elected at the same time as other public officials, and except that the methods now prescribed in the school law for present- ing information to the public can be simplified and much im- proved. 90 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 2. Methods of presenting information regarding school finance tends to confuse rather than to inform the public. The criticism that is to be made of the scheme of presenting to the public information regarding school finance, as provided in the laws of Oklahoma, is that it tends to confuse rather than to inform the public. This is a criticism to be made generally of the customary methods of presenting budget information, else- where as well as in Oklahoma ; and it is because the common method presents a confusion of the following ideas: (a) The public is asked to express itself as to how much it is willing to spend for school purposes as a whole during the year, i. e., A General Fund tax levy which includes current expenses for operation and upkeep of the schools and a minor investment in additions to buildings and equipment. Occasionally, the public is requested to express itself regarding a major investment, such as additional land, new and larger school buildings, and the equip- ment required for them. This expression takes the form of either an excess tax or an authorization to issue bonds; and in the latter case it includes the authority to levy annually a Sinking Fund tax for interest on and for a portion of the principal, the latter to be accumulated and thus pay the bonds when they become due. (b) The public is given a statement of the amount of money the schools desire to spend during the year for salaries, supplies, repairs, equipment, etc, etc. (c) The public is presented with a statement purporting to be the financial condition of the schools as of the close of the pre- vious fiscal year. The first of the above (a) is a statement of the character of expenditure and, in the form it is presented, it fails in its pur- pose because it is too general a statement to permit of intelligent discussion. If it were broken down into the amounts to be expend- ed for administration; day schools, subdivided into graded schools, high schools, general, vocational, and physical instruction; night schools, subdivided likewise; enforcement of compulsory education laws; promotion of health (medical inspection); library service; transportation of pupils ; and other educational activities ; operation of buildings and grounds ; repairs and replacements, additions and betterments ; it Avould present to the public a program for real dis- cussion, and would result in a more intelligent public interest in support of the schools. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 91 Without such specific information as this, the public must determine its support of the public schools on the basis of indefinite information, mis-information, or no information at all. A con- structive suggestion in the form of a concrete example, covering the above idea, is presented as Exhibit (1) accompanying this re- port. OKLAHOMA CITY SCHOOLS. STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES BY FUNCTION, CHARACTER, AND OBJECT FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1921-22. EXHIBIT I. CONSUMABLE EXPENSES Financing: Salaries and expenses of treasurer's office $ 631.74 Fiscal agency fees and cost of exchange 995.06 Interest 180,900.91 Fidelity insurance 2,500.00 Erection expense (vote on excess tax levy) 3,986.29 $189,014.00 10.8 11.8 GENERAL CONTROL SERVICE Legislative Control (Board): Legal service $ 670.72 Auditing service 1,073.03 .$1,747.75 General Direction and Control: Superintendent's office 14,086.88 Enforcement of compulsory education laws and cen- sus enumeration 3,184.75 17,271.63 Property Supervision and Con- trol: Purchasing and accounting 8,869.98 Storekeeping 3,500.63 Building supervision 5,319.14 17,689.75 $36,705.03 2.1 Z.3 INSTRUCTIONAL SERVICE Supervision $27,422.28 Elementary instruction (Grade schools) : Salaries of principals $69,642.09 Salaries of teachers 738,387.10 Instructional supplies 23,966.17 831,995.36 Secondary Instruction (High schools) : Salaries of principals 27,852.80 Salaries of teachers 246,129.04 Instructional supplies 7,988.73 281,970.57 $1,141,388.21 65.1 71.3 OPERATION OF BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS Elementary Schools: Salaries of engineers and janitors x Engineers and janitors sup- plies X Fuel x Light and power x Water x Other operating expense x 110,255.77 92 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Secondary Schools: Salaries of engineers and janitors x Engineers and janitors sup- plies X Fuel X Light and power x Water x Other operating expenses.... x $47,252.48 $ 157,508.25 9. 9.8 UPKEEP OF BUILDINGS, GROUNDS AND EQUIPMENT Elementary schools (Grade schools) : Repairs to grounds x Repairs to buildings x Repairs to equipment x Insurance x Other upkeep expenses x $36,420.58 Secondary schools (high schools) : Repairs to grounds x Repairs to buildings x Repairs to equipment x Insurance x Other upkeep expenses x $15,609.00 $52,029.58 3. 3.3 Miscellaneous Service: Library service $10,924.52 Health service 8,850.85 Playground activities 960.03 Lectures commencement ex- ercises and other edu- cational activities 2,794.26 23,529.66 1.3 1.5 Total Consumable Expense $1,600,174.73 91.3 100. INVESTMENT Outlays: Land and improvement to land $21,171.43 Buildings 21,499.84 Equipment 40,127.58 $82,798.85 5. 54.5 Deduction of Debt: Bonds reduced and retired $69,000.00 ' 3.7 45.5 Total investment $151,798.85 8.7 100. Grand Total $1,751,973.58 100. X Items thus designated could not be segregated within the time available for the analysis. The second of the above (b) is a statement of the objects of expenditure, that is to say, the elements which are to be used in carrying out the proposed program. It is entirely subsidiary to the first statement, and conveys very little information to the public in the form in which it is generally presented. To be of any value to the public, this statement should be accompanied by an explanation of the value of these elements expressed in educa- tional and economic results. For example, to be told that one FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PRQCEDURE 93 kind of gasoline costs 20 cents per gallon and another 25 cents, without any statement as to the approximate mileage which each will produce, gives the buyer no basis to decide which will be the more advantageous for him to purchase. The third of the above (c), is a statement of the financial condition of the schools as of a certain date : in other words, a balance sheet. In the form commonly presented, it is too technical for anyone but an expert accountant to understand. It is of value to the general public only when presented in simple form show- ing whether the assets of the schools at the end of a school year (or at any other date) are equal to, in excess of, or less than the liabili- ties. A constructive suggestion, in the form of a concrete example, covering this idea is presented as Exhibit (II) accompanying this report. 94 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Eh I— I m X w Q O O yA m o o O H Pi Q w o o to J o o u !» H H <: c^ w M •-I ,« u V •< o § M O a; a -=! w o o Eh w w ;? o o o U OS I" (0 '*-' c o § O ti-i •i3 O ^ IB O o 3 -a c 00 o CD o c4 U5 in 05 CO o" 00 O Oi d ,-1 O iM 0_ (M C 01 C c o o to c ai3 s 'O ns c o 1. 3 O c a o 1^1 '^3 a 5 a a Oj c 3 ■c 0) 03 -a +-» c C 01 Clj a X 0) ^5 d P- Oj '- 3 ~ to 3 a 3 to to 0) 0) u 3 o o a n O ■D C (8 M V a 3 3 33 be 3 -C O .T^ 1-^ "c3 d OS 3 a ■4-> CO 0) > c a as U -o c to OJ ■3 0> •r fe 4) X o a a 11. M Q O o (M 00 T-l t- in oo C O o CTJ 03 CO d 00 to C u 0> o 03 m 0) o o 03 'C ^ a 3 3 -3 3 3 00 CD O CO o t- d oo' O CD o t- o ■ oo 1 '3 c-a 3 Oi 03 V (0 10 < 3 a ■3 3 c 0) I I. J5 3 «- to o 3 03 ^ o u 0) to O 03 ^ 0) o M c « 3-2 O 3 " P-i < 0> 03 03 OS 3 0> 3 o 3 s L4 a c^ di oi • > 3 rl a > (0 3 0) •" O) "" T-l -^ rf 3 52 .3 "^ "3 S ill ■^ "-^ ti ^ 73 3 3 W O 05 c-q (M » O o d o CO o r-J CO CD d" t- c^ CO CO O) '■^ -r cq o3 '-' ^ n ^ 01 2 >> 3 S^ a '^^ ti •3 03 3 03 03 03 < -a X o 0) 3 a 3 oj -t-i 3 03 U U 3 « 3 SiO 3 3 01 M, S .22 s s -o o 01 o .2 . S >i 03 /2 03 C i2 3 =* i »^ > V' ° 3 2 S l! r- 03 +j 3 **-( '^^ o3 oS -3 ■tJ ■1-' t^ .-^ 'S 'O'S ^ O "• 0" 3 _M 3 03 , 3 o! -g 3 03'" 3 O 3 cd 3 O > a _^ O 3 CO s 0) o Eh I g 0) •• 03 h> V a*^ -^ i FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 95 3. Methods prescribed for estimating revenues extraordinarily- conservative. The method prescribed in the school law for estimating reven- ues, which requires ten per cent to be added to the total estimate because of possible delinquent taxes, prior to deducting either a surplus on hand or revenues anticipated from other sources, is not only extraordinarily conservative, but undoubtedly beyond the intent of the legislature when enacting the law. It is reason- able to assume that the intent of the legislature was only to safe- guard the schools from loss by reason of delinquent taxes ; and that the requirement to deduct ten per cent from an existing surplus and ten per cent also from anticipated revenues which elsewhere in the law are held to amounts not in excess of what have been received in the preceding year, is due to an error in phraseology. Never- theless, the language is clear and the State Examiner and Inspector is undoubtedly correct in his ruling that the procedure shall be according to the letter of the law until the court rules otherwise or the legislature modifies the law. As a matter of fact the provision of the per cent deduction alone appears extremely conservative. An examination of the delinquent tax for the last five years pertaining to the Oklahoma City schools shows it in no year to have gone beyond 4.2 per cent, and one year as low as 2.9 per cent. An estimate of the Okla- homa County delinquent tax was given as averaging about 5 per cent. Furthermore, the effect of estimating on this basis and prohibiting appropriations in excess thereof reduces the tax levy of 15 mills for school purposes authorized by the State Constitution to 131/2 mills. It is possible that a deduction of five per cent from the tax levied, because of possible delinquent taxes, might be quite suf- ficient. Figuring the General Fund requirements of the Oklahoma City Schools for 1922-23 on this latter basis, not deducting ten per cent from the estimated revenues, and including advance expenses (such as prepaid insurance and supplies in stockroom) as assets,* leaves a surplus of $193,500 (11.8 per cent of the 1922 General Fund tax levy) available for additional appropriation. True, if not appropriated this fiscal year it will be available for 1923-24; but in that event why levy this amount of tax a year ahead? If it is to be used next year, why not delay the levy until next year? 96 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA It is possible that a corresponding deduction of only five per cent for delinquent taxes might not appear as favorably in other school districts; but the extraordinarily conservative procedure for estimating school revenues, which is now prescribed by the school law, should be modified. 4. Duplication of appropriation accounts. The appropriation accounts of the city and town independent school districts are maintained in detail by the clerks of their boards of education. The county clerks of the counties in which these schools are located maintain these same appropriation ac- counts, but in condensed form. In view of the fact that the treasurers of these schools also maintain records of expenditures of these schools by funds, and the county excise boards could call for statements from both clerks of boards of education and school treasurers and thus obtain the information which they maintain their own records to obtain, the maintenance of these records by them seems an unnecessary duplication. If the non-independent district schools and the separate schools of each county were under a county board of education, as above recommended, then the appropriation accounts of those schools would be maintained by the clerks of those boards instead of by the county clerks as at present. In such an event the maintaining of these accounts by the county clerks also would not be necessary. B. ACCOUNTING METHODS. 1. Practice of reporting revenues and expenditures under only the heads of General and Sinking Fund erroneous. The practice of only reporting school revenues and expenditures under the heads of General Fund and Sinking Fund is erroneous because of the fact that the public is also taxed specifically for land, building, and equipment acquisition as well as for their repair and replacement. The public may also be taxed specifically, under certain conditions, for playground purposes. As previously stated, it is a fundamental principal of taxation that funds raised for specific purposes should be expended only for those purposes. Accordingly, under the school law as it now stands, the revenues and expendi- tures of the schools should be reported under the following heads : FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 97 (a) General Fund, covering receipts and expenditures for school administration and operation, including maintenance of buildings and grounds. (b) Sinking Fund, covering revenues and expenditures for interest on and the retirement of school bonds issued and outstanding. (c) Building Fund, covering revenues and expenditures for land, building and equipment acquisition, repair and replacement. (d) Playground Fund, covering revenues and expenditures for playground activities. The common practice in regard to receipts and ex- penditures pertaining to playgrounds is to treat them as items under and belonging to the General Fund. The common practice in regard to revenues and ex- penditures pertaining to land, T^uilding and equipment acquisition, repairs and replacements, when those funds have been raised by taxation, is to treat them as items belonging to the General Fund. When the funds are raised by the issue of bonds, the receipts and expenditures are treated as items belonging to the Sinking Fund. It will be seen from the above that each of the funds shows two kinds of expenditures; i. e., expense, and in- vestment. It would be better accounting practice, and more enlightening to the public, as well as to the school world, itself, if : (1) General Fund revenues Avere applicable when ex- pended only to current expense, and covered items which either left no tangible evidence such as gas consumed or, if physically evident (such as repairs and replacements), represented no additional property in- vestment. (2) Building Fimd revenues (whether the result of tax- ation or bond issue) when expended were applicable only to, and Avhen made represented acquisition or betterment of land, buildings, and equipment. (3) Sinking Fund revenues when expended were appli- cable only to bond principal and interest. This is assuming that, instead of incorporating into law an amount which can be levied specifically for such activi- s. s. 4 98 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA ties as playgrounds, the activity be either authorized or required. An example of this idea is seen in the provision applicable to school libraries now incorporated in the school law. 2. Appropriation accounts reflect objects of expenditure with little regard to purpose or character. The appropriation accounts, as prescribed in the school law, reflect objects of expenditure, i. e., elements to be used; and in the form presented, they may be likened to a stockroom requisition. They give the public a very limi- ted idea as to purchasing costs ; and in regard to the purpose or character for which they are to be used, they give little information. The following, for example, are appro- '' priation accounntsi which are used in certain of the school districts. (a) Salaries of teachers, and (b) light, fuel, and other supplies, which are elements of current expense be- longing to operation. (c) Maintenance of buildings and grounds, including jani- tor service, which are a mixture of operation and upkeep. (d) Furniture and fixtures, which may be replacements or acquisitions. (e) Improvements, repairs, and purchase of building sites, which are a mixture of upkeep and investment. (f) Library and school apparatus, which are a mixture of purpose, replacement and acquisition. (g) Interest and payment of bonds, which are a mix- ture of fixed charges (current expense) and invest- ment (increase in ownership resulting from decrease in debt.) (h) Payment of judgments, which may represent delayed payment for current expense, or property acquisition. In view of the fact that such a<3C0unts as the above are but detail information supporting purpose and character of expenditure, if they are to be used as mediums for ap- propriation, they should at least be segregated according to purpose and character. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 99 3. Appropriation accounts not followed explicitly when incur- ring expenditures or obligations. The appropriation accounts as approved by the county excise boards do not api)ear to be followed explicity by the schools when incurring expenditures or obligations. This is apparently due to the impression which prevails that, as long as the sum total of all the appropriations is not exceeded, the expenditures or obligations in excess of or below the amount of any individual appropriation do not matter. It may be also due to the impression which pre- vails in some localities that when once an excise board has determined appropriations for a school year the board either has not the authority or is unwilling to meet subse- quently and revise or increase school appropriations. This idea is due either to a misunderstanding or to a lack of • knowledge of the school law. 4. Financial statements issued in form of balance sheets with- out being- accompanied by operation statements. The financial statements of the schools, prepared in the form prescribed in detail by the school law, are balance sheets, to use accounting phraseology. They should also be accompanied by operation statements. A balance sheet is a statement showing financial con- dition as of a certain date. An operation statement shows financial progress between two periods of time. The first is in the nature of an instantaneous photograph; the sec- ond, a moving picture. Information as to the financial condition of a school district at the beginning of a fiscal year is, of course, essential as a starting point in planning the school's financial program for the year. But, in order to plan for the future, it is of the greatest assistance to know what has been done in the past ; and an operation statement gives this information. In regard to the balance sheets themselves, most of the school balance sheets examined were deficient in inform- ation as to whether the surplus shown was available for further appropriation, or whether it represented but a state- 100 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA ment of the difference between the cash received and the obligations recorded to date. Accounts receivable and un- vouchered obligations were conspicious by their absence. As constructive suggestions, balance sheets of the General Fund, Sinking Fund, Playground Fund, and Separate Fund of the Oklahoma City schools as of July 1st, 1922, giving this information, are presented as Exhibits (III), (IV), (V), and (VI), accompanying this report. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 101 Eh H m o o o 02 Eh W o m Q fa o <: o « p < to Eh m 00 C^ OS ctT t- 05 «9- . n CO C «-| I S -^ => CO 05 00 o ft ►*> ^ rr. O ft Ih 01 C P •-5 -a s ego 0) « S « ?► ft ri -a — -a M as c 3 fci o p o o rf a> o ft Oi S 5D O "^ '5 tH CO & U Oi ft 3 ^3 3 O O t< S ft I- ft o U5 !0 00 -»< T-l O la o U5 00 X a oi pq c o o X u CO U5 IM CO o 00 t- U2 r-T CO 00 to * O ^ 03 > 3 as OS OS 'iJ 00 OS OO cq ui 00 to r- z ^^ <0 J3 o c m d CS u o m •w 1 u* >. c v +J 3 O 1 s ID a u <» ft l« (1) c^ o <^ aj OS goo. 3 0) y 0) ft > 0, OS OS OS OS OS Tj< e -* cj CO to o o u 4, T-\ OS rH to' 00 O OS t-^ !' a, " ^ ^ OI O 3 3 g-^ g OS a, 3 OS £ > w .2 3 03 ^ •Si 3 ftS ft 3 <%, 3 O 2 fi ft oi a) ft > d ^ ^ i^ 3 OH •3 O 3 a) O 4) •O 3 3 - oi T—i J_l »i-t 1 -!-• OsOo +-> e S- s s s oi y y - ^ -Q O (H O 03 !»•" «3 3 3 I- a' -. y £ o oj o y r" <" 53 d ™ O l- S i- O " y ^ y ft S *^ o 3 a. y 2 o 5"" a; l< Oi P .-■ y yd) ■^ y ^ y y "C t- T^^l ft c '^ y 2 rH § t>i INI l> 3 irj ^ t-5 rH O 3 rH (H O o O >. O o3 03 ■»-> y y 8 3 3 03 Oi -O y +j 05 s "•G 03 y > y r— t X oi CH ,<£, » «o» 2 » s ^ W 5 -S o ■e rs X o 3 -I u Oh 102 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA O o OS C OS o t- ^ Tt lO -t «D 00 ■* •* •^ H Ifl c CO IS in \r. ir: o_ l> i-f 1— 1 m i> t- in IM ■* o- N CO -^ oo c tH V. T^ r-T * * ft» OS c o O m OS oc c C^ m t- oc cc o ■* o: in ira o- T-l o: _ t- <^ 00 c c« u: " tc « 00 o- OS t- tc >H iH tH T— c^ P tH (M M fto- H OS CO C m Q < m CO -a c o o •f-« Sh p. .2 .5 ^ s •-3 c 72 1— 1 m o o o w 01 to CO a > c to .2 OS C bo C 3 V c c tc CO OS tH o> o to 01 to to h^ > 03 c -t-j o o c £ > ■ i -1 t-l 1-1 5Q i3 c o to 4) z. 1 o c to 0) +- re o to o o ri xn 3 a 73 O 3 ^ !- Q, c 1— c 1 a to a; o w U o >A L4 3 W O _a3 p: ^ H u t< < 03 htJ 72 cfl < < 00 00 in o CO OS o o oo o o oo o o r- o o CO o o lO o o 1-1 ca CO o OS CO 05 OS * O O O CO o o o t> O O CO ■»(< o in CO o o c~ 00 1— I CO o in CO o ■^ 00 o in CO o o CO CO 72 H 72 72 < c cii c pq c 'u OJ CO a e 72 w bfi C CO <»J s s 5 S » CQ — •4-> o 72 « 'S t- 2§ (11 C^ > (M •^ CO c "^ to £ rt a -4-1 U O 3 H 72 00 o OS co" CO o in CO in CO in OS OS CO in oo' CO in oo CO o CO CO CO CO OS tH 3 ■«-> o "3 4> c tf 0) a to 01 X h CO OS t- in o" T— I CO in o 00 CO CO t- OS CO CO in CO 1—1 ^ 05 1-! o u CO 01 CO a OS "-I in >i CO > M 01 0> iH U CO 0) OS rv T-l in >i en > CO 0> o o c 3 O s c3 09 10 01 CO OS CO os" o o o O) to -= a£ o CO OS A oo o OS CD CO C^l CO co" t-^ CO OS oo CO CO CO 8 ^ , ^ >^ dJ CO CO I CO CO OS 01 3 c« ? - c-a ^ CO .X ■<-> 0:2 o 01 ■!-> V E S so <1> s & o -S >. o -a .ti X o S 104 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA o o W o m Eh U O > X! 00 CO o o Ms »3 J .2 Pi P^ t) -a P M 1-1 a 09 IT- OS in" CD ce 00 biD C m s 5 c« •4^ o OJ -M 3 -a o dj Q O !>^ (3 ft C 3 o c W c o W CO 41 (M U I 3 N 1- a> u P. ni X ^ 0) >H o o o 2 «J p.- c <^ 3 ''J 8 ^ o P 2 ft o -5 >■"■ 2 ■^ > .2 =« •;3 a 3 .2 03 'C ^ r, o n O- ^ ft cc t- OJ t- to 00 50 C<1 CO CO c _ 03 3 C<1 * 3 OS Ql O ^ O s ■s§ 9} bl 01 •-1 OS t- O Eh +j y o y 3 3 ta 03 -O m > > 0) <— * c o '4-> Lh o ft o u 0* FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 105 ox Q m o CO 00 00 03 <:o' s '3 •a I u >^ § u CO w a o a a 0) w & S? rt *-' S>> ;-i IM O -w O nS a, ■^- .pM CO *J o W aS a -a <; CO 0) ea > W 1 O 0) c*> CO >s J- > CO > 2 dJ d) c; h3 Jh^ a ■!-> o OS OQ m "" o o y S CO a=^ a ' o u c oi a) >> «j o o 5 M a <= 3 c

01 i-, u 01 a c '■k> o a a a o X 1 ^ ::3 o o* ■'-< L. a s <=< o 0(3 +1 CO O "O CO > S o ►^ CO y ^ CO CO fl =« a « «> 0-2 S 0) C -^ t: y C O ^3 ^ CO q; *" s ^ ' o c o c^i tiC y y y ? '5 c S •1-4 '^4 +-> 4-1 CO 3 y W 03 y +j 3 . 4-1 y . y oj >»;3 4-> |s>, 3 c -^^ 8 3 y y 'C o c ci U J2 y o 0) CD be 3 y Qi 4-J CO y y y X :=: O o y CO y u -a y y o u a 1-1 o CO y J3 y o y y u o .2 c -a y • ^ y 3 3 be o y CO -i^ 4-» 4-* ^-^ yO o.^ u ^ 'O y to y a^ M o s* o y ,is r; 4-J tH ■73 Oj be y a £4 "^ y •-4 cj 03 ^ t- m ^ >, 4-> a 4-> *^ ^5 0) "•' ^ u a — o y 03 y d y 4-1 ;-i o a y be::: > OS- O '^ 03 s y y 03 Oj „ y .X CO oj o y y a y y 3 3 y y O o C C y y ■B 73 C C y y 4-> 4-1 n '•« y y a a 3 3 M EC >. >s 4-> 4-> c c 3 3 O O 00 'S'S y y y y o o E £ o o 'O 'O CD y y cj C _g .5 oS cij i? O O r: C^J OS 4-1 03 c o y O ^ - 3 O O C ^ t4 S i= ° ni ai a A4 4-1 .2g C y i^ p o ^ C fi 03 ■'^ "^ be y 03 03 -3 .Q S S 'O a a s S 3 3 3 3 a a.Q ^iSS o 3 t. t, .S O O O oj C H m w S O a: < 72 O H Eh O I— I <: w o O O K O Oh o o o J P2 o -a oo CO oo a 2 Q w Oh a Q I o E-" O u o U o w o u u < Q ^ c 60 2§ O o I— « <: « CO t- o 00 M O (M CO X «5 t-l 00 — 03 3 o Eh Q Z ^ o CO of o 00 in CO ««■ o CO o CO Oi lO (35 co' o o CO o CO 00 CO o CO od o oo CO to to t- o> CO C § 01 CV] u C C CT 03 C .- > ^ ai ;3 0) " ^ '^ O Q Eh c P 02 bO PQ 2-? O o Eh O N >-l CO 00 CO o o O ■"!<_ e in o S be ^ c .S 0? s 3 S X a> . ■ , tn 0) 3 R o S: * u "1 O 02 3 ,» ft o t 00 ira CO o o in" Cvl •«»< o oo CO o ic oi m CO o t~- C- O Csl T-T as" e +J t. 3 ,„ 0> O 0> p 3 O O CD *^ OQ "3 C >- S 3 t. ■^ _ 9 o ° O O ^ >• C =^ t; - -^ ^ ■? .5 -2 ^ CO CO 0) 0> Si Si 0, (U -*-» +-» 3 3 ^ 3 C *^ § 5 o£ S o ^ £ S « S; rt — ' ^ ^ W (/. o be .S" 3 3 ti O 03 ft§ S 9 ft u 3 i. 0> 0> 03 y< 3 W o 01 9 "3 S O 3 £§ u S£ rt -^ " o Eh 108 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 00 o v (0 ^ c CO (0 C4 <0 0) fi — ' 0) o o -^ '-I 2 = CO O) be c M ITS CM CO 00 o o la U5 eo o in t— CO 00 l« 00 00 en r-T 03 «%• 00 00 r-< t- 00 o e^ CO c 3 3 -^^ O > S W S QJ tw O ■M c 0) in O in ci oo »• oo" CD "3 -M 03 C^ a M 3 oq ^- C5 arH CO in CO CD OO co" m CO od 3 £1 u 3 S 03 c o Xi >> a a > U 03 03 03 X! -O 03 Si 'k M . ^-3 0) »H cd 43 O 03 03 o oj o c 03 > 03 a.2 > -3 -M Si 3 i^ ■^ 3 ° O C 03 £ 'S 03 OJ rt t-_^ "5 tn" CO ^ SO- oo 00 03 OS o tH c- -3 00 03 o 03 C^] 03 CO so- > 03 03 03 t. m c O 03 S.5 -3 ° ® ctf ■*-* r3 3- 02 03 ■? y 03 O J2 c ^" O 03 > cS o c c o s ^ ~ o o c FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 109 Financial statements showing functional expenditures, can be developed to further advantage. The value of any financial system showing school ex- penditures by function is in proportion to the clearness in which it is presented. Its value is increased when present- ed in a form comparable with that used by other schools. Many of the city school systems are presenting such state- ments. These statements, however, can be further develop- ed to advantage. A constructive suggestion along this line, in the form of a comparative statement of the function- al expenditures of the Oklahoma and Okmulgee city schools, and the Oklahoma County district schools, is presented as Exhibit (VIII) accompanjdng this report. (See page 110.) This statement shows in the fiscal year of 1921-22, that 91.3 per cent of the expenditures of the Oklahoma City schools was consumable expense, and 8.7 per cent was investment ; that 75.7 per cent of the Okmulgee City schools was consumable expense, and 24.3 per cent was investment; and that 86.4 per cent of the Oklahoma County schools was consumable expense, and 13.6 per cent was investment. Of the total for consumable expense, Oklahoma City schools used 71.3 per cent for instructional service, Okmulgee 68.7 per cent, and Oklahoma County 67.1 per cent. Other similar comparisons are made ; one being that Okmulgee spends for instructional supervision, includ- ing educational tests and measurements, proportionately twice as much as OBahoma City does. It would bo interesting to loiow if this additional ex- pense for tests and measurements is responsible in any way for the reduced per cent of the total expenditure for instructional service. VVhenever statements of functional expenditures of different schools are compared in this manner they are found to be prolific in information which can be used advantageously in determining educational policies and programs. no PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA > m I— I o o o w o El U l-H H o a o w O o H WW > W 2w o - o o a o >^ 05 O o o O a i S o o ci o £ -^ o " 3 o CO O «0 00 ai in o CO C 0) O (V o a> o 3 " ire oo" o O «D o 05 o o 00 t- O o irj 00 I— CO* o C 3 ■* O t~ Q ir3 o 05 ^ oo_ in f5 C CO ira CM OS o ■^_ o oo C- lO CO C0_ rH O 00 th 05" CO CO 00 ■XI «D 00 OJ m cq o o -^ to t- o o OS O 05 O M «o in 00 in iH ■* o ix> 00 t^ «© »H t- <0 U3 00 OS o CO o 00 CO 0.1 ■^ OS m o OS o t- •>>< M OS «o CO o_ 00 c^ O M t-^ <0 r-l ■>!< CO rH 10 CO tH 00 CD t- |^5 c^q CO 10 CO 00 irt in" 00 CO OS t- co' CO O CO OS rH CD CO c-^ in 00 in OS c^ CO CO r-i ci OS in os_ OS 00 OS* 00 CO os' CO in 00 J in w m W Oh X W W 1-1 m < O u 0) bo C o X >^ «] CO 01 o X 0) c o CO bn t- c 3 —I to a> C bn I c^ -t-> CO r-. OJ Clj In O 0) »3 -l-J c CO d o ^ 0) CO S 01 n X 01 CO ^ 01 73 c h Whi; C 01 o O "O 01 WW W c r-. o ■;: poo c * ' ' o > U'-2 . . !- bo C * o 0> s 2 o OJ " s o g ^ CO n 3 0) CO 0) o o o '^ c ^ w be C a 01 OJ 0) o -a c be c '4-) c; 3 o o o a - 3 be £« C CO bo c^ C y 2 3 3 o o > 01 M c CO i5 i .2 > c -o ^H fc< 01 e S « S o 3 ft § O m M W to c CO a 3 o O -o c cij CO bo C 2 3 PQ c o 01 a O 13 3 W ■a s bo 3 M c 1-1 ft 0) 0> FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 111 t-. 00 eo t>; e« o o CO 00 O o r-l ce Oi ■^ cc fc CO rH 00 ■*' OJ t>5 r-l d o T-l U3 CD © U5 to 00 oo -•r C4 O o o in in oo' 00 CO O 03 oo' o o OS o o o in ^ w t— rH C<1 t- i-H CD 05 I C<1 t~ CO O c~ '»• o> CM O -"f M 00 o 00* 00 CO 00 eo r-t eg •>»< O rH rH eg O t- M e CO to" rH in oi -«<■ rH CO - -^ o o eg eg in to in Oi 00 oj CO d 00 eg rH o o rH CO rH Oi to eg CO HT t- T-l eg o to •"J" in o in ■^ t^ o in co' 00 © rH in o o in 00 00 o o 00 in 00 d d oo' eo' OS o o o> t~ t> o o c~ OJ eg Oi OJ rH rH 00 to to US rH US > la 2 w 0) •a 03" 0) o 0; c ft rt S c o n; o C o i I S " to CS .5o c £ ft '3 a> T3 C .2 £ c (P c " ^ cS 5 3 - O rt O O :- J12 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 6. School District annual statistical reports to State Superin- tendent of Education, subject to improvement. The annual statistical report made by school districts to the State Superintendent of Education, in so far at least as financial statistics are concerned, can be materially improved. In the form now prepared, the cost of items pertaining to a previous fiscal year may overlap those of the current year without discovery; and the cash summary of receipts and expenditures consists of all funds combined in one. This form can with advantage be redesigned so as to segregate expenditures by character; it should also be coordinated with the form covering the finances of school districts, prescribed by the State Examiner and Inspector, which treasurers of school districts, including county treas- urers, prepare and submit to county excise boards. C. FINANCING METHODS. 1. Bond issues pemiissable on too liberal a basis. The school law of Oklahoma permits the issue of bonds by any school district for not only acquisition of property such as land, buildings and equipment but also for repairs to such property, when approved by three-fifths of the citi- zens voting at an election held thereon, and provided that the amount of the bonds together with existing indebted- ness of the schools does not exceed five per cent of the tax- able property of the district. School districts with the permission of the court are also authorized to issue bonds for the purpose of refund- ing indebtedness, including bonds, judgments,, and war- rants. This is too liberal a basis on which to issue bonds to be sound finance. Repairs are current expense, and should never be funded out of other than current revenues. Judg- ments and warrants may represent expenses of current or previous years, or they may represent property acquisition ; if the former, this policy means permission to postpone, up to twenty-five years, the payment of salaries, supplies, and other consumable expense, should a school district so de- sire. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 113 However, it appears that the Supreme Court of Okla- homa has held as unconstitutional the provision in the school law permitting, by means of bond issue, the liquidating of Avarrants issued for current expenses in excess of current revenues or for liquidating other indebtedness even though it may be for services and material from which the munici- pal corporation has received a benefit. But for this de- cision of the Court, the other provisions in the law with regard to holding expenditures within appropriations wouli be nullified by this refunding provision. 2. Authority to use sinking funds to pay judgments, unsound finance. The authority to use sinking funds to pay judgments is unsound finance for the same reason that the issue of bonds to pay judgments is questioned. If the judgment covers consumable expense it should be liquidated by tax levy for the reason that the expense which the judgment represents is unlawful unless it has been incurred in accordance with an appropriation; and should the revenues not be forthcoming, upon which the appro- priation 'has been predicated, the unintentional overdraft should be made good out of the ensuing year's revenues. It is not the kind of a debt that one generation should ask another generation to share through having its payment run over a period of years. If the judgment covers property acquisition in excess of debt limitation within which a bond issue, if approved by popular vote, would be legal, then the judgment should be liquidated by tax levy. This is assuming that the prop- erty acquisition has been authorized by appropriation. Any other policy opens the door to subterfuge. This is obvious in districts where school buildings have been built at a cost in excess of bond issues permissible within constitu- tional debt limitation on the chance that once the building was erected equity Avould permit the excess cost to be paid by judgment. If the law is too restrictive to meet the needs of the schools the step to take is to am^end the law, not to put one's foot through it. If constitutional provision stands in the way of thus amending the statutes steps should be taken to amend the constitutional provision. 114 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKX-AHOMA 3. Policy in regard to investing- Sinking Funds, questionable. In addition to investing sinking funds in United States and Oklahoma state bonds, the statutes authorize their in- vestment in the bonds and warrants of any municipality in the State, including school districts. Acting upon this authorization independent school districts are investing their sinking funds in their o^vn warrants. This is ques- tionable practice for the following reasons : (a) If the Sinking Fund is invested in the debtor's own bonds or obligations, its existence is not of the least advantage to the creditor. It gives him no additional se- curity, — legal, equitable, or honorary. It is a worthless de- vice so far as he is concerned. (The Sinking Fund — Brown) (b) The earning power of the sinking fund is apt to be reduced by reason of holding it idle or earning but de- positary interest awaiting its investment in sinking funds; and its earnings are nil when no interest is paid on the warrants. The latter condition exists in regard to the sinking funds of the Oklahoma City school district. Based on the idea that it is an economic waste to pay interest to itself, this school district has adopted the policy of paying no in- terest on its warrants when purchased by its sinking funds. The result of this policy is that on July 1st, 1922, this school district had $205,373.83 sinking fund cash on deposit earn- ing but depositary interest, and $527,104.76 of sinking funds invested in school warrants of its own and of the separate schools imder its jurisdiction, earning no interest. These two added together make a total of $732,478.59. Assuming that $700,000 of this amount might be in- vested at 5 per cent (based on the present value of money) in good securities, the sinking funds are losing, on an annual basis, $35,000 less the depositary interest (say $8,000) re- ceived, or $27,000 net. As an offset to this net amount what has the school district saved in interest which it would other- wise be paying on its warrants ? Figuring 6 per cent annual interest on outstanding unpaid Avarrants at the end of each month from July 30th, 1921, to June 30th, 1922, and adding these twelve amounts together, the interest on the warrants would have cost the school district, $25,960.56. This is assum- FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 115 ing that a bank, to obtain the school account, might be will- ing to loan money on its warrants at six per cent ; and par- ticularly so, if the school law was amended to permit a school district issuing short time notes in anticipation of tax levies. If such an amendment could be obtained the work incident to figuring, entering, and posting the interest applicable to each warrant, Avhich takes much time and costs much money, wherever interest is paid on warrants, would be eliminated. On the other hand, where a school district actually saves money by this policy, the saving is not commensurate with the other evils which it engenders. 4. The issue of Sinking Fund bonds a costly method of financing. The theory upon which the issue of sinking fund bonds is based is : first, that by levying a tax annually for a por- tion of the total of the bonds, instead of waiting and levying a tax for the full amount when the bonds are due is less burdensome upon the taxpayer; and second, that by invest- ing each year that portion of the principal which has been levied, the sum of the amounts levied, together with the in- terest they earn, will pay the bonds at their maturity and thus effect their payment at a less cost to the taxpayer than would otherwise be the case. This theory has proven a fallacy in many instances, with the result that many municipalities have discontinued the issue of sinking fund bonds and now issue only serial bonds. Chamberlain in his "Principles of Bond Investment" (1911) presents the following argument: "Sinking funds do not amortize a debt; they merely convert it or offset it. The only way to sink a debt is to pay it. The simple, rational, and economic way to pay a debt is to pay it in approximately equal periodic installments. This is the serial bond method. ' ' "Sinking funds are not only liable to misappropriation, unwise investment, suspension, and the like, but they are costly. Their average earnings are little, if any, over 3 per cent. Serial bonds require a minimum of expense and pro- duce a maximum of security. When a bond issue is serial the investment grows safer as it grows older." 116 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Chandler in "Tlie Metropolitan Debts of Boston and Vicinity. Sinking Fund and Serial Bond Methods Compared" presents figures showing that on $1,000,000 at 4 per cent for twenty years the inter- est charges by the serial bond method is $114,426 less than the net interest charges by the sinking fund method. In addition, it is in order at this point to call attention to the item "Commission to Fiscal Agency" which appears in the Okla- homa school accounts as a charge against the Sinking Fund. If this charge covers fees incident to the sale of bonds, and the net amount derived therefrom after this charge has been deducted is less than the par value of the bonds plus accrued interest, this charge against the Sinking Fund is subterfuge and circumvents the provision of the school law which prohibits the sale of bonds on such a basis. On the other hand, if the charge is a fee for serving as the fiscal depos- itory, payment should be made from the General Fund instead of from the Sinking Fund as it is a current expense item. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the major criticism of the public schools of Okla- homa, from the financial point of view, is that they are not under the financial jurisdiction and control of those who are responsible for educational results. This control should be vested in the boards of education; and until it is so vested, they cannot be held respon- sible for educational policies and programs. The minor criticism is that the methods of financial and ac- counting procedure in the various educational institutions, elemen- tary, secondary, and higher negative, are deficient in producing digested financial information necessary for administrative and financial review; and the methods lack co-ordination. In fact, a general reorganization of school financial procedure is necessary if the schools ar.e to function as an independent, constructive, educa- tional force. In order to bring the above about, the various school laws and other laws relating thereto, now providing in detail the manner of preparing financial statements and estimates of revenues and ex- penditures pertaining to the schools, should be amended so as to eliminate that detail and instead provide a general grant of power. When school budgets are approved by the boards of education having jurisdiction any school levy incident thereto, provided it is within limitations provided in the statutes and State Constitution, should be mandatory upon the tax levying bodies. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE 117 The following amendments to the school law are suggested. (1) County boards of education should be created, and vested with authority to review and approve budgets of all non-independent schools within their jurisdiction, provided that all tax levies incident to those budgets should be within mill limitations as to taxation for school purposes which now exist in the statutes and State Constitu- tion, or which m,ay be hereafter amended. (2) Board of education for independent school districts should be vested with the same authority as above set forth for the pro- posed county boards of education. (3) The State board of education should have authority to review and approve budgets of subsidiary educational boards, which cover different groups of educational activities; the approval of these budgets should be subject to such financial limitations as the Legislature may prescribe. (4) All county and school district tax levies for school pur- poses should be made in accordance with the following subdivisions : (a) General Fund, Covering current expenses, including play- ground activities now a separate levy, and including all repairs and replacements of land, buildings and equip- ment; with the exception of interest on bonds. (b) Building Fund_, Covering all expenditures for additional land, buildings, and equipment, or for additions to exist- ing land, buildings, and equipment. (c) Sinking Fund, Covering expenditures for bond interest and principal. (5) The State Board of Education should be vested with auth- ority to prescribe all details as to school budget procedure, including the preparation of financial statements and estimates of revenues and expenditures; provided that the details of such accounting forms as may be required to secure financial data from other sources than school officials, which may be required in the consideration of school policies, shall be prescribed by the State Examiner and Inspector. (6) Whenever the budget of a school district has been ap- proved by the board of education having jurisdiction, all tax levies incident thereto should be mandatory upon the tax levying agency of the district. 118 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (7) The State Board of Education should be vested with auth- ority to prescribe the methods of recording- all school data, both statistical and financial which shall be maintained in the different school systems of the State, and to require such periodical reports from the schools as it may deem necessary. CHAPTER V. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. Problems of organization and administration of rural schools, and of village and city schools, are discussed in the two Chapters dealing with these schools. In this Chapter will be found a brief discussion of the provisions needed in order that State leadership and direction in public education may be made more effective. There are two major considerations affecting educational con- ditions in Oklahoma: (1) Inadequate and unsystematic financial support, the rem- edies for which are discussed in Chapter III; and (2) certain limita- tions on the functioning of vital and effective leadership, the remedy for which is an enlarged and strengthened State Department of Education. Let us consider, first, what are the functions which should be discharged by the agency which is responsible for State leadership in education, and what are the essential features of the administra- tive machinery which will make this leadership effective. ADMINISTRATIVE FEATURES OF A STATE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. The history of education in the United States shows very clearly the acceptance of the theory of responsibility of the several States for public education within their borders and the development of the State as the administrative unit in education. The plans which have been adopted in the States are not uniform, however, nor is there the same degree of centralization. The various State systems of education have been modified from time to time in the light of experience, so that existing plans may be said to be the result of a process of evolution. ''The de- velopment of State oversight and control has come gradually, and may be traced in the State constitutions, the laws, and the decisions of the courts."* ♦Cubberley-Elliott: State and County School Administration; p. 143. Oklahoma is now in the position of coiisidering what changes, 119 120 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA if any, to make in the State system of public education for the next few years, and has the opportunity to profit by her own experience and that of other States. The folloAving analysis of the administra- tive features of a State system of education suggests the more im- portant points which should be considered. 1. Unification of general control. — A decision should be reached as to the extent or degree of centralization of control to be adopted as a State policy. This report recommends that whatever changes are made in existing arrangem^ents should be in the direction of fur- ther centralization of general control and unification of the entire system of education. As indicated elsewhere definite provision should be made for local initiative and local control of details under general regulations, but it is important to think of all phases of pub- lic education within the State as parts of a single, unified, coordi- nated system. The various types of education should be developed in relation one to the other, and in proportion to their function in a general, comprehensive plan. As in a city it has not been thought wise to have one board in charge of elementary schools, another in charge of high schools, another in charge of personnel, and so on ; so, it is believed, in a State definite provision should be made for the con- sideration of the educational system as a whole, and the relative needs of the various parts. This can be accomplished only by making coordination and ninification a definite responsibility of some State agency designated for this purpose. 2. Determination of objectives. — One of the most important functions of the agency which may be charged with the responsi- bility of general oversight is to bring about some acceptable deter- mination of the objectives of public education. The citizens of a State, and even the educators themselves, do not always have a clear conception of the ends sought to be accomplished by the var- ious parts of the educational system. A clear definition of the aims and purposes of public elementary education in the State of Okla- homa would assist materially in solving the problem now before the people. The same thing may be said of secondary education, of higher education, and of special forms of education. This function can hardly be performed by any agency which is not able impar- tially and judicially to evaluate the services and harmonize the en- thusiasms of all the individuals, groups, and institutions which, together, make up the system. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 121 3. Definition of functions and responsibilities. Having deter- mined the objectives of the various parts of the system, it will then be possible to make a corresponding assignment of functions and division of responsibilities. 4. Coordination. — Coordination of the activities of the several parts of the sj'stem is essential if consistent progress is to be made toward realization of the objectives set up. Such coordination should be specifically provided for, and some officer or board should be charged with the duty of securing it. 5. Determination of standards. — Since the immediate manage- ment of the schools is in the hands of local boards, the State must exercise its function of general control through legislative enact- ments and regulatory promulgations. These take the form, in part, of prescriptions of minimum standards which are to be maintained. These standards relate to compulsory school attendance, courses of instruction, qualifications and compensation of teachers, and the like. Upon the State also rests the duty of equalizing education opportunities for all. 6. Adequate financial support. — Participation by the State in the financial support of public education is a necessary corollary of the principle of State control, and the principle of minimum stand- ards set by the State. 7. Preparation of the budget. — The importance of having and living- up to a budget is no less in educational affairs than in the conduct of other public and private business. Furthermore, the preparation of a budget furnishes an additional reason for a uni- fied State system of education. 8. Selection, training and certification of personnel. — One of the most important functions of the State system of education is discharged in its dealing with the problem of the supply of ade- quately prepared teachers. 9. Progressive development. — It is not sufficient to establish an educational system for today; definite provision should be made for future growth and development. The plan of organization should look toward progressive improvement and increasing effi- ciency. To this end effective and aggressive leadership at the various levels should be definitely provided for. 10. Legislation. — Continuous expert study of the legislative basis of the State educational system is essential, as well as of the plans and policies adopted in other States. 122 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 11. Publicity. — The schools belong to the people, and provision should be made for keeping them informed as to the goals toward which the schools are working, the progress they are making, and in general what returns they show on the investment which the people have made in them. CONDITIONS UNFAVORABLE FOR THE EXERCISE OF LEADERSHIP. These desirable ends can be only partially realized under ex- isting conditions in Oklahoma, which are distinctly unfavorable to the exercise of leadership. (1) The first serious defect in the State administrative plan for education is found in the large number of unrelated boards and offices having to do with educational affairs. LIST OF BOARDS, COMMISSIONS, AND OFFICES HAVING TO DO WITH EDUCATIONAL AFFAIRS IN THE STATE OF OKLAHOMA. State Board of Agriculture. A. & M. College, Stillwater. Connor School of Agriculture, Warner. Cameron School of Agriculture, Lawton. Panhandle School of Agriculture, Goodwell. Murray School of Agriculture, Tishomingo. State Department of Education. State Examiner and Inspector. Commissioners of State Land Office. State Board of Public Affairs. Eastern State Home for Orphans, Pryor. Western State Home for Orphans, Helena. Institute for Feeble-minded, Enid. Colored Deaf, Blind and Orphan Institute, Taft. State Training School for Negro Girls, Taft. State Training School for White Boys, Pauls Valley. State Industrial School for Girls, Tecumseh. State Training School for Negi'o Boys, McAlester. State Board of Education. Southeastern State Normal School, Durant. Central State Normal School, Edmond. Northwestern State Normal School, Alva. East Central State Normal School, Ada. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 123 Southwestern State Normal School, Weatherford. Northeastern State Normal School, Tahlequah. School for the Blind, Muskogee. School for the Deaf, Sulphur. Oklahoma Library Commission. Americanization Commission. State Commissioner of Health. Board of Control for Military Training- in Schools. State Textbook Commission. Board of Regents, School of Mines, Wilburton. Board of Regents, School of Mines, Miami. Board of Regents, Oklahoma Military Academy, Claremore. Board of Regents, Oklahoma Business Academy, Tonkawa. Board of Regents, Colored Agriculture and Normal University, Lang-ston. Board of Regents, University of Oklahoma, Norman. Board of Regents, Oklahoma College for Women, Chickasha. In addition to these State boards are to be found County excise boards, County boards of education, and urban boards of education, with no adequate provision for coordination, and with indefinite relationships as to mutual responsibilities. The functons and re- sponsibilities of these various agencies are discussed in appropriate places in other Chapters. It is sufficient, at this point, to call atten- tion to the grave obstacles in the way of developing a real "system" of public education along these lines. COMPOSITION OF BOARDS FAULTY. (2) Even if it were possible to conduct a system of education through a multiplicity of boards such as this, the work would be done most inefficiently because of the way in which certain of the boards are constituted. Sound principles of administration demand a clear division of responsibility between the board of trustees and the expert executives and subordinates employed by it. The board of trustees should consist of representatives of the people, the patrons who are to be served by the schools, and should confine its activities to the consideration and formulation of policies, the selection of experts to execute these policies, and the periodical inspection of the work of its executives in order to see that policies are carried out and the desired results secured. The executive officers and other educational experts employed by the board should be chosen solely for their professional qualifica- 124 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA tions and demonstrated fitness for the special work to be done. The details of school managenxent and direction must be left to those who have prepared themselves for this special Avork. Thus, for ex- ample, no board should undertake to select a teacher of chemistry ; this is a highly technical responsibility which should be delegated to a technically qualified expert. EECOMMENDATIONS OF LEADERS FREQUENTLY DISREGARDED. (3) A third factor affecting educational progress in Oklahoma is the frequent disregard of the counsel and suggestions of the edu- cational leaders of the State. Many of the recommendations em- bodied in this Survey Report have been urged repeatedly in the past by State, County, and city superintendents, and others who have made close study of conditions and needs in Oklahoma. For example, the State Department of Education has for years been recommending the enactment of legislation looking toward the establishment of the county unit of organization and adminis- tration of elementary and secondary schools. Educators in all parts of the State, individually and through their professional organiza- tions, have urged the necessity of higher standard of qualifications for teachers. The imperative need of relief in the matter of Con- stitutional restrictions has been demonstrated over and over again. Many instances could be cited of progressive recommendations originating from those in position of educational leadership in Oklahoma, which have come to nought, beqause they have been rejected without due examination, or because of complexity of administrative machinery and diffusion of responsibility for action. If the educational leaders in the State had in the past been able to lay before a single State board of education, composed of influ- ential and representative citizens definitely conscious of responsi- bility for action, a comprehensive statement of the educational needs of Oklahoma, together with recommendations and a constructive program, it seems reasonable to suppose that rftany more of these suggestions would have been carried into effect. A REORGANIZED STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. The following paragraphs outline definite proposals for the re- organized State Department of Education. Tf ORGANIZATION AND ADMINIST^RATION 125 STAFF OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. The salary paid to the State superintendent of public instruc- tion, or State commissioner of education, should be considered as an index of the importance of the responsibilities of the office, and an index of the realization of their importance on the part of the cit- izens of the State. The influence of these considerations is reflected in a definite tendency toward higher salaries, but a number of States are still practicing- a false and costly economy in this matter. A study of the State departments of education* shows that in only six cases in 1920 were State superintendents paid less than $3,000 ; 13 received $3,000 to $3,600 ; 11 received $4,000 to $4,600 ; 9, $5,000; 2, $6,000; 2, $7,500; 1, $8,000; 1, $9,000; 2, $10,000; 1, $12,000. The loAvest salary paid was $2,000, Nebraska ; the highest, $12,000, Pennsylvania ; the average salary was $4,647.91. ♦Organization of State departments of education, Bulletin 1920, No. 46. The total payroll for the staff of the State department of educa- tion was less than $25,000 in 9 States ; in 20 States the amount was over $25,000, and less than $50,000 ; in 8 States $50,000 to $75,000 ; in, 5 States $75,000 to $100,000 ; in 3 States $100,000 to $200,000 ; in 3 States over $200,000. The lowest total payroll was $15,750, Nevada ; the highest, $822,900, New York ; the average, $72,681.16. The total payroll for Oklahoma in 1920 was reported as $26,600. Oklahoma needs a much better equipped department of education even for the maintenance and direction of the present school system. If the State is to undertake an educational program, such as is out- lined in this report, and to carry it out intelligently, effectively, and economically, the need for a more potent agency for leadership is imperative. The Survey, therefore, recommends the establishment of the salary of the State superintendent or commissioner of education at $7,500, with other salaries in proportion, and the increase of the salary budget to $102,000, to be reached by 1925, as follows : With the development of the forward program it will undoubt- edly be necessary to increase certain of the salaries suggested in the foregoing budget, and to add the following: two assistants to the director of educational research; two assistants to the director of physical education; supervisor of music; supervisor of art edu- cation; assistant specialist in school buildings and grounds; 6 cler- ical assistants. 126 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA PERSONNEL OF THE STAFF. In the appointment of the Commissioner of education the State board of education should canvass the entire United States and en- deavor to select a man of successful experience in large enterprises and of broad vision in educational affairs, who is capable of assum- ing a position of leadership which will carry the citizens and the teachers of the State unitedly to the consummation of the great task ahead. For assistant commissioner in charge of teacher training should be chosen someone of outstanding achievements in this field, whose special assignment will be to improve the qualifications of the teach- ers now in service, and to assist in the development of the State plans for the preparation of teachers. It should be the function of this office to educate the citizens of Oklahoma to an appreciation of the significance of the service rendered by professionally qualified and devoted teachers, as well as to inspire and lead the teachers themselves. It should be the duty of the assistant commissioner in charge of school administration to work primarily "with county and city superintendents, principals of schools, and others having adminis- trative responsibilities. By means of conferences for the discussion of special problems, bulletins, and correspondence, administrative officers can be given the results of the best modern developments, and suggestions which will lead to economy of tim,e and effort and the organization of more effective administrative machinery. The suggestions with reference to the staff in rural education are justified both by the importance of rural education in Oklahoma and by the demands of the proposed program. There should be a supervisor of elementary education, as well as a supervisor of sec- ondary education, in order to insure continuous study of these special problems, and to provide authoritative sources of i"nspira- tion and guidance in these important phases of education. A strong division of vocational education should be organized by providing for a State director of vocational education, with a staff consisting of supervisors of agricultural education, trades and industries, manual arts, and home economics, respectively. The director of educational research should undertake the re- organization of the educational statistics of the department, includ- ing data on school costs,' revenues, enrollment, attendance, and the like. As rapidly as the necessary assistants can be provided, this ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 127 division should also include a study of educational legislation, and should prepare to assume State leadership in the field of educational and psychological tests and measurements. The director of educa- tional research should be responsible for coordinating the work of the director of physical education and the specialist in school build- ings and grounds with the Avork of his own division. The director of physical education should have charge of all activities relating to the promotion of physical education, school hygiene and sanitation, and health education. The specialist in school buildings and grounds should have had successful experience in designing and planning school buildings, and should have thorough knowledge of construction and of the various kinds of school equipment. The division should prepare and distribute plans of buildings and grounds for the use of local school boards, on request, and should be prepared to offer sugges- tions concerning equipment and maintenance. The importance of the problem of education for negroes in Oklahoma should be recognized by the appointment of a director who by reason of his special training, experience, and qualifications for this work Mall command the confidence and support of the people of both races. The white people of Oklahoma have, in fact, at least as much at stake as the negroes in any decision as to what educa- tional opportunities shall be provided for the latter. In common with many other offices, the department of educa- tion is inadequately provided with clerical assistance. The additions suggested will increase the effectiveness of the work, and make possible more complete utilization of the expert knowledge and abilities represented by the staff. CllAPTIOR VI. HIGHER EDUCATION. 1. GENERAL AND HISTORICAL. 1. INTRODUCTION. This report on public higher education in Oklalioma deals specifically with the following thirteen institutions. 1. University of Oklahoma, at Norman. 2. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Still- water. 3. Oklahoma College for Women, at Chickasha. 4. East Central State Teachers' College, at Ada. 5. Northwestern State Teachers' College, at Alva. 6. Southeastern State Teachers' College, at Durant. 7. Central State Teachers' College, at Edmond. 8. Northeastern State Teachers' College, at Tahlequah. 9. Southwestern State Teachers' College, at Weatherford. 10. Colored Agricultural and Normal University, at Langston. 11. Oklahoma School of Mines, at Wilburton. 12. Miami School of Mines at Miami. 13. Panhandle Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Good- well. All of the institutions were visited by one or more members of the group who made the study of higher education in the State. In addition to securing information through conferences and from printed material, statistical data were collected from the several institutions named. 2. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS. Oklahoma has great natural resources in land, minerals, oil, coal and forests. Upon the proper development and economic dis- tribution of these resources and their products, depends the material wealth and the physical comforts of the citizens of this and other States in the Union. In order that there may be the least amount of waste in all things pertaining to the material resources of the 128 HIGHER EDUCATION 129 State, it is essential that the greatest possible care and intelligence be used in their development and distribution. For this purpose the State has need of an increasing number of trained specialists and technicians. In a Democracy the people govern. They do so by the selection of officials and the power of public opinion. Each year the ques- tions which present themselves for solution in the realm of inter- national, national, State and local government seem more and more complex. To solve them intelligently it is imperative that an in- creasing amount of knoAvledge concerning economic, political and social problems be spread abroad among the citizens of Oklahoma and other States. There is no other assurance of the permanency of a democratic form of government. Finally, on a basis of material wealth and intelligent democratic government depends the possibility of culture and the refinements of life, which after all, should be the climax of the life of any individual. So far as is economically possible, and in accordance with the ability of every individual there should be developed a widespread appreciation of good literature, music, art, and ethics or religion which satisfy the deepest longings of the human soul and lift an individual out of the ordinary daily routine of living. In order that all these ends may be attained, it is essential that there shall be leaders. For the development of our natural resources, we need the engineer, the chemist, the scientific farmer, the trained forester, the oil geologist, and a hundred other experts. For the proper distribution and use of the products of the soil, the mine and the forest, we need the services of trained economists, administra- tors, doctors, and dieticians. In order that we may have intelligent and effective popular government there should be a host of trained men and women, including lawyers and judges who can analyze public problems and lead public opinion in their solution. And, finally, there are needed thousands of trained teachers in our elemen- tary and secondary schools who are capable of offering to the boys and girls of the State that cultural, preparatory, or vocational education which will enable them to take their places in modern society most effectively. For all these purposes, the State of Oklahoma has established and is maintaining its institutions of higher learning. The obliga- tions which these institutions have to the State are as broad and as deep as there is need in the State for trained leaders of more than s. s. 5 130 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA secondary school education. The degree to which the higher insti- tutions fulfill these obligations will, in large part, determine the material prosperity, the quality of government and the spread of culture among the citizens of Oklahoma. The obligation on the part of the State to develop higher edu- cation should under no circumstances be considered as a dead expense. The more a State actually invests in higher education the more certain it can be of the physical comfort of its citizens, the stability of its government and the spread of culture. Education, therefore, in all its forms should be regarded as the best investment the people of the State can ntake either from an individual or a State point of view. 3. EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC HIGHER EDUCATION. Public higher education in Oklahoma had its official beginning in 1890 in Avhich year the first legislature of the Territory of Okla- homa established three institutions, the University of Oklahoma, the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, and Agricul- tural Experiment Station, and the State Normal School at Edmond. The next move was made in 1897 when a State normal school was established at Alva, and the Colored Agricultural and Normal University was provided for. This was followed in 1901 by setting up another State Normal school at Weatherford. Thus when state- hood was attained in 1907, Oklahoma had six public institutions of higher learning. The enabling act gave support to and strengthened these in- stitutions by granting section 13 in each township of certain Indian reservations and of all other lands opened for settlement in the Territory of Oklahoma "for the use and benefit of the University of Oklahoma and the University Preparatory School, one-third; of the normal schools now established or hereafter to be established, one-third; and of the Agricultural and Mechanical College and the Colored Agricultural and Normal University, one-third. ' ' A second grant which pertained directly to higher education was included in the enabling act as follows : For the benefit of the State university : 250,000 acres University preparatory school 150,000 acres Agricultural and mechanical college 250,000 acres Colored agricultural and normal university 100,000 acres State normal schools 300,000 acres. HIGHER EDUCATION 131 Moneys derived from these sources constitute the "new college fund." The first addition to public higher education following state- hood was made by the first State legislature which in 1908 pro- vided for the establishment of the Industrial Institute and College for Girls ' ' to give instruction in industrial arts, the English language and the various branches of mathematical, physical, natural and economical sciences, with special reference to their application in the industries of life."l The same legislature provided for the 1. The institution was conditionally located at Chickasha by an act approved March 27, 1909. In 1916 its name was changed to the Oklalioma College for Women. creation of a State School of Mines and Metallurgy at Wilburton, "to teach such branches in mining and metallurgy as will give a thorough technical knowledge of mines and mining and all subjects pertaining thereto. ' ' 2 2. In 1919 the institution was ordered "to include and accentuate in its curriculum vocational instruction below college grade in vocations relating to mining industries." The school was closed from 1917 to 1919. Regular courses extending over four years and leading to degrees were to be provided. By these enactments the eastern part of the State, formerly Indian Territory, and the western part of the State, formerly Oklahoma Territory, each were granted a State institution. Further facilities for higher education were provided by the second State legislature in 1909 through the establishment of three State normal schools in the section which had previously been Indian Territory. The schools were located at Ada, Durant, and Tahle- quah. The eastern part of the State then had three State teacher training institutions just as had the western section. No more schools of higher learning were established following 1909 until 1919 in which latter year the legislature provided for the Miami School of Mines, and expressed its purpose as follows: "The Miami School of Mines created by this act shall be a school where the science of mining and the study of metals shall be taught; and the courses of study to be prescribed for the stud- ents of the school shall, at all times, be selected with the view of the further development of the mining industries of the State of Oklahoma, and said school shall be essentially a vocational school for the preparation of those wishing to engage in the various phases of the mining business in the State of Oklahoma. ' ' 132 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Thus was created a second State school of mines in a State which did not need even one as later events have clearly sho\vn. Evident- ly this action was not preceded by a careful investigation of the con- ditions prevailing in the mining industry. A further step was taken by the State in 1921. By earlier acts five district agricultural schools had been established. One of these, located at Goodwell, was in 1921 authorized to add two years of college work to its secondary course, which college work was to include "courses in agriculture, mechanical arts, home economics, education, and other auxiliary subjects." Some Imowledge of the development may be gained from the statistical tables appended to this report. The 13 institutions named are manned by over 500 faculty members who give instruction to almost 15,000 students, besides carrying on research work of various forms, and extension work in agriculture and home econom- ies which covers the entire State. All of this service involves an annual expenditure of approximately $3,500,000. It is truly a large undertaking. The progress of higher education in Oklahoma has been remark- able during the past fifteen years. The end is not yet. In the future provision must be made in an even more generous way if the demands for higher education are to* be met adequately. The citizens are awake to the desirability of such training. The second- ary schools have come into their own only within the past decade, and in all probability the extension of secondary education will continue at a rai)id rate for years to come, especially, if the recommendations pertaining thereto in another part of this report are adopted by the Stale. Such an extension will in turn increase the demand for liighcr education. One of the outstanding features of the growth of higher educa- tion in the State is that it has occurred without any definite plan on the part of the State. There are too many State institutions for present demands and some of them are unfortunately located. Evidence will be presented later which will show the lack of sound and clear objectives in the development noted as it relates to several institutions. The time is at hand when the State should take stock of its provision for higher education and adopt a clear policy for the future. By this means waste can be prevented and progress can be economically promoted. It is a task which will require sound judgment, clear vision, and a firm hand. HIGHER EDUCATION' 133 II. STATE ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL. 1. ADMINISTRATION BOARDS. Evolution of State Administration. State Administration and control of public higher education in Oklahoma has passed through several phases. In a general way, the early administration was quite decentralized. The State University was in the care of a board of regents. The Agricultural and Mechanical College was cared for in a similar manner. In 1907, however, the State Board of Agriculture was by the Constitution made the board of regents of all agricultural and mechanical colleges, the purpose being to have a unified system of such institutions. The legislation to carry out this provision was enacted in 1908. When the State normal school at Edmond was created it was placed under a board of education, and later, as other normal schools were established, they were also put under the charge of the same board of education. The Colored Agricultural and Normal University, the Industrial Institute and College for Girls, and the State School of Mines and Metallurgy were, however, given sepa- rate board of regents. A board was created in 1909, known as the State Board of Public Affairs, which has a close relation to the administration of higher education. It consists of three members appointed by the governor, by and with the advice of the Senate, for a term coterminous with his own. This is a paid board. Its duties are to have charge of the construction, repair, maintenance, insurance, and operation, of all buildings under State control, to have the cus- tody of all State property except in certain cases, to keep accounts of property purchased for the State and its officials, and other duties of similar nature. In was also provided that this board should contract for, purchase, and acquire ''all furnishings, furniture, and supplies of every kind or description for the use of the State or its officers, or the support of the several State institutions." The board in the nature of the case was given important duties and a large task. In 1911 the State readically changed its method of administering its various educational institutions. At that time the following sixteen State boards were looking after various aspects of educa- tion : (1) State board of education. (2) State textbook commission. 134 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (3) Board of regents of the State University. (4) Board of regents of the university preparatory schools. (5) Board of education in control of the State normal schools. (6) Board of regents of the Oklahoma Industrial Institute and College for Girls. (7) Board of regents of the School of Mines and Metallurgy. (8) Board of control of the School for the Deaf. (9) Board of control of the School for the Blind. (10) Board of control of the Boys' Training School. (11) Board of control of the Orphans' Home. (12) Board of control of the Institution for the Feeble minded. (13) Board of regents of the Colored Agricultural and Normal University. (14) Board of regents of the Institute for the Deaf, Blind and Orphans' Home for the Colored. (15) State Board of Agriculture. (16) State Board of Public Affairs. It was truly a bewildering array of machinery to have in charge of the State affairs of education. In 1911 an attempt was made to bring order out of chaos by setting up a highly central- ized control through an act which created the State Board of Education to be the legal successor of the first fourteen boards named above. It was a stupendous task with which the new board was invested. An important act passed in 1917 authorized certain designated higher educational institutions to confer degrees and it empowered the State board of education to approve other institutions for de- gree-conferring purposes. The law was amended in 1919 by adding two institutions to the list in 1917. As the organization of the State administration above described continued in its work it proved more or less unsatisfactory. The reason is not far to seek. Too many heterogeneous interests and activities were thrown together, many of which had little or no relation to others. Consequently, an effort at decentralization was made which resulted in 1919 in the creation of a separate board of regents for each State institution of higher learning formerly under the central board, except for the six State normal schools which remained under the State Board of Education. The Miami School of Mines established in the same year was also given a sepa- HIGHER EDUCATION 135 rate board of regents. It should be pointed out here that the experience of Oklahoma above recounted can hardly be said to discredit the idea of a cen- tral board of control for State higher education. It rather illus- trates the fact that a central board in charge of numerous activities not closely related is not likely to prove a success. The evolution has resulted in the following boards which have to do with higher education : (1) Board of Regents of the State University. (2) State Board of Agriculture which constitutes the Board of Regents of the Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges. (3) Board of Regents of the Oklahoma School of Mines and Metallurgy. (4) Board of Regents of the Miami School of Mines. (5) Board of Regents of the Oklahoma College for Women. (6) Board of Regents for the Colored Agricultural and Nor- mal University. (7) State Board of Education administering the six State teachers' colleges. (8) Board of Public Affairs administering the finances of all State institutions. 1 1. There is also a Board of Public Lands which has charge of the school lands and of the funds derived therefrom. The State Board for Vocational Education deals with the State higher education institutions in so far as they perform services under the Federal Smith- Hughes Act. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS. The situation as it now exists is by no means ideal. There are no clear principles of organization involved in the multuplicity of boards now in existence, nor have any such principles been evident in the shifting which has occurred. Local feelings and political exigencies seem to have been the determining factors underlying the changes. Much thought has been given to the method of State administra- tion now in vogue, in the belief that a clarification of this situation will care for many of the defects in the State provision for higher education. Certain principles of sound administration may be stated. First, The number of State boards should be reduced to the small- est number consistent Avith good administration ; Second, each board should be in charge of closely related activities only, if it is to look after its charges properly ; Third, Some means should be adopted to 136 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA insure a plan of development, rather than to allow progress to occur in sporadic fashion. With these principles in mind, it is recommended that the work of higher education be put in charge of four board as follows : (1) Board of regents for the State University. (2) Board of regents for the agricultural and mechanical col- leges. (3) Board of regents for the State teachers' colleges. (4) Board of regents for the Oklahoma College for Women. The board of regents for the State University should have in charge the University and any State junior colleges of liberal arts which are in existence or which may -be established in the future. Under no circumstances should such junior colleges be established, except as they are approved by this board. The Miami School of Mines, if it is to be continued as a state school should be officially reorganized as a junior college of liberal arts. Of the 107 students enrolled 14 are of secondary grade and 93 are of college standing. A study of the catalog makes it clear that the institution is no longer "essentially a vocational school for the preparation of those wishing to engage in the various phases of the mining business of the State of Oklahoma." In fact, the school at present is in reality a liberal arts junior college, which articulates closely with the University of Oklahoma. It gives only passing attention to mining. If the school is reorganized as a junior college it should be placed under the University board of regents. The board of regents of the agricultural and mechanical col- leges should have in charge the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechani- cal College and the Colored Agricultural and Normal University. The latter school is logically a part of the system of education in agriculture and the mechanic arts and it should be included in the administration of the system. The Oklahoma School of Mines and Metallurgy, at Wilburton, should be abandoned. When it Avas visited the school had 198 students as follows : 137 vocational rehabilitation men 31 women in commercial courses. 23 men in other subcollegiate courses 7 men in college courses. HIGHER EDUCATION 137 It is apparent that this school is doing comparatively little as a school of mines and metallurgy. The great variety of courses is no doubt an attempt to keep up the school by giving anything for which students can be obtained. The number of students in mining indicates very little demand for courses in that field, so little as scarcely if at all to justify the continuation of the school as a school of mines. To attempt a junior college at Wilburton would in the judgment of the committee be very unwise. The constitutional provision which makes the State board of agriculture serve as the board of regents of the agricultural and mechanical colleges should be repealed. There is a very decided tendency among the several States to separate the various forms of regulatory and police work from the service which is primarily educational as such separation makes for better services in both lines. The board in charge of the educational service should be entirely nonpolitical^ and it should have very little if any connection vdth those activities which tend to involve it in political turmoils. The board of agriculture is constituted of a president, who is elected on a partisan ballot, and of four other members, who are appointed by the Governor with the consent of the Senate. It is thus a political body, and is closely tied up with the political for- tunes of two men. This form of management is largely responsible for the unfortunate conditions at the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. To place the college under an educational board will be in keeping with the best practice and will materially change the existing state of affairs in that institution. It is the deliberate judgment of the committee that until the method of State control of the college is changed the college will not be able to do its work in the most successful way. The six State teachers' colleges should be under one board of regents. At present they are under the State board of education, an arrangement which should by all means be changed. Here again the statement applies that the regulatory and inspectional work should be separated from that which is primarily educational. A State board of education should be responsible for the inspection of schools, the certification of teachers, etc. Its duties should not include the training of those who are to be certified by it as teachers. The principle is clear. Teachers are trained in the colleges and university as well as in the normal school. If the certifying board has some of the teacher training in charge, its points of view is likely 138 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA to be that of the service rendered by its charges and its regulations are likely to be such as pertain to those institutions primarily. As a certifying agency the State board of education should have no official relations with any of the teacher training institutions. The board of regents of the Oklahoma College for Women should be in charge of the college named. The work of the college is as closely related to the Agricultural and Mechanical College as it is to the State University and it is therefore thought inadvisable to put it in charge of any of the boards which control those insti- tutions. The college renders a unique and special service, which can well be under separate management. There should be women members of the board. Under the existing law the State board of public affairs pur- chases supplies and equipment, erects buildings, at the various in- stitutions and has custody of the property. This board is appoint- ed each four years and it goes in and out with the governor, w^hich results in frequent changes in management. Furthermore, the board is an exceptionally busy one as it expends millions of dollars yearly. In a general way, it may be stated that the committee has met but little dissatisfaction with the board's conduct of busi- ness, the board having been awake to the fact that much educational equipment and many supplies are so specialized that the bid system of purchase does not apply to them. The difficulty of such pur- chasing has been overcome by the board's designating some per- son at the several "institutions to act for the board. It is a recog- nition of the fact that such purchasing can properly be left to local authorities. It is recommended that the boards governing the several in- stitutions be given authority by law to purchase equipment, books, and supplies, and the State Board of Public Affairs be made respon- sible for purchasing fuel, placing insurance, and erecting buildings, the latter function being performed with the advice of the respective boards of administration. Such an arrangement will make for economical and expeditious service. From the State point of view there remains to be considered some means or method of coordinating the work of the several in- stitutions of higher learning and of holding them to their proper functions. Various expedients have been adopted in several quart- ers to secure results. It is one of the underlying reasons which has frequently resulted in a central board of control. It does not seem advisable to recommend that a single central board of control HIGHER EDUCATION 139 should at present be adopted by the State of Oklahoma, and accord- ingly the setting up of four boards is suggested. To secure some form of coordination, representatives of the four boards should hold an annual or semi-aimual meeting to discuss and determine matters which affect more than one of the groups of institutions. 2. ORGANIZATION OF STATE BOARDS. The evidence Avhich has been submitted to the committee makes it clear that the State has been unfortunate in the organization of its State boards which have had to do with higher education. In- formation is not lacking to the effect that political motives have had a prominent part in the State institutions of higher learning. The frequent changing of presidents of the several institutions, with the exception of only a few institutions, seems to indicate clearly that motives other than professional have all too frequently been present. Such constant changing is extremely unfortunate. It cannot strongly foster an interest in the progress of the various institu- tions and it tends to put a premium on a short sighted policy. It fails to attract the ablest men for there is little interest in a posi- tion which offers too little security to make the investment of one's energies worth while. Undoubtedly the organization of the State boards is the crux of the difficulty and is responsible for much of the shifting. The time has come when the citizens of Oklahoma should seriously consider whether they will continue the methods too long in vogue or whether they will place all of higher education on a stable basis which will make for a greater service. To allow anyone to use State institutions of higher learning for any private purposes should under no circumstances be tolerated. It is an expensive matter and no State which is bent on the best for its citizens can afford tampering with the education of its youth. The remedy is clear. On the one hand there must be a develop- ment of public opinion which is greatly interested in the best possible provision for higher education and which jealously guards against the prostitution of such provision for personal or political advan- tage. No substitute can take its place. On the other hand, the State should set up such machinery of administration and control that it will be extremely difficult for any individual or group of individuals to use these institutions for private purposes. Long experience has proved that the board of seven or nine :members chosen for long terms with alternating appointments makes l40 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA for the most satisfactory service. The boards, therefore, should consist of seven or nine members, appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate, with terms of office of seven or nine years, so arranged that not more than three appointments are made in a biennium on a nine member board, and not more than two on a seven member board. Members should receive no pay other than expenses. Public spirited men of intelligence and standing are usually willing to serve on such boards because the positions are honored and respected. There should be no ex-officio members on the boards. Such members have their time too much occupied with other official duties to give full consideration to the work of their respective boards. Then, too, ex-officio membership on boards tends to in- sert an element of politics which is to be avoided. 3. INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION The performance of the administrative function in a college or university is a matter of much importance. It is the business of the administrative organization to keep the institution running smoothly and to make possible and most effective the real business of the institution, which is the expansion and the propagation of knowledge. THE PRESIDENCY. At the head of the administration of each institution stands the president, the direct agent of the board of control. Upon him depends very largely the plan upon which the institution operates. It falls to him specifically to plan for the future. To a very marked degree the faculty is the result of his ability to find competent persons and to secure their service. He must be able to work well with others, to command their respect and confi- dence, and to inspire them in their activity. His is a position which can be filled acceptably only by a leader, one who is recog- nized as professionally well equipped, who has the highest personal qualities, and who can organize and direct others well. All of this means that only competent persons should be chosen for the position, and it is little short of a betrayal of high trust to permit such extraneous considerations as personal or political sup- port in any way to have consideration in the choice. A further consideration is that once able men are secured for high positions, they should be continued in service for long periods. Two important reasons may be assigned for this recommenda- HIGHER EDUCATION 141 tion: First, long tenure secures for the State a continuous policy without which unified and economical administration is impossible. Men who know they are to serve for short periods only are likely to plan for short periods, which is likely to result in impetuous devel- opment if any at all. Second, security of tenure is essential to obtaining the services of the kind of men which the State must have. With the exception of the university and the women's college, the educational institutions of Oklahoma have unquestionably suf- fered from having had too many inexperienced executives. When executives change an institution is likely to run on a laissez faire policy until the new incumbent secures a mastery of the situation. It affords a golden opportunity for the various departments with- in the institution to proceed in their own way. Undoubtedly some of the maladjustments at the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College have occurred in this way. Then, too, changing executives produces periods of disturbance and uncertaitiity for the members of the faculty and greatly hinders them in their important duties. It is therefore clearly the solemn duty of those who are in authority over the State institutions of higher learning to see to it that changes in administrative head- ships occur only for clearly justifiable reasons and at infrequent intervals only. In no other way can the highest interests of the State be conserved. Table 15 presents a list of the presidents of the State institu- tions, together with the dates of their terms of office. TABLE 15— NAMES OF PRESIDETSTTS OF OKLAHOMA STATE INSTI- TUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING AND DATES OF SERVICE. INSTITUTION NAME OF PRESIDENT DATE OF SERVICE University of Oklahoma (Norman) David Ross Boyd Arthur Grant Evans Julian C. Monnet (Acting- President) Stratton Duluth Brooks 1892—1908 1908—1911 1911—1912 May 1, 1912- Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College (Stillwater) R. J. Barker Major Henry E. Alvord Edmund E. Murdaugh George E. Merrow J. H. Connell A. C. Scott L. L. Lewis (Acting president) J. W. Cant well James Burnette Eskridge June 25, 1891— June 30, 1894 July 1, 1894— January 2, 1895 January 2, 1895— June 30, 1895 July 1, 1895 —June 30, 1899 July 1, 1899 —June 30, 1908 July 1, 1908 —June 30, 1914 July 1, 1914 —June 30, 1915 July 1, 1915 July 1, 1921 —June 30, 1921 142 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA INSTITUTION Oklahoma College for Women (Chickasha) NAME OF PRESIDENT DATE OF SERVICE H. B. Abernathy J. Alexander Moore J. B. Eskridge G. W. Austin 1909—1911 1911—1912 1912—1914 1914— East Central State Teachers College (Ada) Northwestern State Teachers' College (Alva) Charles W. Briles James /Marcus Gordon Adolph Linscheid Southeastern State Teachers College, (Durant) Central State Teachers College (Edmond) Northeastern 'State Teachers College (Tahlequah) C. W. Conway W. L. Ross Grant B. Grumbine J. W. Graves A. S. Faulkner J. P. Battenberg M. E. Moore E. D. Murdaugh W. C. Canterbury A. S. Faulkner T. D. Brooks H. G. Bennett Richard Thatcher George W. Winans H. W. Williams E. D. Murdaugh F. H. Umholtz T. R. Butcher James A. McLauchlin Charles Evans Grant B. Grumbine J. W. Graves John G. Mitchell A. S. Wyley D. Frank Redd Frank B. Buck W. E. Gill G. W. Gable W. T. Ford Southwestern State Teachers College, (Weatherford) James R. Campbell John F. Sharp Ulysses J. Griffith James B. Eskridge Alfred H. Burris 1909—1916 1916 — 1920 1920— Sept. 1906— Jan. 1908 Jan. 1908— July 1910 July 1910— Sept. 1916 Sept. 1916— Sept. 1917 Sept. 1917— June 1919 June 1919 — July 1, 1910— Sept. 1, 1911 Sept. 1, 1911— July 1, 1914 July 1, 1914— Sept. 1, 1915 Sept. 1, 1915— June 1, 1916 June 1, 1916 — June 1, 1913 June 1, 1919— 1891 1893 1894 1895- 1901 1906 1908 1911 1916 1917 1919— 1893 1894 1895 1901 1906 1908 1911 1916 1917 1919 April 19— July 1, 1909 July, 1909— July, 1911 July 1911— Nov. 1912 Nov. 1912— Dec. 1913 Dec. 1914 — Aug. 1919 Aug. 1, 1919— 1901—1908 1908—1911 June, 1911— June, 1915 June, 1915— June, 1921 June, 1921— Colored Agri- cultural and Normal University (Langston) Inman E. Page I. B. McCutcheon J. M. Marquess 1898—1915 1915—1916 1916— HIGHER EDUCATION 143 INSTITUTION NAME OF PRESIDENT DATE OF SERVICE Oklahoma School of Mines (Wilburton") Dr. Geo. E. Ladd E. P. Barrett J. W. Graves Lynn Glover School closed (Governors veto) Mead S. Johnson December 1, 1908 — Oct. 14, 1912 October 14, 1912 — June 30, 1913 July 1, 1913 — June 30, 1915 July 1, 1915— J-une 30, 1917 July 1, 1917— June 30, 1919 July 1, 1919?— Miami School of Mines (Miami) Lloyd B. Drake W. O. Cralle July 1. 1920— June 1, 1921 June 1, 1921 — Panhandle Agricultural and Mechan- ical College (Goodwell) S. W. Black J. F. Sharp G. A. Coffey A. W. Fanning Fall 1909— Summer 1915 Fall 1915— May 1919 June 1919— July 1922 August 1922 — In several institutions, notably in the Agriculutral and Mechani- cal College, there is a lack of adjustment which is unjustifiable. Thus, for example, in the latter college three groups are engaged in training teachers and in maintaining practice teaching and obser- vation which confuses the whole scheme of teacher training. The secondary vocational work is separate from the other secondary work given in the college. The extension organization under the Smith-Lever work in the same institution is not correlated with the departments of instruction. On the other hand, the experi- ment station at the same institution suffers because the members of the staff are called upon for so much teaching that the work of research lags. The small number of bulletins, about six a year, is evidence in point. Some clear principle of organization should be adopted in build- ing up an institution. It is better organization to have a depart- ment in a college or school serve other schools and colleges than to have each school or college develop its own department and thus duplicate similar work done elsewhere in the institution. One de- partment of education can serve all colleges in a large institution. To create a special department of agricultural education with its own practice teaching is to duplicate unwisely when there is a school of education whose primary purpose is the training of teachers. THE FACULTIES. In this brief report only a few of the problems of internal administration can be stated. One group of problems relates to the faculty. A study of salaries shows that the salaries of faculty members are far too Ioav to attract the kind of people 144 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA who are needed for a high standard of work. At present the twelve month salary plan prevails in most of the institutions. This works a grave injustice to those who are required to teach against those for some reason or other have no students during the summer session. The separation of the regular salaries from those for the summer sessions would obviate the difficulty. Faculty members would find greater interest in summer school work, and directors of summer schools would have greater freedom of choice in their summer school faculties and courses. It is also apparent that many faculty members, often the high- est paid, are compelled to do much clerical work and office drudgery which could as well be cared for by clerical and stenographic as- sistance. Undoubtedly, this situation can be accounted for by lack of funds, but the cost would not be excessive and the resultant in- TABLE 16.— NUMBER OF FACULTY MEMBERS (NOT INCLUDING STUDENT ASSISTANTS) Location of Institutions 1910-11 1915-16 1920-21 1921-22 1922-23 Norman Stillwater Chickasha Wilburton Miami Ada Alva Durant Edmond Tahlequah Weatherford Langston Goodwell 73 39 20 6 16 29 24 22 32 18 5 103 83 24 5 23 27 18 24 20 2'5 9 151 117 43 14 5 24 24 24 29 22 20 24 9 154 122 43 16 8 24 26 22 30 24 21 26 15 161 125 44 16 9 25 30 22 27 21 21 26 19 Total 284 361 506 531 546 creased efficiency of service would more than offset the -added cost. Another factor in securing competent instructors is provision for leaves of absence and for a pension system. Table 16 shows the growth in number of members of the facul- ties at the State institutions, and Table 17 given the facts concern- ing academic training. UNCERTAINTY OF TENURE A SEVERE HANDICAP. Finally, in the institutions other than the university and the college for women there is much uncertainty of tenure of position, due partly to the annual election of faculty members. The numer- ous changes which occur each year and the fact that a large propor- tion of faculty members now serving have been serving a brief time HIGHER EDUCATION 145 TABLE 17.— ACADEMIC TRAINING OF THE FACULTIES.* Location of Institutions Number of Faculty Members Total Having the Doctor's degree Having a professional degree Having tlie Master's degree 48 30 17 6 7 5 6 9 8 4 1 1 Having the Baccalaure- ate degree 50 47 16 11 13 13 23 10 10 10 5 6 7 Having no degree Norman Stillwater Chickasha Ada Alva 148 104 43 22 23 23 33 21 24 24 16 9 12 31 10 2 1 7 3 12 14 8 5 3 Durant EJdmond Tahlequah Weatherford .... Langston 5 4 2 5 10 Wilburton Miami Goodwell 2 1 8 1 5 Total 502 44 13 142 221 82 *Not including student assistants. only, (See Table 18), are evidence in point. It may be stated, however, that low salaries also account in part for the changes. The constant shifting results in a great loss of loyalty and in a lowered morale. The remedy lies in the adoption of rules govern- ing tenure. Such a business-like policy would eliminate one of the factors which militates against the growth of scholarly spirit. Professors and associate professors should hold their positions per- manently on merit and good behavior, while assistant professors might well be appointed for three year periods, and instructors for one year periods. If some such scheme were adopted the schools would be more likely to stay out of political matters and be less in- terested in the results of elections, and what is still more important it would be an inducement for attracting competent men to the institutions if they were assured of permanency of position. This point should be emphasized. Nothing does so much harm to State institutions of higher learning as a low morale among the faculties. Especially at the University and at the Agricultural and Me- chanical College the time has come for a larger recognition of the faculty in determined educational policy. Faculty members now have no regularly constituted method of expressing their views on such matters. The organization of a senate in each of those in- stitutions, composed of all faculty members who hold the rank of associate professor and above, is suggested as a legislative body so far as courses of study and student affairs are concerned. 146 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE IS.— YEARS OF SERVICE AND SALARIES OF MEMBERS OF THE FACULTIES.* No. Average SALARIES r^oration O'f Ranks of Per- years of service at Institution Average Lowest High- sons institution est Deans & Dir. 9 li.lt 4755.55 4000 6000 Professors 33 9.57 3854.54 3200 4200 Norman Assoc. Prof. 17 5.7 2835.29 2800 3000 Asst. Prof. 39 3.58 2393.84 2200 2800 Instrustors 38 2.68 1655.26 1600 1800 Deans 7 2.85 4057.14 3300 4500 Professors 29 5.55 3108.62 2400 3600 ritillwater Assoc. Profs. 14 5.28 2610.71 2250 3150 Asst. Profs. 25 3.68 2326.00 1800 3000 Instructors 28 2.67 1911.46 1500 2500 Deans 3 4 3334.16 2702.50 3300 Prof esse /s 15 4.86 2713.33 2250 3000 Chickasha Assoc. Prof. Asst. Prof. 1 1 1 1 2000 1800 Instructors 21 1.85. 1742.85 1600 2200 Professors 13 4.84 2337.69 1920 2750 Ada Asst. Prof. Instructors 1 7 3 4.42 1920 1868.57 1800 1920 Professors 14 6.78 2128.57 1700 2500 Assoc. Prof. 1 20 2100 Alva Asst. Prof. 1 13 1750 Instructors 5. 5.6 1630 1600 1700 Professors 9 5.33 2433.33 2400 2700 Assoc. Prof. 1 13 2100 Durant Asst. Prof. 3 2 2200 1800 2400 Instructors 6 4 1700 1680 1800 Professors 13 8.23 2500 2000 3000 EJdmond Assoc. Prof. Asst. Prof. 4 4 4.75 5.75 2075 2025 1800 1800 2400 2400 Instructoi^s 7 3.57 1835.71 1550 2200 Professors 13 2.84 2115.38 1800 2400 Tahlequah Asst. Prof. Instructors 1 4 1 1.75 2000 1800 1800 1800 Professors 12 6.08 2254.16 1600 3000 ■Vfeatherford Assoc. Prof. Asst. Prof. 3 1 7 3 1826.33 2000 1680 2000 Instructors 4 6.75 1560 1200 1680 Langston Total 23 2.71 1470.56 1125 2000 Wilburton Total 15 1.33 2225.33 1200 2800 Total, 7 2.14 1785.71 1500 2100 Miami (excluding deans) Deans 1 3 3000 Goodwell Total 10 2.5 1824 1375 2160 HIGHER EDUCATION 147 THE BUDGET. The internal budgets at the various institutions do not seem to be well developed. Departments frequently do not know how much they have to spend and consequently are hampered in plan- ning for equipment and other expenses. The institutional budget is a very important matter, especially in the larger institutions. The president of each institution should be required to pre- pare annually a budget which shows every source of income. On the expenditure side it should present the expenditures for every division and department of the institution, the amounts allowed for salaries, for equipment, supplies, incidentals, etc. The executive should watch with jealous eye the increasing cost of administration. At least once each month the business office should present to the president a complete statement showing receipts from all sources and the expenditures and balances for all departments. Each depart- ment should have a copy of its budget for the year at least two months in advance of the opening of the session. COORDINATION OF WORK. In a number of institutions there is a lack of coordination of functions. Thus the place of the training schools in the teachers' colleges seemingly is not always clear and understood. Not infre- quently secondary and college students are found in the same classes. In such schools as have secondary students these students should be under a separate organization and faculty, and the secondary school should be used freely for teacher training purposes. THE DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE RESEARCH. In large institutions some regularly organized means of statis- tical and analytical study of the work and progress of the institution has been found of great assistance in directing its affairs. Such a department of research makes possible a continuous survey. If well conducted it can render a most valuable assistance to the presi- dent in his responsible position as it makes it possible for him to do his work in the light of full and objective information. Such activ- ities as the administration of standard intelligence tests and ratings, cost studies, etc., can well come under a department of research. In view of the conditions existing at the Agricultural and Me- chanical College a more complete survey should be made of that institution. 148 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA III. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. One of the most important functions of higher education in a State is to train teachers for the elementary and secondary schools. At present there are approximately 17,000 teachers in the State of which number 14,000 are employed in elementary grades and 3,000 in secondary grades. I. PROVISION FOR TRAINING ELEMENTARY TEACHERS. The number of elementary teachers increases yearly by approxi- mately 500 due to increased enrollments in the elementary schools. It is estimated that at the same time 20 per cent of the teachers in service withdraw thus requiring 2,800 teachers annually to fill the vacancies created by the withdrawals. According to these estimtes at least 3,300 new teachers must be secured each year to maintain a full staff in the public elementary schools. For the training of elementary teachers two agencies have been established, of which the first was the State normal schools now known as the State teachers' colleges. The institutions which bear this designation, six in all, offer a two year course, upon the completion of which the student receives a diploma which is a State life certificate valid in all the public schools of the State. Dur- ing the year 1921-22 the State teachers' colleges graduated from their two year courses the following: 1. Central 175 graduates 2. East Central 123 graduates 3. Southeastern 123 graduates 4. Southwestern 114 graduates 5. Northwestern 94 graduates 6. Northeastern 79 graduates TOTAL 708 graduates. A second agency for training elementary teachers is the nor- mal training course in district agricultural schools and in fully ac- credited high schools under an act approved in 1915. The course constitutes a part of the four year course required for graduation from such schools. It is elective in the eleventh and twelfth grades. Upon completion of the course a student is granted a two-year State HIGHER EDUCATION 149 certificate. At the close of the school year 1921-22, 68 high schools had been approved for the course. During the year 629 certificates were issued to graduates. 1. 1. This number does not include those who graduated from similar courses of the State teachers' colleges. On these no data are at hand. In addition to the training agencies above mentioned some ele- mentary teachers come from the State university, the agricultural and mechanical college, the college for women, and some of the private institutions of higher learning. Undoubtedly a number also come from outside the State, the State being new and there being a considerable amount of immigration. It is doubtful, how- ever, whether the number from these sources is of great significance. 2. PROVISION FOR TRAINING SECONDARY TEACHERS. Approximately 3,000 high school teachers are employed in Oklahoma. Careful estimates are to the effect that to replace those who leave the service and to provide for new positions which are established about 600 new high school teachers are required each year. It is also estimated that at the present time the State institu- tions which prepare high school teachers graduate annually be- tween 150 and 200 students with professional training including practice teaching in secondary subjects. The private higher edu- cational institutions supply a few such teachers and some are drawn from other States. The remaining number of new high school teachers are recruits who have some college work or who may be college graduates but who have no adequate professional training. The time has come for the State to provide and require better training for its teachers. It is clear from the discussion preeeeding that a large proportion of Oklahoma's teachers begin work with nothing that even approaches adequate modern training. It is a con- dition that will change very slowly unless the State takes steps to remedy it by setting higher standards. As long as the State permits those who are incompetent to preside in its school rooms it will have such incompetents. They are a menace to educational progress. Most of them are to be found in the rural schools which tend to become their places of refuge. To raise educational standards only properly trained teachers can be permitted in the school rooms . 150 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA of the State. When such requirements are set up the State will have to provide more and better facilities to train its teachers. 3. TEACHER TRAINING CURRICULA. Teacher training classes in the high schools as now organized should be regarded as at best but a temporary expedient, and should now be abandoned. If it is deemed necessary to provide such local teacher training it should be organized as a post-graduate course of one year following high school graduation. This would insure more maturity of mind and more serious purpose on the part of the students who undertake the course. It would also tend to keep out of the course such as do not fully intend to use the train- ing in future service for the State. The training of teachers in the State teacher's colleges is in need of a clear objective. These institutions until 1920 gave only two year courses which were for training elementary teachers. In that year two years of college work were added to the curriculum and the institutions were empowered to grant the baccalaureate degree. This change seems to have been unfortunate. Insti- tutions which did not have adequate facilities to give a strong two year course were permitted to dissipate their energies by offering work which was clearly out of their province at the time. The courses offered at present by the State teachers ' colleges and leading to a life certificate are as follows : Rural teachers' course — two years. Primary teachers' course — two years. Intermediate grade teachers' course — two years. Home economies course — two years. •Manual training teachers' course — two years. Public school music course — two years. Drawing teachers' course — two years. Junior high school teachers' course — two years. College course for senior high school teachers — four years. Courses for special teachers and supervisors in high school — four years. a. Industrial arts. b. Domestic science. c. History. d. English. e. Biology. f. Physical sciences. HIGHER EDUCATION 15i g. Mathomatics. h. Economics. i. Foreign languages. j. Professional training. k. Agriculture. A student may secure a life certificate on the completion of two years of the college course for senior high school teachers pro- vided he has had fifteen semester hours of work in education. Precisely at this point it becomes evident that there is no real differ- entiation between training elementary teachers and training high school teachers. In fact the investigators were repeatedly inform- ed that it is the common procedure for students to receive the State life certificate at the close of two years and teach and later to come back to complete the work for the degree. The scheme is unfortunate for two reasons: First, students who have taken the first two years of the four year course as out- lined are not professionally trained for elementary school work; Second, students who take the two year diploma courses for elemen- tary teacher training, and later return for the third and fourth years, receive a four year course which in reality consists of two two year courses and not at all of a real four year college course. Another compelling reason against the preparation of high school teachers in the State teachers' colleges is the fact that the elementary field is thereby neglected. Other institutions in the State prepare high school teachers but no other train elementary teachers except the high schools. TRAINING SCHOOL FACILITIES INADEQUATE. One of the weakest features of the teacher training work at the teachers' colleges is the use made of the training school. These are made up only of the elementary grades and are limited to 120 children, and there are only three or four critic teachers. Little or no practice teaching in secondary grades is possible for those who are preparing to teach in high schools and that in spite of the fact that all of the teachers' colleges have large numbers of sec- ondary student enrolled. (See Table 19). In most of the col- leges there seems to be no close correlation between the theory of education and the practice teaching. 152 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA w !M o (M -*-' OS 3 iH -M +J « H l-H W o o oj ^ o o ^ h5 l-H M Eh 2 w .:§ .►J ■ H^ o ff! ^ « ItJ^OJ, oo o OS 2,771 3,679 in •* CM t- tH CO CM OS t- OS o c- CO >-H rH OS 00 o CD CO OS OS 1,643 2,155 00 OS co" in in os_ i-H IiaMpooo i OS OS t— t- ; CM tH ; ; '■ '■ '■ CO CM CO uo^sSu-Bi: t- t^ OS «l C-J o CO eo t> 00 eo : in ■* ; : CO CM O r-i : ; eo paoja9qji38A\. 00 OS tH CO lO tH c^ in CD CM CD CO CD rH iH o CM T-l CD CM o o o in CM tH o m 00 CM CO 00 iIBnbamBX 7-{ tH 00 OS in CD M CO •>*< CO 00 CM OS in th o o CO os I-l OS (M 1-1 in ■^ i-i in t- eo r-l_ l-H puoLupa o CM C^l CO Tf •<1" CM CO tH O OS ^ CM CO T-H '■ [- CD in o ■* in CM in CM CO CD CM_ 1—1 lUBjna CO la OS T-l CO in t^ in •^ CD 00 1H CM ,H CD OS CO in in 00 CD in t^ iH CO CM in o r-J^ r-T ■BAIV o 00 00 CO in CM CO "* CM eo o eo 00 in eo ! ; OS OS CM th in CM CD in CM 00 iH OS BPV o T— 1 CO CO CO in CO -^ 00 M* OS OS ■<»< CM m CM CM iH o CD O t~ CM CM iH 1-1 OS CD r-l i-H JIUBIH O 00 : ; CD CM : : ■<»< 00 OS '■ ■■ o r-l uo^jnqnAi o CD «0 00 00 l-H iH CD Tf CM O o ; CM © o OS 1-1 o OS 1-1 OO 00 CO •BqsBiIomO ; «D CO r-l iH 00 OS 00 00 i-( 00 •>}< 00 CM : 00 oo CO : : ; 00 U3 jaiBMiinS i o o CO CO CD OS CO r-l o CO in CO 00 CO rH iH tH OS co in : r-l ; in 00 r-l irS eo LO OS iH UBUIJON CD CO t- CO OS CO l-H m in 1-1 lo in CO o o CO t- CD in in l-H 00 00 CO CO in o t- CD in oo_ rn" in r-l CD_ c o a o S - "m M c o ;-! &0 V bo I— I O o H-l o ^l^ M H, 7J O M ft ci o C -a c c o o ■>-' u X o c a> u a o c o -a O HIGHER EDUCATION 15*, The training of high school teachers as carried on in the State university, the agricultural and mechanical college, and the college for women, is also seriously handicapped because of in- adequate training schools. On the side of the theory and subject matter courses, these latter institutions are, however, far superior to the State teachers' colleges in the training of high school teach- ers. FUNCTION OF STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES SHOULD BE DEFINED. In view of the present situation in Oklahoma the principal function of the State teachers' colleges should be the training of elementary teachers. At the earliest possible time adequate facili- ties in faculty, training schools, equipment and buildings, should be provided at the teachers' colleges for this service. Each col- lege should be provided at once with a commodious building espec- ially designed for training school purposes and adequate to house 400 to 500 children in eight or nine grades. Each training school should ultimately have a staff of ten critic teachers all of whom are especially trained for their work and experienced in teaching. Each training school should next year provide one critic teacher for every 10 students who do practice teaching, and the training school should enroll four pupils for each student who takes practice teaching. This standard is generally accepted as the minimum for a first class teachers' college which requires 180 hours of practice teaching from, each student who graduates. If, as an extreme measure, the amount of practice teaching should be reduced to 90 hours twice as many student teach- ers could be provided for. In no case at present are the train- ing facilities up to this minimum standard. The training school must receive much greater attention if the prospective teachers are to be properly trained. Adequate practice teaching is fundamental to any good teacher training, as fundamental as is laboratory work in science or clinical work in medicine. There can be no substitute for it and none should be offered. In order to guarantee a sufficient training school at each teach- ers' college, the school districts in which such colleges are located should be by law put in a special class and governed by such laws as may apply to that particular class of districts. The schools in such districts should be under the control and management of the 154 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA teacher training department of the teachers' college located in the district, and the districts should by law be required to contribute annually a certain specified amount of money toward the educa- tion of their children. With the development of the program recommended elsewhere for State aid to high schools, the secondary grades at the State teachers' colleges should be discontinued, one year at a time. The need for such training is no longer apparent. Under the high school transfer law it is possible for children to receive a high school training in a good high school even though there are no such schools in their own immediate localities. Under the law the several localities must pay for the education of the children, while if second- ary education is provided in State institutions those localities find it possible to throw their responsibility upon the State, as the high school transfer law does not apply to children of secondary grade in the State teachers' colleges. The secondary work is no longer an essential part of teacher training. If the earlier recommendation, pertaining to the normal training courses in high schools, be carried out, there is no justifi- cation whatever for continuing the high school work at the State teachers' colleges. The State should depend on the university, the agricultural and mechanical college, the college for women, and the privately con- trolled colleges for its supply of secondary school teachers. Ade- quate provision should be made at the State institutions in faculty, training schools, and equipment, to supply 600 secondary school teachers during the year 1923-24, and this should be increased an- nually according to the demand. Where secondary teachers are trained there should be a train- ing school of high school students fully available for practice teach- ing and enrolling a sufficient number of pupils so that there are at least four pupils for every student doing practice teaching. In no case should there be more than 12 student teachers to one critic teacher. The practice teaching should be an essential part of the teacher training curriculum and it should be closely cor- related with the theory courses. At the present time the University, the Agricultural and Me- chanical College, and the Women's College are fairly well equipped to prepare high school teachers, but in every case the training school should be greatly enlarged, and developed as a more typical HIGHER EDUCATION 155 high school for practice teaching and less as a preparatory school. At the University a building should be erected for the training school. At the Agricultural and Mechanical College all of the secondary work in the institution should be brought together and organized under one head, and it should be used for training pur- poses. At the college for women provision for a training school is somewhat difficult owing to the fact that the college is too far from town. It may consequently be necessary to maintain a girls' academy as a training school. In such case its purposes should be clearly stated, and the numbers accepted should be limited to the needs of the training school. 4. TRAINING SECONDARY TEACHERS AT THE STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGES. For various reasons, stated above, it is recommended that the preparation of high school teachers be discontinued at the State teachers' colleges. The alternative to such discontinuance of the work is to bring it up to standard and so to organize it that it will not detract from the preparation of elementary teachers. It seems quite clear that when the two types of training are offered in the same institution, separate and distinct curricula should be organized for the two types of work, that these curricula should be under separate staffs which are separately organized, and that distinct forms of scientific equipment should be provided for the two purposes intended. Such of the teachers' colleges as are to continue the courses for secondary teacher preparation should have staffs of at least eight well trained faculty members charged with the responsibility of offering standard courses covering four yeg,rs of work in the var- ious subjects of the curricula, and organized separately under a dean Avho is responsible for the students in this section. All of the staff should have done graduate work in a recognized grad- uate school, an amount equal to that required for the master's degree, and a number should hold doctors' degrees. Transfer of students from one type of course to the other, that is, from elementary to secondary or vice versa, should be pos- sibe only by doing all of the work in the course to which the trans- fer is made. Fully adequate equipment in chemistry, physics, zoology, and botany should be provided for the four year courses. Under the above alternative for the State teachers' colleges, a training school should be provided for each college enrolling from 156 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 100 to 125 pupils of high school age (14 to 19 years). This should be separately organized under a principal and it should have its distinct staff of critic teachers. All high school students in the teachers' colleges above those needed for training purposes should be eliminated. The best judgment available does not approve offering the four year courses at the teachers' colleges at present, but, in any event such courses should not be offered with inadequate faculties, to the serious disadvantage of all students. It certainly is clear that the first responsibility of those institutions is to train teachers for the elementary schools of the State, No task is more import- ant or dignified, and none carries with it a greater responsibility. Very few if any of the schools now meet this need fully. It is the great neglected field and it promises to continue thus if the teachers' colleges shirk their plain duty. If any of the teachers' colleges reach the point where they are fully staffed and equipped credit- ably to train all those who apply for the training of elementary teachers, and can in addition provide a separate staff and sufficient equipment to train secondary school teachers, such service will be welcome and heartily approved. 5. TRAINING SPECIAL TEACHERS. The preparation of special teachers deserves some attention. While there should be instruction in music and industrial arts for grade teachers at the teachers' colleges, and while it is desirable that home economics be taught as an elective in those institutions, it seems of doubtful wisdom to offer courses to prepare special teachers in those subjects. With strong departments in music and home economics at the university, the agricultural and mechanical college, and the women's college, and a strong course in industrial arts at the agricultural and mechanical college, these institutions should be able to prepare a sufficient number of special teachers of the subjects named. If it is found necessary to train one or more of these types of special teachers at the teachers' colleges one such college should be selected, properly equipped, and provided with an adequate staff to carry the work. In such case the Central State Teachers' College might well continue its work in manual training, which it is doing quite creditably at present. HIGHER EDUCATION 157 IV. THE EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 1. INTRODUCTION. In numerous ways Oklahoma has recognized her higher edu- cation obligations to the women of the State. From the early territorial days the university and the Agricultural and Mechani- cal College and the State normal schools have been coeducational. In keeping with educational customs in some States a separate in- stitution for women was also established. Thus today a woman in Oklahoma may choose to pursue her higher education in any one of the higher institutions of learning and she may pursue any course or curriculum. Confusion of thought in regard to the education of women has long existed. Frequently certain fallacious premises have been assumed, one of which is that the careers of educated men and of educated women are identical, and another of which is that differ- entiation of curricula for women implies an intellectual difference or an intellectual inferiority. Both of these assumptions are untenable. A more satisfactory solution of the problems of education for women can be evolved if certain facts are recognized, some of which are as follows: The majority of educated women teach for a few years; a few women enter and successfully practice the professions of law and medicine ; many women enter some phase of business although but few remain permanently therein; increased opportunities are being opened to women in the lines of business and the professions which have evolved from the household activities of previous generations; almost all women become household ad- ministrators. Furthermore, women's new civic interests and responsibilities occasion new educational demands. Upon such a basis of fact the conclusion is justified that while the education provided for women should be as thorough and as broad as that for men, educational authorities should take cog- nizance of the fact that differentation based on the probable later use of the training is essential if the highest service is to be rendered to the State. 2. DEANS OF WOMEN. With the acceptance of women students in educational insti- tutions certain special obligations are assumed. The physical and social welfare of women is of vital cojicern to the State. Evil as it is for men to be badly housed and badly fed and undirected in their social life, to the State it is far more perilous that its 158 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA young womanhood should be endangered. Elsewhere in this report attention is given to the physical care of students, but it may be emphasized that unless an education institution can go further than merely to provide intellectual guidance for its women students it had best withdraw from the field of education for women. A dean or director of women should be placed in each educa- tional institution, and she should have such assistance and cooper- ation from other members of the faculty as will enable her to as- sure to all women satisfactory social conditions. Such a dean should have high qualifications and should be adequately compen- sated. In the State teachers' colleges a dean of women may well do a small amount of teaching but due consideration should be given to her administrative duties. At the time of this survey the type of organization for the physical and social welfare of the young women of Chickasha was excellent and it afforded an opportunity for a number of members of the teaching staff to make a contribution to those phases of the students' life. The following statement is made concerning the university : "The office of dean of women was created in the university in 1908; was changed to advisor of women in 1912; was dropped in 1915; and was reestablished in 1918. The function of the dean of women is to act as counselor and advisor for women students, and to promote the interests of such students in the university." With 1100 women at the university, and with no State-owned housing facilities, the problems to be handled by the dean of women are many and various. Investigations seems to indicate that some members of the university staff do not appreciate the ques- tions involved, and that some still hold the old vicAvpoint that a faculty committee with ' disciplinary powers is adequate to care for the situation. In so large an institution as the university there should be not only a dean of women but assistants to care for the interests of the students. Such an office entails oversight of all housing con- ditions for women students, guidance and chaperonage for all social activities, authority in scheduling students' courses in so far as this injuriously affects the health of women students, provision for vocational advice, and the formation of many relationships with faculty families and local women which benefit the women students. What has been said of the function of a dean of women at the State university may likewise be said of a dean of women at the Agricultural and Mechanical College. HIOHER EDUCATION 159 3. HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION. Home economics instruction is only one factor in the liberal education of women but it is a very important one inasmuch as home economics and the basic physical, biological, and social sciences upon which it rests compose the group of subjects which afford excellent preparation for intelligent participation in civic and community affairs. This group of subjects likewise prepares directly for the intelligent discharge of the responsibilities incident to marriage. Thus far the home economics curricula in the State higher educational institutions have been formulated principally to prepare teachers. HOME ECONOMICS AT THE UNIVERSITY. Of the 1100 women students at the university, only 130 are taking home economics courses. Of the 13 candidates for degrees in home economics, eight are taking a curriculum distinctly and narrowly planned to prepare teachers of vocational home econom- ics. This is a regrettable condition, since all university women should find in the home economies department instruction of vital importance to them. The objectives of home economics instruction in the university should be three : First, it should make a definite contribution to the general and cultural education of a maximum number of women students in the institution. To this end special courses differen- tiated from those in the regular home economics curriculum should be offered. Second, there should be a home economics curriculum for the preparation of high school teachers. Such a curriculum should not over-emphasize the technical work to the exclusion of general cultural studies. Third, special curricula should be out- lined for the training of dietifions for hospital, institutional, com- mercial, and public school positions. The university is in a stragetie position for the emphasis of this training owing to its medical school and the nurse training course. Three additional recommendations may be made : First, the university home economics curricula should be based on at least one full year of high school home economics. Second, the curriculum leading to the bachelor's degree in home economics should be broadened. Third, no home economics of great value can be given at the university until rooms, equipment, and teaching staff are pro- vided. A cafeteria is an essential unit of a good department. 16(J PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA HOME ECONOMICS AT THE AGRICULTURAL AND ME- CHANICAL COLLEGE. A large majority of the young women students in the college are taking some courses in home economics as follows: 302 women are working for degrees in home economics. 25 Avomen are entered as special students in home economics. 125 women from the other schools of the college are electing courses in home economics. 16 women are in secondary courses in home economics. 30 women are taking vocational home economics curricula. Thus, of the 618 girls registered in the college, 498 are receiv- ing instruction in home economics. There are several major functions of home economics in the college : Fil'st^ careful attention must be given to prepare teachers of high school home economics. Second, there should be curricula to prepare county home demonstration agents of which there are 46 in the State. Third, electives not a part of the home economics curricula must be available for women students not majoring in home economics. All of these important functions should be fully recognized in home economics instruction. The college cafeteria should be under the direction of the home economics department. Such control would result in food of good quality ; costs would be kept down ; and the home econom- ics students would be provided with a most necessary laboratory for experience in quantity food preparation. The practice house at an agricultural and mechanical college should be a model rural residence with sufficient ground and suit- able surroundings to make of it an interesting homestead. The present practice house is a mere shack and unsuitable for the use to which it is now assigned. Finally, the present organization of home economics is faulty. All resident teaching, all correspondence courses, and all extension teaching should be under one single division. To maintain several departments dealing with the same subject matter is unwise. HOME ECONOMICS AT THE OKLAHOMA WOMEN'S COLLEGE. At the college at Chickasha one year of home economics is re- quired of every student. This is a recognition of the essential differentiation in women's education not elsewhere accorded in the State of Oklahoma. Such a requirement — if the courses thus re- HIGHER EDUCATION 161 quired are of the proper type — ensures a fundamental knowledge of household administration to every girl, and in addition aids in preparing a large number of teachers who will be able to teach some home economics in connection with other subjects when em- ployed in the smaller high schools of the State. The educational atmosphere at the Women's College at Chick- asha is conducive to the maintenance of excellent instruction in home economics, but the material surroundings both for this sub- ject and the basic sciences are far from being satisfactory. A special building for science teaching and home economics education is greatly needed. HOME ECONOMICS IN THE STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGES. Home economies in the teachers' colleges should serve two defin- ite purposes, the primary of which is to furnish such information and skill as will prepare the teacher in an undepartmentalized school to fulfill the legal requirement that home economics be taught to the seventh and eighth grade girls in the State. Since the hot lunch is one of the best means of introducing home economics in the undepartmentalized school, each teachers' college should be equipped to serve school lunches under the direction of the home economics department. These institutions at present are almost entirely neglecting the service due the undepartmentalized school and are giving all their energy to maintaining four year courses for the preparation of high school teachers, a task for which they are unprepared. The preparation of high school teachers necessitates strong departments of physical, biological, and social science if the curricula are to be com,prehensive and adequate. A secondary purpose of home economics in teachers' colleges is to give such elective instruction as will assist the teacher to secure for herself the maximum physical health and well-being during her years of service. Stress has been laid in the preceding pages upon home econom- ics education not because it is the chief topic of importance in the education of women but because it is the one distinctive phase of educaton not open to both men and women, and also because it is a subject in which the State requires so many specially prepared teachers, home demonstration agents, and women qualified for commercial positions, s. s. 6 162 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA •V. SPECIAL PHASES OF HIGHER EDUCATION The following paragraphs deal with several functions and phases of higher education to which it is desired to give some special attention. 1. ENGINEERING. Work in engineering is noAv offered in three State institutions, not including the Miami School of Mines which offers the first two years of four year curricula in mining engineering, civil engineer- ing and engineering geology. In 1904 the university organized a school of applied science and the school of mines, which was in. 1909 reorganized as the college of engineering. Instruction in engineering at the Agricultural and Mechanical College began early with work in mechanical engineering, in which the first class was graduated in 1902. By later additions and reorganizations there has been developed a college of engineering. Instruction in engineering is also offered at the Oklahoma School of Mines at Wilburton. The following curricula are given : At the University : Metallurgical chemistry 4 years Sanitary Chemistry 4 yeras Petroleum technology 4 years Civil engineering 4 years Electrical engineering 4 years Mechanical engineering 4 years Engineering geology 4 years Mining geology 4 years Manual training 2 years At the Agricultural and Mechanical College : Chemical engineering 4 years Civil engineering 4 years Electrical engineering 4 years Mechanical engineering 4 years Administrative engineering 4 years Architectural engineering 4 years Architecture 4 years Architecture .2 years At the Oklahoma School of Mines. * Mining engineering 4 years Highway engineering 2 years Architectural drawing 2 years HIGHER EDUCATION 163 Mechanical drafting 2 years Machine shop 2 years Practical electricity _ 2 years * These curricula are not of full college grade with the possible exception of the curriculum in mining engineering. The recommendations which pertain to engineering are four: First, the recommendation regarding the schools of mines has al- ready been given (See page 136). In keeping with the rec- ommendation, it is recommended further that, providing there is a sufficient demand, courses in mining engineering be offered at the University, thus placing the courses on a professional basis. It might be argued that the mining schools are nearer the mining fields and that consequently they can serve both the in- dustries and the students better. It must be urged, however, that their comparatively inaccessible locations more than offset any advantage that might be had from their proximity to the industries. To transfer the work to the University will insure a high grade of work. Second, the curricula in chemical engineering at the agricultur- al and mechanical college and at the State University are a need- less duplication, as the demand for chemical engineers is not large enough for the State to support two such courses of instruction. It is recommended that chemical engineering be given only at the university. The university has excellent equipment in chemistry. It offers strong work in petroleum technology which is an im- portant branch of chemical engineering. This one institution can train all the chemical engineers for which there is demand in the State. Third, the engineering equipment at the University is woefully inadequate, and far below the standard of a first class engineering school. More apparatus, machinery, and housing are needed. Steps should be taken as soon as possible to bring the facilities for engineering instruction at the University up to standard. Fourth, one of the important developments in agriculture is in the field of rural engineering. At the Agricultural and Me- chanical College a beginning has been made in the subject by em- ploying a member of the faculty to offer courses, but the provision for equipment is very inadequate indeed as there is practically no machinery for study nor is there space for housing such machinery. 164 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA This work should be given greater attention, and it should be more ade(|uatel.y supported. 2. COMMERCE AND BUSINESS. Instruction in commerce and business is now offered both by the University and by the Agricultural and Mechanical College. The University in 1913 established a School of Commerce and In- dustry which in 1917 was reorganized as the School of Public and Private Business. The purpose of this work is stated thus : "The courses offered are designed to prepare students for occu- pations such as the following, accountancy, banking, government service, foreign trade, secretarial work, insurance, mercantile bus- iness (wholesale or retail), and teaching. The training also serves to prepare students to act as private and community business ad- visers. ' ' To enter the school applicants must have completed one year of work in a college of liberal arts. Special curricula are suggested for the last two years as follows : For general business training For banking and finance For mercantile business For accounting For secretarial work The Agricultural and Mechanical College established a school of commerce and marketing in 1914. The typical fields for which the courses prepare are enumerated as follows : "High school and college teaching, secretarial work, office man- agement, bookkeeping and accounting, banking and finance, mer- chandising, marketing, commercial agriculture, personnel admin- istration, administrative engineering, industrial management, trans- portation and foreign trade." Fifteen units of secondary school work are required for admis- sion to the school as a candidate for a degree or certificate. Three courses of instruction are offered as follows : Commerce and marketing course 4 years Administrative engineering course 4 years Secretarial training course 2 years In addition to the above work the Agricultural and Mechanical College supports a department of rural enonomics and sociology under the school of agriculture. It is stated that the "Courses are offered to supplement the production courses in HIGHER EDUCATION 165 the ScHool of x\griculture and are intended to round out the other courses by giving the student a knowledge of the economic principles which relate to the production and marketing of farm products; and they are furthermore intended to stimulate interest in the socio- economic conditions of the agricultural classes." The enrollments in commerce and business at the two institu- tions have been as follows : University College 1915-16 54 1920-21 217 1921-22 263 1922-23 341 After careful consideration it appears that a School of Com- merce and Marketing at the Agricultural and Mechanical College is a mistake. In part it is an unnecessary duplication of work done at the University. It sets up and advertises work in commerce and marketing as a major function of the college — a procedure which tends to smother the work in agriculture by diverting both students and funds therefrom. It seems clear that the Agricultural and Me- chanical College has a distinct and most important service to ren- der to the State — a service which is greatly impeded by setting up courses of study which have little or no relation to the main purposes of the college. Occasionally the idea is expressed that the Agricultural and Mechanical College should be considered as a class institution, that is, an institution which serves a distinct class of people and which should, accordingly, offer all courses which that class of people de- mand or which they will choose if it is offered to them. This does not comport with the more modern ideals concerning such institu- tions. Agricultural and mechanical colleges have a distinct function to perform based on lines of activity rather than on class lines. To say that the sons and daughters of farmers or of other industrial groups desire training in commerce and business is thus no reason for giving such work at the Agricultural and Mechanical College when it is offered at the University. The work in economics at the Agricultural and Mechanical College can and should properly serve three purposes : First, there is a need for courses in general economics as a part of the training given to students in the school of science and literature. Second, 166 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA there is an important need for strong work in rural economies. It is a subject which is demanding increasing attention. Third, there is need for training commercial teachers who shall go into the high schools to teach business courses. To offer technical training for those whose object is to engage in business should be reserved for the University, which is offering well ordered courses for this pur- pose.. It is therefore recommended that the school of commerce and marketing at the Agricultural and Mechanical College be re- duced to a department, and that the department of rural economics and sociology be consolidated with it. 3. MEDICINE. The development of medical instruction as a part of the Avork of the University of Oklahoma began in 1900 when the first two years of a medical course were offered at Norman. In 1910 the third and fourth years were established in Oklahoma City. Two years later the Training School for Nurses was begun. At present the work of the medical school is conducted at three places — the University, the old city hospital building, and the new hospital built in 1920. It is a very unsatisfactory arrangement. There is no real reason for this separation in medicine, in fact it militates decidedly against good medical education. So exacting and intensive is the study of medicine that the student should be kept in the professional atmosphere throughout his course. All of the work in medicine should be brought together under one roof in Oklahoma City. It is fundamental to the most successful develop- ment of medical education in the future. The school is comparatively yoimg and it faces an abundance of problems. One of these is to provide a larger full time teaching staff. The proportion of regular practicing physicians on the staff at present is entirely too high. There may be some justification for retaining part-time members on the staff but in general the practice is not to be encouraged. A second problem is to erect a clinical building at the hospital and abandon the building now used for clinical purposes. If the small building at Norman now used for teaching anatomy is to be used further for this purpose it should be increased in size and some provision should be made for ventilating the room. In the interest of the health and training of the students the present condition should no longer be tolerated. HIGHER EDUCATION 167 A SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH NEEDED. The University should as soon as possible develop a school of public health in conjunction with the medical school. No concern of the State can be more important than for the health of her people. Public health, preventive medicine, and public hygiene are all assuming large importance. Public health officials need a train- ing different from that offered for developing practising physicians and surgeons, a fact which should be recognized. A valuable State service which the medical school should per- form is to offer special courses for practising physicians in the State. These courses should be planned in consultation with the State medical association in such a way as best to accommodate the Okla- homa physicians both a^ to the time of year in which they are offered and as to the subjects treated. Such courses should aim to keep the physicians of the State fully abreast of the latest ad- vances in medical science. It is very desirable that medical research be carried on in the medical school. Opportunity should be offered for such service. The medical school would be distinctly stimulated by securing for its staff at least one man of outstanding national reputation as an investigator in some phase of medicine. 4. GRADUATE WORK. Opportunities for study beyond that for the baccalaureate de- gree are offered by the University and the Agricultural and Mechan- ical College. The work offered by the University was organized as a separate school in 1909, and it is consequently under the adminis- tration of a dean and a graduate council assisted by a legislative body consisting of the president of the University, the dean of the graduate school, and the professors and associate professors of the various departments which offer graduate courses. The Agricultural and Mechanical College also offers graduate work but such work is not organized in a separate school. In both institutions the usual requirements for advanced degrees obtain. The degrees conferred are as follows : Agricultural ajid Mechanical College. University Master of Science in agriculture. Master of Arts Master of science in home economics Master of Science Master of science in science and liter- Master of Science in ature Education 168 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Master of science in education Master of Science in Master of science in commerce and mar- Engineering keting Chemical engineer Chemical engineer Civil engineer Civil engineer Electrical engineer Electrical engineer Mechanical engineer Mechanical engineer Architectural engineer The enrollments of graduate students are as follows: At the University -75 students At the Agricultural and Mechanical College 14 students Total 89 students This is a relatively small number when compared to the total of 4,836 undergraduate and special students in the two institutions. The condition is undoubtedly due to the com^parative newness of the State and to the fact that demands for undergraduate instruc- tion have increased so rapidly that the institutions have scarcely been able to provide for advanced study. Graduate study is a field of work to which the State can well afford to give more attention, especially if it desires to secure the ablest leadership and to provide for the welfare of its citizens. For the present it is wise not to reach out beyond the master's and pro- fessional degrees, but work of those grades should be very mater- ially strengthened. Strong advanced work adds to the standing of a university or college and it furnishes inspiration to undergraduates. Graduate work leading to the masters' and professional degrees should be strengthened at the University in all its major functions, and grad- uate work at the Agricultural and Mechanical College leading to those degrees should be strengthened in the three major functions of the college — agriculture, engineering, and home economics. 5. EESEARCH. One of the important fimctions of institutions of higher learn- ing is to promote the public welfare by adding to the store of use- ful knowledge, which aids man in his conquest over nature, which shows him how to maintain his health, and which promotes his happiness generally. In the University, energy is almost entirely consumed in instruction and very little is being done in research — not an unusual condition in institutions which have grown very rap- idly and which had to make giant strides merely to keep up with HIGHER EDUCATION 169 the demands for teaching. The time, however, is at hand when emphasis should be placed on contributing to loiowledge. It must go hand in hand with the development of strong graduate work. At the Agricultural and Mechanical College research in agri- culture is organized in an agricultural experiment station, which for the year 1921-22 had the following amounts available: 1. From Federal funds $30,000 2. From State funds 10,500 3. Experiment station earnings 7,629 Total $48,129 An examination of the work of the station revealed the fact that its work is very inadequate. The State for the year 1921-22 contributed for research in the station only one-tenth as much as it gave for extension in agriculture and home economics. In fact the support for the experimental Avork is far below what it should be in a State with such agricultural possibilities as Oklahoma has. Furthermore, the energy which should go into research is being dis- ipated in teaching and in extension. Only three men are actually engaged on research in the station, and only a very limited number of bulletins are published. The station has in recent years made no outstanding contribution to agricultural knowledge. It is impossible to refrain from calling attention to the havoc which short and insecure tenure plays with the activities and plans of those who are engaged in the station. The work of research is necessarily a long process. Many projects must in the nature of the case extend over a period of years. Interruptions in such work are likely to result in serious losses. A new investigator is not likely to enter on a project, planned and begun by another, with the same zest and interest as the originator had in its final outcome. The con- tention consequently is that changes in the research staff should be made only very rarely and cautiously if real progress is to be made in research. 6. EXTENSION AND CORRESPONDENCE. One of the ways by which the State institutions of higher edu- cation reach out from their doors to all sections of the State, and thus serve the citizens in a very extensive way, is through their ex- tension service and correspondence courses. For a number of years the University has been building up this service. During the year 1921-22 it expended $65,408.00 in these activities. The Agricul- 170 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA tural and Mechanical College administers the extension work in agriculture and home economics under the Federal Smith-Lever Act. For the year 1921-22 the following amounts were available for the work : 1. Federal funds $190,033 2. State funds 105,000 3. County funds 150,956 Total $445,989 In addition to the Smith-Lever work the Agricultural and Me- chanical College during the year 1921-22 established a "school of correspondence study" which offers a wide variety of courses in practically all the schools of the college, including 38 secondary courses. All of the State teachers' colleges are also offering cor- respondence and extension work. The Oklahoma School of Mines is conducting correspondence courses in mining. Nine institutions are now engaged in this work and they have enrolled in the var- ious courses a total of 3,798 people. (See Table 19). Extension and correspondence work in Oklahoma has great possibilities, and it should be encouraged by generous appropria- tions from the State along many lines. However, the State teachers' colleges, and to some extent the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege, have attempted too broad an extension program. The exten- sion and correspondence work at the Agricultural and Mechanical College should be confined to the major functions of that institu- tion, that is to agriculture, engineering, and home economics. The teachers' colleges should by no means enter the field of correspond- ence and extension service for the training of teachers above the elementary grades so long as they are not prepared to train sec- ondary teachers in residence courses. The present practice of having extension classes taught by local school superintendents and principals is decidedly open to question. It is very difficult properly to safeguard the selection of these instructors, and for the institution to have that control over the character and quality of the class work which is necessary to guarantee uniformly high standards. Extension classes should therefore be conducted by members of the regular faculty only. At the University and at the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege the extension and correspondence activities are divided among several administrative officers. This situation inevitably leads to HIGHER EDUCATION 171 a lack of coordination of effort and to confusion in administration. For these reasons it is suggested that a single extension director at each of these institutions be placed in charge of all such activities conducted by the respective institutions. In order that wasteful and unnecessary duplication of effort in these fields may be avoided, and in order that there may be some uniformity in extension practices, it is recomjnended that the ex- tension directors of the several higher educational institutions meet and agree on a program. The followng are some of the subjects to be considered: 1. Limitation of the field of activity for each of the several institutions. 2. Exchange of credits. 3. Transfer of registrations. 4. Uniform scale of fees. 5. Regulations for conducting extension classes. 7. THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF NEGROES. The purpose of State higher education for Negroes is threefold : Firsts teachers must be trained for the Negro schools. The number of Negro teachers in the State is: rural and elementary schools, 1,170; accredited high schools, 117. Second, vocational training must be given, as is mentioned elsewhere. Third, there is need for a number of Negroes who are trained in the professions such as medicine, the ministry, etc. The only institution of higher learning for Negroes in the State is the Colored Agricultural and Normal University at Langston, which offers a four year high school curriculum and two years nor- mal and college curricula. It now enrolls 344 students, of whom 115 are above high school grade. The number of normal diplomas granted in respective years was as follows: 1916, 23; 1921, 37; 1922, 75. In addition four bachelor of science degrees were granted in 1916.* It is apparent that the institution is primarily a normal school. ♦Normal training for Negroes is offered in four high schools under an Act of 191S mentioned elsewhere. Excellent progress has been made in the school during the past few years since it has been under the present management. This progress has, however, been principally in providing buildings and sanitation, chiefly because these matters had to receive atten- tion before others. In fact, so much attention and energy of the management had to be given to these needs that there seems to have 172 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA been a lack of attention to instruction, for which the fault attaches to the State because it has not provided the necessary facilities for housing the students and the activities of the school. The manage- ment has done very well indeed with the meager State support which it received. The situation above described has resulted in deficient facilities for instruction. The library has only a few hundred volumes, it should have at least ten thousand. The laboratories are not at all sufficiently equipped for even secondary instruction. Much more shop equipment of various kinds is an absolute necessity if the work in manual arts is to serve a useful purpose. One of the greatest needs is for an adequate and well organized training or practice school. At present the only pupils available for such purpose are the following: Grades 1-6, 18; grade 7, 29; grade 8, 30. These classes are far from suitable for training school purposes. A study of conditions shows that the first step toward improv- ing the institution should be to change its location. Three reasons \ i I ! 293.. CU.IS 16 OSAOC 788 I "^ I OARriELD : NOBLE i "^ I - j IIMOR i 591 36E 1 P»WKEE (./\ ) i 45 i r-'-l470 ^-\ I — I L . ^1 — I— r — I > — ,ni | -|i.|' 1 j ! i '*I'L^ *63^ I S if - X I ~ WOODWARD 1 POOER MILLS I I BECKHAM : WASHITA 3 I 11 \ 30 ! .u.,KE 1623 r^^y ; — I CUSTCN ! i f + T \ J CANADIAN l(| lOKL/ A I R14 I CUSTCN ! f — i ! 614 fi ! 771 1541 CRAIO I OTTAWA 18 I., ROGERS j 550 • "<■"" CHEROKEE | 835 I AOAIR j 40 •"•T OREU <- ■) 179 'v' I. 1 — ^ f KIOWA i -'JV7 49Z MAHMONTi„J'» ^^ ^"''^ i C i CMIANCHI ^ J Tii"/C._.l._ "1 - / !^j — TILLMAN i 846 r \460 11916 | «17 ' j-^ 2 . 334 ^^^ i lT7fi i'^e V^ I ^ J746 I ^T ^ I KIOWA I I 14'0 I MCCLAIN ~-~ — .^y.i^-^/^ ^— t.TfTiBUR51 -j ^„,„. J-L|lE ELOR^ 492 ! ' 1 \ 1 • r^AWbH "440 [^^082 T ! J 1— - loi^viBv -j '°;;i°A°°,--i .^.^ \ i I TILLMAN t, ; '^f JOMN«TON ! ATOKA j 386 ril-IIlH i^l i •JTe" I IcARTERl—l _659 ! 1204 .y:: | |||| || ^^»— »— ij-l,_A JEFFERSON | 488 7 ^ ' \— f^ - T ,' — ' f I : '- '*^}'^^'^P ^ ^"^ C 402 I r^ MARSHALL V I |CMOCT}ii^ | I I I ifel! t itC CIMARRON : TEXAS i eCAVER 1 2 ! 15 i 1 (•) LOOATIOH OP THE COLOIfflD AGRICDLTURiL ^-^ ABB HORMAL UUIVEHaiTT m C0TOTIE3 HAVIHG MORE THAK 6,600 MEGROES - 8 COnHTIES COUKirES HAVIKG PBOM 2,000 TO 6,500 BEGEOES - 10 C0iraTIB3 FIGURE 14 HIGHER EDUCATION 173 may be stated for this view: First, the Negro population of the State is fairly well concentrated in certain sections, as is evident from Figure 14. Logan County, in which the school is now located, had in 1920, a Negro population of 6,422. At the same time each of the following eight counties had a larger Negro population than had Logan County : Muskogee - 15,310 Oklahoma 11,401 Tulsa 10,903 Okmulgee 9,791 Okfuskee 8,617 Wagoner 7,093 McCurtain 6,914 Creek 6,794 These eight counties contained 56 per cent of the State's Negro population. It may be noted that six of these eight counties form a contiguous district. Quite obviously if the school is to serve the Negro population it should be located somewhere in this district. Further study shows that, barring Logan County, 62 per cent of those enrolled in the school come from nine counties, which form a fairly contiguous district (See Figure 15) as follows: I i (•) LOCATIOT OP THE C0l,OHKD ACRtCOLTORAl i AKD MOHMAL DHIVKR3ITT I C0UDTIS3 PROM WHICH 10 OR MORE STUDEHT3 ARS EBHOLLED FIGURE 15 174 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Okmulgee 25 IMuskogee 18 Lincoln 21 Wagoner 14 Oklahoma 19 Okfuskee 10 Creek 18 Tulsa 10 Mcintosh 18 If the school is to be the capstone of a State system of Negro education it should have close contact with the secondary and elementary schools, and it should furnish inspiration and leadership for the lower schools. This is next to impossible if the institution is so far removed from the center of activity. The cost of extension activities at great distances prevents such activities on the part of the school. A second reason and an important one for a change in location is that where the school now is there are not enough children to organize a satisfactory training school. Only 67 pupils below high school grade are now available for such purpose, and a number of these are unsuitable. Most of those enrolled in the 7th and 8th grades are from various parts of the State. There is a small Negro school at Langston, over a mile distant from the institution, but due to the attitude of the town this school is not available for teacher training purposes. If the Colored Agricultural and Normal University is really to train teachers for the Negro schools of Oklahoma it should have training school facilities of from 250 to 300 pupils, some organized as a graded school, others organized as rural schools. There appears to be no way by which such facilities can ever be assured where the institution is now located. There are not enough children in the community for such purposes. Third, the school at present is several miles from the railroad, and this circumstance adds considerably to the expense of running the school. The expense for coal alone is thousands of dollars higher than if it could be unloaded into the storage room from the car directly. New buildings cost more because of the drayage involved It is an expense which will continue as long as the school remains where it now is. It is thus evident that the location of the school could and should be greatly improved by changing it. Now is the opportune time to take this step if a program is to be adopted which will bring the school up to the needs of the Negro population of the State. It is HIGHER EDUCATION 175 very doubtful whether the school can ever serve its constituency in an economical manner if left where it now is. The value of the part of the present plant which could not be moved is very slight indeed when it is compared with what will have to be done to make the school worthy of the State. The build- ings are mostly of cheap construction and are altogether inadequate. The girls' dormitory is a fire trap which should immediately be re- placed with a modern building. Another boys' dormitory should be built at once. A building for trades is also an immediate neces- sity. These are only a few of the projects which should be carried out very soon. In a ten year building program the present build- ings are a negligible factor. VI. STANDARDS OF HIGHER ' EDUCATION, JUNIOR COL- LEGES, AND OTHER SUGGESTIONS. 1. STANDARDS. The accrediting of high schools in Oklahoma was begun by the University and was later taken over by the State Department of Education. The work is carried on under a plan whereby high schools are accredited for certain courses thus assuring that all of the high school work will be kept up to standard. This system is excellent. The accrediting so far as could be determined is well done. The entrance credentials submitted by those seeking admission to the university are checked with much care, and high entrance standards are maintained. No judgment can be passed on this work at the Agricultural and Mechanical College, for the reason that the original certificates submitted by entrants are not always kept on file. This is an inexcusable negligence and not at all in keeping with good practice. Entrance credits practice and records are not in satisfactory condition at the college for women. The attempt is made to evalu- ate the entrance credits, honestly, but the work lacks system and is carelessly done. Likewise the records of entrance at the State teachers' colleges generally are not adequately handled. At the Oklahoma School of Mines virtually no evaluation and record of entrance credentials is kept. In order that entrance credits may be more easily and uniform- ly evaluated and classified, it is recommended that all the State in- stitutions of higher learning and the State Department of Education join in the adoption of a uniform high school and college entrance 176 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA certificate. It is further recommended that the original college entrance certificates accepted by the institutions of higher learning be kept on file at the institutions. In a general way, to take the college curricula of the various institutions students are required to present 15 units of entrance credits, though conditional entrance is granted with 14 units. The State teachers' colleges make no further requirement, but several of the other institutions prescribe certain work as follows : THE UNIVERSITY. Subjects English Foreign language Algebra Plane geometry .. Solid geometry . Science History Piano or violin .. Elective Arts and Science 3 2 1 Required Items Engin- eering 3 2 1% 1 1 1 5, Fine Arts Medicine Phar- macy 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE Agriculture, Home Economics, Com- ! Subjects merce and Marketing \ Education and Veter- inary Medicine English 3 Foreign language .... Algebra 1 Plane geometry 1 Solid geometry .... .... Science 1 Social science 1 Elective 8 Required Units Engineering, including rural and administra- tive engineering 3 1 1% 1 Science and literature 3 1 1 2-3 1 1 7 1-3 College for Women: The entrance requirements are the same for all curricula, and correspond exactly to those demanded at the University for entrance to the arts and science curricula. Miami School of Mines: The entrance requirements are the same as those at the University. Oklahoma School of Mines : ' ' Candidates for degrees in Mining HIGHER EDUCATION 177 and Metallurgy Engineering must satisfy the Faculty of the school by evidence that they have satisfactorily completed a course in a liigh school of recognized standing." The entrance requirements are sufficiently liberal. It is rec- ommended that the major portion of any high school curriculum accepted by the institutions of higher education be definitely corre- lated Avith the course of study to which the student is admitted. This requirement will reduce the amount of instruction at the higher institutions which is in reality of secondary grade. Admission with advanced standing is permitted at the Uni- versity and at the College for Women only on the basis of evaluation by courses. In certain cases this is likcAvise true of the Agricultural and Mechanical College but the following statement appears in the catalogue : "Graduates from the two-year courses in normal schools in Oklahoma will receive junior standing in the schools of home econ- omics, education, and commerce, and marketing, and in the depart- ments of agricultural education, rural economics and the general courses in the school of agrciulture; in the school of engineering and science and literature and in the remaining courses in the school of agriculture, they will receive the credits to which their previous work entitles them." The first part of the statement quoted announces an unwar- ranted procedure. Much of the work of the two-year teachers col- lege curricula is of elementary nature. ElscAvhere it is recommended that the curricula for the training of elementary teachers and the curricula for the training of secondary teachers be clearly differ- entiated. It is recommended, further, that graduates from the two- year curricula of the teachers' colleges, instead of receiving a blanket credit for two years of college work, receive credit only for such specific courses as can properly be considered of college character. 2. JUNIOR COLLEGES. Oklahoma has two junior colleges under State control, and several localities have definitely begun junior college work by giv- ing one year of college work in connection with their high schools. There are also two privately controlled junior colleges within the State. A recommendation has already been made regarding one of the junior colleges, the Miami School of Mines. The school needs a considerable addition to its laboratory equipment. The library con- tains only a few books, it should have at least 10,000 volumes for 178 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA junior college work. Of the nine faculty members who give in- struction in college subjects two have degrees above the baccalau- reate degree, six have baccalaureate degrees, and one has no bac- calaureate degree. Both in equipment and in the faculty the school must be strengthened to become a standard junior college. The secondary work is being dropped because there is very little demand for il. The present program of instruction is outlined to articulate with the University of Oklahoma, except the curriculum in mining en- gineering, which is devised to articulate with the work of the Missouri State School of Mines and Metallurgy. The institution, while located in an enterprising and gi-owing city, is unfortunately located from the point of view of accessibility to the State, a conii- tion which is reflected by the fact that 87 per cent of the 89 Okla- homa residents who are college students in the school are resident;, of Ottawa County, that is, the school is principally a local an i county institution which is supported at State expense. In the opin- ion of the Survey, this school should be located at Claremore. It would then be at a railroad center, and it would be strategically located to render a regional and State rather than a more or less local service. The case of the other junior college, the Panhandle Agricultural and Mechanical College, remains to be considered. Undoubtedly the purpose in extending the course of study of the Panhandle Agricul- tural Institute in 1921 to include two years of college work was to provide collegiate education for a section of the State which is far removed from the State institutions of higher learning. Else- where it is recommended that the State District Agricultural Schools be gradually discontinued and that a system of adequate State aid for high schools be developed. This recommendation is especially applicable to the Panhandle School. Already there are 12 accred- ited high schools in the three panhandle counties. (See Figure 16.) © Kenton (7) Tyrone (18i)j; Hooker (26)( Cfs Bolee City ^ (i7i) Forgan (16i) Beaver (S\ 0__KnoTileB (Si) Ouymon (NC)( , GoodTiell lfe:ihoina (17g) © Balko (7) 0Gray (8^) Gate (12)1 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE LOCATION OF ACCREDITED HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE PANHANDLE COUNTIES OF OKLAHOMA. THE NUMBERS INDICATE THE NUMBER OF UNITS FOR "WHICH THE SCHOOLS ARE ACCREDITED. THE HIGH SCHOOL AT GUYMON IS ACCREDITED BY THE NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION. FIGURE 16 HIGHER EDUCATION 179 With a system of State aid, these high schools will develop rapidly and others will be established as they are needed. Further- more, under the county unit system which is recommended, the high schools of a county can be so located that they will be accessible to all the youths of the county, who can attend them and room and board at home. The question then arises, Avhat provision shall be made to give higher education to the graduates of the high schools. Two courses are open. First, the institution at Goodwell can be maintained as a junior college. In November it reported a college enrollment of 46. The institution is quite imprepared to give instruction of col- lege grade. The laboratory equipment, with the possible exception of that for home economics, is inadequate even for secondary work. Of the 10 members of the faculty who give college courses, exclud- ing the director of music, 7 have baccalaureate degrees, 2 have nor- mal school diplomas, and 1 is a student assistant with no certificate of graduation. No member of the faculty has a master's degree. The library consists of 1,800 volumes, of which number approx- imately 500 are useful ; the rest are practically worthless for a jun- ior college library. Under no circumstances should the college work be continued with the present facilities and staff. To give such work under the guise of a college is to deceive the young men and the young women who enroll in the institution. If a junior college is to be maintained it should be kept up to such a standard that it will be recognized by the State university. This will cost out of proportion to the present number of students, but in five years, Avith rapid high school development in the 3an- handle counties, there 'should be 125 students wanting to take jun- ior college work. A second course which is open to provide instruction of college grade is for the State to pay the round trip transportation annually of students from the three panhandle counties to any of the follow- ing which a student desires to attend : The University of Oklahoma, the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, and the North- western State Teachers College. Such a plan would cost the State less money than would the education of those students in a first- class junior college in the panhandle. A disadvantage of such a plan from the State point of view is that a large proportion of the students would probably not return to develop the counties which are their homes. It is recommended that the junior college work at the Panhandle 180 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Agricultural and Mechanical College be gradually brought up to recognized standards ; that the college work be materially improved for next year (1923-24) ; and that the high school work be discon- tinued by dropping the first year in June, 1923, the second year in June, 1924, the third year in June, 1925, and the fourth year in June, 1926. The University has been aAvake to the junior college movements and it has consequently set up regulations regarding university credit for junior college work. Neither of the two existing State junior colleges measures up fully to these regulations. A STATE POLICY WITH REFERENCE TO JUNIOR COLLEGES ESSENTIAL. In the short time allotted for the survey it has not been possi- ble to make a full study of the junior college problem in Oklahoma. However, the committee believes that as a result of a relatively small number of good privately supported colleges in the State it is necessary, as has already been stated, for the State to support high- er education to a degree unnecessary in other States. Furthermore, with the rapid increase in population and the great development of secondary education it has already been demonstrated that the State will be compelled to resort to unusual measures to support higher education and probably to relieve the university at least from some of the burden of student enrollment. For this reason the committee has approved the continuation of two existing schools as junior colleges, and it believes that the State can very well afford to consider favorably the organization of a system of junior colleges by the addition of perhaps three more jumor colleges located at strategic railway centers in the State. The work of these junior colleges should be definitely correlated with that of the university, and they should be administered by the university board of regents except of course in the case of the Panhandle Junior College of Agriculture which should be under the governing board of the Agri- cultural and Mechanical College. 3. OTHER RECOMMENDATIONS. Several additional suggestions and recommendations pertain to a number of unrelated matters. First,, it is recommended that ser- ious consideration be given by the State authorities to the de- sirability of removing certain of the educational institutions to other locations in which they might be able to render more accept- able service to the State. Inaccessibility and inconvenient rail- HIGHER EDUCATION 181 road connections are serious handicaps to the growth and develop- ment of all institutions. Second, it is suggested that catalogs of institutions should not print outlines of courses which they have no reasonable expectation of offering. The following data indicate the percentage of courses offered which were actually given in 1921-22 : University 75 ^ Agricultural & Mechanical College 77 College for Women 55 State Teachers' Colleges: Central 59 East Central 68 Southeastern 51 Northeastern 57 Southwestern 49 Northwestern 46 All of the State teachers' colleges print the State courses, but as is quite obvious none of them gives them all. To advertise so many offerings without the possibilities of giving them is likely to deceive the citizens of the State. It is proper to advertise offerings which depend on the registration but these should be kept within reasonable bounds. It is also suggested that the catalogs should omit such matter as that pertaining to the healthfulness of the commimity, the scenic beauty of the environment, and other items which may be taken for granted. Complete and accurate statistical information on the faculty, enrollments, diplomas, and degrees granted, size of library, income, etc., should be included. Some idea of the kind of information which a catalog should contain may be had from a study of the requests for information which are constantly being received from prospective students and from citizens of the State. A catalog should partake of the nature of a reliable report as well as of the nature of an advertisement. Third, it is recommended that the State establish a rotary loan fund at each institution of higher education, such a fund to be available to worthy students who need assistance. Beginnings have already been made in this service. The fund should be con- ducted in a business-like way and it should in five or six years be- come self-sustaining. 182 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA VII. STUDENT WELFARE. 1. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH. When the War Department fmdings in regard to the health •of the young men of the country were made public there followed a great wave of interest in all matters relating to the physical well-being of children and young people. Departments of physical education which had tended toward more competitive athletics broadened their activities and added physicians to their staffs. In most of the leading educational institutions the responsibility of promoting the physical development of the youth was recognized. This recognition has resulted in certain definite programs for promoting health. First, facilities were provided for thorough medical examinations for all students at least once a year and as many more times as such examinations were deemed necessary. Second^ provision was made for remedial or curative treatment for all students in need of it. Third, the support of an infirmary with nursing and medical care has been adopted to assure all stud- ents good care during temporary illness. Fourth, gymnasiums and athletic fields were enlarged and improved. Fifth, the physical education staffs were increased. Sixth, instruction in health and hygiene are given to all freshmen students. CONDITIONS IN OKLAHOMA. The Oklahoma higher educational institutions Avere left al- most untouched by this increased interest in the halth of their ^students, principally, perhaps, because of lack of financial support. Practically no thorough physical examinations are given. The best conditions in this respect exist at the college for women but even there the conditions are far from ideal. Remedial and cura- tive treatment is likewise given only to a very limited degree. At the University there is an inadequate infirmary, but elsewhere in the State no provision is made for the isolation and care of ill students. Physical education for women at the College for Women is given under good conditions and is of a superior type. At the University the quality of the provision is good, but it is insuf- ficient as to quantity. At the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege the rooms used by the women and all other facilities for their physical education are so deficient that nothing can be said in approval. Conditions at the teachers' colleges vary from insuffi- cient quarters to almost no provision at all. HIGHER EDUCATION 183 The men students at the Agricultural and Mechanical College have an excellent gymnasium, but physical education does not seem to receive careful consideration at the time of making the schedule and of registering students, hence physical training at the college is far less effective than it should be. Physical edu- cation for men at the University is housed under very bad conditions. There is a law in Oklahoma requiring that all prespective teachers be instructed in hygiene. The law is ineffective and nowhere in the State is there an adequate required course in hygiene given to all students. RECOMMENDATIONS. The following recommendations are made : Firsts In each educational institution enrolling 1,000 or more students, there should be at least one physician employed on full time and attached either to the physical education staff or to the biological science division. Such officer should not be required to give instruction in any other subject excepting hygiene, he should have charge of all medical examinations, and complete oversight of tiie infirmary. Second, In institutions with an enrollment of less than 1,000 a physician should be employed for a definite portion of his time, with like responsibilities and authority. Third, Full-time women physicians should be employed at the Womans College, the State University, and the Agricultural College, who shall devote their entire time to the health and welfare of the women students. Fourth, Modern and adequate infirmaries should be maintained at each of the higher educational institutions. Fifth, Physical education and hygiene should receive much greater consideration at the normal schools than is now jr '*-' -^ m I I 3 S C Ci( 03 £ !0 e 03 :5 P > as 01 — ' <♦-< ^ °BB b1 c c o o 03 u . . fc = c Norman Stillwater ... Chickasha ... Ada Alva Durant Edmond Tahlequah ... Weatherford Langston Wilburton ... Miami Goodwiell .... Total 1,258,135 625,590 121,214 79,807 72,230 88,561 119,471 62,830 69,992 90,616 36,140 20,000 39,719 2,684,305 80,219 40,650 3,334 4,750 8,000 23,750 8,740 8,000 50.000 227,443 1,338,354 1,160,358* 121,214 79,807 72,230 91,895 124,221 70,830 69,992 114,366 44,880 28,000 89.719 3,405,866 99,202 20,032 4,191 3,966 13,096 2,220 1,461 1.361 145,529 59,020 37,552 29,404 125,976 'Includes $48,129 for agricultural experiment stations and $445,989 for agri- cultural and home economics extension. §This table includes funds for summer schools, for extension and correspond- ence work, and for other activities. The amount available for resident instruction during the year from September to June is considerably less than that given in column 2. 190 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Table 20 sets forth the amounts of funds available at the State institutions for the year ended June 30, 1922. This year, 1922-23, with somewhat more than 10,500 enrolled, not including those for training school purposes, and including about 7,900 of college grade, there is available from all sources for their education about $1,790,000.00. On the basis suggested above, about $3,000,000.00 for salaries, operation and upkeep is needed to pro- vide properly for the work. For the year 1923-24, with a decrease in the enrollment of secondary students and a reasonable increase in the enrollment of college students, it seems probable that these in- stitutions will enroll approximately 11,000 students, of whom 9,500 will be of college rank, and appropriations of from $3,350,000.00 to $3,400,000.00 should be available. The following are the estimated needs for operation and upkeep of the various schools for the year 1923-24: University :.$1,450,000 Agricultural and Mechanical College 800,000 College for Women 125,000 State teachers' colleges: Central 180,000 East Central 150,000 Southeastern 150,000 Norteastern 125,000 Northwestern 125,000 Southwestern 125,000 These estimates do not include appropriations for summer terms, extension work, experiment station and research work, hospital, and other necessary items. Additional amounts should be includ- ed for such purposes. 5. REVENUES. Three recommendations are made pertaining to revenues : First, the income derived from the production taxes on oil and minerals should be invested in a State building program. In such a program other State institutions besides those for higher educa- tion should be included. To expend this income in a way other than in a permanent investment seems very miAvise. Second, At least a part of the money for higher education should be provided by means of a mileage tax. Such a tax provides a HIGHER EDUCATION 191 I ~ definite amount which can form the basis of planning. ^ Third, The income from the various Federal land grants should be made available to the institutions concerned without appropri- ation by the State legislature. These grants are for specific pur- poses. To include them in the appropriation bills can serve no good end and it makes it appear that these moneys are raised by taxation. Additional data concerning the State institutions will be found in Tables 21-22-23 and 24. 192 PUBI^IC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE 21.— RESIDENT STUDENTS DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO RESIDENCE. (COLLEGE STUDENTS ONLY). LOCATION OP INSTITUTION Counties and States a a u o 02 a O c o •4-1 u 1 £ -a < > < 4-> c 2 3 Q -a c o g 3 c A O u 4) c o ID to c cd a! o o "5 ■i-> o Counties in Okla. Adair 6 2 40 .... 48 Altalfa 40 28 1 21 90 Atoka 8 26 34 Beaver 9 4 4 1 18 Beckham 27 16 .... 2 3 .... .,... 48 Blaine 40 21 5 9 6 2 2 85 Bryan 20 4 ...- 246 1 .... .... ■ 271 Caddo 45 24 20 16 20 125 Canadian 48 17 7 .... 24 2 1 99 Carter 64 15 1 .... 31 14 5 .... 130 Cherokee 14 69 83 Choctaw 20 9 10 30 1 .... .... 71 Cimarron 1 4 .... 2 7 Cleveland ^55 4 2 .... 5 1 .... 767 Coal 15 2 .... 13 10 .... 40 Comanche 46 12 15 5 3 81 Gotton 28 6 1 2 1 2 4 44 Craig 16 10 4 40 1 .... 71 Creek 66 34 6 .... 6 30 1 2 .... 145 Custer 22 34 6 .... 3 128 .... .... 193 Delaware 9 2 32 43 Dewey 8 4 5 2 6 25 Ellis 7 5 .... 11 1 .... .... 24 Garfield 52 79 4 .... 11 5 .... 151 Garvin 54 9 10 2 11 13 .... .... 99 Grady 58 40 129 15 1 243 Grant 24 28 1 .... 3 6 .... ..... 62 Greer 2'9 22 11 -... 6 11 .... .... 79 Harmon 10 7 6 .... 1 6 .... ..— 30 Harper 4 1 .... 6 .... 11 Haskell .13 4 2 2 30 51 Hughes 24 13 1 -... 21 1 ..-- 60 Jackson 38 16 7 .... 7 5 ••-■ 73 Jefferson 10 10 7 .... 2 3 -...- .... .... 32 Johnston 10 7 2 .... 12 17 4 .... .... 52 Kay 69 21 6 1 1 15 113 Kingfisher 20 22 6 .... 9 1 61 Kiowa 48 15 13 .... 8 13 .... 97 Latimer 9 6 12 .... 27 Le Flore 20 5 3 .... .... 22 2 2 .... 54 HIGHER EDUCATION 193 Counties and States r LOCATION OP INSTITUTION c s o 02 d m a X o A U ni < C 03 3 Q £ oi -a 3 c C o 0/ S 2 -s ce W h o a; X! c o m in c Counties in Okla. Lincoln 28 45 5 .... 28 5 8 119 Logan 46 25 1 .... .... 21 18 111 Love 13 1 .... .... 9 4 27 Major 6 12 a... .... 12 1 31 Marshall 9 2 3 .... .... 32 .... .... 46 Mayes 6 6 3 35 50 McClain 44 7 .... 4 6 61 McCurtain 19 11 2 .... .... 1 33 Mcintosh 19 4 .... .... 18 10 5 56 Murray 12 5 5 .... .... 6 .... .... 28 Muskogee 86 22 8 1 115 5 237 Noble 15 20 2 .... .... 37 Nowata 13 13 2 1 1 13 4 47 Okfuskee 30 7 1 .... .... 3 12 2 55 Oklahoma 394 47 11 .... .... 3 1 173 2 8 .... 639 Okmulgee 66 10 2 1 2 5 5 17 108 Osage 40 5 3 .... — .- 3 12 1 .... 64 Ottawa 12 9 2 .... 77 1 74 175 Pawnee 17 26 1 .... 3 2 49 Payne 19 394 .... 1 11 2 .... 427 Pittsburg 60 10 6 18 7 1 4 106 Pontotoc 13 6 1 .... .... 189 1 1 1 212 Pottawatomie 5,3 28 2 .... .... 18 12 1 2 .... 116 Pushmataha 4 1 23 28 Roger Mills 10 3 1 «... .... 1 8 .... .... 23 Rogers 17 14 3 7 27 68 Seminole 9 5 4 ... .... 26 1 2 .... 47 Sequoyah 5 2 • ••■ _ .... 2 1 34 .. 44 Stephens 51 20 21 • --. .... 5 17 .... .... 114 Texas 7 2 .... .... 2 .... 25 36 Tillman 29 8 1 16 5 59 Tulsa 151 36 3 .... .... 1 9 26 1 227 Wagoner 20 4 1 .... .... 1 7 5 ... 38 Washington 29 11 1 ... 7 25 73 Washita 18 4 2i 29 53 Woods 19 6 .... .... 176 .... 201 Woodward 9 18 2 1 23 1 54 Counties not specified .... .... 18 .... 10 28 Total from Oklahoma 3204 1400 379 8 89 326 292 510 531 634 255 98 38 7764 •■<. s. 194 PU}3LIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA LOCATION OF INSTITUTION Counties %^ cS c J2 o and 0) s o rt c ^ a •*-> w ■u 'O 3 o ^ fa o M H Eh N N o <3J o CO *saa.iS9pl 9JB8jnB[B00Be: (35 ira t> M M r-l ; o lo U5 CO in «o ; CQ »H i-H T-l eo CO aiBnp-BJO C<1 ajBaari'BiBOO'Ba; saj-Bogiijao ajij puB SBinoidia saajSap ajBnpBjf) *saajSap aiBaan-BiBODBe: 00 CO CO 00 C<) ; «o CO Oi M CO ■ • CO T-i «o CO : CO o CO I-l oo 00 t- : CO : eo CO sa:jBOijijJ90 9JII puB sBinoidra saajSap ajBnpBj^) *saajSap a^BajnBiBDOBa sajBoynaao ajji ^ pUB SBUIOldlQ '"' ou5;::::!:::::!io I mt-iMio : : ; ; ; : ;t}< :co t-oo ;:::::: ;t- : ,H U5 00 t- t- 00 CO a> ; cc CO CO o M •* cq ; Oi N "*i ■*:::;:!::!::: •^ cq ; : isi :: •.•:::■ : t~ t- t- ', ', : T}< cvi th 00 th ir; : : C o '■>-> ci o o a .2 v» >" 5 o .ti c _, I' u S o u o to & c o 3 0) .C 4) 196 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE 22. — RESIDENT ENROLLMENTS IN FIRST SEMESTER OF 1915-16, 1921-22, AND NOVEMBER 1922. Locations of ' Institutions Norman Stillwater ... Chickasha ... Wilburton ... Miami Ada Alva Durant Edmond Tahlequah ... Weatherford Langston Goodwell ...„ Total 2,350 High School Students 1915-16 1921-22 1922-23 363 280 209 169 229 561 206 142t 191 443 198 72 215 194 227 313 149 226 314 2.351 312 146 14 333 238 193 322 258 169 229 279 2,493 Students above high school grade 1915-16 1921-22 1922-23 1,104 641 80 5 154 121 120 417 85 33*t 2.760 3,013 1,100 322 205 55 321 215 447 352 223 112 29 6.394 1,539 388 198 93 460 299 556 567 197 261 115 44 4.717 ♦Not complete. Records lost. tFigures are for 1916-17. TABLE 24.— DISTRIBUTION OF CLASSES OF COLLEGE GRADE ACCORDING TO ENROLLMENT. Location of Enrollments in classes Institutions 1-5 6-10 54 44 8 I 13 1 11 17 13 4 6 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-ro Over 70 Norman Stillwater .... Chickasha .... Wilburton Miami 75 63 23 5 7 14 4 26 14 7 5 17 103 79 4 6 14 9 12 16 9 18 7 5 101 39 4 2 8 6 10 14 6 6 4 1 101 48 2 6 5 4 17 4 6 4 53 32 1 8 5 5 12 1 3 4 21 16 1 4 2 1 8 2 2 10 12 3 5 3 26 25 Ada Alva Durant Edmond Tahlequah .... Weatherford Langston Goodwell .... 3 2 5 10 "i Total 260 186 282 201 197 124 57 33 72 CHAPTER VII. THE RURAL SCHOOLS. INTRODUCTION. According to the Census differentation between rural and urban approximately 75 per cent of Oklahoma's population is classed as rural. The problem of developing adequate educational facilities for the rural population is an important one in any State It is especially important in a State like Oklahoma in which there are few cities and so large a proportion of the people live on farms or in small towns and villages. Its significance is accentuated in Oklahoma by the pioneer conditions that still obtain in a large share of the farming communities, due to the fact that the farms in many sections of the State have been under cultivation a rel- atively short time, and to the great variations in wealth and tax- able property that is available for the support of schools in different parts of the State. As a result many of the farmers are not as yet well established. They still feel the shortage of funds likely to characterize all young farming communities. There is also to be found a marked percentage of transients among the farmers. Their periods of residence in a community is so brief that they are not likely to become deeply interested in such institutions as the school. These conditions make it a matter of special importance that the State of Oklahoma give careful consideration to its rural schools in the formulation of an educational program. There should be recog- nition of the fact that children in the country districts are en- titled to educational opportunities equal to those offered chil- dren in the city. Concretely this will manifest itself in such things as the fol- lowing: as long a school term, as well trained teachers, as good buildings and equipment, in the country as in the city. The child reared in the country should not be handicapped as a result of at- tendance on inadequate schools if he decides to engage in the professions or industrial vocations. Those who decide to cast their lot with the country school should have obtained in their school life a 197 198 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA broad preparation for the community, State, and national responsi- bilities, and some specific training for their responsibilities on the farm and in the farm home. No democratic State can afford permanently to maintain a lower standard of educational opportunity for its rural population than is established for its urban citizenry, least of all a State that is so largely rural as is Oklahoma. There is little question that in important respects the school facilities of the rural portions of the State are on the average below those of the cities. The State can- not hope to remedy this situation unless it is willing to recognize the obstacles that rural communities in general have to face in develop- ing schools, and to assist them from State funds ; to set up an edu- cational organization adequate to meet the present day educational demands, and entirely free from the influence of partisan politics; and finally, to establish as high standards for teaching service in country schools as obtain in other schools of the State. The members of the staff assigned to investigate rural school conditions visited schools in 25 counties, selected with the advice and assistance of members of the State department and the secretary of the Survey Commission. They were chosen because they were believed to be representative of all sections and of all varying condi- tions to be found in the State. So far as possible schools selected by county superintendents as typical of the different types of schools found in counties and communities typical of general conditions of living were visited. Conferences and discussions were held at frequent intervals ; State and local officials were consulted for advice and information ; data and literature on educational conditions were studied as carefully as possible. It is believed, therefore, that the conditions are as set forth, and that the recommendations offered are based on sound educational principles and knowledge of the needs of the people of the State. (See Fig. 17). THE RURAL SCHOOLS 199 g o u w o o W §^ ^ 02 o CO m I... M P H H 02 a i-i o X o Eh 200 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA ADMINISTRATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS. The State constitution charges the legislature with the duty of providing a State system of free schools for the education of the children of the State, A system of schools pre-supp'oses equal at- tention to the educational welfare of all children in it without re- gard to the particular section in which they live. Unless this is true there is no real system. If, for example, a citizen contemplating moving into a city — as Tulsa or Oklahoma City — ^in appraising its desirability as a residence wishes to consider the efficiency of its school system, it is not essential to make a study of schools in the different sections of the city. One naturally supposes that in whatever seel ion he choose a residence he will find approximately equivalent school advantages for his children. It would be quite exceptional if not unparalleled to find different standards as to quality of instruction ; length of term; salary of teachers; courses of study, and the like, in different sections of the same city. In other words, the idea of a system contemplates in itself attainment of certain standards of equal, or approximately equal, effectiveness in all its parts. In a similar manner we have a right to expect that a State sys- tem, when one exists, sets up certain minimum standards which as- sure reasonable effectiveness of school facilities to all children within its borders, regardless of any accident of location, and that it provides for and insists on their maintenance. Reasonable stand- ards for a modern State system offering equivalent educational * opportunity for all children may be expected to include a nine- months term, qualified teachers, buildings insuring the health and safety of children, adequate equipment, and the like, all judged in the light of modern school conditions and school practice. DISTRICT SYSTEM. What Oklahoma really has done is to establish, not a State system, but a large number of small systems called districts, each one practically a law unto itself and left by the State to shift for itself both as to support and educational standards. The district may in- clude rich lands, railroads, oil fields, or corporation property and, therefore, be able to provide liberally, even extravagantly for school buildings, pay ample salaries, and provide for all the requisites of a modern school system, with a reasonable — sometimes even a very low — tax levy. Or, on the other hand, a district may be poor in THE RURAL SCHOOLS 201 tax resources but rich in children, and even with a maximum tax levy unable to support even reasonably good schools. Inconsistencies and injustices due to the unequal opportunity furnished by the different districts are common throughout the State. In one county, for example, high school privileges were de- nied to more than half those eligible because the district from which the children came Avas too poor even with a maximum levy to raise money enough to pay their tuition in nearby districts maintaining high schools. On the other hand, counties visited were found rich enough and progressive enough to have an accredited high school within six miles of every child in the county. In practically every county in the State there are districts side by side, often including children living on adjoining farms but in different districts, in one family of which the children may attend school nine months in com- fortable modern buildings with adequate equipment, qualified teach- ers, and a four-year high school ; while the children of the neighbor- ing family in the adjoining district attend school in poor buildings, for a short term, to a teacher with little education beyond that which the children themselves have, and with no opportunity for education beyond the grades unless their parents can afford to pay for it away from home. Examples of this kind could be multiplied. In a number of counties visited there are districts in which the valuation is so low that it is impossible to raise more than a few hundred dol- lars for the support of the school even with the maximum levy. Table 25 sets forth certain differences among districts which are detrimental to rural schools. Grade of certificate held is one way of judging educational qualifications of teachers. The table shows that all teachers in independent districts have first grade certifi- cates — the highest kind issued. The percentage decreases, with the lowest proportion in the ungraded rural schools. The number of third grade or lowest grade certificate is lowest in independent dis- tricts and increases, reaching the highest proportion in ungraded rural districts. The table shows, also, proportionate decreases in average annual salaries, tax levies and other items as among classes of districts, the rural ungraded districts having the most unfavorable • conditions in all cases. 202 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 1 1— 1 (X ) ^_ Q looqos qSiq ■ u{ paiiojua uon^ja y— -tunua JO 8SB5U9Da9(i C « < If > 00 E-t lOoqos qSiq Suipuai IT ) Hj Oi •>» " «e o -^■B Jaquinu eSB.i8Av "« C ^ '" 1 M ^ I— 1 p Q siiim ui Xa9i XBi sS^jaAV C ^ -( r- 00 t-H M m < p81^J9iunua OOO'I n^v.9 joj looqas qSiq puB XaBiU9ui9i9 or 11* > "C OC > •* o oo UI P9IIOJU9 J9quinjsi tf J < O UOIIB oc er ir 1 c ) OS > E-i -niBA JO OOO'I $ M3T39 T-H ^ r- < UO XBJ lOOqOS 9SBJ9AV M O > :tU9uinoju9 looqos jo ■BiidBD J9cl Suipimq 2 '=^ T— 1 ■« c ) CO looqos JO uonT3niBA fc ^ 'P SlOOqOS JO 90UB xn -U9;UT-BUI JOJ 9jm OC 00 CO o H-t Eh -ipU9dX9 •BildBO a9d[ «^ Q O < l-H sjaqoBBj JO S9t C 7— 00 U -.TBIBS IBnUUB 9SBJ9AV (M c o- a 00 12; »«■ o El < u soui UI iqSnBi uijaj ir: CO 1-1 Q JO qjSu9i aSB.i9AV a- oc t^ t- c-' P e;Boynj90 M 9pB.i§ pjg Suipioq OJ I-H < < S.I9qOB9J JO ^U90 J8 o o 0) c p 0) . S 3 C bi C 2 m ? ^ 5 o tJD C w ■c c C Eh W P hH > U t t3 THE RURAL SCHOOLS 203 Inadequacy of the district system is not confined to any single feature but is evident in every phase of educational endeavor. In- stead of assuring a high class personnel with administrators, super- visors and teachers ; economical business management, and effective results, it puts a premium on inefficiency all along the line. From the gross inequalities which it brings about rural children suffer most. This is true in all States in which it exists, but, owing to varying industrial conditions in Oklahoma, to the abundance of nat- ural resources in some parts of the State and lack of them in others, the inequalities in taxable property and in the resulting educational opportunities are more marked than in many other States, Oklahoma has especial need for making a supreme effort for equalizing educa- tional opportunity among the children. COUNTY SCHOOL SYSTEM. While the district school trustees are responsible for the em- ployment of teachers, the type of building furnished, the course of study, and the general quality of the school, there is in each county a county superintendent who has general supervision over all but independent districts, and who has certain administrative and ad- visory duties as set forth in the statutes and assigned by common practice. The county superintendents in Oklahoma are elected at large on a regular party ticket at the general election, for a term of two years, with salaries ranging from $1,200 to $3,000. No qualifi- <;ations are exacted from candidates for the positions except the possession of a first grade county certificate. This certificate is easily obtained and requires little academic and no professional preparation. The elective system for selecting superintendents is a pernicious one. So long as it exists there is every reason to except that the management of the schools will be involved in party politics and will suffer all the evils attendant on such a situation. Practical educators with professional preparation and successful experience will not seek positions as superintendents. If, by accident, a capable man or woman is elected to the office, he cannot devote himself wholeheartedly to educational work without danger of defeat at the next election. He must spend much of the time needed for educational work in repairing his policital fences. This is in- evitable under the elective system. That Oklahoma superintendents .are no exception to the rule in this respect was evident to the 204 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA survey staff visiting schools on the eve of a general election. Politics was often of greater concern to superintendents than their edu- cational duties, though the time was early fall when the work of getting schools started was in its most important stage. TABLE 26— SALARIES PAID TO OKLAHOMA COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. Salaries No. Supts. Receiving $1,200 1 $1,300 1 $1,400 3 $1,500 _ 5 $1,600 6 $1,700 _ _ 9 $1,800 20 $1,900 7 $2,000 7 $2,100- 7 $2,200 5 $2,300 : „ $2,400 „ „ _ $2,500 _ „ $2,600 $2,700 - „._ „ „ $2,800 _...„ $2,900 __ „..„ „ $3,000 -. 6 $3,100 $3,200 Total 77 Salaries In Groups $1,200-1,500 8 $1,500-1,800 32 $1,800-2,300 31 3,000 6 Median salary $1,500-1,800 Average years' service by the county Superinten- dents now serving „ 3.7 THE RURAL SCHOOLS 205 The method of selection is not the only serious obstacle to securing efficient and permanent superintendents, the salaries paid these officers are entirely inadequate, in many instances below that of teachers, principals and district superintendents working under their direction (See table 26). The average term of the county superintendents now serving, provided all of them complete the term for which they were elected in 1921, and which ends July, 1923, is 3.7 years. This average is raised by the occasional few among the group who have served long periods; in one or two cases as much as 12 years. Many serve only two years, relatively few four or six. The average biennial turnover for the past ten years is approximately 50 per cent. Information gathered in November before the election re- turns were announced show 49 of the 79 superintendents are candi- dates for reelection. If all these are elected the turnover will be approximately 37 per cent. LONGER TERM OF OFFICE ESSENTIAL. Neither the assured tenure of two years nor the average term of Sy2 years is long enough to make it possible to formulate and carry out plans for improving the county system extending over a period of years. For this reason building programs, salary schedules, reorganization projects and other progressive measures, so frequently found in city systems, are practically unknown in rural systems. Continuous leadership is impossible when county superintendents, from whom it should be expected, are subjected to the probability of a change at the close of each two year term. Each successive election finds many capable superintendents dropp- ing out of the race, some because of the disagreeable necessity of a political campaign with issues entirely foreign to educational considerations, some because of Ioav salaries and others because of failure of renomination or reelection. The few superintendents who are reelected for three or more successive terms are able to accomplish more than those with short terms; yet they, too, are seriously handicapped by lack of admini- strative authority, time, and facilities to put educational policies in operation. The selection and placing of teachers is a case in point. The county superintendent should be responsible for the quality of instruction given in schools; that is his most important function. Yet with no authority to select or place teachers in positions in which they are best fitted to render good service he is handicapped in 206 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA doing this from the beginning. Add to this the fact that only three of 58 superintendents reporting to the Bureau had time to make two visits a year to each school because of the extent of territory to be covered, and one realizes the impossibility of expecting county superintendents to be of any but nominal assistance to teachers in organizing schools and teaching children so long as present con- ditions continue. The county superintendent is equally impotent in the admini- stration of other educational policies the enumeration of which space forbids. The county superintendency is one of the most important positions in the whole school system. The educational welfare of thousands of rural children in Oklahoma is dependent upon the efficiency of the 77 county superintendents selected to administer and supervise the rural schools. There is every reason to believe that the people of the State believe in educating their children and are willing to spend their money liberally to this end. At present they are not spending money for schools wisely and economically. If they wish to receive the utmost in educational value for the money expended the best means to that end is to set up administrative machinery which will provide for real systems of rural schools, large enough in valuation, territory, and scholastic population to make efficiency possible and then place a professional educator in charge. This officer should be selected with at least as much care as city superintendents are now selected and in a similar way. Selec- tion should be on the basis of educational preparation, successful experience, and special fitness for the position in which the superin- tendent is to serve. Both men and women should be eligible and the selecting board should search the State and other States, if necessary, to secure the best possible person. Definite qualifications should be exacted in the certification law, and should include grad- uate courses and successful experience in administration and super- vision. The salary should be such as will secure and retain the best qualified persons available, and the term should be during good service. Provision for an adequate staff of professional and clerical assistants, for suitable office accommodations, and for travel ex- penses should be made. The administrative and supervisory staff with salaries in a county of 100 teachers should be approximately as follows : THE RURAL SCHOOLS 207 Officer Salary The county superintendent $ 4,000 1 secretary to county superintendent 1,500 1 clerk „ 1,000 3 professional supervisory assistants at $2,400 each 7,200 Travel expense fund 2,000 Total $15,700 THE RURAL SCHOOLS AND THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. The county superintendents of schools look to the State depart- ment for direction and ^idance in their administrative responsibili- ties, for leadership in the accomplishment of new and progressive ideals in educational organization and practice, and for direct as- sistance in carrying on their work among the people of their com- munity and in the schools. The States which are making the great- est progress in promoting efficiency of schools for country children at the present time owe much of their accomplishment to strong educational leadership from the State department of education. Oklahoma has made splendid advancement during the past ten years. In promoting centralization of small schools; in the move- ment for better school plants and equipment; in increasing general school spirit among the people; and in promoting progressive leg- islation, the State department, in spite of its pitifully meagre sup- port, has accomplished substantial results. While the educational needs of the State have been growing and while other State de- partments have been increasing in number and salary of personnel and in corresponding responsibilities assumed, Oklahoma has re- mained stationary. If present and future needs are adequately met fundamental changes in the size of the staff and in the functions of the department must be made or Oklahoma will fall still lower in rank among the States of the Union in educational achievement. Table 27 shows the staff as at present constituted, one of the smallest among the States and one of those in which lowest salaries are paid. (See Chapter V). One supervisor of rural schools is quite inadequate for a State of the size of Oklahoma and with as large a rural population. 208 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE 27. Department of Education and State Board of Education Officials and Salaries. State Superintendent $2,500 Asst. State Superintendent 2,100 Chief Clerk 2,000 Record Clerk 1 ,500 Agricultural Assistant in State Department 1,500 Chief High School Inspector 2,400 Two assistant Inspectors 1,800 each 1 Stenographer 1,500 1 Stenographer 1,200 Total $16,500 State Board of Education: 1 Secretary of State Board $2,100 1 Stenographer 1,200 General Education Board: 1 Supervisor of rural schools, salary and expenses $9,324 The addition of a rural school division or bureau to the State department of education is one of the immediate needs which the legislature should fill at an early date. There should be a staff of at least four State supervisors of rural schools, one director and three assistants, of whom, one should be assigned to assist county superintendents and rural people in the special problems of centralization of schools, one to special problems of administration and supervision; and one to assist in the purchase and selection of sites and the building and equipment of schools. The super- visors of rural schools should be men or women highly qualified by preparation and experience to be leaders among the educators of the State and to represent the State department of education among the rural communities. ATTENDANCE. Oklahoma has a total scholastic population of 647,083 white children ; of these 46 per cent are in districts classified as ungraded rural; 15 per cent in districts classified as village, consolidated, and union graded ; and 39 per cent in independent districts, accord- ing to the latest data obtainable. All children classified as be- THE RURAL SCHOOLS 209 longing in rural, union gi-aded, consolidated, and village schools, as well as many children classified as belonging in independent districts, are really rural children. They constitute between 65 and 75 per cent of the entire scholastic population. Schools, however efficient, can educate only children who at- tend school at least with reasonable regularity. An examination of the enrollment and attendance data obtainable in the State at- tendance reports show conditions very unfavorable for rural chil- dren. While 46 per cent of all the children live in ungraded rural districts, only 42 per cent are enrolled in the schools of such dis- tricts ; on the other hand while 39 per cent of the total number of children live in independent districts, 43 per cent of the total num- ber enrolled are in independent district schools. Average daily attendance data are equally unfavorable. Of every 100 children in school on any one day, 49 are in independent district schools, 15 in village, consolidated, and union graded schools, and 36 in ungraded rural schools. Below is a comparison of enumeration, enrollment, and average attendance in independent and ungraded rural districts. Percentage of Total in State. Enumeration Enrollment Average Attendance Independent 38 41 49 Ungraded rural 46 43 36 ' In every instance while the high percentage of children live in rural school districts, the percentage of enrollment compared with school population, and the percentage of attendance compared with enrollment, are lower for rural than for independent districts. If we consider districts as classified separately rather than as a whole we find similar results. Seventy (70) per cent of the enroll- ment in independent districts are in average daily attendance. Only 44 per cent of the enrollment in ungraded rural districts are in average daily attendance ; as shown in Table 28. Further study of school attendance in Oklahoma was made by the examination of teachers' registers in three counties showing the actual number of days attended by 2,352 children enrolled in rural schools ; the results are set forth in Table 29. The schools selected were the only ones from which data were obtainable. They are believed to be reasonably typical of average conditions. They are more nearly indicative of actual 210 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE 28. School Attendance. Pupils Percentage Percentage Per cent of enroll. enrolled of total of total Districts per teacher enrollment No. teachers employed Present Absen Independent districts 34 41.6 44. 75 25 Village 40 8.6 7.9 61 39 Consolidated 39 5.5 5.0 59 41 Union Graded 35 1.8 2.0 66 34 Ungraded rural 38 42.5 41.0 55 45 Total 37 100. 100. 64 36 TABLE 29.— SHOWING ACTUAL NUMBER OF DAYS ATTENDED BY 2,352 CHILDREN DURING SCHOOL YEAR, 1921-22. Days Percentage of children attending according to Percentage of class of school children at- at- 1-teacher 2-teacher 3-teacher 4-teacher 7-teacher tending from tended White Colored all schools 20 — 29 30— 39 23 15 33 22 14 21 35.7 25 44 30 15 21 31 46 36 55 45 29 34 44 54 48 64 52 35 36 51 63 65 76 57 39 41 59 75 97 87 64 48 45 71 95 99 82 67 58 87 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 THE RURAL SCHOOLS 211 school attendance than are the averages given above. Averages are influenced by the few who attend regularly and the few who attend school very little, consequently, they are not representative of individual conditions. CHILDREN DO NOT ATTEND REGULARLY. Table 29 shows that 23 per cent of the total number of children enrolled in one-teacher schools attended during the year less than two months, 35 per cent less than three months, 46 per cent less than four months, 54 per cent less than five months, 63 per cent less than six months, 75 per cent less than seven months, and 95 per cent less than eight months. The record for two- and three-teacher schools is very little better. It appears from these satistics that in the small rural schools approximately half the children attend schools less than four months in the school year even though a longer term of school is offered. THE SCHOOL TERM. The standard term of length for schools in the United States is 9 months. The average in Oklahoma for all schools, rural and urban is* about seven months. In many counties and in many dis- tricts, however, the term is far shorter. Table 30 giving the school term for 5,020 districts show that 21 per cent of the total number of school districts have a term of 6 months or less and an appreciable number of districts maintain three, four, and five months schools. TABLE 30. School Term in Oklahoma, 1921-22. Months school No. of Percent Cumulative was in schools Percents session 3 23 Less than 1 4 46 Less than 1 1 + 5 176 3 4 6 811 16 21 7 1274 25 46 8 2018 40 86 9 669 13 99 + 10 3 Less than 1 The divided term so common in the rural districts of the State is another significant influence in the consideration of school at- 212 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA tendance and quality of school work. Reports from county super- intendents indicate that about 16 per cent of the rural schools have the divided school term. Observation in these schools shows that attendance is poor and school interest indifferent. The break in the middle of a short school term is discouraging to normal accomplishment. Children as a rule are slow to return when school opens up after a long vacation and slow to become interested again in their school tasks. In considering school attendance we must take account not only the number of days attended but the regularity. If a child comes to school one or two days and then is absent another one or two days he is unable to keep up with his schoolmates unless the teacher takes time from the other children to give him indi- vidual assistance. In one-teacher schools especially, irregular at- tendants fall behind their classes and soon drop out entirely, or fail to make their grade, and thus must enroll in a lower one. In either case the result is serious to the individual and to the school. Examination of registers in a number of schools in all the counties visited by members of the committee indicate a good deal of irregularity in attendance. In one school visited in which there were 125 children enrolled, only ten were present the day the visit was made. In another instance, 20 children were present of 75 enrolled. In another case, 15 were present out of an enroll- ment of 50. These are not exaggerated instances, but give some idea of indifference which many country people have for the education of their children. Short terms, irregular attendance, or a combination of these, result in very little school for a large number of children. The average city child attends school 9 months in the year and requires eight years to finish the elementary schools. The rural child who enrolls in school where the term is short, and who is absent a large percentage of that short term, requires not eight years but two or three times as many school years to finish the elementary grades. This explains why many country children become discouraged and leave school often before they have completed more than the 4th or 5th grades. Oklahoma rural schools as a whole enroll a relatively small number of children in the upper grades and high schools. (See table 33). It is not possible to say to what extent this condition is due to short terms and irregular attendance but it is safe to THE RURAL SCHOOLS 213 say that a large amount •! it comes from this cause. Boys and girls who reach the age of 15 and 16 years, and must still attend school in classes with children several years younger, naturally have little ambition to complete either the grades or high school. AGE AND GRADE ENROLLMENT. Information concerning the age and grade in which enrollment of approximately 55,000 children in rural communities was gath- ered in the spring of 1922. In order to distinguish as definitely as possible between children living in the open country and those living in cities and towns in which conditions approximate those which prevail in cities, data were gathered in two groups, namely, for children living in places under 200 in population and for those living in places of over 200 populaton. The former are classed rural in this discussion. * •Applicable also to data on teachers and school buildings and grounds. The complete information from which the summary given in Tables 31 and 32 was collected shows the actual age and grade for each child. i TABLE 31.— AGE-GRADE ENROLLMENT IN OKLAHOMA. Wliite Boys and Girls in Places under 200 Population. Grades Total enrolled Per cent of total in each grade No. below normal grade Per cent below normal grade . No. of normal age Per cent of normal age No. above normal age Per cent above Kdgn 2815 5.1 40 1.4 1711 60.8 1064 37.8 1 9782 17.8 879 8.9 5765 58.9 3138 32.2 2 6737 12.3 492 7.3 3400 50.5 2845 42.2 3 7082 12.9 811 11.5 3109 43.9 3162 44.6 4 6789 12.4 563 8.3 2733 40.2 3493 51.5 5 6339 11.5 500 7.9 2390 37.7 3449 54.4 6 5299 9.6 417 7.8 1996 37.7 2886 54.5 7 4256 7.8 247 5.8 1622 38.1 2387 56.1 8 4638 8.4 334 7.2 1708 36.8 2596 56.0 9 739 1.4 53 7.2 312 42.2 374 50.6 10 316 .6 22 7.0 150 47.5 144 45.5 11 82 .1 14 17.1 38 46.3 30 36.6 12 55 .1 21 38.2 18 32.7 16 29.1 Total 54929 100.0 4393 8.0 24952 45.4 25584 46.6 214 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE a^.— AGE-GRADE ENROLLMENT IN OKLAHOMA. White Boys and Girls in Places of 200 Population and Over. ToUl Per cent No. below Per cent No. of Per cent No. above Per cent Grades enrolled of total In normal below normal of normal above each grade urade normal grade age normal age age Kdgn 3961 2.7 657 16.6 2827 71.4 477 12.0 1 20726 14.2 1196 5.8 15493 74.7 4037 19.5 2 16080 11.0 1605 10.0 10250 63.7 4225 26.3 3 15369 10.5 1640 10.7 9007 58.6 4722 30.7 4 15034 10.3 1829 12.2 7915 52.6 5290 35.2 5 13906 9.5 1603 11.5 7240 52.1 5063 36.4 6 12921 8.9 1675 12.9 6547 50.7 4699 36.4 7 11610 8.0 1726 14.9 5876 50.6 4008 34.5 8 ' 10421 7.1 1524 14.6 5480 52.6 3417 32.8 9 10791 7.4 1604 14.9 5444 50.5 3743 34.6 10 7232 5.0 1083 15.0 4037 55.8 2112 29.2 11 4320 3.0 734 17.0 2471 57.2 1115 25.8 12 3566 2.4 721 20.1 2129 59.7 716 20.2 Total 145937 100.0 17597 12.1 84716 58.0 43624 29.9 The tables summarize this information as follows: Total number of children enrolled in each grade, percentage of those below or younger than normal age, percentage of normal age, and percentage above normal or too old for the grade in which enrolled. Total percentages for all grades are also given. Normal age is considered as that of the child who enters school at six years of age and makes one grade a year or normal progress. Thus, normal age for the first grade is six or seven years; for the second grade seven or eight years ; and so on, allowing a two years span for each grade. This is a liberal allowance especially as many children enter before they are six years old. The child Avho does not enter until he is six may fail any one year during his school life and still be considered of normal age. If the child who enters school at seven years of age and makes normal progress for one, two or more years, later falls behind, either from continued absence or inability to complete the work of one grade and must, therefore, repeat it the following year, he is one year above normal age. If he falls two years behind he is one year above normal age, and so on. If a child is particularly bright and makes more than one grade a year he is counted on the table as below the normal age or young for his grade. Table 33 is a related table showing how many children are en- rolled in each of the upper grades for every 100 children in the first grade. It does not take into consideration some rural children transferred to city and village schools. This subject is discussed THE RURAL SCHOOLS 215 « later in connection with rural secondary schools. It is an added indication of the difficulty rural children have in completing upper elementary and high school grades. TABLE 33. Number of children in each grade, based on 100 in the first grade, in Oklahoma. Number of children in Number of children in Grade places of under 200 places of over 200 population population 1 100. 100. 2 68.8 77.5 3 72.4 74.1 4 69.4 72.5 5 64.8 67. 6 54.1 62.3 7 43.5 56. 8 47.4 512 9 7.5 52. 10 3.2 34.8 11 .8 20.8 12 .5 17.2 The most significant figures in the table are those showing the percentage above normal or too old for their grade. Begin- ning with the primary and first grade classes the percentage is 38 and 32 respectively; the percentage increases throughout the elementary school. Beyond the fourth grade more than half the children are older than they should be for the grade in which they are enrolled. If we compare these data with similar data for children in cities we find Table 33 much higher percentage of over-age than in city schools. (See Table 33). The causes are numerous: Poor school buildings, indifferent teaching, courses of study that do not appeal to children as having practical value all lead to lack of interest on the part of children. Irregularity of attendance also leads to high percentage rate of over- age children. This may be due to indifference or to the necessity of children working on the farms. Short terms are a contributing factor since it is necessary for even an exceptionally bright child to spend two or three years of three months each, doing the work ordinarily accomplished in 216 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA one term of nine months. The high percentage of over-age chil- dren also indicates that the compulsory attendance law is not en- forced. Experience shows that the results of conditions, such as shown in the table, are serious, that children are constantly dropping out from school at the end of the early elementary grades, many not even going beyond the 4tli or 5th grades. Boys and girls who reach the age of 14 or 15 are not interested in classes if they must associate with children much younger than they. They leave school, therefore, with education very little above the illiteracy stage. Im- proved standards, better teachers, enforcement of the compulsory education law are all important factors, BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS. The quality of the school system is determined to some extent by the character of the school site and building. These may limit or promote the health, safety, comfort, convenience, and happiness of the children while at school. The equipment and general ar- rangement both inside and outside condition somewhat the quality of the instruction given. Members of the Survey staff visited approximately 1,000 rural school buildings, in 40 different counties, representing all types of buildings, all localities, and all financial and industrial condi- tions of the State. In addition, data were collected from 58 county superintendents through questionnaires concerning school buildings in their respective counties, their surroundings, and equip- ment. Naturally the wide variety in financial ability among districts as well as in effort and school interest is reflected in the kind of buildings, their equipment and upkeep. While buildings are poor in some localities the general impression made by observing the State as a whole is that there is a real interest on the part of the rural people in their schools and that reasonably generous provision has been made by them according to their wealth. There is a noticeable lack of expert guidance and direction that results in the erection of buildings without due regard to the simplest sanitary requirements. Even new buildings in the process of completion show disregard for the health of children and their educational needs as well. Often no additional cost is involv- ed when a building is in process of erection for compliance with necessary regulations if they were known in time. THE RURAL SCHOOLS 217 Certain conditions concerning water supply, toilets, lighting, and seating arrangements, in approximately 4,000 schools as summar- ized from replies to the Bureau questionnaire returned by 58 county superintnedents are shown in Table 34. Similar conditions existed in the schools observed by members of the survey staff. TABLE 34. Summary of Conditions of Building-s and Grounds of 3,978 White Rural Schools in Oklahoma. Per cent Per cent of rural schools which are one-teacher 68.2 two-teacher 19.4 centralized 5.5 Schools having grounds surrounded by fence 27.9 Schools having grounds of two acres or larger 25.3 Schools having a well or underground cistern on the grounds 73.5 a. Those with cement platform and pump 50.5 Schools having fountain or other sanitary arrangement for drinking water _ 33.1 Schools having wash basin, soap, and towel provided 30.7 Schools having cloakrooms (separate from classroom) 40.4 Schools having no toilets or only one 3.1 Schools having two toilets 91.2 a. Having two toilets of any sanitary type 9.5 Schools having jacketed stove in usable condition 28.5 Schools having windows on one side of room only 14.3 Schools fully equipped with single patent desks 28.3 Schools having satisfactory teacher's desks 77.7 Schools having blackboards in good condition 61.7 Schools having a good wall map of the United States 56.5 Schools having a supply of books for supplemental reading (at least 25) 48.0 Poor lighting is very general, e. g., only 14 per cent of schools reported have unilateral lighting. Insufficient lighting is also com- mon. There are few sanitary toilets on rural school grounds, and many observed were not clean and well kept. Sometimes good wells may be in unhealthful condition because no seepage proof plat- forms are provided- Seats and desks are not adjusted to the size of children occupying them, and cloakrooms are not provided. These and various similar conditions are important considerations affecting the health and comfort of the children ; school equipment has much 218 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA to do with the quality of the school work. General stimulation of interest in such problems among the people and intelligent direc- tion of school officers in charge of buildings are important to the general welfare of the schools and the children. The remedy for the present condition should be sought in better administrative practice. School boards and superintendents should seek advice from specialists in school buildings. The State department should be enlarged to furnish this service. The ques- tion is largely one of good management and business economy. RURAL TEACHERS. The members of the survey staff responsible for the study of rural school conditions based their judgment of the teaching staff on observation of several hundred teachers, nearly all of whom were at work, when observed, on information secured from the records and reports of the State department of education, and on replies to questionnaires sent directly to all the teachers in the State before the close of school in the spring of 1922. The members of the staff are agreed that in native ability, per- sonality, and professional spirit the rural teachers of Oklahoma are a promising group, interested in the schools and the children, and ready to take advantage of direction and guidance if it were fur- nished. They are generally immature, inexperienced, and with- out academic or professional preparation in any sense commensu- rate with the work they are trying to do. This judgment of the observers is confirmed by the data shown in Table 35 collected from the teachers. TABLE 35.— PREPARATION OF TEACHERS Before entering the public sciiools of Oklalioma Amount of schooling m places of In places of 200 population less than 200 and over population Number Per cent Number Per cent Number reporting 4751 1910 Four years in high school 3022 63.6 855 44.7 No normal training reported 2982 62.7 1445 75.6 One year in normal school (above 4 year high school) 484 10.1 92^ 4.8 Two years in normal (above 4 year high school) 402 8.4 32 1.6 Three or four years in normal (above 4 year . high school) 105 2.2 9 .5 No college training reported 2952 62.1 1678 87.8 One to two years in college or university 934 19.6 176 9.2 Three or more years in college or university 865 18.2 56 2.8 THE RURAL SCHOOLS 219 In examiniDg these data it should be remembered that the ac- cepted standard of preparation for elementary teachers in the United States is completion of a two-year course beyond high school grad- uation; for high school teachers completion of a four-year course beyond high school. In both cases it is expected that professional courses are included. If a group of teachers averages far below these standards it is generally conceded that school work of high order cannot be expected. It is true that there are exceptional cases fo born teachers, successful in spite of inadequate preparation. A similar situation is sometimes found in other vocations and professions as well as teaching. However, geniuses of this type are relative- ly few. The best protection for school children from possible in- competence is insistence on a minimum amount of preparation on the part of teachers. Any large group, therefore, may be safely judged according to the closeness with which they attain or approxi- mate the standards mentioned. Replies to the Bureau's questionnaires were received from approximately 2,000 rural teachers employed in communities of 200 or less in population. The results of summaries made from them are shown in Table 35. Forty-six per cent had completed a four year high school; 7 per cent completed one or more years of work above high school or of college grade; 25 per cent TABLE 36— LENGTH OF SERVICE OF TEACHERS. In places of In places of 200 papula- less than 200 Length of Service tion and over population Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Number reporting 4,735 1,922 Service in school in which now employed : One year or less 2,327 49 1,376 71.5 . Two years 1,042 22 353 18.3 Three years 462 9.7 79 4.1 Over three years 904 19 114 5.9 Total length of teaching service: One year or less 578 12.1 515 26.7 Two years 542 11.4 337 17.8 Three years 520 11.4 198 10.3 Over three years 3,095 65.5 872 45.3 220 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA had attended some courses in normal school, many of them summer or other short courses, 2.8 per cent had completed either a three or four year college course, and 12 per cent had enrolled at some time in some sort of college or university courses. High school as well as elementary teachers are included in this group. In teaching experience Table 36 shows that about one-half the teachers, or 55.6 per cent, have taught three or four years, 17.8 per cent two years, and 26.7 per cent one year or less. The last group were in most cases teaching their first year when the data were completed. Even the experienced teachers move from place to place with great frequency; relatively few remain two years in the same school. Table 36 shows that of the groups studied 71.5 per cent were teaching in the school in which they were serving at the time the questionnaire was sent out one year or less, 18.3 per cent two years, and 10 per cent three years or more. SALARIES OF TEACHERS. Salaries paid are usually an index to the character of the teaching staff. Teachers should be drawn from among the intelli- gent group of young people in our secondary and higher institutions. They need, in addition to academic work, professional preparation involving a good deal of time and expense. Unless salaries are commensurate with the importance of the work, teaching will not appeal to and retain in service qualified young men and women. Oklahoma must compete with western and middle western States in salaries paid. At present a large percentage of the trained teachers come from outside the State. Good salaries are necessary, therefore, to securing good teachers. In median and average salaries paid to teachers of rural schools, Oklahoma ranks well among the States. In minimum salary paid in poor districts, she ranks low among the States. Data on salaries of rural teachers collected from all the States for the school year 1921-22, Table 37, show that in median salaries paid in one-teacher schools, Oklahoma is in the group with Colorado, Indiana, Michigan, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Utah, and "Wisconsin. The median annual salary in all these States is between $800 and $900 (one-teacher schools only). In nine THE RURAL SCHOOLS 221 TABLE 37. States in the same median salary group as Oklahoma: 1-teacher Coloi-ado Indiana Michigan Nebraska New York North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Utah Wisconsin 2 -teacher Iowa Michigan Minnesota Nebraska New Hampshire New York Ohio Oklahoma Oregon 3 -teacher Indiana Kansas Montana Ohio Oklahoma States in median salary groups above medians: Consolidated Arizona Illinois Indiana Maryland Nebraska Oklahoma Tennessee West Virginia Oklahoma, arranged in order of States with highest 1-teacher Arizona California Washington New Jersey New Mexico Connecticut Idaho Minnesota Montana Nevada South Dakota 2-teacher California Arizona Montana Nevada South Dakota Washington Colorado Connecticut Idaho New Jersey New Mexico North Dakota Wisconsin Wyoming 3-teacher California Arizona New Jersey New York Washington Colorado Idaho Nebraska New Mexico North Dakota South Dakota Connecticut Iowa Minnesota Oregon Wisconsin Wyoming Consolidated Nevada California Wyoming Michigan Montana New Jersey New Mexico Oregon South Dakota Utah Washington Colorado Connecticut Idaho Minnesota New York North Dakota Rhode Island Iowa Kansas Ohio Wisconsin Median salaries in neighboring S'tates of Oklahoma compared: 1-teacher 2-teacher 3-teacher Oklahoma $800 900 900 Missouri 500 600 800 Texas ! 600 700 700 Kansas 700 800 900 Colorado 800 1000 1100 New Mexico 1000 1000 1100 Consolidated 900 500 700 1000 1100 1200 States, nearly all of which are in the west, the median salaries are from $100 to $400 per year higher. In this group are South Dakota, Nevada, Montana, Idaho, Arizona, California, New Jersey, New Mexico, and Washington. 222 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Considering the salaries of two-teacher schools, the median for Oklahoma is $900 to $1,000; thirteen States (all western but New Jersey) pay a higher median than Oklahoma. In rural schools of other types, i. e., three-teacher, consolidated, and village, Oklahoma ranks similarly in comparison with the other States, that is, not among those paying either the highest nor the lowest median salaries. If we consider not median but minimum salaries, and if we con- sider the variation among counties and districts, we find a far less creditable situation. Oklahoma is one of 20 States (nearly all southern States of far less ability financially) in which there are large groups of rural teachers receiving less than $300 per year. The discrimination between rural and urban salaries, as shown in Tables 38 and 39, is very marked. RURAL SCHOOLS 223 TABLE 38.— ANNUAL SALARIES OP TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS OF OKLAHOMA FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 1921-22 ARRANGED ACCORDING TO SIZE OF SCHOOL.* Number of teachers receiving salaries indicated in Number of principals receiving salaries indi- cated and directing Annual Salaries Si cS o 4) O a « o Two-teacher schools Three or more teacher schools in open >> u c 3 o w 73 4) o Xi o O 0) u o a o u teacher schools | in villages and c o S§ « Si Organized high school onlyt Schools having both elemen- tary and high school pupils Less than $300 2 2 300— 399 32 12 2 400— 499 63 32 4 500— 599 150 46 5 15 1 .... 600— 699 245 89 34 32 4 .... 3 700— 799 444 71 22 38 41 10 1 5 800— 899 539 149 42 67 83 12 2 21 900— 999 272 94 50 185 170 11 52 1000—1099 319 146 26 79 48 16 1 39 1100—1199 49 46 32 59 84 10 3 68 1200—1299 63 63 37 32 22 31 38 1300—1399 20 27 13 25 30 12 3 60 1400—1499 5 12^ 5 20 21 6 .... 14 1500—1599 9 12 7 12 21 9 1 26 1600—1699 2 12 8 9 4 .... .... 10 1700-1799 .... 4 1 4 4 .... .... 4 1800—1899 1 12 2 17 9 31 1 63 1900 — 1999 17 .... 1 1 1 4 2000—2099 .... 4 1 11 3 .... .... 10 2100—2199 .... 1 .... 1 1 .... 7 2200—2299 6 1 3 .... .... 5 2300—2399 .... .... .... 2 .... .... .... .... 2400—2499 .... .... .... 5 4 .... 1 13 2500—2599 .... .... • -.* 3 .... ..— .... 10 2600—2699 .... .... ---• .... .... .... ...- 2700—2799 .... .... >... 1 .... .... .... 1 2800—2899 .... .... 1 .... .... .... .... 2 2900—2999 .... .... 1 2 .... .... .... 1 3000 or over .... 9 18 5 .... .... 11 Total 2215 857 303 641 551 153 14 467 Median » salaries $800— $900— $1200— $900— $900— $1200— $1100— J1300— for each 899 999 1299 999 999 1299 1199 1399 group * Number of counties reporting — 49. tNot con.solidated. tinclude both junior and senior high schools. 224 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA o-o o 00 o in 00 o in 00 o in to « ^ a PO : ; *9- : : >. H 3 •M ^; 1 . c 3 HH 4-> o o o o o o o o o o O P 02 in U5 U5 in in lis IC in in in o Is C c« r- o c- t- t- ■* o t- 00 t- o-o ** _r r <0 W Eh be o o o o © e o o •4-> ^ rt ira in m in in m in in S'S 5 o t- rH to t- «c 00 to "O h- i 1^ > GQ u H — OOOOOOOOC o o c o p. CTJ u mmmioioLoioioi^ lomir u , 3 i^oot-tr-«Dt-t^t-c- iflint- o M « a^ 1— ( !2 "3 OT -*^ c>oo ;ooo :o oooc -3 < ^ lo m u:^ in U5 in in lo in <= o M C cS t- o t- t- t- 00 •«»< in t- e<- k1 < m 1— 1 .2 _2 §73 **r4 : ; M "cj Eh m a> ; o O M O O CO o o U 1 rt > : r~ : «<9- in o> o in T)< CO eo c- to tH in ■i-j CO 1— 1 c C > m Q s rt o in X-inoomcqirairacom rnt-c &9- u h:) 3 ^ ^ "^ Q P5 _'0 3 0) : : o o o ; ; o c > ••-4 bo fe CO in in in in § '2 2 M lO Tj< so +-> O t30 iH ih" t-H 1— ( o c & m 2 a^ ■s?. o o o : o o o ; c o o c m \a \a \a in in U3 ir 1 in in ir 1— 1 a> 3 rt 1 t- oc eo eo tH oo c< c- ■<)< oc "3 a> he Eh ** s : o ' rH tH r-T O O O O W O p^ o o p in m 03 .2 3 cs 1 in in in in in ir K! _a ^ 1 in t- 00 to 00 t- O 00 t- >^ >^ * iH ' iH tH rH tH • r- 60- " 1 0) S ^ ^ •—4 oousoooooc o o <= s ifliniHinususuiLOir in in c ' 2 'tl C3 oiMOQC* 4-> c 03 < - C O S-. u d B o "3 to re 4) u o E

o RURAL SCHOOLS ' 225 In the same kind of schools, i. e., one-teacher or two-teacher or consolidated schools, there is a wide range in salaries paid among counties and among districts in the same county. Certain infor- mation concerning salaries paid rural teachers in nine counties is shoAvn in Table 39. In Cimarron county the salaries of teachers in one-teacher schools range from $180 to $1,215 per year; in Le Flore county, from $225 to $1,650. Similar differences are found among other types of schools in these and in other counties. It is because of variations of this kind, indicating the widest possible differences in school facilities furnished children in the different parts of the State, that the de- mand for intelligent consideration and immediate action is most insistent. Standardization of teaching qualifications and salaries through centralization of certificating authority, and a minimum salary, paid in part by the State, is recommended in Chapter III. These recommendations, if followed, and an aroused interest on the part of the people in their schools, will help in the solution of the teacher problem. THE QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION IN RURAL SCHOOLS. The fundamental weakness of the rural schools of Oklahoma, one or two-room and consolidated schools alike, is the lack of skilled teaching. This weakness was evident in every county visited, even in those counties having the most efficient superinten- dents. In fully ninety per cent of the schools visited the following con- ditions were observed : rooms are bare and unattractive ; class organization was inefficient ; lesson assignments were indefinite, with a tendency to stimulate effort on the part of children for short periods of time only ; children were expected to repeat the lesson as given in the book, as individuals, to the teacher, instead of doing original thinking or challenging the attention of their classmates when reciting. Entire reading periods were spent by children reading orally, for the most part in a very halting manner selections familiar to all pupils, without any attempt on the part of the teacher to question the children's understanding of the selection, to provoke the use of judgment, to explain meanings which might not be clear to them, or to drill on difficulties. Children in the schools observed rarely have opportunity to read more than two readers, frequently but one, during an entire 5. s. 8 226 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA school year; supplementary material for primary grades and seat work material was usually entirely lacking or altogether insufficient in amount. The library available for the use of all grades consists of a single set of reference books. No attempt to relate instruction in the school to life outside was observed; nor was attention given to current events. Idleness on the part of a majority of the children during a large proportion of the time characterized study and seat work periods, especially in primary grades. In order to check the judgment of members of the staff who observed the teaching, results of instruction were measured by acliievement tests given to children in rural, consolidated, and urban schools in seventeen counties in various sections of the State, as re- ported elsewhere. The results indicate that children in the rural and consolidated schools of Oklahoma are far below children in the urban schools in attainment. RESULTS OF EDUCATIONAL TESTS. In reading, judged by Thorndyke-McCall standards, children in rural schools in the age groups from 7 to 18 years, inclusive, tested from 9 to 28 months below children in urban schools in correspond- ing age groups; the median difference between rural and urban children for these eleven groups is 14.7 months. The median read- ing score for rural children in the 7, 8, and 9 year old groups is 6, 5, 7, and 1.7 months, respectively, above the Thorndyke-McCall normal reading ability standards, but 17.6, 14.7, and 11.3 months below median reading scores for urban children in similar age groups. The median reading score for children in rural schools in the 10 to 18 year old groups falls below Thorndyke-McCall norman reading ability standards. The tendency to fall below the standard increases as the age of groups advances. There is 2.4 montlis retardation in the ten year old group, 18.3 months in the 14 year group, and 48.4 months in the 18 year old group. Compared by grades instead of age groups the tests show that in and above the third grade rural children in each grade fall be- low reading standards set for the whole country for these grades; the smallest variation from the standard median is 1.6 points in the fourth grade; the greatest, 8.8 points in the sixth grade. The results of the achievement tests indicate that teaching is no better in consolidated than in one-teacher schools. With the RURAL SCHOOLS 227 exception of nine year old children and those of high school age, children in consolidated schools made lower reading scores than those of the same ages in rural schools. Compared by grades chil- dren in the third, fourth, and high school grades in the consolidated schools made slightly higher scores than those in corresponding grades in ungraded rural schools. The intermediate and upper grade children in rural schools made higher scores than those in corresponding grades in consolidated schools. The results of the tests confirm conclusions made by observation, namely, that reading is very poorly taught in both kinds of schools. Rural children are greatly handicapped upon entering high school. They have read few books, in many, cases only one each year, and have not read the few intelligently. At fourteen years of age they are more than a year and a half behind the normal standard reading ability. Rural pupils in the 17 year old group are 51.1 months below standard for their age. This is a tremendous handicap, not only in the study of such important subjects as English and American literature, but in his- tory, civics, science, and all other high school subjects. Lacking ability to read intelligently, many fail to pass the high school en- trance requirements. Others enter and muddle along through; others realizing their handicap in the effort to get an education, drop out of school entirely. Because of the fundamental importance of the subject, instruc- tion in reading has been discussed at some length. In spelling, chil- dren in the rural schools in all elementary grades in which the tests were given, the third and fourth grades excepted, measured from 9.2 to 17.9 points below the standard for their grade. Chil- dren in consolidated schools, generally speaking, made scores slight- ly higher in this subject than those in rural schools, but below stand- ard and the scores of urban children. In the Courtis Arithmetic tests the highest median percentage of addition examples correctly solved in any grade in the rural schools was 58.3 per cent in the eighth grade compared with 61.9 per cent in urban schools; the highest median percentage of prob- lems solved correctly in division in any grade in rural schools was 74.3 per cent in the eighth grade compared with a median percent- age of 80.5 per cent in the eighth grade in urban schools. Results from similar tests given in consolidated schools show that in half the grades children in consolidated schools test higher, 228 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA in half lower, than children in rural schools. When comparisons are made in terms of ages children in age groups from nine to fourteen in both rural and consolidated schools fall below urban children in the percentage of examples correctly colved. The vari- ation is briefly indicated as follows : Per Cent Correct Age 9 Age 12 Age 15 Addition : Rural 34.6 43.2 42.8 Consolidated 35.3 39.7 44.5 City 39.8 35.9 55.8 Subtraction : Rural 47.5 56.8 65.2 Consolidated 67.5 56.3 , 60.3 City „ 57.8 53.0 78.6 Multiplication : Rural 35.9 44.6 51.6 Consolidated 30.8 43.1 51.0 City 44.5 56.2 65.2 Division : Rural 31.9 42.8 60.0 Consolidated 31.4 35.9 59.0 City 38.2 53.9 71.2 In composition and writing differences similar to those described above result from comparing the attainments of children in rural and consolidated schools with those of children in urban schools. The tests confirm the unanimous judgment of members of the rural school committee. The quality of instruction in rural schools in alii subjects is very poor. In consolidated schools instruction is almost equally poor. Centralization of schools is a splendid first step in creating conditions that make the closer grading of children and longer teaching periods possible. Unless this first step in im- proving conditions is followed by successful efforts to secure skilled teaching through professional preparation of teachers, supervision, modern equipment, and the like, the erection of large central build- ings will fail to serve the purpose for which they were intended. THE NEED OF PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION. The inferior quality of instruction is not attributable to lack of native ability or conscientiousness on tlie part of the rural teachers RURAL SCHOOLS 229 observed, but to a lack of knowledge of good school organization; teaching methods, and to the lack of professional supervision. Rural teachers in the State of Oklahoma have less training and are receiv- ing less direction than any other group of teachers in the State. Urban boards of education find it possible and desirable to employ superintendents, school principals, and clerical assistants for the proper administration of schools. Notwithstanding the fact that they are able to attract to their school systems teachers who have received professional training, they employ in addition a corps of supervisors whose business it is to follow up and improve methods of instruction in the various elementary grades. Rural teachers need a similar kind of direction and help. The State of Oklahoma can give it to them by providing for rural supervisors as assistants to the county superintendents, whose duty it will be to travel from school to school helping to secure efficient organization, suggesting workable type programs, demonstrating superior methods of teaching, observing methods in use and making suggestions for improvement, organizing teachers' meetings and parent-teacher associations, and inspiring teachers and patrons to demand better schools. If urban teachers need help, surely the rural teachers whose task is much more difficult and complex need it. Plans for providing ample supervision of rural schools through emplojdng a staff of assistants to the county superintendent are found successful in many other States. In New Jersey, after a three years' trial, the State Commissioner of Education declared in his Annual Report of December, 1919, that helping teachers had im- proved the quality of instruction in the rural schools a hundred per cent. Maryland, by the terms of a law recently passed established State-wide supervision by providing a minimum of one supervisor for every 40 rural teachers. Delaware, Connecticut, Ohio, Utah, Wisconsin, and Alabama are among the other States in which suc- cessful plans for supervising rural schools are in operation. Only 12 States, of which Oklahoma is one, have failed entirely to employ rural supervisors in any of their counties. THE COURSE OF STUDY. A new State course of study is being prepared by the State department of education. Copies were not available at the time the survey was made, therefore this discussion is based on the ob- servation of members of the survey staff. It is true, however, that a course of study on paper is of little value unless organized 230 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA effort is made on the part of officials in charge to assure that the regulations are intelligently understood and carried out by the teachers. The real place to study a curriculum is in the school room rather than in a printed leaflet. It is also true that a State course of study is used chiefly in rural schools and by rural teachers, and should be designed for their needs particularly. Cities as a rule prepare special courses for their own use or special adaptations of the State course. So far as practice in the schools is concerned, it is apparent that the special needs of rural schools and rural children have received very little attention in the curriculum or from administrative and supervisory officers. This \s true both as to organization of the schools and classes according to the number of teachers, size of classes, etc., and in the content of the curriculum. The teaching of agriculture and home economics is required by law in the upper grades. Eegulations issued from the State de- partment suggest that all boys and girls in rural schools be expected to join clubs under the direction of county farm and home demon- stration agents. The latter are not yet fully in operation and their effect cannot be judged. The former is of little significance, since too often the teaching must be done by overworked teachers with little general or special preparation for teaching these subjects. ORGANIZATION. A few of the schools visited were well organized and had well- balanced programs. The larger number showed faulty organization. One and two-room school teachers apparently lacked knowledge of, or ability to use, the plan of combining classes and of alternating subject matter by years, very generally advocated by leaders in rural education for schools of this type. As a consequence the minimum number of classes scheduled for a single day in the schools of this size observed was 28. The maximum number was 50. When time for morning exercises, recess periods, and other interruptions is deducted from the six hour school day, not more than five hours are left. This means that teachers observed averag- ed from about 6 to 11 minutes per day to each class. In many one- ieacher schools 50 or more children are enrolled \\'ith an average number of six in a class. If these classes averaged four recitations a day each child receives from four to six minutes of the teacher's attention during the day. RURAL SCHOOLS 231 Effective teaching caimot be done under such time limitations. Very short teaching periods handicap the development of both teachers and children. The former fail to develop skill in the pre- sentation of subject matter; the latter fail in the mastery of sub- ject matter and the mental power that results from the right type of mastery. In consolidated schools it is customary to find first grades divided into five or more groups; while teachers above the first grade fail to make any grouping of children with reference to ability but attempt to teach 40 or more children in a single group. The differences between the one-room, the two or three-room school and the consolidated school are so marked that a course of study should include specific suggestions designed to give definite assistance to the teachers in the different types of schools with their problems of organization, CONTENT OF COURSE OF STUDY. The objectives for the elementary school in. rural communities are the same as those of urban schools. Each should endeavor to give to the pupils "such training as will make them acceptable members of society, fitted, in so far as their ages will permit, to meet the practical demands of daily life, possessing an interest in further learning, and so prepared that they will be free to enter upon any line of work or further schooling that they may care to choose." (1) Social cleavage such as might be brought about by sharp distinction in objectives of the two classes of schools should be avoided. (1) O. C. Brim: Rural School Survey of New York State. The problem of the school is largely that of supplementing the out-of-school experience of the pupil so that the desired objectives may be attained. This means that there will be need for recognition of the difference between country and urban schools in two respects in the formulation of courses of study : (1) Since the home and community experiences of the two groups are different in many respects, in the selection of teaching content there should be recognition of the importance of the school adjusting its activities to the supplementing of the child's daily experiences. This will call for a teaching content that will be some- what different for the two types of schools. This difference would be especially marked in such subjects as health education and com- munity civics. 232 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (2) Good instruction demands that the work of the school utilize the experiences of the child as completely as possible. As a result the approach to many topics that are taught in the schools should be different for country children from that adopted for urban children. Illustrations may be found in many of the topics of arith- metic and geography. THE COURSE OF STUDY A TEACHER'S MANUAL. The State board of education should be responsible for the com- pilation of a State course of study especially adapted to rural schools. In its formulation the best talent in the State or, if neces- sary, in the entire country should be enlisted. Such a State course of study should indicate: (1) Objectives to be attained. (2) Principles to be stressed in each of the subjects taught in rural schools. (3) Desirable methods of teaching each subject, accompanied by lesson plans illustrating methods described. (4) A method of outlining an entire term's work by problems closely related to the lives of the rural children of Oklahoma. (5) Projects that would serve to unify the organization of the various school subjects, to lengthen teaching periods, and economize time. (6) Plans for lengthening periods by combining closely re- lated branches of the same subject — literature, composition, and spelling, for example, — and the various branches of science. (7) A plan for alternating subject matter by years for one and two-teacher schools. (8) Minimum essentials for each grade in one-teacher schools, with additional requirements for grades in schools of other types. (9) The kind of organization that is best adapted for use in the various types of rural school, the one and two-room and the consolidated school of varying size. (10) Suggestive type programs for one-room schools, two- room and consolidated schools. (11) Lists of supplementary material with directions for its use, including the place of current literature in the preparation of children for intelligent participation in government; games for motivating drill in the various subjects, etc. The following programs suggest a method of lengthening periods by combining grades, alternating subjects and teaching RURAL SCHOOLS 233 •during a single period closely related branches of the same subject, and conform to the principles stated above : PROGRA^I FOR ONE-TEACHER SCHOOL. 9 :00 — 9 :20 Morning exercises including Health Club inspection. 9 :20 — 9 :35 D reading and phonics. 9 :35 — 9 :50 C reading and phonics. 9 :50 — 9 :55 Setting up exercises. 9:55—10:15 B arithmetic. 10:15—10:35 A arithmetic. 10:35 — 10:45 Organized games. 10 :45— 10 :50 Recess. 10 :50 — 11 :10 C and D industrial arts and number work. 11 :10 — 11 :30 B geography or history. 11:30—12:00 History (3) civics (1) current events (1). 12 :00 — 1 :00 Lunch and game period. 1 :00 — 1 :15 D reading and language, fbased on nature study 1 :15 — 1 :35 C reading and language. 1 or primitive life. 1:35 — 1:50 Writing for entire school (4) hygiene (1). 1:50 — 1:55 Setting up exercises. 1:55 — 2:15 B reading (4) hygiene for entire school (1). 2:15 — 2:45 A reading, language and spelling. 2 :45 — 2 :55 Organized games or gymnastic drill. 2:55— 3:00 Recess. Handwork for A and B Groups (1). 3:00 — 3:25 B language and spelling (4). 3 :25 — 4 :00 A general science, including geography, agriculture, home economics. Note : A group includes 6th, 7th and 8th grades. B group includes 4th and 5th grades. C group includes 2nd and 3rd grades. D group includes beginners and first grade. PROGRAM FOR THE GRAJVIMAR GRADES OF A TWO-TEACHER SCHOOL. 9 :00 — 9 :20 Morning exercises including health inspection (under pupil leadership). 9 :20 — 9 :25 Five minute period practice in fundamentals in arithmetic. 9:25— 9:45 B arithmetic. 9:45—10:15 A arithmetic. 10 :15 — 10 :40 B geography or history. 234 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 10:40 — 10:50 Organized games. 10 :50— 10 :55 Recess. 10:55 — 11:30 A history (3) civics (1) current events (1). 11:30 — 12:00 B language and spelling (4) hygiene for entire school (1). 12 :00 — 1 :00 Lunch and play period. 1 :00 — 1 :35 A language and spelling. 1:35— 1:55 Writing. 1:55 — 2:00 Setting up exercises. 2:00 — 2:30 B reading (4) current events with A group (1). 2:30 — 2:40 Organized games or gymnastic drill. 2:40— 2:50 Recess. 2:50 — 3:25 A reading (3) music for entire group (1) drawing or handwork for entire group (1). 3:25 — 4:00 A general science including geography (3) agri- culture (2) home economics. Note: B group includes 5th and 6th grades. A group includes 7th and 8th grades. I-IV PROGRAM FOR PRIMARY GRADES OF A TWO-TEACHER SCHOOL. 9:00 — 9:20 Morning exercises including health inspection under pupil leadership. 9 :20 — 9 :40 D reading and language. 9:40 — 10:00 C reading and language. 10:00 — 10:05 Setting up exercises or games. 10:05 — 10:25 B arithmetic and industrial arts. 10:25 — 10:45 A arithmetic and industrial arts. 10 :45 — 10 :55 Organized games. 10 :55— 11 :00 Recess. 11 :00 — 11 :15 C and D number and handwork period. 11 :15 — 11 :35 B reading based on nature study and primitive life. 11 :35 — 12 :00 A geography or history. 12 :00 — 1 :00 Noon recess and game period. 1 :00 — 1 :20 D reading and phonics. 1 :20 — 1 :40 C reading and phonics. 1 :40 — 2 :00 Writing for entire group. 2 :00 — 2 :05 Setting up exercises or relaxation period. 2:05— 2:30 B reading. 2 :30 — 2 :40 Organized games or gymnastic drill. 2:40— 2:50 Recess. RURAL SCHOOLS 235 2 :50 — 3.10 Music for entire group. 3:10 — 3:30 B language and spelling. 3 :30 — 4 :00 A language and spelling. Note: D beginners. C high first grade. B second grade. A third and fourth grades. PROVISION FOR TRAINING RURAL TEACHERS. The State of Oklahoma is to be commended for establishing six State Schools for the training of teachers. Some States as large and populous as Oklahoma have not as many. It is, however, un- fortunate that neither in the organization of these schools nor in. the law which establishes requirements for teaching certificates has any adequate attention been given to the supply of teachers for rural schools. As mentioned in other sections of this report the quality of instruction observed in rural schools is their greatest weakness and is a problem with which the least progress seems to have been made. In none of the six teachers' colleges are there strong courses designed especially to prepare rural teachers and emphasizing the organization and curriculum of the rural school. None of these institutions has provided for practice and observation work in rural schools for teachers in training. It is not surprising, therefore, to find when visiting schools in the State that there are very few teachers in the rural schools who have completed the established courses; and that the teaching of those who have had complete or partial training at these institutions shows very little improvement over that of those who have not. Teachers must have ideals and standards of good schools and good school practice gained through systematic observation of both; they must have opportunity for abundant practice in apply- ing principles of teaching studied in courses on theory and method before going into the schools to take full responsibility for the education of a group of children. Unless the teacher preparing institutions furnish such ideals and provide the opportunity to their students to know by observation how good rural Schools are organized and conducted, and the difference between good and poor schools and between good and bad teaching; unless they show the prospective teacher how to apply the principles studied, and pro- vide ample practice in making the application under normal con- 236 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA ditions, teachers will continue to go out from the teacher preparing institutions without any significant improvement in their methods of teaching, and learn their work by experience and experi- mentation at the expense of the children in their charge. This is exactly the thing normal schools were established to avoid. So far at least, the influence of the teacher preparing institutions of Oklahoma on the rural communities of the State and their services to the rural children arei negligible. NEEDS OF RURAL SECTIONS NEGLECTED. It is doubtless true in Oklahoma as it is in some other States that the teachers' colleges are inadequately supported; that they are not turning out as many teachers as the State needs ; that, there- fore, the prepared teachers can get positions in towns and cities and do not as school officials say "need to go into the country schools". But this does not excuse the State for shirking its responsibility to country children. That salaries for rural teachers are too low to be attractive is the fault in part (not wholly as explained in the sec- tion on school support) of the rural people. That standards are so low that prepared teachers do not need to go into rural schools is the fault of the State in which its teacher preparing institutions must share. The State should set up and enforce standards for teaching certificates ; the normal schools must assume certain responsibilities toward setting these standards and preparing teachers to meet them, and must help the rural people to realize their educational needs, as well as prepare teachers to meet them. Approximately 75 per cent of the population of Oklahoma is rural. It is to be assumed that this high percentage of the pop- ulation pays its proportionate share toward the support of the State teacher preparing institutions. In return for their expenditure the rural schools receive practically nothing in the way of the service which they were established to provide. In order that the State Teachers' Colleges may more nearly fulfill their purpose they should be organized to prepare rural teachers for their respective sections. The legislature should ap- propriate funds to enable them to do this, and should expect the in- stitutions to prepare a constantly increasing percentage of the student body for teaching in rural schools. This is no new idea; other States (including most of those bordering on Oklahoma) have made considerable progress in both resident and extension work for improving rural school conditions and preparing rural teachers. RURAL SCHOOLS 237 To accomplish this end special courses should be established beginning in the summer of 1923. Entrance requirements should be the same as for other courses. A director of the rural educa- tion department should be secured equal in scholarship, in profes- sional skill and experience, and in personality with the heads of other major departments, and should receive the maximum salary. Groups of rural schools should be selected to be used for ob- servation and practice centers. These may be located in the county in which the institution is located or in adjacent centers, — preferably both plans should be initiated as soon as possible. The local schools so affiliated would gain by closer association with a State institution and expert advice from its instructors; the insti- tution and expert advice from its instructors ; the institution would gain by coming into close touch with conditions in the field as well as through gaining the opportunity for increasing its training school facilities. The salaries of the teachers in the schools affiliated with the training school and used for observation and practice should be supplemented by the institution served and their appointments approved. This plan would necessitate some enlargement of the training school staff. It is very desirable that all members of a training school staff spend some time in the field, helping graduates and other students who are teaching; bringing back to the institution a better idea of practical needs, and super\dsing the training in af- filiated schools. Much good might be accomplished by adding one person to the full staff for this purpose, and arranging a rotat- ing staff with one member constantly in the field. The State teachers' colleges should assist in raising the stand- ard of teachers by establishing strong courses and extension cen- ters offering the highest possible grade of service to rural teachers in service. These courses should not compromise in any sense with high standards of work as given in the institution itself, but should be designed to give teachers an opportunity to improve while continuing in the service. If standards for certification are raised as recommended in another section of this report, definite arrangements should be made through co-operation of the State Board of Education and the teachers' colleges to enable successful teachers of experience, who entered the system prior to their adoption, to meet the stand- ards. All courses established for this purpose should be approved , 238 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA by the State board of education and should include opportunity for observation and practice as well as training in theory and method. TEACHER TRAINING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The secondary departments of the six teachers' colleges, the four State agricultural schools, and 68 city high schools offer teacher training courses leading to a State two year certificate and designated as especially for the preparation of teachers in rural schools. The law authorizing these courses and the issue of the cer- tificates was passed in 1915. In accordance with its provisions a supplement to the State high school course of study was prepared for the teacher training classes which is briefly as follows : "At least one-half unit in psychology; one-half unit in the science of teaching; one full unit in American history and govern- ment; one full year's work in agriculture, with laboratory and demonstration work, giving special attention to school gardens and practice ; not less than one full unit in domestic science for girls, and not less than one full unit in manual training for boys, one full unit in reviews courses of six weeks each, to include the sub- jects of physiology and sanitation, grammar, reading, penmanship, spelling, arithmetic and geography ; and one hour, or its equivalent in time to be devoted to observation work, lessons plans, and practice teaching in all grades from the first to the eighth inclusive." — Re- port of State Superintendent for 1921-22. Definite information concerning the number of certificates issued to graduates of secondary departments at the six teachers' colleges is not available. There were 804 students enrolled in normal training classes in all other high schools in the State (in- cluding State agricultural schools, a few private schools and city high schools) during the school year 1921-22, and 629 certificates issued. The courses are elective in the eleventh and twelfth grades. Graduates of these courses were observd by members of the staff in rural, village, consolidated, and city schools. In some counties very few such graduates were found in the ungraded rural schools. In others there were a good many. Members of the staff visited 25 of the normal training classes in high schools, conferred with the instructors in most cases, and visited the schools (usually city graded schools) in which observa- tion and practice work are done in nearly all. The instruction is given by teachers on the regular high school staff who handle other RURAL SCHOOLS 239 subjects as well as training class courses; by the superintendent of the city school system ; by the principal of the high school ; and by teachers selected solely for training class work. In one city high school and in one State agricultural school the work is given after graduation as a fifth year or post graduate course. In most cases the instructors in charge were men or women of superior ability and personality as well as education and experience. They were in most cases doing as good work as possible under very adverse circumstances. DIFFICULTIES CONFRONTING TEACHER TRAINING CLASS ES IN HIGH SCHOOLS. Some of the obstacles encountered in classes observed are : (1) There is no adequate opportunity for observation and prac- tice under direction. Practice work consists in substituting for regular teachers, in many eases. No opportunity for practice and very little for observation of rural schools was given to the classes visited by members of the staff. Students observe unskilled teach- ing in both city and rural schools at least as often as they observe skilled teaching. (2) The instruction is unsatisfactory. Too many subjects must be crowded into a short time ; e. g. — psychology and pedagogy in a single semester; methods in several common branches into a six weeks period. Not only is time too limited but one instructor must cover too many subjects. It is unreasonable to expect the same person to have specialized adequately in all the required sub- jects. (3) Too much of the professional work observed is of an ex- tremely formal nature. Many students sacrifice a year which could be given to good academic training for one of so-called professional work, meagre and of poor quality. In many cases they are too immature to prepare for teaching — even too young to receive cer- tificates under the law, (4) In several cities visited, it is believed, the money spent for a special instructor for the normal training class in high school would be more economically and effectually used to employ a supervisor of elementary grades. In other instances the principal or superintendent seemed to be neglecting very important supervi- sory duties in order to give his time to the training class. The establishment of normal training classes in secondary schools is a compromise with the real solution of the 240 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA rural teacher preparing problem. It is difficult to see how the State can justify itself in setting up two standards for qual- ified teachers, one requiring graduation from high school and an additional two years of college grade work; the other requiring graduation from a secondary school only, with a minimum of pro- fessional work. It is a gross injustice to rural children and to farm people to expect them to be satisfied with an inferior product while superior teachers are trained for city schools at State expense. The train- ing of teachers for the rural schools is really a State responsibility rather than a local one ; so long as it is under local direction and control there will be, as now, some good and some poor work found in the normal training classes varying according to local conditions. Uniformity in quality is not possible. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT. The training class as a part of the program for the professional training of teachers should be regarded as a temporary expedient, and gradually abolished as requirements for certificates are raised. It is undoubtedly true that it will be necessary to make use of it for several years. In order to make it as effective as possible during this interval the following suggestions are offered: (1) Reasonably uniform standards for all rural teacher pre- paring courses leading to certification or renewal, or credited in whole or in part toward certification, should be established by the Slate board of education, and the courses should be inspected and approved by officials of the board on the basis of these standards. (2) Teachers in charge of training classes should have no other teaching duties. They should devote their entire time to the in- struction of the training class pupils and to supervision and guidance of their obesrvation and teaching. Too frequently these latter aspects of the work are done in a prefunctory manner. The ob- servation and supervised teaching should be a fundamental part of the professional training and should be put on a better basis than it now is in the high school training classes of the State. (3) The State department of education should develop in co- operation with at least one State institution a summer course, at- tendance at which should be required of all who are to serve as training class teachers. This course should extend over a period of at least six weeks, and should be devoted exclusively to the prob- lems of the organization of work, teaching content, and observation and supervised teaching for the training class. There is need for RURAL. SCHOOLS 241 immediate action in this matter in order that the instruction in the training classes may be put on a more vital basis than generally obtains at present. (4) All training class teachers who have not taught in the country schools during the past ten years should be required to ob- tain such experinece. The number of country schools having a summer term will make it possible to do this without interference with their work during the regular year, and there can be little question about the beneficial reaction that it will have on their work as training class teachers. (5) There should be at least one rural school with which the high school having a training class is cooperating. It would be desirable if the high school district cooperate with this school in the employment of a superior teacher. In cases where there are a large number of students in the training class there should be more than one such cooperating school. This arrangement wall make it possible for the students in training to have an opportunity to observe and teach in a country school that is well organized and in Avhich the instruction is on a high plane. Too large a proportion of the observation and teaching that the training class students are now doing is confined to the grades of the city or village school. The result is that too frequently they go out quite ignorant of the problems they will have to face in the country school. They have no idea of what constitutes an efficiently organized and taught country school. (6) In accordance with the recommendations made under the certification of teachers, the training class work should soon become an additional year to be required after high school graduation. When this situation obtains it will be possible for the teacher of the train- ing class to have entire control of the time of the students, and to arrange for more contact with country school conditions on the part of those in training. This is very desirable. (7) During the time the training classes continue there should be liberal State assistance to local districts that are maintaining training classes in accordance Avith the requirements of the State board. This assistance may well go as far as to provide a grant to teachers required to attend the suggested six weeks of training and a per capita allowance for students in training. These recommendations should be put into operation with full recognition of the fact that the training class is to be regarded only as a temporary expedient. As long as it is maintained it should be conducted on such a basis as to send out the best teachers that 242 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA can be trained in an institution with the distinct limitations that the training class must have. The State should look forward to the time when there will be a well organized department of rural education in each one of the State colleges and when standards for certification are equivalent for teaching in rural and urban schools. CENTRALIZATION OF SCHOOLS. The people of Oklahoma are to be commended for the progress they have made in the consolidation of schools in the face of serious financial obstacles. The movement has been advanced in a mark- ed degree, and quite generally throughout the State. The State department of education and county superintendents have apparent- ly cooperated with unusual success both in the number of schools centralized and in their distribution throughout the State. All but five counties have either consolidated or union graded schools, or independent districts which transport children from rural commun- ities. Several counties, Jackson, Tulsa, Greer, for example, seem to have pushed the movement or to have completed plans for doing so to as great a degree as is practicable under present conditions. PROPOSED CENTRALIZED SCHOOLS IN CANADIAN COUNTY. Qrou;'!!! 1 GtotipUI Grbi^-p VXri; '^T Jjr<>ijjyli ^ Groyp XVil ' — U "^^h ^^// 1. CfTO\)p I XII Gto\xpX\% "CrQap- - Group XX. ^ __ I LTTCjirp- XI Y Grovt: r^^xi f^^ G[-ni)yp xrii 'XXU A^ GROUP VI. CONSOLIDATED, J 911. GROUP VIL CONSOLIDATED, 1920. GROUP XX. CONSOLIDATED, 1920. GROUP XXin. UNION GRADED, 1920. GROUP XXin. CONSOLIDATED, 1921. FIGURE 18 RURAL SCHOOLS 243 Assistance from the State has been: effective both in spreading propaganda in favor of the centralization idea and in making plans for the distribution of consolidated districts within the counties. (See Figure 18). Fewer errors have been made in the way of leaving out from the boundaries of such districts isolated strips of territory than in many States because of this careful planning of the county superin- tendents and the State rural supervisors in most of the counties in which consolidation has proceeded to any appreciable degree. These officials have cooperated in arranging for sane county-wide plans before any centralization were consumated. The practice of forming union graded districts where full con- solidation seemed impracticable except as a future policy has re- sulted in an increase in the number of consolidated schools. The tendency for consolidated districts to become independent districts, and for union graded districts to become consolidated districts as soon as they are able to fulfill the stipulated conditions, is quite generally apparent. The number of districts which have evolved into independent districts during the three year period is shown below : Table 40. TABLE 40. NUMBER OF CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS. Total number accredited consolidated high schools 131 Total number accredited union graded high schools 21 Total number accredited centralized high schools 152 Number of consolidated high schools accredited for more than 16 units 64 Number of consolidated high schools accredited for less than 16 units _ 64 Number of union graded high schools accredited for more than 16 units '.. - _ 11 Number of union graded high schools accredited for less than 16 units „ 10 Note : — The numbers of units are not given for 3 consolidated high schools. These belong to the "North Central Association, of Secondary Schools and are accredited for the work which they offer when properly certified to by the regular school officials." 244 PUBLIC E?DUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE 41. DISTRIBUTION OF CENTRALIZED SCHOOLS BY COUNTIES. Counties having none. Adair Cherokee Coal Delaware Kay Counties having one. Bryan Latimer Love Mayes Murray Osage Counties having two. Atoka Cleveland Craig Haskell Jefferson Marshall McCurtain Ottawa Pushmataha Counties having three. Ellis McClain Garvin Noble Grant Pontotoc Le Flore Sequoyah Lincoln Woods Major Counties having four. Choctaw Comanche Pawnee Payne Pittsburg Seminole Wagoner Counties having five. Cotton Logan Creek Muskogee Custer Nowata Garfield Stephens Harper Washington Counties having six. Alfalfa Kiowa Canadian Okfuskee Carter Tulsa Kingfisher Counties having seven. Blaine Pottawatomie Cimarron Rogers Mcintosh Woodward Ctninties having eight. Beckham Texas Hughes Washita Counties having nine. Beaver Harmon Caddo Oklahoma Dewey Okmulgee Grady Tillman Counties having eleven. Johnston Counties having fourteen. Roger Mills Counties having fifteen. Greer Counties having twenty-three. Jackson. ! RURAL SCHOOLS 245 Eh H-l Q M.>.... Business 8 2 3.5 Professions 52 50 35.9 College Students 46 46 32.3 Other occupations 10 17 9.4 Table 43 shows that, of 284 graduates of the State schools of agriculture whose record after graduation is known, 18.6 per cent are engaged in farming, 3.5 per cent in business, 35.9 in professional work, 32.3 per cent entered college and 9.4 per cent are in other occupations. Table 44 shoAvs that of 717 students expressing a choice of oc- cupations, 62 or 8.6 per cent prefer farming, 98 or 13.6 per cent pre- fer business, 144 or 20 per cent prefer a professional career, 80 or 270 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA 11.1 per cent prefer mechanical occupations, 274 or 38.2 per cent look forward to a college career, and 59 or 8.2 per cent prefer some other occupations. TABLE 44. Showing choice of occupation as expressed by students now en- rolled in the State schools of agriculture : Number of boys Number of girls Per cent of Occupation choosing choosing total Farming 47 15 8.6 Business 73 25 13.6 Professional 35 109 20.0 Mechanical 59 21 11.1 College students 140 134 38.2 Other 24 35 8.2 Total 378 339 100.00 It is, of course, problematic just how much dependence can be placed upon an expressed choice of occupation by high school stu- dents. Since a high percentage of the students in these schools are over 18 years of age, however, we might expect rather definite leanings. Taken in comparison with the occupational history of 284 graduates there is significance in the fact that high percentages look towards professional careers and actually enter upon pro- fessional work. High percentages look to a continuation of study in college and actually enter college. A low percentage prefers farming and only a small percentage actually return to the farm. It seems evident that more return to the farm than wish to do so. Probably lack of opportunity to get away accounts for this. We must recognize the fact that these schools are not turning out farmers. The majority of students who enter do not want and should not be given vocational agricultural education. The mass of those who want and need such training are not in high school. They must be reached through part-time instruction on the part of itinerant Smith-Hughes teachers and extension workers. It seems evident that these schools should develop not as purely vocational schools of agriculture and homemaking but as compre- hensive high schools offering a broad program of studies and using an agricultural approach to life problems of great variety. The students are not going back to the farm. They should not be forced RURAL SCHOOLS 271 to go back. They have a right to free occupational choice facilitated by a broad high school training. These schools are in direct competition with local high schools in junior high school grades in many communities at the present time. They draw students away from the local school under the guise of offering a college education. The men at the head of the institutions style themselves president. They speak of the schools as colleges. The schools are generally referred to in the commun- ities where they are located as colleges. Many students think they are getting a college education, when as a matter of fact they are getting at present a very poor high school training. In fairness to the public, to students, and to real colleges the heads of these schools should be termed principals and the institution they are administer- ing referred to as high schools. CONTROL OF STATE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. Ilj has been shown that these schools are not vocational schools of agriculture primarily. The theory that they should serve as purely vocational schools of agriculture is probably responsible for their being placed under the State board of agriculture at the time of their establishment. They are serving primarily as rural high schools, however, and should serve as strong, comprehensive rural high schools. Accordingly, it is recommended that they be placed immediately under the State department of education, so that they may be developed in accord with the State program in rural sec- ondary education, and finally placed upon a basis of local support with State aid. This should remove the friction that occasionally has developed with reference to these schools. ADMINISTRATION OF LAND-OWNING RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE BOARDING TYPE. On the assumption that these schools will be maintained for some years cither as State schools or as locally supported schools with State aid, and on the assumption that it may be found advis- able to establish other schools of the boarding type in certain agri- cultural sections, the following recommendations as to administra- tion are made touching upon matters which are not receiving proper attention. Three distinct units are to be dealt with in schools of this type : (1) The school proper; (2) the school farm; (3) the boarding department. Good administration demands that these three units 272 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA be so correlated that each contributes to economy of operation and effectiveness of instruction in vocational subjects. The school farm should afford a means of practice work out of which instruction in agriculture may grow. This is possible through a group project method. The school farm should provide adequate supplies of A^egetables, fruit, milk, meat, and poultry products for the boarding department. These should be supplied at market prices and not as gifts. The farm should exemplify a sensible, com- mercial system of farm enterprises adapted to the region. An ac- curate, usable system of cost accounting should be applied to each enterprise that Avill serve to determine costs and profits, and also serve as models for students to use when entering upon farming as a vocation. Students should receive all profits derived from enterprises carried as projects by themselves. Crops grown on the farm should afford a source of supply of good seed adapted to the locality. The farm should develop and distribute good livestock as a means of improving local herds. A separate portion of the farm should be given over to experimentation whereby vital agricultural problems of the locality are solved. The boarding department should provide a means of corre- lating instruction and practice in homemaking. It is poor economy to have the boarding department independent of the home econ- omics department as is now the case in all the schools of the State. The equipment and quarters of the boarding department furnish good equipment and quarters for instruction in practical home economics. The home economics department should, in cooperation with the management of the boarding department plan menus, for- mulate budgets, buy supplies, keep accounts, plan the dining room service, work out housekeeping methods, and be jointly responsible for sanitation. In practice cooking real dishes in edible portions should be cooked on real kitchen devices for actual consumption on the table. The cooking of tidbits and samples on laboratory devices which never will see the inside of a real kitchen is of doubtful value. Home management which is the large value in the work is best taught through participation in actual management of a real enter- prise such as the boarding department. Good administration of these schools will provide for follow-up vocational records of graduates and continual revision of courses offered and content of courses based upon such vocational record. RURAL SCHOOLS 273 Good administration of these schools will make of them local centers for extension Avork under the Smith-Lever service and mother schools for the junior high schools of the locality. THE UNIVERSITY PREPARATORY SCHOOL AND THE OKLAHOMA MILITARY ACADEMY. Much of what has been said with reference to the District Agri- cultural Schools applies with equal force to the University Prepar- atory School, at Tonkawa, and the Oklahoma Military Academy, at Claremore. At the dates when these schools were established, it was thought that the maintenance of secondary schools of these types by the State was necessary to the proper development of public education in Oklahoma. The conditions then obtaining, how- ever, no longer exist. With the subsequent improvements which have taken place, and with the development of public high schools along lines recommended in this report, it is difficult to see the nec- essity for the continuance of these schools as now constituted un- der State support and control. If they are to be continued as State institutions, their functions should be defined more specifically, in harmony with the general educational program suggested in this report. INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE. As stated in a previous section it is felt that two units of voca- tional instruction are all that are advisable in the high school years. These units should be organized about one dominant plant enter- prise and one dominant animal enterprise of the region. The or- ganization should be determined by a job analysis, as illustrated in bulletins No. 68 Agricultural Series No. 9 and No. 74, Agricultural Series No. 10, Federal board for vocational education. The administrative heads and teachers of agriculture in these schools maintain that instruction related to projects in these State schools is impossible. Yet the fact remains that the only successful schools of the type, and they are few, have worked out a successful group project system. As an example of the possibilities of the group project method consider the course in dairying. All of these schools have dairy herds, in every case cared for by boys who are paid for the work. They may be taking dairying— they may not. In no case is any attempt made to teach dairying as related to the practice work of caring for the herd. 274 PUBLIC ETDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Conditions here are ideal for the best possible kind of group project work. If the boys taking dairying elect it, as they should, because they expect to practice dairying, the instructor should assign them the task of running the dairy under his supervision and give them the profits of the enterprise. The boarding department furnished a good market. The work should be placed on a definite commercial basis. Every item of feed and other expense should be charged, and the market price for the products collected from the boarding department. The class should be divided into a production section having thei care of the herd and milking and the delivery of whole milk to a second manufacturing section, who will pay for the milk on a fat basis, convert it into manufactured products, and sell these products in turn to the boarding department or such other markets as are available. The jobs should be rotated so that every boy has a chance to acquire skill at every specific job in dairying. The length of time a boy is kept on a job should depend upon the time required for him to acquire a certain skill at the job. The making of a profit should be a major factor in judging the success of the group as students of dairying. Similar group projects are possible in SAvine, poultry, beef, cattle, gardening and field crops. In the case of long season crops difficulties are introduced in the matter of care of the crops during vacation but the difficulties are not impossible of solution. Through such a system of instruction many of the shortcomings of the home project method are avoided. Supervision is easy. Stu- dents do not waste so much time in field trips getting to and from farms where materials illustrative of instruction are found. Students are not limited by cost consideration in choosing their projects; opportunity to teach cooperation is provided in the best possible way. Land-owning rural high schools will survive only through adoption of some such real vocational method. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING RURAL SCHOOLS. (1.) The elementary and secondary school system, teacher pre- paring institutions and functions, and certificating authority should be under the direction and supervision of the State board of educa- tion. The board should be composed of 7 or 9 members elected at large on a non-partisan basis and should serve long terms, prob- ably 7 or 9 years. RURAL SCHOOLS 275 (2.) The State Superintendent should be appointed by the board for a term and at a salary to be fixed by the board, and should be its executive officer to whom educational matters are delegated for execution. The board itself should function as a legislative body. (3.) A Division of Rural Schools should be established in the State department of education with one director in charge and at least 3 assistants. (4.) Present school district lines and organizations should be discontinued, except in the case of certain districts meeting stand- ard requirements of the State board of education as to territory, valuation, and educational efficiency. All other districts now des- ignated or ungraded rural, union graded, consolidated, and inde- pendent should together form county systems of schools adminis- tered by county boards of education. (5.) The county board of education should be composed of 5 or 7 members elected at large for terms of 5 or 7 years each, one term expiring each year. They should have general control over all schools of the county outside of independent districts, have power to levy a county-wide school tax to be apportioned on an equalized basis as between independent districts and county school districts, as set forth in Chapter III, and should appoint as executive officer of the board a county superintendent of schools. (6.) The county superintendent should be appointed for a term and salary designated by the board; should hold an adminis- trative and supervisory certificate as provided in the certification law; should be a person of executive ability, broad training and culture, and successful administrative experience, selected without regard to residence within or without the State or county, but solely because of special fitness for the position. (7.) The county board, upon the nomination of the County superintendent, should appoint the supervisors and teaching staff; should levy a special tax for the support of the schools under its administrative control, and apportion it among the schools in the county according to their needs ; provide buildings and equipment ; locate school buildings and sites; fix the county salary schedule w^ithin the law; and perform all other duties usually assigned to boards of school trustees. (8.) An adequate supervisory and clerical staff, suitable office accomodations and equipment, and traveling expenses for super- intendents and supervisors should be provided by the county board. Professional supervisors should be selected because of special ability. 276 PUBLIC ETDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA preparation, and successful experience, and should be paid salaries commensurate with the importance of their work. They should be nominated by the county superintendents and act as his assistants. At least one supervisor to every 40 teachers in addition to the first 25 should be employed; one supervisor for every 25 teachers is a better allocation. (9.) As soon as State and county departments are properly staffed a Division of School Attendance should be established in the State department, which should work with and through the county department of education. The responsibility for the enforcement of the compulsory education law should be assumed by this divi- sion. A new system of keeping attendance records and reports and of encouraging better school attendance should be inaugurated. (10.) A new course of study should be prepared by the State board of education providing specifically in content and organiza- tion for the needs of rural schools of all the different types prevalent in the State. Specific suggestions are given on pages 231-232. (11.) A Division of School Buildings should be established in the State department, which should cooperate with the county de- partments of education. All new buildings and repairs for amounts greater than $400 should be submitted by the county superintendent for approval by the State building inspectors. These officers should be empowered to condemn present buildings which do not meet the standards and requirements fixed by the State board of education. (12.) Special provision for the training of teachers for rural schools should be made at an early date. Standards for teacher preparing courses should be set by the State board of education and requirements should conform to the provisions of the certifica- tion law and be gradually increased as rapidly as is consistent with the demand for teachers and the welfare of the schools. As soon as possible requirements for teaching certificates, standards for teacher preparing courses, and entrance requirements to classes and institutions preparing teachers should be equivalent for rural and urban schools. (13.) The movement for centralizing schools needs direction. The administrative organization suggested above will provide this. Even with liberal State aid for equalization of educational appoint- ments and tax burdens, it will probably be necessary for the State to assume all or a large proportion of the expense of transportation. The growing number of centralized schools indicate that there is a RURAL, SCHOOLS 277 demand for special attention to their needs in organization, manage-^ ment, instruction, and course of study on the part of State auth- orities. Definite suggestions to this end are offered on pages 242-243v. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS. (1) Oklahoma should develop a system of rural junior high schools whereby instruction in grades 7, 8, and 9, may be made effective and elementary schools relieved of the burden of the work in grades 7 and 8. Work in these grades is now maintained at the cost of efficiency in the first six grades. (2) The independent district system should be abandoned and the county unit system substituted under proper conditions of State aid. Inequalities of educational opportunity will thus be materially reduced. (3) The State board for vocational education should be made a part of the State department of education thus avoiding the pos- sibility of conflicting educational policies. (4) Oklahoma should give much more attention to the devel- opment of part-time work in vocational agriculture and in home economies. (5) Itinerant teaching on the part of vocational instructors should become general in sparsely settled agricultural counties. (6) Club work with boys and girls under the Smith-Lever service should be placed on a definitely educational basis under the direction of county superintendents. (7) Curricula definitely adapted to the needs of rural boys and girls should be developed in rural high schools. (8) Local administration in high schools should make such use of alternation and rotation of subjects in the curriculum as to insure that classes are of the proper size and a proper teaching load is maintained. (9) A complete reorganization of instruction in English is desirable. (10) Instruction in social sciences should be emphasized and should grow out of problems laid bare by a study of the community. (11) Vocational guidance rather than vocational training should be sought in the junior high school years. (12) The State department should immediately undertake the task of organizing vocational courses in agriculture about the practice jobs of the dominant agricultural enterprizes of the State. 278 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (13) Instruction in home economics should make general use of a project method and get away from the academic method now prevailing. (14) State schools of agriculture should be placed on a basis of local support with State aid. (15) State schools of agriculture should be placed under the control of the State department of education so long as they oper- ate as State schools. (16) The State schools of agriculture should conform to the recommendations for curricula in comprehensive senior high schools. (17) Administration of rural high schools of the boarding type should bring about a close correlation between the three units which make up the schools, — the school proper, the farm, and the boarding department. (18) A real vocational method in agriculture should be fol- lowed at such schools through a group project method.- (19) Land owning rural high schools should become a center for agricultural extension work. CHAPTER VIII. VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS PLACES VISITED. Members of the Survey Staff visited the village and city school systems of the following places, and held conferences with school executives, board members, teachers, and, wherever possible, with groups of citizens : Bartlesville Haileyville Hartshorne McAlester Ponca City Pauls Valley Miami Enid El Reno Alderson Dos Norman Blackwell Yukon Dewey Ardmore Krebs Tulsa Sapulpa Bates Purcell Muskogee Moore Chickasha Okmulgee Shawnee Oklahoma City Welch Guyman Lawton The report which follows attempts to represent typical condi- tions and practices rather than to describe the situation existing in any particular school or system. Through the cooperation of a group of school superintendents, a survey of the results of instruction was made by means of standard mental and educational tests in the fol- lowing subjects: General Intelligence, Spelling, Reading, Hand- writing, English Composition, Arithmetic, and Algebra. State and local reports were frequently consulted and constitutional and legis- lative enactments affecting village and city school systems were carefully scrutinized. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS. The following recommendations affect particularly village, town and city school units. Following each recommendation will be found a more detailed statement giving the data upon which it is based. REMOVAL OF RESTRICTIONS ON TAX LEVY. (1) Amend or revise the Constitution in such a manner as to permit a school unit to raise sufficient funds to maintain standard schools. Do this in one of two ways : 279 280 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (a) Permit a unit to raise any amount it desires with no con- stitutional or legislative limitations whatsoever. Allow the levy to include expenditures for capital outlay (new buildings, etc.,) as well as consumable expenditures. At least, remove the constitu- tional limitation and leave the maximum to the legislature. (b) If the foregoing is thought to be impossible, amend or revise the constitution so as to permit a school unit to raise at least 25 mills for all purposes, (new building included), and at least 15 additional mills by a special vote of the local unit. If a unit has once voted to levy any or all of the 15 additional mills, the permit to levy should remain a power of the board until revoked in the same manner in which it was granted. DISCUSSION. Why is more money needed for the schools? (a) The school year is longer. Twenty years ago the average was scarcely four months. Today, the average in Oklahoma is 7.3 months. (b) School buildings cost more today than formerly, and are larger, more sanitary, permanent, and include a greater variety of rooms for special work. (c) Teachers are better trained and therefore rightfully de- mand better salaries. (d) More children go to school e'Specially in grades 7 to 12. There were very few high schools in the State 20 years ago. In 1912 there were only 29 fully accredited high schools in the State; in 1920 there were -262. (e) Children stay in school longer, due to child labor and attendance laws, and to better educational traditions in the family. (f) Civilization is growing more and more complex, and there- fore education, which is both life and a preparation for life, is cor- respondingly complex. (g) The purchasing power of the dollar has decreased. The Constitutional limitation was enacted at a time when our public schools were just beginning to grow in popularity. It was impossible to predict the startling growth and development of the last few years. The makers of the Constitution, if they could have foreseen the development of today probably would not have placed a 5 mill limitation in the constitution. The average levy for all the districts of the State in 1921-22 was 9 mills. Many districts levy the limit 15 mills. VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 281 All new buildings must be built from money derived from the sale of bonds. This means a large interest charge. Furthermore, it is impossible to predict what may happen in the future. Surely, if a limitation upon the taxing power is necessary, it is wiser to leave it to the legislature than to have it fixed in the Constitution. The limit should be higher than is now prescribed. How much higher? No one can answer exactly, except that it should be as high as the people of any district desire to go. The "WILL to provide education is the only sure measure of what WILL be provided. The investigators were repeatedly told that the people of a given school district want better schools, and are willing to pay for them if the basic law would permit. A LONGER SCHOOL YEAR. (2) Section 58 of the school laws should be repealed, and a law enacted requiring all school districts to maintain at least 8 months in 1924-25 ; and 9 months thereafter. DISCUSSION. The present law requires only 3 months, but permits any length of term the district board may vote. As a matter of fact, conditions are better than the law requires. Only one per cent of the districts maintain only 4 or less months of school; 4 per cent maintain 5 months school or less; 25 per cent 6 or less; 46 per cent 7 or less; 86 per cent 8 or less; and 99 per cent 9 or less. Stated in another way, 13 per cent maintain 9 months of school ; 40 per cent maintain 8 months; 25 per cent maintain 7 months of school; 16 per cent maintain 6 months; 3 per cent maintain 5 months; and 1 per cent maintain 4 months of school or less. None maintain less than three months. The average length of the school year for different types of dis- tricts was in 1921-22 : Independent districts 9 months, with average levy of 14.5 mills Village districts Consolidated districts Union Graded districts Ungraded districts Average for all kinds It is clear from these data that the law concerning the length of the school term should be revised to conform more nearly to the average practice and to guide that practice to better standards. 8% " " 13 7 " " 14 7 " " 11 7.2 »» " " 8 7.3 >J 9 282 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA LIMITING THE POWER OF THE EXCISE BOARD. (3) Amend or revise Section 443 in such a manner as to make it mandatory upon an Excise Board to levy whatever rate, within the law, a school Board may decide that it needs to run the school properly. If a school Board fails to appropriate a sufficient sum the excise board may exercise the right to increase the appropriation. DISCUSSION. The present law (Section 443) gives the Excise Board the right to require a Board of Education to make "further detailed and itemized" statements of appropriation and "to impose and pre- scribe such additional restrictions as to expenditures of any item of appropriation as it may deem meet and proper". This restriction should be removed. A Board of Education knows the needs of a school system better than any other board. It should, therefore, have absolute rights under the law making it independent of any and all other governmental restrictions. The present law subor- dinates the powers of the Board of Education to those of the Excise Board. It makes it possible for an Excise Board to review, revise, and restrict a Board of Education in the performance of a function which by law is the duty of a Board of Education rather than the duty of an Excise Board. While gross abuses are not common, nevertheless complaints are frequent that Excise Boards are actu- ally using the law to reduce appropriations quite without regard to the recommendations! of Board of Education and their officers. REVISION OF LAWS PERTAINING TO CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS. (4) The present system of issuing teachers certificates should be gradually abolished, and the plan herein proposed substituted for the present system as rapidly as possible. The plan proposed is based upon the following principles : (a) The authority to issue certificates should be removed as far as possible from undue personal and local influences. (b) The authority should be centralized rather than divided. (c) The number and kind of certificates should be reduced to the minimum. (d) The terminology of the certificate should, so far as pos- sible, describe the certificate. (e) Certificates should be issued on the promotional basis. As a teacher's experience and training accumulates she should be able to pass from a lower to a higher certificate. VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 28S (f) Greater stress should be placed upon training, and less upon marks in examinations and experience. (g) The period of validity of all kinds of certificates should be limited. (h) Renewal of certificates should be based upon evidence of additional professional attainment. (i) A satisfactory statement concerning the health of the candidate should be required before a certificate is granted or re- newed. (j) In a State's plan for teacher certification a goal should be set which is to be attained in a definite period of years. Usually ten years is sufficient. The method of attaining a goal should be so arranged as to be fair to the great majority of teachers now teaching and the others who will enter the profession later. Through- out the United States the insistent demand for better trained teach- ers is resulting in the establishment and the attainment of the following goals : (i) For all elementary schools (Kindergarten and grades 1 to 6 inclusive) the teachers should be required as soon as possible to have not less than 2 years of normal school training, or* its equiva- lent, based upon graduation from an accredited four-year high school. Certificates should be based upon institutional training rather than upon examinations. Ultimately elementary school teach- ers should be as well prepared as high school teachers. (ii) For all upper grades, intermediate or junior high schools and senior high schools, (grades 7 to 12 inclusive) the teachers should be required as soon as posisble to have not less than four years of normal school, college, or university training, which should include professional courses in secondary education, based upon graduation from an accredited four-year high school. (iii) For all supervisors, principals and other administrative officers there should be required not less than from one to three years training beyond the training required of the teachers under them, which training should include problems in organization, super- vision, and administration. Based upon the foregoing principles, the following certification plan for the period 1924 to 1934, inclusive, should be adopted and put into effect. This plan covers the issuance of certificates to all types of elementary teachers (primary, kindergarten, general, etc.) and provides, for a gradually increased minimum requirement of academic and professional training as a prerequisite for the lowest grade of elementary certificate. 284 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA CERTIFICATION PROGRAM 1924 TO 1934. On and after January 1, 1924, and subsequent stated dates, no teacher shall be employed in any public school in the State of Okla- homa who does not possess a certificate requiring the minimum training- set opposite the year. Year Required Academic Training Required Professional Training- Kind of Certificate 1924 1 year High School 1925 2 year High School 192'6 3 year High School 1927 4 year High School 1928 High School Graduate 2929 High School Graduate 1930 High School Graduate 1931 High School Graduate 9 weeks professional or 8 semester hours 9 weeks professional or 8 semester hours 9 weeks professional or 8 semester hours 9 weeks professional or 8 semester hours 18 weeks professional 16 semester hours 27 weeks professional 24 semester hours 1 year Professional Training 1 Year Professional Training 1932 High School Graduate 1 year plus 18 weeks 1933 High School Graduate 1 year plus 27 weeks 1934 High School Graduate 2 years Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade. Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest Grade Elementary Lowest 'Grade Elementary VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 285 LIMITATIONS OF PRESENT CERTIFICATION LAW. The system of certificating teachers is an important factor af- fecting the character of instruction provided in any State. No sys- tem of certificating teachers should stand by itself. It is merely one means of establishing and maintaining standards for the devel- opment of a properly qualified teaching force in the State. It should be properl}' related to the amount and character of training and experience which teachers possess and also to the minimum salary paid to teachers. An analysis of the laws and practices pertaining to the granting of certificates in Oklahoma show that there are four certificating agencies in the State. (a) The office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion. (b) The State Board of Education. (c) The County Board of Examiners. (d) The City Board of Examiners. The powers, duties, practices, and efficiency of these four agencies vary widely. Much confusion exists due to the failure to adopt a set of guiding principles and to centralize authority in com- petent hands. The tendency throughout the United States is towards cen- tralization in the matter of granting teacher certification. Origin- ally Boards of Education of each school district had the power to certificate. Gradually, this gave way to certification by County Boards and County Superintendents. During the last quarter of a century the function of the State in this matter has been more fully recognized, and finally, teachers' training institutions themselves have been granted certain powers of certification, subject only to the supervision and regulation of their governing Board, or the State Department of Public Instruction. The tendency throughout the United States is towards centralizing authority in the office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. It then may be delegated by that office to teacher training institutions and County Superintendents under certain conditions. The present County and City Board of Examiners is unneces- sary and cumbersome. The examination questions can be prepared and graded for all of the counties and cities of the State in one cen- 286 PUBLIC E?DUCATION IN OKLAHOMA tral office, namely, the office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. This assumes that that office is a professional rather than a political one. This will promote both economy and uni- formity. One person can conduct the local examination. Local Boards of Education should possess and exercise the right of re- ceiving higher qualifications than those received for certificates. The possession of a certificate should not be used to compel a local Board to hire a teacher who does not otherwise meet the require- ments of the local board. NUMBER AND KIND OF CERTIFICATES. (5) The law should provide that the State Board of Education shall make regulations concerning the number and classes of teach- ing certificates, and shall fix regulations for the same in addition to the minimum prerequisites fixed by law; that the board shall provide for at least seven classes of certificates, with at least two grades of each, namely: Standard and Provisional, depending on qualifications demanded. The classes of certificates should be at least the following : 1. Certificates in school administration, to be exacted of State and county superintendents. (a) Standard. (b) Pro visional J 2. Certificates in Supervision. Exacted of Supervisors, (a) and (b). 3. Principal's certificate. (1) Elementary schools, (a) and (b). (2) High schools, (a) and (b). 4. High school Teachers' Certificates. Prescribing the sub- jects to be taught. (a) and (b). 5. Elementary Teachers' Certificates. (1) Primary, (a) and (b). (2) Intermediate, (a) and (b). (3) Grammar grade, (a) and (b). 6. Special subject certificates in Kindergarten, Music, Manual Training, etc. (a) and (b) for each. 7. Special Rural School Certificates. (a) and (b). High school certificates should be valid in high schools, and in grammar grades of elementary schools ; elementary school certifi- cates, and rural school certificates should be valid in elementary schools — rural or city; special subject certificates should be valid VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 287 for teaching the subject for which issued only. Requirements for elementary teachers of the different kinds and special rural school certificates should be equivalent and certificates interchange- able; they are intended to represent special preparation along the particular line indicated. As rapidly as possible all teachers in grades 7 to 12 in city schools should be expected to meet the qualifications prescribed by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. These standards should not, for the present, apply to rural schools so far as the 7 and 8 grades are concerned. RELATION OF SALARY TO CERTIFICATE. 6. The certification law should be accompanied by a minimum salary provision. The minimum salary should be prescribed for each grade of certificate, which salary should increase at least $50.00 a step as requirments increase. The following guiding principles are recommended for consideration in determining the amount of salary. (a) Every teacher is entitled to a minimum salary which will provide a living wage for twelve months and a standard of living which will draw people of refinement and ability to teaching. (b) Other factors being the same, the teacher in the grades should receive as much salary as the teacher in the other school divisions. (c) Salary increases and attainable maximum should be so ar- ranged that (i) they offer a career in teaching, and (ii) they induce the best young men and women from the high school to prepare for teaching, and (iii) they secure constant improvement during the time of teaching. (d) The more and the better the academic and professional preparation that a teacher has, other factors being equal, the more salary she should receive. (e) The more successful experience a teacher has had in the particular field in which she is working, other factors being equal, the more salary she should receive. (f) Every successful teacher should find it possible to pass from a mere living wage to an "economic independence" wage and from that to a "cultural" wage. The second of these, the "econ- omic independence" wage, should provide the teacher with a salary adequate to meet her necessary expense and those of her dependents, with margin enough to provide for necessary professional advance- 288 PUBLIC E^DUCATION IN OKLAHOMA raent, and above that a margin for saving and in\'estment. The third, or "cultural" wage, should be enough to provide for economic independence and still allow for travel, additional study, the best in music, literature art, etc. ; thus to keep the teacher a true repre- sentative of Ihe best in the social inheritance of the race. (g) There should be enough flexibility in the salary schedule to provide extra pay for teachers of extra ability. In other words, merit should be recognized, other factors being equal. MODERN EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES. (7) The public schools of Oklahoma should adopt the seven cardinal objectives of education announced by the Committee on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, or some similar formulation of aims. The seven objectives are : health, command of funda- mental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure and ethical character. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES. The course of study in the public schools should be determined by two basic principles, the nature of the individual and the char- acter of society. In America it is generally conceived that we are seeking by education to inculcate in the individual such knowledge, attitudes, skills, and appreciations as will make him an intelligent, cooperative citizen. To accomplish this end through the curricu- lum, these seven aims are urged by the Committee on the Reor- ganization of Secondary Education. The ends of education as stated by some other writers on modern educational problems are five in number. They hold that the public school should seek to gain : physical, vocational, avocational, civic, moral, and religious efficiency. It is readily seen that there are no conflicts between these two statements. If it is found that the material in the cur- riculum, is live, up-to-date and modern; designed to impart knowl- edge, establish skills and habits and increase appreciation which con- tributes to either of the physical, vocational, avocational, civic or moral efficiency of the individual it can be said that from the view- point of American Society, it is a desirable curriculum. When the content of a curriculum stands inspection from the view of desirability to American Society, we must then turn to see whether the subjects of that curriculum have been arranged so that, considering the nature of the individual, we can expect the largest returns. Educational psychologists agree that because of the chang- VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 289 ing nature of a growing individual a certain sequence of material is desirable in the public schools. It is necessary for the continued existence of society that every individual of that society absorb or acquire certain fundamental common knoAvledge, habits, ideas, and mental attitudes for which that society stands. For instance, a society which exists because of a common speech would readily disintegrate if the youth of that society Avere not taught this com- mon speech. Therefore, society insists that this group of fundamental ideas, this body of common kno"\vledge be acquired by each youthful mem- ber of the group thus integrating them with the society as a whole. Now it happens that we find that in childhood it is most easily pos- sible to impress on the mind this body of fundamental knowledge and integrating ideals, habits and modes of thought and therefore, the curriculum of the elementary school ought to stress . primarily the acquisition of that body of fundamental knowledge which it is desirable that each child acquire if the society's existence is to continue unimpaired. Accordingly we measure the efficiency of the elementary school curriculum in the American public school by whether it is designed to give command of such fundamental processes as reading, spelling and arithmetic. Other subjects, as health, and apprecia- tion subjects, such as Art and Music, should be introduced into the elementary school curriculum, but nevertheless the primary business of the elementary school is to establish a command of these fundamental processes. INCREASING ADAPTION TO INDIVIDUAL NEEDS. If this integrating process has gone on intensively through six grades of the elementary school, the school can afford to stress this work a little more lightly in later years of school, in order that the young boy or girl may have the opportunity which, at the age of adolescence is entirely natural, to explore a little further in the wide field of human knowledge and, therefore, the criteria for judg- ing the work of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades of public schools is to be found in Avhether the curriculum provides for a lessening of emphasis on the integrating elements of the curricu- lum to the end that the capacities and interests of the pupils may be more fully explored. This gives the individual pupils the opportu- nity to follow under wise direction the different phases of the S. S. 10 290 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA curriculum in which he has a personal interest, and for which he has some capacity. In the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, of senior high school, the integrating function of the elementary school lessens still fur- ther. In many schools English and social science are the only sub- jects required of all pupils in these years. Here the emphasis in the curriculum shifts largely from the integrating function to the differentiating function. After society has assured itself that the youth has been well grounded in the fundamental factors and processes necessary for society's continued existence, and has given the pupil an opportunity to explore different fields of knowledge in the intermediate grades, it may be well to expect of him in the senior high school some degree of specialized achievement whicl: will fit him to do well some particular task. The courses of study in a number of the cities visited seem to be built largely on the above premises. It is the judgment of the investigators that in some cases Oklahoma cities furnish an illus- tration of remarkable progress in scientifically arranging curricula. The work of city superintendents formulating courses of study in English, mathematics, and citizenship is most commendable, and should be followed by courses in the other required subjects. REORGANIZATION OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. (8) At present, most of the city school systems of Oklahoma provide twelve grades of instruction. The twelve years are divided into eight years of elementary and four years of high school, or what is commonly known as the 8-4 plan of organization. It is gratifying to note that many cities in Oklahoma have found it advantageous to modify the standard 8-4 plan and to inaugurate the 6-3-3 plan, or the 6-6 plan. In every instance observed, the adop- tion of the 6-3-3 or the 6-6 plan has apparently been decidedly ad- vantageous. This plan is recommended for all cities, and the stand- ards of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary schools may well be adopted as guiding principles by city school boards throughout the State in the development of junior and senior high schools. These standards are as follows : (a) The secondary school should be a unit in the educa- tional system and should include grades 7-12. (b) For purposes of administrative efficiency, these grades may be organized on the basis of the three-three plan, the two- VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 291 four plan, or the six-year plan, as local conditions warrant. (c) Under usual conditions a school system with fewer than five hundred pupils in grades 7 to 12 should not attempt to organize on the basis of more than one unit, provided these grades are housed in one building. (d) Under usual conditions a school system with con- siderably more than five hundred pupils should organize the secondary school in two units. (e) Ultimately the training of all teachers of academic sub- jects in grades 7-12 should be the same as that fixed by the North Central Association for teachers in accredited high schools. (f) In its curricular offerings, a school should present a range of work in seventh and eighth grades which is more exten- sive than that offered in the traditional school, and provision should be made for some directed pupil-choice of subjects to be studied. (g) In the administration of the program of studies in grades 7 and 8, provisions should be made for : (i ) At least partial departmentalization of Instruction. (ii ) Promotion by subject. (i i i) Pupil collateral activities supervised by school authorities. (i V ) Some form of supervised study, either by teachers in the classrooms or by trained, experienced supervisors, in larger study halls. (h) In the administration of the school, provision should be made for: (i ) Recitation periods of not less than thirty-five min- utes, exclusive of all time used in the chang- ing of classes or teachers, (i i) A teaching load of not more than thirty periods per week of forty minutes each. (iii) A number of pupils per teacher based on average attendance of not more than thirty. The junior high school and six-year high school movement is of too recent origin to warrant the adoption at present of too rigid standards for accrediting. In fact, any effort to standardize these schools at this time would retard rather than advance the progress of this important movement. 2S2 PUBLIC ETDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA FREE TEXT BOOKS. (9) County uniformity of free text-books should be provided except in districts of 2,500 population or over. The State should not attempt to print its own text-books, or continue the present policy of State uniformity. The three major arguments for a State wide adoption of text- books were : (a) Reduction of the cost of books to patrons. (b) Reduction of the frequent changing of text-books. (c) Uniformity. The first two of these arguments are absolutely eliminated when a system of free text-books is adopted. Therefore, no logical use remains for a State Text-Book Commission, or a list of State-adopted books, unless the desire for rigid uniformity still prevails. Too rigid uniformity violates the best interests of special groups and classes of pupils. The present method of selecting text-books is entirely inade- quate, inasmuch as it does not provide for : (a) Expert professional judgment in the selection of books; (b) j\Iore than one approved basic text in each subject for each grade; ' (c) More than two supplementary reading texts; (c) Flexibility inasmuch as it requires that "each grade and each subject shall be considered a separate adoption"; (e) Opportunity for needed reorganization and experimenta- tion in the course of study in certain subjects and grades, especially in the junior high school, and for certain special conditions or groups, such as rural and negro schools and special classes for back- ward and feeble minded children. The fundamental principles that should guide in the selection of text-books has been largely ignored in the present text-book law. The following cardinal principles, which should be the basis of legislation in regard to text-books, are here set forth; (a) A generous supply of good text-books in the hands of each pupil is, next to a good teacher, the most effective means for his instruction. It is also an economy since the amount spent for text-books is only approximately two per cent of the total annual cost of the schools. (b) All of the more important means of instruction should, in a democracy, be free, equally open to all, and as far as possible suited to the needs of each. VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 293 (c) Therefore, text-books should be free. (d) The public should protect itself, under a system of free text-books, by requiring when books are loaned to pupils a deposit fee or other guarantee that the books will be returned in reasonably good condition. When books are lost, destroyed, or unreasonably worn, pupils should be required to pay for the same. When books are returned in reasonably good condition the deposit should be re- turned. (e) No single text-book is equally suited to the need of all the children of a given grade or subject. Individual and group differences are enormous, and should be recognized in the selection of text-books. This is especially true for grades 7 to 12, where the differentiating function rather than the integrating function gov- erns. (f) Text-books should be selected solely on their merits, with reference to their adaptability to particular individuals and groups. (g) The average life of free text-books is approximately three years, and, therefore, provision should be made for new adoptions and renewals on a three year basis. (h) The best persons to select text-books, and other instruc- tional supplies are those who use them and those who directly su- pervise their use. (i) A study of experiments which have been made seems to indicate that it is neither economical nor a sound educational policy for a State to print its own text-books. STATE AID FOR FREE TEXT-BOOKS. (10) It is recommended that the State shall provide each school unit, for the purchase of text-books, the sum of three to five dollars per pupil enrolled in kindergarten and grades one to six inclusive; the sum of four to six dollars for each white and colored pupil enrolled in grades seven to twelve inclusive; pro- vided that all money not expended for the purchase of text-books may be spent in purchasing supplementary and reference books; provided also that all money not so expended shall revert to the general school fund of the State. It is estimated after the first year free text-books will cost from one-third to one-half of the above estimate. This provides for replacements. Appropriations should be made on this basis. 294 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPLIES. (11) Practically all of the cities visited should spend much more money for equipment; including- charts, maps, sand tables, etc., for the grade schools. The needs of the high schools in the way of laboratory equipment have been fairly well met. In most cities the library facilities are very poor and should be materially increased. Supplementary reading material should be supplied much more liberally than is done throughout the tAvelve grades. Few sehoolhouses or rooms are supplied with good pictures. Ap- propriations made for the purchase of choice pictures are good edu- cational investments. The general provision in Section (397) which empowers the State Text-Book Commission ''to select and adopt maps, charts, globes and other apparatus" should be repealed, along with other provisions of Section (397). Such materials should be selected by the same agencies as is elsewhere provided in this report for the selection of free text-books. CHANGES IN TAKING OF CENSUS AND IN COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS. (12) The following changes are recommended: (a) The superintendent of schools should direct and the teachers take the school census. (b) The compulsory attendance law should apply equally to children attending non-public schools. (c) The limiting clause of Section (240) which permits chil- dren to absent themselves one-third of the time the school is in session should be repealed, and ''full time" attendance should be required. (d) A provision should be added to Section (253) making it mandatory for counties of 52,000 population or more to provide a county home for dependent white boys. (e) Section (245) and Section (248) should be amended to read "Destitute mothers of children under the age of sixteen years". (f) The minimum age for compulsory school attendance should be reduced from eight to seven years. (g) All non-public schools should be subject to inspection by local and State school authorities, and should be required to maintain standards for teacher preparation and certification, courses VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS ' 295 of study, school hygiene and sanitation, and attendance requirements the equivalent of standards set up by the local and State public school authorities. THE SCHOOL CENSUS. Great care should be exercised in taking the census. The best practice today provides for the taking of the census by the teach- ers under the direction of the superintendent. If each teacher is apportioned a certain number of blocks in her own immediate school neighborhood it is possible to get an absolute check upon the num- ber of children in the school district. It should be made mandatory upon the superintendent and teachers to take the census. This will give a competent body, rather than a possibly incompetent in- dividual, who has no interest other than the returns for his days labor. Soon after the beginning of the school year the census record should be checked with the enrollment. The attendance officer should visit the homes where there are children unaccounted for. The information collected concerning each individual child should be placed on a cumulative record card. This card should show residence, name, occupation of parents, date of birth of child, sex, nationality, kind and grade of school attended, physical dis- ability if any, name and address of employer if employed. Such information will prove invaluable in enforcing the compulsory school law, child labor law, and widows' pension law, and also in indicating the growth and trend of population. The latter will aid the board of education materially in formulating a school building program. The compulsory attendance law should apply equally to children attending non-public schools. ATTENDANCE LAWS. Directly associated with the school census is the problem of attendance. Section (241) requires the appointment in cities or incorporated towns of truancy officers by the board of education, and in school districts the appointment of truancy officer by county superintendent. Attendance in city school systems seems to be fairly satisfactory in the white schools. Attendance officers state, however, that the provision which requires (Section 240) that the child be compelled to attend but two-thirds of the session practical- ly nullifies the eft'ective administration of the law. 286 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA This limiting clause, namely the two-thirds proposition in the law, should be repealed immediately, and all children compelled to attend the full session unless physicall or mentally incapacitated. This should apply equally to white and colored children under six- teen years of age. Section (245) and Section (248), which provide for the aiding of ''Destitute mothers" should be amended to read "Mothers of children under sixteen years". There is a gap of two years between the age fourteen, as stated in the present law, and sixteen years, pro- vided for in "Compulsory Attendance Law and Child Labor Law", which has proved to be the cause of genuine distress. CONCERNING COUNTY HOME. Section (253) provides for "A County Home for Dependent "White Boys" in any county having a population of 52,000 in 1920. This number might well be reduced to 25,000 population, and pro- vision made that two or more counties may jointly carry out the provisions of the Act. In comities over '52,000 it is recommended that the act be made mandatory. RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION OF PUPILS. (13) The following recommendations are made for reducing retardation : (a) Parents should be urged to enter children at the earliest possible legal age. (b) Kindergarten should be established wherever school funds permit and enrollment justifies. (c) Greater care should be taken in grading, classifying, and promoting children. (d) Homogenous speed grouping should begin with the first grade and continue throughout the system. (e) Scientific diagnostic and remedial work should accom- pany homogeneous speed grouping. (f) Medical and physical supervision should be provided for all children. (g) Regular attendance in the primary grades should be stressed as in upper grades. "Retardation deals with the over-age or retarded children; those who are older than they should be for the grades they are in. They are found in all school systems but are by no means equally common in all. In "normal progression" the children are in the VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 297 proper grades for their ages. "Acceleration" is applied to those pupils who are under-age, that is, who are younger than the normal age for the grade in which they are placed. Under existing condi- tions probably about 25 per cent of the pupils should be retarded, 50 per cent should progress normally and 25 per cent should be accelerated. The significance of over-age does not lie entirely in the fact that these children will probably leave the elementary school before they complete the course, but lies more particularly in the fact that, while they do remain in school, the instruction received will not be adapted to their abilities. Hence, such children, on the one hand, do not receive the full benefits from the instruction given ; and, on the other hand, being thus improperly classified, they are a burden to the teacher and prevent her from giving the proper at- tention to the other members of the class in which these over-age children are found. Hence, over-ageness is not only significant for the children themselves Avho are over-age, but becomes significant for all members of the school. Moreover, over-ageness in the ele- mentary school not only affects the work of the school but affects the number of children going to high school, and the number remain- ing to complete the high school course. It is plainly evident that over-ageness is a distinct economic loss to the district. Therefore, measures adopted to overcome re- tradation in school will not only help the child, but will also tend to relieve the district of additional expense. The data furnished the Bureau of Education by certain school systems of the State shows that 29.9 per cent of the white children in the cities furnishing the data are retarded. This is perhaps bet- ter than the the average State. A careful study of the figures, how- ever, shows a high per cent of over-age pupils in the 4-5-6-7-8-9-years among the boys. See Table 32. DEFINITION OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS. (14) At the present time there is some confusion concerning the definition of the different types of school districts, and also concerning the application of various laws to the different types. This confusion should be cleared up in order that the proper admin- istration of the various school districts may be facilitated. 298 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA SCHOOL HYGIENE AND HEALTH EDUCATION. (15) One of the cardinal principles in modern education is the conservation of the health of the pupils and the creating of a health conscience. That is, the individual pupil should think not only of his own health but also how he may contribute to the general communitj'^ health. Children should be taught the principles of health and hygiene. As in many other things, the home quite fre- quently throws the burden on the school and the school should ac- cept the responsibility and opportunity. The majority of the city schools visited are giving health in- struction. The children are weighed and heights taken at frequent intervals. Health Clubs have been formed in some of the schools^ and in a few definite time given for health instruction. It is necessary for children to suppress a very considerable amount of their muscular energy when in the classroom. This increases ner- vous tension and strain. One of the ways to overcome possible bad effects is to introduce certain physical training exercises which will relax, strengthen, and recreate the child. Courses in physical training have three aims; educational, hygienic, and recreational. To increase vitality and produce strength and health by overcoming unhygienic conditions in the schoolroom, such as bad light, impure air, and poor seating facilities^ should be the hygienic aim. The educational aim is to promote habits of quick reaction to commands and to train in obedience and exactness. The recreational aim is to relax the mind and body of the child by participation in games. The physical training program of the cities visited is not as generous as it should be. Health will be more valuable to the man or woman of the future than Latin or Ancient History. If retrenchments are to be made, the health department should not be the first to suffer as it has been in some of the cities visited. In the majority not nearly enough time is given to physical training. Supervised play is largely carried on, if at all, by the classroom teachers, very few playground supervisors being found. The amount of playground apparatus is insufficient in most cases; how- ever, a few have been most generously supplied. The cities, with- out exception, have provided liberally for directed athletics such as football, baseball, and track, Avliich is highly commendable. VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 299 HELPFUL SERVICE OF THE SCHOOL NURSE One of the most helpful _^agents in promoting health in the public schools is the school nurse. By inspecting the schools frequently she discovers communicable diseases in their incipient state and thus prevents epidemics. The nurse also many times discovers phy- sical abnormalities unsuspected by the parents of the children. The nurse's work is not only corrective and remedial but also educa- tional. Her opportunities for furthering the health of the boys and girls are almost limitless. The school nurse is almost an indispen- sable factor in a well balanced school. A few of the cities visited have the services of a full time school nurse. Any city of 8,000 people should have a full time school nurse. Modern discoveries show that the cause of many ailments may be traced directly to decayed teeth. The school should supply free dental work for children whose parents are too poor to pay for the work. One school visited does the work free for all the chil- dren of all the people. MEASUREMENTS (16) The splendid work in educational tests and measure- ments in a number of school systems should be encouraged and ex- tended, and its benefits made State-wide. Individuals vary greatly in mental ability. During the war •psychological tests were devised for the testing of the mental cap- acity of large groups of men. Adaptation of these tests are quite generally used for measuring the intelligence of pupils. From the data obtained pupils may be grouped according to their abilities. It is an axiom in modern education that children should work up to their normal capacities. If they are doing this they are more apt to be both happy and good. This is impossible if a group of •children vary too widely in their intellectual and scholastic abilities. Careful and frequent mental and subject matter testing is nec- essary in order to group children homogeneously with reference to their speed abilities. The survey staff observed with admiration the unusual progress made in many of the cities visited in modern scientific method of determining abilities. In fact, certain of the cities visited appear to have made more progress in the application of scientific measurements than any similar group of cities in the United States. Economy of time and money make it imperative that all school officials and teachers should employ standardized and mental educational tests in the classification of children. 300 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TESTS MADE BY OKLAHOMA EDUCATORS FOR THE SURVEY. A group of Oklahoma educators under the direction of Dean Phelan of the University of Oklahoma, and Henry D. Rinsland, of the Ardmore public schools, gave a series of tests in Spelling, Arith- metic, Composition, Handwriting, Reading, and Algbera. The tests reveal that in Spelling (Ashbaugh Spelling Scale) grades three, four, ten, eleven, and twelve are average or above in Spelling ; other grades are below^ the standard. In reading (Haggerty and Thorn- dyke-McCall) grades one, two, three, four, five, seven, and twelve are standard or above ; and six, eight, nine, ten, and eleven are be- low standard. In Handwriting (Ayers Scale) grades three to eight inclusive are all above standard in rate, but with the exception of seven all fall below standard in quality. In English Composition (Hudelson Composition Test) all grades fall below standard. In Arithmetic (Courtis Series B), with the exception of grade three in number of attempts in addition, not a single grade from one to eight inclusive meet the standard either in number attempted or per cent of accuracy. In Algebra (Hotz Algebra Test) series A (Addition and Sub- traction) and series A (Equation and Formula) in no case do grades nine, ten, eleven and twelve equal the standard. A summary of the results of the tests will be found in Chapter XI. STATE APPROVAL OF ALL SCHOOL HOUSE CONSTRUCTION (17) A law should be enacted and enforced making it illegal for any school board to erect or remodel any school building until the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, or an officer dele- j^ated by him, has certified to the clerk of the Board in writing to the effect that he has examined and approved the plans and speci- fications for the proposed building or remodeling. A minimum amount of two acres of ground for each school building should be required, unless for reason the requirement is waived by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction should be required to prepare and adopt regu- lations fixing certain minimum standards for school buildings apd equipment, and covering the plans and specifications of the same. Local school authorities who ignore and violate these standards, should be punishable under the law. An excellent law on this sub- VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 301 ject, fostered by the State Department of Education, has been ren- dered practically null and void by failure to provide a suitable appropriation for enforcement. In many cases the unsatisfactory conditions observed are not confined to old buildings. Many buildings erected within the past five years almost totally disregard health and sanitation standards. The erection of such buildings should be made illegal. Boards of Education in groAving communities should be en- couraged to lay out a ten to twenty year building program for the community. Sites should be purchased as long as possible in ad- vance of the time when they will be needed. School systems should not be alloAved, like Topsy, to just grow. If city planning is pos- sible, city school system planning is even more possible. Many cities in Oklahoma are making satisfactory progress in this regard, and this progress is to be commended to other muni- cipalities. The present legislative act regarding school buildings covers such questions as the following: floor space, air space per pupil, lighting, heating and ventilating, cloak rooms, out houses, cleaning and disinfecting schoolhouses, book of plans, etc. Most of the school buildings in the cities of the State are fairly new, modern, and convenient structures. Unlike other States in the Union, there are very few really old school buildings in Oklahoma, especially in the cities. A STATE SCHOOL BUILDING CODE. There seems to be no marked sentiment among school offi- cials for a State school building code. In fact, most superinten- dents and board members interviewed stated that they had gotten along fairly well without one, and they were at a loss to see how a State school building code would help them very much. However, the practice in other States seems to contradict this viewpoint. No country or city school building should be allowed to be erected in the State of Oklahoma that does not meet the best mod- ern standards for schoolhouse construction. A State school build- ing code should give to the Superintendent of Public Instruction the power to approve or disapprove every school building erected in the State. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction might delegate this power to a representative officer or to a county super- intendent or city superintendent. The school laws state specifically these requirements. It is probably wiser for the State to delegate to the Superintendents of 302 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Public Instruction and his associates the problem of drafting a State school building code. It might not be necessary to make every phase of this building code an act of the Legislature. In fact, standards for school house construction change so rapidly that it is probably wiser to leave the Superintendent of Public Instruction a certain latitude in the matter, as in Michigan. There is always a close correlation between the sanitation of school buildings and the general health of the pupils. Bad light- ing, poor ventilation, unsanitary toilets, defective heating apparatus, unsatisfactory drinking fountains, are all contributing factors to injurious schoolroom surroundings. In standard lighting for schoolrooms the light should come from one side of the room, and the window area should be one- fourth of floor area. More than half of the buildings visited ap- proach this standard. Heating facilities are excellent. Toilet facil- ities are, as a rule, ample, but in some cases extremely unsanitary because of neglect. Fair provision is made for furnishing drinking water. SALARY SCHEDULE AND PENSION SYSTEM. (18) The training equipment and ability of the teachers in the city schools of Oklahoma rank up with the same class in other cities of the United States. At present, there is no shortage in the supply of city school teachers. This applies to both trained and untrained teachers. In fact, too much has been said about the shortage of teachers for city schools. Teachers gravitate towards city school systems from all other types of schools. Consequently, except in periods of industrial inflation, the sup- ply exceeds the demand. This is not as true of village and rural schools. Village and rural schools are the training schools for future city school teachers. Apparently it would be perfectly pos- sible for every city in Oklahoma to secure Normal School graduates for all new grade school vacancies. It might be necessary to increase the salaries in order to secure and hold normal school graduates. It is impossible to state just what percentage of teachers in Oklahoma are normal trained in comparison with other States in the Union. It would appear that Oklahoma ranks about average with Middle Western States in the matter of elementary school teachers. The observers were able to find but few teachers who were not college graduates teaching in accredited high schools. VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 303 In. small high schools, of from one to four teachers, it is still cus- tomary for one reason or another to employ in some instances, undergraduates. The big problem is not salaries alone. The cost of living and the salary schedules in Oklahoma are no more out of proportion than in other States. It is largely a question of what the cities want. If every Superintendent rigidly observes the practice of employing, for all new vacancies in the elementary school, only normal school graduates, and only college graduates in high school, it would be but a short time before Oklahoma would rank with Massachusetts in the qualifications and training of the teachers. SALARIES AND CONTRACTS. (19) Few cities in Oklahoma attempt to maintain a scientific- ally graded salary schedule. The few attempts are commendable in their accomplishments. However, it is a deplorable fact that teachers must migrate from job to job, city to city, and State to State, in order to advance in salary and position. It is equally de- plorable that the number of better paid positions are and will con- tinue to be relatively few in comparison to the number of class-room positions. Consequently, it is necessary to make a rather sharp dis- tinction between the executive, administrative, and supervisory officers, and teachers. Among the classroom teachers, the tendency has been to have two and sometimes three or more types of salary schedules. One of these schedules applies to high school teachers, another to grade school teachers, and another to special teachers. The distinction be- tween high school, grade school, and special teachers should be as far as possible removed. This may be accomplished in large part by basing salaries on professional qualifications, as suggested else- where. TEACHERS' PENSIONS AND OLD AGE ANNUITIES. (20) The Oklahoma. School Law on teachers' pensions appar- ently is a failure. There is a law on the statute books, but there is no money for its enforcement. Furthermore, the law itself is scaiccly adequate. Oklahoma should have an adequate teachers' pension law. Careful attention should be given to this important matter. Of the hundred odd teachers' pension systems in the United States, less than fifteen are on a sound actuarial basis, according to Studcnsky, who has made a special study of the subject* •Paul Studensky: Teachers' Pension Systems in the United States; Apple- ton, N. Y., 1920. 304 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA About thirty-two States maintain teachers' pension systems, twenty-two of which are State-wide systems. The present period is one of readjustment. Nearly all of the State pension systems are financially unsound, and must be radically reorganized if they are to continue in operation. It is inevitable that Oklahoma must face this problem. A commission should be appointed, authorized by the Legislature, for the sole purpose of investigating and report- ing to the Legislature a sound State-wide teachers pension and annuity system. POWERS AND DUTIP:S OF BOARDS OF EDUCATION. (21) The powers and duties of boards of education should be more specifically defined. The recommendations on this point re- sulting from the survey of the public schools of Wheeling, West Virginia, are offered as suggestive. In the limited time available this Survey could not attempt to make detailed studies of city school systems in Oklahoma. The present law governing the election, term of office, powers and duties, and size of school boards is similar in most respects to laws in other States. Every city of the first class and every incor- porated town maintaining an accredited four-year high school, is an independent school district. The Board of Education consists of one member from each ward and one from outlying territory. Each member of .the Board holds office for four years. In independent districts other than cities of the first class, the Board is composed of three members selected by the district at large. Certain cities are also governed by charters which provide, in some instances, for the election of the Board of Education by wards. In cities of a population of more than 50,000, the Board of Education is composed of two members elected from each ward, pro- vided the number of wards does not exceed five. Women are qual- ified to serve on Boards of Education the same as men. In cities of less than 5,000 population, the Board of Education is composed of one person from each ward, and one from outlying territory, and if there is no outlying territory, a member must be elected by the city at large. COMMENDABLE FEATURES. The tenure of City Boards of Education is four years. This is in accordance with approved practice elsewhere. The City Boards are not large, as no city in the State has more than four wards, and VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 305 special charters do not provide for more than seven members. (22) All Board members should be elected from the district at large. The election of school Boards from city wards is a sur- vival of the early district school control. The ward system of rep- resentation perpetuates personal and political evils in school con- trol. Education is a State function. Under the ward system, it is a matter of common knoAvledge that persons are frequently elected who could not be elected from the district at large. The manage- ment of a school system is not a political, personal, or petty job. The very best men and women are needed for school Board members. SIZE OF BOARD. (23) A second criticism relates to the number of members con- stituting a Board of Education. In Oklahoma City the Board has eight members. In other districts in the State the Board may have as few as three. The law should be uniform with regard to the size of the board. THE RELATION OF THE SUPERINTENDENT TO THE BOARD SHOULD BE CLEARLY DEFINED. (24) The law fails to specify the distinction between the pow- ers and duties of the Board, and the powers and duties of the Superintendent of Schools, who is selected by the Board. However, in practice, Boards of Education tend to delegate powers and duties to the Superintendent of schools in accordance with his competency. Section 121 provides that Boards of Education except in cities shall elect a school treasurer who is not a member of the Board. In case of vacancy in the treasurership, the Board of Education may by a majority vote, elect a suitable person to fill the unexpired term. In cities of the first class the treasurer of the City School Board is elected each two years. It is difficult to understand just why each school district should elect or appoint a treasurer. Is it impossible for the County Treas- urer or City Treasurer to serve in this capacity? The Board of Education should at least have the power to appoint a Treasurer where City or County Treasurer cannot serve. LONGER TENURE FOR SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS. (25) The law on the tenure of school Superintendents should be amended so as to permit a Board of Education to contract with a Superintendent for a period of three to five years by a majority vote. 306 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA POWERS AND DUTIES OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND OTHER OFFICERS. (26) The powers and duties of superintendents and other offi- cers should be specifically defined. For suggestions on this point see Appendix A. The law provides that a Board of Education may by a majority vote elect a Superintendent and teachers for a period of one year. By a three-fourths vote, the Board may elect a Sueprintendent for a period not to exceed three years. The election of Superintendents for three years is a commendable feature of the law, but a majority vote should be all that is required. Otherwise a minority may rule the Board. One thing is noticeable for its absence. The Superintendent's powers and duties are not defined. Superintendents should be given the full power of nominating teachers. The selection of teachers is a professional task. It requires trained expert leadership. In various sections of the State it was observed with satisfaction that the tendency everywhere is for Boards of Education to delegate the selection of teachers to the Superintendent. However, com- plaints were frequently made that Boards sometimes permit per- sonal, political, or religious questions to interfere with the Super- intendent's nominations. Frequently, also Boards originate and dictate the nominations. In no way should the schools be made "local" family affairs, or used for local, charitable, political, social, or religious purposes. The avoidance of this can be best attained by giving the Superintendent the power to select and nominate teachers and all other educational officers. The Board of Education should consider the Superintendent of Schools as its chief executive officer. The Board of Directors of a hospital selects an executive officer to represent it, and dele- gates to this executive officer the power to select his staff. The Board of Education of the University selects a President, who is highly trained in his profession, and then delegates to this man the power of selecting his staff. By such means it is possible for the executive officers of School Boards to carry out educational policies and to select a trained personnel in sympathy with such policies. Potentially, the most important officer in the employ of the people in any community is the Superintendent of Schooh. Actu- ally, the condition is frequently otherwise. In poijular estimation, VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 307 the mayor or the Chief of Police or the Head of the Fire Depart- ment may occupy a more important position, but 'Hhe farreaching character of the services of a capable and energetic school Super- intendent, transcends in importance, any of these." STATE AID FOR STANDARD PUBLIC JUNIOR COLLEGES, AND STANDARD JUNIOR COLLEGE COURSES IN TEACHER TRAINING. (27) The Survey commends the Junior Colleges which have been established in a few cities, and the desire to develop standard one and two-year college courses in conjunction with other city school systems. It is more economical to train college Freshmen and Sophomores in standard public junior colleges under the ad- ministration and partial support of local school units than it is to train them in State schools. The arguments for public junior colleges in conjunction with city school systems are, in brief, as follows : (a) Boys and girls may continue their education while re- maining at home for one or two years longer. (b) It costs the State less money per pupil. (c) It costs the parents less money per pupil. (d) If proper standards are maintained, the instruction in city junior colleges may be even better than in congested freshmen and sophomore classes in higher educational institutions. (e) The rapid growth in popularity of higher education is threatening unduly to crowd State schools. (f) Moreover, State schools need to devote to advanced and graduate work a larger proportion of their resources than can at present be devoted to such training, because of the overcrowding of freshman and sophomore years. (g) Appropriations for State Schools should not be reduced or impaired when city junior colleges are established. (h) The remarkable growth in facilities in city school systems, such as well-equipped libraries and laboratories, makes it possible for city systems to establish and maintain standard junior colleges with a minimum amount of State aid. (i) The training of teachers for elementary schools can, on account of the excellent training school facilities of certain city schools, be accomplished with less expense and greater convenience to pupils, in standard teacher training courses in city junior col- leges. 308 EDUCATIONAL, TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS . (j) The need for trained elementary teachers can never be r fully met by the largest probable development of State schools ] alone. This is especially true if the Survey program for teacher ^ training for 1924 to 1934 is followed. (k) The training of teachers and of college students is a function of the State. This function may be safely delegated to local school units in accordance with the ability of such units to perform such training in accordance with well established standards. (1) When such a function is so delegated, State-aid should accompany the delegation. The amount and conditions under which A State-aid is granted should depend upon per capita of cost of en- rollment and the amount of local support available. SCHOOLS FOR NEGROES. (28) Schools should be operated on the same basis, and main« tain the same standards, as white schools, and they should be under the administration and support of the Board of Education of each local unit with a population of 2,500 or over. i CHAPTER IX. EDUCATION OF INDIANS. The education of the children of the Indians in Oklahoma is one of the important educational responsibilities of the State and National Government. The crux of the problem is the proper ad- justment of educational responsibility between the State of Okla- homa and the United States Government. That one-third of all the Indians in the United States live within the borders of this State is an exceedingly significant fact both to the state and the nation. PROBLEMS OP FAR-REACHING SIGNIFICANCE. It is probable that the policies formulated for the education of Indians in the public schools of Oklahoma will largely determine those for other States. The variety of Indian types as well as the wide differences in the economic and social conditions of Indian groups in the State require a diversity of educational methods that will doubtlessi suggest practices for Indian communities in other parts of the country. Probably the consideration most vital to the State of Oklahoma in its relation to the education of the Indians arises from the wide distribution of the Indian people throughout the State with their extensive areas of non-taxable land, some parts of which have fer- tile soil while others are rich in oil and minerals. The estimated amount of non-taxable land and the Indian population are distribut- ed through 66 of the 77 counties. Such a distribution of people and property requires the serious thought of the people of Okla- homa and the co-operation of the United States Government with its special and legal responsibility for the Indian people. The factors to be considered in formulating policies for Indian education are first, the economic, hygienic, and tribal conditions of the Indians; second, the enumeration and enrollment of Indian youth of school age, and the school facilities now available for the Indians; third, the financial support of Indian education, and the relation of this support to the extensive areas of the non-taxable land in Oklahoma; fourth, the principles and methods of Indian 309 310 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA education during the transition of Indian youth from the boarding and day schools of the United States Indian Bureau to the public school system of the State; and fifth, recommendations concerning the education of Indians in Oklahoma. HOME, FAMILY AND TRIBAL CONDITIONS. According to the last census, the number of Indians in the State of Oklahoma was 59,000. According to the Indian bureau, the number is now 120,000. This discrepancy is explained by the fact that the census enumeration was based on the classification of a person as Indian whose appearance indicated that race, while the enumeration of the Indian bureau is based on records of blood re- lationship and includes persons of all degrees of Indicin mixture. These facts indicate that the full blood Indian is decreasing in num- ber because he is gradually becoming absorbed into the general pop- ulation in the country, although statistics prove that the number of those having Indian blood is increasing. It is not strange that there is much vague and confused think- ing in regard to these 120,000 Indian people of Oklahoma, for the current expressions used to de&eribe them have a connotation as widely varying as the experiences of those who occasionally see an Indian man or woman ; those who have taught the Indian boys and girls in the schools; and those who have lived in Indian commun- ities year after year. The very term, "Five Civilized Tribes," used ' ''to designate the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Seminoles and Chick- asaws is a source of pride to these people of the old Indian Terri- tory, and of irritation to the so-called ''blanket" or "Western" Indians whose living conditions equal and often surpass those of the "Five Tribes." BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF CONDITIONS NEEDED. The term, "wealthy Indian," so often thought to apply to all Oklahoma Indians, does not suggest the fact that only a few de- rive incomes from oil, but the majority are dependent upon land leases and the farming of their own lands, or struggle for existence either back in the hills of eastern Oklahoma or in tents near some stream of western Oklahoma. Between the ideas that either all or none of the Indians of Oklahoma are educated, is the fact that illiteracy is constantly de- creasing, due to education in government, public, and private EDUCATION OF INDIANS 311 schools, travel, contact with white persons, and the deaths of the old. Comparatively few Indian children, however, go beyond the 8th grade, although that number is now increasing. The Indian people of four of the Five Civilized Tribes, namely Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Creek, show most of the stages of development in the transition from the primitive life of the past to the most highly developed social life of the Avhite American, just as they show varying amounts of Indian inheritance from full-blood to 1-32 or 1-64. There are, however, three distinct groups among these tribes, those living in towns, those in the country districts^ and those away from the lines' of travel, in the distant hills. The majority of the Indian people in the first group live in the towns and send their children to town or boarding schools. The junior colleges, in nearby States, are popular with the more ad- vanced young people of this group. Their homes vary, as do those of their white neighbors, and compare favorably with them. Some in this group are leaders in their communities and a goodly number hold positions of responsibility. The second group in eastern Oklahoma includes many full bloods and many of mixed blood. Their homes are usualh' two, three, or four room frame or log houses in the country, not especial- ly well kept. As a rule, however, the untidiness is that of disorder rather than dirt. A friendly neighbor or sympathetic visitor with higher ideals can wield a great influence for higher standards. The children are usually in boarding or district schools, and the parents are eager for their advancement, although this does not prevent their frequently taking the children from school for various unim- portant reasons. Neither does it prevent laxness in discipline. The third and last of these three groups, full blood oi- nearly so, is not more advanced than many of the so-called pagan Tndiftn people who have always lived far from the paths of civilization. Table 45, based on the findings from the Government Plealth Drive among the Indian people of the Five Tribes, shows that situ- ation among the approximately 30,000 full blood people of these tribes, and indicates the necessity for careful attention and action. The homes of this full blood group are one, two or three room frame or log houses back in the hills. There is little furniture ex- cept beds in these houses, and among the Cherokees only does the custom prevail to any extent of sunning the bedding. The common 312 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA TABLE 45.— CONDITIONS AMONG THE FIVE TRIB ES. Five Tribes Cherokee Choctaw Creek Seminole Chickasaw Number of members by 36,432 17,488 11,592 2,141 5i659 blood Approxi- mate num- ber of full 9,000 8,000 8,000 1.300 2,000 bloods • Situation Back in hills Prefer inac- In country Back in In country of inaccessible cessible and hills country and towns homes places places Condition Log houses Box house Log and Log and Some neat of usually 2 or shack frame frame log houses homes rooms poor- with fire- houses houses majority ly ventilated place \ frame Dvercrowded Condition Small Similar Chickens Similar Some corn of patches of to and to and oats, farm corn. Few horses, some poultry, few Cherokees Turkeys Creeks chickens hogs cows, hogs (Milk, is used as a food in few families) Health Tuberculo- Tuberculo- Trachoma ' Similar Tuberculo- sis common sis very prevalent to sis less Trachoma common. Some Creeks common. widespread Trachoma syphilis Best health Some Avith widesplread. conditions cocaine Use of in 5 tribes. habit whiskey near Arkan- sas border drinking cup and the common towel are used not only in the home, but at the large camp gatherings. Tuberculosis presents the great- est menace because of the large number of families infected, con- stant visiting and gathering in groups, insanitary habits, and ig- norance of the cause and spread of disease through insects, especi- ally the fly and mosquito. Marriage of near relatives appears to be responsible for most of the cases of epilepsy. Trachoma is wide-spread. The use of to- bacco either as snuff, or in chewing or smoking, is a habit with all ages and both sexes. The native "medicine man" is frequently in evidence. The best known of these in the Choctaw nation, consult- ed at times by whites as well as by the Indian people has a home of five rooms. It is in bad repair, without windows, and infested with vermin. EDUCATION OF INDIANS 313 Some homes, especially among the Chickasaw people, have small patches of corn or oats. There are some cows, although milk is used as a food in few families, and the chickens and pigs are carried along with the family to the various camp meetings and Indian dances, or allowed to wander around until the family's re- turn. Attempts made by the returned students to improve the condi- tions of these dwelling places are thwarted by lack of encourage- ment and the lack of material with which to work. Naturally these attempts soon cease and the family lives to eat, sleep, and look for- ward to the Indian gathering in the summer — the "stomp" dance and others, which draw a large crowd of curious whites, many of whom profit in the sale of soft drinks and small wares. Frequently to these dances come some of the more advanced Indian people whose opportunity for healthy recreation is slight. The children of this third group are timid in the presence of white children, and go to neither public nor government schools except under compulsion. They are often undesirable in public schools because of the previously mentioned diseases which follow lack 6f cleanliness. The extreme distance from public school and the danger of creeks that must be crossed make regular public school attendance difficult or impossible. It may be said in the favor of this group that their condition of living is not so much lower than that of their white neighbor's. In the Chickasaw and parts of the Choctaw country, it equals or surpasses the manner of living of the tenants who occupy the larg- er house on the Indian farm. The Seminole Indian people, although one of the "Five Tribes" have only two social groups, the last two mentioned above. They seldom dwell in town and have not advanced to the standards of living comparable with those of the average small town. In the remainder of the State, class distinctions among the Indians are vague and unimportant. Those who live in houses, who farm their own land and are careful to see to it that their children are in public or government boarding school, feel some little super- iority over those who still camp, who take no pride in domestic activities, and are markedly careless in the care of the children. The use of peyote is one of the greatest factors hindering the more rapid development of the Indian people of this group. The 314 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA tetter conditions in the homes of the Indian people of the western group may be accounted for by the presence of missionaries and better government help through field matrons and government farmers!, for supervision in the west has been much closer than in the east. SOME FACTS CONCERNING THE CHILDREN. In order to have some estimate of the number of Indian chil- dren now in boarding schools who should possibly be in public schools, a study was made of the homes of the pupils in three of the largest government boarding schools in western Oklahoma and three of the Tribal schools of eastern Oklahoma with the following points in view ; (1) To find the number of Indian children now in boarding schools who should continue there. (2) To find the number of children now in boarding schools who might be placed in public schools if provided with the assist- ance of a Home and School Visitor or Field matron to act as inter- preter of the child to the public school and of the school to the home of the child. (3) To discover the number of Indian children now in board- ing schools whose home conditions are such that they can be in available public schools. Table 46 discloses the results : TABLE 46 NUMBER OF INDIAN CHILDREN RECOMMENDED Eastern Oklahoma. For For Public Boarding School with help of school visitor 30 12 18 60 Western Oklahoma. 8 33 30 71 131 School School 1 34 Scohol 2 87 School 3 67 Total 188 1 School 1 85 School 2 73 School 3 60 Total 218 Grand Total 406 ■ For Public Tot School without school visitor 19 83 9 108 18 103 46 294 5 98 106 10 100 15 304 61 598 EDUCATION OF INDIANS 315 The following conclusions can be deduced: (1) Of the 598 children on whose home conditions information could be gained, 406 should continue in boarding schools; (2) 131 might be trans- ferred to public schools if provided with the help of a Home and School Visitor; (3) 61, only 15 of whom are from the western district, might now be in public schools. The following conditions make attendance of the majority of the pupils in boarding schools either desirable or necessary. Financial inability to pay tuition in public schools; distance from public school, (three or more miles and difficulties of travel where the distances are less) ; lack of home because of death, im- morality, separation, and wandering propensities of parents or cruelty of step-parents; insanitary home conditions and disease. DIFFICULTIES TO BE OVERCOME. The following statements from the Grovernment Health Drive records throw additional light on the need of boarding schools for Indian children, or a radical change in the public school system: (1) ''Many Indian children 14 or 15 years of age are in the 1st and 2nd grade." (2) "Indian children in public schools do not always receive proper consideration from white pupils and teachers." (3) "Indian children enrolled in public schoolsi attend so ir- regularly that they receive little benefit." (4) "The length of the school year in public schools is short- ened because of the necessity for using the children in the cotton fields." (5) "In the country schools of Oklahoma, hygiene and sani- tation are not taught until the 8th grade, which is reached only by a few of the Indian children most in need of this information. ' ' ENUMERATION, ENROLLMENT AND SCHOOL FACILITIES. Table 47, showing enumeration, enrollment and school facilities for Indian youth in Oklahoma is based upon facts supplied by the. United States Indian bureau for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922. The facts are grouped for each of the Five Tribes in Eastern Okla- homa and for the seven reservations or tribal groups of "Western Oklahoma. ^ To those unfamiliar with the tribal distribution for the State, it is necessary to give the following facts : 316 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (1) The Five Civilized Tribes are distributed through the forty counties of Eastern Oklahoma. The official reports of the Superintendent for those tribes give the counties in which each tribe holds lands. The Cherokee Nation lives in various sections of the ten counties in Northeastern Oklahoma; the Choctaws are in the ten Southeastern counties of the State; the Creeks are in the ten counties southwest of the Cherokees; the Chickasaws are im- mediately west of the Choctaws; and the Semiiioles are in Seminole county, between the counties occupied by the Creeks and the Chick- asaws. (2) The Western Oklahoma Indians occupy twenty-six coun- ties in the middle and western part of the State. They are divided into seven groups including nine agencies and portions of twenty- five tribes. TABLE 47.— ENUMERATION, ENROLLMENT, AND SCHOOL FACILITIES FOR INDIAN YOUTH IN OKLAHOMA. Enrollment in Schools Public Supported by Govern - +j June 30, 1922 Enrollment ^ 3" 2, Per cent ^ attendance Government Schools 3 Tribal g 2- Schools o 2 3 ' Contract << 3* Schools " & 3 Total s 1 o Eh o o A y o C o Cherokee 10,318 66.1 322 179 501 250 11,069 1,545 12,614 Creek 2,568 57.5 87 390 477 27 3.072 1,276 4,348 Choctaw 3,680 61.7 178 230 336 744 4,424 429 4,853 Chickasaw- 2',031 64.2 29 151 106 286 2,317 970 3,287 Seminole 167 40.0 17 158 175 342 278 620 Total Five Tribes 18,764 63.2 633 1,108 442 2,183 277 2 1,2 24 4,498 25,722 Cheyenne & Arapaho 254 349 349 10 613 211 824 Kiowa 738 75 507 507 42 1,287 319 1,606 Osage 532 82 82 166 780 73 853 Pawnee 90 112 112 202 50 252 Ponca 206 .... 123 123 10 339 86 425 Seneca 386 64 64 31 481 131 612 Shawnee 275 78 164 164 59 498 6 504 Total West Side 2,481 76.5 1,401 1,401 318 4,200 876 5,076 Total for State 21,245 2,034 1,108 442 3,584 595 25,424 5,374 30,798 EDUCATION OF INDIANS 317 The significant facts shown in Table 47 are as follows: (1) The number of Indian youths of school age (6 to 21) is 30,798. (2) The number enrolled in public, government and mission schools is 25,424. The apparently favorable significance of this figure is greatly diminished by the fact that the attendance for most of the large groups is only about 60 per cent. (3) Twenty-one thousand two hundred forty-five (21,245) In- dians, forming 84 per cent of the Indian school enrollment, are al- ready in public schools'. Owing to the irregularity of attendance, short school terms, and the low efficiency of many of the rural schools, the educational value of the public school enrollment is ser- iously diminished. (4) Only 3,584 Indians, or 14 per cent of the Indian school enrollment, are in government and tribal schools. This compara- tively small proportion by no meansi represents the influence of the government schools on Indian education. The government institu- tions, of which there are 18 boarding schools and one small day school, are well managed and effective in the activities of their program. They are far superior to the public rural schools in equipment, staff, organization and management. The boarding schools train the boys and girls along many lines, including not only the usual classroom subjectsi, but also the simple elements of mechanical and agricultural operations, cooking and sewing, healthful recreations, habits of punctuality and indus- try. School life in the dormitory, dining room, classroom, field, shop and playground in close association with the teaching staff has a very pronounced educational effect upon the pupils. Their plants are impressive in quality and size of buildings, extensive acerage of land, and agricultural equipment. The large size of the plants are in some instances in contrast with the compara- tively small number and low ages of the children. The following facts concerning the pupils enrolled in the gov- ernment schools are both significan4: and interesting : (1) Classification of the pupils according to grade shows that 89 per cent are in grades 1 to 6 inclusive ; 9 per cent in grades 7 to 8 ; and only 2 per cent above the 8th grade. (2) The age classification indicates that 29 per cent are 10 years of age or under; 47 per cent are 11 to 15 years inclusive; 19 318 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA per cent are 16 to 18 inclusive ; and 5 per cent are over 1.8 years of age. (3) According to proportion of Indian blood, the full blood Indians are 71 per cent ; the 1-2 to 3-4 bloods are 24 per cent ; and 1-4 blood are only 5 per cent, FINANCIAL SUPPORT. The study fo the financial support of education for Indians in Oklahoma involves a consideration of appropriations made by Con- gress for Indian education, the school expenditures from tribal funds, public school taxes, and the loss of income to the State on account of the extensive areas of non-taxable lands in the State. The reports of the United States Indian bureau present accur- ate statements of expenditures for schools supported from congres- sional appropriation and tribal funds. In view of the compara- tively small number of private and mission schools their expendi- tures have not been included. Comparison of United States Government appropriations and tribal fund payments for Indian education with the amount of po- tential taxes which might be levied on the non-taxable Indian lands gives some indication of money now available as well as the future financial possibilities for Indian education. The following items list the various sums expended by the United States Government and from the Tribal Funds for the education of Indians in Oklahoma during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922 : United States Gratuity appropriations: 1. Tuition and aid for public schools among the Five Civilized Tribes $175,000.00 2. Public school tuition in Western Oklahoma 22,932.12 Total Public School Support ^197,932.12 3.- Support of Indian Children in U. S. Indian schools', from (a) Five Civilized Tribes 120,000.00 (b) Western Oklahoma 252,000.00 Total expenditures U. S. Indian Schools 372,000.00 EDUCATION OF INDIANS 319 Payments from Tribal Funds: 1. Support Tribal Schools 242,800.50 2. Contract schools among Five Tribes 41,997.64 Total expenditures tribal funds 284,798.14 Total all government and tribal funds $854,730.26 The potential taxes on untaxed lands can only be estimated on the basis of reports obtained from county tax assessors and officers of the United States Indian Bureau. The estimates relating to the taxation of untaxable lands are as follows : (For additional fig- ures, see Appendix B). (1) Number of acres of untaxable land 7,000,000 (2) Average value per acre of untaxable land (1922) $18.33 (3) Average rate of school taxation (1922) 10 mills (4) Taxable value of 7,000,000 acres at $18.33 per acre_$128,300.000 (5) Potential tax at 10 mills $ 1,283,000 Comparison of Potential Tax and United States Government Expenditures for Indian education : Potential Tax .$1,283,000 Appropriations from U. S, Government and Tribal Funds 855,000 $ 428,000 The difference between these two figures amounting to $428,- 000.00 is the present loss to the State because of non-taxable Indian lands, and this difference added to the amounts now expended by the government from Congressional appropriations and tribal funds equals the sum that will become available for the support of public schools when the trust period expires. Extensions of the trust period have already been ordered by Congress in a number of Indian Reservations. The status of the Trust Periods is shown in the following statements: (1) It is estimated that five and two-thirds million acres of the land owned by the Five Civilized Tribes in the 40 counties of Eastern Oklahoma will not be taxed until 1931. (2) The trust periods of the tribes in Western Oklahoma with a total of one and one-third million acres end at varying times rang- 320 PUBLIC EJDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA ing from 1924 to 1946. The trust period has been extended beyond 1927 for only a small acreage. The responsibility now confronting thosie concerned with Indian education is to make available such portions of the $428,000 poten- tial tax as are needed to improve the educational methods and fa- cilities of schools for Indians. So long as the Trust Periods exclude land from State taxation, this responsibility rests largelj'- on the Federal Government Avorking through the Indian Bureau. INCREASED FEDERAL AID FOR INDIAN EDUCATION SHOULD BE SOUGHT. It is evident that the United States Government should adopt a policy of liberal support for all educational movements providing for the preparation of the Indian youth to enter the public school system so that the transfer may be made with the least possible friction or injustice to the Indians. For the large population of Eastern Oklahoma this period of transfer is ten years; for Western Oklahoma about five years. The economic, hygienic, and tribal conditions of man}' Indians indicate the importance of educational activities specially adapted to correct the unfavorable conditions of health and morale. In view of the comparatively brief time when the Indian youth must take their place alongside of the other youth of the State, it is urged that serious consideration shall be given to the principles and methods of education for the period of transition to the public schools of the State. These principles and methods are discussed in the following paragraphs, and summarized in the Recommendations. It must be emphasized in connection with this discussion of the financial sup- port of Indian education, and the termination of the non-taxation period when all responsibility will be transferred to the State, that the State system of education has but a comparatively brief time for the preparation of its school facilities and especially those in rural districts to assume this important responsibility ^ TRANSITION PERIOD FROM U. S. GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The history of the Indian People in America shows that they are being gradually merged into the general population of the coun- try. The policy of U. S. Indian Bureau is in accord with the general EDUCATION OF INDIANS 321 tendency of Indian life. Indians in many States have already been taken into the public school system. For instance the Indian youth of the Crow Agency in Montana were last year taken over into the public school system to the general satisfaction of all concerned. The principal parties concerned in this transition period are the U. S. Government schools and the public school system. Sound ed- ucational policy requires that the responsibility and function of both groups of schools shall be clearly recognized. The disregard of either group of schools may result in serious injustice to the Indian youth. (1) U. S. Government Schools, originally offering the only school facilities to Indians and still needed to supplement the limit- ed school facilities of the State, will be needed for some time' to come to provide education for the following special classes: (a) or- phans; (b) those subnormal in health; (c) those excluded by pov- erty; (d) those living too far from school; (e) those with unfavor- able home conditions. In addition to the provisions for the more or lessi abnormal classes enumerated above, it is urged that these well equipped insti- tutions shall eventually be used as vocational secondary schools for Indian and white youth, thus increasing such facilities in rural dis- tricts. This arrangement will undoubtedly be required as a result of the increasing efficiency of the elementary rural schools and as they graduate larger numbers of youth desiring advanced educa- tional training. (2) The Public School System with its numerous school dis- tricts is fitted to care for the younger children who can thus re- main at home and receive their training in the local schools. As other sections of this report show, thevse schools are now often poor- ly equipped both as regards teaching staff and school supplies. They are largely out of touch and sometimes even out of sympathy with the Indian home, "With the provision for thei Home and School Visitor described elsewhere these schools will be better pre- pared to educate the Indian youth and to become the inspiration and guide to the Indian home and community. That this move- ment is substantially under way is proved by the fact that practi- cally 84 per cent of the Indian school enrollment is already in public schools. The present status of both federal and State schools will be bet- ter understood in the light of the historical conditions attending S. S. 11 322 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA their development. It has been only a short time since what is now the great State of Oklahoma was a vast territory of rolling prairies and of wooded hills, uninhabited except by buffaloes, deer, turkey and other wild game. Then followed the Indians — the Pawnees, the Osages, the Cheyenne and Arapahoes; the Shawnees, the Dela- wares from the North and East, the Five Tribes from the Southeast, and others, all migrating into a country entirely barren of all signs of civilization. Soon, however, civilization pushed westward, and although the Indians had been assured that they would be left undisturbed in their western home, the conflict and competition of civilization had to be reckoned with because the Indians were not to be moved again. To prepare the Indians for the competition which they must meet, first came the missionaries) to do their splendid frontier work. La- ter, agreements were made with Indians for temporary occupancy of parts of their lands, and then the Dawes Land and Severalty Act was passed by Congress which provided for the allotment of land in severalty to Indians. With the sale of the surplus lands and their settlement by white people the organization of public schools began. The country was discovered to be one of great natural resources and therefore im- migration increased very rapidly until the white population soon outnumbered the Indian. Meantime the Government recognizing the rights of the Indians and the fact that they must be prepared to assume the duties of citizenship began to provide day schools and boarding schools for the education of the Indians until the time when the public school system should be developed sufficiently to take care of them and until the allotted Indian lands should become subject to taxation. Out of an Indian school population of almost 30,000 in Okla- homa there are about 21,000 in public schools. On account of lim- ited funds, school terms are in many instancesi short, courses are confined to mere academic subjects, teachers of meager qualifica- tions are employed, attendance laws are unenforced, and buildings are unsatisfactory. This is particularly true in the outlying rural districts where the majority of the Indians live, HOME AND SCHOOL VISITORS SHOULD BE APPOINTED. To the end that the public school facilities for Indian children may be improved, not only for those already enrolled, but also to EDUCATION OF INDIANS 323 justify the enrollment of still larger numbers of Indian children it is urged that Home and School Visitors should be provided in those counties having large numbers of Indian children to be educated. Briefly stated the duties of the Home and School Visitor should be to co-operate with the County Superintendent, the teachers, and School Boards in matters of enrollment and attendance, and in the improvement of the home life through the introduction of practical instruction that will definitely reach out from the schools into the homes. The visitor would also enlist the co-operation of every available agency, both State and Federal, in Community activities looking to improvement of rural conditions. The possible agencies in addition to County Superintend- ents and teachers w^ould be County Nurse, County Physician, Home Demonstration Agents, Truant Officers, Farm Demonstration Ag- ents, The Shepherd-Towner Child-Welfare representatives; Govern- ment and Tribal School and Agency employees. State Agricultural workers, Missionaries, and Mission School teachers. The Home and School Visitor should also visit the homes, become thoroughly familiar with conditions and thus obtain information that would enable her to make practical suggestions not only to the occupants of the home, but also to all co-operating agencies for the improve- ment of the home and community conditions. It is suggested that as the work of the Home and School Visit- ors would have largely to do wath Indian homes, the Federal gov- ernment should contribute liberally to the fund for their employ- ment during the continuation of the trust period. It is believed that there should be at least thirty Home and School Visitors for East- em Oklahoma located among the P^ve Civilized Tribes, and ten in Western Oklahoma. They should be selected through the co-opera- tion of the County Superintendents and the school representatives of the Indian Bureau, The salaries should be adequate to secure women who have the educational qualifications required of first grade teachers and in addition definite' training in Social Welfare. RECOMMENDATIONS. (1) The school system should be organized so that the Indian youth shall ultimately be educated in the public schools of the State. To this end the responsibility of the Federal Government will gradually decrease, and that of the State will increase, until the schools are entirely controlled and maintained by the State. In 324 view of the fact that the trust periods on Indian lands are to expire within five to ten years, unless extended by Congress, it is import- ant that the State shall make all possible effort to improve the rural schools of the Indian districts, incorporating in the curriculum those phases of education which are vitally related to home life so that the Federal government may resign its responsibility in favor of the State, with the assurance that satisfactory standards of education will be maintained. (2) Home and School Visitors should be provided in the coun- ties having large numbers of Indian children. These workers are to study the Indian homes and the schools, and to enlist the help of all county agencies for their improvement. During the trust period the Federal government should give liberal financial aid for the employment of these workers. As indicated elsewhere 40 vis- itors will be needed (3) The present system of Federal and Tribal boarding schools should be continued so long as necessary to care for special classes of Indian children, such as orphans, and those unable to attend public schools on account of bad health, poverty, distance from school, or other disabilities. (4) The government school plants should be eventually ac- quired by the State of Oklahoma, to be used as secondary training schools offering trade courses, agriculture, and home economics to white and Indian youths. (5) The Federal government should provide liberal financial aid for the education of Indian children in public schools during the Trust period. CHAPTER X. EDUCATION OF NEGROES. SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION OF NEGRO POPULATION. The State of Oklahoma has a population of 2,028,283, and of this number, 149,408, or 7.4 per cent are Negroes. The Federal Census of 1910 reported the Negro population as 137,612, so that the actual increasie in 10 years was 11,796, and the per cent in- crease 8.6. The Negro population is 67.9 per cent rural. In 1910, the Negro urban population was 36,982, and in 1920 it was 47,904, an actual increase of 10,922 or 29.5 per cent. The rural population was 100,630 in 1910 and 101,504 in 1920, an in- ereas^j of 874, or less than one per cent. The census reports as "urban" those who live in cities of 2,500 or more. It is evident from these figures that between 1910 and 1920 there was a decided movement of Negroes from the country districts to towns and cities. This was due to economic and other causes. It seems reasonable to assume, however, that one of the causes wasi the better school fa- cilities offered by the cities. The Negro population is largely concentrated in a few counties. According to the 1920 report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 27 counties have less than 100 Negro children of school age. In 52 of the 77 counties in the State, the Negro population forms less than 10 per cent of the total. Table 48 shows the population of the 15 counties, in which the Negro population forms more than 10 per cent of the total, and also shows the number and per cent of illiterates. In the counties named in Table 48 the rural Negro population exceeds the urban, with the exception of the counties of Muskogee and Tulsa. Of the 10,903 Negroes in Tulsa County, 9,291 live in Tulsa and Sand Springs, while the Negro population of 15,310 in Muskogee County is almost equally divided between city and coun- try. Tulsa has the largest Negro population of all the cities of the State, 8,878, Oklahoma City is next, with 8,241. But Muskogee has 325 326 PUBLIC KDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA a population 23.8 per cent Negro — a larger per cent than any other city with a total population of 10,000 or more. TABLE 48. Number and Per Cent of Negroes in Fifteen Counties in Oklahoma and Number and Per Cent of Illiterates. Negro Per Cent Negro Illiterates Per Cent County Population of Total 10 years of age of Negro and over Illiteracy Carter 4,267 10.6 466 14.2 Choctaw 5,242 16.3 721 18.3 Creek — 6,794 10.9 487 9.7 Kingfisher 1,623 10.4 114 8.9 Lincoln 3,955 11.8 268 9.4 Logan 6,422 23.3 522 10.8 McCurtain 6,914 18.2 1029 19.6 Mcintosh 5,950 22.5 757 17.6 Muskogee 15,310 24.8 1176 ^ 9.8 Okfuskee 8.617 34.4 . 685 11.0 Okmulgee 9,791 17.8 889 11.9 Seminole 4,517 19.0 428 13.1 Sequoyah 2,766 10.3 357 17.3 Tulsa 10,903 10.0 710 8.1 Wagoner 7,093 33.2 643 14.1 , Total 100,164 9352 The fifteen counties named in Table 48 have 67.4 per cent of Oklahoma's entire Negro population. It isi evident, therefore, that the problem of Negro education in Oklahoma is more a problem of rural than of urban education at the present time. The census figures prove, however, that it is /tending to become an urban prob- lem. Unless the Negro Rural schools are improved the relatively superior school facilities in towns and cities will operate, with other influences, to stimulate the townward drift of the Negroes. A line dra^vn due " east from Oklahoma City will cut across five counties named in Table 48, one drawn due north and south will cut across two; and the remaining eight may be located as follows : One, northwest ; three, southwest ; and four, northeast of Oklahoma City, the approximate center of the State. In Oklahoma County, 8,241 of the 11,401 Negroes live in Okla- EDUCATION OF NEGROES 327 homa City; in Grady County, 1,183 of the 1,478 live in Chickasha; in Pittsburg County, 2,467 of the 4,005 live in McAlester and Harts- home, and in several counties where the Negro population is small, it is mostly urban, as in "Washington County, where 526 of the 763 Negroes live in Bartlesville. ' ILLITERACY IN OKLAHOMA. In the State of Oklahoma, there are 56,864 illiterate persons ten years of age and over, according to the United States Census of 1920. Of this number 14,205 or 24.9 per cent, are Negroes. There were 48,076 illiterate persons twenty-one years of age or over, of whom 12,491 or 25.9 per cent are Negroes. In view of the fact that the Negroes constitute only 7.4 per cent of the State's population, these facts indicate that the school facilities for Negroes are not equal to those provided for white children. Certainly the schools have been less effective in the case of the Negroes, so far as the elimination of illiteracy is concerned. Illiteracy in Oklahoma, how- ever, has doubtless been affected by adult Negro illiterates moving into the State, and also of Negroes over ten years of age who have ceased to attend school. Table 49 gives some data on Negro illit- eracy in Oklahoma. TABLE 49. NEGRO ILLITERACY IN OKLAHOMA 1910-1920. 1910 1920 Percent Number Per cent Number Per cent Decrease 10 years and over 17,858 17.7 14,205 12.4 5.3 Male 8,802 16.4 7,368 12.5 3.9 Female 9,056 19.1 6,837 12.3 6.8 21 years and over 15,217 22.7 12,491 16.4 6.3 Male 7,396 20.1 6,322' 15.8 4.3 Female 7,821 25.9 6,169 17.0 8.9 Urban — 10 years and over 3,688 12.4 3,419 8.6 3.8 21 years and over 3,376 15.3 3,282 11.3 4.0 Rural — 10 years and over 14,170 19.9 10,786 14.4 5.5 21 years and over 11,841 26.3 9,209 19.5 6.8 Table 49 shows that in ten years, Negro illiteracy was reduced 5.3 per cent in the case of persons ten years of age and over, and 6.3 per cent in the case of adults. The actual reduction was 3,633. The table also shows that the rural Negroes are more illiterate than those in cities, and that the reduction of illiteracy was greater in the case 328 PUBLIC EJDUCATION IN OKLAHQMA of the rural population. This is due to the fact that it is easier to obtain a considerable decrease in illiteracy where illiteracy is large than where it is small. OCCUPATIONS FOLLO^VED BY NEGROES. Farming is the most important occupation followed by Negroes in the State. In the towns and cities where the Negro population is large, the Negroes furnish a considerable part of the unskilled labor, and an important part of the skilled labor. They engage in various forms of domestic service, serve as porters in stores, bell boys and waiters in hotels, truck drivers, etc. Among the skilled occupations followed by them may be mentioned the building trades, especially carpentry, brick laying, plastering, and painting. A con- siderable number engage in such trades as shoe repairing, tailoring, cleaning, and pressing. The two professions most largely repre- sented among them are teaching and the ministry. Other profes- sions, the medical profession, for instance, are gaining in prom- inence. In recent years a number of so-called "race enterprises" have been developed, and these enterprises use more employees every year. The Negro insurance companies may be cited as an example of this. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER TRAINING FOR NEGROES. The White people of Oklahoma have a direct interest in the welfare of the Negroes, although some White people may not realize that fact. If illiteracy is removed in Oklahoma, Negro illiteracy as well as white, must go. Figures have already been cited to show that 25 per cent of the illiterates in the State are colored. This means that much of the Negro labor on the farm and in the city must be inefficient. Mere literacy, however, is no guarantee of industrial or agri- cultural efficiency. Thousands of literate Negroes are unskilled and have very little education. If many of these could be transformed into skilled workers with a reasonable amount of education, the economic gain to the State would be very great. In this connection it should be remarked that most of the Negro labor is employed by white people. From the standpoint of health alone the white peo- ple should be concerned about the Negroes' welfare and progress. A low economic status means a Ioav plane of living, and often means also insanitary home conditions. In cities, the occupations followed by many Negroes bring them into contact with White people. This EDUCATION OF NEGROES 329 is certainly true of those engaged in all forms of domestic service. The foregoing statements must not be taken to include all occu- pations followed by Negroes. In a State like Oklahoma there is, naturally, a great variety. In Pittsburg County, for instance, there are many Negroes employed as miners. It is evident that any real program of education for the Negroes must be broad enough to include training along many lines. While agricultural and indus- trial training should receive large emphasis, the proper training of those who will engage in teaching, the ministry, medicine, and other professions, is of great importance because the leaders of the race will come from that group. THE TYPES OP NEGRO SCHOOLS IN OKLAHOMA. The White schools in Oklahoma are classified as follows: those in independent districts, those in village districts, those in consol- idated districts, those in union graded districts, and rural or un- graded schools. The Negro schools are classified in the same way in the Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, but the classifica- tion does not mean the same thing as in the case of White schools. A White school reported as independent is an accredited high school, located in an incorporated city or town. These schools are reported by the city or town superintendent, who also has supervision of the colored school and makes a report on it. Thus, the white schools of the city of Sapulpa are in an independent district, and so is the colored school. But this does not mean that the colored school is an accredited high school. The Negro schools reported as in independent districts are those located in a city or town, where the White school is accredited. Except in the town of Boley, the White town and city schools re- ceive all the school funds raised by taxation in the district, while the Negro schools are "separate" or "minority" schools, financed by a county-wide levy of two mills, or less, made by the county excise board. This board is composed of one county commissioner and the county judge (chairman), the county clerk (secretary), the county treasurer, the county assessor, the county attorney, and the county school superintendent. A Negro school in a city or town, reported as independent, may be an accredited high school, as in Guthrie, or a one-teacher school, as in Poteau. The Negro school at Hugo has three teachers. This group contains the best Negro schools in the State, and also some 330 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA of the poorest. They can be put into one class only by reason of the fact that they are all located in cities or towns. The White schools located in villages are reported as "village districts" and the colored schools in those districts are reported in the same way. All of the "White schools so reported have more than one teacher, but the Negro village school may have one or more teachers. The Negro village school is a "separate" school in most cases, but some of them are district schools, having a colored board of directors, and supported by a district tax. The school at Clear- view in Okfuskee County is an example of this. The White consolidated schools are those organized under the law providing for their establishment. The Negro schools located in these districts are reported as consolidated, but they are only rural schools. They are left in the same condition as before the White schools were consolidated. There are four consolidated Negro •schools in the State: Arcadia and Luther, in Oklahoma County, Lincoln School in Carter County, and Wellston School in Lincoln County. All of these schools are "separate" schools, but all the White consolidated schools are district schools. A union graded school is one organized under the law providing for such schools. The Negro schools reported as "union graded" are those in districts where the White schools are union graded There is no union graded Negro school in the State. The white and colored schools reported as "rural" are the small ungraded country schools, usually with one or two teachers. All types of schools are under the direct supervision of the county superintendent, except those in independent districts. It is evident, therefore, that there are only four classes of Negro schools — those in towns or cities, village schools, consolidated schools and rural schools. The consolidated schools and the town and city schools in larger cities like Guthrie, are by far the most efficient schools. Of the 44,557 Negro children enrolled in the schools, 26,957 are in village or rural schools, including the very few who are in the consolidated schools named. Some of the two-teacher rural schools are well equipped and taught. Some of this type were found in Wagoner County. These were district schools. The Negro dis- trict schools are, as a group, better financed and superior to the separate schools. The Red Bird and Tullahassee district schools in Wagoner County, and the Sand Creek and Childsville district schools in Okfuskee County are first-class village and rural schools. EDUCATION OF NEGROES 331 LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR NEGRO EDUCATION. The law of Oklahoma providing for separation of the races in schools is as follows : Section 280. The public schools of the State of Oklahoma shall be organized and maintained upon a complete plan of separation between the white and colored races, with impartial facilities for both races. Section 281. The term "Colored" as used in the preceding section shall be construed to mean all persons of African descent, who possess any quantam of Negro blood, and the term "white" shall include all other persons. The term "public school" within the meaning of this article, shall include all schools provided for or maintained, in whole or in part, at public expense. (From the School Laws of Oklahoma, 1921). The law for the maintenance of separate schools is as follows: Section 282. The county separate school in each district is hereby declared to be that school in said school district of the race having the fewest number of children in said school district : Pro- vided, that the county superintendent of public instruction of each county shall have authority to designate what school or schools in each school district shall be the separate school and which class of children — either white or colored — shall have the privilege of at- tending such separate school or schools in said school district. Mem- bers of the district school board shall be of the same race as the children who are entitled to attend the school of the district, not the separate school. Section 287. Support for Separate Schools : In all cases where County Separate Schools for white and colored children are main- tained, the County Excise Board shall annually levy a tax roll on all taxable property in their respective counties, sufficient to main- tain such separate schools as are hereinafter provided. Upon esti- mate made by the County Commissioners, said taxes shall be estimated, published, levied and collected, in the same manner as other taxes for county purposes ; provided, however, that in all in- dependent districts where separate schools for white and colored children are maintained, it shall be the duty of the Board of Educa- tion therein at the time of preparing of their annual budget, to pre- pare a separate budget of the amount of money that will be required to be raised by taxation for the support and maintenance of such separate schools, including the amount necessary to purchase sites 332 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA and to erect school buildings for such separate schools for the com- ing fiscal year, and it shall thereupon be the duty of the County Ex- cise Boards in such counties to levy a tax on all taxable property in their respective counties sufficient to pay the cost of supporting and maintaining such separate schools and purchasing sites and erecting school buildings for such separate schools as sho"\\Ti by such budget and which said tax shall be published, levied, and collected in the same manner as other taxes for county purposes, and when collected shall be paid over to the respective Treasurers of the Board of Education in such districts, to be expended upon the order of such Board of Education for the purpose for which same was levied and collected. No white child shall attend a colored school or a colored child attend a white school. (Sec. 1, S. B. 71, 'S. L. 1919.) DISTRICT AND SEPARATE SCHOOLS. All the public schools are either district or separate schools. There are only 92 colored district schools in the State. On the other hand, the total enrollment in the white separate schools is only 994 in the entire State. It is therefore evident that most of the Negro schools are separate schools, or "minority" schools. The law of Oklahoma provides that all the district school tax shall go to main- tain the school for the race that is in the majority. Thus, all the school district tax in Oklahoma City goes to support the white schools. The Negro schools in Oklahoma City and in all other cities except Boley, are supported by a county-wide tax levy of two mills or less. In some counties the levy has been less than two mills. A school district tax may be levied up to 15 mills. Under the law, the county superintendent has the power to de- clare either race in the majority and there is no appeal from his decision. It is well known that in a number of districts Avhere all the district school tax goes to the white school, the Negroes are actually in the majority. This is stated simply as a fact and not as a criticism of the county superintendent. It is easy to see that as a rule a district school can be better financed than a separate school. In this connection it should be remembered that the county levy must provide all the money for building, equipping, and maintaining these separate schools. The policy of erecting buildings out of maintenance funds is unsound. The law has worked a hardship on a number of Negro schools in towns and cities, because under the law, bonds cannot be issued to EDUCATION OF NEGROES 333 erect buildings, nor can the town or city pay for the building in any way except by a county levy. The following paragraphs are taken from page 39 of the 1920 Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction : "In the beginning each district in the State was required to maintain all public schools within its boundaries, the school for the "Whites and the school for the Negroes. The Third Legislature passed a law providing that the local district tax shall be used to maintain the school attended by the race which has a majority in the district, and that the minority schools, or separate schools, as they are called, shall be supported by a levy made on all the taxable property in the county. This act has served to relieve the majority schools by mak- ing all money derived from the local district levy available for the support of the majority schools. While this plan materially relieves the districts in which both races reside, it is a fact that in many districts where the boards would like to make the separate school as efficient as the majority school, they are unable to do so because of the fact that the two mill levy limit for county school purposes is insufficient to equip and maintain the separate schools equal to the standard maintained by the city schools where the majority of the children who attend sep- arate schools reside. Many city boards have expressed themselves as being anxious to make the school advantages equal but are un- able to do so under the law. "On the other hand, there are a great many school districts in the State having no Negro population at all that are voting the limit of fifteen mills to maintain their schools, and because they happen to be located in counties having a large Negro population they are compelled to pay one mill extra on all their property to support the separate schools of other districts, some of which are not re- quired to vote the limit for all school purposes, and it frequently happens that the negro schools of the cities are better supported financially than a very large number of the village and rural schools where they vote the maximum levy for local school purposes. As a matter of practice, the Negro District Schools are located in those districts where the population is entirely Negro, or prac- tically so. Thus, there are nine Negro district schools in Wagoner County, and in these districts very few white people live. There are only two white separate schools in the county. Whatever may have been the intention of the law, making the minority school a 334 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA separate school, its effect has been to make most of the Negro schools separate schools. Many of the Negro district schools are located in Negro towns and villages, like Lima in Seminole County. PRACTICAL EFFECT OF LAW A HANDICAP ON NEGRO EDUCATION. The separate school law does not work a hardship on the Ne- groes in counties like Oklahoma, Tulsa and Carter, where the Negro population is relatively small, and the valuation large. It does work a hardship, however, on the Negroes in counties like Wagoner, Choc- taw, Okfuskee, McCurtain, and Seminole and in some others. In these coimties the Negro population is relatively large and the valu- ation small, as compared with Oklahoma's rich counties, and the permissable county levy of two mills for separate schools is in- adequate. It is easy to see how this law would result in injustice to the Negroes in rural counties, dependent for the most part on taxes levied on farm lands, unless the Negro population in the county is small. The Negro district schools of the counties named, and of some other counties, have, as a rule, well paid Negro teachers who are qualified to teach. It is obviously impossible, however, to build, equip, and maintain the 22 separate Negro schools in a county like Wagoner, from a county levy of two mills. The separate school law is unjust to both races, and cannot be defended, as a matter of principle. Its injustice to the Negroes is manifest. The Negro taxpayers of Oklahoma City, and of all dis- tricts in the State where the district school is a white school, are taxed 15 mills or less to support the white schools, or school. In addition they are taxed tAvo mills or less to maintain their own schools, in Oklahoma County, including those in Oklahoma City. In addition, they are taxed to help retire bonds that have been issued. These bonds were issued to build white schools. Other examples of injustice worked by this law may be men- tioned. The separate school law has defeated what was apparently the intention of the people — that ''impartial facilities" be provided for white and colored children. Oklahoma City caimot, directly, by bond issues or otherwise, spend any money to build and equip Negro schools. The result is that while Oklahoma City has some of the best equipped and finest white school buildings in the coun- try, the Negro schools are not in keeping with the wealth and progress of the city. EDUCATION OF NEGROES 335 The County School Superintendents of Wagoner and Okfuskee Counties stated that, under the law, sufficient funds could not be secured to maintain the separate (Negro) schools properly. The white and colored schools should be financed in the same way, un- der a county unit system. Oklahoma's "separate school law" is peculiar to this State and no other State has any such law. PUBLIC SCHOOL STATISTICS. According to the figures of the State Department of Public Instruction for the year ending June 30, 1922, the enumeration of children of school age in Oklahoma was 647,038 White children and 50,578 Negro children. School age includes children 6 to 20, both inclusive. Of the Negro children of school age, 19,473 were enum- erated in independent systems, which are incorporated towns where there is an accredited high school for the White pupils. In districts where there were "village" white schools, 4,004 Negro children were enumerated. The remaining 27,101 were enumerated as being in rural schools, that is, in being in districts where the white school is consolidated, union graded, or rural. This number includes those districts which have Negro district schools, 92 in all, where the M^hite school, if any, is a separate school, supported by a county levy of two mills or less. Of the 50,578 Negro children of school age, 44,557 are enrolled. It is probable that this figure is too large, due to the fact that some children are enrolled in two schools during the year, and thus counted twice. Hence 88.9 per cent of those enumerated are en- rolled. The per cent of White children enrolled is 87.4. The average daily attendance for the Negro schools is 26,181, or 58.7 per cent of the enrollment. The per cent for the White schools is 64.5. These facts for the Negro schools are shown in Table 50. The Negro schools have been put in three groups. — city (independent district), village, and rural. TABLE 50. ENUMERATION, ENROLLMENT, AND AVERAGE ATTENDANCE OF NEGRO SCHOOLS. Enum- Enroll- Per cent Average Per cent eration ment enrolled attendance attendance Independent districts 19,473 17,600 90.5 11,584 65.8 Village 4,004 3,871 96.6 2,308 59.6 Rural 27,101 23,086 85.2 12,289 53.6 Total 50,578 44,557 88.9 26,181 58.7 As there are 1,170 colored teachers, and 44,557 pupils enrolled, the number of pupils enrolled per teacher is 37. Table 51 shows this 336 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA figure for each group of school, city, village, and rural. The aver- age lamiual teacher's salary is $716.71. In the city colored schools, the average is $985.50; in the village schools, $697.74; and in the rural schools, $537.82. TABLE 51. NUMBER OF TEACHERS, TEACHERS PER CHILD ENROLLED, SAli- ARIES AND AVERAGE TEACHER'S SALARY. No. of Teachers per Teachers' Average annual Teachers Child enrolled Salaries Salary Independent Districts 481 36 $454,026.24 $985150 Village 87 44 60,704.13 697.74 Rural 602 38 323,826.29 537.82 Total 1170 37 $838,556.66 $716.71 The average annual teachers' salary in the several classes of w^hite schools are as follows : Independent district $1,202.37 ; vil- lage $1,036.05; consolidated $965.75; union graded $921.97; rural $828.51. The grades of license held by colored teachers is an index of the teaching and of the preparation of teachers. Those teachers who hold any of the various State licenses are reported as "first grade." All State licenses, except the temporary license, issued to teachers from other States, are regarded as equal to or higher than a first-grade county license. The examination for a first-grade license includes 20 subjects and takes the applicant three days to complete. Of the 1,170 teachers, 630, or 53.8 per cent, have first- grade licenses; 322, or 27.5 per cent, have second grade, and 218 or 18.7 per cent, have third grade licenses. See Table 52. TABLE 52. GRADE OF LICENSES HELD BY NEGRO TEACHERS. First Grade Second Grade Third Grade Grand Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Total Independent Districts 107 123 230 39 122 161 5 85 90 481 Village 25 39 64 3 11 14 18 9 87 Rural 97 239 336 32 115 147 20 99 119 602 Total 229 401 630 74 248 322 26 192 218 1170 The total amount invested in school property is $1,571,990, and the per capita value, based on enrollment is $35.28, In independent districts, the per capita amount is $55.82 ; in village schools, $28.71 ; and in the rural schools, $20.71. The figures for the white schools are: for the State $80.74; for independent districts $140.29; for village schools $56.38; for consolidated schools $34.88; for union graded schools, $59.48 ; and for rural schools, $27.86. EDUCATION OF NEGROES 337 The per capita cost, based on enrollment is $24.10 in the colored schools, for the State as a whole. In the white schools, tlie cost is $37.87. The per capita cost for the several types of Negro schools is as follows: independent districts, $31.40; village, $19.44; rural, $17.59. Since the colored schools have an average daily attendance of 26,181, while there are 50,578 negro children of school age, there are 24,397 of school age, who are not in average attendance. This condition of affairs means educational inefficiency and too small a return in educational results for the money being spent. One cause of this is the fact that outside of the independent systems, there are 497 colored one-teacher schools ; 94 two-teacher schools ; and 37 schools with three or more teachers. These figures are for 1920 and are the latest available. In order for a one-teacher school to be efficient, it must have a suitable building, good equipment, a cap- able teacher and supervision. Without these, the inherent defects of a one-teacher school will not be offset to any large extent. HIGH SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLS IN CITIES AND TOWNS. In Oklahoma the enrollment of Negro pupils in high school grades is 1,467, 434 boys and 1,033 girls. These pupils were dis- tributed among the several grades as shown in Table 53, TABLE 53 High School Enrollment by Grades. Schools in Village and Grade Independent Districts Rural Schools Total Ninth 580 79 659 Tenth 348 35 383 Eleventh 209 23 232 Twelfth 182 11 193 Total 1319 148 1467 It will be seen from Table 53 that nearly all the high school pupils are in independent district schools, that is, city or town schools. The high school pupils form only 8.2 per cent of the total enrolled in the city and town schools. There are 117 high school teachers, of whom 102 are in city and town schools. Of these, 59 are men and 43 Avomen. These teachers 338 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA constitulje 23 per cent of all teachers in colored schools of cities and towns. There are 11 accredited Negro High Schools. The following list shows the town and county where these schools are located, and the units offered by each school. LOCATION AND NUMBER OF UNITS OFFERED BY ACCREDITED NEGRO HIGH SCHOOLS OF OKLAHOMA. Town Boley Chickasha Guthrie Luther McAlester Muskogee Nowata Oklahoma City Red Bird Tulsa Chandler County Units Okfuskee 32.5 Grady* 16. Logan* 23.5 Oklahoma 24. Pittsburg 16. Muskogee 17. Nowata 22.5 Oklahoma 25.5 Wagoner 14. Tulsa 20.5 Lincoln 11. All of the above schools are separate, except Red Bird and Boley, which are district. Schools marked (*) have teacher-train- ing classes in high school, under the State organization of that work. The average monthly salary paid these colored high school teachers in 1921 was $106.72. In the white high schools the aver- age salary was $117.27. As it is obvious that no pupils will go to high school except those who complete the eighth grade, the success of the high schools depends in a large measure on the efficiency and holding power of the grade schools. As most of the high schools are in towns and cities, it will be interesting to know how many pupils are eliminated from the various grades each year in these schools. TABLE 54. ' WHITE High School Promoted to High School Graduates High School Graduates 55 5,033 2,012 103 6,020 3,359 158 11,053 5,371 COLORED Promoted to High School Boys 142 Girls 228 Total 370 EDUCATION OF NEGROES 339 Table 54 shows the number of pupils promoted to high school, and graduating from high school. . Table 55 shows the number of boys and girls enrolled in the several grades of the city and town schools, and the differences in enrollment between the grades. It also shows the total enrollment in each grade, added to that of the grades below : TABLE 55. Enrollment by Grades, 1920-21 of Negro Schools in 111 Independent Districts. Grade Boys Girls Total Loss Between Total up to Primer 153 161 319 First 2,398 2,211 4,609 Second 1,190 1,218 2,408 Third 1,130 1,185 2,315 Fourth 952 1,001 1,953 Fifth 729 840 1,569 Sixth 548 715 1,263 Seventh 416 601 1,017 Eighth 328 496 824 rrades Grade 319 4,928 2,201 7,336 93 9,651 362 11,604 384 13,173 306 14,436 246 15,453 193 16,277 Total 7,849 8,428 16,277 In Table 55 the sixth column shows the total up to, and in- cluding the grade. Thus the figure 9^51 shows that the total enrollment of the first three grades, including the primer class, was 9,651. As the total enrollment of the first eight grades is 16,277, it is clear that before the fourth grade is reached, half of the pupils are eliminated from school, or else are repeating grades. With 4,609 pupils in the first grade, there are only 1,953 in the fourth grade. These figures indicate clearly that the primary work in these to^\^l and city schools is inefficient, because of too many pupils to the teacher, poor teaching, lack of suitable equipment, lack of equip- ment, lack of supervision, and other causes. More than half of the total enrollment in eight grades is found in the first three grades. Undoubtedly many pupils repeat grades, and thus be- come retarded, or older than they should be for their grade. If 250 pupils in a school system repeat a grade each year, there is a total loss of 250 years. These pupils cannot make up this time. 340 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA which is greater loss than the loss in money represented by the in- efficiency of the work in the first grade. In the small towns, the Negro schools often have only three or four teachers. In those visited, the principal was found teach- ing from 12 to 20 pupils, while the primary teacher was making an effort to teach 46 pupils in the first and second grades. This was the case at Weleetka. In Hugo the principal had 12 pupils present in his class room, while the primary teacher had 48 pupils present. AVhen such conditions as this exist, it is small wonder that the pupils are rapidly eliminated from school. Economic con- siderations alone would eliminate many, however. There is a great need of more effective teaching in the primary grades of the toAvn and city schools. More teachers are needed, in order that there may not be more than 35 pupils to the teacher; more class- room space should be provided, so that there will not be overcrowd- ing in primary rooms, as there is at present in many of these schools ; and more supervision must be given to this work, if the pupils are to be kept in school. In the city schools, the high school teachers are nearly all college graduates with successful experience in school work ; as a group, they are superior to the grade teachers. NEW TYPES OF WORK TO HOLD PUPILS IN SCHOOL. In order that the elimination from the upper grades may be reduced, vocational courses should be given in the seventh grade, and in some schools, probably in the sixth. It may as well be recognized that some of the pupils in those grades will not complete a high school course, and these are the very ones who need some vocational training in order that they may engage in some semi- skilled occupation on leaving school. There can be little doubt that this change would result in more pupils going to high schools. Pupils soon tire of a course made up entirely of paper work. They are unable to see the value of the work done in school, as it has little coimection with their daily lives. If the pupil could be convinced that their earning capacity was being increased in direct proportion to the time spent in school, the elimination would be much smaller. Organization of the schools so as to provide for junior high school work, on the 6-3-3 plan, would strengthen the Negro schools. This organization has been introduced in some of the Negro schools, but mot to the same extent as in the White schools. EDUCATION OF NEGROES 341 In the town and city schools, the average annual cost per pupil is $33.66 in the case of the white pupils in the first eight grades, and $35.00 in the* case of the colored pupils. The figures for the grades 9-12 are: white pupils $82.93, colored $96.43. The higher cost in the colored high schools is due to the smaller num- ber of pupils enrolled. The number is so much larger in the case of the white schools, that the white and colored schools can hardly be corapared on this basis. In the town and city schools the value of elementary school plants is $21,338,747, and of high school plants $17,185,322, a total of $38,524,071, in the case of the white schools; the value of the colored elementary school plants is $729,053, and the high school plants $375,239, a total of $1,104,292. Table 56 shows the enrollment, teachers, and pupils per teacher for elementary and high school grades of white and colored schools of independent districts. TABLE 56. Enrollment, Teachers and Pupils Per Teacher in White and Colored Schools of Independent Districts. White Schools Grades Enrollment Teachers Pupils per Teacher 1-8 194,306 4,683 41.6 9-12 40,085 2,117 18.9 Total 234,391 6,800 34.4 Colored Schools 1-8 16,277 379 44.9 9-12 1,323 102 12.9 Total 17,600 481 36.6 SPECIAL ACTIVITIES AIDED BY EDUCATIONAL FOUND- ATIONS A considerable part of the time of the Rural School Agent, whose salary and expenses are paid by the General Education Board, has been devoted to the following activities in which aid has been secured from the Julius Rosenwald Fund, the John F. Slater Fund, the Anna T. Jeanes Fund, and the General Education Board. In 1920-21 and in 1921-22, $19,430 was secured from the Julius Rosenwald Fund to aid in building model school buildings for Ne- groes. This money was given especially for the improvement of village and rural schools. The plans and specifications must be 342 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA approved in advance ; the money given is for complete school plant, including desks, blackboards, heaters, etc. ; and the school must be the property of the public school authorities. l/^ This building program has been carried on under the supervision of the Rural School Agent who inspects the buildings before final payment of the Rosenwald money is made. Every school — even the one-teacher school — has an industrial room. The buildings are cor- rectly lighted and ventilated, and the local and Rosenwald funds spent on these buildings have produced visible results. Due to the superior building and equipment, the teaching in these schools is naturally much better than that in the average rural school. The industrial work has added a great deal to the school program. County superintendents and district directors have made special effort to secure capable teachers for these schools. The conditions under which aid is given from the Julius Rosen- wald Fund are set forth in Ajjpendix C. The following figures show the types of buildings, and money invested in them, during the year ending June 30, 1922. Type Number Total Cost Amount from Average No. of Built Rosenwald Cost Teachers 1 4 $ 7,519 • $2,000 $ 1,880 2 6 24,985 4,800 4,194 3 1 12,023 1,000 12,023 4 3 33,499 3,600 11,166 6 2 47,386 3,200 23,693 Homes 1 1,660 830 1,660 On account of the "separate school" organization, and the financial limitations imposed by it, very few Rosenwald schools have been built, as compared with the number built in some of the other States. At present five vocational high schools, or county training schools, are receiving $1300 a year (1922-23) for industrial equip- ment, and $600 for teachers' salaries from the General Education Board. The total amount given these schools for salaries, from the Slater Fund, is $1,250 in 1922-23. The schools aided are: Lima, Seminole County; Lincoln School, Carter County; Red Bird, Wagoner County ; Rentiersville, Mcintosh County ; and Richland, in McCurtain County. The object of these schools is to give the Negro boys and girls some real preparation for the work they will do on EDUCATION OF NEGROES 343 leaving school. All the schools have suitable buildings and com- petent teachers. All have high school departments. The sum of $1,000 is given by the Jeanes Fund. This is used at present to pay $50.00 a month for ten months, on the salaries of two industrial supervisors, — one in Wagoner and one in Carter County. The money is matched by local appropriation. This work has been a great success and has reached so many pupils and teachers, that the per capita cost has been very small. These su- pervisors, acting as assistants to the county superintendents, visit all the Negro schools and teach handicrafts, such as basketry, rug making, mat making, simple manual training, plain sewing, and elementarj^ cooking. They have also carried on a school improve- ment program. The good results secured by these workers were very much in evidence when the schools of these two counties were inspected. If similar Avorkers could be provided for the 15 counties having the largest Negro rural population, there would be a great increase in the efficiency of the rural Negro schools. This Jeanes Fund work originated in the State of Virginia and has been such a success there that it is now carried on in 45 counties, many of the supervisors being paid altogether from public funds. FARM AND HOME DEMONSTRATION WORK The colored farm and home demonstration work in Oklahoma is under the direction of the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Stillwater, as is the similar work for white people. A colored agent, who has the rank of a district agent, has direct supervision of the county work in the State. This work is carried on in co-operation with the Federal Government, under the Smith-Lever Act, and the salaries of the county agents and home demonstration agents are paid from State and Federal funds. The counties of Okfuskee, Lincoln, Okmulgee, and Muskogee have both men and women agents. The counties of McCurtain, Seminole, Logan, Mcintosh, and Kingfisher have men agents. It is expected that funds will be provided by the excise boards for travelling expenses. In order for this work to be done properly, it is necessary for these agents to go over the counties continually. The excise boards in Okfuskee, Muskogee, and Lincoln provide $1,000 a year, or $500.00 for each agent. In Seminole and Lincoln $600.00 is provided ; while $800.00 is provided in Okmulgee. This work is not as liberally supported locally as the work for white 344 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA people. This valuable work, which is even more needed by the Negroes than by the White people, has been handicapped to some extent by lack of local support. The counties that now have county agents only should have home demonstration agents also. The sum of $900.00 should be provided for each county agent's travelling expense, and $750.00 for each home demonstration agent. Practically all the counties where the Negro population makes up ten per cent, or more, of the total, except Tulsa, where the Negro population is almost wholly urban, should secure agents. The counties of Oklahoma are large and these agents should not be expected to work outside of their counties. On account of the small Negro population in some counties, one agent might be employed for two counties. For example, farm and home demon- stration agents could be employed for Garvin and McClain Counties, the excise boards each providing half the necessary travel expense. This work is young in Oklahoma and the State authorities deserve praise for what has already been done. Satisfactory sal- aries are paid these agents and efficient men and women have been secured. It is to be hoped that the work will continue to expand, and additional State funds should be provided if necessary. No money spent for the development of agriculture will yield more real results per dollar invested. RETARDED PUPILS IN NEGRO SCHOOLS. One of the most serious problems in the Negro schools is the problem of retardation — pupils being older than they should be, for the grades they are in. The common cause of this, of course, is the repeating of grades by many pupils. Some pupils do not enter school until they are older than they should be. In city schools some of the retardation is due to pupils being already "retard- ed" or over-age, for their grades, when they enter the school. In all the schools, and especially in the rural schools, the chief cause of retardation is irregular attendance. Little attention given pupils by the teacher, due to the large number of pupils per teacher, in some schools, or in some grades, results in pupils taking two years to complete a grade. Table 57 shows the amount of retardation in 51 Negro schools of the State. EDUCATION OF NEGROES 345 TABLE 57.— AGE-GRADE ENROLLMENT IN 51 NEGRO SCHOOLS- OKLAHOMA. Per cent of Per cent of Per cent of Total Per cent Grade No. Total in grade Xo. Total in grade No. Total in grade in of under a^;e normal age over age Grade Total A. Boys. Kdg. 8 7.8 54 52.4 41 39.8 103 5.0 1 15 2f.4 290 47.2 310 50.4 615 30.3 2 6 2.2 84 31.5 177 66.3 267 13.2 3 17 6.1 66 23.8 194 70.1 277 13.7 4 5 2.0 43 17.0 205 81.0 253 12.5 5 7 3.3 42 19.8 163 76.9 212' 10.5 6 7 8.1 20 23.3 59 68.6 86 4.2 7 5 4.7 21 19.8 80 75.5 106 5.2 8 12 15.8 18 23.7 46 60.5 76 3.7 9 .... 8 33.3 16 66.7 24 1.2 10 .... 1 16.7 5 83.3 6 .3 U .... 1 1 .1 11 1 100.0 1 .1 Total 82 4.0 648 32.0 1297 64.0 2^027 100.0 B. Girls. Kdg. 4 5.6 37 51.4 31 43.0 72 3.4 1 18 3.1 322 56.3 232 40.6 572 27.0 2 9 3.4 94 34.9 166 6L7 269 12.7 3 11 4.2 91 34.3 163 61.5 265 12.5 4 11 4.0 62 22.6 201 73.4 274 12.9 5 9 4.4 49 24.0 146 71.6 '204 9.6 6 2 1.3 41 27.0 109 71.7 152 7.2 7 6 4.4 30 22.1 100 73.5 136 6.4 8 6 5.1 26 22.2 85 72.7 117 5.5 9 2 5.9 6 17.6 26 76.5 34 l.( 10 2 13.3 9 60.0 4 26.7 ' 15 .7 11 .... 3 37.5 5 66.7 8 .4 12 .... 1 33.? 2 66.7 3 .1 Total 80 3.8 771 36.3 1270 59.9 2121 100.0 C. Boys and i Girls. Kdg. 12 6.9 91 52.0 72 41.1 175 4.2 1 33 2.8 612 51.5 542 45.7 1187 28.6 2 15 2.8 178 33.2 343 64.0 536 13.0 3 28 5.2 157 28.9 357 65.9 542 13.3 4 16 3.0 105 20.0 406 77.0 527 12.5 5 16 3.8 19 21.9 309 74.3 416 10.0 6 9 3.8 61 25.6 168 70.6 238 5.7 7 11 4.5 51 21.1 180 74.4 242 5.8 8 18 9.3 44 22.8 131 67.9 193 4.7 9 2 3.5 14 2-4.1 42 72.4 58 1.4 10 2 9.5 10 47.6 9 42.9 21 0.5 11 .... 3 33.3 6 66.7 9 0.2 12 .... 2 50.0 2 50.0 4 0.1 Total 162 3.9 1419 34.2 2567 61.9 4148 100.0 346 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA SOME CAUSES OF INEFFICIENCY IN NEGRO SCHOOLS. At present much of the money being spent on Negro schools each year is being wasted, because satisfactory results are not be- ing secured. Whatever money is spent on Negro schools, whether much or litttle, should be spent in such a way as to help the chil- dren — really to educate them, and to give them, as far as possible, some training for the work they will do on leaving school. The children should be given command of the fundamental processes first of all. But it will not do for the schools to stop with even satisfactory training in reading, spelling, arithmetic, and other pup- lie school subjects. A course of study made up entirely of paper- work is not suited to the rural Negro schools, or to those in cities and towns. It is only reasonable to suppose that a course of study better related to the home life, needs, and interests of the pupils would cause better attendance, and would result in more children staying in school through the eighth grade. One of the most conspicuous defects in the rural schools, espec- ially in the separate schools, which enroll most of the Negro children, is the lack of suitable buildings and equipment. Until this is rem- edied, no great improvement can be expected. Most of the schools observed were poorly lighted, badly ventilated, and, in many in- stances, have practically no equipment. The buildings are so poor that they represent practically no investment, and some are rented. Churches are used in some instances. The district schools are, as a group, much better, but a large per cent of these should be re- placed by modern buildings. The fact that many Negro tenants move from one part of the county to the other, makes it difficult to make permanent lo- cations for these schools. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that the building of good schools, would to some extent reduce this moving. The best class of tenants, white or colored, are interested in good schools, and are slow to move from a community where there is a good school, to one where the school is poor. There is a great need for a building program, carried on with State aid, in cooperation with counties and districts, so that eventually the pres- ent type of separate school building will be eliminated. IRREGULAR ATTENDANCE A CAUSE OF SERIOUS LOSS. The poor attendance is an important factor in making the schools inefficient. From supposing that the schools are effective, so far as those pupils in average attendance is concerned, there EDUCATION OF NEGROES 347 ■would be a great loss in inefficiency due to so many pupils being out of school part of the time. The causes of this arem any — un- attractive, uncomfortable buildings, lack of attention from the teach- er, failure of the school work to interest the pupil — these may be mentioned, as well as economic causes. The school cannot help those pupils who do not attend with suf- ficient regularity to make some progress. As a matter of fact, these pupils who attend irregularly slow up the school work, and make the schools less effective for those who do attend every day. It has already been shown that in the independent, or town and city schools, the attendance is 65.8 per cent; in the village schools 59.6 per cent ; and in the rural schools 53.6 per cent. Obviously such con- ditions need to be changed. The lack of supervision is another thing that makes the Negro schools ineffective. A county superintendent cannot, without as- sistance, be expected to supervise all the schools — white and colored — in a county. The coimties of Oklahoma are too large. The supervision of the white schools alone would take all of one super- intendent's time, and more, if properly done. City school systems — • at least the best ones — have supervisors, and certainly the rural schools need such help and direction as a supervisor could give. Well trained and experienced women teachers, who have taught successfully in rural schools, should be employed for this work. This would add greatly to the value of the school work. The money spent for this would probably yield greater immediate returns, in educational results per dollar, than money spent for anything else, at present. There is great need for improvement in the teaching of the pri- mary grades — the first four grades — where most of the pupils are. This is true to the same extent in both rural and urban schools. An effective education program will demand more money than is now being spent, especially on the schools now operated as sepa- rate schools. The cities should not be handicapped in providing needed buildings and equipment for Negro schools, as they are now. GREATER DEVELOPMENT OF VOCATIONAL COURSES NEEDED. In recognition of the fact that economic pressure will cause many pupils in cities, especially boys, to leave school at an early age, with no preparation for earning a livelihood, ample provision 348 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA should be made for part-time schools, continuation schools and even- ing schools. In this way many boys who cannot receive trade train- ing in school, could receive it while employed, after their school days are over. The labor of these boys can be made of much value to themselves and to the State, because their labor will be skilled and will create more wealth. This will make for industrial efficien- cy and will lessen poverty. Under the Smith-Hughes Act, work of this kind has already been begun for white people in some of the cities. The Negro schools have suffered because no State school su- pervisor has given his entire time to improving them. The rural school agent has been devoting half his time to this work, and has secured excellent results. The Negro schools, however, should be supervised and directed, in cooperation with county superintend- ents, by a State school officer, who gives all his time to that work. The State school at Langston should be given suitable equip- ment and buildings, and should be properly supported by the State. Otherwise, many colored students from Oklahoma will be forced to go outside the State, as they are now doing, for educational facili- ties that should be provided by Oklahoma. The facilities for the training of Negro teachers are not adequate. There are six State normal schools for white people. Many teach- ers are secured by the white schools from the State University and from the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Stillwater. There are a number of private or denominational colleges that train teach- ers for the white schools, — for instance Tulsa University, and Phil- lips University. At present, the facilities for training Negro teach- ers at the Colored Agricultural and Normal University, at Lang- ston, are entirely insufficient. There are, on the average 60 White high schools in the State each year that give normal training. There are only four Negro high schools that provide such training. The school at Langston should be provided with dormitories and teach- ing force, such that enough teachers can be trained each year tc meet the needs of Oklahoma's Negro public schools. RECOMMENDATIONS. It is assumed that all recommendations of a general nature in other Chapters of this Survey Report will apply to both white and colored schools. EDUCATION OF NEGROES 349 (1) The white and colored schools, both city and rural, should be supported financially in the same manner. (2) A State supervisor of Negro schools should be employed to give his full time to the betterment of Negro schools in the State. This supervisor should be appointed by the State superintendent of public instruction, and should be paid not less than $3,000 per year^ and allowed at least $1,200 for travel expense. (3) The course of study in Negro schools, both city and rural, should be made more practical, and should be more closely related to the life and needs of the pupils. (4) In those 15 counties having the largest rural Negro popu- lations, county industrial supervisors should be appointed to work as assistants to the coimty superintendents, in order that the work in the Negro rural schools may be of more value to the pupils. The work of these supervisors should be similar to that of the Jeanes Fund workers in Carter and Wagoner Counties, and in other States. A salary of not less than $1,500 should be paid, and the worker em- ployed for 12 months. These supervising teachers should be ap- pointed by the county superintendents, subject to the approval of the State supervisor of Negro schools. In order to induce the counties to employ these workers, half the salary should be paid by the State. An appropriation of $11,250 will be required for this. Well-trained and experienced colored women teachers should be secured for this w^ork. (5) No more one-teacher schools should be built, or operated, than is absolutely necessary. As far as possible, consolidations should be effected, so that the children may be taught in schools having two or more teachers. (6) Where conditions make a one-teacher school necessary, the school should have an industrial room as well as a large class- room, and should be equipped so that the teacher may have plenty of material to work with, (7) A State appropritaion should be made to match the Fed- eral funds now available for the teaching of vocational agriculture under the Smith-Hughes Act. Thus if $5,000 is available, the State should set aside an equal amount. Since this money is matched by local funds, the total amount then available would be $20,000. (8) In order to encourage the teaching of vocational home economies, a State appropriation of. $10,000 should be made, to pay one-half the salaries of teachers in State approved rural schools'. This work should be under the direction of the State supervisor 350 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA of home economics, and at least 90 minutes per day should be de- voted to the work. This amount would be sufficient to provide for 20 schools, with an average salary of $1,000. (9) The State colleges for Negroes, either at Langston or at some other location, should be provided wdth dormitories and a teaching staff, such that an adequate supply of teachers for Okla- homa's schools, may be trained in the State. (10) In addition to providing for a supply of teachers, a col- lege department should be developed at the State college — now the Colored Normal and Agricultural University, in order that those students who expect to engage in other professions may re- ceive college training without having to leave the State. (11) A policy of State aid in the building of rural schools should be inaugurated, and an initial appropriation of $25,000 should be made for the first year. Aid should be given on the same conditions under which aid from the Rosenwald Fund is secured. This would insure proper use of the State money, and would insure the proper design and construction of rural schools. (12) Provision should be made for giving additional training, especially along vocational lines, to those boys and girls who are forced to leave school before completing the high school course. By means of evening schools in cities, for example, many of these boys and girls can be reached. (13) The high school course in a city school should include at least one vocational course, designed to prepare students for some definite occupation open to them in the city. (14) An effort should be made to make the w^ork in primary grades more effective, especially in city and town schools. This can be done by securing better primary teachers, by employing more teachers, so that there will be fewer pupils per teacher in the first four grades, and through supervision by the superintendent or a primary supervisor. (15) In order that at least one vocational high school may be developed in each of the 15 counties having the largest Negro rural population, it is recommended that the State aid one school in each county to the extent of $1,000 per year. The schools aided should be recommended by county superintendents, and approved by the State department of public instruction, as to location, building, lo- cal support, equipment, and teaching force. A State appropriation of $15,000 would be necessary for this. Every school should be in- spected and approved, or disapproved, each year, in order that proper standards may be maintained. CHAPTER XI. EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS. During the months of April and May a comprehensive series of tests "was given to selected groups of children, in all types of public schools, in all sections of the State, by a group of Oklahoma educa- tors, under the direction of the United States Bureau of Education. The committee was organized by Dean W. W. Phelan, College of Education, University of Oklahoma, who served as chairman until his departure from the State. He was then succeeded by Henry D. Rinsland, director of educational research, public schools of Ard- more. Table 58 shows the number of pupils tested, and the counties and cities in which the tests were given. TABLE 58.— NUMBER OF PUPILS TESTED, AND CITIES AND COUNTIES REPRESENTED. County City Number of Pupils Adair 583 Carter Ardmore 2,324 Choctaw 751 Craig Vinita _ 926 Creek Drumright 1,176 Custer Clinton 604 Ellis 856 Garfield 3,243 Jackson 5,967 Kay Ponca City 1,299 Love Marietta 393 Oklahoma Luther 206 Okmulgee Okmulgee 2,250 Pittsburg 827 McAlester 280 Hartshorne 509 Haileyville 461 Total 2,077 351 352 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Pottawatomie 1,806 Tulsa Glenpool 359 Washington 1034 Dewey 633 Total 1,667 TOTAL 26,487 Indian Schools 358 TOTAL 26,845 A summary of the scores made by pupils is given in Table 59. TABLE 59 SUMMARY OF SCORES MADE IN TESTS IN OKLAHOMA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY. A condensed summary of scores made by pupils in educational and psychological tests, April and May, 1922. Tests given and results tabulated by a committee of Oklahoma educators, under the direction of Dr. W. W. Phelan, Chairman. Abbreviations Figures at head of vertical columns indicate Grades. Med — median score made by group reported. No — number of pupils tested. Att — number of examples attempted (Courtis Arithmetic). Pc — per cent of correct answers (Courtis Arithmetic). Spelling Ashbaugh Spelling Scale: Median scores. percentage. 3 4 5 6 7 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 80.0 627 72.1 691 63.8 580 62.3 522 55.0 413 Consolidated 83.8 469 76.0 468 62.3 451 64.9 457 51.1 402 Towns 79.8 477 75.5 421 65.3 388 63.7 375 72.8 375 Cities 86.0 1,474 80.3 1,357 72.5 1,253 69.2 1,154 67.5 1,021 State 3,047 2,937 2,772 2,508 2,211 Standard 73.0 73.0 73.0 73.0 73.0 8 9 10 11 12 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 55.1 488 60.0 50 62.0 22 86.0 16 88.0 6 Consolidated 57.8 380 66.0 126 73.0 70 81.5 57 84.0 31 Towns 59.0 327 65.3 202 71.2 165 77.0 144 80.4 99 Cities 60.6 1,057 71.7 883 79.2 673 87.0 467 90.1 290 State 2,252 1,261 930 684 426 Standard 73.0 EDUCATIONAL, TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 353 > be 02 «> •l-H • i-H ?! o o O o c3 o O > Eh CZ2 H en o Eh O o w o I— I m I— I O o (M I I S. S, 12 354 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Reading Haggerty Reading Test, Sigma I: Median scores, by grades. 12 3 Schools Med No Med No Med No Rural 4.3 174 7.6 206 24.0 52 Consolidated 5.9 240 12.8 206 Towns 7.6 195 12.6 225 Cities 9.1 1,047 17.9 866 28.6 258 State 9.0 1,656 15.0 1,503 28.6 310 Standard 4.0 12.0 16.0 Thorndike-McCall Reading Test: Ability of pupils by "Reading Ages" in months, by Grades, Median scores. 3 4 5 6 7 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 30.9 333 38.2 645 43.8 520 47.6 455 51.3 369 Consolidated 34.5 350 39.1 355 43.7 374 47.0 346 50.8 337 Towns 35.0 471 39.4 434 44.0 376 47.2 356 51.7 554 Cities 36.1 1,224 42.0 1,123 47.2 1,042 50.8 1,119 54.6 944 State 2,378 2,557 2,312 2,276 2,204 Standard 34.9 39.8 46.1 56.2 54.6 8 9 10 11 12 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 53.5 467 53.0 50 59.0 12 63.0 14 63.0 6 Consolidated 52.3 324 58.5 131 60.4 74 60.5 53 61.5 52 Towns 53.8 308 57.4 202 59.5 152 60.0 128 61.7 82 Cities 56.5 981 59.6 917 61.6 687 63.5 448 67.5 320 State 2,080 1,300 925 643 460 Standard 57.7 61.8 63.2 64.9 67.4 HandwrH :ing Ayres Handwriting Scale: Median scores in . Rate (R), and Quality (Q), by Grades. 3 4 5 Schools R Q No R Q No R Q No Rural 47.5 28.8 393 54.0 33.9 385 71.3 39.3 449 Consolidated 45.7 31.1 292 51.3 34.4 335 63.4 22.1 373 Towns 34.1 26.4 274 49.7 34.9 262 64.0 36.1 291 Cities 51.1 33.5 1,032 58.7 37.1 ] L,081 65.5 43.5 1,118 State 1,991 2,063 2,227 Standard 43.0 40.0 50,0 45.0 59.0 50.0 (56 Cities) 6 7 8 9 Schools R Q No R Q No R Q No > R Q No Rural 68.6 33.4 453 74.9 43.0 374 78.6 47.0 432 100.0 62.0 31 Consol. 80.2 39.5 402 75.2 42.6 430 83.9 45.4 358 86.9 51.5 43 Towns 75.6 39.0 386 80.0 46.6 296 83.8 49.1 254 71.9 41.2 65 Cities 76.1 46.1 1,119 90.3 70.0 624 87.5 61.8 773 78.1 56.1 310 State 2,360 1,724 .. .... 1,817 449 St'd'd. 63.0 56.0 68.0 62.0 . 73.0 66.0 10 11 12 Schools R Q No R Q No R Q No Rural 105.0 70.0 12 22.5 62.5 7 70.0 55.0 2 Consolidated 105.0 48.6 26 100.0 52.5 19 : 107.5 55.0 14 Towns 73.6 60.0 30 74.6 55.0 29 80.0 60.0 16 Cities 90.00 54.7 227 93.7 51.0 212 : 107.7 62.0 149 State 295 267 181 Standard •••••••• EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 355 English Composition Hud« 2lson Composition Test: Median scores, by Grades. 3 4 5 6 7 Scliools Med No Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 2.3 195 2.7 613 3.3 558 4.1 408 4.0 404 Consolidated 2.1 377 2.6 452 2.9 498 2.9 474 3.9 407 Towns 2.2 290 2.6 349 3.0 353 3.8 331 4.2 335 Cities 2.3 581 2.8 1,096 3.5 921 4.4 959 4.6 943 State 1,443 2,510 2,330 2,172 2,089 Stanciai-d 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 8 9 10 11 12 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 4.5 525 5.3 82 5.7 19 5.0 15 C.3 6 Consolidated 4.0 405 5.0 289 5.6 152 6.3 114 6.7 67 Towns 4.9 289 5.3 297 5.9 233 5.9 189 6.6 113 Cities 5.3 975 5.8 727 6.1 551 6.4 409 6.8 252 State 2,194 1,395 955 727 428 Standard 5.5 6.0 6.5 6.9 7.2 Arithmetic— ADDITION Courtis Standard Arithmetic Test, S eries B: Median scores in number of examples attempted, and : per cent of correct answers i 4 5 Schools Att Pc No Att Pc No Att Pc No Rural 3.9 28.0 111 5.4 36.1 704 5.9 37.4 591 Consolidated 4.0 30.0 402 5.0 34.3 465 5.4 38.9 484 Towns 4.3 30.0 234 5.1 39.2 438 5.9 42.3 374 Cities 4.1 36.7 666 5.4 40.0 1,023 6.3 51.5, 919 State 1,413 2,630 2,368 Standard 4.0 100.0 6 6.0 100.0 7 8.0 100.0 8 Schools Att Pc No Att Pc No Att Pc No Rural 6.6 51.1 506 7.2 47.7 471 8.4 58.3 489 Consolidated 6.8 48.1 465 8.5 56.1 323 7.9 51.0 382 Towns 7.8 50.1 304 7.6 49.5 362 8.4 55.5 323 Cities 6.8 55.0 793 7.8 55.0 789 8.5 61.9 830 State 2,068 1,945 2,024 Standard 10.0 100.0 11.0 100.0 12.0 100.0 Arithmetic— DIVISION 3 4 5 Schools Att Pc No Att Pc No Att Pc No Rural 0.8 25.3 99 2.7 25.1 688 3.6 38.0 570 Consolidated 3.1 32.5 522 3.6 38.4 485 Towns 3.2 33.2 409 4.0 41.6 343 Cities 0.8 26.2 488 3.1 31.7 829 4.1 50.0 886 State 587 2,448 2,324 Standard 6 4.0 100.0 7 6.0 100.0 8 Schools Att Pc No Att Pc No Att Pc No Rural 4.7 51.8 527 5.7 51.7 446 8.2 74.3 499 Consolidated 4.2 50.0 409 5.1 57.0 423 7.4 70.8 384 Towns 5.1 57.1 335 5.9 60.0 367 8.4 76.7 284 Cities 6.7 75.3 954 6.7 77.2 747 8.0 80.5 866 State 2,225 1,983 2,033 Standard 8.0 100.0 10.0 100.0 11.0 100.0 356 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Algebra Hotz Alegbra Test, Series A: Addition and subtraction. 10 11 12 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 4.1 91 4.0 25 Consolidated 4.0 290 4.3 142 4.3 73 3.0 28 Towns 4.2 449 4.5 145 6.3 41 7.3 49 Cities 4.6 617 4.5 111 4.4 40 4.9 31 State 4.6 1,447 4.4 423 4.7 154 5.3 108 Standard 5.0 6.8 6.8 7.9 (3 Months) (6 months) 6 months) (9 months) Hotz Algebra Test, Series A: Equation and formula. 10 11 12 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 5.5 89 6.3 25 Consolidated 5.1 306 5.3 148 5.7 73 4.3 27 Towns 5.8 437 5.6 205 8.0 49 5.6 48 Cities 6.1 567 6.4 112 5.0 39 6.0 32 S'tate 5.8 1,399 5.6 490 5.8 161 5.3 107 Standard 4.9 7.1 7.1 7.8 (3 Months) (6 months) 6 months) (9 months Mentality Haggerty Intelligence Test Delta I: Median scores 1 r 3 Schools Med No Med No Med No Rural 27.7 278 49.5 390 56.8 144 Consolidated 33.7 480 41.3 438 72.2 18 Towns 33.0 320 41.4 396 51.8 88 Cities 35.2' 845 55.0 989 74.1 626 State 33.6 1,923 48.2 2,213 72.8 876 S'tandard 35.0 55.0 70.0 Mentality Haggerty Intelligence Test, Delta H: Median scores. 3 4 5 6 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 30.0 45 44.0 206 65.7 209 74.8 155 Consolidated 33.0 451 47.2 417 65.6 366 75.4 399 Towns 46.2' 344 51.1 397 65.8 346 79.5 385 Cities 43.2 385 60.1 1,047 78.2 904 91.5 827 State 36.5 1,225 54.5 2,067 65.8 1.825 83.9 1,766 Standard 40.0 7 60.0 8 78.0 9 96.0 Schools Med No Med No Med No Med No Rural 90.0 185 102.9 179 106.0 30 Consolidated S7.4 300 98.2 327 114.0 23 Towns 93.1 354 104.2 329 116.0 111 Cities 95.5 774 110.5 757 118.4 391 State 91.8 1,613 108.2 1,592 117.0 555 Standard 110.0 120.0 130.0 Figures 21, 22, and 23 presents the scores in reading and spell- ing to illustrate the comparisons between scores in Oklahoma and in other states. EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 357 SnmtARY OP UEDIAH SCORES MADE O SPBLLIBG T3ST OKIAHOMA SCHOOLS, HAT- JUKE, 19££ Sd Qrade Pupils Score STAflBAHD Rural Consolldatfll Towns Cities 1 627 469 477 .474 73.0 80.0 88.6 79.8 8S.0 4th Crade STAHDART) BOIBl Consoliaatad TownG Cltlee 1 69i 468 4ei ,867 73.0 78. 1 76.0 76.6 80. S 6th 9rade STAmABS Bural Consolidated Towns Cities 1 • • • 660 451 886 .863 13.0 68.8 62.8 65.8 78.6 6th Grade 3TAHDAED Rural Consolidated Tome Cities 1 • • • ess 457 876 ,154 78.0 62.8 64.9 68.7 69.2 7th Grade stahdart) Rural Consolidated Tovwe Cities 1 iii 402 875 ,081 78.0 66.0 51.1 72.8 67.6 Figure 21. SDIOIARY OP MEDIAfl SCORES MADE IB SPELLIIIG TEST OiaAHOUA SCHOOLS, MAY- JUKE. 1922. 8th Grade PnpllB Soore STAHDARD • • • 73.0- Rural 488 55,1- Consolidated 380 57.8- Towns 327 59.0- Cities 1,057 60.6- 9th Grade STASDiRD • • • 73.0- Rural 50 60.0- Consolidated 126 66.0 Towns 202 65.3 Cities 883 71.7 (Words used In Grades 10,11,18, same as 9th Grade; Standard, 73 for 9th Grade) 10th Grade Rural 22 62.0- < Consolidated 70 73.0- . Towns 165 71. 2- i Cities 673 79.2-. 11th Grade Rural 16 86.0- . Consolidated 57 8I.B-1 Towns 144 77.0-1 Cities 467 87.0- . 12th Grade Rural Consolidated Towns Cities 6 88.0- 31 84,0- 99 80.4 290 90.1 Figure 22. 358 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA SUMiiAB/ OP ItKIiIAD SCOBES IB READIHG TEST: HAGCEBTT, 3.1. OKJ.AHOUA SCHOOLS, lUT-JTHJE. 1922. let Grafle Pnplle Soore STAHBARD Rural Consolidated TownB Cities State 2nd Grade STAHBAED Enrsl CoDdolldated Towns Cities State grd Grade STAHDARD Rural Consolidated Towns Cities State 174 240 195 1.047 1,656 206 205 225 866 1,503 68 266 310 4.0 4.3 5,9 7.6 9.1 9,0 12.0 7,6 12,8 12,6 17.9 15.0 16.0 24.0 28.6 28.6 Figure 23. • Additional data and comparisons were prepared and submitted by the committee in charge of the tests, all of which were care- fully considered by the Survey Staff. The figures are omitted from this report for reasons of economy in printing. All of the data, however, including the original papers written by the children, are in the possession of the committee, and it is recommended that the committee be requested to prepare a special report on the results of the tests for distribution throughout the State. CHAPTER XII. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. For the convenience of the reader the more important conclu- sions and recommendations are brought together in condensed form. RESUME OF EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. Of 77 county superintendents reporting eight receive an annual salary between $1200 and $1500; 32 receive between $1500 and $1800; 31 between $1800 and $2300 and six receive $3000. The median annual salary is about $1650; the average term of service of county superintendents now in office is 3.7 years. Approximately 50 per cent of the county superintendents are changed at each bi- ennial election. Reports from 4567 teachers in rural schools representing 49 counties of the 77 counties show median annual salaries as follows: in one-teacher schools between $800 and $900 ; in two-teacher, con- solidated and small village schools between $900 and $1000 ; in three- teacher schools between $1200 and $1300. In the same counties 650 rural school principals reported salaries as follows: of elementary schools $1200 to $1300; in high schools $1100 to $1200; in schools having both elementary and high school grades $1300 to $1400 per year. The most serious condition so far as salaries of rural teachers are concerned is not in average or median salaries but in the wide variation found among teachers in different districts and in differ- ent counties. Data collected from several different counties show that minimum salaries range from $180 to $450 in the poor districts while the maximum in rich districts of the same counties is from $1000 to $1650 for white teachers. The same counties pay colored teachers a minimum annual salary from $100 to $380 and a maximum varying from $800 to $1000. Training of teachers: Of 4751 white teachers reporting for places of over 200 population, 300 have had less than an eight year elementary school training; 1729 have had less than four years in high school training; 2982 have had no normal training; 3022 are graduates of four year high schools. 484 have had as much as one 359 360 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA year in normal school based on high school graduation; 402 have had two years in normal school based on graduation from high school; 105 have had three or four years in normal based on high school graduation, 237 have had as much as one year in normal not based on high school graduation ; 187 have had two years, 354 have had three or four years of normal not based on high school gradu- ation. 2,952 have had no college training, 934 have had one or twq years in college; 865 have had three or four years in college. 353 have attended a summer school of one to six weeks duration; 972 have attended 7 to 12 weeks ; 1176 have attended summer schools for over 12 weeks. In places under 200 : Of 1910 teachers reporting school training, 122 have had less than an eight year elementary school training; 1015 have had less than four years in high school ; 1445 have had no normal training. Based on high school graduation, 15 have had as much as one year in normal school; 29 have had two years; 17 have had three or four years. Not based on high school graduation, 172 have had as much as one year in a normal school ; 63 two years, 97 three or four years. 1,678 have had no college training; 176 have had one or two years in college ; 56 have had three or four years in college. 103 have attended summer school for from one to six weeks; 478 have attended seven to 12 weeks; 389 have attended over 12 weeks. Negro teachers: Of 199 reporting, three have had less than an eight year elementary school training; 84 have had less than four years in high school; 93 have had no normal training. Based on four year high school graduation, 15 have had as much as one year in normal; 29 have had two years and 17 have had three or four years. Not based on high school graduation four have had one year in normal; eight have had two years; 33 have had three or four years. 114 have had no college training ; 27 have had one to two years; 58 have had three or four years in college. 18 have attended summer school from one to six weeks ; 26 have attended seven to 12 weeks; 57 have attended over 12 weeks. Tenure : Of 4735 white teachers reporting for places over 200, 1522 began teaching outside Oklahoma and 1526 began in Oklahoma but outside the county where now employed. 139 have taught in the school where now employed less than one year ; 2188 have taught in the school one year; 1042 have taught two years; 462 have taught three years and 904 have taught over three years. 35 teachers have SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 361 taught a total of less than one year in and outside of Oklahoma; 543 have taught a total of one year ; 542 have taught a total of two years; 520 have taught three years; 3095 have taught more than three years. For places under 200: Of 1922 reporting, 316 began teaching outside of Oklahoma and 313 began in Oklahoma but outside the county where now employed; 63 have taught in the school where noAv employed less than one year; 1,313 have taught one year, 353 have taught two years; 79 have taught three years and 114 have taught over three years. 32 teachers have taught a total of less than one year in and outside of Oklahoma; 483 have taught one year; 337 have taught two years; 198 have taught three years and 872 have taught over three years. Of 200 Negroes reporting: 68 began teaching outside of Okla- homa and 82 began in Oklahoma but outside the county where now employed. Three have taught in the school where now employed less than one year; 73 have taught one year; 47 have taught two years; 98 have taught three years and 59 have taught over three years. One teacher has taught a total, in and outside Oklahoma of less than one year ; 8 have taught one year ; 12 have taught two years; 15 have taught three years and 164 have taught over three years. Occupation groups from which teachers come : For places over 200, of 4745 teachers reporting the father's occupation, 576 were from professions ; 1682 from farm homes ; 1064 were from commer- cial pursuits and 389 were from trades and labor groups. For places under 200, of 1927 reporting, 163 were from pro- fessions, 1294 were from farm homes, 141 from commercial pursuits, and 117 from trades and labor groups. Of 201 Negro teachers re- porting, 21 were from professional groups; 66 from farm homes; 11 from commercial pursuits and 47 from trades and labor groups. Data collected from the whole State by the State superinten- dent of education show that 45 of every 100 children enrolled in rural ungraded schools are absent each school day and 41 of every 100 enrolled in consolidated schools are absent daily. Twenty-one (21) per cent of all schools urban and city have a school term six months or shorter in length; 16 per cent of the schools under the direction of county superintendents in 49 counties have a "split" or divided term. Even shorter terms are often divided into two sessions. 362 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA School buildings which are unfit or in which conditions are in- sanitary are not rare. Reports on approximately 4,000 rural school buildings show that less than one-third, (33%) of the rural schools have sanitary drinking water arrangements ; 40 per cent have cloak- rooms; only 9^ per cent have two sanitary toilets; about 14 per cent have windows properly placed so as to afford good lighting. Rural schools are inadequately equipped as to instruction ma- terial; only 48 per cent have as many as 25 books suitable for sup- plementary reading; 56 per cent have a map of the United States; 62 per cent blackboards in good condition and 28 per cent are equipped with single patent desks. Enrollment and seating capacity: In places over 200 reporting a total of 129,335 seating capacity and a total enrollment of 124,- 993 ; 2,123 places reported a seating capacity equal to or greater than the enrollment; 971 places reported an enrollment greater than the number of seats. For places under 200 reporting a total seating capacity of 57,530 and an enrollment equal to or less than seating capacity and 772 places reported an enrollment greater than seating capacity. Of Negro schools reporting a total seating capacity of 11,175 and a total enrollment of 10,125; 93 reported an enrollment equal to or greater than seating capacity and 88 reported an enrollment exceeding the seating capacity. Pupils per teacher : Of all places reporting for places over 200 population 752 reported 30 or less pupils per teacher ; 1,203 reported 31 to 40 pupils per teacher and 1,180 reported over 40 pupils per teacher. For places under 200, 1,007 places reported 30 or less pu- pils per teacher; 241 places reported 31 to 40 pupils per teacher and 413 places reported over 40 pupils per teacher. Of Negro schools reporting, 53 reported 30 or less pupils per teacher, 28 re- ported 31 to 40 pupils per teacher, and 98 reported more than 40 pupils per teacher. Age-Grade enrollment: 17,598 or 12.1 per cent of all white students in places over 200 are young for the grade in which they are enrolled ; 84,716 or 58 per cent are the proper age for the grade in which they are enrolled; 43,624 or 29.9 per cent are over-age for the grade in which they are enrolled; 4,383 or 8 per cent of all white students, in places under 200 are young for the grade in which they are enrolled ; 24,952 or 45.4 per cent are the proper age for the grade in which they are enrolled; 25,584 or 46.6 per cent are over-age for the grade in which they are enrolled. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 363 Of negro children 162 or 3.9 per cent are young for the grade in which they are enrolled ; 1,419 or 34.2 per cent are the proper age for the grade in which they are enrolled, and 2,567 or 61.9 per cent are over-age for the grade in which enrolled. In order to bring about approximate equality of educational opportunity as between independent districts and rural districts in the State, Oklahoma must immediately multiply the percentage of the rural population in high schools, by four. The percentage of high school teachers working in rural districts must be multiplied by three. The money per capita being spent for buildings and grounds in villages must be multiplied by 2^/^, in consolidated dis- tricts by 4, in union graded districts by 2i/2 and in rural ungraded districts by 5. The percentage of the enumeration in attendance must be raised 7 per cent in village districts, 10 per cent in consolidated districts, 12 per cent in union graded districts and 21 per cent in rural dstricts. The percentage of teachers holding first grade cer- tificates must be increased 34 per cent in village districts, 42.9 per cent in consolidated districts, 52.5 per cent in union graded dis- tricts and 74.4 per cent in ungraded rural districts. Salaries of teachers in village districts must be increased by approximately 15 per cent, 30 per cent in consolidated districts, 50 in union graded districts, and 64 per cent in rural districts. The school term in rural districts must be lengthened two months. Finally, such a ratio of adequately trained supervisors to teachers in rural districts must be provided that supervision is as intimate, as personal, and as regular as in independent districts. In order to remedy school conditions in Oklahoma it is essen- tial to provide a State agency for the promotion of education which shall be clothed with much more real power and influence than the State department has enjoyed in the past. The States higher institutions including those which were or- ganized especially for preparing teachers have not had an adequate supply of strong high school graduates to draw from; the elemen- tary and secondary schools have suffered sorely because of the lack of equally prepared teachers; every part of the educational system except in the few large cities and wealthy districts has languished for lack of adequate financial support and because there has been no adequate leadership and no one body or organization to do what a properly constituted State board of education should be organized and authorized to do, namely, consider the educational system of 364 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA the State as a whole and promote the interests of all parts of the system in relation to the whole. SCHOOL REVENUES, FINANCE, AND GENERAL ADMINIS- TRATION. Abolish the present antiquated, unfair methods of apportion- ing State school moneys, and adopt modernized scientific methods which will recognize variations among the local school units, as to length of school year, assessed valuation per child in average daily attendance, local tax rate, aggregate days of attendance, num- ber and qualifications of school officers and teachers employed. Abolish present plan of school district organization. Establish the county as the local school unit. Remove all limitations on State and local taxation. Establish eight months, 160 days, as the minimum school term, beginning in 1924-25, and nine months thereafter. Require a minimum county school tax of not less than ten mills, the proceeds to be distributed among the schools of the county on a per-teacher basis, and in such a manner as to recognize the principles set forth in Recommendation 1, in so far as these prin- ciples have application within the county. Extend to counties taxing and bonding powers for school pur- poses. The plan here proposed of abolishing school ditsricts and of establishing the county as the local unit of support will equalize local rates of taxation within the counties. Provide a State equalization fund to be apportioned among those counties which levy a county school tax of 15 mills or more but are unable to produce therebj^ for every child of school age resident in the county a quota equal to the State average county quota per child derived from proceeds of such county taxes. STANDARDS TO BE SET BY THE STATE. Empower and require the State Department of Education to fix and to modify from time to time, as conditions seem to war- rant, the requirements and standards which counties must meet in order to receive quotas of State moneys. Require county and all other school boards to prepare annual- ly a budget of estimated school costs for the next succeeding year, such budget to be submitted to the proper authorities and used as a basis for levj-ing taxes. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 365 Require the counties to formulate and provide for the carrying out of a county building program, to provide new buildings and other new school property. Abolish the office of county superintendent as an elective office, and place the appointment and fixing of the salary of the county superintendent in the hands of the County Board of Education, subject only to the limits as to professional qualifications and min- imum salary fixed by the State Board of Education. Establish an amount not less than that paid to city superin- tendents in first class city systems as the minimum salary of county superintendents. The office of county superintendent should be thoroughly professionalized. Nowhere is skilled supervision more important than in rural communities, owing to the large numbers of untrained and inexperienced teachers to be found in such communities. Specific and high professional qualifications should be prerequisites for eligibility to the office. Provide for every county supervisors or teacher-helpers of qualifications sufficient to entitle said supervisor to a salary not less tJian that paid to expert supervisors employed in first class city school systems, appointment to be made by county boards of education on nomination of the county superintendent upon the basis of qualifications fixed by the State Board of Education. Provide for a State graduated income tax upon the proceeds of which public schools and other educational institutions shall have first claim. Create a State special commission on taxation. Such a com- mission is needed at the present time in Oklahoma to make a thorough study of her system of assessing property and levying and collecting taxes. The State Board of Equalization insists that property is now assessed at its fair cash value. Members of the survey staff frequently heard it stated by individual citizens that property is assessed at not more than one-third its true value, and striking examples supporting these statements were given. A STATE EDUCATIONAL BUDGET COMMISSION. Create a State interim legislative educational budget commis- sion, which shall prepare and recommend to the next legislature an educational budget. Provide for the rasing b}^ State taxation of funds sufficient to finance all educational projects, positions, and institutions sub- sidized by the State. 366 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Provide for the State Department of Education funds suffi- cient to enable it to dispense entirely \yith aid from private founda- tions. Place the appointment and the fixing of the salary of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction in the hands of the State Board of Education. Provide a salary fund for the State Department of Education sufficient to enable the State Board of Education to employ a State Superintendent capable of commanding from $7,000 to $10,000, and to pay other members of the staff proportionately, in each case the salary to be determined on the basis of professional qualifi- cations. Establish and provide for the maintenance of a Division of School Buildings within the State Department of Education. Provide for State continuing appropriations sufficient to match federal, private, and all other subventions the receipt of which re- quires moneys provided from within the State. Abolish 6 to 21 years as the scholastic age, and establish in its stead as the scholastic age, 5 to 18 years. Provide that State tax rates for educational projects shall be determined biennially on the basis of the amount of money requir- ed, in addition to that available from the endowment fund and all other continuing sources, to provide adequate funds for all edu- cational projects to be subsidized by the State. Provide State funds to grant special additional aid to encourage consolidation, transportation, free textbooks, and employment of teachers, superintendents, and other school officers of qualifications higher than the lawful minimum, and to subsidize new and progres- sive types of educational effort. PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL SERVICE. Empower and require the State Board of Education to establish and modify from time to time, as conditions warrant, a scale of edu- cational and professional requirements for all positions to be sub- sidized entirely or in part by the State, and a corresponding salary scale in which salaries paid shall vary according to the professional preparation, experience, and class of certificate of the incumbent. Provide that no moneys belonging to the perpetual school fund or to any other endowment fund for public schools shall be invested SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 367 in Oklahoma State bonds, or in any other securities chargeable to, or dependent upon the credit of the State of Oklahoma. Provide for an adequate and reliable school census. Require the State Department of Education to prepare a uni- form system of recording receipts and expenditures and an accom- panying handbook of detailed instructions such as have been compil- ed by the State departments of New York and Pennsylvania. Require the State Department of Education to furnish free to counties all forms for financial accounting and reporting. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE STATE. Summarizing the most important tendency of forward look- ing legislation which underlies many of the recommenda- tions contained in the preceding sections, a tendency which must be recognized and accepted before school burdens and educational opportunities can be equalized in any thorough- going manner : Place upon the State (which is the only unit capable of equal- izing school burdens and educational opportunities) the major por- tion of the burden of school support by requiring the State to fur- nish funds sufficient to pay the minimum wage to which every incumbent of an educational position is entitled by reason of his qualifications, professional, and otherwise. This recommendation covers salaries of superintendents, assistants, rural supervisors, and all members of the staff of the State Board of Education. The only important items of expenditure which would be left to the local communities to subsidize, if this recommendation be adopted, would be school buildings, sites, equipment, cost of furnish- ing repairs and operating school buildings, as well as all fixed charges. FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE. The general statement of organization and procedure covers the forms of school organization, jurisdiction and general control, cus- tody and disbursement of funds, financial control and budget pro- cedure, acquisition of property, and accounting methods. Criticisms and constructive suggestions are presented under three heads, budgetary procedure, accounting methods, and finan- cing methods. Under these heads the criticisms in brief are as fol- lows: 368 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA A. Budgetary Procedure. 1. Organization for financial control erroneous, 2. Methods of presenting information regarding school finance tend to confuse rather than to inform the public. 3. Methods of estimating revenues extraordinarily con- servative. 4. Duplication of appropriation accounts. B. Accounting Methods. 1. Practice of reporting revenues and expenditures only under heads of General Fund and Sinking Fund er- roneous. 2. Appropriation accounts reflect objects of expendi- ture with little regard to purpose and character. 3. Appropriation accounts not followed explicitly when incurring expenditures. 4. Financial statements issuedl in the form of balance sheets without being accompanied by operation state- ments. 5. Financial statements showing functional expenditures can be developed to further advantage. 6. School annual statistical reports to State Superinten- dent of Education subject to improvement. C. Financing Methods. 1. Bond issues permissable on too liberal a basis. 2. Authorization to use sinking funds to pay judgments unsound finance. 3. Policy in regard to investing sinking funds question- able. 4. The issue of sinking fund bonds a costly method of financing. It is to be understood that these criticisms are in no sense crit- icisms of individuals, but of methods and procedure. In fact, in numerous instances, individuals were found to be producing remark- able results considering the difficulties under which they labored. Questions were ansAvered freely, information was given willingly, and there was no hesitation whatever about exhibiting any and all records requested for examination. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 369 CONCLUSION. In conclusion, the major criticism of the public schools of Okla- homa, from the financial point of view, is that they are not under the financial jurisdiction and control of those who are responsible for educational results. This control should be vested in the boards of education; and until it is so vested, they cannot be held respon- sible for educational policies and programs. The following amendments to the school law are suggested: (1) County boards of education should be created, and vested with authority to revicAv and approve budgets of all non-independ- ent schools within their jurisdiction, provided that all tax levies incident to those budgets should be within mill limitations as to tax- ation for school purposes which now exist in the statutes and State Constitution, or which may be hereafter amended. (2) Board of education for independent school districts should be vested with the same authority as above set forth for the pro- posed county boards of education. (3) The State board of education should have authority to review and approve budgets of subsidiary educational boards, which cover different groups of educational activities; the approval of these budgets should be subject to such financial limitations as the Legislature may prescribe. (4) All county and school district tax levies for school purposes should be made in accordance with the following subdivisions : (a) General Fund, covering current expenses, including play- ground activities now a separate levy, and including all repairs and replacements of land, buildings and equipment ; with the exception of interest on bonds. (b) Building Fund, covering all expenditures for additional land, buildings, and equipment, or for additions to existing land, buildings and equipment. (c) Sinking Fund, covering expenditures for bond interest and principal. (5) The State board of education should be vested with author- ity to prescribe all details as to school budget procedure, includ- ing the preparation of financial statements and estimates of revenues and expenditures; provided that the details of such accounting forms as may be required to secure financial data from other sources than school officials, which may be required in the consideration of 370 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA school policies, shall be prescribed by the State Examiner and Inspector. (6) Whenever the budget of a school district has been ap- proved by the board of education having jurisdiction, all tax levies incident thereto should be mandatory upon the tax levying agency of the district. (7) The State board of education should be vested with auth- ority to prescribe the methods of recording all school data, both statistical and financial, Avhich shall be maintained in the different school systems of the State, and to require such periodical reports from the schools as it may deem necessary. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. There are two major considerations affecting educational con- ditions in Oklahoma: (1) Inadequate and unsystematic financial support, the reme- dies for which are discussed in Chapter III; and (2) Certain limi- tations on the functioning of vital and effective leadership, the remedy for which is an enlarged and strengthened State Depart- ment of Education. The history of education in the United States shows very clearly the acceptance of the theory of responsibility of the several States for public education within their borders and the development of the State as the administrative unit in education. The plans which have been adopted in the States are not uniform, however, nor is there the same degree of centralization. Oklahoma is now in the position of considering what changes, if any, to make in the State system of public education for the next few years, and has the opportunity to profit by her own experience and that of other States. The following analysis of the administra- tive features of a State system of education suggests the more im- portant points which should be considered. 1. Unification of general control. — A decision should be reach- ed as to the extent or degree of centralization of control to be adopt- ed as a State policy. This report recommends that whatever changes are made in existing arrangements should be in the direction of further centralization of general control and unification of the entire system of education. 2. Determination of objectives. One of the most important functions of the agency which may be charged with the responsibil- SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 371 ity of general oversight is to bring about some acceptable determin- ation of the objectives of public education. 3. Definition of functions and responsibilities. Having de- termined the objectives of the various parts of the system, it will then be possible to make a corresponding assignment of functions and division of responsibilities. 4. Co-ordination. Co-ordination of the activities of the sev- eral parts of the system is essential if consistent progress is to be made toward realization of the objectives set up. Such co-ordina- tion should be specifically provided for, and some officer or board should be charged with the duty of securing it. 5. Determination of standards. Since the immediate man- agement of the schools is in the hands of local boards, the State must exercise its function of general control through legislative enactments and regulatory promulgations. These take the form, in part, of prescriptions of minimum standards which are to be maintained. These standards relate to compulsory school attend- ance, courses of instruction, qualifications and compensation- of teachers, and the like. Upon the State also rests the duty of equal- izing educational opportunities for all. 6. Adequate financial support. Participation by the State in the financial support of public education is a necessary corollary of the principle of State control, and the principle of minimum stand- ards set by the State. 7. Preparation of the budget. The importance of having and living up to a budget is no less in educational affairs than in the •conduct of other public and private business. Furthermore, the preparation of a budget furnishes an additional reason for a uni- fied State system of education. 8. Election, training, and certification of personnel. One of the most important functions of the State system of education is discharged in its dealing with the problem of the supply of adequate- ly pr-i'pared teachers. 9. Progressive development. It is not sufficient to establish an educational system for today ; definite provision should be made for future growth and development. The plan of organization should look toward progressive improvement and increasing effi- ciency. To this end effective and aggressive leadership at the various levels should be definitely provided for. 10. Legislation. Continuous expert study of the legislative basis of the State educational system is essential, as well as the plans 372 PUBLIC ETDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA and policies adopted in other States. 11. Publicity. The schools belong to the people, and provision should be made for keeping them informed as to the goals toward which the schools are working, the progress they are making, and in general what returns they show on the investment which the peo- ple have made in them. CONDITIONS UNFAVORABLE FOR THE EXERCISE OF LEAD- ERSHIP. The desirable ends can be only partially realized under existing conditions in Oklahoma, which are distinctly unfavorable to the ex- ercise of leadership. (1) The first serious defect in the State administrative plan for education is found in the large number of unrelated boards and offices having to do with educational affairs. COMPOSITION OF BOARDS FAULTY. (2) Even if it were possible to conduct a system of education through a multiplicity of boards such as this, the work would be done most inefficiently because of the way in which certain of the boards are constituted. Sound principles of administration demand a clear division of responsibility between the board of trustees and the expert executives and, surbordinates employed by it. RECOMMENDATIONS OF LEADERS FREQUENTLY DISRE- GARDED. (3) A third factor affecting educational progress in Oklahoma is the frequent disregard of the counsel and suggestions of the edu- cational leaders of the State. Many of the recommendations em- bodied in this Survey Report have been urged repeatedly in the past by State, County, and City Superintendents, and others who have made close study of conditions and needs in Oklahoma. Many instances could be cited of progessive recommendations originating from those in position of educational leadership in Oklahoma, which have come to naught, because they have been re- jected without due examination, or because of complexity of ad- ministrative machinery and diffusion of responsibility for action. STAFF OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. . The salary paid to the State superintendent of public instruc- tion, or State commissioner of (education, should be considered as an index of the importance of the responsibilities of the office, and an SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 373 index of the realization of their importance on the part of the citi- zens of the State. The influence of these considerations is reflected in a definite tendency toward higher salaries, but a number of States are still practicing a false and costly economy in this matter. The total payroll for Oklahoma in 1920 was reported as $26,000, Oklahoma needs a much better equipped department of education even for the maintenance and direction of the present school system. If the state is to undertake an educational program such as is out- PROPOSED SALARY BUDGET FOR STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. ^— ■^ "* .« Title of Position B o'S. §. u , C'^ *■ M a-H 5^ «S ft ?> a o U u ^P. " I i« State superintendent $ 2,500 Commissioner of education $7,500 $7,500 Assistant superintendent 2,100 Asst. Commissioner and director of teacher training 6,000 6,000 Asst. Commissioner & supervisor of school administration 6,000 6,000 Rural school supervisor* 3,500 Rural school supervisor 1,800 State supervisor of rural education 4,500 4,500 Asst. State supervisor of rural education (2) 8,000 8,000 Agricultural assistant 1,500 Asst. State supervisor of rural education 4,000 4,000 High school inspector 2,400 Asst. high school inspector (2) 3,600 State supervisor of secondary education 4,500 4,500 State supervisor of elementary education 4,500 4,500 State director of vocational education 4,500 4,500 State supervisor of agricultural education 4,000 4,000 State supervisor of trades and industries 4,000 4,000 State supervisor of manual arts 4,000 4,000 State supervisor of home economics 4,000 4,000 State director of educational research 5,000 5,000 State director of physical education 4,500 4,500 Specialist in school buildings and grounds 4,500 4,500 State director of education for Negroes 4,500 4,500 Secretary to State superintendent 1,500 Secretary to State Board of Education 2,100 Chief Clerk 2,000 2,500 2,500 Clerks (3) at $1,200 3,600 Clerks 2,000 2,000 Clerks (2) at $1,800 1,800 1,800 3,600 Clerks (2) at $1,500 1,500 1,500 3,000 Clerks (5) at $1,200 2,400 3,600 6,000 Messenger 900 900 Total $26,600 $67,100 $34,900 $102,000 •Salary received from General Education Board. 374 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKX.AHOMA lined in this report, and to carry it out intelligently, effectively, and economically, the need for a more potent agency for leader- ship is imperative. The survey, therefore, recommends the establishment of the salary of the State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education at $7,500, with other salaries in proportion, and the increase of the salary budget to $102,000, to be reached by 1925. PERSONNEL OF THE STAFF. In the appointment of the commissioner of education the State board of education should canvass the entire United States and en- deavor to select a man of successful experience in large enterprises and of broad vision in educational affairs, v^ho is capable of assum- ing a position of leadership which will carry the citizens and the teachers of the State unitedly to the consummation of the great task ahead. For assistant commissioner in charge of teacher training should be chosen someone of outstanding achievements in this field, whose special assignment will be to improve the qualifications of the teachers now in service, and to assist in the development of the State plans for the preparation of teachers. The director of educational research should undertake the re- organization of the educational statistics of the department, in- cluding data on school costs, revenues, enrollment, attendance, and the like. The director of physical education should have charge of all activities relating to the promotion of physical education, school hygiene and sanitation, and health education. The specialist in school buildings and grounds should have had successful exj)erience in designing and planning school build- ings, and should have thorough knowledge of construction and of the various kinds of school equipment. It should be the duty of the assistant commissioner in charge of school administration to work primarily with county and city su- perintendents, principals of schools, and other having administrative responsibilities. The suggestions with reference to the staff in rural education are justified both by the importance of rural education in Oklahoma and by the demands of the proposed program. There should be a supervisor of elementary education, as well as a supervisor of sec- ondary education, in order to insure continuous study of these SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 375 special problems, and to provide authoritative sources of inspira- tion and guidance in these important phases of education. A strong division of vocational education should be organized by providing for a State director of vocational education, with a staff consisting of supervisors of agricultural education, trades and industries, manual arts, and home economics, respectively. The importance of the problem of education for negroes in Oklahoma should be recognized by the appointment of a director who by reason of his special training, experience, and qualifications for this Avork will command the confidence and support of the peo- ple of both races. The white people of Oklahoma have, in fact, at least as much at stake as the negroes in any decision as to what educational opportunities shall be provided for the latter. In common with many other offices, the department of educa- tion is inadequately provided with clerical assistance. The ad- ditions suggested will increase the effectiveness of the work, and make possible more complete utilization of the expert knowledge and abilities represented by the staff. HIGHER EDUCATION. The obligation on the part of the State to develop higher edu- cation, should under no circumstances be considered as a dead ex- pense. The more a State actually invests in higher education the more certain it can be of the physical comfort of its citizens, the stability of its government and the spread of culture. The progress of higher education in Oklahoma has been remark- able during the past fifteen years. The end is not yet. In the future provision must be made in an even more generous way if the demands for higher education are to met adequately. One of the outstanding features of the growth of higher edu- cation in the State is that it has occurred without any definite plaii on the part of the State. There are too many State institutions for present demands and some of them are unfortunately located. Evi- dence is presented later which will show the lack of sound and clear objectives in the development noted as it relates to several in- stitutions. State administration and control of public higher education in the early administration was quite decentralized. Oklahoma has passed through several phases. In a general way In 1911 the State radically changed its method of administering its various educational institutions. At that time sixteen State 376 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA boards were looking after various aspects of education. It was truly a bewildering array of machinery to have in charge of the State affairs of education. In 1911 an attempt was made to bring order out of chaos by setting up a highly centralized control through an act Avhich created the State board of education to be the legal successor of fourteen of the boards. As the organization of the State administration above described continued in its work it proved more or less unsatisfactory. The reason is not far to seek. Too many heterogeneous interests and activities were thrown together, many of which had little or no re- lation to others. Consequently, an effort at decentralization was made which resulted in 1919 in the creation of a separate board of regents for each State institution of higher learning formerly under the central board, except for the six State normal schools which re- mained under the State Board of Education. It should be pointed out here that the experience of Oklahoma above recounted can hardly be said to discredit the idea of a cen- tral board of control for State higher education. It rather il- lustrates the fact that a central board in charge of numerous activi- ties not closely related is not likely to prove a success. Much thought has been given to the method of State adminis- tration now in vogue, in the belief that a clarification of this sit- uation will care for many of the defects in the State provision for higher education. Certain principles of sound administration may be stated : First, The number of State boards should be reduced to the smallest number consistent with good administration; Second, Each board should be in charge of closely related activities only, if it is to look after its charges properly ; Third, Some means should be adopted to insure a plan of development, rather than to allow progress to occur in sporadic fashion. "With these principles in mind, it is recommended that the work of higher education be put in charge of four boards as follows : 1. Board of regents for the State university. 2. Board of regents for the Agricultural and Mechanical col- leges. 3. Board of regents for the State teachers' colleges. 4. Board of regents for the Oklahoma College for Women. The board of regents for the State university should have in chai-ge the university and any State junior colleges of liberal arts which are in existence or which may be established in the future. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 377 Under no circumstances should such junior colleges be established except as they are approved by this Board. The Miami school of Mines if it is to be continued as a State school should be officially reorganized as a junior college of liberal arts. The board of regents for the agricultural and mechanical col- leges should have in charge the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechani- cal College and the Colored Agricultural and Normal University. The Oklahoma School of Mines and Metallurgy, at Wilburton, should be abandoned. The constitutional provision which makes the State board of agriculture serve as the board of regents of the agricultural and mechanical colleges should be repealed. The six State teachers' colleges should be under one board of regents. It is recommended that the boards governing the several insti- tutions be given authority by law to purchase equipment, books, and supplies, and the State Board of Public Affairs be made responsible for purchasing fuel, placing insurance, and erecting buildings, the latter function being performed with the advice of the respec- tive boards of administration. Such an arrangement will make for economical and expeditious service. From the state point of view there remains to be considered some means or method of coordinating the work of the several institutions of higher learning and of holding them to their proper functions. Various expedients have been adopted in several quar- ters to secure the results. It is one of the underlying reasons which has frequently resulted in a central board of control. It does not seem advisable to recommend that a single central board of con- trol should at present be adopted by the State of Oklahoma, and ac- cordingly the setting up of four boards is suggested. To secure some form of coordination, representatives of the four boards should hold an annual or semi-annual meeting to discuss and determine matters which affect more than one of the groups of institutions. ORGANIZATION OF STATE BOARDS. The evidence which has been submitted to the committee makes it clear that the State has been unfortunate in the organization of its State boards which have had to do with higher education. In- formation is not lacking to the effect that political motives have had a prominent part in the State institutions of higher learning. The 378 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA t frequent changing of presidents of the several institutions, with the exception of only a few institutions, seems to indicate clearly that motives other than professional have all too frequently been pres- ent. Such constant changing is extremely unfortunate. The remedy is clear. On the one hand there must be a develop- ment of public opinion which is greatly interested in the best pos- sible provision for higher education and which jealously guards against the prostitution of such provision for personal or political advantage. There should be no ex-offico members on the boards. THE PRESIDENCY. At the head of the administration of each institution stands the president, the direct agent of the board of control. Only competent persons should be chosen for the position, it is little short of a betrayal of high trust to permit such extraneous considerations as personal or political support in any way to have consideration in the choice. A further consideration is that once able men are secured for the high positions, they should be contin- ued in service for long periods. Two important reasons may be assigned for this recommenda- tion: First, long tenure secures for the State a continuous policy without which unified and economical administration is impossible. Men who know they are to serve for short periods only are likely to plan for short periods, which is likely to result in impetuous de- velopment if any at all. Second, security of tenure is essential to obtaining the services of the kind of men which the State must have. UNCERTAINTY OF TENURE A SEVERE HANDICAP. In the institutions other than the university and the college for women there is much uncertainty of tenure of position, due partly to the annual election of faculty members. The constant shifting results in a great loss of loyalty and in lowered morale. The remedy lies in the adoption of rules governing tenure. Such a businesslike policy would eliminate one of the factors which militates against the growth of scholarly spirit. The organization of a senate in each of these institutions, com- posed of all faculty members who hold the rank of associate pro- fessor and above, is suggested as a legislative body so far as courses of study and student affairs are concerned. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 379 THE BUDGET. The internal budgets at the various institutions do not seem to be well developed. Departments frequently do not know how much they have to spend and consequently are hampered in planning for equipment and other expenses. The president of each institution should be required to pre- pare, annually, a budget which should show every source of income. On the expenditure side it should present the expenditures for every division and department of the institution, the amounts allowed for salaries, for equipment, supplies, incidentals, etc. In view of the conditions existing at the Agricultural and Mechanical College a more complete survey should be made of that institution. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. For the training of elementary teachers two agencies have been established, of which the first was the State normal schools now known as the State teachers' colleges. A second agency for training elementary teachers is the normal training courses in district agricultural schools and in fully accredit- ed high schools under an act approved in 1915. In addition to the training agencies above mentioned some ele- mentary teachers come from the State university, the agricultural and mechanical college, the college for women, and some of the private institutions of higher learning. It is also estimated that at the present time the State institu- tions which prepare high school teachers graduate annually be- tween 150 and 200 students with professional training including practice teaching in secondary subjects. The time has come for the State to provide and require better training for its teachers. Teacher training classes in the high schools as now organized should be regarded as at best but a temporary expedient, and should now be abandoned. TRAINING SCHOOL FACILITIES INADEQUATE. One of the weakest features of the teacher training work at the teachers' colleges is the use made of the training school. In most of the colleges there seems to be no close correlation between the theory of education and the practice teaching. The training of high school teachers as carried on in the State 380 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA university, the agricultural and mechanical college, and the college for women, is also seriously handicapped because of inadequate training schools. FUNCTION OF STATE TEACHERS COLLEGES SHOULD BE DEFINED. In view of the present situation in Oklahoma the principal function of the State teachers' college should be the training of elementary teachers. "With the development of the program recommended elsewhere for State aid to high schools, the secondary grades at the State teachers' colleges should be discontinued, one year at a time. The State should depend on the imiversity, the agricultural and mechanical college, the college for women, and the privately controlled colleges for its supply of secondary school teachers. The best judgment available does not approve offering the four year courses at the teachers' colleges at present, but in any event such courses should not> be offered with inadequate faculties. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN. In numerous ways Oklahoma has recognized her higher edu- cation obligations to the women of the State. From the early terri- torial days the university and the Agricultural and Mechanical College and the State normal schools have been coeducational. In keeping with educational customs in some States a separate in- stitution for women was also established. Thus today a Avoman in Oklahoma may choose to pursue her higher education in any one of the higher institutions of learning and she may pursue any course or curriculum. With the acceptance of women students in educational insti- tutions certain special obligations are assured. The physical and social welfare of women is of vital concern to the State. A dean or director of women should be placed in each additional institutions, and she should have such assistance and cooperation from other members of the faculty as will enable her to assure to all women satisfactory social conditions. HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION. Home economics instruction is only one factor in the liberal education of Avomen but it is a very important one inasmuch as home economics and the basic physical, biological, and social SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 381 sciences upon which it rests compose the group of subjects which afford excellent preparation for intelligent participation in civic and community affairs. The objectives of home economics Instruction in the university should be three : FiTst, it should make a definite contribution to the general and cultural education of a maximum number of women students in the institution. Second, there should be a home eco- nomies curriculum for the preparation of high school teachers. Third, special curricula should be outlined for the training of dietitians for hospital, institutional, commercial, and public school positions. Three additional recommendations : First, the university home economics curricula should be based on at least one full year of high school home economics. Second, the curriculum leading to the bachelor's degrees in home economics should be broadened. Third, no home economics of great value can be given at the uni- versity until rooms, equipment, and teaching staff are provided. A cafeteria is an essential unit of a good department. There are several major functions of home economics in agricultural and mechanical college : First, careful attention must be given to prepare teachers of high school home economics. Second, there should be curricula to prepare county home demon- stration agents of which there are 46 in the State. Third, eleetives not a part of the home economics curricula must be available for women students not majoring in home economics. All of these im- portant functions should be fully recognized in home economics instruction. Finally, the present organization of home economies is faulty. All resident teaching, all correspondence courses, and all extension teaching should be under one single division. To maintain several departments dealing with the same subject matter is unwise. The educational atmosphere at the Women's College at Chick- asha is conducive to the maintenance of excellent instruction in home economics, but the material surroundings both for this sub- ject and the basic sciences are far from being satisfactory. A special building science teaching and home economics education is greatly needed. homp: economics in the state teachers' colleges. Home economics at the teachers' colleges should serve two definite purposes, the primary of which is to furnish such infor- 382 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA mation and skill as will prepare the teacher in an undepartmental- ized school to fulfill the legal requirement that home economics be taught to the second and eighth grade girls in the State. A secondary purpose of home economics in teachers' colleges is to give such elective instruction as will assist the teacher to secure for herself the maximum physical health and Avell-being during her years of service. ENGINEERING. The recommendations which pertain to engineering are four: First, the recommendation regarding the schools of mines has al- ready been given. In keeping with this recommendation, it is recommended further, that, providing there is a sufficient demand, courses in mining engineering be offered at the university, thus placing the courses on a profession basis. Second, the curricula in chemical engineering at the agricultural and mechanical college and at the State university are a needless duplication, as the demand for chemical engineers is not large enough for the State to support two such courses of instruction. It is recommended that chemical engineering be given only at the university. Third, the engineering equipment at the university is woefully inadequate, and far below the standard of a first class engineering school. More apparatus, machinery, and housing are needed. Steps should be taken as soon as possible to bring the facilities for engineering instruction at the university up to standard. Fourth, one of the important developments in agriculture is in the field of rural engineering. This work should be given greater attention, and should be more adequately supported. After a careful consideration it appears that a School of Com- merce and Marketing at the Agricultural and Mechanical college is a mistake. It seems clear that the Agricultural and Mechanical College has a distinct and most important service to render to the State — a service which is greatly impeded by setting up courses of study which have little or no relation to the main purposes of the col- lege. The work in economics at the Agricultural and Mechanical College can and should properly serve three purposes: First, there is a need for courses in general economics as a part of the training given to students in the school of science and literature. Second. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 383 there is an important need for strong work in rural economics. Third, there is need for training commercial teachers who shall go into the high schools to teach business courses. MEDICINE. The development of medical instruction as a part of the work of the University of Oklahoma began in 1900 when the first two years of a medical course were offered at Norman. In 1910 the third and fourth years were established in Oklahoma City. Two years later the Training School for Nurses was begun. At present the work of the medical school is conducted at three places — the university, the old city hospital building, and the new hospital building built in 1920. All of the work in medicine should be brought together under one roof in Oklahoma City. It is fundamental to the most suc- cessful development of medical education in the future. The school is comparatively young and it faces an abundance of problems. One of these is to provide a larger full time teach- ing staff. A second problem is to erect a clinical building at the hospital and abandon the building now used for clinical purposes. The university should as soon as possible develop a school of public health in conjunction with the medical school. GRADUATE WORK. Opportunities for study beyond that for the baccalaureate de- gree are offered by the university and the Agricultural and Mechani- cal College. Graduate study is a field of work to which the State can well afford to give more attention, especially if it desires to secure the ablest leadership and to provide for the welfare of its citizens. For the present it is wise not to reach out beyond the masters and pro- fessional degrees, but work of these grades should be very material- ly strengthened. One of the important functions of institutions of higher learn- ing is to promote the public welfare by adding to the store of use- ful knoAvledge, which aids man in his conquest over nature, which shows him how to maintain his health, and which promotes his hap- piness generally. 384 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA EXTENSION AND CORRESPONDENCE. One of the ways by M^hich the State institutions of higher educa- tion reach out from their doors to all sections of the State, and thus serve the citizens in every extensive way, is through their exten- sion service and correspondence courses. Extension and correspondence work in Oklahoma has great possibilities, and it should be encouraged by generous appropri- ations from the State along many lines. In order that wasteful and unnecessary duplication of effort in these fields may be avoided, and in order that there may be some uniformity in extension practices, it is recommended that the exten- sion directors of the several higher educational institutions meet and agree on a program. THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF NEGROES. The purpose of State higher education for Negroes is threefold : First, teachers must be trained for the Negro schools. Second, vo- cational training must be given, as is mentioned eleswhere. Third, there is need for a number of Negroes who are trained in the pro- fessions such as medicine, the ministry, etc. The only institution of higher learning for Negroes in the State is the Colored Agricultural and Normal University at Lang- ston, which offers a four-year high school curriculum and two-year normal and college curricula. Excellent progress has been made in the school during the past few years since it has been under the present management. A study of conditions shows that the first step toward improving the institution should be to change its location. Three reasons may be stated for this view: First, the Negro population of the State is fairly well concentrated in certain sections. A Second reason and an important one for a change in location, is that where the school now is there are not enough children to organize a satis- factory training school. Third, the school at present is several miles from the railroad, and this circumstance adds considerably to the expense of running the school. STANDARDS. In order that entrance credits may be more easily and uniformily evaluated and clasified, it is recommended that all the State insti- tutions of higher learning and the State Department of Education join in the adoption of a uniform high school and college entrance SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 385 certificate. It is further recommended that the original college en- trance certificates accepted by the institutions of higher learning be kept en file at the institutions. JUNIOR COLLEGES. Oklahoma has two junior colleges under State control, and sev- eral localities have definitely begun junior college work by giving one year of college work in connection with their high schools. There are also two privately controlled junior colleges within the State. Undoubtedly the purpose in extending the course of study of the Panhandle Agricultural Institute in 1921 to include two years of college work was to provide collegiate education for a section of the State which is far remoA^ed from the State institutions of higher learning. Elsewhere it is recommended that the State Dis- trict Agricultural Schools be gradually discontinued and that a system of adequate State aid for high schools be developed. This recommendation is especially applicable to the panhandle school. The question then arises, Avhat provision shall be made to give higher education to the graduates of the high schools. Two courses are open. First, the institution at Goodwell can be main- tained as a junior college. If a junior college is to be maintained it! should be kept up to such a standard that it will be recognized by the State university. A second course which is open to provide instruction of college grade is for the State to pay the round trip transportation annually of students from the three panhandle counties to any of the fol- loA\dng which a student desires to attend : the University of Okla- homa, the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, and the Northwestern State Teachers College. It is recommended that the junior college work at the Pan- handle Agricultural and Mechanical College be gradually brought up to recognized standards ; that the college work be materially im- proved for the next year (1923-24) ; and that the high school work be discontinued by dropping the first year in June, 1923, the second year in June, 1924, the third year in June, 1925, and the fourth year in June, 1926. Several additional suggestions and recommendations pertain to a number of unrelated matters. First, it is recommended that serious consideration be given by the State authorities to the desir- ability of removing certain of the educational institutions to other S. S. 13 386 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA locations in which they might be able to render more acceptable service to the State. Inaccessibility and inconvenient railroad con- nections are serious handicaps to the growth and development of any educational institution. Second,, it is suggested that catalogs of institutions should not print outlines of courses which they have no reasonable expectation of offering. Third, it is recommended that the State establish a rotary loan fund at each institution of higher education, such a fund to be avail- able to worthy students who need assistance. STUDENT WELFARE. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH. Recognition of the importance of physical education and health has resulted in certain definite programs for promoting health : First, facilities were provided for thorough medical examinations for all students at least once a year and as many more times as such examinations were deemed necessary. Second, provision was made for remedial or curative treatment for all students in need of it. Third, the support of an infirmary with nursing and medical care has been adopted to assure all students good care during tem- porary illness. Fourth, gymnasiums and atheltic fields were enlarged and improved. Fifth, the physical education staffs were increased. Sixth, instruction in health and hygiene are given to all freshmen students. The following recommendations are made : First, In each educational institution enrolling 1,000 or more students, there should be at least one physician employed on full time and attached either to the physical education staff or to the biological science division. Second, In institutions with an enrollment of less than 1,000 a physician should be employed for a definite portion of his time, with like responsibilites and authority. Third, Full-time women physicians should be employed at the Womans College, the State University, and the Agricultural Col- lege, who shall devote their entire time to the health and welfare of the women students. Fourth, Modern and adequate infirmaries should be maintained at each of the higher educational institutions. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 387 Fifth, Physical education and hygiene should receive much greater consideration at the normal schools than is now given, and full time physical education instructors should be employed. The gymnasiums should be repaired or rebuilt, and supplied with suit- able conveniences. Sixth. For the men students at the State University there should be built a modern, adequate gymnasium, to the end that all men shall have ample opportunity for the finest physical develop- ment possible. Seventh, Provision should be made immediately for suitable quarters for the physical education of women at the Agricultural College. LIVING CONDITIONS. The following recommendations are made concerning living conditions of students : First, Oklahoma should immediately accept her responsibility for properly housing and feeding at least one-half of the women students in the higher educational institutions. Second, Cafeterias administered by the home economics depart- ments should be maintained for the day students at the State in- stitutions. Thirds As soon as practicable a portion of the men students should be accommodated in college-owned dormitories. PHYSICAL EQUIPMENT. One of the important items in the development of Oklahoma's higher educational institutions is that of a sufficient amount of land for each. None of the schools now has enough land for its ulti- mate needs. Buildings at all State higher educational institutions are in- adequate for present enrollments. It is recommended that a State building program for all in- stitutions of higher learning be adopted for a period of ten years with a view to providing each school with the necessary buildings. Plans for the future of the University and the Agricultural and Mechanical College should look forward to enrollments of from 5,000 to 8,000 students each ; for the College for Women, 1,000 stud- ents and for each of the State teachers' college, from 800 to 1,000 college students. Throughout the several State institutions generous appropri- ations are needed to provide for more scientific equipment. 388 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA THE COST OF THE PROGRAM. There remains to be considered the cost of an adequate State system of higher education in Oklahoma. It is recommended that for land and buildings at each institution approximately the follow- ing sums be made available annually for ten years : State University $750,000 Agricultural and Mechanical College 450,000 College for Women 200,000 Each State teachers' college 125,000 Colored Agricultural and Normal University 125,000 In general each institution should have, when properly equip- ped, educational buildings totaling in cost about $1,000.00 for each full-time college student of the average enrollment from September to June, and in addition such dormitories and other buildings as are necessary to meet the needs. LIBRARIES. The library is and must remain a principal feature of any edu- cational institution. None of the schools has enough useful books or sufficient library accommodations. The following recommendations are made : First, Sums rang- ing from $5 to $10 per student should be made available for books and magazines at the several institutions. Second^ The amounts available for salaries of the library staffs should be approximately equal to the amounts available for books on the above basis. Third, At each institution plans for the enlargement of the present library building, or for a new library building, should be prepared after consultation with expert librarians of larger institu- tions. REVENUES. First, the income derived from the production taxes on oil and minerals should be invested in a State building program. In such a program other State institutions besides those for higher education should be included. To expend this income in a way other than in a permanent investment seems very unwise. Second, At least a part of the money for higher education should be provided by means of a millage tax. Such taxation pro- vides a definite amount which can form the basis of planning. Third, The income from the various Federal land grants should be made available to the institutions concerned without appropri- SUMMARY OF RECOMMEXDATIONS 389 ation by the State Legislature. These grants are for specifie purposes. To include them in the appropriation bills can serve no good end and it makes it appear that these moneys are raised by taxation. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING RURAL SCHOOLS. (1) The elementary and secondary school system, teacher pre- paring institutions and functions, and certificating authority should be under the direction and superivision of the State board of edu- cation. The board should be composed of 7 or nine members elect- ed at large on a non-partisan basis and should serve long terms, probably 7 or 9 years. (2) The State Superintendent should be appointed by the board for a term and at a salary to be fixed by the board, and should be its executive officer to whom education matters are delegated for execution. The board itself should function as a legislative body. (3) A Division of Rural Schools should be established in the State department of education with one director in charge and at least 3 assistants. (4) Present school district lines and organizations should be discontinued, except in the case of certain districts meeting stand- ard requirements of the State board of education as to territory, valuation, and educational efficiency. All other districts now designated as ungraded rural, union graded, consolidated, and in- dependent should together form county systems of schools admin- istered by county board of education. COUNTY BOARDS OF EDUCATION. (5) The county board of education should be composed of 5 or 7 members elected at large for terms of 5 to 7 years each, one term expiring each year. They should have general control over all schools of the county outside of independent districts, have power to levy a county- wide school tax to be apportioned on an equalizing basis as bet ween. independent districts and county school districts, and should appoint as executive officer of the board a county superintendent of schools. (6) The county superintendent should be appointed for a term and salary designated by the board; should hold an administrative and supervisory certificate as provided in the certification law; should be a person of executive ability, broad training and eul- 390 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA ture, and successful administrative experience, selected Avithout re- gard to residence within or without the State or county, but solely because of special fitness for the position. (7) The county board, upon the nomination of the County superintendent, should appoint the supervisors and teaching staff; should levy a special tax for the support of the schools under its administrative control, and apportion it among the schools in the county according to their needs; provide buildings and equipment; locate school buildings and sites; fix the county salary schedule within the law; and perform all other duties usually assigned to boards of school trustees. (8) An adequate supervisory and clerical staff, suitable office, accommodations and equipment, and traveling expenses for superin- tendents and supervisors should be provided by the county board. Professional supervisors should be 'selected because of special ability, preparation, and successful experience, and should be paid salaries commensurate with the importance of their work. They should be nominated by the county superintendent and act as his assistants. At least one supervisor to every 40 teachers in addition to the first 25 should be employed ; one supervisor for every 25 teachers is a bet- ter allocation. (9) As soon as State and county departments are properly staffed a Division of School Attendance should be established in the State department, which should work with and through the county department of education. The responsibility for the en- forcement of the compulsory education law should be assumed by this division. A new system of keeping attendance records and re- ports and of encouraging better school attendance should be inaugu- rated. COURSE OF STUDY FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. (10) A new course of study should be prepared by the State board of education providing specifically in content and organiza- tion for the needs of rural schools of all the different types prevalent in the State. (11) A Division of School Buildings should be established in the State department, which should cooperate with the county departments of education. All new buildings and repairs for amounts greater than $400 should be submitted by the county su- perintendent for approval by the State building inspectors. These officers should be empowered to condemn present buildings which SUMMARY OF RECOMMEXDATIONS 391 do not meet the standards and requirements fixed by the State board of education. (12) Special provision for the training of teachers for rural schools should be made at an early date. Standards for teacher preparing courses should be set by the State board of education and requirements should conform to the provisions of the certification law and be gradually increased as rapidly as is consistent with the demand for teachers and the welfare of the schools. As soon as possible requirements for teaching certificates, standards for teacher preparing courses, and entrance requirements to classes and in- stitutions preparing teachers should be equivalent for rural and urban schools. (13) The movement for centralizing schools needs direction. The administrative organization suggested above will provide this, l^^ven with liberal State aid for equalization of educational appoint- ments and tax burdens, it will probably be necessary for the State to assume all or a large proportion of the expense of transporta- tion. The growing number of centralized schools indicate that there is a demand for special attention to their needs in organiza- tion, management, instruction, and course of study on the part of State authorities. RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS. (1) Oklahoma should develop a system of rural junior high schools whereby instruction in grades 7, 8, and 9, may be made effective and elementary schools relieved of the burden of the work in grades 7 and 8. Work in these grades is now maintained at the cost of efficiency in the first six grades. (2) The independent district system should be abandoned and the county unit system substituted under proper conditions of State aid. Inequalities of educational opportunity will thus be materially reduced. (3) The State board for vocational education should be made a part of the State department of education thus avoiding the pos- sibility of conflicting educational policies. PART TIME CLASSES SHOULD BE DEVELOPED FURTHER. (4) Oklahoma should give much more attention to the de- velopment of part-time work in vocational agricultural and in home economics. (5) Itinerant teaching on the part of vocational instructors should become general in sparsely settled agricultural counties. 392 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (6) Club work Avith boys and girls under the Smith-Lever service should be placed on a definitely educational basis under the direction of county superintendents. (7) Curricula definitely adapted to the needs of rural boys and girls should be developed in rural high schools. (8) Local administration in high schools should make such use of alternation and rotation of subjects in the curriculum as to insure that classes are of the proper size and a proper teaching load is maintained. (9) A complete reorganization of instruction in English is desirable. SOCIAL SCIENCES. (10) Instruction in social sciences should be emphasized and should grow out of problems laid bare by a study of the community. (11) Vocational guidance rather than vocational training should be sought in the junior high school years. (12) The State department should immediately undertake the task of organizing vocational courses in agriculture about the prac- tice jobs of the dominant agricultural enterprises of the State. (13) Instruction in home economics should make general use of a project method and get aM^ay from the academic method now prevailing. (14) State schools of agriculture should be placed on a basis of local support with State aid. (15) State Schools of agriculture should be placed under the control of the State department of education so long as they operate as State schools. (16) The State schools of agriculture should conform to the recommendations for curricula in comprehensive senior high schools. (17) Administration of rural high schools of the boarding type should bring about a close correlation between the three units which make up the schools, the school proper, the farm, and the boarding department. (18) A real vocational method in agriculture should be fol- lowed at such schools through a group project method. (19) Land owning rural high schools should become a center for agricultural extension work. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 393 THE UNIVERSITY PREPARATORY SCHOOL. AND THE OKLAHOMA MILITARY ACADEMY. Much of what has been said with reference to the District Agri- cultural Schools applies M-ith equal force to the University Prepara- tory School, at Tonka wa, and the Oklahoma Military Academy, at Claremore. At the dates when these schools were established, it was thought that the maintenance of secondary schools of these types by the State was necessary to the proper development of pub- lic education in Oklahoma. The conditions then obtaining, how- ever, no longer exist. With the subsequent improvements which have taken place, and with the development of public high schools along lines recommended in this report, it is difficult to see the necessity for the continuance of these schools as now constituted under State support and control. If they are to be continued as State institutions, their functions should be defined more specifi- cally, in harmony with the general educational program suggested in this report. VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS. Amend or revise the Constitution in such a manner as to permit a school unit to raise sufficient funds to maintain standard schools. A LONGER SCHOOL YEAR. Section 58 of the school laws should be repealed and a law en- acted requiring all school districts to maintain at least 8 months of school of 1924-25 ; and 9 months thereafter. Amend or revise Section 443 in such a manner as to make it mandatory upon an Excise Board to levy whatever rate, within the law, a school Board may decide that it needs to run the school properly. If a school Board fails to appropriate a sufficient sum the excise board may exercise the right to increase the appropriation. The present system of issuing teachers' certificates should be gradually abolished, and the plan herein proposed substituted for the present system as rapidly as possible. NUMBER AND KIND OF CERTIFICATES. The law should provide that the State Board of Education shall make regulations concerning the number and classes of teaching certificates, and shall fix regulations for the same in addition to the minimum prerequisites fixed by law; that the board shall provide for at least seven classes of certificates, mth at least two grades of each. 394 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA As rapidly as possible all teachers in grades 7 to 12 in city schools should be expected to meet the qualifications prescribed by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. These standards should not, for the present, apply to rural schools so far as the 7th and 8th grades are concerned. The certification law should be accompanied by a minimum sal- ary provision. The minimum salary should be prescribed for each grade of certificate, which salary should increase at least $50.00 a step as requirements increase. MODERN EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES. The public schools of Oklahoma should adopt the seven cardi- nal objectives of education announced by the Committee on the Re- organization of Secondary Education, or some similar formulation of aims. The seven objectives are : health, command of fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. REORGANIZATION OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. At present, most of the city school systems of Oklahoma pro- vide twelve grades of instruction. The twelve years are divid- ed into eight years of elementary and four years of high school, or what is commonly known as the 8-4 plan of organization. It is gratifying to note that many cities in Oklahoma have found it advantageous to modify the standard 8-4 plan and to inaugurate the 6-3-3 plan, or the 6-6 plan. In every instance observed, the adoption of the 6-3-3 or the 6-6 plan has apparently been decidedly advantageous. This plan is recommended for all cities, and the standards of the North Central Association of Colleges and Sec- ondary schools may well be adopted as guiding principles by city school boards throughout the State in the development of junior and senior high schools. FREE TEXT BOOKS. County uniformity of free text-books should be provided ex- cept in districts of 2,500 population or over. The State should not attempt to print its own text-books, or continue the present policy of State uniformity. The fundamental principles that should guide in the selection of text-books have been largely ignored in the present text-book law. The following cardinal principles, which should be the basis of leg- islation in regard to text-books, are set forth in the report. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 395 STATE AID FOR FREE TEXT BOOKS. It is recommended that the State shall provide each school unit, for the purchase of text-books, the sum of three to five dollars per pupil enrolled in kindergarten and grades one to six inclusive; the sum of four to six dollars for each white and colored pupil enrolled in grades seven to twelve inclusive ; provided that all money not ex- pended for the purchase of text-books may be spent in purchasing supplementary and reference books ; provided also that all money not so expended shall revert to the general school fund of the State. It- is estimated that after the first year free text-books will cost from one-third to one-half of the above estimate. This provides for re- placements. Appropriations should be made on this basis. Practically all of the cities visited should spend much more money for equipment; including charts, maps, sand tables, etc., for the grade schools. The needs of the high schools in the way of laboratory equipment have been fairly well met. In most cities the library facilities are very poor and should be materially in- creased. Supplementary reading material should be supplied much more liberally than is done throughout the twelve grades. Few schoolhouses or rooms are supplied with good pictures. Appro- priations made for the purchase of choice pictures as good educa- tional investments. The general provision in Section (397) which empowers the State Text-Book Commission "to select and adopt maps, charts, globes and other apparatus" should be repealed, along with other provisions of Section (397). Such materials should be selected by the same agencies as is elsewhere provided in this report for the selection of free text-books. CmVNGES IN TAKING OF CENSUS AND IN COMPULSORY AT- TENDANCE LAWS. The following changes are recommended: (a) The Superintendent of Schools should direct and the teachers take the school census. (b) The compulsory attendance law should apply equally to children attending non-public schools. (c) The limiting clause of Section (240) which permits chil- dren to absent themselves one-third of the time the school is in session should be repealed, and "full time" attendance should be required. (d) A provision should be added to Section (253) making it 396 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA mandatory iov Counties of 52,000 population or more to provide a county home for dependent white boys. (e) Section (245) and Section (248) should be amended to read "Destitute mothers of children under the age of sixteen years." (f) The minimum age for compulsory school attendance should be reduced from eight to seven years. (g) All non-public schools should be subject to inspection by local and State school authorities, and should be required to maintain standards for teacher preparation and certification, courses of study, school hygiene and sanitation, and attendance requirements, the equivalent of standards set up by the local and State public school authorities. ATTENDANCE LAWS. Directly associated Avith the school census is the problem of attendance. Section (241) requires the appointment in cities or incorporated towns of truancy officers by the Board of Educa- tion, and in School districts the appointment of truancy officer by County Superintendent. Attendance in city school systems seems to be fairly satisfactory in the white schools. Attendance officers state, however, that the provision which requires (Section 340) that the child be compelled to attend but two-thirds of the session practically nullifies the effective administration of the law. This limiting clause, namely the two-thirds proposition in the law, should be repealed immediately, and all children compelled to attend the full session unless physically or mentally incapacitated. This should apply equally to white and colored children under six- teen years of age. Section (245) and Section (248), which provide for the aiding of "Destitute mothers' should be amended to read "Mothers of children under sixteen years." There is a gap of two years be- tween the age fourteen, as stated in the present law, and sixteen years, provided for in "Compulsory Attendance Law and Child Labor Law," which has proved to be the cause of genuine distress. CONCERNING COUNTY HOME. Section (253) provides for "A county home for dependent white boys" in any county having a population of 52,000 in 1920. This number might Avell be reduced to twenty-five thousand population and provision made that two or more counties may jointly carry out the provisions of the Act. In counties over 52,000 it is recommended that the act be made mandatory. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 397 RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION OF PUPILS. The following recommendations are made for reducing retard- ation : (a) Parents should be urged to enter children at the earliest possible legal age. (b) Kindergartens should be established wherever school funds permit and enrollment justifies. (c) Greater care should be taken in grading, classifying, and promoting children. (d) Homogeneous speed grouping should begin with the first grade and continue throughout the system. (e) Scientific diagnostic and remedial work should accompany homogeneous speed grouping. (f) Medical and physical supervision should be provided for all children. (g) Regular attendance in the primary grades should be stressed as in upper grades. DEFINITION OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS. At the present time there is some confusion concerning the defi- nition of the different types of school districts, and also concerning the application of various laws to the different types. This con- fusion should be cleared up in order that the proper administration of the various school districts may be faeiJitated. SCHOOL HYGIENE AND HEALTH EDUCATION. One of the cardinal principles in modern education is the conser- vation of the health of the pupils and the creating of a health con- science. That is, the individual pupil should think not only of his own health but also how he may contribute to a general commun- ity health. Children should be taught the principles of health and hygiene. HELPFUL SERVICE OF THE SCHOOL NURSE. One of the most helpful agents in promoting health in the public schools is the school nurse. By inspecting the school fre- quently she discovers communicable diseases in their incipient state and thus prevents epidemics. The nurse also many times discovers physical abnormalities unsuspected by the parents of the children. The nurse's Avork is not only corrective and remedial but also edu- cational. The splendid work in educational tests and measurements in a 398 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA number of school systems should be encouraged and extended, and its benefits made State-wide. A law should be enacted and enforced making it illegal for any school board to erect or remodel any school building until the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, or an officer delegated by him, has certified to the clerk of the Board in writing to the ei¥ect that he has examined and approved the plans and specifications for the proposed building or remodeling. A minimum amount of two acres of ground for each school building should be required, unless for reason the requirement is waived by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The State Superintendent of Public In- struction should be required to prepare and adopt regulations fix- ing certain minimum standards for school buildings and equipment, and covering the plans and specifications of the same. Local school authorities who ignore and violate these standards should be punishable under the law. Boards of education in growing communities should be encour- aged to lay out a ten to tAventy year building jDrograni for the community. Sites should be purchased as long as possible in ad- vance of the time when they will be needed. School systems should not be allowed, like Topsy, to just groAv. If city planning is pos- sible, city school system planning is even more possible. Many cities in Oklahoma are making satisfactory progress in this regard, and this progress is to be commended to other munici- palities. The training equipment and ability of the teachers in the city schools of Oklahoma rank up with the same class in other cities of the United States. At present, there is no shortage in the supply of city school teachers. This applies to both trained and untrained teachers. If every superintendent rigidly observes the practice of employ- ing, for all ncAv A^acancies in the elementary school, only normal school graduates, and only college graduates in high school, it Avould be but a short time before Oklahoma Avould rank AA'ith Massachu- setts in the qualifications and training of the teachers. FcAv cities in Oklahoma attempt to maintain a scientifically graded salary schedule. The fcAV attempts are commendable in their accomplishments. The Oklahoma School LaAv on teachers' pensions apparently is a failure. There is a law on the statute books, but there is no money for its enforcement. Furthermore, the laAv itself is scarcely SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 399 adequate. Oklahoma should have an adequate teachers' pension law. A commission should be appointed, authorized by the Legis- lature, for the sole purpose of investigating and reporting to the Legislature a sound State-wide teachers' pension and annuity sys- tem. The powers and duties of boards of education should be more specifically defined. The relation of the superintendent to the board should be clearly defined. The law on the tenure of school superintendents should be amended so as to permit a Board of Education to contract with a Superintendent for a period of three to five years by a majority vote. The powers and duties of superintendents and other officers should be specifically defined. The Survey commends the Junior Colleges which have been es- tablished in a few cities, and the desire to develop standard one and two-year college courses in conjunction with other city school sys- tems. It is more economical to train college Freshmen and Sopho- mores in standard public junior colleges under the administration and partial support of local school units than it is to train them in State schools. SCHOOLS FOR NEGROES. Schools for Negroes should be operated on the same basis, and maintain the same standards as white schools, and they should be under the administration and support of the Board of Education of each local unit with a population of 2,500 or over. EDUCATION FOR INDIANS. The factors to be considered in formulating policies for Indian education are first, the economic, hygiene, and tribal conditions of the Indians ; second, the enumeration and enrollment of Indian youth of school age, and the school facilities now available for the Indians; third, the financial support of Indian education, and the relation of this support to the extensive areas of the non-taxable land in Oklahoma; fourth, the principles and methods of Indian Education during the transition of Indian youth from the boarding and day schools of the U. S. Indian Bureau to the public school sys- tem of the state; and fifth, recommendations concerning the edu- cation of Indians in Oklahoma. 400 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA SOME FACTS CONCERNING THE CHILDREN. In order to have some estimate of the number of Indian chil- dren now in boarding schools who should possibly be in public school, a study was made of the homes of the pupils in three of the largest government boarding schools in western Oklahoma and three of the Tribal schools of eastern Oklahoma with the following points in view : (1.) To find the number of Indian children now in boarding schools who should continue there. (2.) To find the number of children now in boarding schools who might be placed in public schools if provided with the assistance of a Home and' School Visitor or Field matron to ad as interpreter of the child to the public school and of the school to the home of the child. (3.) To discover the number of Indian children now in board- ing schools whose home conditions are such that they can be in available public schools. The following conclusions can be deduced: (1.) Of the 598 children on whose home conditions information could be gained, 406 should continue in boarding schools. (2.) 131 might be trans- ferred to public schools if provided with the help of a Home and School Visitor. (3.) 61, only 15 of whom are from the Avestern district, might now be in public schools. The following conditions make attendance of the majority of the pupils in boarding schools either desirable or necessary : Finan- cial inability to pay tuition in public schools; distance from public school, (three or more miles and difficulties of travel where the distances are less) ; lack of home because of death, immorality, sep- aration, and wandering propensities of parents or cruelty of step- parents; insanitary home conditions and disease. DIFFICULTIES TO BE OVERCOME. The following statements from the Government Health Drive records throw additional light on the need of boarding schools for Indian children, or a radical change in the public school system: (1.) "Many Indian children 14 or 15 years of age are in the 1st and 2nd grades." (2.) "Indian children in public schools do not always receive proper consideration from white pupils and teachers." (3.) "Indian children enrolled in public schools attend so ir- regularly that they receive little benefit." SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 401 (4.) "The length of the school year in public schools is shorten- ed because of the necessity for using the children in the cotton fields." (5.) "In country schools of Oklahoma, hygiene and sanitation are not taught until the 8th grade, which is reached only by a few of the Indian children most in need of this information." The significant facts shovtTi in Table 50 are as follows: (1.) The number of Indian youth of school age (6 to 21) is 30,798. (2.) The number enrolled in public, government and mission schools is 25,424. The apparently favorable significance of this figure is greatly diminished by the fact that the attendance for most of the large groups is only about 60 per cent. (3.) 21,245 Indians, forming 84i per cent of the Indian school enrollment, are already in public schools. (4.) Only 3,584 Indians, or 14 per cent of the Indian school enrollment, are in government and tribal schools. The following facts concerning the pupils enrolled in the gov- ernment schools are both significant and interesting: (1.) Classification of the pupils according to grade shows that 89 per cent are in grades 1 to 6 inclusive ; 9 per cent in grades 7 and 8 ; and only 2 per cent above the 8th grade. (2.) The age classification indicates that 29 per cent are 10 years of age or under ; 47 per cent are 11 to 15 years inclusive ; 19 per cent are 16 to 18 inclusive; and 5 per cent are over 18 years of age. (3.) According to proportion of Indian blood, the full-blood Indians are 71 per cent; the % to % bloods are 24 per cent; and 14 blood are only 5 per cent. FINANCIAL SUPPORT. The study of the financial support of education for Indians in Oklahoma involves a consideration of appropriations made by Con- gress for Indian Education, the school expenditures from tribal funds, public school taxes, and the loss of income to the state on account of the extensive areas of non-taxable lands in the state. The potential taxes on untaxed lands can , only be estimated on the basis of reports obtained from county tax assessors and of- ficers of the U. S. Indian Bureau. The estimates relating to the taxation of untaxable land are as follows : (For additional figures, see Appendix B.) 462 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (1.) Number of acres of untaxable land 7,000,000 (2.) Average value per acre of untaxable land (1922), $18.33 (3.) Average rate of school taxation (1922) 10 mills. (4.) Taxable value of 7,000,000 acres at $18.33 per acre, $128,300,000. (5.) Potential tax @ 10 mills $1,283,000 Comparison of Potential Tax and U. S. Government Ex- penditures for Indian education: Potential Tax $1,283,000 Appropriations from U. S. Govt, and Tribal Funds 855,000 $ 428,000 The differences between these two figures amounting to $428,- 000.00 is the present loss to the State because of non-taxable Indian lands, and this difference added to the amounts now expended 'by the government from Congressional appropriations and tribal funds equals the sum that will become available for the support of public schools when the trust period expires. INCREASED FEDERAL AID FOR INDIAN EDUCATION SHOULD BE SOUGHT. It is evident that the U. S. Government should adopt a policy of liberal support for all educational movements providing for the preparation of the Indian youth to enter the public school system so that the transfer may be made with the least possible friction or injustice to the Indians. The history of the Indian people in America shows that they are being gradually merged into general population of the country. The policy of U. S. Indian bureau is in accord with the general tenden- cy of Indian life. Sound educational policy requires that the responsibility and function of both groups of schools should be clearly recognized. (1.) U. S. Government Schools, originally offering the only school facilities to Indians and still needed to supplement the lim- ited school facilities of the state, will be needed for some time to come to provide education for the following special classes; (a.) orphans; (b) those subnormal in health; (c) those excluded by poverty; (d) those living too far from school; (e) those with unfavorable home conditions. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 403 (2.) The Public School System Avith its numerous school dis- tricts is fitted to care for the younger children who can thus remain at home and receive their training in the local schools. HOME AND SCHOOL VISITORS SHOULD BE APPOINTED. To the end that the public school facilities for Indian children may be improved, not only for those already enrolled, but also to justify the enrollment of still larger numbers of Indian children it is urged that Home and School Visitors should be provided in those counties having large numbers of Indian children to be educated. RECOMMENDATIONS. (1) The school system should be organized so that the Indian youth shall ultimately be educated in the public schools of the State. To this end the responsibility of the Federal government will gradually decrease, and that of the state will increase, until the schools are entirely controlled and maintained by the State. (2) Home and School Visitors should be provided in the coun- ties having large numbers of Indian children. These workers are to study the Indian homes and the schools, and to enlist the help of all county agencies for their improvement. During the trust period the Federal government should give liberal financial aid for the employment of these workers. (3) The present system of Federal and Tribal boarding schools should be continued so long as necessary to care for special classes of Indian children, such as orphans, and those imable to attend public schools on account of bad health, poverty, distance from school, or other disabilities. (4) The government school plants should be eventually acquir- ed by the State of Oklahoma, to be used as secondary training schools offering trade courses, agriculture, and home economics to Avhite and Indian youths. (5) The Federal government should provide liberal financial aid for the education of Indian children in public schools during the Trust period. EDUCATION FOR NEGROES. It is assumed that all recommendations of a general nature in other chapters of this survey will apply to both white and colored schools. (1) The white and colored schools, both city and rural should be supported financially in the same manner. 404 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (2) A State Supervisor of Negro Schools should be employed to give his full time to the betterment of Negro schools in the State. This supervisor should be appointed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, and should be paid not less than $3,000 per year, and allowed at least. $1,200 for travel expense. (3) The course of study in Negro schools, both city and rural should be made more practical and should be more closely related to the life and needs of the pupils. COUNTY INDUSTRIAL SUPERVISORS NEEDED. (4) In those 15 counties having the largest rural Negro populations, county industrial supervisors should be appointed to work as assistants to the county superintendents, in order that the work in the Negro rural schools may be of more value to the pupils. The work of these supervisors should be similar to that of the Jeanes Fund workers in Carter and Wagoner Counties, and in other States. A salary of not less than $1,500 should be paid, and the worker employed for 12 months. These supervising teachers should be appointed by the county superintendents, subject to the approval of the State Supervisor of Negro Schools. In order to induce the counties to employ these workers, half the salary should be paid by the State. An appropriation of $11,250 will be required for this. Well-trained and experienced colored women teachers should be secured for this work. (5) No more one-teacher schools should be built, or operated, than is absolutely necessary. As far as possible, consolidation should be effected so that the children may be taught in schools hav- ing two or more teachers. (6) Where conditions make a one-teacher school necessary, the school should have an industrial room as well as a large class- room, and should be equipped so that the teacher may have plenty of material to work with. (7) A State appropriation should be made to match the Fed- eral funds now available for the teaching of vocational agriculture under the Smith-Hughes Act. Thus if $5,000 is available, the State should set aside an equal amount. Since this money is match- ed by local funds, the total amount then available would be $20,000, (8) In order to encourage the teaching of vocational home eco- nomics, a State appropriation of $10,000 should be made, to pay one- half the salaries of teachers in State approved rural schools. This work should be under the direction of the State Supervisor of Home Economics, and at least 90 minutes per day should be devoted SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 405 to the work. This amount would be sufficient to provide for 20 schools, with an average salary of $1,000. (9) The State college for Negroes, either at Langston or at some other location, should be provided with dormitories and a teaching staff, such than an adequate supply of teachers for Okla- homa's schools, may be trained in the State. (10) In addition to providing for a supply of teachers, a col- lege department should be developed at the State college — now the Colored Normal and Agricultural University, in order that those students who expect to engage in other professions may receive col- lege training without having to leave the State. STATE AID FOR RURAL SCHOOL BUILDING. (11) A policy of State aid in the building of rural schools should be inaugurated, and an initial appropriation of $25,000 should be made for the first year. Aid should be given on the same condi- tions under which aid from the Rosenwald Fund is secured. This would insure proper use of the State money, and would insure the proper design and construction of rural schools. (12) Provision should be made for giving additional training,, especially along vocational lines, to those boys and girls who are forced to leave school before completing the high school course. By means of evening schools in cities, for example, many of these boys and girls can be reached. (13) The high school course in a city school should include at least one vocational course, designed to prepare students for some definite occupation open to them in the city. (14) An effort should be made to make the work in primary grades more effective, especially in city and town schools. This can be done by securing better primary teachers, by employing more teachers, so that there will be fewer pupils per teacher in the first four grades, and through supervision by the superintendent or a primary supervisor. (15) In order that at least one vocational high school may be developed in each of the 15 counties having the largest Negro rural population, it is recommended that the State aid one school in each county to the extent of $1,000 per year. The schools aided should be recommended by county superintendents, and approved by the State Department of Public Instruction, as to location, building, local support, equipment, and teaching force. A State appropria- tion of $15,000 would be necessaiy for this. Every school should be inspected and approved, or disapproved, each year, in order that proper standards may be maintained. APPENDIX A. LEGISLATION AFFECTING CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. The following paragraphs from the report of the survey of the public schools of Wheeling, West Virginia, will be suggestive to the citizens of Oklahoma in considering possible changes in city school organization and procedure. (See U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1921, No. 28, pp. 12-17.) II. THE LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM. There is a commendable tendency in progressive States to elimi- nate special charter legislation for indejiendent city school districts. When the State drafts a good general law for the purpose, it saves a city a good deal of special maneuvering simply to come in under it. If Wheeling does not choose to follow this course, it is recom- mended that, in rewriting the charter, the general State legislation be accepted so far as it is suited to conditions in Wheeling, and that special legislation be sought only in so far as the general legislation is not suitable. NECESSARY DISTINCTION BETWEEN STATE LEGISLATION AND THE RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE BOARD. Only the more general and fundamental things should be ac- complished by State legislation. Matters of detail should be left to the by-laws, rules and regulations, and other legislation by the board. In the following summary of the things to be taken care of in the proposed reorganization of the affairs of the independent school district of Wheeling, those matters which are usually best taken care of by State legislation are designated by the letter (S) ; and. those which are best included under the rules and regulations or other leg- islation of the board are designated by the letter (R). SUMMARY OF POINTS TO BE COVERED. (1) The subdistrict divisions should be abolished, except for attendance purposes. (S) (2) There should be a school board of five members, elected at large, one member being elected each year, for a term of five 406 APPENDIX A 407 years. (If elections must be biennial, then the term should be six years, one-third of the board, as nearly as may be, being elected at each election.) (S) (3) It is desirable, though not so essential, that members be nominated by petition and elected on nonpartisan ballot, at special school elections, held in the school buildings, and directed by the board of education. (S) (4) Board members should be citizens of the United States, and residents of the city for at least three years immediately preced- ing electioii. (S) (5) No salary or other remuneration should be paid to board members. This does not preclude the payment of traveling and other necessary expenses in the conduct of the boards business. (S) (6) When a vacancy occurs other than by expiration of term of office, it should be filled by the mayor (subject to confirmation by the council) until the next school election, when it should be fill- ed by election for the unexpired portion of the term. (S) (7) A specific day and hour should be fixed for the first meet- ing of the board subsequent to the annual election, at which time the board is organized for the year. (S) (8) A sepcific day and hour should be fixed for the regular monthly board meetings and a method prescribed for calling special meetings. (R) (9) The board should have no standing committees except the committee of the whole. (R) (10) When tasks arise demanding committee work, the board should appoint temporary special committees. (R) (11) The superintendent of education should be made the chief executive of the board of education in its administration of all aspects of the school system. (S) (12) The board should appoint the superintendent for a rela- tively long term of three or four years, subject to removal only for cause by a four-fifths vote of the board. (S) (13) In Wheeling the board should create (if not already created) and provide for the following positions subordinate to the chief executive: (1) Business assistant (who also should be clerk of the board) ; (2) manager of properties (or director of buildings and grounds), subordinate to the business assistant; (3) director of census and attendance; (4) director of health (includ- ing both medical inspection and physical education) ; (5) primary supervisor. Beyond these, the present provision of special super- 408 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA visors, principals, teachers, nurses, etc., appeal's to be good. (R) (By-laws.) (14) Outside of the major executive organization the board should provide for and appoint for only part-time or occasional duties an attorney, a treasurer, and an auditor. (R) (By-laws.) POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE BOARD. (15) The board should possess corporate powers: The power to acquire, hold, lease, and sell real and personal property; to receive bequests and donations; to sue and be sued; to condemn property needed for education purposes; and to perform other cor- porate acts required for the management and control of the schools and other agencies committed to its care. (S) (16) The powers and duties of the board of education should be: (a) To determine all questions of general policy to be employ- ed in the conduct of education. (S) (b) To create, abolish, modify, and maintain such positions, schools, divisions, classifications, etc., as may be necessary for the efficient administration of the work. (S) (c) To have the care custody, title, control, and safekeeping of all school property or other property of the city used for educa- tional, social, or recreational activities and not specifically placed by law under the control of some other body or officer, and to pre- scribe rules and regulations for the use and preservation of such property. (S) (d) To purchase new school sites or additions to sites, and to order new buildings or additions to buildings erected, as the needs of the schools and other educational, social, and recreational agen- cies under their control may necessitate ; and to approve all con- tracts entered into. (S) (e) To rent or lease property required for the use of schools or other agencies maintained and directed by the board. (S) (f ) To establish and maintain such free elementary schools, in- termediate schools, high schools, kindergartens, vocational and in- dustrial schools, technical schools, night schools, part-time or con- tinuation schools and classes, vacation schools, open-air schools, schools for adults, schools for delinquents, schools for mentally and physically defective children, or such other schools or classes as the board shall deem necessary to meet the needs and demands of the city. (S) APPENDIX A 409 (g) To establish and maintain libraries and museums which may be open to the public, to organize and maintain public lecture courses, and to establish, equip, and maintain play grounds, recre- ation centers, social centers, and reading rooms. (S) (h) To authorize the formulation of the annual budget of expenditures for the schools, public library, and other agencies main- tained by the board, and to pass upon and adopt such budget as the work appears to necessitate. (S) (i) To fix the annual tax levy for education. (S) (j) To fix the annual tax levy for education. (S) (k) To approve all expenditures made. (S) (1) To approve all contracts entered into. (S) (m) To authorize the formulation of the by-laws, rules, and regulations needed for the direction and management of the schools and other agencies and activities under the board, and to approve such by-laws, rules, and regulations before they become operative. (S) (n) To authorize the courses of study which shall be given in the schools or by other educational agencies directed and maintained by the board, and to approve the content of such courses before they become operative. (S) (o) To authorize the selection and determination of such books, maps, globes, apparatus, furniture, tools, and other equipment and supplies as may be necessary for the proper and efficient manage- ment of the schools and other educational, social, and recreational agencies and activities under its management and control, and to approve such selections and determinations before purchases are made. (S) (p) To authorize the purchase and provision of such books, maps, globes, apparatus, furniture, tools, and other equipment and supplies as may be necessary for the proper and efficient manage- ment of the schools and other educational, social, and recreational agencies and activities under its management and control, and to approve prices and other conditions of purchase, before such pur- chases are made. (S) (q) To select and employ a superintendent of education, who shall be the chief executive of the board. (S) (r) To authorize the determination of the number and quali- fications of employees to be provided for the work of the several schools and agencies, and to approve such determinations before employees are selected. (S) 410 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA (s) To authorize the establishment of an efficient system of certification of teachers, and the preparation of eligible lists. (S) (t) To require the superintendent to nominate all assistants, directors, and supervisors of special departments, principals, teach- ers, phyiscians, nurses, janitors and other officers and employees in the organization under his charge ; the board to pass upon and approve all nominations before appointments are made and to make all appointments and approve all contracts. (S) (u) To authorize the determination of plans for attendance, census, classification, grading, promotion, transfers, graduation from schools and courses, and other matters involved in the manage- ment and control of the pupils and students and to approve all such plans before they become operative (S) (v) To authorize the determination of plans for testing, re- cording and reporting the degrees of proficiency attained by the pu- pils in the several classes, grades, and schools ; approve such plans before they are put into operation ; and to provide the means neces- sary for making the plans operative. (S) (w) To authorize the preparation and publication periodical- ly of reports to the community which set forth in a clear and in- telligible manner the character of the efforts, degrees of achieve- ment, working conditions, finance, and further needs of the schools and other agencies maintained and directed by the board ; to approve such reports before they are published ; and to direct their publica- tion and distribution. (S) (x) To require their officials to make such reports of the edu- cational and other activities under their charge as may be legitimate- ly requested by county. State, or national authority. (S) (y) To perform any duty imposed upon boards of education by the laws or administrative regulations of the State so far as they may be applicable to the school or other educational agencies and affairs of the district and not inconsistent with other legislation affecting the district. (S) (z) To prescribe such by-laws, rules, and regulations as may be necessary to make the State legislation effective, and for the conduct of the proceedings of the board, and for transacting all the affairs of the board that relate to the management, operation, control, maintenance, and discipline of the schools, public library, and all other educational, social, and recreational agencies and activ- ities under its charge or direction. (S) APPENDIX A 411 (aa) To perform such other duties and to possess such other powers as may be required to administer the affairs placed under its control and management to execute all powers vested in it, and to promote the best interests of the schools and other agencies and activities committed to its care. (S) POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE SUPERINTENDENT. (17) The superintendent of schools should possess the fol- lowing powers and be charged with the following duties (a) To serve as the chief executive officer of the board in its conduct of the schools. and of other agencies and activities commit- ted to its care. (S) (b) To attend all regular and special meetings of the board, and to cooperate and advise with all committees of the board. (S) (c) To exercise the right to speak on all matters before the board, but not to vote. (S) (d) To enforce all provisions of law and all rules and regula- tions relating to the management of the schools and other educa- tional, social, and recreational agencies and activities under the direction of the board of education. (S) (e) To prepare and submit to the board for approval, by-laws, rules and regulations needed for the direction and control of the schools and other agencies and activities under the charge of the board. (S) (f) To prepare, in conference and cooperation with the di- rectors and supervisors of special departments, principals, teachers, librarians, and other competent members of the organization, the contents of each course of study authorized by the board of edu- cation. (S) (g) To select, in conference and cooperation ^^.nth. the directors and supervisors of special departments, principals, teachers, li- brarians, physicians and nurses the text-books and other books, apparatus, maps, charts, tools, equipment and all other supplies and appliances needed for the activities of the schools and other agencies under the care of the board. (S) (h) To determine the boundaries of school attendance subdis- tricts, subject to the approval of the board. (S) (i) To investigate the need of and recommend to the board provision for school facilities in the several subdistricts. (S) (j) To have charge of the operation and maintenance of the 412 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA buildings and equipment of the schools and other agencies under the board, the maintenance of grounds, and the purchase, storage, and distribution of books, maps, charts, apparatus, tools, and all other equipment, materials, and supplies. (S) (k) To have charge of the system of certification of all teach- ers and other employees except as otherwise provided for by law, and to prepare, as occasion demands, eligible lists for all types of positions. (S) (1) To nominate as needed the assistants, directors and super- visors of special departments, principals, tecahers, physicians, nurses, librarians, janitors, clerks, stenographers, and other employees, au- thorized by the board. (S) (m) To recommend, subject to the approval of the board, the salary to be paid each official or employee of the board. (S) (n) To have supervision and direction of assistants directors, and supervisors of special departments, principals, teachers, librar- ians, physicians, nurses, attendance officers, janitors, and other per- sons employed in the conduct of the schools and other agencies under the board. (S) (o) To assign principals, nurses, janitors, librarians, and other employees to the schools or other place where their work is to be done ; to transfer them from one school or other place of work to another; and to report immediately such transfers to the board for consideration and action. (S) (p) To assign teachers to schools, grades, classes, and courses according to the needs of the service; to transfer teachers from one school to another, from one grade to another, from one class to an- other, according to the needs of the service; and to report immed- iately such assignments and transfers to the board for its consider- ation and action. (S) (q) To report to the board violations of regulations and cases of insubordination; and in cases sufficiently grave to warrant it, suspend any official or employee under the direction of the super- intendent until the next regular meeting of the board when all the facts relating to the case shall be submitted to the board for its consideration and action. (S) (r) To recommend for discharge or retirement any employee under his direction whose influence or services are so unsatisfactory as to warrant such action, subject to the approval of the board. (S) (s) To prepare, in conference with the business assistant and APPENDIX A 413 Others in possession of the necesary facts, an annual budget, show- ing in detail the appropriations necessary to meet the estimated needs of the ensuing school year, and submit the same to the board for consideration and action. (S) (t) To recommend to the board transfers from one budgetary appropriation to another as conditions may require. (S) (u) To have power, within the limits of the detailed budget approved by the board, to approve and direct all purchases and ex- penditures, making report to the board at each monthly meeting, and at any other time when the board may request it ; to report pro- posed detailed expenditures prior to action, whenever the board may request the same, for its consideration and action, (S) (v) To have supervision and direction over all activities in- volved in the census, the enforcement of the attendance laws, the classification, grading, promotion, discipline, and the organization and management in general of the pupils and students, (w) To have supervision and direction over courses of study, methods of educational procedure, the working conditions of pupils and teachers, standards of achievement, the supervisory labors of special supervisors, principals, and departmental heads, the training of teachers in service, the measurement of educational achievements, and every other professional factor, agency, or activity involved in the efficient conduct of education. (S) (x) To make decisons in the case of controversies or conflicts arising in the administrative organization of which he is the head, subject to appeal to the board. (S) (y) To decide all matters of detail purely ministerial and ad- ministrative in the application of laws, by-laws, rules, and regula- tions to the concrete situations that are met with; and to decide any matters that may raise concerning which no specific provision is made in the legislation, reporting his decisons at the next regular meeting of the board following such decisions. (S) THE BUSINESS ASSISTANT AND CLERK OF THE BOARD. (18) The business assistant to the superintendent and clerk of the board, before entering upon the duties of his office, should exe- cute a bond in such sum as directed by the board, conditioned upon the faithful discharge of his official duties, and delivery to his successor of all district property pertaining to his offffice or in his custody. (19) The business assistant, under the supervision and direc- 414 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA tion of the superintendent, should perform the following duties: (a) Act as purchasing agent, receive, store, and distribute the books, supplies, apparatus, and other materials and appliances authorized by the board. (R) (b) Represent the board in negotiations relating to the con- struction, repair, and maintenance of school property. (R) (c) Recommend to the board through the superintendent such assistants, clerks, janitors, engineers, foremen, and mechanics as shall be needed for continuous employ in the department under his charge; and have authority to employ for brief periods such work- men as are necessary for the execution of the labors of his depart- ment, and to discharge the same. (R) (d) Supervise all matters of repair, and have general charge of all buildings under the charge of the board. (R) (e) Make and keep accurate and reliable real and personal property records which shall show the cost, time of purchase or ac- quisition, present value, and location of the property. (R) (f) Cause of the property of the board to be insured in such amounts as the board may from time to time direct, and keep a record of insurance placed on school property. (R) (g) Make to the board through the superintendent written monthly report of the condition of the buildings and other property of the board, as to repairs, construction, and improvements, in- cluding such requests of principals as require action of the board, with recommendations thereon. (R) (h) Draw up or examine all contracts and other engagements in which the board is a party. (R) (i) Receive tuition fees, fines, money from the sale of books, shop construction, and other school property and services, from other buildings, and from other sources, except such as are paid to the treasurer of the board according to law, and deposit all moneys collected by him with the district treasurer at least once each month. (R) (j) Audit all claims, approve all bills, and submit the same to the auditor of the board for audit and approval. (R) (k) Audit all cash collections made by the agents of the board, and determine the kind of form of reports to be required of such collection agents. (R) (1) Keep the revenue and expense accounts, asset and liability accounts, budget allowance ledger, registers of purchase orders. APPENDIX A 415 vouchers and warrants, expenditure distribution record by schools, pay-roll records, registers of leases ; rents, bonds, and building con- struction, and other contracts. (R) (m) Draw all warrants in payment of claims against the board. (R) (n) Submit to the board a monthly report of receipts, dis- bursements, and budget balances, and an annual report at the close of the fiscal year. (R) (o) Act as custodian of all contracts, securities, documents, title papers, books of record, and other papers belonging to the board. (R) (p) Have supervision and direction over the director of properties, janitors, and other continuous or temporary employees of the department under his charge. (R) ■ (q) Perform such other duties as may be assigned by the superintendent under the authorization of the board. (R) (20) The business assistant, in his capacity of clerk of the board, should perform the following duties: (a) Perform the usual functions of secretary to the board. (R) (b) Keep the minutes of the meetings of the board, and a calendar of all matters referred to committees and others, and re- port action or non-action on the same at each regular meeting. (R) (c) Send written notices to board members of both special and regular meetings of the board, with calendar of all matters to be brought before the meeting so far as these are known at time of sending the notice. (R) (d) Receive and reply to all communications to the board according to the directions of the board. (R) (e) Perform such duties as are prescribed by law or by the by-laws of the board in connection with school elections of every kind. (R) The legislation above suggested ^^dll provide for good organi- zation and procedure upon the administrative level of the manage- ment. It is not possible here to enter into a full enumeration of all the laws, by-laws, rules, and regulations that should be enacted for the governance of the schools. The things to be provided for are very numerous and can be acsertained by an examination of the complete school code of West Virginia, or other States, together with an examination of manuals and rules and regulations of care- ful school boards. APPENDIX B. Statement of Untaxed Indian Lands in Oklahoma. EASTERN OKLAHOMA. (a) From actual records: U. S. Indian County Assessors County Agency Figures Figures Bryan $ 20,870.00 Carter 40,360.00 $ 40,000.00 Coal 37,1'J'O.OO 100,000.00 Craig 27,830.00 Creek * 220,825.00 Hughes 191,850.00 71,209.00 Jefferson 31,850.00 Marshall 24,340.00 Mayes 23,570.00 Mcintosh 163,830.00 98,620.00 Muskogee 29,930.00 Nowata 55,410.00 Okfuskee 226,450.00 117,955.00 Okmulgee 114,280.00 36,000.00 Pittsburg 62,460.00 314,269.00 Pontotoc 91,780.00 175,000.00 Rogers 52,140.00 Seminole 238,050.00 Stephens 14,400.00 140,000.00 Tulsa 61,020.00 Wagoner 58,600.00 Washington 83,580.00 61,747.00 $1,870,595.00 $1,154,800.00 (b) From a carefully considered estimate: Adair $139,520.00 Atoka 201,600.00 Cherokee 225,000.00 Choctaw 250,000.00 140,450.00 Delaware 150,000.00 416 APPENDIX B 417 Garvin Grady Haskell Johnston Latimer LeFlore Love .„ McClain Mc Curtain .. Murray Ottawa Pushmataha Sequoyah 125,000.00 210,000.00 157,000.00 140,000.00 207,000.00 523,840.00 40,250.00 57,600.00 618,240.00 40,000.00 120,000.00 455,000.00 188,000.00 $3,848,050.00 90,000.00 180,000.00 200,000.00 75,000.00 60,946.00 25,000.00 423,055.00 100,000.00 113,620.00 $1,408,079.00 WESTERN OKLAHOMA. U. S. Indian County Agency Figures Blaine -.. $87,994.05 Caddo 227,441.30 Cleveland _ 15,775.01 Comanche 138,321.17 Canadian _ 30,647.73 Cotton 89,760.05 Custer _ 50,500.80 Dewey _.. 40,603.03 Kay _._ 50,064.43 Kingfisher 11,120.39 Kiowa 114,121.17 Lincoln 12,660.74 Logan 320.00 Noble _... 69,252.56 Oklahoma 4,816.24 Osage 128,000.00 Ottawa - _ 31,623.58 Pawnee 51,153.20 Payne 19,180.16 Pottawatomie 36,980.74 Roger Mills 8,617.19 County Assessors Figures $98,000.00 65,160.00 44,200.00 8.613.00 73,000.00 268,493.00 50,000.00 7,000.00 418 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Washita _ 26,189.37 TiUman 46,111.61 46,418.00 $1,291,254.52 $660,884.00 —TOTAL— Western Oklahoma... $1,291,254.52 $660,884.00 Eastern Oklahoma Group 1—1,870,595.00 Group 1—1,154,800.00 Group 2— 3,848,050.00 (a) Group 2—1,408,079.00 Total $7,014,899.52 $3,223,763.00 (a) Estimated amount. About 15 per cent of the area of the State is non-taxable according to Agency figures. • APPENDIX C. Plan For Distribution of Aid From the Julius Rosenwald. Fund For Building Rural Schoolhouses in the South. For the Year Beginning July 1, 1922 and Ending June 30, 1923. (1) The Julius Rosenwald Fund will co-operate with public school authorities and other agencies and persons in the effort to provide and equip better rural schoolhouses for the Negroes of the Southern States, such equipment as desks, blackboards, heating apparatus, libraries and toilets being deemed of equal importance with the schoolhouses themselves. (2) The sites and buildings of all schools aided by The Fund shall be the property of the public school authorities. (3) The Trustees of The Fund and the State Department of Education have agreed as to the number of new buildings in the construction of which they will co-operate. (4) The school site must include ample space for playgrounds and for such agricultural work as is necessary for the best service of the community. Aid will be granted only when the site meets the approval of the State Department of Education and the General Field Agent of The Fund. The minimum acceptable for a school is two acres. For the larger schools more land is desirable. (5) Plans and specifications for every building shall be approved by the General Field Agent before construction is begun. On request from the State Department of Education. The Fund will consider it a privilege to furnish general suggestions, plans and specifications for schoolhouses. (6) It is a condition precedent to receiving the aid of The Fund that the people of the several communities shall secure, from other sources: to-wit — from public school funds, private contri- butions, etc., an amount equal to or greater than that provided by The Fund. Labor, land and material may be counted as cash at current market values. Money provided by The Fund will be available only when the amount otherwise raised, with that to be given by The Fund, is sufficient to complete, equip and furnish the building. (7) The Fund will deposit with every co-operating State De- partment of Education a sum of money recommended by the General 419 420 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Field Agent to constitute working capital, from which the proper State official may make disbursements as required. Whenever the State Department reports to the General Field Agent any amount or amounts disbui-sed, with a statement showing that the* work has been inspected and approved by an authorized representative of the Department, The Fund will replenish its deposit in the amount dis- bursed, if the inspection report is approved. (8) The amount appropriated by The Fund shall not exceed $500 for a one-teacher school, $700 for a two-teacher school, $900 for a three-teacher school, $1,100 for a four-teacher school, $1,300 for a five-teacher school, $1,500 for a six-teacher school or larger, and $200 for the addition of a class room to a Rosenwald School already built. (9) Aid will be granted toward the construction and equip- ment of only those schools where the term runs at least five con- secutive months. (10) Every community, where an application has been approved, agrees to complete, equip and furnish its school building before June 30, 1923, otherwise such application automatically cancels itself. (11) To insure the protection of the property and to make the schools serve the broadest community interests. Teachers' Homes should be provided on the school grounds. In a limited number of selected localities, where the annual school term is eight months or ;more, The Fund will consider co-operation in the construction of 'Teachers' Homes, to be completed and furnished to correspond Avith the school buildings. The amount of aid to be given on a Teachers' Home shall not exceed one-half of the total cost of the building, provided the maximum from The Fund shall not exceed $900 for any Teachers' Home. Just as in the case of school build- ings, the Teachers' Home must be 'deeded to the public school authorities. It is desirable for each of these homes to have a bath- room, and if possible, a bath-tub and wash basin. If there is ample water supply a hand-power force pump -with, a tank can be installed at a very small expense, Avhich will furnish water for the bath, a kitchen sink and the home economics room of the school.