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DRESSMAKING 
 
 A MANUAL FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 BY 
 
 JANE FALES 
 
 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS, DIRECTOR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF 
 TEXTILES AND CLOTHING, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON 
 
TT5"'* 
 
 . F3 
 
 Copyright, 1917, by 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 / 
 JAN 10 (917 
 
 ICU455C70 
 ~VvD ( 
 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The purpose of this book is to give such instruction 
 in dressmaking — in the broadest meaning of the term — 
 as to make a text-book for both teacher and student in 
 colleges and schools (above the elementary) where sewing 
 or dressmaking is taught. 
 
 The Introduction considers the fundamental meaning of 
 dressmaking. It traces the development of the art of 
 dressmaking from its simple beginnings to its present 
 elaborate expression — from the time when clothing was 
 represented by painting and tattooing to the present day, 
 when numerous coverings conform to the various require- 
 ments of custom, use, and fashion. 
 
 Part I presents the development of costume from the 
 standpoint of history and design. This material is neces- 
 sarily given in an abbreviated form and serves merely as 
 a suggestive outline for further study and research. 
 
 Part II considers Textiles, the materials which are used 
 in dressmaking, and discusses the economic value of vari- 
 ous fibres and fabrics. The general processes of textile 
 manufacture are given to serve as a basis for consider- 
 ation of the cost and wearing qualities of any fabric. A 
 few suggestions are included for physical tests for fabrics 
 — such tests as do not require a knowledge of chemistry 
 and are possible in the schoolroom or at home. 
 
 Part III treats of design and technique in pattern- 
 making and dressmaking. It presents various methods 
 for cutting, fitting, and finishing a garment to meet the 
 demands of art and of convention as affected by fashion. 
 
iv Preface 
 
 A knowledge of all fundamental stitches and seams is pre- 
 supposed and no instruction in elementary sewing is in- 
 cluded. Directions are given, however, for any sewing 
 which pertains strictly to dressmaking. 
 
 In Part II, Textiles, the author is greatly indebted to 
 the generous co-operation of Mr. Edgar H. Barker, chief 
 of the Departments of Woolen and Worsted Yarns of 
 the Lowell Textile School, not only for his valuable con- 
 structive criticism, but also for many opportunities for 
 technical verification which his wide experience and vital 
 interest in the subject have made possible. 
 
 In Part III, Dressmaking, Miss Ruth Wilmot, of 
 Teachers College, has rendered helpful criticism and 
 general suggestions in the chapters dealing with the 
 technique of dressmaking and the problem of design. 
 To Miss Bessie White, of Teachers College, the author 
 is also gratefully indebted for the outline of the chapter 
 on Embroidery. 
 
 For advice in the plan, scope, and organization of ma- 
 terial the author wishes to express her thanks to Doctor 
 Frederick Henry Sykes, president of the Connecticut 
 College for Women, at whose suggestion the book was 
 first undertaken and whose kindly interest has continued 
 throughout its construction. 
 
 Lastly, she wishes to record her thanks to Miss Edna 
 Dingwall, through whose untiring and sympathetic as- 
 sistance the labor of the completion of the book has been 
 appreciably lightened. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction vii 
 
 PART ONE— THE HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT 
 OF COSTUME 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. Costume r 
 
 PART TWO— TEXTILES 
 
 II. Textile Manufacture 48 
 
 III. Textile Economics 120 
 
 PART THREE— DRESSMAKING 
 
 IV. General Suggestions and Instructions . . . 155 
 V. Drafting and Pattern-Making 172 
 
 VI. The Use of Commercial Patterns 239 
 
 VII. Pattern-Designing and Draping 250 
 
 VIII. Waists 313 
 
 IX. Skirts 373 
 
 X. Finishings and Embroidery . . . . . . .421 
 
 Bibliography 486 
 
 Index 480 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 When the various and intricate garments of to-day are 
 donned, there is little thought of why clothes are worn, 
 of what the beginnings of the custom or habit were, or of 
 the evolution of that custom from its simplest expression 
 in the garb of primitive man to its most complex in that 
 of the civilized nations of the present day. But just as it 
 is not possible to study intelligently the art of modern 
 painting or sculpture without some knowledge of its back- 
 ground or history, so it is not satisfactory to begin a study 
 of the art of dressmaking without some consideration of its 
 past and of its evolution from that past. 
 
 In very early periods man was unclothed and prob- 
 ably unadorned. The beginnings of clothing have been 
 attributed to various causes: to a feeling of modesty or 
 shame; to a need for protection against climate; but it is 
 generally conceded that coverings were due to and de- 
 veloped from a desire for ornament or for the distinction 
 which decoration or ornament brings. 
 
 Clothing was not, originally, due to the demands of 
 modesty. The idea of what constitutes modesty has been 
 expressed very differently by different races. With some 
 tribes of savages coverings can be and are entirely dis- 
 pensed with, without consciousness, if the body is tat- 
 tooed or painted. Among the savages in Alaska a woman 
 must never appear without a plug in her lips. Similar 
 variations are found among civilized races. The Mo- 
 hammedan women satisfy the demands of modesty by 
 covering the face, the Chinese women by concealing the 
 feet. In Western nations a woman has been allowed to 
 wear, without comment, a very decollete costume at 
 night, but the same garment was not considered appro- 
 
viii Introduction 
 
 priate for street wear. Recently, however, it is evident 
 that fashion has affected our feeling of what constitutes 
 modesty, for the prohibition has been removed, and con- 
 vention is not outraged by the decollete costumes which 
 are constantly seen in the street. Again, both men and 
 women appear for public bathing in costumes which would 
 be considered, at present, highly immodest for either the 
 street or the ballroom. 
 
 Westermarck says that the feeling of shame is not the 
 cause but the result of covering the body; that modesty 
 is evidently self-consciousness caused by the unusual — it 
 might be from wearing clothing or from going without it. 
 If custom or convention is followed, no self-consciousness 
 will arise. 
 
 That morality has nothing to do with coverings seems 
 proved again by savages. Among rude races immorality 
 is less common than among the more clothed. 
 
 Climate has affected and still affects the wearing of 
 clothing somewhat, but it can be in no way held re- 
 sponsible for its first adoption. Many races living in hot 
 countries wear the full amount of clothing, while others, 
 living near Cape Horn, still unaffected by civilization, 
 wear almost nothing. Among civilized nations there is 
 less and less distinction shown in regard to materials ap- 
 propriate for different seasons. We now see chiffon and 
 fur combined for summer or winter as fashion dictates. 
 The convention of the cities demands a coat for the street 
 no matter what the temperature may be. 
 
 According to Carlyle: "The first spiritual want of a 
 barbarous man is decoration." There are peoples desti- 
 tute of almost everything which is included among the 
 necessities of life, but there are no people so rude as not 
 to possess and take pleasure in possessing and wearing 
 ornaments. 
 
 Ornament and clothing signify the desire which has 
 always been present in man to express his personality and 
 attain distinction among his fellows. This desire was first 
 evidenced by the tattooing or painting of the body for 
 decoration. It is suggested that man may have received 
 
Introduction ix 
 
 scars in battle, which brought him not only glory, and 
 distinction from men, but also sympathy and attention 
 from women. He naturally desired to perpetuate the 
 scar and retain the position gained, so the scar was care- 
 fully reproduced in paint. 
 
 Hanging ornaments, trophies of battle or travel, were 
 the next step in decoration. They were probably com- 
 bined with tattooing, and their use may have come from 
 man's innate taste for change; for, while painting was 
 permanent, ornaments could be hung on the body in a 
 variety of ways — the ears, nose, lips, arms, fingers, legs, 
 and waist all served as ornament-bearers. Of these, the 
 waist offered the greatest opportunity for decoration, and 
 it is probably from the girdle or waist ornaments that the 
 earliest form of actual coverings was developed. Aprons 
 or abbreviated skirts appeared, followed in quick succes- 
 sion by a shoulder-covering. Both of these were made of 
 skins of animals or, as the art of weaving became known, 
 of plaited reeds and grasses. 
 
 Superstition may have played a part in the use of orna- 
 ments. In many cases they seem to have been considered 
 a protection against the dark and evil spirits, both feared 
 by primitive man. Ornaments were donned for protec- 
 tion; they have been continued for decoration. Super- 
 stition did not entirely die out with the disappearance 
 of primitive man. From time to time slight evidences of 
 it are found to-day. For example, many children wear 
 amber necklaces as a preventive of sore throat. Can a 
 savage do better than that ! 
 
 At first, then, ornament or clothing was desired by man 
 because it gave him individuality, distinction, and, as a 
 result, probably a certain social standing. It is interest- 
 ing to attempt to note in how far the same desire, creating 
 others in its advance, seems to have been at work through- 
 out the succeeding ages in bringing clothing, in its many 
 phases, to the present important position which it un- 
 questionably occupies in the industrial and social world 
 to-day. In studying the gradual development of dress, 
 this desire is so woven into its very foundation that it is 
 
x Introduction 
 
 difficult to separate its results from those of other strong 
 influences, many of which were brought to life by it. 
 
 To quote Carlyle again: "Society is founded upon Cloth. 
 All visible things are emblems. Hence, clothes are so un- 
 speakably significant." All social distinctions are made 
 more distinct by clothing. What real value have the 
 so-called precious stones except that given them because 
 of their scarcity? Their possession demands great ex- 
 penditures and consequently indicates the economic status 
 of the wearer. Again, the judge shows his power, the 
 minister the dignity of his calling, by a special kind of 
 covering. And so on through various social strata. Once 
 having established various standards as evidencing social 
 position, convention demanded strict adherence to them, 
 allowing only the demands of that all-powerful factor fash- 
 ion to change that standard from time to time. 
 
 The first coverings worn, even though necessarily sim- 
 ple, must have given much the same satisfaction as hanging 
 ornaments, in that there could be constant variety and in- 
 creased number. No attempt was made to fit these gar- 
 ments. All skins or furs were flat and materials were 
 woven flat; but the body was of varying contour, and so 
 the materials seem most often to be draped or held around 
 the body by a girdle and some substitute for pins. 
 
 As greater technical skill was acquired and the number 
 of garments increased, it was found satisfactory to have 
 the shape of the garments conform somewhat to that of 
 the figure. Once this fashion was established, great in- 
 terest was shown in the figure and more fitted garments 
 followed. With the fitted garments the question of con- 
 venience arose. Clothing must be made to be put on and 
 taken off without difficulty; it must be so made as not to 
 hamper the use of all parts of the body. In addition to 
 cut came the question of materials; only those could be 
 chosen which were sufficiently flexible to permit freedom 
 of action. Otherwise chain armor or steel plate might 
 form a part of clothing for regular wear. 
 
 Why was it that distinction was finally made between 
 man's costume and that of woman? In all probability it 
 
Introduction xi 
 
 was that same factor which is to-day affecting dress — the 
 question of occupation, of utility, which involves the ques- 
 tion of suitability to circumstances and environment. 
 
 How soon fashion began to affect dress and its develop- 
 ment it is difficult to state. There seem to be various 
 explanations for its power past and present. The most 
 potent factor was, without doubt, the desire for variety, 
 the stimulus attendant on change, the universal dramatic 
 quality, the desire to become part of the "passing show" — 
 to be "in fashion." 
 
 But to-day a careful analysis shows that the trade in- 
 fluence far outweighs all other factors in the fashion world. 
 The manufacturer has played on the desire for variety 
 to his commercial advantage. In spite of public opinion 
 and the taste of designers, he is practically universally 
 successful in emerging each season with such new fashion 
 requirements as necessitate a constant output of fresh 
 materials. 
 
 The first coverings which were made — that is, shaped 
 and sewed — were the products of the home. As they 
 increased in number and were more fitted, the making 
 of the garments became more difficult and demanded the 
 special attention of certain numbers of people, and we 
 have the simple beginnings of dressmaking as an occupa- 
 tion. 
 
 In the development of the trade which followed, many 
 changes have been made in the texture and design of the 
 materials used; but in form they have remained a flat 
 web, woven without any effort to conform to the outline 
 of the figure which they are intended to cover. In these 
 same thousands of years of change, the number and char- 
 acteristics of the garments worn have, in general, been the 
 same, but the variety of style and intricacy of cut have 
 so increased, and with the increase have been included so 
 many other considerations, that dressmaking, which was 
 at first estimated merely as a trade, must now be treated 
 as an art. 
 
 Dressmaking, when considered as an art, makes many 
 demands. It requires not only improved methods of con- 
 
xii Introduction 
 
 struction but an appreciation of the relation of technique 
 to art, to hygiene, to economics. Technique has received 
 more emphasis than have these broader relationships, and 
 consequently its development has been more rapid and 
 complete, and we now have fairly definite rules for sewing 
 and many improved methods for cutting and fitting. To 
 cut a garment satisfactorily and make it fit, according to 
 the demands of fashion and the needs of the human form, 
 is a difficult task; consequently many methods have been 
 devised — such as cutting by patterns made to regular meas- 
 ures, by drafting to individual measures, and by draping 
 on a dress-form arranged to correspond to the desired 
 measures. All of these systems are so much used that they 
 have given rise to extensive business operations which have 
 adapted the systems to the prevailing fashions and brought 
 them to a point nearing perfection. 
 
 So greatly has the emphasis been laid on technique 
 alone that hitherto a garment has been adjudged satis- 
 factory if well made. Now, however, a new standard 
 must be met. While it is obviously impossible to formu- 
 late definite rules for a complete understanding of this 
 larger scope of the problem of dressmaking, it is clear that 
 beyond a mere knowledge of the method of construction 
 there must also be an appreciation, which shall require for 
 the finished garment not only utility and suitability but 
 definite hygienic, economic, and aesthetic values. In meet- 
 ing the demand there is necessity not only for a working 
 knowledge of the fundamental principles of hygiene and 
 physiology, textile economics and art, but also for a knowl- 
 edge of the development of costume through the past cen- 
 turies — that is, a history of costume, showing the evolu- 
 tion of modern dress. 
 
 While these broader relationships may seem at present 
 intangible and difficult to acquire and apply, dressmaking 
 in its fullest meaning must include them, together with 
 perfection in technique. In determining the value of the 
 finished garment, these factors are equally important, and 
 one cannot be stressed at the expense of the other. 
 
 In the chapters which follow, an effort has been made 
 
Introduction xiii 
 
 to present the subject of dressmaking from this view- 
 point. If this is kept in mind the book — which at first 
 may appear to contain material not now generally con- 
 sidered relevant to the dressmaking problem — will be 
 much more easily understood and prove much more valu- 
 able as a text. 
 
 It is not possible to present in detail, in the limited 
 space allowed, such important subjects as textiles, his- 
 toric development of costume, and design. The chapters 
 in which they are included do not aim in any way to 
 survey the subjects completely. They consider only what 
 seems absolutely essential and what may prove suggestive 
 of the fuller possibilities of these subjects in their relation 
 to the dressmaking problem. 
 
DRESSMAKING 
 
PART I— THE HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT 
 OF COSTUME 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 COSTUME 
 
 The study of the development of costume throughout 
 the early ages presents many difficulties. Until a fairly 
 recent period fashion books were unknown, and the only 
 records were those found in the writings of the times, in 
 wall carvings and paintings, in sculptures on monuments 
 and tombs, on seals and various gems, and a little later in 
 engravings of various fetes, royal processions, marriages, 
 etc. All these were not made with the student of cos- 
 tume history in mind, but generally to commemorate some 
 event or to perpetuate the memory of various reigning 
 monarchs, and in consequence they were not always ac- 
 curate representations of the period they illustrate. Allow- 
 ance must be made for the vagaries of the artists, the ma- 
 terials in which they worked, and also for the fact that in 
 many cases these monuments were not made until some 
 centuries later than the events they commemorated, when 
 little accurate information existed regarding the costume 
 of the earlier periods. To obviate this difficulty, the cos- 
 tume of the period at which the work was actually executed 
 generally appears. 
 
 By the comparison of various records, however, a fairly 
 satisfactory and continuous outline of costume history has 
 been worked out — an outline which in general is sufficiently 
 suggestive to meet the demands of the modern dress de- 
 signer. 
 
 Every fashion and every detail of fashion of the pres- 
 ent day may be traced to that of some former period. It 
 
 1 
 
2 Dressmaking 
 
 is only through contact with the representations of these 
 fashions that the creative ability so necessary in designing 
 is awakened; it is only through a knowledge of them that 
 what is called "originality" is possible. In this connec- 
 tion originality means the power to adopt and adapt suit- 
 ably the fashions of the past to the demands of the 
 present. 
 
 It is because the French have this knowledge, because 
 in their libraries, churches, and museums there are these 
 records free to all, because for centuries they have ap- 
 preciated their value and have through constant practice 
 acquired skill in their use, that all the fashion world looks 
 to them for inspiration and guidance in design in cos- 
 tume. 
 
 To be of the greatest use an outline history of costume 
 should include a survey of the costumes of the ancient 
 Egyptians, the Grecians, and the Romans, as showing the 
 general type of garment used in early civilizations. These 
 differ very greatly from the garments worn by the Gauls 
 at the time of their conquest by the Romans, or from those 
 of the Franks who later appeared and gradually took pos- 
 session of Gaul, renamed it France, and established there 
 the French nation. French costume, as such, may be con- 
 sidered as beginning at this time, about the sixth century. 
 From this period no attempt is made here to describe even 
 briefly the costume of any other nation than the French. 
 They began at an early period not only to create their own 
 fashions but to make whatever fashions they borrowed 
 distinctively theirs by their manner of adoption. Because 
 of limited space the costumes of men are omitted from this 
 outline; in Egypt, Greece, and Rome they did not differ 
 in their main characteristics from those of the women, and 
 in French costume the same names and many of the same 
 characteristics persisted until the Renaissance, from which 
 time there is definite distinction between the garments of 
 the men and women. 
 
Costume 
 
 I. Egyptian Costume 
 
 Egyptian dress was evidently as much ruled by fashion 
 as is the dress of more modern nations. It was unlike 
 modern dress, however, in that the costume of the men 
 showed more changes than did that of the women and 
 seemed of greater importance. For a period of about thir- 
 teen hundred years all Egyptian women, whether princess 
 or peasant, old or young, wore one garment, a simple dress. 
 It was without folds and so narrow that the form was 
 
 Simple dress of Egyptian women 
 
 plainly visible. This garment reached from just below the 
 breast to the ankles and had few variations in style. These 
 were generally in the arrangement of the shoulder straps 
 or braces which served to hold the dress in place. These 
 straps were straight bands and were usually worn over 
 both shoulders. They were, however, sometimes arranged 
 to form a V-shaped neck. Occasionally only one or even 
 no strap was used, in which case the costume was made 
 sufficiently narrow to keep it in place. The usual orna- 
 mentation for the dress was a little embroidery at the 
 hem. 
 
 Improved commercial relations and greater intercourse 
 with foreign nations affected Egyptian fashions. The 
 same narrow dress was first arranged to cover the left 
 
Dressmaking 
 
 shoulder and to leave the right one uncovered and the 
 arm free. Later there were various changes, such as the 
 addition of fulness and the use of a short sleeve for the 
 left arm. Over the dress a wide, loosely flowing cloak or 
 mantle was worn. It was fastened over the breast and 
 
 hung straight down to the 
 feet. The dress and the 
 mantle were made of fine, 
 transparent fabrics. Many 
 other variations appeared 
 from time to time; the 
 most important was an ad- 
 ditional thick, non-trans- 
 parent underdress which 
 fitted the figure closely 
 and somewhat concealed 
 it. The outer dress was 
 given even more fulness 
 which was frequently 
 arranged in plaits. There 
 were also dresses with two 
 sleeves, short mantillas 
 with fringed borders, short 
 aprons, and girdles. Both 
 linen and wool were used for 
 the costumes. They were 
 spun and woven by hand 
 and dyed in various colors, such as red, saffron, and blue. 
 While the garments worn by the Egyptian women were 
 simple in texture and arrangement, the accessories with 
 which they completed their costume were elaborate in 
 design and rich in coloring and offer many suggestions 
 for the decoration of modern costume. They included 
 ornaments, head-dresses, shoes, etc. In the early periods 
 women seem seldom to have worn sandals, though they 
 were adopted later. They were chiefly of one form, fairly 
 heavy in the sole, with straps; but they were made of a 
 variety of materials. 
 
 In Egypt the care of the head was especially important. 
 
 Egyptian costume showing the use of the 
 thick underdress 
 
Costume 
 
 It was a hot country where covering was evidently needed 
 to protect the head from exposure to the sun. The hair of 
 the Egyptian woman was well cared for and elaborately 
 dressed. Wigs were evidently frequently, if not generally, 
 worn. At first the fashion of all classes was a heavy 
 coiffure of straight hair 
 hanging in two tresses 
 over the shoulders. 
 Later the ends of these 
 tresses were made into a 
 fringe, and still later the 
 full length of the hair 
 was divided into a num- 
 ber of locks and braided 
 or curled. In addition 
 to the elaborate hair- 
 dressing there was the 
 head-dress representing 
 a lotus bud, a vulture, 
 an asp, according to the 
 rank and position of the 
 wearer. 
 
 Ornaments were used 
 throughout all periods. 
 The most valued of 
 these were evidently 
 
 the colored embroidered necklets or collars which were made 
 of leaves of papyrus or of fabrics and were embroidered in 
 a great variety of interesting designs in gay-colored wools. 
 There were also bracelets, earrings, and anklets which in 
 many cases matched the collars in design and color. 
 
 Egyptian head-dress 
 
 II. Greek Costume 
 
 Greek costume of the classic period has given greater 
 inspiration than any other to the designer in the past and 
 in the present. 
 
 In Greek costume there were two general classes of gar- 
 ments, the under and the outer, both of which were rect- 
 
6 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 angular or square in shape and were draped on the figure 
 rather than fitted to it. These garments varied somewhat, 
 from time to time, in size and method of wearing. The 
 undergarment or dress was called a chiton, the outer gar- 
 ment or mantle a hi mat ion. 
 
 There were two forms of the chiton, known as the Doric 
 and the Ionic. The exact difference between these two 
 forms has given rise to much discussion. 
 It was evidently a difference in detail 
 rather than in general arrangement. The 
 Doric was of thick material and small in 
 size. When worn it fell in a few heavy 
 folds and was without sleeves. The Ionic 
 was of fine material and large; it fell in 
 many small folds and was arranged to 
 form sleeves. 
 
 A rectangular piece of material was 
 used for both. The material for the 
 Doric was about one foot longer than 
 the wearer's height and as wide as the 
 distance from tip to tip of the fingers 
 with the arms outstretched. For the 
 Ionic it was much larger, especially in 
 width. Much of this additional width 
 was used in forming the sleeves. 
 
 In draping, the extra length was usu- 
 ally turned over along the edge which 
 was to form the top of the garment. 
 The folded-over section was called the apotygma. The 
 entire piece of material was then folded in the centre from 
 top to bottom edge and placed about the figure with the 
 opening at the right side. Pins at the shoulder were used 
 to keep it in place and form the opening for the neck and 
 arms. 
 
 The Doric chiton was arranged by dividing the width 
 into three fairly equal sections, the centre for the neck, 
 the others for the arms. With this arrangement only one 
 pin at each shoulder was required. The central division 
 of the Ionic was less than a third of the full width. The 
 
 Doric chiton 
 
Costume 
 
 extra size was made into sleeves by using pins placed 
 at regular intervals from the shoulder along the opening 
 nearly to the elbow. 
 
 After either chiton was attached at the shoulder the 
 girdle was placed about the waist, the wearer standing with 
 arms outstretched to draw the material up into place. 
 The chiton was usually sufficiently long to allow the ma- 
 terial to be pulled up through the 
 girdle to form a blouse. The arrange- 
 ment of the apotygma was varied; 
 it might hang free or be held in by 
 the girdle. Both the chitons made 
 exceedingly graceful costumes. They 
 permitted perfect freedom of move- 
 ment and gave opportunity for vari- 
 ety in arrangement. 
 
 The usual mantle, or himation, was 
 a large square or rectangular piece of 
 material, usually wool, which varied 
 in size and in the method of arrange- 
 ment according to the taste of the 
 wearer. It was draped about the 
 figure rather than fitted, and in many 
 cases it served both as a mantle and 
 a covering for the head. Like the 
 chiton, when well draped it was a 
 very graceful garment and lent itself 
 to an infinite variety of arrangement. 
 
 All garments worn by the Greeks were in early times 
 woven in one piece, a garment separate and complete in 
 itself. Wool, linen, and silk were all used. The woolen 
 materials were evidently the most satisfactory. Some were 
 very heavy and firm, others thin and so loosely woven 
 as to be almost transparent, while still others were very 
 much like crepe. Linen and silk were in general made 
 up into the more elaborate and luxurious garments of 
 later periods. Cotton was used in small quantities. It 
 was yellow in color and too expensive for the larger gar- 
 ments. Greek chitons were of many colors, such as purple, 
 
 Ionic chiton 
 
8 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 red, yellow. Designs of birds, beasts, flowers, or emblems 
 were frequently distributed over the entire surface or 
 made to form a border. In many costumes a variety of 
 
 design was combined, an all- 
 over design with two or three 
 different borders. 
 
 The girdles, which formed 
 an important part of the 
 costume, were often dec- 
 orated with pendent orna- 
 ments and set with gold and 
 silver studs. Their position 
 changed from time to time: 
 in the Archaic period it was 
 at the waist line; in the age 
 of Pericles below the waist, 
 as shown by the maidens of 
 the Parthenon frieze. Later 
 it was much higher, until 
 finally it was practically un- 
 der the arms. 
 
 When out-of-doors the 
 
 women usually wore either 
 
 sandals or soles tied on with 
 
 straps, which were frequently 
 
 carried part way up the leg. 
 
 Soft leather boots were also 
 
 used. 
 
 The manner of wearing the hair varied very little. It 
 
 was usually parted and drawn into a knot at the back. 
 
 Fillets and other ornaments were used in many different 
 
 ways to bind it up and hold it in place. 
 
 The Grecian women were fond of jewelry and wore 
 many different kinds — rings, bracelets, necklaces, ear- 
 rings, and brooches. The last might be considered as a 
 necessary part of their costume. They had also a variety 
 of hair ornaments, such as pins and metal diadems and 
 fillets. 
 
 Himation or mantle 
 
Costume 
 
 III. Roman Costume 
 
 The costume of the Roman woman was, in general char- 
 acter, much like that of the Grecian. It was fairly simple 
 in the early history of Rome, but became, under the em- 
 pire, much ornamented and exceedingly luxurious. 
 
 There were three garments — the tunic, the stola, and the 
 palla. 
 
 The inner tunic served as an undergarment and was 
 simple in form. It was generally made of wool though 
 sometimes of linen. 
 
 The stola was very long and full, like the Ionic chiton 
 of the Grecian women. It did not require sewing, but 
 could be held in place on the shoulders by clasps or 
 brooches. It differed from the chiton, however, in hav- 
 ing at the bottom a border or shaped ruffle which was 
 frequently elaborately decorated or embroidered and gave 
 much additional fulness about the feet. The stola was 
 usually arranged to have fairly close sleeves to the elbow. 
 These, like the shoulders of the garment, were fastened 
 with gold or jewelled clasps or buttons. A girdle was 
 worn about the waist or hips through which the stola was 
 drawn up to form a blouse. The stola was the distinctive 
 garment of the Roman matron; the women of the lower 
 classes were not permitted to wear it. 
 
 The palla was the outer garment, or mantle. In shape 
 it was rectangular. It corresponded to the Grecian hima- 
 tion and was worn in much the same way, frequently 
 serving as a covering for the head. The material of the 
 palla for women of the higher classes was usually fine and 
 thin. In the early period it was made of wool, but later 
 was frequently of a mixed fabric, such as silk and wool or 
 silk and linen. Occasionally it was of pure silk, which 
 was a great luxury. In addition to the palla the women 
 of the empire wore a garment called a dalmation, which 
 was made of wool, linen, or cotton. It was usually dec- 
 orated, was somewhat shaped, and had sleeves. 
 
 Both shoes and sandals of many varieties were worn. 
 
1 Dressmakin g 
 
 The shoes were generally used out-of-doors, while sandals 
 were more often worn in the house. 
 
 In the early days the coiffure of the Roman woman was 
 simple and resembled that of the Grecian, but in the days 
 of the empire the hair was elaborately arranged and was 
 much frizzed, curled, and decorated with ornaments. It 
 was often dyed, and wigs were worn, as fashion demanded 
 a change in the color of the hair. Many ornaments were 
 used, such as bracelets for the wrist and upper arm and 
 rings and necklaces of exquisite workmanship. There 
 was also a great profusion of hair ornaments, hairpins of 
 gold, silver, and ivory, fillets of gold studded with gems, 
 and nets of gold. 
 
 IV. Costume of the Gauls, the Gallo-Romans and 
 
 Early Franks, and the French through 
 
 the Middle Ages 
 
 After the conquest of Gaul by the Romans we have the 
 introduction of a somewhat new style of costume. The 
 costume of the women of Gaul was less elaborate in ar- 
 rangement than that of the Romans but more barbaric 
 in coloring and ornamentation. They wore two tunics. 
 The under was long and rather straight and reached to 
 the ankle. It usually had long, close-fitting sleeves. The 
 outer was shorter, generally a little fuller, and had sleeves 
 which were flowing and came only to the elbow. With 
 these a girdle was worn about the hips. A long, straight 
 mantle was worn over the tunics and evidently served as 
 a covering for the head. Simply made shoes or sandals 
 completed the costume. The women were exceedingly 
 fond of jewelry, and were able to have it, of a barbaric 
 kind. 
 
 This costume was soon made to resemble more closely 
 that worn by the Roman woman. The shape of the tunic 
 was somewhat changed and the sleeves were held in place 
 and decorated with brooches. The long strands or braids 
 of hair were bound up in much the same fashion as that of 
 the Roman women. 
 
Costume 
 
 11 
 
 The conquest of Gaul by the Franks and the establish- 
 ment of their kingdom, about the fifth century, may be 
 said to mark the beginning of the Middle Ages. The 
 Franks were barbarians, and their costume, therefore, 
 when they first appeared in Gaul, was not unlike that of 
 the Gauls when they were conquered by the Romans. The 
 women wore two long tunics, an under, which was rather 
 straight, and an upper, 
 shorter, with more ful- 
 ness. Both were held in 
 by a girdle worn about 
 the hips. They had 
 mantles, and in addition 
 large veils with which 
 they covered their heads. 
 As they mingled with the 
 Romanized Gauls they 
 made gradual changes 
 in their costume. These 
 changes, many of which 
 show a strong Byzan- 
 tine influence, were not 
 so evidenced in the num- 
 ber and general style of 
 the garments as in the 
 materials and decora- 
 tions used. 
 
 As late as the end of 
 the tenth century the 
 inner tunic worn was 
 still long and straight, 
 
 with straight sleeves; while the outer was somewhat shorter 
 and fuller, with wide, short sleeves. Both were confined 
 by a girdle. The outer tunic at this period was usually 
 decorated with a band, or fichu, which was fitted about 
 the neck and extended down the centre front. Bands to 
 match were also used at the wrist and occasionally around 
 the bottom of the tunic. The mantle and veil were still 
 worn; of the latter the Frenchwomen were especially proud. 
 
 Gallic costume 
 
12 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Gallo-Roman costume 
 
 All the garments were covered 
 with embroideries combined 
 with precious stones. 
 
 At the end of the eleventh 
 century additional fulness and 
 length were added to both 
 tunics, the outer of which was 
 called a bliaud. The heavy 
 veils were replaced by small 
 circular ones which showed the 
 flowing hair. Otherwise, in 
 general appearance, there was 
 little change. The Crusades, 
 which began during this cen- 
 tury, had an important bearing 
 on costume. They brought 
 about improved commercial re- 
 lations with the East and with 
 
 Italy which resulted in many new fabrics and new fashions 
 
 for the Frenchwomen. Many 
 
 Italian artists and artisans 
 
 were persuaded to come to 
 
 France and ply their trades 
 
 there. 
 
 In the twelfth century the 
 
 outer tunic was no longer cut 
 
 as one garment, but was made 
 
 in separate pieces, like a waist 
 
 and skirt, and the waist was 
 
 fitted about the figure and out- 
 lined it. This fitted costume 
 
 was in marked contrast to the 
 
 flowing garments of the previ- 
 ous periods, which had con- 
 cealed rather than revealed the 
 
 figure. The style of this fitted 
 
 tunic varied somewhat — there 
 
 were either two pieces, a long, 
 
 fitted Waist and full skirt, Or Costume of early Franks 
 
Costume 
 
 13 
 
 three, a waist like a 
 bolero jacket, a yoke 
 'or wide girdle, and a 
 full skirt. The first 
 style was evidently the 
 one most worn. 
 
 When the short, 
 fitted waist was used 
 it was attached at the 
 centre front by a but- 
 ton or clasp, while the 
 deep yoke at the top 
 of the skirt was laced 
 at the back, making 
 the joining of these 
 two garments impos- 
 sible. The yoke fitted 
 the form above the waist 
 
 Fitted costume of 12th century 
 
 French costume of 9th and 10th centuries 
 
 and over the hips, and to it was 
 attached the full, gathered 
 skirt, which was of sufficient 
 length to cover completely the 
 long undertunic, or chemise. 
 The fitted part of the tunic 
 was of pliable material which 
 could be easily drawn into 
 shape to fit the figure, while 
 the skirt was of a soft ma- 
 terial which fell in fine folds 
 or plaits. 
 
 The sleeves were of two 
 kinds — bell-shaped, with long 
 points falling nearly to the 
 ground, or long and close-fit- 
 ting, with a large, straight 
 piece which fell free from the 
 wrist to the floor. The bot- 
 tom of the bell sleeve was 
 often cut on the bias to give 
 a ruffled effect, and at the 
 
14 
 
 Dressmaking' 
 
 armseye it was made to fit closely by a number of fine 
 plaits. The mantles worn with this costume were large 
 and long, and were fastened over the chest with clasps 
 which allowed them to fall apart and show the fitted tunic. 
 The hair was done in two long braids or interwoven 
 strands which fell nearly to the knees, and over it was 
 the short, circular veil which was 
 held in place by a crown-shaped 
 ornament. 
 
 Quicherat, in his "Histoire du 
 Costume en France," calls the 
 thirteenth century the most bril- 
 liant in costume. Great interest 
 was taken in dress, in its cut as 
 well as in the materials used. The 
 Italian artists had become thor- 
 oughly established, and many beau- 
 tiful and elaborate materials were 
 made by them. 
 
 A new garment gradually re- 
 placed the fitted tunic, or bliaud. 
 It was generally called a surcot. 
 It seems to have been, with slight 
 variations in style, the character- 
 istic garment of the thirteenth, 
 fourteenth, and part of the fif- 
 teenth centuries. Under it two 
 tunics were worn, the under called 
 a chemise, the outer a cotte. The 
 material of the surcot was frequently the color of the field 
 of the family coat of arms, and on it were painted or em- 
 broidered the armorial bearings, the heraldry of the family. 
 The first surcots were cut in many different styles, but 
 they were all long, semifitting garments, usually as wide 
 in back as in front, and shaped at the sides to outline the 
 waist and hips. A girdle was not worn over the surcot but 
 over the cotte. Later the waist was made closer-fitting, 
 and from the shoulders down over the hips it had lateral 
 openings which were like an enlarged armseye. Because 
 
 Cotte, surcot, and garde corps 
 of 13th and 14th centuries 
 
Costume 
 
 15 
 
 of these openings there were no sleeves in the surcot, and 
 the fitted waist, full skirt, and long sleeve of the cotte 
 showed to great advantage, as it was generally of con- 
 trasting color and fabric. Many colors, in fact, were 
 combined in the rich fabrics and elaborate embroideries of 
 which the surcots and cottes were made. 
 
 Many of the surcots were extremely decollete and were 
 held up by narrow straps over the shoulders; the skirts 
 were very full. Over these 
 surcots a small fur stole, 
 called a garde corps, was 
 worn. This was generally 
 of ermine. At first it was 
 made with a narrow band 
 across the back, along the 
 neck line of the surcot, 
 while in front it covered 
 the chest and fell below 
 the waist in two straight 
 panels which were held to- 
 gether with jewelled clasps. 
 It afforded no protection 
 whatever to the neck of 
 the wearer. The garde 
 corps may or may not have 
 been attached to the sur- 
 cot but seems to have fol- 
 lowed its exact neck lines. 
 
 Later its shape changed and it was cut in narrow bands 
 which outlined the large armseye of the surcot. These 
 bands met at the centre front and were held together by a 
 clasp. The lateral openings of the surcot were so large 
 that practically none of the material showed on the front 
 of the waist. At the back there was still the same narrow 
 band of fur extending from shoulder to shoulder. From 
 it the material fell in long box plaits which lay on the floor 
 and formed a train. This fashion of the long plaits at the 
 back might easily have been the ancestor of those popular 
 eighteenth-century plaits which were called Watteau. 
 
 14th-century costume 
 
16 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 The girdle was still worn over the cotte about the hips 
 and showed at the side openings of the surcot. 
 
 The coiffure had changed. For a short period the hair 
 was plaited and worn in a knot at the back. A flat band 
 was frequently drawn under the chin and fastened at the 
 top of the head. A circular veil held in place by a band 
 
 or crown covered the fore- 
 head and hair. The veil wa.s 
 sometimes replaced by a cap 
 which, while worn with the 
 band, permitted the knot of 
 hair to show at the back. 
 Later the braids were ar- 
 ranged over the ears and a 
 crown-shaped ornament was 
 added which gave the head a 
 rather square appearance. 
 
 From the twelfth century 
 there was a gradual change in 
 shoes, which were becoming 
 more pointed. The general 
 tendency throughout the last 
 centuries of the Middle Ages 
 was toward a closer, more 
 fitted garment, and there was 
 also, for a certain period, an 
 affectation in dress which 
 reached the ridiculous. 
 Many of the garments were parti-colored. This di- 
 vision of color cut the figure practically in half, and on 
 these two differently colored backgrounds various emblems 
 were placed. Ladies of rank placed on the right side the 
 coat of arms of the husband, on the left that of their own 
 family, and, to make the costume still more gorgeous, va- 
 rious significant emblems, such as birds, beasts, and flow- 
 ers, were added. 
 
 Another garment, or dress, appeared during the late 
 fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries. At first it did not 
 take the place of any then worn, but the surcot gradually 
 
 14th and 15th century costume 
 
Costume 
 
 17 
 
 disappeared and the houppelande, or robe, became the dress 
 for women. Like the surcot, it was a one-piece garment, but 
 varied greatly in shape from time to time. It had a close- 
 fitting waist and an exceedingly long, full skirt which formed 
 a long train. There were two styles of sleeves, one large 
 and bell-shaped, the other long and fitted. The dress was 
 shaped to fit the figure at the waist and hips, and no girdle 
 or belt was worn. The 
 
 skirt and the bell sleeves 
 were generally lined with 
 fur, and fur lapels out- 
 lined the V-shaped neck, 
 which was cut to cover 
 but little of the shoulders. 
 For a few years this gar- 
 ment was frequently worn 
 buttoned straight up to 
 the throat with a stand- 
 ing collar. In general, 
 however, the V-shaped 
 neck was a more popu- 
 lar style. After these 
 dresses had been worn for 
 some time belts at the 
 normal waist line were 
 adopted, and their use 
 immediately gave rise to 
 
 great interest in the size of the waist. A small waist was 
 evidently considered a mark of great beauty, and the belts 
 were worn exceedingly tight, giving the figure a very ugly 
 outline. 
 
 Several remarkable head-coverings which were worn in 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries showed more than 
 anything else the caprice of the period. They were round, 
 cone-shaped, heart-shaped, or pointed. They were fre- 
 quently hung with tissue or they had two wide wings or 
 two horns. They were generally called hennins, and varied 
 in height from half a yard to a yard. They completely 
 covered the hair. Many of these head-dresses were cone- 
 
 Costume of the transition period 
 
18 Dressmaking 
 
 shaped, and to them were attached enormous frames of 
 wire which were covered with gauze and various fine ma- 
 terials. The gauzes were starched and stood out in stiff 
 folds. The hennin lasted about seventy-five years, from 
 1395 to 1470. 
 
 At the last of the fifteenth century and the early six- 
 teenth we have a period of transition during which the 
 eccentric costume of the last of the Middle Ages grad- 
 ually disappeared and was replaced by one which had a 
 certain claim to elegance and simplicity. Charles VIII 
 ( 1 483-1 498) made an expedition into Italy, and as a result 
 French costume was much changed and improved, and 
 there appeared the beginnings of the Renaissance move- 
 ment which was at its height under Francis I a few years 
 later. 
 
 There was a marked difference in the costume of the 
 women; the dress was no longer drawn in at the waist 
 by a belt but fitted the figure easily. The skirt was full, 
 outlining the hips, with the girdle worn low. It was less 
 decollete, with a square neck rather than the deep V. 
 
 The enormous head-dress gave place to a kind of close- 
 fitting cap. This change was evidently due to the queen 
 of Charles VIII, Anne of Brittany, who brought to France 
 the head-dress of her own province of Brittany. She also 
 introduced a new fashion in mourning. Formerly all 
 queens of France had worn white as widows. As the 
 widow of Charles VIII, Anne wore black with a white cord 
 knotted about her waist until she became the wife of his 
 successor, Louis XII. 
 
 V. Sixteenth-Century Costume 
 
 One of the characteristics of the Renaissance costume, 
 a fondness for variety of color and richness of material, 
 was not new but might be considered an outcome of the 
 later fashions of the Middle Ages. 
 
 The radical change in the costume came as the result 
 of a desire to make the shape of the figure other than 
 it really was. The desired shape was secured by the use 
 
Costume 
 
 19 
 
 of two garments, which were called the basquine and ver- 
 tugale — the basquine, the corset; the vertugale, the hoop- 
 skirt or crinoline. These broke the long lines of the 
 figure which until this period had been felt to exist 
 under the flowing garments, except for the few years of 
 the fifteenth century when the exceedingly tight belt 
 had been worn to make the 
 waist appear small. The 
 squeezing of the waist and 
 the covering of the lower 
 part of the body in a sort 
 of bell-shaped garment 
 seems really to mark the 
 decisive and absolute pass- 
 ing of the antique drapery 
 and the introduction of 
 forms which are known as 
 those of modern costume. 
 The idea of the small waist 
 again prevailed. The meth- 
 ods of acquiring it, however, 
 were new and exceedingly 
 successful. The waist was 
 squeezed with the basquine, 
 or corset, and in addition 
 the skirts were widened below the waist so that by compari- 
 son the waist appeared even smaller than it actually was. 
 
 The undergarment was still the chemise, which was un- 
 changed in general style but fitted the figure more closely. 
 It usually showed at the neck and wrists. Over this was 
 placed the corset, or basquine, which was a kind of stuffed 
 bust without sleeves. It had no bones, but was made of 
 several thicknesses of heavy material cut and sewed to 
 the desired funnel shape. It held in the waist and moulded 
 the figure. 
 
 The hoop, or vertugale, was a stiff skirt in shape like an 
 inverted funnel or the letter A. Like the corset, it was 
 made of several thicknesses of heavy material cut and 
 sewed to the required shape. It added great weight to 
 
 Costume of the early Renaissance 
 
20 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 the costume. The cotte was no longer a complete under- 
 dress, but merely a piece of rich material stretched over 
 the front of the vertugale from the waist to the floor and 
 forming a panel which showed at the opening of the dress 
 skirt. The same material was frequently used for a panel 
 in the front of the waist and for the full sleeves which 
 were worn under the large fur dress sleeves and were slashed 
 
 to show the chemise or 
 other decorative material. 
 The dress, or robe, which 
 was worn over all these gar- 
 ments had a close-fitting 
 bodice and short, full skirt. 
 The bodice was finished at 
 the top with a square neck 
 line. This line was not 
 straight across the front 
 but curved upward at the 
 centre and dropped as it 
 neared the armseye. The 
 bodice came to the normal 
 waist line, except at the 
 front where it was cut to 
 form a short point. The 
 sleeves were merely caps 
 of the material, to which 
 were attached wide, open, bell-shaped sleeves of fur. Oc- 
 casionally the caps of the material were omitted, and the 
 sleeve was entirely of fur and so open as to show the full 
 length of the slashed undersleeve. The skirt was of round 
 length and opened at the front to show the cotte. It was 
 gathered at the waist line and its fulness formed tubelike 
 folds which were stiffened to keep them in shape. 
 
 There were two or three different kinds of outside gar- 
 ments or mantles; they were large and full and usually 
 had hoods attached; some were made with sleeves. The 
 stockings were made of fine cloth and were of one color, 
 the most popular being scarlet. The shoes, slippers, 
 and pumps were all elaborate. They were no longer ex- 
 
 A ruff of the Renaissance period 
 
Costume 
 
 21 
 
 tremely pointed. They were made of leather or of rich 
 materials and were usually slashed to show contrasting 
 colors. The hair was done simply, bound in a knot at the 
 back with a few curls about the face. It was usually 
 covered by a close head-dress so that only a few curls 
 showed at the front. A girdle outlined the waist of the 
 bodice and fell nearly to the bottom of the dress. Various 
 pendent ornaments were at- 
 tached to it. A great profu- 
 sion of jewelry was worn 
 over the entire costume. 
 Jewelled collars, all kinds of 
 gems, and chains of gold in 
 garlands enhanced the rich 
 materials of which the cos- 
 tume was made. 
 
 The materials used were 
 camelot, silk serge, taffeta, 
 satin, damask, velour, cloth 
 of gold, and cloth of silver. 
 There was also much fur 
 and passementerie and elab- 
 orate embroidery of pearls 
 and precious stones. All 
 colors were used, and many 
 in one costume, which usu- 
 ally, however, had a dominant harmony, 
 to have been extremely popular. 
 
 This costume remained much the same in general style, 
 with slight variations, until the latter part of the century. 
 
 Many women adopted a bodice which buttoned to the 
 throat, and discarded the large oversleeve in favor of a 
 small one which was decorated at the shoulder with epau- 
 lets or padded rolls. The ruff played an important part 
 in the costume of the period. It is said to have been 
 brought from Italy to France by the Italian wife of Henry 
 II, Catherine de Medici. It was made in many shapes 
 and sizes and of many materials. Its edges were cut in 
 elaborate shapes or finished with beautiful laces. When it 
 
 Late 16th-century costume 
 
 Scarlet seems 
 
22 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 completely encircled the throat it was frequently wide and 
 flat, although it might also be narrow, full, and standing. 
 If it was standing and attached at the back only, coming 
 just to the ears, it was generally wide and high; it might 
 be full or straight and stretched on a frame. In many 
 
 cases made of beauti- 
 ful laces, it formed an 
 attractive background 
 for the face. 
 
 As the sixteenth 
 century neared its close 
 and fashion was swayed 
 by the king, Henry III, 
 and his sister, Margue- 
 rite of Valois, much of 
 its charm vanished. 
 The silhouette became 
 grotesque. The hoop, 
 which had been funnel- 
 shaped, was now made 
 barrel or drum shaped, 
 and both padding and 
 plaits were frequently 
 added at the hips to 
 give more width. This fashion is said to have been in- 
 troduced to disguise the real shape of the figure of Mar- 
 guerite of Valois, who was enormously stout at the hips. 
 Over this ungainly hoop both long and short skirts were 
 worn. There were sometimes three skirts made of ma- 
 terials of contrasting color and design. The gathered-in 
 fulness of the skirts was held out from the waist by the 
 width of the hoop and then fell in straight lines to the 
 floor. Many court dresses were made with long trains. 
 The waist was made even smaller in size and the waist line 
 of the bodice more pointed in front. Many of the bodices 
 were widely open at the neck and shoulders and finished 
 with the high, spreading ruffs. To balance the size at the 
 hips the sleeves were frequently made enormous. They 
 were balloon-shaped at the top and stuffed out to give 
 
 Silhouette of the late Renaissance 
 
Costume 23 
 
 width to the shoulders; they were long and cut to fit 
 closely at the wrists. 
 
 On the whole, the women looked like wasps, with their 
 tiny, extremely pointed waist lines, their barrel-shaped 
 skirts, and their stuffed-out shoulders all topped with the 
 spreading ruffs. The costume was exceedingly ornate and 
 destitute of its early grace and dignity. The hair was 
 drawn up from the forehead and gave the head greater 
 height. The head-dress was usually replaced with hair 
 ornaments. 
 
 The fashions were not in any way improved when Marie 
 de Medici became queen, after the divorce of Henry IV 
 and Marguerite of Valois. Various edicts were issued 
 against the extensive use of Florentine and Venetian laces 
 and cut-work, which had been brought into France because 
 of the ruffs. While these edicts did not really prevent 
 the use of lace they led to the use of ribbons, which be- 
 came popular in the costume of the next century. 
 
 VI. Seventeenth-Century Costume 
 
 In the first years of the seventeenth century there was 
 a gradual decline in the Renaissance fashions which had 
 at that time grown extremely ugly. Awkwardness and 
 heaviness were gradually discarded and a bold and dash- 
 ing elegance became the prevailing fashion of the century. 
 The wife of Louis XIII was Anne of Austria, a Spanish 
 princess, who brought many of her own countrywomen 
 to France with her. The influence of these Spanishwomen 
 may have had much to do with the changing fashions. 
 The vertugale, or hoop, for which Spain is held responsible 
 by many, left France and returned, strangely enough, to 
 Spain, where it made the costume hideous for some years; 
 the loss of the hoop entirely changed the outline of the 
 Frenchwoman's figure. 
 
 The number of garments was practically the same, and 
 the corset was worn as during the Renaissance, but the 
 silhouette appeared quite different because it was no longer 
 affected by the hoop. 
 
24 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 In place of the barrel-shaped hoop and the enormous 
 skirts a close underpetticoat was worn with an overskirt 
 which fell in graceful folds with its fulness arranged at 
 the sides and the back. This overskirt opened at the 
 front to show the underskirt. To give some of the size 
 which the hoops had formerly given, the overskirt was 
 often puffed or draped a little at the hips. The under- 
 dress, or petticoat, was of round length, while the overdress 
 
 was frequently long and train- 
 ing. Occasionally the under- 
 petticoat was omitted, and the 
 full overskirt was gathered at 
 the waist and fell in straight 
 folds without any opening at 
 the front. If the skirt opened 
 over a petticoat the bodice usu- 
 ally also had a narrow panel 
 which matched in material that 
 of the underskirt. 
 
 The neck line of the bodice 
 was more often round than 
 square, as that shape was bet- 
 ter suited for the arranging of 
 the fichu, or collar, which re- 
 placed the ruff. These collars 
 were as varied as the ruffs in 
 shape, style, and material. 
 They were not always flat; 
 many were wired; and they usually stood out, away from 
 the head, rather than up, close to it. Waists were still 
 small, though not so exaggerated as in the late Renais- 
 sance. Many of the bodices had a somewhat pointed 
 waist line, while others had one which was raised some- 
 what above the normal waist and had attached to it a 
 kind of peplum, or basque. These peplums were short 
 and usually slashed or cut up in sections to give sufficient 
 flare over the hips. The sleeves were large but no longer 
 padded. They were allowed to fall in natural folds and 
 were finished with deep, turn-back cuffs to match the 
 
 Early 17th-century costume 
 
Costume 
 
 25 
 
 collars. They were sometimes slashed and were frequently 
 decorated with ribbon. 
 
 Mantles were large and full, and occasionally large hats 
 were seen. On all garments a great profusion of ribbon 
 was used in all forms of decoration, as ornaments on sleeves, 
 bodices, and skirts, in bows, streamers, latticework, etc. 
 Buttons also served for ornaments. The hair, which had 
 been done high, was now curled a little at each side of the 
 face, with a few short curls 
 
 on the forehead, and rolled 
 or plaited low at the back. 
 The shoes were made of 
 elaborate materials and 
 had very high heels and 
 buckles or rosettes at the 
 instep. 
 
 These same general lines 
 in costume prevailed 
 throughout the century, 
 but under the sway of 
 Louis XIV (1643-1715) 
 and his extravagant favor- 
 ites it gradually lost much 
 of its early grace and charm 
 and became again heavy 
 and stiff and more superb 
 than elegant. The heavy 
 richness of materials and the elaborate elegance of their 
 ornamentation gave the costume stiffness rather than 
 beauty. The changes were chiefly in this elaboration of 
 the materials and in the increased amount of drapery or 
 puffings. 
 
 The bodices were tighter at the waist, more as the 
 fashion of the early Renaissance had demanded, and the 
 waist lines were more pointed. These bodices were often 
 open in front over panels which were embroidered or 
 decorated with lace. There was greater variety than 
 formerly in the shape of the neck line. The round line 
 was still very popular, but when there was a front panel 
 
 Costume of the period of Louis XIII 
 
26 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 in the waist the neck was frequently cut out straight 
 across the panel and was less widely open over the shoul- 
 ders. The sleeves were now usually short and close- 
 fitting. They came to the elbow and were finished with 
 lawn or lace ruffles. 
 
 The outer skirts were long and full but were generally 
 tucked up in puffs over the hips, revealing gorgeous petti- 
 coats. The puffings were usually held in place by jewelled 
 
 clasps or knots of ribbon. 
 While no hoops were worn, 
 nearly the same effect was 
 achieved by having the puffs 
 at the hips and adding some 
 stiff material at the back. It 
 was worn inside and answered 
 the same purpose as the more 
 modern bustle. 
 
 The large collars and cuffs 
 of lace disappeared, but the 
 jewels which had been worn 
 with them, the string of large 
 pearls at the neck, continued 
 in fashion. It is said that if 
 a woman could not afford 
 real pearls in the large size 
 required by the prevailing 
 fashion she wore imitation rather than the smaller size 
 which was within her means. 
 
 A new outer garment was introduced by one of the for- 
 eign princesses who came to the court. It was a short 
 cape which protected the shoulders left uncovered by the 
 very decollete costume. It was called a palatine or pele- 
 rine. 
 
 Long gloves of kid or mittens of knitted silk were worn 
 with the elbow sleeves. Shoes were very elaborate; heels 
 increased in height until three inches was not considered 
 unusual. The tight stays which were worn are said to 
 have led to a very general use of fans, which helped to con- 
 ceal the discomfort of the wearers. 
 
 Costume of the early part of the 
 reign of Louis XIV 
 
Costume 
 
 27 
 
 Materials were of the same kinds as before, but were 
 generally much heavier in quality and more decorative. 
 About 1675 some transparent materials became popular. 
 Muslin or lawn, with bunches of many-colored flowers 
 painted or printed on them, were worn over underdresses 
 of bright- tinted moire satin; or the overdress was plain 
 and the underdress might be of brocade with large flowers 
 in gold and silver on a colored background; or of gold or 
 azure brocade of lacelike tis- 
 sue. Lace was used in every 
 way, on every part of the cos- 
 tume, from bodice to shoes. 
 It was even mixed with rib- 
 bon streamers in the hair. It 
 formed ladders of large bows 
 and floated in every direction. 
 Many small, round muffs of 
 fur were carried. 
 
 The rather simple fashion 
 of arranging the hair which 
 Anne of Austria had intro- 
 duced lasted, with slight vari- 
 ations, until about 1680. Then 
 a marked change was made. 
 Mile, de Fontanges, at that 
 time the favorite of Louis 
 
 XIV, is said to have lost her hat at some festivity and 
 to have used her ribbon garter to fasten her hair. The 
 garter was adorned with a rosette, which proved to be 
 exceedingly becoming to Mile, de Fontanges. The king 
 expressed approval, and immediately the coiffure a la 
 Fontanges became the fashion, and reigned without a 
 rival until 17 10, at which time it had become a towering 
 edifice of lace and ribbon extremely ugly and ridiculous. 
 At the last of the century Louis XIV fell under the re- 
 straining influence of his last favorite, Mme. de Main- 
 tenon, who has been called an "eminent refrigerator and 
 paragon of virtue." While she did not set any special 
 fashion, costume was in general somewhat affected by her 
 
 Costume of late 17th century. Show- 
 ing Fontanges head-dress 
 
28 Dressmaking 
 
 influence. There had already been a loss of the early 
 grace and freedom. The costume became an exaggeration 
 of fitted waists and elaborately puffed and plaited over- 
 skirts, which were widely open to display the heavy, much- 
 decorated underpetticoats. The bodices, with their long, 
 pointed waist lines, were made to look longer and more 
 pointed by the arrangement of the draperies formed from 
 the fulness of the overskirt at the hips. The underskirts 
 were covered with ruffles or so decorated with applique and 
 embroidery as to look like elaborate upholstery. These, with 
 the Fontanges head-dress, gave a most elaborate effect'. 
 
 Panier or hoop of the 18th century 
 
 VII. Eighteenth- Century Costume 
 
 The costume of the eighteenth century is considered by 
 many to be, as a whole, more graceful than that of any 
 preceding period. At the beginning of the century, about 
 1711, after an absence of a hundred years, the hoop came 
 once more into fashion, succeeding the puffings and pad- 
 dings which had given size to the hips. 
 
 It is thought that the hoop was brought to England at 
 the time of Queen Anne from some obscure German court, 
 where it had never gone out of fashion. From England it 
 came to France, brought there by some visiting English- 
 women. It was made in a new way and had a new name 
 and a new shape. It was called a panier because it was 
 
Costume 
 
 29 
 
 an open framework made of hoops of straw cord, cane, 
 whalebone, or steel, and fastened together by tapes. It 
 was cupola-shaped at the sides but flat at the front and 
 back. The arches were soon made to spring from the 
 waist outward over the hips so that the wearer could 
 rest her elbows on the hoop. Fulness in the skirt gave the 
 •required shape and size at the back. The panier in this 
 shape lasted a long 
 time and attained most 
 extravagant dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 The hoop naturally 
 necessitated many 
 changes in the cos- 
 tume. During the re- 
 gency (171 5-1723) the 
 heavy materials and 
 elaborate decorations 
 of the Louis XIV period 
 were seldom used, and 
 the paniers, probably 
 somewhat on account 
 of their size, were 
 covered by rather 
 plain, full skirts made 
 of stuffs which were 
 light in weight and brilliant in color. Later heavier ma- 
 terials appeared, and there was much decoration, but it 
 was of a lighter, daintier, and more graceful kind. 
 
 During the entire century we find the same pointed 
 bodice with the round neck line or with the square neck 
 and panel front. All the sleeves were short. Many were 
 of the fashion which had its beginning in the last reign. 
 These came to the elbow and were finished with deep, 
 wide cuffs, full ruffles of lace, or with fan-shaped tucks of 
 the material of the sleeve. Others were made entirely of 
 ruffles of narrow lace — sewed in rows around the sleeve. 
 Skirts were made with and without panels, but there were 
 no puffings. Both bodice and skirt were much trimmed 
 
 Costume of the period of Louis XV. 
 Pompadour 
 
 Mmc. 
 
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 Dressmaking 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Costume of the iSth century. Daughter 
 of Louis XV, by Nattier 
 
 with ribbons, laces, and ar- 
 tificial flowers. There were 
 such materials as thin silks, 
 India cottons, dimity, mus- 
 lin, and gauze, and with 
 these were used trimmings 
 of lace, ribbon, and taffeta; 
 the latter formed shirrings 
 or was pinked or cut to 
 form flowers or petals. 
 Gathered net or wash 
 blond also became popular 
 as a decoration. 
 
 Long mantles, cape- 
 shaped, were worn. Hoods 
 were generally attached to 
 the mantles, but there 
 were also many head-cov- 
 erings of gauze, net, and 
 batiste. The hair was done simply and often decorated 
 with aigrettes of jewels, of flowers, and ribbon. 
 
 About 1730 there ap- 
 peared those graceful fash- 
 ions which are generally 
 referred to as Watteau. 
 These did not replace the 
 fashions in vogue but 
 shared the general favor 
 equally with them. There 
 were many variations in 
 the Watteau costumes, but 
 they were generally loose, 
 flowing gowns without a 
 defined waist line. The 
 material was arranged in 
 the back across the shoul- 
 ders in wide box plaits, 
 which fell unconlined to the 
 floor and usually formed a 18th-century decoration 
 
Costume 
 
 31 
 
 train. The front was shaped to fit the figure somewhat 
 to the waist line, and below that was cut sufficiently full 
 to cover gracefully the large panier. Girdles were gener- 
 ally worn with the costumes, especially if the bodice was 
 not fitted at the front, but, like the back, was free from the 
 shoulders to the 
 ground. Underpet- 
 ticoats were fre- 
 quently worn and 
 were displayed by 
 puffing or draping 
 the overdress at the 
 hips. The dresses 
 were also frequently 
 arranged to open 
 at the centre front 
 and form a panel 
 in both waist and 
 skirt. In these 
 dresses the over- 
 skirt was often 
 puffed to form two 
 long, wing-shaped 
 draperies at the 
 back and a shorter 
 one over each hip. 
 Garments of this 
 style were later 
 called polonaise. 
 
 All kinds of materials and many charming decorations of 
 ribbon and lace were used. The overdress was frequently 
 of flowered material while that of the underdress was plain. 
 The Louis XV costume is considered by many as at its 
 best from 1750 to 1770, when fashion was chiefly guided by 
 Mme. Pompadour, the favorite of the king. At this period 
 many charming costumes were made in the flowered silks 
 which bear her name. Much decoration was used, but it 
 was dainty and graceful in character and gave no ap- 
 pearance of stiffness or heaviness to the costume. Through- 
 
 ^Kkl * f*^fl 
 
 
 
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 L, vLj 
 
 1 Wfi. /!Y 
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 %]■ 
 
 %■$ 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 18th-century costume 
 
32 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Watteau costume of iSth century 
 
 out the entire period 
 the paniers had been 
 steadily increasing in 
 size, until at the end of 
 the reign of Louis XV 
 (1774) skirts were often 
 six feet wide, from right 
 to left, and eighteen feet 
 in circumference. 
 
 Because many of the 
 costumes worn over 
 these large paniers were 
 short, much attention 
 was given to both shoes 
 and stockings. White 
 stockings with colored 
 
 or gold or silver clocks were worn with shoes made of 
 
 beautiful materials, heavily embroidered, and adorned with 
 
 jewelled buckles. 
 
 For a brief period (1774-1792) a queen of France, Marie 
 
 Antoinette, was also the queen of fashion. Under her 
 
 guidance, however, cos- 
 tume seems not to have 
 
 improved. The two types 
 
 of dresses were still worn, 
 
 but they became exagger- 
 ated in style and much of 
 
 their charm was lost. 
 When the separate 
 
 skirts and bodices were 
 
 worn the skirts were very 
 
 full and much trimmed. 
 
 They were gathered at the 
 
 waist and were held out 
 
 by the large hoops. They 
 
 seldom had trains. 
 
 For the other style of 
 
 dress, the Watteau, the 
 
 bodice and the skirt dra- Draped costume of late iSth century 
 
Costume 
 
 33 
 
 pery were cut in one piece and were worn over an under- 
 petticoat. The edges of the overdress were usually very 
 much decorated, as was the underpetticoat. The over- 
 dress was frequently cut to form a train. 
 
 All the bodices were made with extremely tight waists; 
 they were also decollete and generally had an elaborate 
 front panel. In many cases a close-fitting, heavily boned, 
 sleeveless silk under- 
 bodice was used. It 
 was decorated at the 
 front or had attached 
 to it a panel decorated 
 with lace or embroid- 
 ery. This bodice shaped 
 the figure, and over it 
 was worn the dress it- 
 self, which had elbow 
 sleeves and was suffi- 
 ciently open at the 
 front to show the panel. 
 
 Paniers were nearing 
 the end of their reign, 
 and, as if in revenge, 
 they assumed their 
 greatest size; the skirts 
 worn over them were 
 of rich and heavy ma- 
 terials, like brocades, and were made still heavier by wide 
 and narrow flounces, by latticework of lace and ribbon, 
 by plaited frills and scallops, shell-shaped trimmings, 
 bouquets of artificial flowers and fruits, and over all a 
 profusion of lace and ribbon. 
 
 Shoes became even more coquettish. They were often 
 made in two colors, embroidered with gold and enriched 
 with jewels. One very popular style of shoe had its back 
 seams garnished with emeralds and diamonds. 
 
 The head-dress of Marie Antoinette's reign was as enor- 
 mous and absurd as was that of the Middle Ages. At 
 first the hair was built up and an enormous bonnet poised 
 
 Costume of the period of Louis XVI and 
 Marie Antoinette 
 
34 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 on it. Then, in place of the bonnet came puffs made of 
 the hair itself and decorated with absurdities of every 
 sort. Frequently a high cushion of horsehair formed a 
 foundation over which the hair was drawn. Then row 
 upon row. of puffs was attached. These were made by 
 using plaits of gauze in the meshes of the hair. Eighteen 
 yards was sometimes required for one head-dress. On this 
 
 Costume of the late iSth 
 century 
 
 Head-dress of Marie Antoinette 
 period 
 
 erection of puffs was placed a variety of things, represent- 
 ing, it might be, an English park, a poem, a scene from 
 an opera, or an important political event. One head-dress, 
 called La Belle Poule, represented in miniature a French 
 ship which had been victorious in battle. These head- 
 dresses were so enormous that a woman could not ride in a 
 carriage unless she put her head out of the door or knelt 
 on the floor of the carriage. 
 
 About 1778 Marie Antoinette and her royal followers 
 played at farming at the Petit Trianon. An informal cos- 
 
Costume 
 
 35 
 
 
 »dS 
 
 M 
 
 B 
 
 
 { "1 !] 
 
 
 Head-dress of Marie Antoinette period 
 
 tume was required for this, 
 one less cumbersome than 
 that of the court. The gen- 
 eral style of the costume was 
 like that adapted from the 
 Watteau period. The paniers 
 were smaller, the skirts 
 shorter. Dainty overdresses 
 were looped up over puffed 
 and ruffled underskirts, and 
 the fichu, which had already 
 become a popular fashion, 
 adorned many of the cos- 
 tumes. It was made in a va- 
 riety of shapes, of lace, muslin, 
 gauze, and net. Dainty hats 
 
 were perched on elaborately arranged coiffures, hats which 
 
 shaded the eyes and stood up 
 from the hair at the back, show- 
 ing the rows of puffs. Many 
 women, to finish this costume, 
 carried a shepherdess crook. 
 
 These fashions were of rather 
 short duration. As the stormy 
 days of the French Revolution 
 approached some of the gay 
 absurdities of the eighteenth- 
 century costume vanished and 
 in place many women wore a 
 costume masculine in general 
 character and little less exag- 
 gerated than the other but in a 
 different way. Styles which 
 were called British, or English, 
 were adopted by many, al- 
 though not by the queen and 
 her followers. The bodices were 
 long and stiff, with small waists 
 and an exceedingly pointed 
 
 A costume of the English, or Pre- 
 Revolution, period 
 
36 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 waist line to which was frequently attached a full peplum. 
 This increased the size of the hips and made the waist ap- 
 pear small. The sleeves were long and very tight. These 
 waists were often ornamented with large metal buttons 
 and topped by full-ruffled fichus which gave to the wearer 
 
 an appearance of absurdity 
 and an abnormal silhouette. 
 If paniers were worn they were 
 small and round and had pad- 
 ding at the back to give the 
 effect of a bustle. The skirts 
 were gathered at the waist 
 and fell in straight folds to the 
 floor. Coats were worn with 
 large lapels and triple collars. 
 They were fitted tight to the 
 figure and were long and 
 straight in the back. An enor- 
 mous amount of hair was still 
 worn and it was surmounted 
 by an enormous hat with large 
 brim and high crown. These 
 masculine costumes were, 
 strangely enough, made up in 
 bright colors, in silks, satins, 
 and cloths. Such colors as 
 lemon, pink, and apple green were popular, while stripes 
 in black and white, wide and exceedingly conspicuous, 
 were frequently used. 
 
 The English fashions gave place to simple fashions and 
 simpler materials. The days of the Revolution (1789- 
 1799) were difficult ones — times were hard, and inexpensive 
 fabrics took the place of the silks and satins. Cotton, 
 India prints, and lawn were used, and such simple materials 
 required rather simple making. Dresses were made some- 
 what like chemises. They had short waists and the skirts 
 were plain and full with an occasional frill at the bottom. 
 The sleeves were plain and short, and the neck was low. 
 The dresses were adorned with fichus made of gauze or 
 
 Eccentric fashions of the Directory 
 
Costume 
 
 37 
 
 other cheap material and were held in with sashes which 
 had long ends. Corsets and paniers had disappeared. 
 
 This simplicity was followed, in the early days of the 
 Directory (i 795-1 799), by a sudden reaction. The Revo- 
 lution, and particularly the Reign of Terror (1 794-1 795), 
 had practically swallowed up 
 everything, the royal family and 
 its followers, tradition, throne, 
 manners, customs, and dress. 
 With everything swept away 
 and little time for reconstruc- 
 tion, fashions were borrowed, as 
 were some of the laws. The men 
 adopted fashions closely resem- 
 bling those which were earlier 
 called English; the women, how- 
 ever, worshipped antiquity and 
 went back to either Greek or 
 Roman fashions. Many of the 
 women wore straight gowns 
 bound by a girdle worn high up 
 under the bosom. These gowns 
 were frequently cut to be very 
 short in front and training be- 
 hind and displayed the feet and 
 legs. Many were slit on one 
 side to the hips or were raised 
 above the knee and fastened 
 with a brooch. These simple 
 garments were made of trans- 
 parent, clinging materials. They 
 were worn with or without chemises. When no chemise 
 was worn, tights were used. These gowns, in true classic 
 fashion, had very small sleeves or none at all. Cameos, 
 brought from Italy to France by Mme. Bonaparte, were 
 used to attach the gowns on the shoulders, to form short 
 sleeves, and to drape the skirt at the side. The arms 
 were covered with bracelets as were also, in many in- 
 stances, the legs. The colors were delicate shades of blue, 
 
 Costume of the Directory 
 
38 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 pink, and lemon. In addition to this scanty costume an 
 enormous cravat was often worn about the throat, some- 
 times covering the chin. This fashion was borrowed from 
 the men. These thin garments were worn in the streets 
 without protection other than the shawls and scarfs which 
 were then coming into great favor. 
 
 In arranging the hair many women chose a goddess and 
 copied her coiffures from the statues in the museums. 
 
 Many coiffures and 
 many toilets were named 
 after some of the vari- 
 ous terrible happenings 
 of the Reign of Terror. 
 The head-coverings 
 were of many kinds; 
 they were borrowed not 
 only from the antique 
 but from every other 
 possible source. One 
 fashion much worn later, 
 under the Empire, that 
 of the flat-crowned tur- 
 ban, was said to have 
 been copied from the 
 head-dress of the Turk- 
 ish ambassador sta- 
 tioned in Paris. The shoes resembled the sandals worn 
 by the Greek and Roman women. They were frequently 
 red and were held in place by ribbon lacings. 
 
 Near the end of the Directory, costume, while still 
 classic in form, no longer showed a tendency toward ex- 
 aggeration or eccentricity. The materials were not trans- 
 parent; the shawl, introduced after the Egyptian campaign 
 of Napoleon, was much worn and, when well draped, added 
 to the elegance of the costume. 
 
 All the simplicity and charm of line of the directoire 
 costume at its best was maintained throughout the Con- 
 sulate ( 1 799-1804). The materials were more expensive 
 but cut as simply. They were India mulls, muslins, and 
 
 Costume of the Consulate 
 
Costume 39 
 
 lawns, all of beautiful, fine quality. The skirts were 
 usually longer than before, were sometimes cut with 
 trains, and had much dainty embroidery at the hems. 
 The bodices were frequently embroidered on waist and 
 sleeve to match the skirts and with them were worn fine 
 lace collars. Many of these tiny decollete bodices were 
 made separate from the long, straight skirts and were of 
 different materials. 
 
 The spencer, a tiny coat with short waist and long 
 sleeves, was much worn and became exceedingly popular. 
 It provided the covering which the abbreviated waist and 
 sleeves of the gown frequently lacked. The cashmere 
 shawls of brilliant colors were also very popular. The 
 hair-dressing in general was still copied after that of the 
 Roman women. A few ringlets were worn about the face; 
 the hair was knotted at the back and ornamented with 
 golden fillets and nets embroidered with pearls. Cameos, 
 corals, and mosaics were chiefly used for jewelry. 
 
 VIII. Nineteenth Century 
 
 The fashions of the Empire (1804-1814) were merely an 
 outgrowth and elaboration of those of the Consulate. 
 
 At first the short waists were, if possible, made shorter 
 and more decollete.. Sleeves were close-fitting and either 
 long or short; occasionally they were so short as to be 
 just a padded roll at the shoulder. With many of the 
 waists tiny standing lace ruffs were worn. They were 
 attached at the shoulder, along the armseye line, and 
 extended across the neck line at the back. They were 
 generally for evening wear. The skirts of the dresses were 
 straight, with a little fulness, and were worn both long and 
 short. Strangely enough, many evening dresses were short 
 and much trimmed at the bottom, while those for the day 
 were long and training and less decorated. In 1809 stays 
 began again to creep slowly into favor; they had not been 
 necessary with the exceedingly short waists, when the size 
 of the waist was of no importance. With their reappear- 
 ance the waist line began almost imperceptibly to drop. 
 
40 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Small kerchiefs, arranged somewhat as the fichus had 
 been, were worn about the shoulders. For a larger wrap 
 
 the cashmere shawl was 
 still used. Throughout the 
 Empire there was a fond- 
 ness for all things military. 
 The spencer, still popular, 
 was often adorned with 
 braid put on in military 
 style; one long outer gar- 
 ment, called a redingote, 
 was similarly decorated. 
 
 Hats were of many vari- 
 eties. Some were copied 
 from the head-coverings of 
 the army. They had tube- 
 
 The redingote of the Empire 
 period 
 
 shaped crowns, narrow 
 brims, and were trimmed 
 high with feathers and 
 fastened under the chin 
 with strings. Toques and 
 the Turkish turbans were 
 also used. 
 
 The greatest change from the fashions of the preceding 
 years came in the materials used. These were usually 
 
 The spencer of the Empire period 
 
Costume 
 
 41 
 
 Oriental in texture, color, and ornamentation. They were 
 the results of Napoleon's campaigns. The simple and in- 
 expensive mulls and muslins gave place to silks and other 
 fabrics heavily embroidered and spangled. As in the 
 eighteenth century, artificial flowers were worn in great 
 abundance. Furs were also much used, and with them, in 
 marked contrast to the 
 fashion of the former 
 period, the women were 
 well covered. 
 
 Napoleon was ban- 
 ished to Elba and re- 
 turned for the short 
 period of one hundred 
 days. During that 
 time allegiance to the 
 imperialists or the 
 royalists was shown by 
 the costume worn. For 
 the followers of Napo- 
 leon, violets were the 
 emblem; for those of 
 Louis XVIII, a dress 
 of white jackonet with 
 eighteen tucks in the 
 skirt. 
 
 During the Restora- 
 tion (1814-1830), which 
 marked the return of the last of the Bourbons, costume 
 gradually changed from the simple, graceful, although some- 
 what decorated, Empire fashions to a much more decorated 
 and less attractive style which in silhouette somewhat 
 resembles early Renaissance costume. Dresses were still 
 decollete and had short waists, although the use of the 
 stay was causing the waist line to drop. The sleeves 
 were short and puffed, or they were long with some ful- 
 ness at the top but close-fitting at the wrist. They were 
 frequently bound at the wrist by a narrow ribbon which 
 also held up a short colored kid glove. 
 
 Costume of the Empire 
 
42 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 #» 
 
 Evening dress of the Restoration 
 
 leaves and the petals of 
 flowers; there were also 
 garlands of artificial 
 flowers and puffings or 
 twists of material which 
 were evidently padded 
 to give them shape. 
 The skirts were full and 
 appeared very short. 
 This appearance of 
 shortness may have 
 been due to the fulness 
 as well as the increased 
 decoration which held 
 them out away from 
 the figure. 
 
 About 1822 the bod- 
 ices were cut to come 
 to the normal waist line, 
 and interest was at once 
 
 The skirts were 
 straight and gathered, 
 with much more fulness 
 than before. They 
 were very much deco- 
 rated at the bottom, 
 their elaborateness 
 quite outdoing that of 
 the Empire. 
 
 These skirt decora- 
 tions were not only 
 elaborate but varied 
 and in many cases ab- 
 surd. There were 
 flounces, the edges of 
 which were cut in dif- 
 ferent shapes, copying 
 
 Costume of the Restoration 
 
Costume 
 
 43 
 
 shown in the size of 
 the waist. Belts were 
 frequently worn empha- 
 sizing the straight waist 
 line and the smallness 
 of the waist. 
 
 The sleeve was greatly 
 increased in size at the 
 top and to it or to the 
 shoulder were attached 
 decorations to match 
 those of the skirt. These 
 gave width to the 
 shoulders, which, with 
 the width and decora- 
 tion at the bottom of 
 the skirt, made the waist 
 appear, in contrast, even 
 
 Costume of the Romantic period 
 
 Hair-dressing of the Restora- 
 tion period 
 
 more decreased in 
 size than it really 
 was. The sleeves 
 were usually close- 
 fitting from just be- 
 low the elbow to the 
 wrist. Sometimes 
 deep cuffs were 
 added. 
 
 Much attention 
 was given to the 
 arrangement of the 
 hair, which was 
 copied somewhat 
 from the Chinese 
 and was drawn to 
 the top of the head 
 
44 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Costume of the Romantic period 
 
 stripes and plaids of bright colors 
 period (1830-1848) cos- 
 tume again assumed a 
 certain grace, distinction, 
 and originality. The 
 skirts, although full, were 
 much simpler in design 
 and had little decoration; 
 the bodices were still 
 close-fitting with a very- 
 low neck, which was cut 
 widely off at the shoul- 
 ders. The waist line was 
 normal but more becom- 
 ing because it had a point 
 at the front. The shoul- 
 ders of the wearer were 
 made to look longer and 
 
 and arranged in set 
 loops intermixed with 
 artificial flowers, plumes, 
 etc. Even more interest 
 was shown in the vari- 
 ety and number of the 
 head-coverings. Bon- 
 nets and hats were both 
 used. Many of them 
 were military in charac- 
 ter, being designed from 
 the caps and hats of the 
 troops. All the hats 
 were very large, with 
 wide brims and high 
 crowns which were over- 
 loaded with flowers, rib- 
 bons, padded twists of 
 material, ruches, aigret- 
 tes, and plumes. Many 
 of the ribbons were in 
 During the Romantic 
 
 Evening costume of the Romantic period 
 
Costume 
 
 45 
 
 Costume of the last of the Romantic period 
 
 more sloping by attaching 
 the sleeve to the waist 
 much below the normal 
 armseye line. This fash- 
 ion continued for some 
 time. A kind of bertha 
 in lawn or lace was fre- 
 quently worn and in- 
 creased the effect of a long 
 shoulder. The sleeves 
 were full at the top, but 
 as they were not stiffened 
 in any way they drooped 
 and did not add width to 
 the shoulder. The elabo- 
 rate shoulder decorations 
 of the earlier period were 
 
 given up. Many fancy shoulder capes were worn, as well 
 as many styles of long capes and mantles, some of which 
 had hoods. 
 
 Except for evening the elaborate coiffure was replaced 
 by a simpler arrangement. The hair was parted and 
 
 drawn back into a roll 
 which was held in place 
 by a large comb. A 
 few curls were usually 
 worn about the face. 
 There were still many 
 different styles of head- 
 coverings. One of the 
 most popular was a 
 rather close-fitting 
 bonnet with a rounded 
 brim which did not en- 
 tirely conceal the face 
 or the row of curls at 
 each side. Shoes were 
 low, with an instep 
 
 Fashions of the Second Empire decoration such as a 
 
4(> 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Fashions of the Second Empire 
 
 ulated them. At first 
 they were held out by 
 stiffened underpetti- 
 coats, but the increase in 
 size of the skirt brought 
 about naturally, if slow- 
 ly, a revival of the wear- 
 ing of crinoline or hoops. 
 About 1854 crinolines, 
 horsehair, and wire 
 hoops were all used. In 
 general shape they were 
 like the first hoop of the 
 Renaissance. Many who 
 did not adopt crinolines 
 continued to wear the 
 flounced and starched 
 petticoats to secure the 
 desired effect. 
 
 rosette or bow, and 
 some had no heels. 
 Boots to the ankle 
 were also worn. 
 
 There were no rad- 
 ical changes in fashion 
 during the period of 
 the Republic (1848- 
 1852). The skirts 
 were gradually grow- 
 ing larger, and under 
 the Second Empire 
 (1852-1870) they be- 
 came very full and 
 bell-shaped. They 
 were frequently made 
 up of flounces or had 
 decorations which sim- 
 
 Bonnet and shawl of the Empire period 
 
Costume 47 
 
 The bodices were close-fitting, with the long shoulder. 
 They were frequently adorned with wide collars or fichus 
 which had long ends. These were sometimes attached or 
 crossed at the waist line and then fell nearly to the bottom 
 of the skirt. An effort was made to raise the waist line 
 and adopt the fashions of the First Empire, but the close- 
 fitting basque, with pointed waist line and full skirt, con- 
 tinued to be popular. Many of the basques fastened 
 straight up to the throat and had narrow turn-over collars 
 of lace. All the sleeves were long; some were close-fitting, 
 while others, called pagoda sleeves, were bell-shaped. Both 
 were set in at the lowered armseye as before. 
 
 Many lace jackets were used and many capes. The 
 mantles were large, as were the shawls, like those of the 
 First Empire. Smaller bonnets and small hats were worn. 
 The bonnets were made of straw, of lace and nets, and 
 were usually decorated, as were the hats, with artificial 
 flowers or small plumes. 
 
 There was constant opposition to the hoop, and in 1869 
 its shape was changed and a melon-shaped bustle was 
 added. The skirts worn with it changed in shape neces- 
 sarily. They were narrow over the hips and were usually 
 called Chinese skirts. 
 
 As there are many accessible records of the fashions 
 from 1870 to the present day, and many of those fashions 
 are merely adaptations of some described above, there 
 seems little necessity of an outline covering the period. 
 
PART II— TEXTILES 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 TEXTILE MANUFACTURE 
 
 The term textiles is the general designation for the 
 materials of which dresses and the majority of garments 
 are made. To insure a suitable selection of materials for 
 any specific use in the making of dresses and garments a 
 knowledge of textiles is required. This knowledge entails 
 a study of the various standard fabrics as to fibre and 
 general design, also a comparison of the different quali- 
 ties in which the materials are made and of the different 
 prices at which they may be purchased. Such work must 
 be based on a preliminary study of the processes of manu- 
 facture of the four fibres, cotton, wool, silk, and linen, which 
 are most important because most used. These processes 
 vary somewhat according to the fibre used and the finished 
 product desired. There are some processes, however, re- 
 quired for nearly all fibres and practically identical in 
 general principle for each. These processes are: 
 
 (a) Carding, or some allied process, which prepares the 
 fibre for spinning by converting the tangled mass into a 
 continuous strand. 
 
 (b) Spinning, which prepares that strand for weaving by 
 making it, through various drawing and twisting opera- 
 tions, into a yarn. 
 
 (c) Weaving, which makes that yarn into a fabric by 
 interlacing it in various designs. 
 
 I. Carding, Spinning, and Weaving 
 I. Carding 
 
 Carding is the process by which tangled and matted 
 fibres are cleaned, opened up, and arranged in a continu- 
 
 48 
 
Textile Manufacture 49 
 
 ous strand for subsequent spinning. It is probable that 
 the need of this process was not felt until the art of spin- 
 ning was fairly well known; but when its value was once 
 understood its development paralleled that of spinning. 
 
 i. Hand Carding. — Carding, like spinning, was evidently 
 first done by the fingers without the aid of tools. Later, 
 
 From a photograph, copyright by American Woolen Co., Boston 
 
 Worsted card 
 
 two flat pieces of wood with handles were used. These 
 pieces, called cards, were covered on one side with skin or 
 leather which was set with fine wire points or teeth. The 
 wire was so bent that the points turned toward the 
 handles of the cards. The fibres were placed between the 
 cards, which were so manipulated, one on the other, that 
 the fibres were disentangled, cleaned, and then made to 
 form a soft roll called a sliver which was the length of the 
 cards. In the subsequent spinning these rolls were drawn 
 out and joined to form a continuous strand which was 
 sufficiently fine and strong to be used in weaving. 
 
50 Dressmaking 
 
 Carding by this method was obviously a slow process. 
 It is now done with great rapidity by the use of machines 
 which have a large revolving cylinder covered with fine 
 wire points called clothing. This cylinder comes in con- 
 tact with many small cylinders or with revolving flats, and 
 the fibres are cleaned, opened, and finally delivered contin- 
 uously in the form of a web, which is in some cases reduced 
 to a soft roll, or strand, called a sliver, and in others to a 
 smaller roll, called a roving. 
 
 The first machines invented were fed by hand and de- 
 livered the sliver in short lengths as did the hand cards. 
 Through many inventions, however, cards have been 
 evolved which are fed by machine continuously and de- 
 liver the fibre in a continuous strand. 
 
 2. Machine Carding. — There are two general types of 
 carding-machines; those used for wool, which have a large 
 cylinder and several small ones, and those used for cotton, 
 which have a large cylinder and revolving flats. 
 
 (i) Car ding-Machines for Wool. — -The carding-machines 
 which are used for the two branches of the wool industry, 
 worsted and woolen, differ somewhat in detail. 
 
 (a) Worsted. — For worsted (which does not require as 
 much carding as woolen because of the subsequent comb- 
 ing processes) generally only one machine is used. This 
 may be a single or a double cylinder card. 
 
 A machine in general use in the worsted industry is made 
 up as follows: 
 
 (/) An automatic feed, which receives the fibre in bulk 
 and regulates the amount to be delivered to the card. The 
 machine consists of a travelling apron, which receives the 
 fibre and carries it forward; a stripper, a cylinder or comb 
 which works against the apron at the back and removes 
 the surplus fibres; another stripper at the front, which re- 
 moves the fibres brought forward on the apron and sends 
 them into the card. 
 
 (it) A series of cylinders or rollers, each of which is called 
 a licker-in. These arc placed in front of the feed and have 
 metallic clothing which takes up the fibre and gently opens 
 and cleans it preparatory to the carding. 
 
Textile Manufacture 51 
 
 (Hi) Burr guards, metal rollers which revolve against the 
 surface of the licker-ins and snap off any burrs in the wool. 
 These burrs are received and held on a tray. (If any burrs 
 and wool hold together the wool is also removed and later 
 used for woolens.) 
 
 (iv) First large cylinder, which follows the licker-ins and 
 is covered with card clothing. This clothing consists of a 
 leather or cloth backing, or foundation, set with fine wire 
 teeth, turned in the direction in which the cylinder moves. 
 
 (v) A series of small cylinders, called workers and strippers, 
 which are also covered with card clothing. The workers 
 revolve against the surface of the large cylinder. The 
 strippers remove the stock from the workers so that it is 
 again taken up by the cylinder and carried forward. There 
 are the same number of workers as strippers, usually three 
 of each for worsted. 
 
 (vi) A fancy, a kind of wire brush which runs into the 
 clothing of the cylinder and raises the fibre to the surface 
 of the teeth. 
 
 (vii) A doffer, a cylinder which is set close to the large 
 cylinder and receives from it the fibre raised by the fancy. 
 
 (viii) An angle stripper, which removes the fibre from 
 the doffer and passes it to the second large cylinder. 
 
 (ix) Second large cylinder, like the first. 
 
 (x) A doffer, like that which follows the first cylinder. 
 
 (xi) A doffer comb, a metal bar with corrugated edges 
 which works against the surface of the doffer and removes 
 the fibre, now made into a thin web, as it comes up on the 
 doffer. 
 
 (xii) A trumpet, or tube, which is placed at one side of 
 the machine. It takes the web as it is delivered by the 
 comb and, condensing it into a roll, passes it through 
 drawing-off rolls. 
 
 (xiii) Drawing-off rolls, from which it comes in the form 
 of a continuous strand, or sliver, and is wound on a ball or 
 coiled in a can ready for the subsequent processes which 
 prepare it for spinning. 
 
 (b) Woolen. — In the woolen industry a set of cards, 
 two or more in sequence, is used. At present each card 
 
5°Z Dressmaking 
 
 is a separate machine, called a breaker. Usually there 
 are three — first breaker, second breaker, and finisher. In 
 general principle the breaker is the same as the worsted 
 card, but there is a difference in detail. Usually burr 
 guards are not necessary, as in the majority of cases the 
 fibres have been passed through a separate machine called 
 a burr-picker before coming to the woolen cards. There 
 are generally more workers and strippers on the large 
 cylinder of the breaker — from six to nine of each. The 
 fibre used for the woolen industry requires much more 
 carding than for the worsted, as it is not combed but 
 goes from the breakers directly to spinning. 
 
 (/) Feeding the Fibre. — There are two general methods 
 of feeding the fibre from one breaker to another, the pur- 
 pose of each feed being to produce uniformity of product. 
 
 (a) Traverse feed. The web is drawn in the usual method 
 from the large cylinder to the side and made into a con- 
 tinuous sliver by a revolving tube and drawing-off rolls. 
 From these rolls it is carried to a travelling apron placed 
 at the back of the second breaker. Here lengths of this 
 continuous sliver are so arranged on the bias, side by 
 side, as to form a solid lap. This lap is carried forward by 
 the apron and fed into the second breaker. 
 
 (b) Creel feed. The web is made into a sliver by the 
 side drawing, as in the other machine, and then wound into 
 a ball on a spool. Several of these balls arc placed in a 
 creel, or frame, and fed side by side straight into a card. 
 More manual labor is required for this method than for 
 the other. 
 
 (it) Removing the Fibre. — The method of removing the 
 fibre from the final card, or finisher, differs somewhat 
 from that used with the worsted card. In the finisher 
 there are two ring doffers placed one above the other and 
 working against the surface of the large cylinder. On these 
 the clothing does not cover the entire surface, as in the 
 worsted doffer, but is in narrow strips or rings around the 
 cylinders. As these rings alternate on the two rolls, by 
 working in conjunction, the full width oi the web is re- 
 moved. Each doffer delivers narrow strips or ribbons of 
 
Textile Manufacture 53 
 
 the web to a condenser. The condenser is a travelling 
 apron having an oscillating or sidewise motion which re- 
 duces each strip, as it passes over it, to a small roll, called 
 roving, or roping. These strands of roving go over guides 
 and are wound side by side ready for spinning on a big 
 spool, generally termed a jack-spool. 
 
 (2) Car ding-Machine for Cotton. — The carding-machine 
 for cotton is simple. The fibre has already been made into 
 a thick lap. This is placed at the back and is fed directly 
 to the card. 
 
 In place of the workers and strippers working on the 
 surface of the large cylinder, there are revolving fiats, a 
 kind of endless lattice which is supplied with card clothing. 
 The motion of the fiats is like that of a travelling apron, 
 continuous. They card the fibre, which is delivered in a 
 thin web from the cylinder to the doffer. This is made to 
 form a sliver by passing it through the trumpet and the 
 drawing-off rolls and is then coiled in a can for the subse- 
 quent processes which prepare it for spinning. 
 
 The process in detail for all is as follows: If the raw 
 fibre is fed to the card in bulk the amount delivered is 
 regulated by the automatic feed at the back. If a lap is 
 used, as in cotton, no automatic feed is necessary. The 
 fibre passes in a wide sheet to one or more small rollers, 
 and they, in turn, pass it on to the large cylinder, over 
 which it goes, carded by the action of the teeth of the large 
 cylinder and those of the fiats, or the small cylinders. The 
 fibres are opened, cleaned, separated, and finally removed 
 by another small cylinder called a doffer, which has its 
 teeth so arranged that it takes the fibre from the large 
 cylinder. 
 
 The fibre comes from the doffer of the carding-machine 
 in a wide, thin sheet or web. For convenience in han- 
 dling, this web is made by various methods into a continu- 
 ous, untwisted strand which, according to its size, is termed 
 a sliver or a roving. 
 
54 Dressmaking 
 
 II. Spinning 
 
 Spinning is the drawing out and twisting of fibres to 
 form a continuous strand or yarn. It is not known when 
 or how the discovery was first made that certain fibres 
 could be spun; that is, could be drawn out and given 
 enough twist not only to hold the fibres together but to 
 make them sufficiently strong for use. 
 
 i. Hand Spinning. — When spinning was first mentioned 
 in early records, it had reached a stage of development at 
 which it evidently remained for centuries. At that time 
 the three fundamental processes — drawing, twisting, and 
 winding — were done, with more or less difficulty, by the 
 fingers. The first improvement came with the use of tools, 
 when the spindle and whorl and the distaff supplemented 
 the work of the fingers. 
 
 (i) Spindles.- — The earliest spindles seem to have been 
 merely straight sticks used for the winding of the continu- 
 ous strand which the fingers had made by drawing out and 
 twisting the fibres. This strand was kept from unwinding 
 by tying it about the stick or fastening it in a notch at one 
 end. Later the spindle was made to assist the work of the 
 fingers in both the drawing and the twisting. After the 
 fibres were attached to it, it was given a twirl and allowed 
 to fall to the ground. In twirling, it twisted the fibres 
 together into a strand, which was drawn out as the spindle 
 fell. After a sufficient length had been twisted and drawn 
 it was wound on the spindle and fastened. The spindle 
 was then set twirling again and the operation repeated. 
 
 It was soon seen that the spindle fell more quickly and 
 easily when it had yarn wound on it, so a weight, called 
 a whorl, was added. It was probably, at first, of mud, 
 clay, or stone. Later both spindle and whorl were made 
 of wood, bone, and metal and much ornamented. 
 
 (2) Distaff, or rock. This was also a stick and carried 
 the raw fibre. It was generally tucked under the arm or 
 worn in the belt. This facilitated the work somewhat, as 
 it left both hands free to draw out the fibres and operate 
 the spindle. 
 
Textile Manufacture 
 
 55 
 
 2. The Introduction of Spinning- Wheels. — With the ap- 
 pearance of the hand-wheels at the last of the Middle Ages 
 there was greater production. There was also a differen- 
 tiation of method which still persists in modern spinning- 
 machinery. 
 
 (i) Jersey Wheel. — The wool, great, or Jersey wheel was 
 first used. It had a large and a small wheel placed on 
 
 (a) Saxony wheel 
 
 (b) Jersey wheel 
 
 a standard and connected by a belt. The spindle was at- 
 tached to the small wheel and both were turned by the 
 revolutions of the big wheel. The worker stood. The mo- 
 tion was intermittent; that is, the twisting and drawing 
 were done together by the turning of the spindle and the 
 receding movement of the spinner. For winding, the 
 motion of the spindle was temporarily reversed in order 
 to bring the yarn into place. When this was done its 
 regular motion was again started, and the spinner advanced 
 toward it, guiding the twisted strand with her fingers. 
 
 The process in detail was as follows: One end of the 
 carded roll of fibre was attached to the point of the spindle. 
 This roll was drawn out or attenuated by the worker as 
 she walked back away from the spindle to start the big 
 
56 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 wheel. As the big wheel turned the spindle turned with 
 it. The worker held the attenuated strand of fibre out, 
 almost in line with the spindle, so that it could not wind 
 on it but fell from its point at each revolution and in 
 consequence was twisted rather than wound, each revolu- 
 tion of the spindle giving one twist to the strand. After 
 
 the fibre was sufficiently 
 drawn out and twisted, the 
 big wheel was stopped and 
 its motion reversed to bring 
 the yarn into position on 
 the spindle for winding. 
 The spun yarn was then 
 held at right angles to the 
 spindle and nearer its cen- 
 tre; the wheel was turned 
 in the original direction and 
 the yarn was wound on the 
 spindle. 
 
 (2) Saxony Wheel. — The 
 Saxony or flax wheel, which 
 next appeared, was of more 
 complicated mechanism. It 
 also had a large and a small 
 wheel placed on a standard 
 and connected by a belt. 
 These wheels were turned 
 by a treadle which was at- 
 tached to the big wheel by 
 a rod. The spindle w r as fastened to the small wheel and 
 turned with it. In addition to the spindle, however, there 
 was a bobbin and flyer. 
 
 In spinning, the yarn was wound on a bobbin rather 
 than on a spindle as in the other wheel. The bobbin was 
 a hollow cylinder which was put on over the spindle but 
 not attached to it. It revolved with the spindle in the 
 same direction, but more slowly, as it fitted loosely and 
 was retarded in its motion by the winding of the yarn. 
 The purpose of the flyer was to twist the yarn. It was 
 
 Bobbin and flyer 
 
Textile Manufacture 51 
 
 shaped somewhat like a horseshoe but with its ends more 
 spreading. It was attached to one end of the spindle and 
 turned about it and the bobbin at the same rate of speed 
 as the spindle. A series of hooks were placed on each 
 prong of the flyer. These served to guide the yarn as it 
 was wound on the bobbin. In order to bring the yarn into 
 position for winding, it was passed through a hole or eye 
 in that end of the spindle to which the flyer was attached, 
 then carried around one hook in the flyer and fastened to 
 the bobbin. 
 
 A distaff to hold the carded fibre was usually placed 
 high at the front of the wheel. As this wheel was oper- 
 ated by foot-power, the worker sat. The motion was con- 
 tinuous; the worker guided and drew out the fibres, which 
 were then twisted by the flyer and wound by the bobbin 
 without interruption. 
 
 The process in detail was as follows: The fibre was 
 taken from the distaff by the spinner and drawn out suffi- 
 ciently to pass through the eye of the spindle. It was 
 then carried over a hook of the flyer and attached to the 
 bobbin. The big wheel was started by placing the foot 
 on the treadle; this in turn started the spindle with its 
 bobbin and flyer. The worker, who had both hands free, 
 took the fibre from the distaff with her left hand and, 
 slightly twisting and drawing it with her right, guided it 
 to the eye of the spindle. The drawing, twisting, and 
 winding went on continuously and followed each other. 
 The drawing was done by the worker, the twisting by 
 the rapid revolution of the flyer, and the winding by the 
 slower revolution of the bobbin. It was not necessary to 
 stop the wheel except for changing the yarn from one 
 hook of the flyer to another in order to wind the bobbin 
 evenly. 
 
 The product of these two wheels differed somewhat, 
 the continuous motion of the flax wheel giving a harder- 
 twisted, stronger yarn than the intermittent motion of the 
 wool wheel. 
 
 3. The Development of Spinning-Machines. — In the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century various spinning- 
 
58 Dressmaking 
 
 machines appeared. Their appearance was due to a de- 
 mand for an improved quality of yarn and for a much 
 greater product than could possibly be supplied by the use 
 of the hand-wheels. Two spindles could be used on a 
 spinning-wheel, but this doubling of the productive power 
 of some wheels did not in any way meet the demand, 
 which was soon still further increased by the invention 
 of a fly-shuttle for the loom. Formerly the two indus- 
 tries, spinning and weaving, were evenly balanced. With 
 this invention, however, more yarn could be woven than 
 could be supplied by the spinners. 
 
 The underlying principles of the spinning-machines 
 which were invented seem to have been borrowed from 
 one or the other of the hand-wheels. 
 
 (i) Spinning- Jenny. — The first important invention was 
 made by James Hargreaves about 1764. His machine was 
 called a spinning-jenny. Its principle was like that of the 
 wool or Jersey wheel. The motion was intermittent; that 
 is, the drawing and twisting were done together, followed 
 by winding. 
 
 The jenny had an oblong frame. Across one end of it 
 were (a) eight or ten upright spindles. Over the spindles 
 were (b) the wires, which could be .regulated to place the 
 roving in position for twisting, and later the spun yarn 
 in position for winding, as required. The spindles were 
 operated by (c) a big wheel which was at one side of the 
 opposite end or back of the frame. The wheel was con- 
 nected by (d) a belt with (e) a cylinder placed in the centre 
 of the lower part of the frame. This cylinder had (/) a 
 separate belt or cord for each spindle, and as it revolved 
 with the turning of the wheel the spindles were made to 
 revolve also. 
 
 Set near the cylinder in the lower part of the frame was 
 (g) a creel which held (//) bobbins of the roving to be spun. 
 There were as many bobbins as upright spindles. On 
 the top of the oblong frame, extending from side to side, 
 was (i) a carriage which, set on wheels working in grooves 
 made in the framework, could be pushed back and forth 
 the length of the frame. Across this carriage was (J) a 
 
Textile Manufacture 59 
 
 holder which could be regulated to allow the roving to 
 pass through it or to be firmly held as desired. 
 
 The process in detail was as follows: The carriage was 
 placed in front of and close to the upright spindles; the 
 ends of the roving were brought up from the creel and 
 passed through the holder of the carriage; each end was 
 then attached to one of the spindles. When the roving 
 was fastened to their points the spindles could twist in 
 the turning, as in the big wheel, but because of the guide 
 wire they could not wind. 
 
 To begin spinning, the worker turned the wheel, caus- 
 ing the spindles to revolve. Having thus started the 
 twisting, with the other hand he drew the carriage some 
 distance away from the spindles, letting out a length of 
 roving. When enough roving was delivered the holder 
 on the carriage was closed and held the roving. The 
 carriage was then drawn back the full length of the frame, 
 while the spindles continued turning. As a result, that 
 length of roving was both attenuated or drawn out and 
 twisted. When the carriage reached the far end of the 
 framework, it was stopped and backed a little to loosen 
 the tension of the yarn so the spindles could continue to 
 turn and give a still tighter twist to the drawn-out yarn. 
 
 When twist enough had been given, the spindles were 
 stopped and the guide wire was adjusted to press the yarn 
 down on the spindles in position for winding. The turn- 
 ing of the spindles was then continued and, as the carriage 
 was sent slowly back toward the spindles, the twisted and 
 drawn-out yarn was wound on them. 
 
 While the operation of this machine was slow and tedious, 
 yet it was an improvement, as it had eight or eleven spin- 
 dles working at one time in place of the one or two of the 
 hand-wheels. It helped in amount of production, but the 
 yarn it made was- softly twisted and not very satisfactory 
 for use as warp. 
 
 (2) Water-Frame. — Arkwright's water-frame was the 
 next invention, about 1768. It was first run by horse or 
 water power, as it was an exceedingly heavy machine. 
 Later steam was used. Its principle was in general that of 
 
00 Dressmaking 
 
 the Saxony wheel. The motion was continuous, the draw- 
 ing, twisting, and winding being done separately but con- 
 tinuously. 
 
 In addition to the bobbin and the flyer, which were used 
 for twisting and winding, a series of rollers, called drawing- 
 rollers, were introduced to draw out the roving. The ma- 
 chine had an upright frame, on the top of which, at the 
 back, was placed the roving to be spun. In front of the 
 roving were (a) the sets of drawing-rollers revolving at 
 different speeds. Placed somewhat below these, and at the 
 very front of the frame, were (b) several upright spindles 
 provided with (c) bobbins and flyers. 
 
 The process in detail was as follows: The roving passed 
 from its spool, or bobbin, through the two sets of rollers. 
 The set at the back which first received the roving moved 
 slowly; the other set moved much more rapidly. Conse- 
 quently, as the intake of the second set was greater than 
 the output of the first, the roving was drawn out or at- 
 tenuated. The roving passed from the rollers through 
 the hole or eye in the top of each spindle, and over the hooks 
 on the flyer which twisted it, to the more slowly moving 
 bobbin on which it was wound. 
 
 The introduction of this machine marked the beginning 
 of successful roller-drawing which is employed in nearly 
 all modern spinning. Formerly, in the wheels and even 
 in the jenny, the amount of drawing which the yarn re- 
 ceived was dependent on the worker, and might, in con- 
 sequence, be very uneven. With the use of rollers the 
 drawing was governed entirely by machinery. As a result 
 the yarn was more even in quality and, due to the con- 
 tinuous motion of the water-frame, harder twisted. It 
 was a more satisfactory warp-yarn than that of the jenny. 
 
 (3) Crompton's Mule. — A machine which combined the 
 most valuable points of the water-frame and the jenny 
 appeared about 1779. It was the invention of Samuel 
 Crompton. Its motion was intermittent. It was called 
 a mule because of the combination of parts of the two 
 machines, Crompton having used Arkwright's drawing- 
 rollers and combined with them Hargreaves's movable 
 
Textile Manufacture 61 
 
 carriage for more drawing and his upright spindles for 
 the twisting and winding. At the top and back of the 
 stationary part of the machine the roving was placed as 
 in the water-frame, and immediately in front of it were 
 (a) sets of rollers operating at different speeds. The (b) 
 upright spindles were placed on (c) the carriage, which 
 travelled away from and toward the rollers on a track 
 some feet in length. The (d) spindles were made to twist 
 and wind the strands alternately, much as in the spinning- 
 jenny, by their turning and by the use of the (e) guide 
 wires and the movement of the carriage. This machine 
 combined drawing by rollers with drawing by the receding 
 of the carriage. 
 
 The process in detail was as follows: The carriage with 
 the spindles was drawn close to the drawing-rollers. The 
 roving from the creel of bobbins at the back was passed 
 through the rollers and attached to the point or end of 
 the spindles, where it was held by a guide wire. As the 
 rollers delivered, the carriage withdrew on its track and 
 the spindles turned, so that the strand was drawn by the 
 rollers and twisted by the spindles at the same time. 
 After the required length of roving had been delivered the 
 rollers were stopped but the carriage continued to recede 
 to draw out the roving still more. When the carriage 
 reached the end of the track it stopped, the tension was 
 loosened by a slight backing of the carriage, the spindles 
 continued to turn to give extra twist, and then they also 
 stopped. Another guide wire placed the yarn in position 
 for winding on the spindles. The motion of the wheel 
 was reversed and the carriage returned to its original 
 place, while the spindles were turning to wind the yarn. 
 
 This machine forms the basis of the modern self-acting 
 mules. Even when first invented the mule was more 
 satisfactory and more used than the jenny or water-frame. 
 Various improvements were made from time to time in 
 the various parts of it, but it was not until about 1830 
 that it was made self-acting. 
 
 4. Types of Modern Spinning-Machines. — There are two 
 general types of spinning-machines in use now: the mules 
 
62 Dressmaking 
 
 and the upright spinning-frames. Both types have devel- 
 oped from the twp hand-wheels through the series of 
 machines just described. The mules are based on the 
 wool-wheel and spinning-jenny, and the spinning-frames 
 on the Saxony wheel and water-frame, both having added 
 rollers for feeding or drawing. The underlying principles 
 have been the same throughout as those of the early 
 wheels, but the modern machines differ in that all the 
 processes of drawing, twisting, and winding are done by 
 complicated machinery, which can operate many hundreds 
 of spindles at one time, while the spinner using the hand- 
 wheels must do some of the work herself and in conse- 
 quence cannot, at best, manage more than two spindles. 
 In running the modern machine these mechanical contri- 
 vances enable the worker to produce probably more than 
 a thousand times as much yarn as can be produced in the 
 same length of time on the wheel. 
 
 (i) Mules. — There are two kinds of mules, one which is 
 used in the spinning of woolen yarns, the other which is 
 used in the spinning of worsted and cotton yarns. Both 
 are based on the Crompton mule and are alike in general 
 method of procedure. Both have rollers which guide and 
 feed, or draw; upright spindles placed on a movable car- 
 riage which travels back and forth on a track averaging 
 from sixty- four inches to seventy- two inches in length; 
 and faller wires which guide and maintain the tension in 
 winding. In both machines the motion is intermittent, 
 the drawing and twisting being done on the outward jour- 
 ney of the carriage and the winding on the return. 
 
 In the winding, one section of the bobbin or cop is filled 
 at a time. End-to-end winding is not done as it is on 
 some of the spinning-frames. 
 
 (a) Woolen Mule. — The roving for this comes from the 
 woolen card and is on a jack-spool, which is placed at the 
 back of the stationary structure of the machine. Directly 
 in front of the roving are the guide rail and feed-rolls. 
 These rollers do not draw, but they are arranged to regu- 
 late the tension and guide the roving as it is fed to the 
 spindles. The drawing of the roving is done by the con- 
 
Textile Manufacture 63 
 
 tinued recession of the carriage after the feed-rolls have 
 ceased to deliver. The twisting and winding are alternately 
 done by the turning of the spindles, which are provided 
 with bobbins and guide wires, called fallers, and are so 
 placed in the carriage that they slant a little forward to- 
 ward the machine. This slant causes the roving to drop 
 off the point of the spindle as it revolves on its outward 
 journey, so that the roving is twisted and not wound. 
 
 In detail the process is as follows: .The carriage with 
 the spindles is drawn close to the stationary machine. 
 The ends of roving are carried from the jack-spool over 
 the guide rail, through the feed-rolls, and attached to the 
 spindles. 
 
 As the carriage withdraws, the feed-rolls deliver and the 
 spindles turn. No drawing is done at first. When about 
 half the journey of the carriage is completed, however, the 
 feed-rolls stop delivering, and as the carriage continues to 
 withdraw, the roving already delivered is drawn out and 
 reduced in size. The spindles are twisting all the time, 
 and even after the carriage has reached the end of the 
 track they continue turning to give additional twist. 
 
 While this final twist is put in, the carriage moves back 
 a very little toward the machine to free the tension on the 
 yarn, as it is somewhat shortened in length by the twisting. 
 
 When enough twist has been given, the spindles are 
 stopped, the yarn is backed off the top of the spindle and 
 placed in position for winding. The faller wires drop into 
 position, one serving as a guide in the winding, the other 
 maintaining the necessary tension, while the carriage re- 
 turns and the spun yarn is wound. 
 
 (b) Worsted Mule. — The roving for this comes from the 
 roving-frame and is generally on shells which are placed 
 in a creel at the back of the stationary machine. Directly 
 in front are the guide rail and drawing-rollers. There are 
 two sets of rollers which draw, and between them are two 
 more sets whose purpose is to guide and maintain an even 
 tension on the roving. 
 
 All the drawing is done by the rollers; the recession of 
 the carriage merely gives opportunity for greater length of 
 
64 Dressmaking 
 
 gyration in the twisting, which keeps the fibres in better 
 shape and gives a yarn more regular in size and even in 
 twist. The twisting and winding are done alternately by 
 the turning of the spindles, which are provided with tubes, 
 on which the spun yarn is wound, and with faller wires. 
 The spindles are set to slant forward as are those of the 
 woolen mule. 
 
 In detail the process is as follows : The carriage with the 
 spindles is drawn close to the stationary machine. The 
 ends of roving are carried from the shells through the 
 guides and rollers and are then attached to the spindles. 
 
 The front rollers turn at greater speed than those at 
 the back, and the roving is thus drawn out and attenuated. 
 As the carriage withdraws, the drawing-rolls deliver this 
 attenuated roving and the spindles turn to give it the 
 necessary twist. The carriage moves at a rate of speed 
 which keeps the roving taut while the twisting is going on 
 but which does practically no drawing. Additional twist 
 is put in after the carriage has reached the end of the 
 track. Exactly as in the woolen mule, the winding is 
 done by the aid of the faller wires as the carriage returns. 
 
 A mule requires a skilled attendant, as it is an exceed- 
 ingly complicated machine. Men are usually employed 
 for this work. A man with attendants can take care of 
 two machines. The number of spindles on a machine dif- 
 fers, as does the distance which the carriage travels, both 
 depending on the kind of yarn spun. 
 
 A woolen mule generally has about four hundred spin- 
 dles, a worsted about six hundred, while a cotton may 
 have from six to twelve hundred, according to the size of 
 the yarn. 
 
 (2) Upright Spinning-Frames. — There are three kinds of 
 upright spinning-frames in general use for the different 
 fibres: the ring, the cap, and the flyer. 
 
 These are all based on the Arkwright water-frame and 
 are alike in their method of drawing, but vary in the con- 
 trivances used for twisting and winding. 
 
 In the original water-frame the twisting was done by a 
 flyer. It did not prove satisfactory, however, for the high 
 
Textile Manufacture 65 
 
 speed necessary in the majority of the modern machines, 
 and other inventions took its place. The flyer is still used, 
 but much of the work in spinning formerly done by it is 
 now done by a ring and traveller or by a cap. 
 
 All the spinning-frames have drawing-rollers and up- 
 right spindles with bobbins. The motion is continuous, 
 the drawing, twisting, and winding being done separately 
 but continuously. In the winding, the cop may be formed 
 either by filling the bobbins in sections (filling wind) or by 
 end-to-end winding (warp wind). 
 
 (a) Ring Spinning. — In this process big spools of roving 
 as they come from the roving-frame are placed at the back 
 of the upright frame. Just in front, but on an incline, are 
 arranged the series of drawing-rollers. These differ in 
 their rates of speed, the front set going faster than those 
 at the back in order to draw out the fibre. Below these 
 and at the front of the machine are the spindle and bobbin, 
 which are turned by power. They are enclosed by the 
 ring, which carries the traveller. The spindles are upright 
 and are attached to a stationary rail. They pass through 
 circular openings in another rail or platform, called a 
 lifter, which is so arranged that it moves up and down the 
 length of the bobbin. In the circular openings are placed 
 stationary rings with flanges. Sprung on each flange and 
 revolving on it is a small wire ring called a traveller. 
 
 In detail the spinning process is as follows: The roving 
 goes through the drawing-rollers and is attenuated. It is 
 then passed through the traveller and fastened to the bob- 
 bin. The spindle with its bobbin revolves rapidly. The 
 tension of the thread between the rollers as they deliver 
 and the bobbin as it revolves rapidly causes the traveller 
 to turn, but, in turning, it lags behind the bobbin, so that 
 in revolving it not only twists the attenuated yarn, which 
 it receives directly from the rollers, but winds it on the 
 more swiftly turning bobbin. The winding is regulated by 
 the movable platform, or lifter, which carries the ring and 
 traveller. It rises and falls, winding the yarn evenly. 
 
 The ring is generally used in the spinning of cotton, but is 
 seldom used for worsted except for twisting after spinning. 
 
66 Dressmaking 
 
 (b) Cap Spinning. — The machine for this process differs 
 mainly in having a cap in place of the ring and traveller. 
 
 The spindle is upright and to the top of it is attached a 
 metal cap. Both are stationary. On the spindle is a bob- 
 bin which is driven by power. This bobbin moves up and 
 down as well as around on the spindle and winds the yarn 
 evenly. In order to wind on the bobbin, the yarn coming 
 from the drawing-rollers must revolve about the cap, the 
 lower edge of which guides it in the winding. 
 
 In detail the spinning process is as follows: The roving 
 goes through the drawing-rollers and is attenuated. It is 
 then brought through an eye in a guide rail, down over 
 the cap, and attached to the bobbin. The power turns the 
 bobbin, and by its swift turning the thread is made to 
 balloon rapidly about the cap and in this way is twisted 
 as it is wound. 
 
 Yarn which is spun on the cap very frequently has many 
 loose fibre-ends which stand out. This is caused by the 
 speed with which it is whirled through the air about the 
 cap. 
 
 Cap spinning is used very largely for worsted. 
 
 (c) Flyer Spinning. — The machine for this process differs 
 in turn from the other two in that its twisting and winding 
 are done by a flyer. 
 
 The spindle is upright and has the flyer attached to it 
 and moving with it. On the spindle is a bobbin which is 
 turned, as was the traveller in ring spinning, by the ten- 
 sion of the yarn. It also moves up and down to wind the 
 yarn evenly. 
 
 In detail the spinning process is as follows: The roving 
 goes through the drawing-rollers and is attenuated. It is 
 then brought down through the eye of the fly-board, or 
 guide, through a guide called a twizzle in the end of the 
 flyer, and attached to the bobbin. As the spindle is 
 turned by power the flyer turns with it and twists the yarn. 
 The tension of the yarn moves the bobbin, on which, as it 
 revolves more slowly than the flyer, the yarn is wound. 
 
 The flyer is used on the spinning-frames for the long 
 fibres, like linen, mohair, alpaca, hemp, jute, and long 
 
Textile Manufacture 07 
 
 wools, when a smooth yarn is desired, and on the so-called 
 fly-frames which by drawing and twisting prepare the 
 cotton roving for spinning. 
 
 The upright spinning-frames are much simpler in opera- 
 tion than the mules. The machines are usually so placed 
 that many spindles can be watched at the same time by 
 one attendant. 
 
 777. Weaving 
 
 Weaving consists in interlacing at right angles two or 
 more series of threads, of which the lengthwise are called 
 warp, and the transverse woof, weft, or filling. In weaving, 
 the warp-threads are always arranged first and the filling 
 threads are then interlaced in various ways, as required by 
 the design. Weaving was at first done by hand, with but 
 little assistance in the way of mechanical devices, and yet 
 the products of the most perfected of the power-looms of 
 to-day have never surpassed the beauty of the texture and 
 design of those hand-made materials. 
 
 i. Hand Weaving. — The first weaving was, without 
 doubt, exceedingly simple. The warp and filling threads 
 were probably alike, and were of material which could be 
 handled easily, such as grass, reeds, and leaves. The size 
 of the finished product was dependent on the length of 
 these materials. The design was the simplest, — the plain 
 weave, — over one, under one, alternating with each row. 
 
 As has been said, in all weaving the warp materials, or 
 threads, are first arranged in parallel order. To interlace 
 the filling, certain of these warp-threads must be lifted by 
 some means, probably at first by the fingers, and the filling 
 passed in and out. Each row as it is put in must be care- 
 fully pushed close to the last; otherwise the interlacing 
 will not appear regular and the fabric will not be firm when 
 completed. 
 
 The lifting of the warp-threads to open a path for the 
 filling was called shedding, or opening a shed; the passing 
 of the filling through the shed was called picking; while 
 the pushing of the rows of filling into place was called 
 
68 Dressmaking 
 
 battening, or beating up. These three fundamental steps 
 or processes are present in all weaving operations, whether 
 of hand or machine, and take place always in the same 
 order. The gradual evolution of the stationary loom and 
 the later use of power-machinery have affected only the 
 exactness and speed of the work, and not the method of 
 procedure. 
 
 The first efforts to make weaving easier seem to have 
 been by the use of (a) two sticks or beams, to which the ends 
 of the warp were attached. These stretched the warp and 
 kept it in place, so that the interlacing of the filling was less 
 difficult. Later, when materials of greater length were 
 made, these same sticks served still other purposes. On 
 one, called the warp-beam, was wound the extra length of 
 warp to be woven; on the other, called the cloth-beam, was 
 wound the finished fabric. 
 
 To facilitate the work further, a stick was put through 
 the warp and so attached to it that all the desired threads 
 could be raised at once, rather than one at a time, as by the 
 fingers, thus making a better shed for the more rapid in- 
 sertion of the filling. This stick, called (b) a heddle, has 
 developed into the complex harness of the modern loom, 
 and has still the same function, that of forming a shed. 
 Another stick, on which the filling was wound and which 
 took the place of the fingers in passing it through the shed, 
 later became (c) the shuttle, and. carried the bobbin wound 
 with filling. Still another stick, which was called (d) a 
 batten, lay, or lathe, and was used to push the filling- 
 threads together to make a firm fabric, is to-day represented 
 in the loom by the reed, which does the beating up or bat- 
 tening. 
 
 2. The Appearance of the Hand-Loom. — Improvements 
 and changes in all devices led in time to the construction 
 of what was called in Europe the hand-loom, and later, in 
 America, the Colonial loom. This loom had a stationary, 
 square framework which held a revolving beam at the 
 back on which the warp was wound, (a) the warp-beam; 
 and another beam at the front which received the finished 
 cloth as it was woven, (b) the cloth-beam. Between these 
 
Textile Manufacture 
 
 69 
 
 two beams and near the front was (c) the harness for open- 
 ing the different sheds. There were two or more of these 
 harnesses, the number depending on the elaborateness of 
 the design to be woven. Each harness was made up of a 
 series of healds, or heddles, or cords, suspended between two 
 flat strips of metal or wood. To form a heddle, a cord was 
 
 Hand -loom 
 
 so knotted as to make an eye or loop at the centre through 
 which one warp-thread might be passed when the loom was 
 set up for operation. The harness was suspended from the 
 top of the frame of the loom by cords and pulleys and was 
 worked by (d) treadles. In a simple design one treadle 
 usually operated one harness. In front of the harness was 
 the lay, or batten, now become (e) a reed, a metal comblike 
 arrangement enclosed in a wooden framework. This was 
 so arranged that it could be moved as required, backward, 
 out of the way of the shuttle when the shed was open, or 
 
70 Dressmaking 
 
 forward to beat the rilling into place. The warp-threads 
 were drawn from the warp-beam through the different 
 harnesses, according to the design, and through the reed, 
 and then attached to the cloth-beam at the front. Near 
 the warp-beam two sticks, called (/) lease-rods, were in- 
 terlaced through the warp, to help in keeping the warp- 
 threads taut and to prevent tangling. These sticks were 
 used in the primitive looms, but, unlike the other sticks, 
 their form remained practically the same for the most mod- 
 ern loom. The tools necessary in weaving were (g) the 
 shuttle with its (h) bobbin, or quill, and a cloth-stretcher, 
 now called (i) a temple. Generally the filling- thread was 
 wound on a quill, or bobbin, and placed in the shuttle, 
 which carried it back and forth through the warp for the 
 interlacing. The shuttle was of wood and usually boat- 
 shaped. It is much the same in the power-looms to-day. 
 The temple kept the material at the proper width as it was 
 woven. In putting in the filling-threads it was very easy to 
 make the fabric narrower than intended, by pulling the 
 threads too tightly. To prevent this the stretcher or 
 temple was placed in the material close to the end which 
 was being woven, thus keeping it stretched to the right 
 width. It might be made of wood or metal; its length 
 could easily be changed to suit the width of the material, 
 and at each end were teeth to catch in the cloth. The 
 temple has now been entirely changed in form and become 
 a part of the loom. It is generally a small cylinder set 
 with pins or teeth and placed at each side of the loom 
 near the front. It is turned by the friction of the cloth. 
 Its teeth catch the edge of the material as it is woven 
 and drawn forward to the cloth-beam, or roll, and keep it 
 stretched to the proper width. 
 
 To operate the hand-loom for the plain weave — one over, 
 one under — the process in detail is this : Two harnesses are 
 required, through one of which the even threads — 2, 4, 6, 8 
 — are drawn; through the other the odd — 1, 3, 5, 7. All 
 the threads in regular order — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 — -are then passed 
 through the reed and carried forward to the cloth-roll and 
 fastened. The warp must be so wound that there is an 
 
Textile Manufacture 71 
 
 even tension on each thread. One treadle operates one 
 harness, which in turn operates the one set of threads 
 passing through it. This opens a shed. To weave, a foot 
 is placed on one of the treadles and it is pressed down. 
 This opens a shed by drawing down or depressing one set 
 of threads. The shuttle carrying the filling is thrown 
 through this opening or shed. The reed is then brought 
 forward and pressed firmly against the filling- thread just 
 put in to beat it into place; the next shed is opened by 
 pressing down the other treadle; the shuttle is thrown 
 back again, and thus the work continues. The later hand- 
 looms had an automatic arrangement for unwinding the 
 warp and winding the cloth as the weaving progressed. 
 The power-loom is essentially the same as the more mod- 
 ern hand-looms. 
 
 3. Inventions. — The first two important inventions were 
 made in weaving while the hand-looms were still in use. 
 These were the fly-shuttle and the drop-box. 
 
 (1) Fly-Shuttle. — With the invention of the fly-shuttle 
 in 1733 by John Kay one person could manage an ordinary 
 loom, where before two were needed to send the heavy 
 shuttle back and forth. The arrangement of the fly-shut- 
 tle was this: At each side of the loom was a box for the 
 shuttle, and in each box was a driver. These drivers were 
 connected by a cord which had a handle at the centre of 
 the loom. By drawing the handle sharply the driver, in 
 the box containing the shuttle, struck the shuttle and sent 
 it across through the shed. 
 
 (2) Drop-Box. — The drop-box, invented by Robert Kay 
 in 1760, was an arrangement by which bobbins carrying 
 various colors of yarn could be brought into place and 
 sent through the shed automatically as desired, without 
 stopping the loom, as had been necessary formerly. 
 
 4. The Use of Power-Looms. — Many attempts were 
 made to operate a loom by power. In 1785 a heavy auto- 
 matic loom was invented by Doctor Edmund Cartwright. 
 It became the basis for the modern power-loom. 
 
 (1) Plain Harness-Loom Weaving. — In the power-looms 
 used to-day all the old operations are present but are 
 
72 Dressmaking 
 
 now done practically by machinery; and in addition there 
 are various devices for holding and changing shuttles, 
 replacing empty bobbins, and stopping the loom if warp 
 or filling threads break. All power-looms without special 
 devices are limited as to pattern, because the pattern is de- 
 pendent on the number of harnesses, and only a compara- 
 tively small number — about thirty — can be used conven- 
 iently in one loom. Each harness can control a large 
 number of warp-threads, but it can open only one shed. 
 After exhausting the number of harnesses which a loom 
 can carry, the weaving can be continued only by repeating 
 the pattern just made by these harnesses. 
 (2) Pattern-Weaving. 
 
 (a) Jacquard Loom. — The difficulty of repetition of pat- 
 tern was met by the invention of the Jacquard loom. In 
 this loom the warp-threads may be operated separately 
 rather than in groups, which allows a practically unlimited 
 variety of patterns to be made. Each warp-thread passes 
 through the eye of a harness-cord, which is attached to a 
 hook overhead. Each hook is in turn attached to a hori- 
 zontal needle and operated by it. All these needles are 
 driven forward by springs, against the face of a cylinder. 
 This cylinder has four sides, and over it go the perforated 
 cards which bear the design to be woven. Only those 
 needles which, when driven forward, go through a perfora- 
 tion in the card affect the pattern. In entering the per- 
 foration they carry forward their hooks, which catch on a 
 crosspiece, or griffe, in the loom and are held there; the 
 other needles fall back into place, taking their hooks with 
 them, and the warp-threads which are connected with them 
 are lowered. In this way a shed is formed. As there are 
 many sets of these needles, many sheds may be opened 
 and a very elaborate pattern made. The expense in set- 
 ting up the loom and in making the design and perforat- 
 ing the cards is somewhat of a drawback to its use. 
 
 (b) Harness-Loom Attachments. — There have been many 
 devices invented which may be attached to the harness- 
 loom to secure special results. 
 
 There are two in very general use which accomplish 
 
Textile Manufacture 73 
 
 somewhat the same results as the Jacquard, with less ex- 
 pense. These are the Dobby and the Head-motion. The 
 Dobby is an English invention. In this attachment the 
 pattern-cards of the Jacquard are replaced by an endless 
 chain of narrow strips of wood, called bars. These have 
 rows of holes in which pegs may be placed according to 
 the design. Each bar opens one shed. The bars move 
 around a cylinder and operate levers which lift hooks. 
 The hooks in turn raise the harness fastened to them and 
 open the shed. The Head-motion is an American invention. 
 In this attachment the pattern-cards of the Jacquard are 
 replaced by an endless chain of rods on which are movable 
 collars, called risers and sinkers, which operate the har- 
 ness and give much the same results as do the pegs of 
 the Dobby. 
 
 Other less elaborate attachments are used to secure 
 special effects. By an attachment called a lappet, which 
 is practically an additional harness set in front of the reed, 
 designs are added to the face of the cloth which give the 
 effect of embroidery. The swivel attachment gives much 
 the same result as the lappet but is more often used in the 
 more expensive fabrics. Terry fabrics, like Turkish towel- 
 ling, are made by a specially arranged reed which beats 
 up the thread firmly only on every third or fourth pick. 
 This, with an additional warp which is loose, gives the 
 loops which are its characteristic. For warp-pile fabrics 
 there must be added to the regular loom equipment a 
 series of wires, with or without knife-edges, which bring 
 up into loops, at right angles to the foundation warp and 
 filling threads, an extra warp-thread and thus form a pile. 
 
 5. Preparation of Warp and the Threading of the Warp 
 for Hand and Power Looms. — Preliminary to all weaving 
 are two important processes, the preparation of the warp 
 and its threading into the loom. In general, the method 
 of procedure for both is somewhat the same in the hand and 
 power loom. In the hand-loom the warp is prepared and 
 drawn in entirely by hand. In the power-loom the prep- 
 aration of warp is by machinery. It is not so in every 
 case with the threading, which, when many harnesses are 
 
74 Dressmaking 
 
 used, is a rather difficult operation and requires not only 
 patience and time but skill. 
 
 (i) Hand-Loom. — For the hand-loom the processes of 
 warp preparation and threading are generally as follows: 
 
 (a) Preparation of Warp. — The number of warp-threads 
 required and their length depend on the width and length 
 of the material to be made. The yarn comes wound on 
 bobbins from the spinning-wheel. In spinning, the amount 
 of yarn wound on each bobbin is not uniform, and in order 
 to secure even lengths for the warp the yarn must be meas- 
 ured. This is done by winding the desired lengths into 
 skeins on a reel which somewhat resembles a wheel. From 
 the reel the skeins are put on a swift and wound back on 
 bobbins, the required length to each bobbin. To transfer 
 the yarn to the warp-beam of the loom, several bobbins are 
 placed in a bobbin-frame, and the threads from these are 
 wound on warping-bars which are of various kinds. This 
 operation is repeated until enough lengths to give the re- 
 quired width have been prepared. From the bars the 
 different groups of threads are transferred by various 
 methods to the warp-beam of the loom. In this trans- 
 ferring they pass through the teeth of a comb-shaped 
 guide, often called a raddle, which is placed near the warp- 
 beam and helps in keeping the threads separated and in 
 winding them on the beam evenly and smoothly. Two 
 people are needed for this operation, one to watch and 
 guide the threads, the other to turn the beam. 
 
 In winding the threads on the warping-bars a cross, or 
 lease, must be made in them at one end. Through this 
 the lease-rods are to be placed as the warp is set up in the 
 loom. 
 
 (b) Threading. — When the warp is wound on the beam 
 and the cross is secured by the placing of the lease-rods, the 
 ends are drawn, as the pattern requires, through the har- 
 ness and then through the reed. A reed-hook, resembling 
 somewhat a flattened crochet-hook, is used to pull these 
 threads through the eyes of the heddles and the dent, or 
 teeth, of the reed. 
 
 The simplest weaving design, the plain weave, requires 
 
Textile Manufacture 75 
 
 two harnesses — one for the odd threads, one for the even. 
 In threading, care must be taken to keep the threads in 
 the regular order in which they come from the warp-beam. 
 One harness is threaded at a time. In doing it, thread 
 No. i goes into the eye of the first heddle, No. 2 goes be- 
 tween the first and second heddles, No. 3 goes into the eye 
 of the second heddle, and No. 4 between the second and 
 third heddle, and so on. This is followed by drawing the 
 even threads, which were passed between the heddles of 
 the first harness, through the eyes of the heddles in the 
 second harness. 
 
 The reed then receives both odd and even threads in 
 regular order — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. After the threads are 
 drawn through the reed their ends are tied together in 
 groups. A stick is passed through these knots and is 
 firmly attached to the cloth-roll. The loom is then ready 
 for work. 
 
 (2) Power-Loom. — For the power-loom the processes in 
 general for the preparation and drawing in of warp are as 
 follows : 
 
 (a) Preparation of Warp. — By machinery this operation 
 is comparatively simple. It differs somewhat in detail, 
 however, for the different fibres. 
 
 As in the hand-loom, the width and length of the ma- 
 terial decide the number and length of the warp-threads. 
 All yarn, as it comes from the spinning, is on bobbins, or 
 cops. From the bobbins it is wound on big spools; that 
 is, it is made into larger packages for greater convenience 
 in handling. These packages are placed in frames, or racks, 
 and the yarn wound by different methods on to the warp- 
 beam. In the preparation of some warps for the power- 
 loom it is necessary to add sizing to the yarn in order to 
 strengthen it to withstand better the wear of the weaving- 
 machinery. This is usually done by passing the yarn 
 through a tank of sizing, after which it must be carefully 
 dried. All warp must be evenly wound; otherwise, as the 
 weaving progresses, the warp will not feed with an equal 
 tension on each thread. 
 
 If the warp is very fine, as is frequently the case in silk, 
 
76 Dressmaking 
 
 thin paper is placed between the layers of thread as it is 
 wound on the warp-beam. 
 
 (b) Threading. — The threading of power-looms is now 
 done both by hand and by machine. The method in gen- 
 eral parallels that of the hand-loom. As the threading of 
 any loom takes time and skill, when a warp is no longer of 
 use or its length exhausted, all the threads are carefully 
 tied in groups back of the harness. The new warp is then 
 wound on the beam by the usual methods, and each new 
 warp-thread is twisted or tied to an old one and drawn 
 through the harness. This can be done much more quickly 
 than can the regular threading. 
 
 II. Processes of Manufacture for Cotton, Wool, 
 Silk, Linen, and Other Lesser Fibres 
 
 There are four general classes of fibres: 
 (i) Animal — wool, silk, and mohair. 
 
 (2) Vegetable — cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp. 
 
 (3) Mineral — asbestos and tinsel. 
 
 (4) Artificial — artificial silk and spun glass. 
 
 The four important fibres — cotton, wool, silk, and linen 
 (flax) — are those most used in the manufacture of clothing 
 and consequently are those chiefly discussed here. Cot- 
 ton, wool, silk, and linen fibres are, when manufactured, 
 suitable for use both in undergarments and in outside gar- 
 ments. In this chapter, however, both the fibres and 
 fabrics are considered only as to their suitability; that is, 
 their wearing quality from the standpoint of dressmaking. 
 
 /. Cotton 
 
 Cotton is a vegetable fibre. It is the hairs which are 
 attached to the seeds of the cotton-plant. While growing, 
 they are enclosed in the pod formed after the flower dies. 
 The fibre is made up of a single cylindrical cell which col- 
 lapses as the pod bursts and the air reaches it, and becomes 
 ribbonlike, with thickened edges and an irregular spiral 
 twist. This twist is important, since it assists in the in- 
 terlacing of the fibres in spinning. 
 
Textile Manufacture 11 
 
 There are many varieties of the cotton-plant. The value 
 of the fibre depends somewhat on the variety, but the de- 
 sirable qualities — color, length, strength, smoothness, fine- 
 ness, pliability, and uniformity — are greatly affected by the 
 climate, soil, and cultivation. 
 
 i. Field Picking. — Cotton must be picked as soon as it 
 is ripe. The picking is done both by hand and by ma- 
 chine, and an effort is made to pick only the ripe fibres, 
 as the presence of the unripe injuriously affects the char- 
 acter of the whole. It is a tedious operation and often 
 badly done because of the great number of people required 
 for the work and the consequent necessity of employing 
 unskilled labor. 
 
 2. Weighing. — Cotton is weighed after the picking. 
 About two-thirds of its weight is due to the seed which is 
 still attached to the fibre. 
 
 3. Ginning. — Ginning is the next process; it separates 
 the seed and the fibre. There are two general kinds of 
 gins — the roller-gin, which seems to have developed from 
 primitive methods and is now used chiefly for long-staple 
 cottons, and the saw-gin, which was invented by Eli 
 Whitney and is more generally used but often tears and 
 injures the fibre. In the roller-gins the seed is removed by 
 passing the fibre over a roller against the surface of which 
 a kind of knife operates and separates seed and fibre. In 
 the saw-gin revolving circular saws separate fibre and seed 
 by pulling the fibre from the receiving hopper through a 
 grating which is too fine for the seeds. If the cotton is 
 fed into this hopper too rapidly, knots, or neps, will re- 
 sult and interfere later with the spinning process. 
 
 4. Baling. — From the gin the cotton is carried to a con- 
 denser and then baled. In this process it is subjected to 
 pressure, covered with jute or some similar material, and 
 bound with metal bands. Before transportation the bale 
 is usually subjected to more and greater pressure in the cot- 
 ton compress. This makes it the required size for shipping, 
 but does not improve its appearance, as the covering often 
 bursts in many places. 
 
 These processes — picking, ginning, and baling — might 
 
78 Dressmaking 
 
 be called preliminary processes. Those which follow have 
 to do with making the fibre into yarn, and they vary 
 somewhat; that is, the number of processes used and the 
 quality of yarn made, depend on the effect and quality de- 
 sired in the finished product. 
 
 Before giving the mill processes, it is necessary to ex- 
 plain that nearly every mill manager has a different method 
 of procedure. The attempt is made here to show a repre- 
 sentative method which includes the number and variety 
 of general processes required and places them in an order 
 followed by many mills. No attempt is made to explain 
 intricate machinery. 
 
 5. Opening. — After the bales are opened at the mill the 
 cotton is usually mixed to establish a uniform quality. 
 This mixing may be done by hand, but is usually done in 
 a machine called a bale-breaker, which cleans the fibre 
 as well. The cotton from various bales is carried on a 
 travelling apron, or lattice — a feed which regulates the 
 amount — and fed to a beater, after which it is usually sent 
 through a cleaning-trunk and delivered to another beater. 
 In the trunk the fibre is shaken up and carried forward by 
 a draft of air, and the dirt, which is thus removed, settles 
 and the two are separated. The beaters are cylinders set 
 with heavy teeth; these seize the cotton and throw it 
 against a grid through which the dirt goes. The fibre is 
 then taken up by other teeth and thoroughly opened up. 
 By means of condensing-rollers it is delivered in the form 
 of a thick web. 
 
 6. Picking. — Machines called pickers follow. There are 
 usually three, the breaker-picker, intermediate picker, and 
 finisher-picker. These are in general principle like the 
 bale breaker or opener in that they have beaters and con- 
 densing-rolls. In many mills the bale-breaker is omitted 
 and its work done by the breaker-picker. 
 
 Each picker has attached to it an automatic feed, which 
 receives the fibre from the previous machine and regulates 
 by pressure the quantity to be delivered to the beater. 
 These pickers remove the dirt, separate the tufts of cotton, 
 and finally deliver it in a lap which is wound into a roll on 
 
Textile Manufacture 79 
 
 a shell and is then ready for carding. The three machines 
 are used, because by repeating the beating and condens- 
 ing processes the final lap is made much more uniform 
 and the fibre much cleaner. 
 
 7. Carding. — The roll of lap is next placed at the back 
 of a carding-machine. The purpose of this machine is to 
 separate, clean, and arrange the tangled fibres. 
 
 As already explained, the carding-machine has a large 
 cylinder the surface of which is covered with small wire 
 teeth which are turned in the direction in which the cylin- 
 der revolves. Above this cylinder and coming in contact 
 with it are revolving flats, a kind of endless lattice with 
 teeth, which are turned in the opposite direction to those of 
 the cylinder. The cotton is fed in between these two sets 
 of teeth, and is straightened and cleaned by them and the 
 poor fibres removed. The cotton comes from the machine 
 in a continuous thin web, is condensed by the trumpet 
 and drawing-off rolls into a narrow band, or roll, called a 
 sliver, and coiled in a can. Double carding is sometimes 
 done. (For detail in Carding, see page 53.) 
 
 8. Combing. — If a fine grade of yarn is required the cot- 
 ton must next be combed. It is an expensive operation. 
 Practically all mercerized yarns and such as are used for 
 sewing-threads, batistes, and laces are combed. There are 
 a few preliminary processes after carding before the sliver 
 is ready for the combing, (a) Sliver Lap-Machine. — Sev- 
 eral slivers from the cards are passed side by side through 
 the rollers of a sliver lap-machine and made into one lap 
 the required width, about ten or twelve inches, (b) Rib- 
 bon Lap-Machine. — A few of these laps are then combined 
 by feeding them to a ribbon lap-machine, which delivers 
 them as one lap more uniform in size than the product of 
 the sliver lap-machine and ready for the comb, (c) Comb. 
 — Some form of nip comb is used. There are several dif- 
 ferent makes, but the general method of procedure is the 
 same for each. The comb removes from the lap all the 
 short fibres and straightens and parallels those which are 
 fairly uniform in length. There is much waste from this 
 machine, called comber waste. It is used in cheap-grade 
 
80 Dressmaking 
 
 cotton fabrics. The combing is done by the action of 
 combs set in cylinders, over which the lap passes, and by 
 an overhead comb. Sections of the lap are held in posi- 
 tion by the jaws of a nipper and combed one-half of the 
 length at a time. When thoroughly combed these lengths 
 are again made into a continuous strand, condensed, and 
 finally delivered as a sliver and coiled in a can. 
 
 9. Doubling and Drawing. — The slivers, either from the 
 card or from the comb, are next subjected to a process 
 called doubling and drawing, the purpose of which is to 
 continue paralleling and straightening the fibres, to make 
 even the sliver, and to reduce it in size for spinning. This 
 is accomplished by feeding from four to eight slivers to a 
 machine called a drawing-frame which has a series of draw- 
 ing-rollers. These rollers, like those of the upright spinning- 
 frames, revolve at different speeds, the last set going much 
 faster than the first. Because of this difference in speed 
 the sliver is drawn and not only evened but reduced in size. 
 Drawing may be done once, twice, or three times. From 
 the last drawing-frame the fibre is again delivered as a 
 sliver and coiled in a can. 
 
 10. Drawing and Twisting. — From the drawing-frames 
 the sliver goes to the fly-frames, of which there are four. 
 In many cases only three of these frames are used, depend- 
 ing on the quality of yarn desired. The four are called 
 (a) the slubber, (b) the intermediate, (c) the roving, and 
 (d) the fine, or jack frames. 
 
 The fly-frames have drawing-rollers, like those of the 
 drawing-frames, but in addition they have a bobbin-and- 
 flyer attachment, as, in these frames, the strand is so re- 
 duced in size as to require a twist to give sufficient strength 
 for winding and handling. 
 
 One thick end or sliver is fed to the first frame, the 
 slubber. It is drawn out by the rollers and twisted and 
 wound on the bobbin by the flyer. The product of this 
 machine is called slubbing. Several strands of stubbing 
 are united when fed to the different fly-frames which fol- 
 low. On each a strand still more reduced in size is twisted 
 and wound on a big spool or bobbin. From the last, or 
 
Textile Manufacture 81 
 
 jack, frame it is called a roving, and is sufficiently small 
 and has twist enough to be ready for spinning. 
 
 ii. Spinning. — Spinning may be done on either of the 
 two spinning-machines, the worsted mule or the ring spin- 
 ning-frame; the latter, for many reasons, is more often used. 
 On these machines the roving is reduced in size by the 
 drawing-rollers and is then given a twist and wound on a 
 bobbin or tube. Two strands of roving may be combined 
 in the spinning. The product from any spinning-machine 
 is a single yarn. 
 
 12. Twisting. — Many of the single yarns are doubled 
 and combined by more twisting to give strength or to pro- 
 duce special effects in the weaving. Greater strength is 
 more often necessary when the yarns are to be used for 
 warp. The twisting-frames are like the upright spinning- 
 frames except that they have no drawing-rollers. 
 
 13. Weaving. — For this some preparation of the yarns 
 is necessary. 
 
 (a) The filling-yarns are wound on bobbins which are 
 suitable for the shuttles. Filling-bobbins are always wound 
 a space at a time and not end to end, as the yarn is thus 
 delivered more easily. 
 
 (b) The warp-yarn requires more preparation, as it must 
 be sized before it is wound on the warp-beam. The yarn 
 is transferred from the bobbins to spools which are set 
 up in a rack and the yarn wound from them to several 
 warp-beams. From these warp-beams the yarn passes 
 through a machine called a slasher, in which it goes through 
 a tank of sizing and over a big drum for drying. It is 
 then drawn through a guide and is wound, as the design 
 requires, on one warp-beam ready for the loom. This 
 sizing is to give the yarn sufficient strength for the weaving 
 process; it is later removed during the finishing processes. 
 
 Cotton yarns are made into a great variety of materials, 
 which include all kinds of weaves from the plain to the very 
 elaborate. These may be made on the plain harness-loom 
 or by special attachments, such as the Dobby and Head- 
 motion, or on the Jacquard. A large number of cotton 
 fabrics have the plain or cotton weave and are given vari- 
 
82 Dressmaking 
 
 ety by finishing processes or by a combination of yarns of 
 different color, size, or fibre. 
 
 14. Finishing. — The final appearance of cotton material 
 depends very much on the finishing processes employed 
 and on the dressings used after the weaving is done. Many 
 materials are alike in weave and the size of the yarn 
 used, yet quite unlike when ready for purchase. For ex- 
 ample, long cloth and cambric have the same weave, the 
 plain or cotton; but while the cambric has a somewhat 
 polished surface the long cloth has a dull one which shows 
 a little fluff or fuzz. This difference is made in the finishing. 
 
 Many of these finishes are often removed to some ex- 
 tent in the laundry and the appearance of the material 
 decidedly altered. For instance: in some cases loosely 
 woven cotton fabrics are made to feel and look firm and 
 thick by the use of sizing, which is somewhat like starch. 
 Water will dissolve and remove this and leave the fabric 
 as it originally was — sleazy and thin. 
 
 (1) Regular Processes. — No matter what is desired in 
 the appearance of the finished product, all materials from 
 the loom must be subjected to certain processes. These 
 usually include: 
 
 (a) Inspecting and Marking for Repairs. — The woven ma- 
 terial is drawn over a frame which is placed in a strong 
 light, and its defects are carefully marked, (b) Repairing. 
 — All the defects marked must be repaired; all broken 
 threads must be joined and any missing ones replaced, 
 otherwise the design in the finished fabric will not be com- 
 plete. This is especially important in cotton materials, as 
 the weave is seldom entirely concealed by any finish, 
 (f) Singeing. — This is done to one or both sides of the 
 material to remove the many short fibre-ends which show 
 on the surface. The material is passed through gas flames 
 with such rapidity that only the loose fibre-ends are af- 
 fected. To prevent any burning, however, the material 
 is immediately washed and dried, (d) Starching, wet or 
 dry. — All materials have some starch or sizing added dur- 
 ing the finishing. In many cases a loose weave and poor 
 quality of fibre are concealed by sizing, thus necessitating 
 
Textile Manufacture 83 
 
 a larger quantity, (e) Spraying. — This is done by forcing 
 water on the fabric, much as sprinkling is done in laundry 
 work preparatory to ironing. (/) Calendering. — All ma- 
 terials are pressed with heavy rolls. The detail of this 
 process differs somewhat according to the finish required. 
 For example: for ginghams and long cloths, which do not 
 have polished surfaces, cold rollers are used in the calen- 
 dering, as merely rolling contact is required to give the 
 desired result; for cambrics, which do have polished sur- 
 faces, hot rollers revolving at different rates of speed are 
 used as heat and friction are required to give polish, (g) 
 Bleaching, Dyeing, or Printing. — If material is to be white, 
 it is necessary to bleach it. If it is to be colored, and the 
 raw stock or yarn was not dyed, it is dyed in the piece. 
 Many materials have a design printed on the surface of the 
 fabric by some of the usual methods rather than woven in. 
 Such fabrics usually require a preliminary bleaching. 
 
 (2) Special Processes. — Cotton, by special treatment, 
 may be made to look like silk, linen, or wool, 
 
 (a) The general method of giving cotton the appearance 
 of silk is by mercerization — a process in which the cotton is 
 subjected under tension to a concentrated caustic alkali 
 bath. As a result, the fibre becomes round, full, and rod- 
 like and reflects the light sufficiently to give a lustrous 
 surface. This can be more satisfactorily done to the yarn 
 than to the woven fabric, but it is done to either. 
 
 (b) Many methods are used to make cotton cloth look 
 like linen. None of the methods are permanently success- 
 ful, because of the marked differences in the fibres, espe- 
 cially in the length and lustre. Much dressing is usually 
 required, followed by beetling, or some allied process, and 
 pressing. These give the fibre all the lustre and firmness it 
 is possible to secure. 
 
 (c) Various methods are even more frequently employed 
 to give a woolen or worsted effect; the most common is 
 
 v that of raising a nap on the surface of the fabric by using 
 cylinders with napper clothing. The result gives such ma- 
 terials as outing flannel, flannelette, duckling-fleece, and 
 blankets. 
 
84 Dressmaking 
 
 Cotton is the cheapest and the most used of the four im- 
 portant fibres. Because of its cheapness there is no need 
 of adulteration; but, as has been said, it can be made to 
 look like various other fibres, and in consequence is often 
 used as a substitute. A few years ago cotton was said to 
 supply nine-tenths of the material employed in the manu- 
 facture of clothing. That includes, of course, materials 
 which are all cotton and many which are shown on the shop 
 counters as all wool, all silk, or all linen. 
 
 The character of the various cotton fabrics manufactured 
 is discussed under Fabrics. 
 
 II. Wool 
 
 Wool and hair are the most important of the animal 
 fibres. They come from sheep and other similar animals, 
 such as the angora goat, the camel, and the alpaca. Both 
 wool and hair are used in manufacture and are subjected 
 to much the same general processes. Chemically, they are 
 the same, but in appearance they differ somewhat. Hair 
 is generally rather stiff, straight, and lustrous. Wool is 
 soft, flexible, elastic, and wavy. 
 
 Each wool fibre is formed from a series of cells in the 
 skin of the animal. These cells are grouped about each 
 other and are filled with a fluid which evaporates as the 
 cells force their way, in series, through the cuticle into the 
 air. The evaporation of this fluid allows the cell walls to 
 collapse, one on the other, and as they are gelatinous they 
 form a continuous stalk which is the fibre. On the surface 
 of this fibre are scales or serrations, sawlike edges, which 
 are made by one cell's overlapping another, as they col- 
 lapse on reaching the air. These serrations and certain 
 other characteristics, such as its cellular structure, give to 
 the wool the shrinking, felting, or matting quality which 
 is so valuable in manufacture. 
 
 There are many varieties of wool, depending chiefly on 
 the breed of the sheep. There are also many different 
 grades on any one sheep. As a result, wool fibres differ 
 greatly as to length, strength, fineness, softness, elasticity, 
 
Textile Manufacture 85 
 
 lustre, number of serrations, and waviness. All these quali- 
 ties cannot be combined in any one fibre, but in proper 
 combination they have much to do with the value of the 
 wool. 
 
 The wool industry as a whole includes two important 
 clothing industries: woolen and worsted, both of which are 
 not usually carried on in the same mill. The different 
 processes necessary in the manufacture of each require 
 different types of machines. 
 
 Almost from the first the wools intended for the two 
 branches need quite dissimilar treatment. In the sorting 
 and blending the method in general is the same, but it is 
 done with a different result in view for each. The dusting 
 and drying, on the contrary, are the same in method and 
 result for both. Beyond the drying the processes differ 
 very much. 
 
 The difference between a woolen and a worsted yarn is 
 in the mechanical arrangement of the fibres in the finished 
 thread. 
 
 The fibres in the worsted yarn are straightened and 
 paralleled. All the processes in its manufacture, especially 
 the spinning with its roller drawing, work toward that re- 
 sult. In many cases the beauty of the finished fabric de- 
 pends on the twisting of the yarn and the clearness of the 
 design and weave, and all the finishing processes applied 
 are to aid in emphasizing that effect. Worsted fabrics 
 include serges, whipcords, albatross, Bedford cord, etc. 
 
 The fibres of the woolen yarn, on the contrary, are as 
 intermixed and interlaced as possible. The yarn in the 
 spinning is always spindle-drawn, and in general the weave 
 is chosen to give firmness as well as design to the finished 
 fabric. Woolen fabrics include such materials as broad- 
 cloth, tweed, melton, and beaver. 
 
 i. Preliminary Processes for Worsted and Woolen. 
 
 (i) Shearing. — Sheep are sheared by hand and by ma- 
 chine. The wool, in the shearing, comes off in a whole 
 sheet, called a fleece. Each fleece is tied up separately, and 
 about forty are packed in a bag together for shipping. 
 Paper twine is very generally used now for the tying, in 
 
86 Dressmaking 
 
 place of sisal and jute, from which the fibres are easily 
 rubbed off and intermixed with those of the wool. 
 
 (2) Grading. — Wool grading is often done by the middle- 
 man before the wool is finally sold to a mill for manu- 
 facture. The qualities are determined without untying 
 the fleece and depend in general upon the cleanness of the 
 wool, as affecting its shrinkage in the scouring, and the 
 length and diameter, or fineness, of the fibre. 
 
 Following these two processes, shearing and grading, 
 come those of the mill in which the wool is first prepared 
 for manufacture by sorting and scouring and is then manu- 
 factured by various processes into yarns. 
 
 The kind of yarn and its quality affect the number and 
 kind of processes necessary. As with cotton, an attempt 
 is made here to show a representative method which in- 
 cludes in their regular order the number and variety of 
 general processes required. 
 
 (3) Sorting. — This is the first process at the mill. Wool- 
 sorters are trained to detect the various qualities and can 
 quickly divide a fleece into parts, the number of parts de- 
 pending entirely on the use to which the wool is finally to 
 be put. A fleece, in general, is divided according to length, 
 fineness, and suitability of fibre. While the various re- 
 quired qualities are being separated, the undesirable parts 
 of the fleece are also determined and assembled for other 
 uses. Some wools, usually those from the Far East, are 
 opened on tables provided with screens and having a down- 
 ward draft of air which prevents the dirt from rising. 
 
 2. Special Processes for Worsted. 
 
 (1) Blending or Mixing. — Blending is done to secure a 
 desired price and quality in the finished product. After the 
 various mixtures are chosen they are spread out on the 
 floor, in the right proportion, layer upon layer. In using, 
 care is taken to secure the complete mixture by taking 
 from the side of the mass rather than from the top. 
 
 (2) Dusting. — The purpose of the duster is to take out 
 as much as possible of the loose dirt and sand. Dusting 
 is not always considered necessary. If the wool has much 
 sand and dust in it, however, soap is saved in the scouring, 
 
Textile Manufacture 87 
 
 which is to follow, by sending the loose fibres through the 
 duster first. Generally, a machine called a cone duster is 
 used. It has a cone-shaped cylinder made of wood or metal 
 arms set with heavy pins, or teeth. The fibre is fed in at the 
 small end of the cylinder, is carried by its revolutions to 
 the big end, and thrown out at the back. There is a screen 
 and fan at the top which takes away some of the dust, and 
 a grid at the bottom against which the fibre is beaten and 
 through which the dirt drops. 
 
 (3) Scouring. — The scouring or washing is to remove the 
 chemical and mechanical dirt; that is, the grease, or yolk, 
 a skin secretion, and any sand and loose dirt. These are 
 found in all wools. The scouring must be carefully done or 
 the fibre may be injured. Soap, with carbonate of potash, 
 or carbonate of soda — depending on the wool — is generally 
 used and followed by careful rinsing. 
 
 The wool-washer has (a) a self-feed which delivers a 
 regular amount at regular intervals. The fibre is placed 
 in the hopper of the feed and taken up by a revolving spiked 
 apron. At the back of the apron is a stripper which knocks 
 the surplus wool back into the hopper; at the front there 
 are revolving drums which strike off all the wool, allowing 
 it to pass over the apron and delivering it to be washed. 
 (b) A series of tanks, three or four in number, as required. 
 Each tank has a false bottom, or screen; this keeps the 
 wool away from the dirt which settles to the bottom. In 
 each tank there are rakes or harrows which take up the 
 wool as it enters the tank and carry it slowly forward 
 through the water, cleaning it and preventing felting or 
 matting. 
 
 Between the tanks are squeeze rolls which act as wring- 
 ers. They have an immense pressure and remove much 
 of the liquid as the wool is passed forward through them. 
 These rolls are placed over screens, and the liquid runs 
 down into other large tanks and, after settling, is used 
 again. 
 
 The first two or three tanks through which the wool 
 passes contain some detergent; the last, pure water for 
 rinsing. 
 
88 Dressmaking 
 
 (4) Drying. — Drying must follow scouring and may be 
 done in various ways, but, whatever the method, care must 
 be taken to maintain the correct amount of heat and mois- 
 ture. A drier may be attached to the washer or it may be 
 a separate machine. 
 
 One type of drier frequently used has a self-feed and a 
 chamber which is kept at a certain temperature by steam- 
 pipes, an inlet for fresh air, and an outlet for hot, moisture- 
 laden air. In this chamber is a travelling wire apron with 
 a fan underneath. The feed delivers the wool in regular 
 amount to the apron, which carries it as a rather thin web 
 forward through the heated chamber and dries it. 
 
 (5) Oiling. — Wool loses its natural oil in the scouring, 
 and some must be added to make the fibre sufficiently soft 
 and pliable and prevent static electricity, so that it will go 
 through the remaining processes without injury. The oil 
 is applied either by hand or by a simple spraying appara- 
 tus attached to some machine. Different oils, but usually 
 olive-oil, are used in different mills. 
 
 (6) Carding. — Preparing. — After the drying and oiling 
 the fibre is put through a carding-machine or a set of pre- 
 parers. The choice of the machine used depends on the 
 kind of fibre to be manufactured; that is, the cards are used 
 for the medium and fine wools, the preparers for the longer 
 wools, twelve inches or fourteen inches, and for mohair and 
 alpaca, for which the cards are not suited. 
 
 About nine-tenths of all the worsteds are carded. The 
 purpose of both the cards and the preparers is the same. 
 They separate and clean the tangled fibres and deliver them 
 in a continuous strand called a sliver. 
 
 (a) Cards. — A single or double cylinder card may be 
 used. The double-cylinder card differs from the single only 
 in having two large cylinders rather than one. These are 
 connected by a doffer and an angle-stripper, which pass 
 the fibre from the first to the second cylinder. The fibre 
 is first delivered by an automatic feed to cylinders called 
 licker-ins, which begin the opening and cleaning. On the 
 licker-ins are burr-guards which knock off any burrs left in 
 the wool. The large cylinders with their sets of workers and 
 
Textile Manufacture 89 
 
 strippers do the carding. The second cylinder is provided 
 with a doffer and doffer-comb which removes the carded 
 fibre. The fibre comes in a thin web from the second cyl- 
 inder to the doffer and is taken off by the comb. It is then 
 made into a continuous strand called a sliver by passing 
 through a tube or trumpet and through drawing-off rolls, 
 after which it is coiled in a can or wound on a ball. (For 
 detail in Carding, see page 50.) 
 
 (b) Preparers. — The general result of the set of pre- 
 parers is the same as that of the card, plus the work of ma- 
 chines called gill-boxes, which must always follow the card. 
 The action and principle of the preparers, however, differ 
 from those of the cards and are like those of the gill-boxes. 
 At the back of the preparers is an apron-feed which delivers 
 the fibres to rollers. These in turn pass the fibres forward 
 to movable bars set with parallel rows of upright pins — a 
 kind of comb, called fallers. These fallers automatically 
 come up in front of the rollers, receive the fibre, and, mov- 
 ing forward faster than the rolls, comb the wool and then 
 deliver it to two rollers at the front. These front rollers 
 are moving at a faster rate of speed than the fallers, and 
 they draw the fibre as it is delivered to them by the fallers 
 and thus assist further in the straightening and drawing. 
 
 Usually five or seven of these preparers are used in se- 
 quence; from the last two or three the fibre is passed 
 through a hole and condensed into a sliver and coiled in a 
 can. When the sliver leaves the last preparer it goes di- 
 rectly to the comb. 
 
 (7) Gilling. — This process, which is a kind of combing 
 and much resembles the preparing, must follow the card 
 but is not used after the preparers. The work is done in a 
 machine called a gill-box, which has drawing-rollers and 
 fallers like the preparers. It continues the arranging of 
 the fibres for the comb. 
 
 In this machine doubling and drawing are done as well 
 as the preliminary combing. Several slivers, the number 
 depending on the quality of the product required, are fed 
 to the back rollers of the gill-box. From the rollers the 
 slivers are carried forward by the fallers and delivered to 
 
90 Dressmaking 
 
 the more rapidly moving front rollers. The fallers are set 
 with pins much finer than those of the preparers. After 
 leaving the front rollers the fibre is made into a sliver and 
 coiled in a can or wound in a ball. 
 
 For the fine and medium wools, after the double-cylinder 
 card there may be generally two operations of gilling, one 
 machine following the other, before the sliver is ready for 
 the comb. 
 
 For coarser wools a single-cylinder card and one opera- 
 tion of gilling sometimes precede the comb. 
 
 (8) Combing. — The fibres in the sliver which results from 
 any one series of the preceding processes are fairly well 
 straightened and paralleled, but they are of uneven length. 
 Both long and short are combined in one strand. To re- 
 move the short fibres and further straighten the remaining 
 long ones, they are put through a rather complicated ma- 
 chine called a comb. 
 
 The Noble comb is most frequently used for worsteds, 
 though the work can also be done by a nip comb. 
 
 For use in the Noble comb the slivers are arranged by 
 winding in a punch or ball-winder. This machine has a 
 plate with four holes for the sliver to pass through, two 
 rolls in front of the plate which guide and keep an even 
 tension, and a revolving spindle on which the winding is 
 done. Four ends, or slivers, from the last gilling or pre- 
 paring operation are passed through the holes and guide- 
 rolls and wound side by side into a ball. The spindle is 
 withdrawn from the balls and eighteen of these are placed 
 in the comb. 
 
 The Noble comb is circular in shape. It has one large 
 circle set with concentric rows of steel pins; the coarser 
 pins are on the outside rows, the finer on the inside. 
 On each side of the machine are two smaller circles; these 
 are set inside and practically touch the big circle at one 
 point. These small circles are also set with concentric rows 
 of steel pins, but on these the fine are outside to be next the 
 fine of the large circle and the coarse ones inside. The big 
 circle and the two small circles revolve, and as they revolve 
 there is always a point of contact between each small circle 
 
Textile Manufacture 
 
 91 
 
 and the big one. At this point of contact the strand of 
 fibre is fed in and pressed down, or dabbed, into the teeth 
 of the big and small circles. As the two circles revolve, 
 the points at which they were in contact separate and the 
 strand of fibre is drawn through the teeth of both circles 
 and combed as they continue separating. 
 
 From a photograph, copyright by American Woolen Co., Boston 
 
 Noble comb 
 
 The short fibres, called noils, are removed by a knife. 
 These are frequently, though wrongly, included in the list 
 of wool substitutes. Noils are used in the manufacture of 
 woolen fabrics, as they give many short ends which are use- 
 ful in the teazling and gigging processes to raise the nap. 
 The long fibre is taken from the circles by rolls, carried by 
 travelling leather aprons, and finally delivered, a united 
 strand, through a trumpet or tube which gives it a false 
 twist, to a can in which it is coiled. It is called a sliver. 
 
 (9) Spinning Systems. — From this point either of two 
 different methods of procedure in the manufacture of the 
 
92 Dressmaking 
 
 yarn may be followed, according to the kind of yarn de- 
 sired; that is, worsted yarn may be drawn and spun (a) 
 by the Bradford system, which gives a smooth, lustrous, 
 level yarn, or (b) by the French system, which gives a 
 soft, rather fuzzy yarn. 
 
 These two systems differ in an operation called back- 
 washing, which removes any oil from the wool, and in the 
 drawing operations. 
 
 In manufacturing the wool fibre it is necessary to add 
 oil frequently to facilitate the carding and combing proc- 
 esses. If the wool is to be Bradford-spun no effort need 
 be made to remove the oil except: (i) If top dyeing is to 
 be done the oil must then be removed by back-washing 
 and later applied. In the end the same result is accom- 
 plished, (ii) Back-washing may be done from choice to 
 give the top a very good appearance, if, for instance, the 
 wool is to be sold in the top. The oiling must then be done 
 later before the manufacture of the top can be continued. 
 
 Back-washing is not an absolutely necessary process, ex- 
 cept for the tops to be used in the French system of draw- 
 ing and spinning. 
 
 (a) Bradford System. — For the Bradford system the fol- 
 lowing operations are required: 
 
 (i) Gilling. — Two operations of gilling follow the comb, 
 the first in a can gill-box, the second in a balling gill-box. 
 The principle of these machines is the same as of those 
 which precede the comb. The fallers are generally pro- 
 vided with finer pins. In the first gill-box fourteen to 
 eighteen ends of sliver from the comb are united into one 
 and run into a can. In the second four to five ends from 
 the first gilling are united into one and wound into a ball, 
 called a top. 
 
 (ii) Doubling and Drawing. — In the drawing-boxes, of 
 which there may be from five to nine, the top is converted 
 into roving. The drawing-boxes have a series of drawing 
 and guide-rollers and a bobbin-and-flyer attachment. At 
 the back of the drawing-boxes are frames which hold sev- 
 eral bobbins of slubbing or tops. The slubbing passes 
 through the drawing-rollers and is then given a slight twist 
 
Textile Manufacture 93 
 
 by the bobbin-and-flyer attachment. This twist is put 
 in merely to facilitate the handling of the strand in carry- 
 ing it from one machine to another. When the slubbing 
 passes through the rollers the twist is removed. The real 
 function of the drawing-boxes is drawing. The last draw- 
 ing-box is called a roving-frame, and delivers the strand 
 much reduced in size and slightly twisted. 
 
 (Hi) Spinning. — This is the last process in forming the 
 yarn. For this system it may be done on the cap, flyer, or 
 ring spinning-frames. 
 
 (b) French System. — For the French system the follow- 
 ing operations are required: 
 
 (i) Gilling. — One operation of gilling, in a can gill-box 
 as with the Bradford system, follows the comb. 
 
 (ii) Back-Washing. — The sliver is next passed through a 
 machine called a back-washer. This has two bowls for the 
 washing-liquor at the back, a series of drying-cylinders, and 
 a gill-box with the usual fallers. The slivers are washed 
 free of oil in the bowls, are dried by passing over the dry- 
 ing-cylinder, and straightened and united into one end in 
 the gill-box. 
 
 (Hi) Gilling. — Another operation of gilling, in a balling 
 gill-box as with the Bradford system, follows. This straight- 
 ens the fibres, winds the strand, and makes a back- washed 
 top, also called a dry top. 
 
 (iv) Doubling and Drawing. — In the drawing-boxes, of 
 which there are nine or ten, the slubbing, or top, is made 
 into a roving. Several strands are made into one, much re- 
 duced in size. The drawing-boxes differ from those used by 
 the Bradford system in that (a) they have, in addition to 
 the usual series of drawing and guide rollers, a small cylinder 
 set with pins, called a porcupine, which acts much as do 
 the fallers in the gill-boxes in keeping the fibres straight as 
 the strand is reduced in size; and (b) in place of the bobbin- 
 and-flyer attachment they have two oscillating aprons which 
 receive the strand as it is delivered by the rollers and con- 
 dense it, but do not twist, as the oscillating apron of the 
 woolen card-condenser does not twist. 
 
 At the back is the creel, or rack, for the slubbing, several 
 
94 Dressmaking 
 
 strands of which pass through a guide-plate to the guide 
 and feed rolls, then over the porcupine and through the 
 front rolls. All the drawing is done between the porcupine 
 and front rolls. By these rolls it is delivered to the two os- 
 cillating aprons, from which the strands are passed through 
 guides and wound on spools placed side by side. 
 
 (v) Spinning. — This is the last process in forming the 
 yarn. For this system it is generally done on the worsted 
 mule but may be done on the ring spinning-frame. 
 
 3. Special Processes for Woolen. — Fewer processes are 
 required for woolen yarn than for worsted. 
 
 (1) Scouring. — This operation is the same as for worsted. 
 
 (2) Drying. — This operation is the same as for worsted. 
 
 (3) Burr-Picking. — The work of scouring and drying does 
 not extract the burrs, which are in most wools. As they 
 cannot be allowed to remain, the wool is put through a 
 burr-picker. This has an apron-feed, a picking-cylinder, 
 and one or more burr-cylinders with burr-guards. The 
 picking-cylinder, revolving rapidly, lashes the wool into 
 the burr-cylinders and the burrs are struck off by the burr- 
 guards. 
 
 (4) Mixing. — This process is for various purposes: (a) to 
 secure a desired color; (b) to secure uniformity of fibre; (c) to 
 regulate the cost of the finished product by introducing in- 
 ferior grades of wool, shoddy, etc. 
 
 The mixing is done on the floor. Various layers in the 
 right proportions are made. In feeding this mixture to the 
 picker, care is taken to remove the material from the side 
 of the pile to secure all the different kinds of fibres. The 
 mixing-picker is in general action like the duster. It has 
 cylinders, which are set with hooks rather than teeth. The 
 mixed fibre is delivered to the machine by feed-rolls, and 
 after the cylinders have done their work the fibres are 
 thrown into a chamber called a gauze-room. The picker is 
 always used, even if no mixture is to be made, as it prepares 
 for carding by opening up and shredding the fibres. Oil is 
 applied from overhead to the wool at this time, to facilitate 
 the carding operation. More oil is used for woolen than 
 for worsted, but the object is the same. 
 
Textile Manufacture 95 
 
 (5) Carding. — The fibres for woolen yarn go from the 
 mixing process to a set of cards of which there are usually 
 three. These are called breakers — first and second breaker 
 and finisher. Their purpose is to open and clean the fibres. 
 The principle is in general like that of the worsted card, but 
 there are various differences in the detail. The breakers 
 have more workers and strippers, and consequently each 
 machine does more carding, which is a necessity, as the fibre 
 goes directly to spinning from the cards. 
 
 The fibre is delivered by an automatic feed to the first 
 breaker, passes over the big cylinder, and is delivered by side 
 drawing as a sliver. It may be fed to the second breaker 
 and to the third by either of two methods : the traverse, in 
 which it travels without winding, or the creel-feed, in which 
 it is wound. Both methods are to produce uniformity of 
 product. The ring doffer is used on the finisher. This 
 doffer, with the condenser (an oscillating apron), delivers 
 the fibre in a small roll, without twist, called roping, or rov- 
 ing. The ends are wound on a big spool called a jack-spool 
 and are ready for spinning. (For detail in Carding, see 
 page 51.) 
 
 (6) Spinning. — The woolen-mule is usually employed for 
 spinning woolen yarn which requires spindle-drawing. 
 
 4. Final Processes for Worsted and Woolen. 
 
 (1) Twisting. — Twisting, if used, follows spinning. The 
 general method is the same for all yarns, both worsted and 
 woolen, but different twisting attachments are used. The 
 twisting-machines are like the upright spinning-frames ex- 
 cept that they are without drawing-rollers. The cap, the 
 flyer, and the ring attachments are all used, the choice de- 
 pending on the kind of yarn. In the twisting operation 
 one or more single yarns from spinning are combined for 
 strength or to secure some special effect. 
 
 (2) Weaving. — The preparation of the warp and the fill- 
 ing for the loom and the process of weaving are in general 
 the same for both worsted and woolen. 
 
 (a) The filling yarns require no special treatment. If 
 they are not on bobbins suitable for the shuttles they are 
 rewound and are then ready for spinning. Filling-bobbins 
 
96 Dressmaking 
 
 are always wound a space at a time rather than end to end, 
 as the yarn is thus delivered more easily. 
 
 (b) The warp requires more preparation. The bobbins 
 from the spinning or twisting are set in a frame. From 
 them the yarn is wound as desired on a big spool called a 
 dresser-spool. From the dresser-spool the yarn is drawn 
 through two guides resembling reeds, the second guide finer 
 than the first. It is then wound in sections on a big reel. 
 These sections are in turn wound on the warp-beam as the 
 design requires. Tension, rather than a guide, is used in 
 this winding. The warp-beam is turned by power and the 
 tension on the yarn turns the reel, which delivers the yarn 
 evenly. An even tension is exceedingly important in wind- 
 ing a warp-beam. 
 
 (c) The weaving may be done in the plain harness-loom, 
 in those having attachments, or in the Jacquard, as the 
 design demands. 
 
 Woolen and worsted yarns are made into a great variety 
 of materials, which include all kinds of weaves from the 
 plain to the very elaborate. The different twill weaves are 
 much used for both, because they give the beauty of design 
 which is required by worsteds as well as the firmness which 
 is needed in the finishing of the woolens. 
 
 (3) Finishing. — Great variety is possible in the finishing 
 of both woolens and worsteds. Each finish requires many 
 processes, certain of which are necessary for all materials. 
 Beyond these certain necessary processes the number and 
 kind employed depend entirely on the effect the manufac- 
 turer desires and the amount of time and expense which can 
 be given to securing the desired effect. 
 
 Worsted fabrics depend for beauty on the yarn and the 
 weave, and much attention is given to enhancing the merits 
 of both. In woolen fabrics both the yarn and the weave 
 are frequently entirely concealed by a surface finish, to- 
 ward the securing of which all processes are directed. 
 
 (a) Perching, or Inspecting. — After any material is taken 
 from the loom it is carefully inspected by being drawn 
 over a perch in a strong light and all its defects are 
 marked. 
 
Textile Manufacture 97 
 
 (b) Burling. — Most materials have knots and bunches of 
 threads where ends have been joined. These are drawn to 
 the wrong side by the use of burling-irons. 
 
 (c) Mending. — All the defects marked must be repaired, 
 all broken threads must be joined, and any missing threads 
 replaced ; otherwise the design will not be complete. Wool- 
 ens require less careful mending than worsteds, as the de- 
 fects are usually covered by the finishing. Any specks of 
 vegetable matter which may have got in during manufac- 
 ture are looked for and removed. 
 
 (d) Fulling. — The chief characteristic of wool is its qual- 
 ity of felting. This quality is made use of in the finishing 
 of both the woolens and the worsteds. In general, the 
 processes to which either kind of fabric is subjected for felt- 
 ing are much the same, though they do not serve the same 
 purpose for both and are done in a different degree for dif- 
 ferent materials. 
 
 (i) In the worsted industry felting is used for the fabrics 
 called unfinished worsteds. The chief purpose is to give 
 softness to the weave and flexibility and firmness to the 
 cloth. Worsteds felt less than woolens because their fibres 
 have been straightened and paralleled. They are also sub- 
 jected to the fulling process for a much shorter time than 
 woolens. 
 
 (ii) In woolens the purpose in felting is to make the 
 cloth sufficiently strong, firm, and thick to stand success- 
 fully all the finishing processes required, such as napping 
 or gigging and cropping. Woolens have great felting qual- 
 ity because their yarns are softly twisted and their fibres are 
 interlaced. They are subjected many hours to the fulling 
 process. Woolens are woven much longer and somewhat 
 wider than is required for their finished size. Occasionally 
 a woolen material is made to shrink half its length. As 
 they shrink in length and width they naturally become 
 much thicker. For this reason woolens are usually woven 
 rather loosely; otherwise, as the fulling takes place they be- 
 come boardlike. 
 
 Fulling is done in a large machine which is fitted with 
 rollers and a trap to regulate the shrinkage in length. The 
 
98 Dressmaking 
 
 shrinking of the fabric is caused by the action of warm, 
 soapy water on the fibres and their subsequent compression. 
 The warm water softens the fibres, they become more in- 
 terlaced, and are pressed closely together by the action of 
 rollers. In woolen the fabric is so solid that its weave is 
 practically concealed. Very many times, if a woolen fabric 
 is made of a poor yarn and loosely woven, flocks — wool 
 waste from some of the finishing processes — are added to 
 the back while the fulling is going on. This gives weight 
 and sufficient substance to make a good surface. If care- 
 fully done it does not impair the value of the goods, but it 
 is too often resorted to in order to cover an inferior founda- 
 tion, in which case the flocks usually drop out and leave a 
 very shabby surface. 
 
 (e) Washing. — Fulling is followed by washing and rins- 
 ing to remove all the milling agents which have been used. 
 The ends of the material are sewed together and careful 
 scouring done. 
 
 (/) Gigging and Shearing. — This is a process in which the 
 fibres by various means are brought to the surface to form 
 a nap or pile. The amount of nap raised depends entirely 
 on the effect desired. Unfinished worsteds when ready for 
 market usually show but little nap, while woolens often 
 have their surface completely covered with nap. Wire 
 gigs, brushes, and teazles are all used. The teazle is a 
 vegetable growth which it is difficult to imitate successfully 
 in metal. Revolving cylinders are set with teazles, wire 
 pins, or brushes, and as the material passes over another 
 cylinder, placed at the right distance, the exposed sur- 
 face of the material is continuously brushed by these and 
 the nap evenly raised. The gigging or teazling is followed 
 usually by careful brushing which in turn is followed by 
 shearing or cropping to secure the required length of nap. 
 This is done by a shear which has revolving knives and is 
 followed by brushing to remove the stray fibres. Many 
 materials are napped several times and have generally a 
 corresponding number of shearings and brushings. 
 
 (g) Steaming, Crabbing, Brushing, and Pressing. — All 
 these processes are used to give the desired finish to ma- 
 
Textile Manufacture 99 
 
 terials. The steaming and boiling methods which give 
 lustre are accomplished by the use of steam or hot water 
 and rollers. For either method the material is stretched 
 tightly over the rollers. If it is to be steamed the rollers 
 have perforations through which the steam is blown. If 
 it is to be boiled the material passes through boiling water 
 as it is wound from one roll to another, or it stands while 
 rolled for several hours in the boiling water. To all these 
 finishes much brushing and pressing may be added. These 
 give additional lustre and more careful finish. 
 
 (h) Tentering. — In drying, the material must be made to 
 conform to a certain width and must also be carefully 
 stretched smooth and straight. This is done by tentering. 
 For instance, broadcloth has a regulation width of fifty-four 
 inches; it may come from the milling process uneven in 
 width. To remedy this it is, while still wet, stretched into 
 shape on a frame. It is attached to this frame by hooks 
 which catch in the selvage. The selvages of many materials 
 show evidence of this process in the small holes made by 
 the hooks. 
 
 (i) Inspecting. — All materials are very carefully inspected 
 after the finishing processes. 
 
 5. Usual Finishing Processes for Worsted. — The follow- 
 ing processes may be required in the finishing of a worsted 
 fabric: inspecting; burling; mending; scouring; fulling (for 
 unfinished worsteds) ; washing to remove the soap; crabbing 
 (the cloth is wound on a roll and placed in the crabbing- 
 machine; it is passed through rollers, through boiling wa- 
 ter, and is wound again; by this process the cloth is set); 
 dyeing (if it is to be piece-dyed); crabbing again; tenter- 
 ing; steam-brushing (the material is wound on a perforated 
 cylinder and steam is blown through both cylinder and 
 material); specking (cutting off any specks); shearing on 
 face and back; pressing by rollers; dewing; water blown on 
 it (somewhat like sprinkling of laundry) ; drying; inspecting. 
 
 6. Usual Finishing Processes for Woolen. — The follow- 
 ing processes may be required in the finishing of a woolen 
 fabric (" face goods ") : inspecting; burling; mending; full- 
 ing in grease; washing; rolling and stretching through 
 
100 Dressmaking 
 
 water (left to stand twelve or eighteen hours to remove 
 creases, much like crabbing for worsted); drying; napping 
 to raise pile (by wire gig); shearing; napping and teazling; 
 blow-steaming (wound on a perforated cylinder and steam 
 blown through to set the fibre); cooling (while stretched); 
 dyeing (if it is to be piece-dyed) ; wet-gigging or brushing 
 wet; extracting (water taken out); brushing (wet or dry 
 — wet gigging may be done); tentering; steam-brushing 
 (steam warms it) ; shearing (double or single — depth can be 
 regulated); steam-brushing; sanding and polishing; press- 
 ing (a press acts like an iron) ; inspecting. 
 
 Besides these there are special finishings, some of them 
 employed in making a woolen look like a worsted and vice 
 versa. Methods of finishing change constantly as fashion 
 changes and requires new effects in materials. 
 
 7. Substitutes Used in the Manufacture of Wool. — 
 There are various substitutes which are used both with 
 and in the place of good wools in the manufacture of so- 
 called wool materials. These are used because there is not 
 enough good wool produced to supply the great demand for 
 wool fabrics of all kinds. If only good wool were used the 
 supply would be so limited and the prices so great that the 
 materials could be had by only a few and those the very 
 wealthy. This use of inferior grades and substitutes les- 
 sens very materially the expense of manufacturing fabrics 
 and makes possible the furnishing of woolen materials at 
 prices within the reach of the general public. The adulter- 
 ation of wool is, like the weighting of silk, frequently over- 
 done. 
 
 The substitutes are (1) cotton; (2) wool — reclaimed wool, 
 fibres from materials like shoddy, and waste wool. 
 
 (Noils from the combing process, flocks from the finishing 
 processes, and pulled wool, which is taken from slaughtered 
 sheep, are sometimes included in this list but should not be.) 
 
 (1) Cotton. — Because of the cheapness of the cotton fibre 
 and the fact that in manufacture it can be made to resemble 
 wool it is much used — 
 
 (a) In wool materials, in combination with wool of vari- 
 ous grades. It may be introduced in the fibrous state dur- 
 
Textile Manufacture 101 
 
 ing blending or used in the yarn form, either by itself or 
 combined by twisting with wool yarns. Cotton yarn is 
 frequently used as warp. For example, it is always used 
 in mohair and alpaca fabrics both because of the difficulty 
 of weaving mohair warp and filling and because it gives a 
 less harsh fabric. 
 
 (b) In cotton materials which have the appearance of 
 wool and are frequently called wool. Many materials, 
 such as outing flannel, duckling fleece, canton flannel, and 
 the cheaper blankets are made entirely of cotton fibre but 
 are given the wool surface by teazling and gigging. 
 
 (2) Wool. — The wool substitutes are frequently classified 
 in different ways — 
 
 (a) Shoddy. — This term includes all the materials which 
 are to be remanufactured and used in the woolen industry. 
 It is really the shredded fibre ultimately obtained by sub- 
 jecting various kinds of rags, cloth, and yarn to a shredding 
 or tearing-up process. The materials used may be either 
 old or new and are, in general, all kinds of rags, materials 
 which have been worn and discarded, clippings of new 
 materials, and those which come from cuttings in tailors' 
 shops, etc. 
 
 The term wool extract is frequently applied definitely to 
 the fibres coming from rags and waste which are made of 
 both cotton and wool. In order to obtain the wool the 
 material must be carbonized to destroy the cotton. This 
 process is used when necessary with all shoddy. 
 
 Preparation of Shoddy. — All the fabrics which are to be 
 used again in wool manufacture must be reduced to a 
 fibrous state. These fibres are used alone or they may be 
 mixed with the clean wool in the blending process. Shoddy 
 is used only in the manufacture of woolen yarns. It can- 
 not be used for worsted yarn, but a woolen yarn made of 
 shoddy may be combined with a worsted yarn. 
 
 (i) Sorting. — Before any manufacturing process is at- 
 tempted all the shoddy materials must be sorted according 
 to color and to kind; that is, new or old. The different 
 kinds may require slightly different treatment. 
 
 (ii) Washing. — This frequently follows sorting. 
 
1 02 Dressmaking 
 
 (Hi) Carbonizing. — When carbonizing is required it is 
 usually done in rag form. In this process all the rags which 
 have any cotton mixture are subjected to acids which ex- 
 tract the hydrogen and oxygen from the cotton and leave 
 carbon to be dusted out. Several different operations are 
 required. 
 
 The material is put in a cage and placed in a tank con- 
 taining acid and water. It is soaked from ten to thirty 
 minutes, according to the kind of material. From the cage 
 it goes through three or four operations which extract the 
 liquor and dry the material. The first is the hydro-ex- 
 tractor. This takes out the excess liquor, which is saved 
 for use, and leaves the rags somewhat moist. The second 
 machine is a drier, in which more water is dried out at low 
 heat. In the third machine there is intense heat, which 
 concentrates the acid and removes the water. Neutralizing 
 follows to remove all acids. 
 
 (iv) Oiling.- — All materials should be oiled and then left 
 in piles to soften. This applies to all rags whether car- 
 bonized or not. 
 
 (v) Picking. — The machine for this operation is called a 
 shoddy-picker. It has a travelling-apron, feed-rolls, and a 
 picking-cylinder. In it the rags, both old and new, are 
 torn to shreds; that is, they are practically reduced to a 
 fibrous form. Several layers of rags are placed in flat, thin 
 sheets on a travelling-apron which carries them to the feed- 
 rolls. The feed-rolls pass them on to the picking-cylinder 
 which is set with steel and iron pins. The feed-rolls go at 
 a slower speed than the picking-cylinder, and because of 
 this and the action of the pins the rags are shredded and re- 
 duced to a fibrous condition. 
 
 (vi) Dusting. — The carbonizing duster follows. It has 
 the same general principle as the regular duster. It re- 
 moves the dust or carbon from the fibres which were sub- 
 jected to the carbonizing process while in the form of rags. 
 After leaving the duster the fibres, by a blending process, 
 are mixed in the desired quantity with the raw wool fibres 
 and then pass through all the steps of manufacturing re- 
 quired in the making of a woolen fabric. 
 
Textile Manufacture 103 
 
 (b) Waste Wool. — This includes two kinds of wool fibres: 
 first, from the worsted industry, those which are so mixed 
 with burrs that they are thrown out by the burr-guards on 
 the licker-ins of the worsted cards; second, from the woolen 
 industry, the waste wool mixed with burrs which comes 
 from the burr-picker. 
 
 (i) Removing Burrs. — The burrs in both kinds of fibre are 
 reduced to powder or carbon by crush-rolls. Carbonizing 
 and neutralizing as for shoddy are necessary for some kinds 
 of waste wool — when the vegetable matter cannot otherwise 
 be removed. 
 
 (ii) Dusting. — The carbonizing duster follows. It is the 
 same as that used for the fibre of carbonized rags or cloth. 
 After leaving the duster the fibres are ready for the mixing 
 or blending process. 
 
 The character of the various woolen fabrics manufac- 
 tured is discussed under Fabrics. 
 
 III. Silk 
 
 Silk, like wool, is an animal fibre. It comes from the 
 cocoon of the silkworm, of which there are for manufactur- 
 ing purposes two general kinds — the cultivated, called the 
 Bombyx mori, and the wild, such as the Tussah. The cul- 
 tivated worm feeds on the leaves of the mulberry-tree, the 
 wild on the leaves of the oak. The fibre of the silkworm is 
 unlike any other fibre in that it is several hundred yards in 
 length and so does not have to be joined and twisted to 
 make thread of sufficient length to use in weaving. Several 
 strands are twisted together, however, to give more strength 
 and thickness. The silk fibre consists of two parts — the 
 inner or true fibre, called fibroin, which is not soluble in 
 water, and the gum coating, called serecin, which is readily 
 soluble in hot water and soap. The important character- 
 istics of the fibre are its softness, fineness, elasticity, lustre, 
 and endurance. 
 
 The life of the silkworm is short and busy. The eggs, 
 usually laid in summer, are kept for some time in a cool 
 place and hatched in the spring when the leaves of the mul- 
 
104 Dressmaking 
 
 berry-tree are green and tender. The worm at birth is 
 about one-eighth of an inch long but begins eating at once 
 and increases rapidly in size. During its life great care 
 must be taken as to food, temperature, cleanliness, and un- 
 usual noise. As it continues eating and growing it sheds 
 its skin. This occurs four times in its short life of thirty or 
 thirty-six days, until the worm is finally about three inches 
 long and much lighter in color. At the end of the moult- 
 ing period its hunger lessens; it shows signs of restlessness 
 and a desire to climb. Twigs are provided, and soon the 
 worm finds a desirable spot to which it attaches itself by 
 throwing out a little silk which hardens or dries and holds 
 the worm in place. Spinning now begins. By a waving 
 motion of the head and a circular motion of the body, as 
 if making the figure eight, the worm begins throwing out 
 from two openings underneath its mouth two thin threads 
 of silk which unite and form one. This gradually encloses 
 the worm and forms the cocoon. The outside threads of 
 the cocoon are usually rough and broken but the inner is a 
 long double thread varying from five hundred to thirteen 
 hundred yards. The spinning takes three days, and as it 
 ceases the worm gradually changes into a chrysalis, which 
 if allowed to live would become a moth and escape, in- 
 juring the silk. To prevent this the cocoon is fumed; 
 that is, it is heated sufficiently to stifle the chrysalis. 
 After fuming, if care is taken, the cocoon may be kept 
 indefinitely. 
 
 Before any manufacturing processes are begun, cocoons 
 are usually sorted and classified for color, texture, and gen- 
 eral condition. Each cocoon has two kinds of silk — the 
 long, inner, continuous fibre, called raw silk, and the outer, 
 shorter, and often rougher fibre, called spun or waste silk. 
 These require very different treatment in manufacture. 
 
 i. Processes for Raw Silk. 
 
 (i) Reeling. — Usually over one-half of the silk in a cul- 
 tivated cocoon is reeled into skeins, or hanks. Preparatory 
 to this the cocoons are put in soap and water sufficiently 
 warm to soften the gum and are then brushed. This 
 brushing removes the short outer floss and finds the end 
 
Textile Manufacture 105 
 
 of the long filament. Several of these filaments, according 
 to the size of the thread desired, are united, passed through 
 guide-eyes, and wound on a reel. The water must be kept 
 at even temperature throughout the process to keep the 
 gum softened. Hand reeling is a simple process, but steam 
 filatures are generally used in which the reels are run by 
 power. Care must be taken in uniting the filaments, which 
 are not of equal size their entire length, in order to make 
 as even a thread as possible. 
 
 (2) Throwing. — The next process for raw silk, after reel- 
 ing, is called throwing. It includes various operations 
 which convert the raw silk into threads suitable for warp 
 and filling for weaving. 
 
 (a) Several different kinds of silk thread may be made 
 in the throwing process, (i) Singles, used for either warp 
 or filling in thin materials. They are made by twisting a 
 single strand from the reel to make it stronger and firmer. 
 The amount of twist given depends entirely on the finished 
 product intended. Chiffons, for instance, require a hard 
 twist, (ii) Tram, used generally for filling, is made by 
 slightly twisting two or more single untwisted reeled threads 
 together. Usually there is just enough twist given to hold 
 the strands together. This keeps the strand soft and makes 
 a bulky, lofty filling and produces lustre. {Hi) Organzine, 
 used for warp, needs strength, and consequently it is made 
 by combining with a left-hand twist several single strands 
 which have already received a right-hand twist or vice 
 versa. The number of threads and the amount of twist 
 depend on the required strength of the thread and the de- 
 sired appearance of the finished product. There are usually 
 fourteen or sixteen turns to the inch in the singles used, of 
 which two or more are combined. In this combining more 
 than three twists must be used, (iv) Twist, which is made 
 in the same general way and closely resembles organzine 
 but has fewer twists. 
 
 (b) The operations included in the throwing process are 
 as follows: 
 
 (i) Washing or Soaking. — Most of the silk to be thrown 
 is first soaked to soften the gum. 
 
100 Dressmaking 
 
 Hi) Drying. — Drying is done by placing the skeins first 
 in a hydro-extractor and then hanging them for drying in a 
 room heated by hot air or steam. 
 
 {Hi) Winding. — The silk is prepared for doubling and 
 twisting by transferring it to bobbins. This is done by 
 means of a machine resembling a swift or reel. In winding, 
 care is taken to make the thread smooth and of even size. 
 To accomplish this it is passed from one bobbin to another 
 through a cleaning-machine which removes any irregular- 
 ities. 
 
 (iv) Doubling and Twisting. — These processes depend on 
 the kind of thrown silk required; for instance, singles are 
 not doubled but go directly to the spinner, which does the 
 twisting with the bobbin-and-flyer attachment; tram, on 
 the contrary, is made by combining silk from several 
 bobbins on the doubling-machine, and is then twisted; 
 while organzine is twisted, doubled, and then twisted again 
 in the opposite direction. 
 
 After the throwing, if the silk is to be skein-dyed, it 
 must be wound from the bobbins into skeins and boiled to 
 remove the gum. 
 
 2. Processes for Spun or Waste Silk. — This term in- 
 cludes all silks which cannot be reeled and are not suitable 
 for throwing — the silk around the outside of the cocoon, 
 which was used to hold the worm to its twig; it is strong, 
 uneven, and rather lustreless; the outside layers of the co- 
 coon; the first silk spun, which it is impossible to reel; the 
 last spun, which is too fine and weak; short fibres from 
 pierced and damaged cocoons; and waste from reeling and 
 throwing. 
 
 (i) Mixing. — Because of the varying quality of the waste 
 silk it must be carefully mixed to get an even product. 
 
 (2) Boiling and Schapping. — Raw silk can go through all 
 the processes of manufacture except dyeing without having 
 its gum removed; waste silk cannot. There are various 
 ways of freeing the silk of its gum. The two generally 
 used are boiling, the English method, and fermentation, 
 the Continental method. 
 
 By the first method, boiling, the waste silk, in open mesh 
 
Textile Manufacture 107 
 
 bags, is put into a soapy water which is allowed to come 
 to the boiling-point. Constant stirring is necessary. The 
 gum is softened and passes out through the meshes. 
 Another bath, with less soap, follows, and the silk is dried. 
 By this method very little gum is left and the silk is much 
 lighter in weight. In schapping, the silk is put into vats 
 of tepid water and allowed to remain without motion for 
 several days. A process of fermentation takes place and 
 the silk is practically freed of its gum. This leaves a cer- 
 tain quantity of gum in the silk, which is an advantage 
 for some materials such as velvets. Washing and drying 
 follow, as in the boiling method. 
 
 The processes of manufacture for waste silk are similar in 
 many ways to those used for cotton. 
 
 (3) Inspecting and Cleaning. — Because much of the waste 
 is gathered up in mills and from the surface of the cocoons, 
 it has mixed in it straws, hairs, and grasses. It is looked 
 over and these are picked out by hand. 
 
 (4) Conditioning. — After the gum is removed the silk is 
 very dry and a certain amount of moisture must be added; 
 otherwise the necessary processes are not possible without 
 breaking the fibre. 
 
 (5) Beating and Opening. — The beating opens up the fibre, 
 softens it, and makes it flexible; the opening straightens 
 and parallels the fibres for the combing. 
 
 (6) Combing. — In this process the short fibres and any 
 foreign matter which may still be mixed with the fibre are 
 removed, and at the same time the fibres are somewhat 
 straightened and paralleled. The waste silk fibres are of 
 different lengths. Before they can be combed satisfactorily 
 they must be made regular in length by some method. 
 There are two general ways of doing this. The first is by 
 choosing and grouping the fibres of even length. This 
 method requires time but saves any waste of fibre. In 
 the second method the fibres are wound on a grooved cylin- 
 der, the grooves being as far apart as the desired length of 
 the fibre. After the winding is completed a knife is slipped 
 into the grooves to cut the fibre. This gives even length 
 but many short waste ends. 
 
108 Dressmaking 
 
 The actual combing is done in a machine which has a 
 comb and several book-boards. These latter are two- 
 hinged boards which close like a book. Half the length of 
 the fibres is enclosed in the book-boards; the other half hangs 
 free so that it comes in contact with the combs. After it is 
 combed the fibres are reversed and the other half combed. 
 This removes the short fibres, which are called noils, and 
 further parallels the long ones, which are called tops. Noils 
 are combed twelve or thirteen times. Each time the comb- 
 ing produces both top and noils, the fibres of which with 
 each combing are shorter. Those fibres nearly equal in 
 length are combined for each of these combing operations. 
 * (7) Preparing and Drawing. — From the combing the silk 
 is fed to gill-boxes. These work like the worsted gill-boxes 
 which have drawing-rollers and fallers. The rollers are 
 often set farther apart, since the silk fibre is longer than the 
 wool. By them the silk is made into a continuous sliver, 
 which goes on to the drawing-machines, where several 
 slivers are made into one and sufficiently attenuated to form 
 roving. 
 
 (8) Slabbing. — The roving-machine has rollers and a 
 bobbin-and-flyer attachment. The roving is drawn out 
 and given a sufficient twist to prepare it for the spinning. 
 
 (9) Spinning.— This is done, as in cotton or worsted, by 
 the mule or by the cap or the ring spinning-frames, the 
 choice of machine depending on the kind of yarn desired. 
 The mule and ring are in most general use. 
 
 (10) Doubling and Twisting. — In these processes two or 
 more threads from the spinning are combined and given twist 
 enough to hold them together. The machines used are like 
 the upright spinning-frames but have no drawing-rollers. 
 
 (n) Gassing. — This process removes any loose fibres 
 from the twisted yarn by running it through a gas flame 
 or through a platinum V-shaped slot electrically heated. 
 After this is done the yarn is wound, according to use, on 
 bobbins if for warp; on quills or small bobbins if for filling. 
 
 3. Processes for Both Raw and Spun Silk. 
 
 (1) Weaving. — This is the same for both raw and spun 
 silks. For it some preparation is necessary. 
 
Textile Manufacture 109 
 
 (a) The filling yarns are wound on bobbins suitable for 
 use in the shuttles. 
 
 (b) The warp yarns are transferred by various steps from 
 the bobbins to the warp-beam. In this transferring, sizing 
 is generally added to strengthen the yarn. If fine yarn is 
 used thin paper is very frequently placed between the differ- 
 ent layers as it is wound on the warp-beam. This prevents 
 tangling and assists in maintaining an e^en tension when 
 the warp is unwound during weaving. Silk warp yarns are 
 frequently printed with a design before they are woven. 
 This is done as on the woven fabrics by roller-printing, in 
 which a different roller is necessary for each color. In the 
 weaving a plain filling yarn is used, resulting in softer colors 
 and a somewhat blurred design. This method is very 
 frequently used for ribbons. A great variety of weave is 
 found in silk fabrics, from the plain, in such materials as 
 taffeta and China silk, through the twills and satin weaves, 
 to the brocades, which are the product of the Jacquard loom. 
 Many corded materials, such as the poplins and bengalines, 
 have the plain weave and are frequently a combination of 
 yarns of two different fibres. Cotton is used in the cheaper 
 qualities for filling, while wool is sometimes used to give 
 the desired weight and effect. 
 
 (2) Finishing. — The same general methods are employed 
 for both kinds of silk. Many times the yarns are finished 
 partially before weaving; the processes are in general to 
 give strength, weight, smoothness, and gloss to the yarn. 
 
 Before raw silk is dyed, whether in piece or skein, the 
 gum must be removed from the fibre by boiling. In this 
 process the silk loses weight. To make up for this loss 
 weighting is usually added, the kind used depending chiefly 
 on the color of the dye. For much of the weighting me- 
 tallic salts are used, salts of tin or iron. If used in excess 
 they affect the wearing quality of the silk, as they are 
 themselves affected by light, air, and time. Some crystal- 
 lize when exposed to the air and light and cut the silk fibre 
 so that it breaks easily. 
 
 For the woven material there are many finishings, me- 
 chanical or made by the use of dressings : the pressing and 
 
110 Dressmaking 
 
 calendering for good silk, the dressing or sizing for poor 
 silk. There is also that larger class of special finishings, 
 such as moireing or embossing and polishing, which also 
 includes dressings of many kinds. These special finishings 
 change with fashions, new ones appearing each year. The 
 character of the various silk fabrics manufactured is dis- 
 cussed under Fabrics. 
 
 For artificial silk, see Other Lesser Textiles. 
 
 IV. Linen 
 
 Linen is a vegetable fibre. It is expensive, and conse- 
 quently adulterants and substitutes are often used. They 
 are, however, because of certain properties of the linen, less 
 satisfactory in the case of this fibre than in many others. 
 
 Linen comes from the stalk of the flax-plant. It is the 
 bark which lies between the inner woody core and the 
 outer bark and because of this is called a bast fibre. The 
 fibre is long, varying from twelve to twenty inches. It is 
 straight and has a long, cylindrical tube with lengthwise 
 markings which look like fine black fines. At intervals 
 there are also cross-markings which help slightly in keeping 
 the fibre together in the spinning. It is composed of cells 
 held together by a vegetable gum called pectin. In ad- 
 dition to length the fibre has various other valuable quali- 
 ties such as strength and lustre. 
 
 Flax is pulled and not cut, as in this way greater length 
 of fibre is obtained. This is done by hand, since no suit- 
 able machine has yet been invented. In preparation for 
 manufacture it requires entirely different treatment from 
 that given cotton, wool, or silk. The beginning processes 
 are for the purpose of (a) breaking up and removing the 
 bark and woody tissue and (b) separating the short fibre, 
 called tow, from the true fibre, called line. 
 
 i. Processes for the True, or Line, Fibre. 
 
 (i) Rippling. — -When flax is pulled it has all its leaves 
 and seed-pods, which, after the plant dries, must be re- 
 moved. This is done by hand, by drawing the ends of the 
 stalks through big combs. 
 
Textile Manufacture 111 
 
 (2) Retting. — This is one of the most important processes, 
 and if not well done it may injure the fibre. It begins the 
 freeing of the bast fibre from the bark and the woody core 
 by decomposing the resins which unite them. There are 
 various ways of doing this; the most usual are by dew or 
 cold-water retting, (a) Dew Retting. — The fibres are spread 
 on the grass, exposed to sun, rain, and dew. From two to 
 five weeks are required for the decomposing of the gum. 
 This method is used chiefly in Russia, (b) Cold-Water 
 Retting. — For this there are two general methods: the use 
 of stagnant water, in which the flax is placed and left for 
 several days or weeks undisturbed, and the use of slow- 
 running water — a less offensive method — not always possi- 
 ble to secure but giving a good result. The latter method 
 is much used in Belgium, to which country the flax of other 
 countries is frequently brought for retting. Retting is 
 sometimes done twice, (c) Other methods, which have been 
 tried to shorten the length of time required, include the use 
 of hot water or chemicals. None of these have been suc- 
 cessful to the present time. 
 
 (3) Drying. — After the retting the flax is dried in the 
 open air, then tied in bundles and left standing in the air 
 until the time for breaking and scutching. 
 
 (4) Breaking. — After the retting has decomposed the unit- 
 ing gums the woody matter must be broken up and removed. 
 The breaking, which was formerly done by hand, by a series 
 of slabs, is now usually accomplished by several fluted 
 rollers moved by machinery through which the flax passes. 
 
 (5) Scutching. — The broken material is removed by plac- 
 ing the flax within reach of a revolving wheel in which 
 wooden knives or beaters are mounted. These knives 
 strike off the woody part and begin the separation of the 
 bast tissue into fibres. Aside from the long fibre, which is 
 a product of this process, there is a certain amount of waste 
 or short, tangled fibres, called scutching tow, which is used 
 for cheaper threads and strings. At this point the work of 
 the farmer is finished and the product is sold. 
 
 (6) Hackling. — This is a process closely resembling the 
 combing of other fibres. It cleans, disentangles, combs, and 
 
112 D ress ma king 
 
 parallels the fibres, separating the long, or line, fibre from the 
 short, which is also called tow. It splits what seems one 
 fibre into several and produces fibres of uniform diameter 
 as well as of uniform length. Hackling is done by hand or 
 machine, or both. There is usually a certain amount of 
 hand hackling or roughing before the fibre goes to the 
 machine. The process is generally repeated many times. 
 Finer combs are successively used as the fibre becomes 
 finer and cleaner. Hackling by hand is expensive and is 
 more often used when the finer qualities of yarn are re- 
 quired. When done by machine the strands of fibre are 
 held in place and combed by needles which are set in re- 
 volving aprons. The tow catches in the needles and is 
 held by them until brushed off. 
 
 (7) Sorting or Classifying. — Before preparing for spin- 
 ning the flax must be arranged according to quality. This 
 is done by hand. In doing it machines like the hand 
 hackles are used. More short fibres are removed and the 
 longer ones paralleled, subdivided, and cleaned; the prod- 
 uct is often called dressed line. In this process, if fine 
 linen is to be made, the fibre is sometimes cut to secure 
 the best section for the yarn. 
 
 (8) Gilling. — After securing the line fibre the first proc- 
 ess in preparing it is done by a machine called a spread- 
 board. In this machine the fibre is paralleled, subdivided, 
 and joined to form a continuous strand. The spread-board 
 is like the gill-boxes already described as used for other 
 fibres; that is, there are feed-rolls, fallers, and draft-rolls. 
 The process is rather more difficult for flax because of the 
 greater length of the fibre and its stiffness and irregularity. 
 The flax is fed to the machine in tresses, which differ in 
 thickness and width according to the desired product. A 
 usual width is about four inches. The ends of the flax are 
 overlapped, and by the drawing of the rollers and the action 
 of the fallers, which keep the fibres straight, a continuous 
 sliver is made which is run into a can. 
 
 (9) Doubling and Drawing. — This is done in a series of 
 drawing-boxes. The series is frequently composed of a 
 machine called a doubler, three drawing-frames, and a 
 
Textile Manufacture 113 
 
 roving-frame. The first machines used are much like the 
 gill-boxes; they attenuate and even the slivers which come 
 from the gilling process by uniting and drawing out from 
 two to ten or twelve of them. These slivers are fed from 
 the different machines into cans. The roving-frame, the 
 last machine in the series, has the rollers and fallers, but in 
 addition it has a bobbin-and-flyer attachment. The sliver 
 is still further reduced and attenuated by the rollers and 
 fallers and is also given a slight twist by the flyer and wound 
 on the bobbin. 
 
 (10) Spinning. — The fibre is now ready for the actual 
 spinning. Fly-frames are used because of the smooth 
 straightness of the flax. The spinning may be done in one 
 of three ways: in dry frames, damp, or wet. These fly- 
 frames are like the old machines, with rollers and the bob- 
 bin-and-flyer attachment. They have the bobbins at the 
 back, which deliver the roving to the two sets of rollers, the 
 receiving and the draft going at different speeds. From 
 the rollers the drawn-out roving is twisted by the flyer and 
 wound on a bobbin. For dry spinning the feed and draft 
 rollers are set about one foot apart and the work proceeds 
 in the usual way. If the spinning is to be damp the strands, 
 after being drawn out by the receiving and draft rollers, 
 come in contact with a roll turning in cold water which 
 moistens the yarn. If, however, wet spinning is to be done, 
 the drawing-rollers must be set close together — the distance 
 between being shorter than the length of the fibre — and the 
 roving must actually pass through water almost boiling be- 
 fore coming to these drawing-rolls. This softens the fibres 
 and makes them more supple. It also gives a smoother 
 yarn, as the vegetable jelly in the fibre is softened by water, 
 hardens again, and forms an outside coating. Too hot 
 water, however, is injurious. All yarn spun by damp or 
 wet spinning must be made into hanks or skeins and dried 
 at once. The wet spinning is generally used for the finest 
 yarns, the damp for the next grades, and the dry for the 
 coarsest. 
 
 (n) Twisting. — This process may follow spinning in 
 preparation for weaving. Wet or dry twisting may be 
 
114 Dressmaking 
 
 done; the wet makes a smoother yarn. For this the ring 
 and the bobbin-and-flyer attachments are used. The spin- 
 ning-frames give single yarns which are usually combined 
 by twisting to give more strength or to secure some special 
 effects in the weaving. Greater strength is more often 
 necessary when the yarn is to be used for warp. 
 
 (12) Weaving. — Weaving for flax is more difficult than 
 for cotton because the fibre is not elastic and breaks easily. 
 The warp yarns are sized to make them smoother and give 
 them strength for the drawing in and weaving. All vari- 
 eties of looms are used, and we find a corresponding variety 
 of weaves from the plain of dress linens through the geo- 
 metric designs of huck and bird's-eye to the elaborate 
 damasks. 
 
 (13) Finislu'ng. — There is much less variety in the finish- 
 ings used for linens than for the other fibres. Those used 
 are chiefly to add lustre by polishing and weight by sizing 
 or dressing. For polishing, a liquid like starch is applied 
 and the material passed over hot rollers. Other finishes 
 are given by pressing, calendering, and mangling. There is 
 also a process, called beetling, by which the threads are 
 beaten flat and softened. The yarn frequently goes through 
 this process before weaving to soften it for any subsequent 
 processes. Beetling, whether done in the yarn or on the 
 fabric, gives a closer weave and increased lustre. The sur- 
 face of the fabric is smoother because the threads are flat- 
 tened and are less distinct and separate. It gives a leathery 
 feel to the fabric. 
 
 The best class of linens need very little dressing. Some 
 of the cheaper grades — those in which the weave is poor or a 
 substitute is introduced — are rather heavily sized to cover 
 defects and thus appear a better quality than they are. 
 
 Many linens are left their natural color and are stronger. 
 Bleaching, unless very carefully done, weakens the fibre. 
 Linen may be bleached or dyed in the yarn or in the fabric; 
 sometimes in both. Linens do not dye easily and do not 
 hold dye particularly well. 
 
 2. Processes for the Short Fibre, or Tow. -The short 
 fibre, or tow, is separated from the long during the scutch- 
 
Textile Manufacture 1 L5 
 
 ing and hackling processes. It is used by itself and in 
 combination with the long fibres. The processes of its 
 manufacture are somewhat different from those of the long 
 fibre. It is beaten and shaken in a beater, to clean and open 
 it up, and then carded to disentangle the fibres and con- 
 tinue the cleaning. The card has the same big cylinder and 
 workers and strippers as are used for wool, but the card 
 clothing is heavier and coarser, owing to the coarseness of 
 the tow. The carding-machine delivers the tow in the form 
 of a sliver. This is doubled and drawn and made into rov- 
 ing ready for spinning by the drawing and roving frames, as 
 is the line fibre. The spinning is also the same as that of 
 the long fibre. It may be dry, damp, or wet and is done 
 by the bobbin-and-flyer attachment. 
 
 The character of the various linen fabrics manufactured 
 is discussed under Fabrics. 
 
 V. Other Lesser Textile Fibres 
 
 i. Ramie. — Ramie is a vegetable fibre. It comes from 
 the stalk of a plant belonging to the family of stingless 
 nettles. It is a bast fibre, is strong, long, lustrous, and non- 
 elastic, like linen. The plants are cut, not pulled, and the 
 leaves and branches are removed. The different countries 
 in which ramie is grown have different methods for its 
 preparation. Sometimes the bark is stripped off while the 
 stalk is green; sometimes the plant is allowed to dry and 
 the bark retted by dew or water. 
 
 Before the fibre is ready for spinning it must be put 
 through several processes. First, decorticating, a process 
 for removing the bark while it is still wet; second, de- 
 gumming, which requires care, as the gum can be removed 
 only by the use of chemicals. When carefully degummed 
 it is soft, lustrous, and silky. The fibre, after being im- 
 mersed in the chemical, is boiled, washed, dried, and some- 
 times bleached. To soften the fibre it is passed through 
 fluted rollers which make it flexible without breaking it. It 
 is then put through gill-boxes and made into what is called 
 filasse. The gill-boxes disentangle and straighten the fibres 
 
116 Dressmaking 
 
 ready for combing. Combing gives two kinds of fibres, as 
 in worsted: the long fibre, called tops; the short, called noils. 
 Both of these are spun, but the tops make the finest and 
 strongest yarn and a better grade of material. 
 
 The use of ramie has been tried in the manufacturing of 
 a great variety of materials; it is generally combined with 
 other fibres. Efforts have been made to improve its proc- 
 esses of manufacture, but as yet its use has not become 
 varied. To date it is not generally successful except for 
 Welsbach burners. As a fibre for dress materials it is 
 found that it does not stand twisting and does not wear 
 well. 
 
 2. Jute and Hemp. — Such fibres as jute and hemp need 
 be considered only by those interested in house furnishing, 
 as they have, so far, proved too heavy for use in dress ma- 
 terials. 
 
 3. Mineral Fibres. — The mineral fibres, asbestos and 
 tinsel, are so little used as to deserve but passing notice. 
 This is especially true of asbestos. Tinsel, made into fine 
 wires, is, however, introduced into dress fabrics. It is fre- 
 quently seen in novelties and in gauzes which are used for 
 trimmings and for evening wear. 
 
 4. Artificial Silk. — There are various kinds of artificial 
 silk, nearly all of which are made from cellulose. The 
 principal varieties are nitrocellulose, cuprammonium, and 
 viscose. There are others, but they are not now widely 
 enough used to warrant discussion here. Artificial silks 
 resemble real silks in appearance but their properties are 
 quite different. Until recently they have had serious dis- 
 advantages: they have been difficult to dye, were likely to 
 disintegrate in washing, and were inflammable. Improve- 
 ments have been and are constantly being made, however, 
 and most of these difficulties have been practically cor- 
 rected. 
 
 One general process of manufacture is this: cellulose is 
 dissolved by treatment with chemicals and forced through 
 capillary tubes into another chemical which hardens or sets 
 it. Other processes are being attempted and may prove 
 equally successful. 
 
Textile Manufacture 117 
 
 Artificial silks have high lustre but are brittle and in- 
 elastic. They do not cover in weaving as well as real silk 
 and are much heavier. They are inexpensive as compared 
 to real silk and are coming more and more into use. They 
 are made into hosiery, underwear, and sweaters, and also 
 into a variety of dress materials, all of which include many 
 kinds of weaves. They are found in combination with wool, 
 cotton, and silk. In many materials they are woven in 
 small dots or figures to form the design. 
 
 5. Spun Glass. — The use of spun glass in wearing ap- 
 parel has been attempted but has not been considered suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 III. Bleaching, Scouring, and Dyeing 
 
 Both yarns and fabrics may be bleached, scoured, or 
 dyed, according to the requirements of the finished product. 
 
 /. Bleaching and Scouring 
 
 All fabrics are scoured or washed after leaving the loom 
 and before the finishing is done. 
 
 Bleaching and scouring sometimes precede dyeing to re- 
 move any objectionable substance in the fibre. If materials 
 are not to be dyed the bleaching and scouring is much more 
 carefully done, as its purpose is then to give good color to 
 the product. 
 
 Bleaching, as it is generally done to-day, requires the use 
 of chemicals and consequently weakens the fibre somewhat; 
 for this reason unbleached cotton and linen fabrics are 
 stronger than the same quality of fabric bleached. Linen is 
 more affected than cotton. Fabrics bleached by continued 
 exposure to the weather are not injuriously affected. 
 
 77. Dyeing 
 
 Dyeing is the art of coloring textile and other materials 
 in such a way that the colors cannot be readily removed by 
 the influences to which they are likely to be subjected ; that 
 is, water and other cleansing materials, wear, light, and sun. 
 
118 Dressmaking 
 
 In dyeing, the coloring matter is first soluble and becomes 
 insoluble while it is being absorbed by the fibre. 
 
 (i) Dyeing may be done at different periods or stages in 
 the manufacturing of the fibre; that is, (/) in stock — in the 
 loose state after washing and before any of the mechanical 
 processes; (ii) in theslub — during the mechanical processes, 
 the exact stage differing with different fibres; (Hi) in skein — 
 after the spinning; or (iv) in piece — after the weaving. The 
 time of dyeing depends on the fibre and on the kind of prod- 
 uct desired. When dyed in stock the colors are thoroughly 
 absorbed by the fibres and are considered permanent. 
 Skein-dyeing is used for specific purposes. It is less often 
 done than stock or piece dyeing. Piece-dyeing is for ma- 
 terials of solid colors. 
 
 (2) Of the four most important fibres, wool dyes most 
 readily, in general, and gives to the color depth and fulness. 
 Silk follows, and because of the smoothness and transpar- 
 ency of the fibre its color is more lustrous than that of any 
 other. Cotton does not dye readily and its colors usually 
 lack brilliancy or depth. Linen is even more difficult to 
 dye; while its colors are richer than those of cotton they are 
 not usually lasting. 
 
 (3) Cotton, wool, silk, and linen do not react in the 
 same manner in the dyeing processes; consequently different 
 methods and different kinds of dyes are used for different 
 fibres. The same fibre often requires a variety of treat- 
 ment, differing according to the color used. For much of 
 the dyeing a mordant is necessary. This is a substance 
 which has an affinity both for the coloring matter and the 
 fibre. It varies, depending on colors and fibres. It pre- 
 pares the fibre so that the dyestuff may be precipitated into 
 it in insoluble form. 
 
 (4) Dyestuffs may be divided into two general classes: 
 (i) artificial, which includes coal-tar products, and (ii) 
 vegetable, of which madder and indigo are well known. 
 
 (5) There are special kinds of dyeing, such as resist, 
 cross, and discharge dyeing. 
 
 (a) Resist dyeing is the process which treats part of the 
 yarn so that it will remain unchanged when subjected to 
 
Textile Manufacture 119 
 
 another dye bath. This is used often in striped material. 
 (b) Cross dyeing is done in the piece in materials which 
 have both cotton and wool fibres. Cotton will not take wool 
 dyes; in consequence it may be used to give a white stripe 
 or plaid in colored materials, (c) In discharge dyeing the 
 material is also piece-dyed a solid color; then some of the 
 color, in the pattern desired, is removed by chemicals. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 TEXTILE ECONOMICS 
 
 Textile fabrics have design, color, and finish and are made 
 up of one fibre or a combination of fibres. In judging any 
 fabric to determine its value and wearing quality it is nec- 
 essary to take all these factors into consideration. All ma- 
 terials, whether of cotton, wool, silk, or linen, should be so 
 made as to conform to certain requirements or standards, 
 these standards to be regulated for the purchaser by the 
 quality claimed for the materials and the prices charged. 
 At present, however, no definite standards exist, and wise 
 selection must depend to a large extent on the knowledge 
 of the purchaser. 
 
 In selecting materials the purchaser should know not only 
 what quality or grade of material may be demanded for a 
 certain price but be able to determine as well whether that 
 quality has actually been secured on payment of the price. 
 For instance, if damask sixty-six inches wide and sixty-nine 
 cents a yard is bought, the purchaser has no right to expect 
 good linen fibre firmly woven. The fabric of that width 
 and price must necessarily have either poor linen fibre or 
 linen and cotton combined with a loose weave and concealed 
 with much sizing. If, on the other hand, a bengaline silk 
 twenty-seven inches wide is purchased for two dollars a 
 yard, it can scarcely be claimed that proper value is received 
 if the fabric is found to be two-thirds cotton. 
 
 In order to select materials wisely both knowledge and 
 experience are required. 
 
 First, it is necessary to know — 
 
 (a) The characteristics of the various fibres used in 
 the manufacture of the materials, their feel, appearance, 
 strength, their similarities and differences before manufac- 
 ture and after, and the manner in which they respond to 
 various tests. 
 
 120 
 
Textile Economics 121 
 
 (b) The general processes of manufacture required to 
 make various standard kinds of fabrics from these fibres. 
 Without some knowledge of the many operations necessary 
 it is difficult to have a just appreciation of the value of the 
 finished product. 
 
 (c) What substitutions or adulterations are possible in 
 manufacturing the fibres into fabrics, (i) The various 
 operations by which one fibre may be made to resemble an- 
 other or one fibre may be concealed when combined with 
 another for the purpose of adulteration, (it) Simple tests 
 by which these substitutions and adulterations may be de- 
 tected. 
 
 Second, based on this ascertained knowledge there should 
 be unlimited experience in the handling and testing of the 
 materials themselves for comparison of quality and price. 
 Facts, unless supplemented by experience, are of little 
 value in judging materials. Discrimination in selection can 
 result only from the experience which is gained by the con- 
 stant use of both eyes and hands in a careful study and 
 comparison of materials. In beginning such work, standard 
 materials should be chosen rather than novelties, and as a 
 starting-point or basis for comparison of any kind of ma- 
 terial a good quality of that material should be used. 
 The necessary qualifications for such a material are as 
 follows : 
 
 (a) It should be woven of well-spun yarn which is not 
 only made of a uniformly good quality of fibre but is suffi- 
 ciently twisted to give the required strength to the fabric. 
 Because of the finishing, short and imperfect fibres and sub- 
 stitutes may not show in the new fabric unless it is very 
 carefully examined, but they will appear after the material 
 has been worn a short time. 
 
 (b) The yarns for warp and filling should be well bal- 
 anced to prevent the unequal strain or wear of one set 
 and their consequent breakage. This balance is usually 
 secured (i) by having the yarns of warp and filling of com- 
 paratively the same size, weight, and twist, or (it), if either 
 warp or rilling yarn is finer, by having a sufficient number 
 of the finer to give the required strength. This latter 
 
122 Dressmaking 
 
 method is not satisfactory in every case. Any dimity which 
 has a few heavy lengthwise cords with a fine, tightly twisted 
 tilling and no heavy crosswise cords is an excellent illustra- 
 tion of lack of balance. The heavy cord, because of the 
 extra strain of its weight, has practically a cutting action 
 on the finer crosswise or rilling threads, which, with wear and 
 laundering, soon break. 
 
 (c) To permit the developing of any desired finish from 
 the fabric itself, without the aid of any applied fibres in the 
 finishing processes, the yarn should be of such weight and 
 quality and so woven as to give the fabric a sufficiently 
 firm foundation or structure. For instance, many fabrics, 
 particularly those made of wool, have the ends of the fibres 
 brought to the surface to form a thick pile or nap by the 
 use of teazles or wire gigs. If the foundation — the stock — 
 of the cloth is too poor to supply these fibre ends it is 
 necessary in the fulling process to add material to give 
 substance enough for this finish. Good materials properly 
 applied during manufacture do not injure the finished 
 product, but in too many cases cheaper qualities are used 
 and so carelessly added that with wear they drop out and 
 reveal the lack of substance in the woven foundation. 
 
 (d) The weave should have strength and endurance. 
 The weaving should be so firmly done that sizing is not 
 necessary to give the material the substance and appearance 
 of a good fabric. The kind of weave chosen should depend 
 on the use for which the material is intended. Designs 
 like the basket have aesthetic but not economic value and 
 consequently should be avoided in fabrics of which wearing 
 quality is demanded. There are many others, however, 
 such as the twills, which are good in design and are unri- 
 valled from the standpoint of wear. 
 
 (e) The material should have a true finish, one which can 
 be brought up from the fibre by the pressing of the fabric 
 rather than one which is artificially made by the application 
 of various polishing and finishing mediums. The first is 
 permanent; the latter disappears with little wear or laun- 
 dering. Such finishes are difficult to recognize because of 
 their great variety, but they may be found in many of the 
 
Textile Economics 123 
 
 cotton, wool, silk, and linen fabrics. There are also many 
 designs which are made by pressing down sections of the 
 surface of the material with engraved rollers and then 
 treating those sections with a starchlike substance which 
 holds them in place temporarily but is quickly rubbed off 
 with wear. These designs are most frequently seen in 
 novelty cotton fabrics. Because of their finish they often 
 command a price much above their actual value. 
 
 (/) When possible the color of the material should be last- 
 ing for the use required of it; that is, the color of a cotton 
 fabric is subjected generally not only to the test of wear, 
 but of laundering as well, and must be made to meet both 
 tests. Usually the color of a wool fabric has merely that 
 of wear to withstand. Few^colors are really "fast" to all 
 treatment but may be to some. Constant improvements 
 are being made in dyes, especially those used on cotton 
 fabrics where fast colors are most necessary. Effort should 
 be made to obtain the names of firms who guarantee fast- 
 ness to certain colors. 
 
 I. Comparison of Fibres 
 
 As has been said, all testing of materials for fibre or 
 fibres should be based on a comparative knowledge of the 
 characteristics of the different raw fibres and the manner 
 in which each fibre responds to certain physical tests. Al- 
 though the fibres may be somewhat changed in the man- 
 ufacturing operations, they are essentially as before and 
 respond in the same general way when similar tests are 
 applied to them in the fabric. 
 
 The four important fibres — cotton, wool, silk, and linen- 
 differ from each other in various ways, many of which may 
 be detected without using even a simple microscope or 
 linen-tester. In comparing various grades and qualities of 
 the same fibre, however, such as good wool and remanu- 
 factured wool, little can be determined accurately even by 
 an expert with the use of a powerful microscope. In iden- 
 tifying fibres by physical tests the following factors should 
 be considered: 
 
124 Dressmaking 
 
 (a) Appearance; (b) length; (c) feel; (d) tensile strength; 
 (e) elasticity; (/) behavior in burning. 
 
 Before considering these, however, it is necessary to es- 
 tablish a foundation by knowing as much as possible con- 
 cerning the structure, the composition, the hygroscopic 
 quality, and the behavior toward dyestuffs of these fibres. 
 These are not facts which can be determined by physical 
 tests; they have, however, been worked out and proved by 
 chemical and microscopic analysis and are recorded in books 
 which are easy of access to the majority. 
 
 Cotton is a vegetable fibre. It is a flat, ribbonlike band 
 with thickened edges and a slight spiral twist. Unripe or 
 dead cotton has no twist and does not spin well. It has its 
 inner canal closed and does not take dye. Cotton is largely 
 made up of cellulose; it absorbs from six to eight and one- 
 half per cent of moisture without evidence of dampness. It 
 does not dye easily. 
 
 Wool is an animal fibre with a scalelike surface. It is 
 made up of flattened and overlapping cells which form a 
 series of scales called serrations. These serrations help to 
 give to wool its shrinking or felting quality. Kemp is the 
 diseased fibre. It is solid and without cellular formation. 
 It has the same structure throughout as the scales of the 
 fibres. It is short, stiff, brittle, and large in diameter. It 
 does not spin and does not take dye. It cannot be im- 
 proved by any process of manufacture. Wool is a protein 
 substance composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, 
 sulphur, and phosphorus. It can absorb from twelve to 
 nineteen per cent of moisture without evidence of damp- 
 ness. It usually dyes easily and the color is quite lasting. 
 
 Silk fibre is a smooth, structureless filament with a trans- 
 parent lustrous surface. It has an outer coating of gum 
 called serecin. This encloses two combined filaments of 
 silk or fibroin which is a protein substance. Silk can ab- 
 sorb eleven per cent of moisture without evidence of damp- 
 ness. It dyes easily. 
 
 Linen is a vegetable fibre made up of cylindrical cells. 
 Its surface shows lengthwise fine lines and crosswise mark- 
 ings like breaks in the fibre. It is cellulose and can absorb 
 
Textile Economics 125 
 
 eleven per cent of moisture without evidence of dampness. 
 It does not dye readily nor hold its color well. 
 
 Based on these facts, a comparison of the fibres may be 
 made as follows: 
 
 (i) General Appearance 
 
 Cotton: Fine, fluffy, straight, dull. 
 
 Wool: Wavy, fuzzy, rather wiry, bright. The wool fibre 
 
 varies — the long is usually lustrous, the short is soft 
 
 and has less lustre. 
 Silk: Fine, smooth, straight, shining. 
 Linen: Smooth, stiff, straight. 
 
 (2) Length 
 
 Cotton: Y A ' '-2y 2 "\ i"-i}i" average length. 
 
 Wool: i"-i4". 
 
 Silk: 500 yds.-i,300 yds. 
 
 Linen: 12 "-36"; 18" average length. 
 
 (3) Feel 
 
 Cotton: Matted, unresponsive, inelastic, soft. 
 Wool: Springy, spongy, elastic, harsh. 
 Silk: Smooth, soft, elastic, cool. 
 Linen: Wiry, harsh, cold, inelastic. 
 
 (4) Tensile Strength 
 
 Cotton: Third in strength. 
 
 Wool: Generally weakest, but varies greatly. 
 
 Silk: First in strength. 
 
 Linen: Second in strength. 
 
 (5) Elasticity 
 
 Cotton: Third, very slightly elastic. 
 Wool: Second, very elastic. 
 Silk: First, most elastic. 
 Linen: Fourth, inelastic. 
 
126 Dressmaking 
 
 (6) Behavior in Burning 
 
 (a) Odor: 
 
 Cotton: Like burning paper or wood (cellulose). 
 
 Wool: Like burning hair (animal oil). 
 
 Silk: Much like wool. 
 
 Linen: Much like cotton (cellulose). 
 
 (b) Rapidity: 
 
 Cotton: Burns rapidly, brightly, and steadily; does 
 not extinguish easily. 
 
 Wool: Smoulders, burns slowly, with difficulty; ex- 
 tinguishes often. 
 
 Silk: Burns rapidly, darting flame. 
 
 Linen: Burns rapidly, like cotton, but is not so in- 
 flammable; has more oil. 
 
 (c) Appearance: 
 
 Cotton: Steady yellow flame, leaves gray ash with- 
 out residue. 
 
 Wool: Blue, unsteady flame, leaves oily globule, 
 gummy residue. 
 
 Silk: Leaping flame, leaves oily globule. 
 
 Linen: Much like cotton, leaves ash. 
 
 II. Design 
 
 Textile design is produced in many ways, all of which 
 may be grouped under two general heads: structural de- 
 sign, that which is made during the formation of the fabric, 
 and surface design, that which is made after the formation 
 of the fabric. 
 
 /. Structural Design 
 
 Structural design is by far the larger class. In general, it 
 may be said to have more effect on the wearing quality of a 
 fabric than do the majority of surface designs. Structural 
 designs are made while a fabric is being woven. The design 
 may depend entirely upon the character of the weave — the 
 way in which the warp yarn is interlaced by the filling yarn; 
 or, in addition to weave, there may be variety in the threads 
 or yarns used. 
 
Textile Economics 127 
 
 i. Design by Yarn. 
 
 (i) Yarns Made of Different Fibres. — Combinations of 
 yarns of different fibres are seen in wool materials in which 
 there is a silk stripe; in wool brocades which have the fig- 
 ures in silk; in lansdowne, in which silk and wool are 
 evenly combined; in silk ginghams, in which silk and cot- 
 ton are used; in mohair, alpaca, etc., in which mohair fill- 
 ing is combined with a cotton warp; in such materials as 
 Tussah Royal, in which mohair and wool are used and give 
 to the surface a crinkled appearance due to the different 
 shrinkage of the two fibres; in many upholstery materials, 
 in which jute or hemp is combined with plain or mercerized 
 cotton. 
 
 (2) Yarns Having Different Twists. — Various materials 
 are given an irregular or pebbly surface by combining yarns 
 of different twists. The warp and filling yarns may have 
 different twists, or different twists may alternate in both 
 warp and filling. Crepe de chine and Georgette crepe are 
 illustrations of different-twisted yarns. 
 
 (3) Colored Yarns. — The use of colored yarns gives a 
 great variety of design. 
 
 (a) Solid Color. — Materials in which the warp and the 
 filling are always alike, as in galatea, sateen, nun's-veiling, 
 or wool batiste, and panama cloth. 
 
 (b) Changeable. — Materials which have a warp of one 
 color and filling of another. Chambray is an excellent ex- 
 ample, as this characteristic really distinguishes it. True 
 chambray always has white filling and colored warp yarns, 
 with the exception of a few white warp yarns added at each 
 edge to keep the selvage white. 
 
 (c) Stripes. — Materials in which colored yarns may be 
 introduced warpwise, with warp varied and filling solid, or 
 fillingwise, with filling varied and warp solid. Stripes are 
 more generally seen lengthwise than crosswise, unless to 
 meet an occasional demand for novelty. They are found 
 in a variety of materials — in gingham, in madras, and in 
 silks and wools. 
 
 (d) Checks and Plaids. — Materials which have both warp 
 and filling striped — evenly for checks, unevenly for plaids. 
 
128 Dressmaking 
 
 This kind of pattern is seen in Irish poplins and shepherd's 
 plaids. Checks and plaids are also found from time to time 
 in wools, such as serges and broadcloth, and in silks, such 
 as taffeta and surah, but are not characteristic of them. 
 
 (4) Yarns of Different Sizes and Weights. — Pattern is 
 frequently made by the use of heavier yarns. These yarns 
 may be introduced into either warp or filling, forming 
 stripes, or into both, forming checks or plaids. Dimity is 
 given its chief characteristic by the heavy yarns which, 
 according to their placing, form stripes, checks, and plaids. 
 The heavy yarns introduced fillingwise give to poplins and 
 a large class of silks, such as bengaline, eolienne, and faille, 
 the corded surface which makes them distinctive. 
 
 (5) Yarns of Different Sizes and Weights Combined with 
 Colored Yarns. — Many materials are given more decorative 
 surfaces by having the stripes, checks, or plaids formed by 
 the colored yarns outlined by heavy cords. Such effects are 
 frequently seen in ginghams and madras. 
 
 (6) Novelty Yarns. — These are generally made in the final 
 process in the manufacture of the yarn, that of twisting. 
 Yarns of the same or different fibres may be combined. 
 Novelty yarns have been much used recently in materials 
 both of wool and cotton, which were sold under the general 
 names of ratine or eponge. Nearly all such materials may 
 be classed under the general term of novelties. They 
 change constantly because of their dependence on passing 
 fashions. 
 
 (7) Yarns at Different Tension. — Some materials are given 
 a crinkled surface by the use in weaving of warp yarns at 
 different tension. This necessitates the use of two warp- 
 beams to carry the two distinct sets of threads. These may 
 be arranged to give the entire fabric an irregular surface or 
 may be made to form stripes of regular or different widths. 
 This kind of design is most frequently seen in such cotton 
 fabrics as crepe and seersucker, which do not require press- 
 ing after laundering. 
 
 2. Design by Warp Printing. — Many materials are given 
 a design by the printing of the warp yarn after it is 
 practically prepared for weaving. A plain filling is used, 
 
Textile Economics 129 
 
 resulting in a less pronounced design and softer colors. 
 Dresden ribbon and taffetas are made in this way. The 
 method of printing is described under Surface Design. 
 
 3. Design by Weaves. — In studying weaves there are 
 two lines of yarns or threads to consider: the warp, or 
 lengthwise, threads — those which are put on the loom first 
 and which may be said to form the foundation upon which 
 the pattern is worked out; and the filling threads — those 
 which cross the warp at right angles and make the pattern 
 simple or elaborate by the manner of their interlacing. In 
 the finished fabric the warp-threads are usually called ends 
 and the filling threads picks, particularly in trade, and in 
 any comparison of material for fineness and strength the 
 number of picks and ends to an inch is considered. 
 
 (1) Classification of Weaves. — The various weaves which 
 are used in materials offer an interesting and by no means 
 difficult study once a general classification has been ar- 
 ranged. The one given here is simple and easily under- 
 stood, (a) Plain and its variations: derivatives, basket 
 and rib; (b) twill and its variations; (c) satin and its vari- 
 ations; (d) figure: damask, brocade, huck, diaper, granite, 
 etc.; (e) double cloth; (/) pile; (g) lappet and swivel; 
 (h) gauze; (i) leno. 
 
 (2) Method of Making Weaves. 
 
 (a) Plain Weave. — The simplest weave, and one which 
 is important because of the large number of materials in 
 which it is used, is the plain weave, also called tabby, cot- 
 ton, homespun, or taffeta. It is found in cotton materials 
 — muslins, cambrics, percales, and batistes; in wools — nun's- 
 veiling, panama, voile, and challie; in silks — taffeta, China, 
 and India silks; in linen — chintz, handkerchief linen, and 
 sheeting. The plain weave requires two harnesses, through 
 one of which all the odd threads (1, 3, 5, 7) are drawn; 
 through the other all the even (2, 4, 6, 8). If the harness 
 holding the odd threads is raised in opening the first shed, 
 the shuttle on its trip through the shed goes under all the 
 odd threads and over all the even; that is, the first warp- 
 thread is up, the second is down, and so on across the 
 fabric. When the next or second shed is open and the 
 
130 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 shuttle is sent through, just the reverse happens: the odd 
 threads are covered by the filling and the even are on top. 
 In this the first warp- thread is down and the second is up. 
 This completes the design, and when the third shed is 
 opened it is a repetition of the first, the fourth is a repeti- 
 tion of the second, and so on until the fabric is finished. The 
 
 filling passes under one and 
 over one in regular order, 
 alternating in each row. 
 
 This weave, while giving 
 a strong and firm material, 
 is not particularly close be- 
 cause the threads do not 
 pack as compactly as those 
 of some other designs. A 
 material woven in this way, 
 if held to the light before 
 any finishing is done, will 
 usually show openings be- 
 tween the threads; these 
 are filled with sizing some- 
 times, if the holes are large 
 and the fabric inexpensive. 
 Shrinking or fulling during 
 finishing helps to make the threads lie closer. The plain 
 weave is often made more decorative by the use of the 
 methods already referred to as forming designs; that is, 
 the introduction of colored yarns, of heavier yarns, of 
 yarns at different tension, etc. 
 
 There are several weaves which are usually called de- 
 rivatives because they are based on another with a slight 
 variation. From the plain weave we have the basket and 
 rib weaves. 
 
 (i) Basket Weave. — The basket weave is found in cotton 
 materials, such as monk's cloth; in wools and linens, called 
 basket cloth; and in silks, such as louisine. 
 
 In the simplest basket weave only two harnesses are 
 necessary, as in the plain weave, but they are not used and 
 arranged as for the plain. The more elaborate weaves re- 
 
 Plain weave 
 
Textile Economics 131 
 
 quire more harnesses, but the method of making is in general 
 the same. The threads are woven in in groups of two or 
 more to form squares. For instance, for a group of two one 
 harness has threads i and 2, 5 and 6, 9 and 10, while the 
 other has 3 and 4, 7 and 8, 11 and 12. Instead of opening 
 first one shed and then the other the same shed is opened 
 twice in succession; that is, the first two picks are alike. 
 The first two warp- threads are up in the two rows, the 
 second two are down in the two rows, and so on across the 
 fabric. The second shed is opened twice also and its two 
 picks are alike. In this the first two warp-threads are down 
 in two rows and the second two are up in the two rows. 
 The filling goes under two and over two, making a trip 
 over and back through each shed. To hold it at the edges 
 of the material the filling is interlaced with the threads 
 which form the selvage. This method of weaving gives a 
 design in squares and makes a very attractive fabric but 
 one not satisfactory for wearing quality. The threads slide 
 over each other, do not pack closely, and cannot stand the 
 least strain. Many basket weaves have an additional warp- 
 thread which is introduced between each square or group 
 and is interlaced in such a way as to keep the threads 
 from sliding. This gives strength to the material. 
 
 (ii) Rib Weaves. — There are two kinds of rib weaves, 
 warp rib and filling rib. In the first the warp yarns form 
 the face of the material, in the other the filling. Both are a 
 combination of the plain and basket and require only the 
 two harnesses. Warp rib. In the warp rib the first two 
 picks are alike, but, unlike the basket, they go under one 
 and over one. The first warp-thread is up in the two rows, 
 the second one is down in the rows, and so on across the 
 fabric. The second two are also alike and go over one and 
 under one. In this the first warp-thread is down in the 
 two rows and the second one is up in the two rows. This 
 makes a rib effect across the material. It is difficult to dis- 
 tinguish this weave from the plain weave with a heavy 
 filling, as the effect is practically the same. Filling rib. In 
 the filling rib the pick goes through each shed only once, but 
 in going it passes under two and over two threads of the 
 
132 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 warp. This makes a rib lengthwise with the selvage. The 
 cross rib formed by the warp is more often seen. 
 
 (b) Twill Weave. — The twill weaves are practically equal 
 in importance to the plain weave because they are used in 
 so many materials and with such variety of effects. Twills 
 are found in cotton materials — canton flannel, drillings, 
 jean, outing flannel; in wools — serges, whipcords, cheviots, 
 broadcloths; in silks — plain foulards, surah, silk serges; in 
 linen — diagonals and some kinds of towelling. In the twill 
 
 the warp and filling threads 
 intersect, so that they pro- 
 duce a diagonal line or rib' 
 across the fabric either to 
 right or to left. The regu- 
 lar twills have an angle of 
 forty-five degrees. All 
 twills are a progression of 
 one; that is, instead of al- 
 ternating, as is done in plain 
 weaving, the filling moves 
 forward in each row, one 
 thread to right or left of 
 the crossing of the first line, 
 and in this way makes the 
 diagonal. 
 
 Twill weave There is a great variety 
 
 of twills, their names some- 
 times indicating the number of harnesses necessary for the 
 weaving. There are even and uneven twills. In the even 
 equal quantities of warp and filling yarn show on the sur- 
 face of the material, as in the common, or plain (two warp up 
 and two warp down), twill. In the uneven one yarn shows 
 much more than the other, as in what is frequently called 
 the prunella, or three-shaft (one warp up and two warp 
 down), twill. Besides the twills already mentioned there 
 are many others, among them the corkscrew, broken, 
 pointed, and fancy. 
 
 One of the simplest twills is the three-shaft or three-leaf 
 (uneven). It may be either warp or filling face and re- 
 
Textile Economics 133 
 
 quires three harnesses. For a filling-face fabric in the first 
 shed warp threads i, 4, 7, 10 are lifted; the filling passes 
 under one (1), over two (2 and 3), under one (4), and so on. 
 In the second shed 2, 5, 8, 11 are lifted, and in the third 
 3, 6, 9, 12, giving a progression of one in the lifting of the 
 warp in each row. For a warp-face fabric the filling passes 
 under two (1 and 2), over one (3), under two (4 and 5), 
 over one (6), and so on. 
 
 All of the twill weaves make exceedingly attractive sur- 
 faces, and for this reason they are used in many materials 
 like the worsteds, which do not have their weaves concealed 
 by any finishing process. They also give firmness and 
 bulk to material, as many threads can be used and packed 
 firmly. Because of this the twill is used for materials like 
 broadcloth which, in the finishing, have fibre ends brought 
 to the surface to form a nap. In many materials twills 
 form the only decoration; in others they are merely the 
 background for elaborate figures. 
 
 (c) Satin Weave. — The satin weave like the twill has 
 a progression in each pick in the lifting of the warp, 
 but it is a progression of two or more rather than one 
 as in the twill. It might be called a broken or irregular 
 twill. The terms satin and sateen are both used for this 
 weave: satin to indicate a surface formed by the warp, as in 
 satins, in Venetian cloth, in prunella, and in galatea, which 
 have the floating threads running lengthwise of the mate- 
 rial; sateen, a surface formed by the filling, as in sateen, 
 which has the floating threads running across the ma- 
 terial. 
 
 The satin weave gives a smooth, lustrous fabric, since the 
 surface — because of the kind of weave used — appears un- 
 broken and consequently reflects the light to the best ad- 
 vantage. As has been said, the surface may be formed by 
 warp or filling threads. In either case, whether warp or 
 filling, these surface threads are longer than in any other 
 weave, as they are carried under one intersecting thread and 
 over several, and they are so closely packed that the few 
 intersecting or cross threads over them scarcely show. 
 This weave is found in cotton materials — sateen, galatea; 
 
134 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 in wools — Venetian cloth, prunella; in silks — satin, messa- 
 line, pean de cygne, and charmeuse; in linen — damask. An 
 odd number of shafts is usually found; that is, five or 
 seven shafts or even a greater number. 
 
 For a five-shaft, filling-face satin, as the name implies, 
 five harnesses are necessary. When the first shed is opened 
 the filling passes under one warp thread (i), over four 
 (2, 3, 4, 5), under one (6), and so on; in the second row, to 
 make the progression it passes over three warp threads 
 
 (1, 2, 3), under one (4), 
 over four (5, 6, 7, 8), under 
 one (9), and so on; in the 
 third row over one (1), un- 
 der one (2), over four (3, 
 4, 5, 6), under one (7), over 
 four (8, 9, 10, 11), and so 
 on; in the fourth row over 
 four (1, 2, 3, 4), under one 
 (5), over four (6, 7, 8, 9), 
 under one (10); in the fifth 
 row over two (1, 2), under 
 one (3), over four (4, 5, 6, 
 7), under one (8); then the 
 pattern is complete and the 
 sixth row is like the first. 
 
 The satin weave is very 
 frequently used in materials 
 in which there is a combination of fibre, as in cotton-backed 
 satins, where the silk threads floating on the surface cover 
 entirely the few cotton threads which intersect them. The 
 result is a silk face and a cotton back with irregular twill 
 effect. Skinner's satin is a well-known illustration of this. 
 Many of these materials are less expensive than all silk and 
 prove satisfactory in wearing quality. If the threads have 
 too long a float on the surface, as frequently happens in 
 some foulards, they are likely to catch and pull, and thus 
 destroy the face of the fabric, especially if there is a colored 
 design. Some satin-face materials in dark colors have 
 the disadvantage of becoming shiny with wear. Generally 
 
 Satin weave 
 
Textile Economics 
 
 135 
 
 speaking, however, the satin weave is satisfactory and gives 
 many beautiful fabrics. 
 
 (d) Figure-Weaving. — Figure-weaving is closely allied to 
 the satin and twill weaves, many of the designs being really 
 a combination of the two. Figure-weaving is done on the 
 Jacquard loom, or by some special attachments like the 
 Dobby or Head motion, which may be added to the har- 
 ness-loom. In this class the most frequently used are the 
 damask, brocade, huck, diaper, and granite weaves, which 
 are found in practically all 
 kinds of materials. 
 
 Damask and brocade are 
 terms often confused, but 
 there is a distinct difference. 
 In damask the design or 
 pattern is complete on each 
 side of the fabric and is, in 
 consequence, reversible; 
 there is no definite right or 
 wrong side. In general, on 
 one side the background is 
 satin with the figure show- 
 ing the twill; on the other 
 the figure is satin and the 
 background has the twill 
 effect. Damask is often 
 woven with a sateen back- 
 ground and satin figure or vice versa; this gives a crosswise 
 twill to one on the back and a lengthwise twill to the other. 
 
 In brocade there is a decided right and wrong side. The 
 design shows very indistinctly on the wrong side, as no effort 
 is made to have it complete. The threads which form the 
 pattern on the right side are woven in on the wrong side 
 when not in use or left floating to be cut off later. The 
 damask and brocade weaves are used in a variety of ma- 
 terials, the damask principally for table linen, which may be 
 made either of cotton or linen or a combination. 
 
 Such weaves as the huck, diaper, and granite are much 
 simpler in construction and do not require necessarily the 
 
 *T ''/w*Vi5 / 
 
 (M%j|i9a^lr- 
 
 
 
 Figure weave 
 
136 Dressmaking 
 
 Jacquard loom. The diaper and huck weaves are used 
 chiefly in linens and cottons; the granite weave in linens 
 and wools, most often in materials called granite or crepe 
 cloth. 
 
 (e) Double-Cloth Weave. — Under this general heading 
 may come materials of various kinds: (i) Cloths which 
 are backed. The extra backing is usually done by warp- 
 threads which give additional weight without in any way 
 changing the appearance of the face of the fabric. In many 
 cases the materials added to give weight are of decidedly 
 inexpensive quality, (ii) Cloths which are reversible. In 
 the reversible materials two warps or two filling threads may 
 be used and interchanged in such a way as to make the 
 designs alike or unlike on the two sides of the material. 
 (iii) Cloths which are figured with extra materials. These 
 frequently have two distinct sets of warp and filling and 
 are reversible, (iv) Cloths which are really double or com- 
 pound. Many double cloths are made with two sets of 
 warp and of filling, which are so interlaced at intervals as 
 to make the two fabrics inseparable; or there may be a 
 double warp, double filling, and an additional warp which 
 binds them together. Fabrics made in this way may eas- 
 ily be pulled apart. In this general class come many 
 heavy suitings, coatings, steamer rugs, novelties, polo cloth, 
 and silence cloth. 
 
 (/) Pile Weave. — The pile weave differs from others in 
 that it does not have all the warp and filling threads in 
 lengthwise and crosswise parallel lines, but has some threads 
 of either the warp or the filling so raised in loops as to be- 
 come vertical. 
 
 Under the general head of pile weave come several 
 classes of fabrics: (i) those in which the pile is formed by 
 the warp, as in good velvets and plushes; (ii) those in which 
 the pile is formed on the two sides of the fabric by the use 
 of a movable reed and two warps, one at loose tension, as in 
 Turkish towelling; (Hi) those in which the pile is formed by 
 the filling, as in velveteen and the cheaper velvets; (iv) 
 those in which two distinct fabrics are made at once and 
 later cut apart. 
 
Textile Economics 137 
 
 (i) Warp-Pile — Cut or Uncut. — Warp-pile fabrics are of 
 great variety, as they may be plain or figured, the latter a 
 combination of cut and uncut pile. When the pile is 
 formed by the warp there are two sets of warp to one of 
 filling. Both the ground and pile warp are interlaced by 
 the rilling threads, but at short and regular intervals one 
 set of warp-threads passes over an inserted wire which 
 pulls the threads up to form loops. In making cut-pile 
 fabrics the wire is provided with a knife at one end which 
 cuts the loops as it is withdrawn. If a warp-pile fabric is 
 to be given a design by a combination of cut and uncut 
 pile, the pile is not cut in the weaving but during the fin- 
 ishing processes. 
 
 (it) Warp-Pile — Uncut. — Turkish towelling and some 
 novelty materials are made by using two sets of warp- 
 threads one of which has a very loose tension. The regular 
 loom is used, but the reed is so regulated that it does not 
 beat each row of filling regularly; that is, two rows of filling 
 are put in and beaten very lightly. After the third row, 
 however, they are all firmly beaten into place. As a result 
 the loose warp is pushed both up and down and forms a 
 loop on both sides of the material. 
 
 (Hi) Filling-Pile. — When the pile is formed by the fill- 
 ing there are two sets of filling threads and one of warp. 
 One set of filling interlaces with the warp regularly and 
 forms a firm groundwork; the other set floats over the 
 woven surface for some distance and is intersected and 
 bound to the fabric by the warp at regular intervals. Af- 
 ter the weaving is finished this floating thread is cut in 
 the centre and rises to form the pile. As there are a great 
 number of these threads, a uniform and well-covered sur- 
 face is formed. Velveteen and corduroy are woven in this 
 manner, also many cotton velvets. 
 
 (iv) Double-Pile Weaving. — This method of weaving is 
 sometimes employed for plushes. The weaving is done 
 somewhat as in double cloth, but the two fabrics are far 
 enough apart to give the requisite length of pile. The pile 
 threads pass from one fabric to the other and are interlaced 
 and kept in place by the filling threads. These pile threads 
 
138 Dressmaking 
 
 are later cut half-way between the upper and lower fabrics, 
 giving two distinct materials. 
 
 If a pile fabric is poorly made, with few threads or the 
 threads insecurely fastened, the surface soon pulls out or 
 wears off and an ugly background is left. 
 
 (g) Lappet and Swivel Weaving. — By the use of attach- 
 ments — either the lappet or the swivel — decorative figures 
 may be woven over the surface of a fabric without affecting 
 the groundwork weave. The effect is somewhat that of em- 
 broidery. Many figured muslins, such as the dotted swiss, 
 are made in this way. When the figures are continuous the 
 wearing quality of the material is in no way affected by 
 the decoration, which enhances its beauty. If an inter- 
 mittent design is used, such as a dot, the long threads con- 
 necting the dots on the wrong side must be cut. These 
 ends may pull out if the material is not closely woven. 
 
 Frequently these designs are imitated; that is, similar 
 effects are produced in inexpensive materials without using 
 any attachment. Dots are a favorite method of decora- 
 tion, but without the attachment each dot is not made of a 
 continuous thread. They are put in by an extra bobbin, 
 which carries the filling back and forth across the full width 
 of the material, letting it appear on the surface to form 
 the dot. Each thread of the dot is a separate thread. 
 The back of the material is covered with the long lines of 
 floating threads between the dots, which must be cut in 
 order not to catch. With very little wear the short threads 
 which form the dots soon pull out. Many of the designs 
 in cotton materials are made in this way. 
 
 (h) Gauze Weave. — In the gauze weave we have an open- 
 work effect obtained by a crossing of the warp-threads. 
 Grenadine and marquisette are the best-known illustra- 
 tions of this. 
 
 While gauze fabrics are light and open they are exceed- 
 ingly firm, more so than any other fabric in proportion to 
 the quantity and quality of material used. An even num- 
 ber of warp-threads is used, and between every two filling 
 threads two warp-threads entwine to right and left alter- 
 nately; the warp- thread, which is on top in the crossing, 
 
Textile Economics 139 
 
 passes under the filling and vice versa. This occurs reg- 
 ularly, because of the alternating of the warps to right and 
 left, and gives firmness to the material. 
 
 (i) Leno Weave. — Leno is a name usually given to a 
 variation of the gauze, a combination of gauze and plain 
 weaving. Many cotton curtain materials have this com- 
 bination. 
 
 II. Surface Design 
 
 As the name indicates, this kind of design is applied after 
 the fabric itself is made. The majority of fabrics having a 
 surface design have also structural design, as, with but few 
 exceptions, fabrics are formed by weaving. Surface design 
 may be applied in various ways, some of which are not of 
 sufficient importance here to require more than passing 
 mention. 
 
 In many of these designs the decoration is made by the 
 application of color in various ways. In others it is made 
 in the finishing processes by pressing with special rollers 
 without the use of color. It may also be made by hand 
 or machine embroidery, when the pattern may be in a con- 
 trasting color or may not. 
 
 i. Design with Color. 
 
 (i) By Hand. — There are two or three hand methods, 
 the best known of which are block-printing and stencilling. 
 
 (a) Block-Printing. — Block-printing is the method in which 
 the design is applied by blocks, a separate block being neces- 
 sary for each color. The blocks are applied one at a time. 
 
 (b) Stencilling. — In stencilling, the pattern is cut out of 
 stout paper or metal and the color applied to the fabric 
 through the interstices of the pattern. 
 
 (2) By Machine. — There are different machine proc- 
 esses, the best known of which are block-printing and roller- 
 printing. 
 
 (a) Block-Printing. — When block-printing is done by ma- 
 chine the general principles are the same as in the hand 
 method. In the machine method there are at present lim- 
 itations not found in the hand work as to the number of 
 colors and the size of the pattern. 
 
140 Dressmaking 
 
 (b) Roller or Machine Printing. — The most important 
 method of textile printing is roller, cylinder, or machine 
 printing. The majority of surface designs are made by 
 this method. 
 
 When fabrics are properly printed the color applied in 
 this way becomes a part of the fibre and resists both wash- 
 ing and friction. In general, for machine-printing there is 
 (i) a large cylinder covered with several thicknesses of ma- 
 terial called lapping, over which passes the cloth to be 
 printed. Against this large cylinder there is (ii) a smaller 
 cylinder which is the engraved copper printing-roller. 
 This copper roller in revolving touches (Hi) another roller 
 which supplies it with color. To keep the copper roller 
 free from the lint of the material and to regulate the amount 
 of color on it there are (iv) two knives which are so set as to 
 operate against its surface and keep it clean. 
 
 In roller-printing a different cylinder is required for each 
 color. These different copper cylinders, to the required 
 number, are placed around the central cylinder and print 
 one after the other. Various methods are employed in en- 
 graving the copper rollers and there are also many different 
 finishing processes for setting and bringing up the color. 
 
 2. Design without Color. — The design without color, 
 made by pressing rollers, gives many different results which 
 are determined by the surface finish of the rollers. 
 
 (i) Design on Plain Weave. — A material with the smooth 
 surface which a plain weave gives may have a design made 
 by using embossed rollers. In this method the background, 
 which is pressed flat, is often treated with a finishing gum 
 or paste which further accentuates the difference between 
 the flattened background and the raised pattern. Such 
 fabrics belong to no special class and are generally termed 
 novelties. Many of the cotton ratines are finished in this 
 way. Various crepe effects are given to fabrics having a 
 plain weave by the use of special rollers. The crinkled sur- 
 face of albatross is made in this way. 
 
 (2) Design on Pile Weave. — Many pile fabrics have de- 
 signs made in much the same way. They may be made 
 with uncut-pile background and cut-pile design or vice 
 
Textile Economics 141 
 
 versa. The method is the same for both. The design is 
 made on the uncut-pile material by using engraving or em- 
 bossing rollers as in the plain weave. When the design is 
 made, if the background is to remain uncut it is pressed flat 
 and treated with a paste to keep it flat during the next 
 process, which is that of shearing or cutting the pile left 
 standing. The material is then washed, a process which 
 removes the paste and releases the background pile. The 
 result is a light background of uncut-pile with a design in 
 a darker shade which is given by the cut-pile. The op- 
 posite effect is secured by pressing the design and cutting 
 the background. 
 
 (3) Moireing. — Another method of securing design with- 
 out color is the moireing process. The surface of the ma- 
 terial used is generally slightly corded. This cording is 
 made by having the threads which form the filling heavier 
 than those of the warp. The material is folded face to face 
 along its lengthwise centre and a paper inserted; it is so 
 pressed and dampened that some of the cords are flattened 
 and its surface given the watered effect which is seen in 
 many materials, such as percaline, moreen, moire antique, 
 moire velour, etc. 
 
 III. Tests for Fabrlcs . 
 
 Before beginning any tests on fabrics it is necessary to 
 know the various processes required in their manufacture 
 and, with this information as a basis, to establish familiarity 
 with the raw fibres and with the ordinary designs, by care- 
 ful and constant observation and comparison of fibres and 
 materials. In the materials many weaves are concealed 
 by the finishes, and the fibres are combined with various 
 substitutes, adulterated by weighting, and covered with 
 sizing, thus greatly increasing the problem of identifica- 
 tion. 
 
 As has been said, in the beginning it is much wiser to ap- 
 ply all tests to good fabrics — those which are sold as good 
 by reliable firms at fair prices. If the first testing is done 
 on cheap materials it is a discouraging task, as there are 
 
142 Dressmaking 
 
 usually more difficulties to be met in the way of poor fibres, 
 substitutes, sizing, and weighting. A knowledge of good 
 materials — of all that the term good implies— should when 
 possible be made the basis of all textile testing. 
 
 Some of the same tests may be applied to fabrics as to 
 fibres, and while any one test may not give absolute results 
 by itself, in combination with others it will help to deter- 
 mine, in a general way, the character of the material. Many 
 tests require the unravelling of the threads of the material 
 until the fibres are so separated that they can be examined. 
 These tests may be left until various others have been used 
 for such factors as the strength, finish, and color of the 
 material itself. 
 
 i. General Comparison of Fabrics. — A comparison of the 
 four general classes of fabrics — cotton, wool, silk, and linen 
 — may be made, but is valuable only to a limited extent, as 
 each class includes so great a variety of fabrics which differ 
 widely in appearance, feel, strength, etc. 
 
 (i) Appearance. — Because of the perfection of the art of 
 finishing, the general appearance of many fabrics counts for 
 comparatively little, except to the expert, in indicating the 
 structure of the fabric and the exact quality and combina- 
 tions of fibres used. 
 
 (2) Feel. — Many fabrics, however, frequently have some- 
 what the same feel as the fibres of which they are made. 
 
 (a) Cotton material: unresponsive, soft, inelastic. (It 
 may be made to look and feel somewhat like wool, but it 
 still retains these characteristics.) 
 
 (b) Wool material: springy, harsh, elastic. (When com- 
 bined with much cotton or with much shoddy it is less 
 elastic and springy.) 
 
 (c) Silk material: smooth, elastic, cool. (When weighted 
 or adulterated it has less elasticity.) 
 
 (d) Linen material: firm, stiff, smooth, cold, inelastic. 
 (When adulterated it loses somewhat its firmness and 
 smoothness.) 
 
 (3) Strength. — No comparison of the strength of the dif- 
 ferent classes of materials can be made based on the strength 
 of the respective fibres. Two materials made of the same 
 
Textile Economics 143 
 
 fibre differ absolutely in strength, as the strength depends 
 on the size and quality of the yarn and the kind and qual- 
 ity of the weave. For instance, wool fibre, which is weak 
 in tensile strength, makes generally a strong material. 
 
 (4) Burning. — Burning a small section of cloth gives 
 practically the same results for materials as for fibres, with 
 the exception that the quickness with which any fibre 
 burns may be somewhat affected by the firm twisting of the 
 yarn and the closeness of the weave. 
 
 (5) Tearing. — The tearing of material sometimes helps 
 in a general way in determining the kind of fibre as well as 
 the strength of the material itself. 
 
 (a) Cotton tears easily, with a shrill sound, and the ends 
 of the fibres along the tear curl up and are fuzzy. 
 
 (b) In a wool fabric the weight of the thread and the 
 firmness of the weave have much to do with the way in 
 which it tears. Ordinarily, however, it tears with diffi- 
 culty and the sound is dull and muffled. If much cotton is 
 present it facilitates the tearing, and the ends of the cotton 
 fibres are unlike those of the wool. 
 
 (c) Silk, unless it has a special design, such as very heavy 
 filling or cording, tears easily, with a sharp, shrill sound. 
 
 (d) Linen is difficult to tear; the ends of the fibres are 
 straight and smooth. If cotton and linen fibres are used in 
 one fabric the tearing test may indicate such a combina- 
 tion because of the difference in the torn ends. It proves 
 little or nothing, however, as to the proportion. 
 
 2. Testing for Strength and Color in Fabrics. — The tests 
 used for determining strength and color are practically the 
 same for all fabrics. 
 
 (1) Tests for Strength. — The strength of a fabric has much 
 to do with its wearing, but it can have no fixed standard. 
 Each material should be strong enough for its intended 
 use. If the warp and filling threads are not well balanced, 
 if one is much finer than the other, the fabric breaks or 
 tears along the line of the heavy threads. Dimity, with its 
 heavy lengthwise cords, is the most obvious illustration 
 of this. With wear and laundering the filling threads break 
 along the cord. No matter what design is chosen the 
 
144 Dressmaking 
 
 weaving should be well done; that is, there should be 
 enough threads and they should be closely enough packed 
 to give firmness and body to the cloth. 
 
 To judge the strength of a fabric it should be held firmly 
 in both hands, with the fingers underneath and the thumbs 
 on top, and pulled straight out, first warpwise, then filling- 
 wise. The weaker threads, whether warp or filling, will 
 break easily and quickly unless there are so many of them 
 used that they acquire sufficient strength to balance the 
 other stronger threads. Later, when the material is un- 
 ravelled, the respective strength of warp and filling may be 
 tested more accurately by breaking and by comparison for 
 size, firmness, twist, etc. 
 
 Many materials which seem strong as far as quality and 
 size of yarn are concerned are woven in a design which al- 
 lows the threads to slip out of place easily where there is 
 the slightest strain, especially in the seams. This fault in 
 the material may be detected by attempting to push the 
 threads apart with the finger-nail. Many fancy weaves, 
 like the basket, do not usually stand this test. 
 
 (2) Tests for Color. — There are several ways of testing 
 for fastness of color, because color is affected by various 
 factors — chiefly by washing, boiling, and the use of strong 
 soap, by pressing with too hot irons, by wearing, by ex- 
 posure to sun and air, and by friction. 
 
 It is, in general, the cottons and linens which must be 
 tested for laundering. This can be done only by obtaining a 
 sample and subjecting it to the ordinary rubbing and soap- 
 ing which must be used in cleansing such materials. It is 
 well to keep part of the sample for comparison to know the 
 exact loss of color. Some colors which a few years ago 
 faded almost immediately are now, if special dyes are used, 
 absolutely fast. 
 
 Many materials, particularly those worn next the skin, 
 must have sufficiently fast color to withstand friction. 
 This can sometimes be fairly well determined by rubbing 
 the fabric with another which is white. 
 
 For sunlight tests it is best to expose a sample for a num- 
 ber of days, having half of it carefully covered with some- 
 
Textile Economics 145 
 
 thing which will exclude the light. By this method easy 
 and accurate comparison may be made. 
 
 3. Testing for Fibres and Finish in Fabrics. — The tests 
 used for determining fibres and finish differ for the differ- 
 ent fabrics. 
 
 (1) Cotton Fabrics. — In cotton fabrics it is not necessary 
 to consider substitutes; they are not used, because the cot- 
 ton fibre is cheaper than any other fibre which could take 
 its place. The length and quality of the fibre in the ma- 
 terial may vary greatly, however, the weaving may be 
 loose, and much sizing may be used. These are facts 
 which must be considered in determining the soundness and 
 wearing quality of the material. 
 
 (a) Fibres. — Good cotton fibres are blunt at the end 
 which was attached to the seed, while the other end tapers, 
 and the centre is a little larger than either end. The entire 
 fibre shows a strong uniform twist. The dead or unripe 
 fibres have practically no twist; they do not dye or spin 
 satisfactorily, but usually they are not present in great 
 numbers. In untwisting the cotton yarns to identify the 
 fibres, the general appearance of the yarn itself should 
 be observed as to uniformity of size, evenness of twist, 
 smoothness, etc. Care should be taken not to break the 
 separate fibres. Only an experienced worker with the help 
 of a good microscope can secure satisfactory results in 
 identifying the fibres. This work is, in consequence, not 
 possible for general use. 
 
 Any experience which is gained in examining the differ- 
 ent qualities of cotton fibres in cotton fabrics assists ma- 
 terially, however, in detecting cotton in various wool and 
 linen fabrics where there are distinct differences in the dif- 
 ferent kinds of fibres. 
 
 (b) Finish. — The plain weave is more frequently used in 
 cotton materials than any other. The twill weave is also 
 found, especially in such fabrics as canton flannel and out- 
 ing flannel, which are made to look and feel somewhat like 
 wool fabrics by having a nap raised on one surface or on 
 both. 
 
 The twill weave gives firmness and bulk to material, but 
 
146 Dressmaking 
 
 the plain weave, while strong, is not particularly close. If 
 the weaving is not well done, openings or spaces can be seen 
 between the different threads. 
 
 Many cotton fabrics have both poor quality of fibre and 
 loose weave concealed with a sizing which is put on while 
 the material is being finished. This sizing, which is some- 
 what like starch, fills in all the spaces between the warp and 
 the rilling threads, giving weight to the material and pro- 
 viding a surface for the desired finishing processes, such as 
 pressing and polishing. There are various ways to detect 
 this sizing. Rubbing between the hands or, if there is a 
 great deal of sizing, tearing the material or flecking its sur- 
 face sharply with the finger-nail will cause a fine dust or 
 powder to rise. Soaking in warm water will usually dis- 
 solve at least a part of the sizing and leave the material 
 sleazy. By moistening the fabric with the tongue a sticky, 
 starchy taste may frequently be detected. These tests are 
 not possible if it is a fabric from which a sample cannot be 
 taken, but something may be learned from its appearance 
 and feel. If it is loosely woven and much sizing is present, 
 the sizing will probably show between the threads when 
 the material is held to a strong light. It will also give the 
 material a feeling of harshness which cotton does not other- 
 wise have. 
 
 The wearing quality of many surface designs, especially 
 those in which either the design or the background is pressed 
 flat and held there by starchy preparations, can easily be 
 determined by rubbing the fabric between the hands. In 
 many cases a little rubbing destroys the design entirely by 
 removing the paste or starch. 
 
 (2) Wool Fabrics. — The problem of identification for so- 
 called wool material is a difficult one. It is possible to use 
 a greater variety of substitutes for good wool and conceal 
 them more successfully than in the case of any other fibre. 
 Wool cannot be adulterated in worsteds, but in some cases 
 cotton may be combined. This is not generally done in 
 suitings, however. In woolens there is a great variety of 
 substitutes possible, as cotton, shoddy, and wool wastes 
 may all be used. A variety of weaves may be employed 
 
Textile Economics 147 
 
 for both. The twill weave is frequently used because it is 
 attractive and gives the necessary background or founda- 
 tion for any desired surface finish. 
 
 (a) Good Fibres and Substitutes. — Good wool fibres show 
 a series of scales on their surface the number and size of 
 which depend on the variety of wool. These scales give a 
 sawlike edge to the fibre which is also kinky and wavy. 
 This waviness must be distinguished from the twist of the 
 cotton fibre. In untwisting yarns to determine the fibres 
 present the general appearance of the yarn should be ob- 
 served, as in the cotton, as to uniformity of size, evenness 
 of twist, smoothness, etc. 
 
 The substitute fibres may be divided into two classes: 
 
 (i) Vegetable, which includes cotton, ramie, and jute. 
 Of these cotton is most frequently used, not only because 
 of its cheapness but because of the ease with which it may 
 be made in its manufacture to resemble wool. 
 
 (ii) Animal, which includes waste wool and the remanu- 
 factured, reclaimed, regenerated, or recovered fibres from 
 materials like shoddy. This class is the more important of 
 the two. 
 
 Waste wool comes from both the worsted and woolen 
 industries and includes the fibres which are so mixed with 
 burrs that they cannot be freed by the burr-guards or burr- 
 pickers. 
 
 The remanufactured wools, as all the terms imply, have 
 already been manufactured and many of them have been 
 worn. In passing through the various processes of the 
 first manufacture and in the tearing up preparatory to 
 remanufacture the physical structure of the wool fibre has 
 been somewhat changed and damaged. In general, all the 
 remanufactured wools are included in the term "shoddy," 
 but by some authorities they are divided into distinct 
 classes, such as shoddy, mungo, and wool extract, varying 
 in quality and in the use to which they may be put. 
 
 In testing for different fibres all the vegetable fibres in a 
 wool fabric are easy to detect because they respond to the 
 burning test as when in the raw state. For instance, in 
 burning a material which has cotton in one direction and 
 
148 Dressmaking 
 
 wool in the other the cotton disappears, leaving only ashes; 
 the wool is but slightly burned; the odor is unmistakable, 
 and each wool fibre shows the usual gummy residue on its 
 burned end. If cotton and wool threads exist in both warp 
 and filling or if the fibres are combined in the yarn it- 
 self, it is necessary not only to unravel the material to test 
 the yarns separately but to untwist the yarns for the indi- 
 vidual fibres. 
 
 It is, however, very difficult — in fact, for the majority 
 impossible — to identify the different qualities and kinds of 
 animal fibres which may be used in one wool fabric. They 
 all respond in the same way to the burning test or to chem- 
 icals, and even under a compound microscope the very 
 expert cannot always detect them. Occasionally the pres- 
 ence of shoddy may with care and patience be discovered. 
 It is frequently confused with noils, however. The wool 
 fibres in shoddy may be of many colors, and both dyed and 
 undyed fibres may be found. There may also be no uni- 
 formity in the size, length, or general condition of the fibres. 
 
 (b) Finish. — When wool fabrics reach the finishing proc- 
 ess extra materials, such as noils, flocks, and waste wool, are 
 often added to conceal defects or to give the desired weight 
 or surface which has not been supplied in the making of the 
 yarn or in the weaving. Noils come from the combing. 
 Flocks come from the various finishing operations, such as 
 clipping the nap of woolen fabrics. The waste wool is 
 swept up in the mill and is frequently of more value than 
 flocks. All these may be of fairly good quality or of very 
 poor, depending on the amount of good wool or shoddy used 
 in the various materials from which they come. They are 
 usually added while the material is being fulled or felted. 
 If they are of good quality and carefully applied, so that 
 they do not wear off or drop out, the material is not injured. 
 If they are poor, carelessly added, and rub off with a little 
 friction, the weave itself is soon exposed and, on account 
 of its lack of substance, cannot stand wear. 
 
 It is generally difficult to detect these added fibres ex- 
 cept when the fabric is unravelled and its substance ex- 
 amined with the microscope. There are some exceptions, 
 
Textile Economics 149 
 
 however. If a large enough sample can be secured its sur- 
 face can be tested by hard brushing with a stiff brush. 
 Some fuzz always comes off, but if in large quantity 
 the material should be avoided. Occasionally inexpensive 
 materials, such as chinchilla and imitation zibelines, are 
 found from which the entire fancy surface can practically 
 be removed by pulling and rubbing. 
 
 Too high a polish on an inexpensive quality of material 
 should be avoided. This is particularly true of broadcloth. 
 Because of the number of processes necessary in its making 
 and finishing, to be well made and of good-quality fibre it 
 must be expensive. A cheap broadcloth with a high polish 
 soon loses its lustre and wears unsatisfactorily. Good wool 
 responds to pressing and steaming and takes a beautiful 
 lustrous finish which is lasting. Cheap wool, which must 
 of necessity be present in cheap fabrics, may be given a 
 temporary lustre, but wearing soon removes it. Tests for 
 water-spotting should be applied to all wool fabrics. It 
 is not wise to make up even expensive wool materials until 
 they have been sponged. 
 
 (3) Silk Fabrics. — In silk fabrics it is necessary to con- 
 sider the use of both substitutes and weighting. Raw silk 
 fibre is sometimes combined with wild silk; with waste silk, 
 which is a shorter fibre; with cotton, mercerized and un- 
 mercerized; and with artificial silk, which has the same 
 basis as cotton. It is also frequently filled or weighted 
 with salts of tin or iron. 
 
 Many kinds of weaves are found in silk fabrics; those most 
 used are the plain, the satin, and the rib, or the plain with 
 a rib or corded effect made by the use of a heavy filling. Of 
 the three named, the last usually proves least satisfactory 
 for wear. Such silk as the bengalines and poplins are of 
 this kind and are frequently woven with heavy cotton 
 fillings. The cords which the filling forms frequently have 
 their silk coverings, the warp-threads, worn off by slight 
 friction or rubbing, and the beauty of the material is en- 
 tirely gone. 
 
 If materials made in this way become soiled or faded 
 they cannot be redyed, as the silk and cotton yarns do not 
 
150 Dressmaking 
 
 dye alike. The silk, unless of very good quality, is apt to 
 mat and separate in the dyeing and thus leave the cotton 
 filling exposed. The result is extremely unsatisfactory. 
 
 (a) Good Fibres and Substitutes. — Good reeled silk fibre is 
 long, strong, elastic, and lustrous. It differs in appearance 
 from its substitutes. In untwisting yarns to determine the 
 fibres present the general appearance of the yarn should 
 be observed. 
 
 The substitute fibres may be divided into two classes: 
 
 (i) Animal, which includes wild silk and spun or waste 
 silk. The wild silk fibres are generally coarse, broad, 
 thick, and flat; they have lengthwise markings. The spun 
 or waste silk differs from the raw silk principally in being 
 much shorter. This shortness of fibre may make a fuzzy 
 thread or yarn, which will affect the surface of the fabric, 
 just as cotton fabrics, because of the shortness of the fibre, 
 have a tendency toward fuzziness. This fuzziness may be 
 avoided by careful manufacture or it may be concealed by 
 a surface finish which is more or less temporary. 
 
 (ii) Vegetable, or cellulose, fibres, which include all cotton 
 fibres and the artificial silk. Cotton fibres are short and 
 without lustre; even when mercerized the lustre does not 
 equal that of silk. They also lack elasticity and strength. 
 Artificial silk has almost too much lustre. It has not 
 the strength and elasticity of silk, is apt not to dye well — 
 that is, evenly — and at present it does not stand constant 
 moisture well. Its specific gravity is great, and all arti- 
 ficial-silk fabrics are heavy, as the yarns do not cover well 
 and in consequence a large quantity must be used. 
 
 Any silk material in which a quantity of cotton or ar- 
 tificial-silk fibre has been introduced lacks the elasticity 
 and spring of the all-silk fabric. As a result it wrinkles 
 much more when used. 
 
 (b) Weighting. — Silk fibre is often weighted with salts of 
 tin or iron, the adulteration chosen depending somewhat 
 upon the color of the material. Weighting, if done to excess, 
 seriously affects the wearing quality of the silk and makes 
 it much more unsatisfactory than are the various substi- 
 tutes. The metallic weightings used are variously affected; 
 
Textile Economics 151 
 
 for instance, some crystallize when exposed to air and 
 light and act as ground glass would; they cut the silk 
 fibres and absolutely destroy the strength of the silk. 
 Bargains in silks should be avoided, as after they have re- 
 mained on shop-counters for any length of time they are 
 apt to disintegrate rapidly when subjected to any use. 
 
 In testing for the different fibres the waste or spun silk 
 is the most difficult to identify as it is in general structure 
 like the reeled silk. It is, however, shorter and the yarn 
 made from it is frequently much fuzzier. When cotton and 
 artificial-silk fibres are combined with raw silk they are 
 easy to detect because the response to the burning test is 
 the same as with combinations of cotton and wool; that 
 is, there is present the combination of animal and vegetable 
 fibres. Artificial silk, like cotton, is cellulose and burns in 
 the same way with the same results. 
 
 When weighted to any extent silk fibre, which ordinarily 
 burns quickly and with a darting flame, burns much more 
 slowly and the framework of weighting remains. 
 
 (3) Finish. — Various kinds of dressing, such as glues, 
 starches, and waxes, are used in silk finishing to produce 
 various results. They are exceedingly difficult to detect. 
 They may make the silk stiff, soft, lustrous, waterproof, or 
 fireproof; but they may also give poor quality of fibre the 
 appearance of good. Dressings are not in general nearly as 
 injurious as are weightings. While they frequently make a 
 fabric appear what it is not they do not destroy any silk 
 fibre that has been used. 
 
 If appearance and feel of silk are to be relied on in pur- 
 chasing, in general it is wise to avoid stiff silks. The soft- 
 finished, such as crepe meteor and charmeuse of good quality, 
 wear exceedingly well. In darker colors the satin surfaces 
 sometimes take on an unattractive, rather greasy, polish 
 after they have been worn some time. Good crepe de 
 chine, which has a closer-twisted thread than the others and 
 is fairly evenly balanced in warp and filling, wears well and 
 usually washes satisfactorily. As has been said, silks with 
 heavy fillingwise cords generally do not wear well, as the 
 floating threads on the surface of the cords wear off. Bed- 
 
152 Dressmaking 
 
 ford cord is, however, an exception; its cords are length- 
 wise and are made with a woven surface rather than with 
 floating threads. It gives excellent service. 
 
 (4) Linen Fabrics. — In linen materials the use of sub- 
 stitutes must be considered. As linen is an expensive fibre, 
 imitations are frequently attempted. Linen fibre is often 
 combined with tow, with cotton, and with ramie. 
 
 A variety of weaves may be found in linen fabrics. 
 Those most frequently used are the plain and damask, or 
 figured. As in cotton, the weaving may be loosely done 
 and much sizing used. 
 
 (a) Good Fibres and Substitutes. — Good linen fibres are 
 long, strong, and have a slightly transparent lustrous ap- 
 pearance. In untwisting the yarn the general appearance 
 should be observed. All the fibres which are used as sub- 
 stitutes are vegetable, as is the linen, and in consequence 
 they are rather more difficult to distinguish. 
 
 Tow, the short linen fibre, is frequently used with the 
 long or line fibre. It generally makes a somewhat rougher 
 thread and consequently a less even and less desirable 
 fabric. 
 
 Of all the substitutes, cotton is more frequently used than 
 any other because of its cheapness and the fact that it can 
 by manufacture be made to resemble linen temporarily. It 
 lacks the lustre, strength, and length of linen. 
 
 Ramie is a long bast fibre like linen. It has strength, an 
 even higher lustre than linen, and is exceptionally white in 
 color. It is difficult to manufacture and cannot withstand 
 the test of wear as the linen does. It cracks and easily 
 becomes fuzzy. It is not easy to identify when used with 
 linen. 
 
 The burning test is useless in identifying any of these 
 fibres, as, being vegetable, they all respond in practically 
 the same way. A linen fabric usually burns more slowly 
 than a cotton fabric, because its fibres, being longer and 
 smoother than the cotton, give a smoother surface which 
 is more resistant to the flame. 
 
 When linen yarn is tested for the presence of cotton, 
 the linen fibres in comparison with the lustreless white of 
 
Textile Economics 153 
 
 the cotton show a slight transparent yellowness. If ma- 
 terial is torn or threads are broken the torn ends of the 
 two fibres are dissimilar; the linen-fibre ends are straighter 
 and smoother than the cotton, the ends of which are fuzzy 
 and have a tendency to curl. Much of the cotton fibre 
 used with linen is mercerized and is thus given additional 
 lustre and strength. 
 
 A test which is frequently used to distinguish pure linen 
 from a cotton or a cotton-and-linen mixture is the dropping 
 of water on the fabric. If it is pure linen the water spreads 
 quickly and rather unevenly along warp and filling and 
 dries quickly. For a similar test ink and glycerine also are 
 sometimes used instead of water. The use of the latter 
 gives a particularly good result as the linen shows a trans- 
 parency which is not seen in the cotton. 
 
 (b) Finish.— Linen fabrics may be treated in finishing 
 much as are cotton, with the difference that the sizing is 
 used in many cases to conceal not only a loose weave but 
 the presence of substitutes as well. The amount of sizing in 
 a linen fabric may be tested, as in cotton, by rubbing, fleck- 
 ing with the finger-nail and soaking in water. Both cot- 
 ton and tow give a fuzzy surface if used in linen materials. 
 This fuzz may be temporarily concealed by sizing. In the 
 wearing, however, it reappears and destroys the beauty 
 of the fabric. The presence of cotton fibres affects the 
 strength of a material as well as its beauty, as the cotton 
 fibre has much less strength than the linen. 
 
 Probably there is more difficulty experienced in the pur- 
 chase of damask than in that of any other linen material. 
 Good linen, because of the natural lustre of the fibre, is 
 easily given a lustrous surface in finishing. The weave 
 used for damask adds to this gloss, and but little sizing, if 
 any, is required. As has been said, cheaper qualities of 
 linen and combinations of linen and cotton may be given 
 much the same appearance temporarily by the use of sizing 
 and much polishing. The sized linen, however, has not the 
 feel of good linen; it is harsh, while the good is strong and 
 leathery though soft and flexible. The expert depends as 
 much upon the feel as upon the appearance of a fabric in 
 
154 Dressmaking 
 
 selecting linen. For the ordinary purchaser much experi- 
 ence in comparing qualities and prices is necessary. 
 
 All the tests suggested here are exceedingly simple and 
 require no apparatus. Even these are impossible, however, 
 if samples cannot be secured of a size to give sufficient 
 length to both warp and filling yarns when unravelled. 
 
 When these tests are not effectual, as in identifying dif- 
 ferent qualities of wool in a fabric, the purchaser must give 
 the most careful consideration to a comparison of the ap- 
 pearance and feel of fabrics of varying qualities and prices, 
 in order to establish a basis for judgment and a relation be- 
 tween quality and price. 
 
PART III— DRESSMAKING 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 In making a costume there are many factors to be con- 
 sidered each one of which plays its relative part in making 
 the completed garment a success. Some of these — they 
 might be called preliminary — such as the selection of ma- 
 terial for color and wearing quality and the choice of design 
 from an aesthetic and economic standpoint, are discussed 
 in other parts of this volume. They are referred to here 
 only as showing their relative position in the whole prob- 
 lem. The matters discussed in detail in this chapter are 
 the various factors which determine good technique, such as 
 accuracy and sequence, the use of good tools, the prepara- 
 tion of material, a few general rules for cutting, marking, 
 fitting, and the taking of accurate measures. 
 
 I. Choice of Material and Design 
 
 When a dress is to be made there are two initial steps 
 to be taken : choosing the material and choosing the design. 
 The material may be purchased first and a suitable design 
 made, or the design may be selected and the material suited 
 to it. To result in a satisfactory combination the two 
 must be chosen with reference to each other and not as 
 individual units. If the fabric is chosen first, the immediate 
 consideration should be suitability to purpose, and at once 
 the interdependence of all parts of the problem is evident. 
 For on this question of the use of the costume depends also 
 the choice of design, of color, and often of the wearing 
 quality of one textile against the beauty of another. 
 
 In the fashion world it is the textile which determines the 
 
 155 
 
156 Dressmaking 
 
 design. The manufacturer produces new fabrics, and de- 
 signs which seem best suited to these are worked out by 
 the dressmakers. Many hours are spent by the dress- 
 designers in the perusal of past fashions for suggestions and 
 in modelling and draping in the materials themselves on 
 living models. For this reason, as new fabrics appear on 
 the shop-counters fashions simultaneously appear to which 
 they seem well suited. Aside from these fabrics, some of 
 which may be called novelties, there are also the many 
 standard materials always on sale which change little from 
 year to year. These are not definitely related to the pass- 
 ing fashions and easily lend themselves to a variety of de- 
 signs. 
 
 II. Technique 
 
 When the preliminary choice of material and design has 
 been made, the actual execution of the technical part of the 
 problem may be approached. Good technique has certain 
 essentials which cannot be overemphasized, such as accu- 
 racy, system or sequence, simplicity of construction, and 
 the use of good tools. A knowledge of "dressmaking-sew- 
 ing" might be included in the list; this differs from the 
 others, however, in that it requires skill and is the result 
 of experience; while, on the other hand, accuracy and sys- 
 tem are necessary in acquiring proper skill and experience. 
 It is too often thought that a careful or good sewer must 
 be also a good dressmaker. The terms are by no means 
 synonymous. A knowledge of dressmaking-sewing appears 
 to consist chiefly in appreciating where to "slight" and 
 where to sew carefully; in regular sewing there is no slight- 
 ing; there is a fixed standard of excellence. 
 
 Accuracy in following directions, in cutting, in fitting, in 
 finishing — in fact, accuracy in all details, no matter how 
 trifling — is indispensable. 
 
 The temptation is great to attempt saving time and labor 
 by short cuts, by omitting certain steps which at the time 
 seem scarcely necessary. Only a careful observance of 
 sequence — of the required order — however, really saves 
 time and labor and gives a satisfactory result. 
 
General Suggestions and Instructions 157 
 
 Simplicity of construction is necessary for the comfort 
 of the wearer. In making a design the openings for a gar- 
 ment are often not indicated. It is then the task of the 
 dressmaker to work out a scheme of construction which will 
 place all openings and fastenings so that they do not detract 
 from the symmetry and charm of the design and at the 
 same time are convenient and easy for the wearer to man- 
 age. Simplicity in design — good taste shown in simple 
 decoration — is discussed elsewhere in this volume {Design- 
 ing, Part III): 
 
 III. Tools 
 
 Good tools are absolutely necessary for good work. 
 By tools are meant such things as sewing-boxes, sewing- 
 machines, thimbles, scissors, pins, needles, emeries, tape- 
 measures, pincushions, tracing- wheels, tailor's chalk, white 
 and colored cottons, sewing-silk, and a skirt-rule or square, 
 or both. 
 
 It will save time and thought if, while sewing, all the tools 
 which are used frequently are conveniently placed on the 
 table near the worker and always kept in the same relative 
 position. 
 
 i. Sewing-Boxes. — A rather shallow sewing-box is very 
 useful; all the smaller tools may be kept in it in fairly good 
 order. A convenient size is 9" long, 6" wide, 2}4" high. 
 At present, in red cloth, these cost from $9 to $12 per 
 hundred. 
 
 2. Sewing-Machines. — While the elaborate dresses in- 
 tended for afternoon and evening wear require little machine 
 stitching except for the linings^ there is a .larger class of 
 garments of all materials which is dependent for finish, and 
 often for decoration, upon good machine work. Many of 
 these, even though well cut, well fitted, and in good taste, 
 are not successful because of poor stitching. This may be 
 the fault of the worker or of the machine used. Of the two 
 general kinds of machines manufactured — the automatic, 
 or single-thread, and the double, or two-thread — only one 
 kind is suitable for dressmaking; that is, the two-thread 
 machine. As far as possible it is wise to buy machines of 
 
158 Dressmaking 
 
 standard make which have a recognized quality tested by 
 years of constant use. This is particularly true of machines 
 for school use, which are obviously subjected to rather 
 severe treatment. There are a few well-known machines, 
 used the world over, which are simple in construction, can 
 readily be understood and managed, and are not easily put 
 out of order. They have an established standard of quality 
 to maintain and are found much more satisfactory than 
 the machine of unknown or only locally known make. 
 While the initial price of the latter machine may be small 
 it frequently proves expensive in the end. To make its 
 cost correspondingly small it must necessarily be made of 
 materials which are not of the best quality and do not 
 stand wear. 
 
 3. Thimbles. — Celluloid is a good material and not ex- 
 pensive. Many inexpensive thimbles and also many of 
 those which have had much wear are rough. They should 
 be discarded because they will catch and pull the threads of 
 the material and often ruin its appearance. 
 
 4. Scissors. — It is convenient to have both scissors and 
 shears but not absolutely necessary. If only scissors are 
 used, however, they should have fairly long blades in order 
 to cut an even, straight edge. The blades should be kept 
 sharp and without any catches in their edges. If the blade 
 has one small place which will not cut, the threads of the 
 material will be pulled each way several inches and much 
 damage will be done. 
 
 5. Pins. — Fine pins, about one inch in length, with sharp 
 points, are best for general use. If the pins are large they 
 make holes in the material; if too short they are difficult to 
 manage. Steel dressmaking pins are excellent, but they 
 must not be left in the work, as they rust easily and quickly. 
 
 6. Needles. — Two kinds of needles, one for sewing and 
 one for basting, are a convenience. The size for sewing 
 depends, of course, on the material, but for ordinary use 
 the papers of sevens to nines are best. For basting, mil- 
 liner's needles, sevens to nines, are satisfactory. 
 
 7. Emery. —Needles require frequent smoothing, which 
 necessitates an emery in every sewing equipment. 
 
General Suggestions and Instructions 159 
 
 8. Tape-Measures. — Since tape-measures vary greatly 
 in quality and occasionally in length of inch, they should 
 be selected with care. Double measures, numbered on 
 each side, are a necessity. The numbers should begin at 
 opposite ends on the two sides; then either end may be 
 used. The brass clips at the ends are not desirable even 
 in good measures; they soon drop off, the unprotected 
 ends fray, and the first inch is shortened. If there is no 
 brass clip the end is made strong enough to stand wear. 
 
 9. Pincushions. — Pincushions are made in various styles. 
 Small ones with a tape for attaching to the belt or waist 
 are good. They should be filled with curled hair and cov- 
 ered with material through which the pins slip easily. Wool 
 material, like broadcloth or serge, is excellent. A conve- 
 nient pincushion is one made in the shape of a crescent, 
 with its points connected by a band long enough to allow 
 the cushion to slip over the hand. When this cushion is 
 worn on the back of the left hand it is always within easy 
 reach. It is especially useful in fitting. If cushions are 
 not used the worker quickly acquires the very bad habit of 
 holding pins in the mouth. 
 
 10. Tracing- Wheels.— Tracing- wheels must be selected 
 with great care. Even the best cannot be used with all 
 materials; poor ones should always be discarded and no 
 attempt made to use them even by experienced workers. 
 A tracing-wheel is intended merely to mark the surface of 
 the material; yet in many cases, because it is poor or be- 
 cause too much pressure is used, it cuts the threads enough 
 to weaken the material so that when worn it soon breaks 
 or tears. 
 
 11. Tailor's Chalk. — Tailor's chalk is used in making cor- 
 rections after fittings and particularly in indicating the line 
 of turning for skirt hems. In many instances it takes the 
 place of the tracing-wheel, where the wheel is not safe or 
 will not show. 
 
 12. Basting-Cotton. Regular cotton, white, the size de- 
 pending on the weight of the material, is best for basting. 
 Basting-cotton, as it is at present made, should not be used; 
 it is generally coarse and uneven and leaves a mark when 
 
160 Dressmaking 
 
 pulled out, even if care is taken in cutting the stitches and 
 removing short lengths at a time. Alterations after fitting 
 are marked with colored cotton to distinguish them from 
 the original basting-lines. Red should not be used, as it 
 does not hold its color and light materials are marked by it. 
 Light blue, yellow, and tan are generally safe. 
 
 Many materials, such as soft silks and velvets, should be 
 basted with fine sewing-silk and greater care than usual 
 taken when the bastings are removed. Taffeta silks, even 
 a good quality, frequently present as difficult a problem as 
 these others, because not only do they show marks of bast- 
 ing but all pinholes as well. Fine needles for pinning and 
 fine needles and sewing-silk or No. 120 cotton for basting 
 give the best results. 
 
 13. Skirt-Rules and Squares. — In drafting, a square is 
 indispensable, as it is difficult to strike a true angle with a 
 skirt-rule. All squares are not true, however, and should 
 be tested. If true at first they easily get out of order unless 
 stayed at the corner with a metal brace. This should be 
 remembered when purchasing. 
 
 Skirt-rules sixty inches in length are often a great con- 
 venience but are not a necessity. They are more expensive 
 and not always so easy to get as the regular yard-sticks. 
 
 IV. Preparation of Materials 
 
 Most materials need some preparation before being made 
 into wearing-apparel. In general, all wash materials, cot- 
 tons and linens, need shrinking; all wool materials need 
 sponging. 
 
 1 . Shrinking. — Shrinking includes soaking in water, dry- 
 ing, and usually pressing. With few exceptions all cot- 
 ton and linen materials should be subjected to this process 
 to remove the sizing which is usually added in the finish- 
 ing. Practically no linen or cotton materials are sold 
 which have not had some sizing applied; it may be very 
 little, merely to aid in finishing, or it may be a large quan- 
 tity to conceal a loose weave and poor fibres. In shrink- 
 ing, the water softens or dissolves the sizing. The threads 
 
General Suggestions and Instructions 161 
 
 of the material, freed from the stiffening which was applied 
 while they were under tension, close up, particularly the 
 rilling threads, and the material shrinks. The shrinkage is 
 usually much greater in length than in width. 
 
 The shrinking of a material requires a little time and 
 care but is very simple. If the material is placed in the 
 water, folded together in yard lengths as when purchased, 
 it is much easier to manage and wrinkles less. The water 
 should be lukewarm at first; warmer water should be added 
 later and then be allowed to cool. If the material is not 
 wrung in any way, but hung, still in its folds, it will 
 dry without wrinkling and require little or no pressing. 
 The drying may be done in the open air or in a warm 
 room. The more care taken in hanging the material 
 evenly the better condition it will be in and the less press- 
 ing it will require. If there are wrinkles, however, they 
 should be pressed out. In doing this the iron should al- 
 ways follow the threads of the material straight across or 
 up and down with the selvage. If, in pressing or hanging, 
 the material has been stretched out of shape, it is almost 
 impossible to place a pattern on it and have the straight 
 or grain of the material run as it should. This straight of 
 material is most important in dressmaking, for if the 
 threads do not run correctly the garment will not fit prop- 
 erly and cannot be laundered satisfactorily. 
 
 2. Sponging. — Practically all wool fabrics are sponged 
 to prevent water-spotting. They usually shrink slightly 
 in the process. This is an advantage when the material 
 is to be made into garments requiring frequent pressing; 
 less shrinkage then occurs when the pressing is done. 
 Sponging is not difficult to do at home unless there is a 
 great quantity of material. If possible, a table should be 
 used, as the ordinary ironing-board is not large enough to be 
 convenient. The table should be covered with enough ma- 
 terial to give a fairly soft, though firm, surface. For the 
 outside cover heavy unbleached muslin is excellent; it is 
 strong and has no lint on its surface. The coverings must 
 be fastened so that they will keep perfectly smooth, as the 
 wrinkles will mar the surface of the material. 
 
162 Dressmaking 
 
 In working, the material is placed face down on the iron- 
 ing-table, a wet cloth is laid over it, and a fairly hot iron 
 used, After enough pressing has been done to make the 
 cloth nearly dry it should be removed and the material 
 itself should be pressed. Throughout the pressing care 
 must be taken not to rub the iron along the material in 
 any direction, but in moving to lift it slightly, otherwise 
 the material will follow it and wrinkle. If the material has 
 a nap the pressing must go with the nap. Only a small sec- 
 tion of the material should be dampened and ironed at one 
 time, as otherwise sections of it may dry before they can 
 be pressed. If double- width material is to be used it can 
 be left folded, with the right side inside. The wet cloth 
 placed on one side is usually sufficient to steam through 
 both thicknesses of the material unless it is very heavy. 
 Both sides should have a final pressing, however, in order 
 to have the full width of the material thoroughly dry and 
 smooth. Many fabrics are said to be sponged before they 
 are put on sale, but unless this fact can be verified it is 
 wise either to have them sponged at the store or to do it 
 at home. There are few tailors and dressmakers who do 
 not sponge all the materials they use. 
 
 3. Pressing. — Much of the pressing which is required in 
 the finishing of garments is done in practically the same 
 way as the pressing for sponging. 
 
 When possible, all material should be pressed on the 
 wrong side. Frequently the heat and weight of the iron is 
 not sufficient to press the seams and hems in heavy fabrics 
 as flat as is desired. A damp cloth should then be placed 
 over the material while it is pressed. The steam from the 
 cloth moistens the material slightly, and when the cloth is 
 removed and the material pressed dry it will be perfectly 
 flat. 
 
 As in sponging, an iron must never be pushed or dragged 
 over material. In many cases the material will follow the 
 iron and become so wrinkled that it is practically impossible 
 to make it smooth even by much subsequent pressing. The 
 iron should be lifted from place to place until the surface 
 to be pressed has been covered. 
 
General Suggestions and Instructions 163 
 
 If, in the process of making any garment, some of the 
 pressing must be done on the right side, the material 
 should be carefully covered so that the iron will not 
 touch it, as it usually leaves a slight polish. Heat will 
 occasionally change the color of a material, more espe- 
 cially silk; for that reason it is wise to test the effect first 
 on a small sample. Generally in this case the use of a 
 cool iron will obviate the difficulty and press the material 
 satisfactorily. 
 
 Silk should be pressed as little as possible, as heat takes 
 the life from it; it requires no preliminary sponging or 
 shrinking. To press the necessary seams and hems in silk 
 they should be drawn with as much tension as possible over 
 the surface of a not-too-hot iron. For pressing velvet — ex- 
 cept panne and mirror velvet — a special kind of board is 
 used, the surface of which is covered with small, flexible 
 wire points. The pile of the velvet is pressed into these 
 points by the use of an ordinary iron, the wrinkles are re- 
 moved, and the velvet is made to look like new. Mirror 
 velvet may be made from ordinary velvet by pressing. A 
 damp cloth should be used on the right side of the velvet 
 and the iron should follow the nap. 
 
 V. Cutting 
 
 There are several general rules to be observed in cutting. 
 Most materials with a nap must be cut so as to have the 
 nap run down. Ordinary velvet and corduroy are, how- 
 ever, generally exceptions to this rule. If the richest effect 
 possible is desired, the velvet can be made with the pile 
 running up. The objection to this is that as the pile is 
 standing up it catches the dust easily and is difficult to keep 
 clean. Panne velvet should have its pile running down. 
 Many materials which have no nap, such as henrietta and 
 cashmere, show a difference in color if the pattern is not 
 laid on so that the material all runs in one direction. A 
 test for difference in color can easily be made by putting 
 the two cut ends of the material together and holding them 
 up. In that way the top and the bottom of the material 
 
164 D ress ma king 
 
 are side by side, and it is easy to determine whether they 
 catch and reflect the light in the same way. 
 
 For the inexperienced it is always a good plan to cut all 
 patterns first in inexpensive material, such as cambric, 
 unbleached muslin, or calico, and have them tested and 
 fitted. 
 
 In cutting, the two corresponding pieces or sides of any 
 garment should be cut together; that is, two fronts of a 
 shirt-waist or two sleeves, for otherwise two pieces may be 
 cut for the same side. There are occasional exceptions 
 to this, as, for instance, when the amount of material is 
 limited and by cutting the pieces singly they may be more 
 economically placed and material saved, or when the ma- 
 terial has a decided up and down, because of nap or pat- 
 tern, and must be cut separately to look and wear well. It 
 is, in general, more economical if, in placing a pattern for 
 cutting, its wider sections are placed at the cut end of 
 the material. For instance, with a shirt-waist pattern the 
 fronts are usually placed first, with the bottom of the pat- 
 tern at the cut end of the material. This gives oppor- 
 tunity, if there is no up and down, to slide the second piece 
 of the pattern by the first and so save material. A similar 
 plan may be adopted satisfactorily in cutting skirts. 
 
 VI. Marking 
 
 In cutting a garment from any pattern the garment 
 should be carefully marked, wherever necessary, with a 
 tracing- wheel, tailor's chalk, or tailor basting. The lines 
 to be marked depend, of course, on the kind of garment. 
 Seam-lines should always be indicated as a guide in basting 
 for fitting, and such lines as the neck, armseye, waist, hip, 
 and hem, which are needed not only for a guide in basting 
 but for the actual making. 
 
 (i) The Tracing-Wheel will mark two thicknesses at once 
 and is, for that reason, especially convenient. It cannot, 
 however, be used on all materials. For instance, in soft 
 fabrics and those with fancy surfaces the markings will not 
 show. 
 
General Suggestions and Instructions 165 
 
 (2) Tailor's chalk marks only one surface at a time, and 
 there is always danger of its being erased during the bast- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 (3) Tailor basting is in general a most satisfactory method 
 of marking. It may be done through two thicknesses; it 
 stays in place as long as it is needed and does not injure 
 any material. It requires, however, more time than either 
 of the two other ways. When the cutting is done the seam- 
 lines are frequently marked with tailor's chalk, which serves 
 as a guide for the tailor basting. In making this basting a 
 long double thread is needed. The sewing is done through 
 both thicknesses, using first a short, then a long stitch. 
 The thread is not pulled through tightly, as in the regular 
 basting, but each long stitch is loose enough to form a loop. 
 After the basting is finished the two pieces of material are 
 carefully pulled apart as far as the loops will allow, and the 
 stitches which hold them together are cut between the two 
 layers of material. If this is correctly done there will be 
 stitches enough on each piece of material to indicate the line 
 perfectly. 
 
 VII. Fitting 
 
 Generally only one side — the right — is fitted, either for 
 waist or skirt, and the other side is altered to correspond. 
 There are exceptions to this as to every rule. If, for in- 
 stance, the right shoulder or hip differs greatly from the 
 left it may be necessary to fit the entire garment. The 
 alterations should not be so great, however, as to accentuate 
 the differences in the two sides. 
 
 VIII. Taking Measures 
 
 The taking of measures is a very important preliminary 
 to dressmaking — for drafting, for modelling, or for the use 
 of commercial patterns. Individual measures are neces- 
 sary in constructing the drafts and in modelling. They 
 are also necessary in testing the commercial patterns, which 
 are all made to regulation measures and may need slight 
 adjusting. Measures must be accurate, otherwise all the 
 
166 Dressmaking 
 
 patterns will be wrong, and, as they are rather difficult to 
 take because of the varying outline of the figure, it is neces- 
 sary to prove them by repetition. Much subsequent time 
 and labor are saved in the testing and fitting of patterns if 
 this is done. Measures should always be taken over the 
 dress. Before taking the measures a band or tape should 
 be closely pinned about the waist at the normal waist line. 
 The tape should be a very little lower in front than in the 
 back to give a good line. All the lengthwise waist measures 
 are taken to the lower edge of this tape, which is resting on 
 the waist line. 
 
 In taking measures a regular order should be maintained 
 and a record of the measures kept in a book. It is usual to 
 take (a) the waist measure first, then (b) the sleeve and (c) 
 the skirt. In measuring, as in fitting, all the work should 
 be done on the right side. 
 
 /. Waist Measures 
 (A) Length Measures 
 
 (i) Length of Back. — This is taken from the little bone at the 
 base of the neck straight down to the lower edge of the waistband. 
 
 (2) Length of Front. — This is taken from the centre of the hollow 
 at the base of the neck straight down to the lower edge of the 
 waistband — an easy — that is, fairly loose — measure. 
 
 (3) Depth of Dart. — This measure is required in all the fitted 
 garments but is not used in the shirt-waist. It is taken from the 
 base of the neck at the centre front in a slanting line down to the 
 point of the bust. It averages 8 to 9 inches. 
 
 (4) Length of Underarm. — It is very easy to have this measure 
 too long or too short. One simple way of preventing this is to fold 
 the tape-measure over a fairly long lead-pencil, which is then placed 
 under the arm. The number of inches from the top of the pencil 
 to the lower edge of the waistband in a straight line will give the 
 correct measure. In taking this measure the shoulder must be 
 kept in a natural position and the arm held down close to the fig- 
 ure. The tendency is to raise both shoulder and arm. In the 
 normal figure the height of underarm equals one-half the length of 
 back. In shirt-waist drafting this measure — one-half the length of 
 back — may be used with safety, as the armseye is always made 
 large. 
 
OUTSIDE SLEEVE 
 MEASURE ELBOW 
 TO WAIST 
 
 Taking measures 
 
1G8 Dressmaking 
 
 (B) Width Measures 
 
 (i) Width of Back.— This is taken one-quarter of the distance 
 down, between the neck and waist, across the back from armseye 
 to armseye. It is an important measure, especially in the draft- 
 ing, as other measures are based on it. It must be neither too wide 
 nor too narrow. On its correctness depends the fit of the entire 
 waist. It is difficult to take, as the armseye line is rather intangi- 
 ble. No dependence can be placed on that line in the waist worn 
 when the measure is taken, as armseyes vary greatly in shape and 
 size. A tape placed around the armseye may assist in determin- 
 ing it accurately. This should extend in a fairly straight line from 
 the top of the shoulder down and under the arm. Another 
 method of determining the armseye is to place the thumb close 
 up under the arm and let the fingers extend upward and mark the 
 armseye line. 
 
 (2) Width of Front. — This is taken iK" or 2" below the hol- 
 low at the base of the neck, across the widest part of the chest, 
 from armseye to armseye. This measure should not be too wide; 
 it may also be guided by the tape around the armseye. 
 
 (3) Bust. — In taking this measure it is necessary to stand behind 
 the person who is being measured. It should be an easy measure 
 over the fullest part of the bust, rather high under the arms and 
 straight across the back. For a very thin person it is often wise 
 to add an extra inch. 
 
 (4) Waist. — This measure may be taken along practically the 
 same line as that used for guiding the length measures. It should, 
 however, be a perfectly straight line, without any drop at the front, 
 and a close measure. It will do for both waist and skirt. 
 
 (C) Neck or Collar Measures 
 
 Five measures should be taken: 
 
 (1) Base of Neck. — This should be a close measure, as it is used 
 both for the neck of the waist and for the bottom line of the collar. 
 If there is too large an opening at the neck of a waist it is almost 
 impossible to adjust a good collar. If the neck is small it can easily 
 be cut out. 
 
 (2) Top of Neck. — This should be a close measure. 
 
 (3) Height at Back. — This is taken from above the bone at the 
 base of the neck to the height required. 
 
 (4) Height at Front.— This is taken from the hollow at the base 
 of the neck to the height required. 
 
General Suggestions and Instructions 169 
 
 (5) Height at Side. — This is taken just back of the ear. It is 
 measured from the base of the neck to the height required. It 
 should not be more than %" or H" higher than the back. 
 
 (D) Armseye 
 
 This is taken at the joining of the arm and body, under the arm 
 and up over the shoulder-bone, making a good curve in front and 
 an almost straight line at the back. This also should be a fairly 
 close measure. 
 
 77. Sleeve Measures 
 
 Four measures should be taken: 
 
 (1) Length Inside. — This is taken along the inside of the arm, 
 from the little muscle where the arm joins the body to the bend of 
 the elbow, and to the wrist at the base of the thumb. 
 
 (2) Length Outside. — Shoulder to elbow; elbow to wrist. This is 
 taken along the outside of the arm from the place where the width- 
 of-back measure ended to the point of the elbow (with the elbow 
 bent so that the hand will rest on the chest) ; from that same point 
 to the wrist ending just beyond the bone at the wrist. 
 
 (3) Size at Elbow. — The tape-measure is placed in the bend of 
 the elbow; the elbow is then bent and the measure taken rather 
 closely over the point. 
 
 (4) Size at Hand. — This measure is taken very closely over the 
 knuckles with the thumb held in to the palm and should be the 
 smallest through which the hand can be passed. 
 
 777. Skirt Measures 
 
 (1) Waist. — This measure has already been taken. 
 
 (2) Hip. — Two hip measures are necessary; the first is taken over 
 the fullest part of the hip, usually about 6" below the waist; the 
 other is taken over the fullest part of the thigh, about 10" below 
 the waist. These two should be parallel. The second measure is 
 chiefly used in testing the patterns and is usually from 4" to 6" 
 larger than that taken at the 6" point. The tape-measure should 
 be placed about the hips and the thigh in a perfectly straight line, 
 parallel to the floor, and free measures taken. 
 
 (3) First Depth of Dart. — This is taken from the waist line to 
 the first hip line, directly over the hip. 
 
 (4) Second Depth of Dart. — This is taken from the waist line to 
 the second hip line, directly over the hip. 
 
170 Dressmaking 
 
 (5) Length of Front. — This is taken from the waist line to the 
 floor, exactly at the centre front. 
 
 (6) Length of Side. — This is taken from the waist line to the 
 floor over the hip. 
 
 (7) Length of Back. — This is taken from the waist line to the 
 floor, exactly at the centre back. 
 
 It is most important to take the last three measures to the 
 floor, no matter what the desired finished length of the skirt may 
 be, and to have the tape-measure fall in a perfectly straight line. 
 
 In order to simplify the work in dressmaking, which is 
 given in the succeeding chapters, a definite division has 
 been made between the making of patterns and the making 
 of garments. 
 
 In Chapters V, VI, and VII all the effort is directed to- 
 ward securing satisfactory patterns — satisfactory not only 
 from the point of view of fit but, as far as possible, from 
 that of design as well. The work deals not only with the 
 various methods of making the patterns but also with their 
 perfecting by fitting, testing, and altering. It includes di- 
 rections for the drafting of patterns to individual measures 
 and their fitting, the testing and altering of commercial 
 patterns, and, based on experience in these first two meth- 
 ods and aided by a knowledge of design, the making of 
 more elaborate patterns in paper and on the dress-form. 
 
 In Chapters VIII, IX, and X all the work is directed to- 
 ward the making of the dress itself. Because of the limit- 
 less variety of design and finish possible in the making of a 
 garment and the constant change demanded by fashion, 
 it is possible to give in this section only general rules, which 
 must be adapted by the worker to the requirements of 
 specific problems as they present themselves from time to 
 time. The work deals with the various steps involved in 
 the method of procedure: that is, the cutting, which in- 
 cludes the correct placing of the pattern on the material 
 and the various methods of tracing and marking the ma- 
 terial; the basting; the fitting, which includes altering and 
 rebasting; and the general finishings, which include the 
 foundation embroidery stitches. 
 
 As has already been said, in making any garment time 
 
General Suggestions and Instructions 171 
 
 and effort should be saved as far as possible. To do this, 
 before beginning work all required materials and tools 
 should be collected and conveniently placed and a general 
 method of procedure decided upon. In order to secure 
 satisfactory results the work must be carefully planned 
 and the plan followed step by step, with no details omitted. 
 "Short cuts" should be avoided by all except the ex- 
 perienced. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 DRAFTING AND PATTERN-MAKING 
 
 The drafting system presented here has two marked ad- 
 vantages: the lack of expense connected with its use and 
 the simplicity of its method. Both must be considered in 
 teaching, especially in public schools. 
 
 Many systems include a large number of complicated 
 measures and numerous directions, most of which are ar- 
 bitrary and consequently must be largely a question of 
 memory. In addition, there are various expensive charts, 
 curves, squares, etc., required. In this system few meas- 
 ures are taken, and the attempt is made to show, as far as 
 possible, not only a definite reason for the directions given 
 but their relation to the proportions of the figure for which 
 the pattern is to be made. There is but little memorizing, 
 and all the tools necessary are a square, a tape-measure, 
 drafting-paper, a soft pencil, and a good eraser. 
 
 The garments drafted include: 
 
 I. Shirt-Waist. 
 
 II. Shirt-Waist Sleeve. 
 
 III. Foundation Skirt. 
 
 IV. Tight-Fitting Waist and Collar. 
 V. Tight-Fitting Sleeve. 
 
 VI. Kimono Waist. 
 
 The same general construction lines form the basis for 
 the shirt-waist, tight-fitting-waist, and kimono-waist pat- 
 terns. As these are intended for foundation patterns from 
 which any desired style may be developed, no marked 
 changes in the drafting directions need be made to meet a 
 change in fashion. The construction lines of the skirt pat- 
 tern are based on the hip measures of the wearer and the 
 width desired at the bottom of the skirt. By changing the 
 second measure — that of the width of the skirt — according 
 
 172 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 173 
 
 to the demand of fashion the pattern may be given any 
 desired amount of fulness without changing the general 
 method of its construction. 
 
 Like all drafting systems and all commercial patterns, 
 this drafting system is not infallible. It will not fit unless 
 the measures are accurately taken and the directions care- 
 fully followed, and even with care it may not always suit 
 the unusual figure. Directions for possible changes are 
 included which, it is hoped, will help to solve some diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 The practicability of drafting is sometimes questioned. 
 As a basis for pattern-making and dress-designing, how- 
 ever, it is invaluable to the student. It is seldom used by 
 dressmakers, except to acquire a set of foundation patterns 
 of regular measurements, with good proportions and good 
 lines, from which other patterns of varying measures are 
 made as required. The designers in good dressmaking es- 
 tablishments have usually already acquired so much skill 
 by experience that they do not need more of the prelimi- 
 nary drill which drafting gives. Many students and teach- 
 ers sew well but they have little opportunity to become 
 skilled through practice in the designing which is the im- 
 portant factor in all good dressmaking. The appreciation 
 for good fine and proportion which is given by drafting and 
 the subsequent pattern-making would seldom if ever be 
 acquired by them in using patterns made by others which 
 would require no thought on their part. The ability to 
 make any desired pattern gives an independence which is 
 invaluable and usually arouses greater interest and en- 
 thusiasm in the worker than does the use of a ready-made 
 pattern. 
 
 For beginners it is always wise to draft to regulation 
 measures first, as it gives practice without any of the com- 
 plications which may arise when individual measures are 
 used. Regulation measures are given with each draft. 
 All the drafts illustrated in this book are worked out ac- 
 cording to regulation measures and, except those for the 
 skirt and kimono waist, to a one-quarter-inch scale. The 
 size of these necessitates the use of a one-eighth-inch scale. 
 
174 Dressmaking 
 
 The shirt-waist is generally given as the first problem in 
 drafting because it is simple and because, whether cut from 
 a commercial pattern or a draft, it is most often the first 
 garment made. In making a dress, however, the logical 
 procedure seems to be to cut the skirt first, if both the skirt 
 and the waist are to be made from the same piece of ma- 
 terial, as the skirt usually requires uncut lengths while a 
 waist may often be made from pieces. There is no law 
 governing the order of drafting, and, as each draft is a 
 complete problem in itself, the order of procedure may 
 safely be decided by the worker with reference to her dress- 
 making course as a whole. 
 
 I. Shirt-Waist 
 /. Drafting the Pattern 
 
 REGULATION MEASURES 
 
 Length Measures — 
 
 (i) Length of back 15" 
 
 (2) Length of front 15H" 
 
 (3) Length of underarm 7 l A" 
 
 Width Measures— 
 
 (1) Width of back 14" 
 
 (2) Width of chest 14^" 
 
 (3) Bust 38" 
 
 (4) Waist 26" 
 
 (5) Neck 13H" 
 
 J cu^TIl I (test measures) 
 
 (7) Shoulder j v ' { 5^ 
 
 Individual measures are taken as described in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 The shirt-waist pattern is composed of two pieces, one half the 
 back and one half the front. These may both be made, side by 
 side, on one sheet of drafting-paper about 36" in length. The back 
 is drafted first. 
 
 BACK 
 
 In the upper left-hand corner of the paper two lines at right 
 angles and of indefinite length should be drawn. The work then 
 proceeds as follows: 
 
176 Dressmaking 
 
 (i) To Determine the Foundation Lines: 
 
 AB = Length of back, marked on the vertical line. 
 B = Draw a line at right angles to the line AB to in- 
 dicate the waist line. 
 ~ AC = yi of the line AB. Draw a line at right angles to 
 the line AB to indicate the bust line. 
 AD = yi of the line AC. Draw a line at right angles to 
 the line AB to indicate the width of back line, 
 (e) To Determine the Neck Line: 
 
 AE = % of the neck measure, marked on the horizontal 
 
 line from point A. 
 EF = y$" above point E, a dotted line drawn at right 
 
 angles to the line AE. 
 AF = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 neck line. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Centre Back Line: 
 
 BG = 1" measured in on the waist line B. 
 
 AG = New centre back line. Connect the points A and 
 G and extend the line indefinitely (about 5"). 
 On this line mark the points of intersection at 
 point D and point C as D 2 C 2 and use these 
 points in measuring all widths. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Shoulder Line: 
 
 D 2 H = y 2 the width of back. 
 HI = AE, which is % of the neck measure, a dotted 
 line drawn at right angles to the line D 2 H at 
 point H. 
 IJ = H" to the right from point I, a dotted line drawn 
 
 at right angles to the line HI. 
 FJ = Connect these points to form the shoulder line. 
 
 (5) To Determine the Underarm Seam: 
 
 C 2 K = % of the bust measure, minus 1 ". 
 GL = yi of the waist measure. 
 LM = Underarm measure, plus J4* ', drawn from point 
 
 L through point K. The end of this line is 
 
 marked point M. 
 
 (6) To Determine the Armseye: 
 
 JHM = Connect these points with a good curve to form 
 the armseye. 
 
 (7) To Determine the Basque: 
 
 LN =4" measured down from point L with the ruler 
 placed on points FLN. 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 177 
 
 GO =4" measured down from point G on the indefinite 
 
 line already drawn through points AG. 
 NO = Connecting line to form the bottom of the waist. 
 (8) To Determine the Curve of the Shoulder Seam : 
 FX = yi of the line FJ, the shoulder line. 
 XX 2 = }i" down from point X, a dotted line drawn at 
 
 right angles to the line FJ. 
 FX 2 J = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 to form the shoulder. 
 
 FRONT 
 
 Extend the line A of the back of the waist across the sheet and 
 draw a line at right angles to it in the upper right-hand corner. 
 The work then proceeds as follows: 
 
 (1) To Determine the Foundation Lines: 
 
 AB = Amount secured by deducting C 2 K, the bust meas- 
 ure of the back, from one-half the whole bust 
 measure and adding 1 " to the result, marked 
 on the horizontal line from point A. 
 
 BC = Length of back, drawn at right angles to the line 
 BA. 
 
 BD = X of the line BC. 
 
 AD 2 = BD. Connect points DD 2 . This line is a con- 
 tinuation of the width of back line DH. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Neck Line: 
 
 AE = y t the neck measure plus yi" , marked on the 
 
 horizontal line AB. 
 EF = }£" above point E, a dotted line drawn at right 
 
 angles to the line AB. 
 AG = }i the neck measure, marked on the vertical line 
 
 from point A. 
 FG = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 
 neck line. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Width of Chest : 
 
 D 2 H = y 2 the width of chest on the line D 2 D. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Shoulder Line: 
 
 BI = V 3 of the line BD. 
 I = Dotted line of indefinite length drawn at right 
 angles to the line BD. This serves as a con- 
 struction line for the shoulder. 
 
 FJ = Shoulder line, which should be }i" shorter than 
 the shoulder line of the back. The square is 
 
178 Dress ma king 
 
 placed on point F and swung until the desired 
 length of shoulder touches the line I. This es- 
 tablishes point J. 
 
 (5) To Determine the Underarm Seam: 
 
 K = X" to the right of the vertical line BC on the ex- 
 tension of the bust line C of the back of the waist. 
 CL = %" to the left of the vertical line BC on the ex- 
 tension of the waist line B of the back of the 
 waist. 
 LM = Underarm measure plus yi" , drawn from point 
 L through point K. The end of this line is 
 marked point M. 
 
 (6) To Determine the Armseye: 
 
 FLN = Connect points FL with a straight dotted line 
 and continue it 4". The end of this line is 
 marked point N. 
 O = At the point of intersection of the line FL with the 
 extension of the bust line C of the back of the 
 waist mark point O. 
 GP = Length of front measured down from point G on 
 the centre front line A. 
 POQ = yi" measured up from point O with the ruler 
 placed on points POQ. 
 JHQM = Connect these points with a good curve to form 
 the armseye. 
 
 (7) To Determine the Waist Line: 
 
 PR = i}i" out from point P, a dotted line drawn at 
 right angles to the line GP. 
 LPR = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 to form the waist line. 
 
 (8) To Determine the Centre Front Line: 
 
 GRS = Connect points GR with a straight line and con- 
 tinue it 4". The end of this line is marked 
 point S. 
 
 (9) To Determine the Basque: 
 
 NS = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 to form the bottom of the waist. 
 
 (10) To Determine the Curve of the Shoulder Seam: 
 
 FX = }4 of the line FJ, the shoulder line. 
 XX 2 = y 2 of the line XJ. 
 
 X 2 X 3 = yi" up from point X 2 , a dotted line drawn at 
 right angles to the line JF. 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 179 
 
 JX 3 X = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 to form the shoulder. 
 XF = Remains unchanged. 
 
 This draft gives a foundation or plain shirt-waist with but little 
 fulness at the waist line. 
 
 77. Fitting the Pattern 
 
 After the drafting is finished there are certain directions to be 
 followed preliminary to the cutting of patterns in material for 
 fitting. 
 
 (i) Testing the Draft. — The draft itself should be carefully tested 
 to the measures used and, if necessary, corrected. 
 
 (a) The length of back must be exact and the width of back and 
 the bust lines in proper position. 
 
 . (b) The length of the underarm should equal the underarm meas- 
 ure plus }4". 
 
 (c) The size of the bust — that is, the sum of C 2 K, the bust line of 
 the back, and AB, the amount of the bust measure used for the 
 front— should equal one-half the whole bust measure plus i ". 
 
 (d) The width of back and the width of chest must correspond to 
 the measures taken. These should be measured for both front and 
 back on the line D 2 H. 
 
 (e) It is important to measure the neck of the front and back 
 carefully. In measuring any curved lines the tape-measure should 
 be held upright; that is, on edge, with the numbered edge on the 
 paper. 
 
 If any of these measures vary much from the required size there 
 has, without doubt, been a mistake in following the drafting di- 
 rections. In this case the pattern should be redrafted and the mis- 
 take rectified before proceeding with the work. 
 
 (2) Seam Allowances for a Paper Pattern. — In general, it is simpler 
 to use a paper pattern which is cut out exactly along the drafted 
 lines than one which has the necessary allowances added to it for 
 all seams. For the use of the inexperienced, or for those who have 
 become accustomed to commercial patterns which have seam allow- 
 ances, it is sometimes thought necessary to add the allowances to 
 the drafted pattern before cutting it out. This should be avoided 
 when possible, as it really complicates the use of the pattern and 
 adds to the difficulty of the student. Without indicated seam al- 
 lowances a garment is occasionally cut exactly the size of the pat- 
 tern, without any thought on the part of the worker of the neces- 
 sity for seams, and the garment is, in consequence, spoiled. 
 
1 80 Dressmaking 
 
 The required seam allowances for a paper pattern are as follows: 
 i" at underarm and shoulder seams; %" at the neck and armseye. 
 
 (3) Marking the Paper Pattern. — After the paper pattern is cut 
 out, if the seam allowances have been added to it, it is wise to trace 
 with a wheel the exact seam-lines for the shoulder, underarm, neck, 
 and armseye, as these lines are very important in all the subsequent 
 work on the waist, and the pencil-marks indicating them on the 
 draft may be erased. In addition, the waist line should be care- 
 fully traced and cross-marks made at X 2 of the back shoulder and 
 X of the front. If, as is general, the paper pattern has been cut 
 out exactly along the seam-lines, the only tracing necessary is that 
 for the waist line and the cross-marks of the shoulder. 
 
 (4) Placing the Paper Pattern on the Material and Cutting. — 
 Economy of material should always be considered in placing a pat- 
 tern. The complete shirt-waist must be cut in order to give a satis- 
 factory fitting. Half the pattern does not give sufficiently exact 
 results. When possible, all pieces of the pattern should be cut 
 at the same time, with corresponding ones together. This saves 
 confusion and duplication of pieces. The centre-front line of the 
 front of the waist must be on a lengthwise straight of the material 
 and the centre-back line of the back on a lengthwise fold. In 
 cutting this pattern, in general, the economical method is to place 
 the bottom of the shirt-waist fronts to the cut end of the material. 
 This brings the smaller or top part of the pattern into the body of 
 the material and gives extra space for the placing of the back. 
 
 After the pattern is arranged with attention to the straight of 
 the material the seam allowances should be measured and the pat- 
 tern pinned in place and cut. 
 
 The seam allowances for the cloth pattern are the same as those 
 already suggested for the paper; that is, 1 " at underarm and shoul- 
 der seams and %" at neck and armseye. In addition, however, 
 there should be 1 " added at each centre front in order to pin the 
 waist together in the fitting. 
 
 (5) Marking the Cloth Pattern. — The cloth pattern should be 
 marked to indicate the exact size of the pattern as drafted, to give 
 the correct seam-lines. A tracing-wheel may be used, supplemented 
 where necessary by colored bastings. A tracing should be made to 
 indicate: (a) the centre-front line, for pinning the waist together; 
 (b) the seams and cross-marks of the shoulder and underarm, where 
 the waist is to be joined by basting; (c) the neck line; (d) the arms- 
 eye line; (e) the waist line; (/) the centre-back line. 
 
 In addition to these tracings colored bastings should be placed 
 in the centre-front and centre-back lines, the waist, neck, and arms- 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 181 
 
 eye lines. They prevent the loss of these important lines during 
 work, as the marks of the tracing- wheel are not permanent; they 
 also aid in indicating the direction of the neck and armseye very 
 distinctly during the fitting. The position of these lines is espe- 
 cially important, as they determine the location of the sleeve and 
 the collar-band. 
 
 (6) Basting the Pattern. — All seams should be basted with white 
 thread and not with colored, which is used only in making alterations 
 and in marking. Seams should be pinned together before basting. 
 
 (a) For the underarm seam the waist and armseye lines are 
 matched and both the pinning and basting are done between these 
 two points and continued i " below the waist line. 
 
 (b) For the shoulder seam, the neck lines, the cross-marks at X 2 
 of the back and X of the front, and the armseye lines are matched 
 and pinned. As the front shoulder seam is yi" shorter than the 
 back, it requires stretching between these points to give it sufficient 
 length. After it is stretched it should be basted, holding the back 
 shoulder toward the worker. The stretching of the front shoulder 
 along the seam-line makes the waist spring better into the curve of 
 the shoulder of the wearer. 
 
 (7) Fitting the Pattern. — Before the waist is ready for a fitting 
 some further preparation is necessary. 
 
 (a) Making a Belt. — For this, non-elastic tape X" in width may 
 be used or a band of the material itself. The material should be 
 cut about 2" in width and 2" or 3" longer than the waist meas- 
 ure to allow for lapping and pinning at the centre front. On the 
 two lengthwise edges and across the two ends yi" should be turned 
 in and creased. When the piece is folded lengthwise in the centre 
 it makes a band about $i" wide and the desired length. As a guide 
 in attaching to the waist, the centre of the band should be marked 
 with colored basting. 
 
 (b) Gathering the Waist. — As the pattern is drafted to have extra 
 fulness at the waist line in the back, one row of gathering should 
 be put in at the waist line from underarm seam to underarm seam. 
 This makes the arrangement of the fulness into the belt a very 
 simple matter in the fitting. 
 
 The fulness at the front may also be gathered into the belt if de- 
 sired. If it is left free, however, the laundering of the waist will 
 be much simpler. 
 
 (c) Fitting the Waist. — For the first fitting the waist is put on 
 right side out and only one side, the right, is fitted, unless the right 
 and left sides of the wearer vary greatly. In this case time is saved 
 by fitting the entire waist at once. 
 
182 Dressmaking 
 
 The waist should first be settled to the figure and pinned at the 
 centre front exactly on the indicated lines. The shoulder and un- 
 derarm seams should be turned to the front. The belt is then put 
 on with its lower edge just at the normal waist line of the figure, 
 even though the line of gathering in the waist may not be correctly 
 placed. The centre mark of the belt should be placed exactly at 
 the centre-back line of the waist and pinned. The fulness is regu- 
 lated after the direction of the underarm seam is determined. 
 This seam should appear to be a continuation of the shoulder seam 
 and should fall from the centre underarm straight down to the waist. 
 If the back of the wearer is very wide its appearance is sometimes 
 improved by having these seams slant very slightly toward the 
 back. After the belt is pinned to the underarm seam the fulness 
 may be arranged to suit the figure. It is usually a good plan to dis- 
 tribute the gathers across the back to within about 2" of the under- 
 arm seams, to avoid an evidence of much fulness. If the waist is 
 bloused slightly it gives a straighter and more becoming line to the 
 back. 
 
 In fitting the waist it is important to observe the following: 
 
 (/) In general the collar line should run from the bone at the 
 base of the neck in the back in a good line or curve to the hollow in 
 front, just above the two small bones. The line should be rather 
 high at the side, just under the ear. The shape of the neck or its 
 length may affect this line slightly; that is, for a long neck the line 
 should be as high as possible in front and for a short neck low. If 
 the neck is too high or too tight it may be improved by slashing a 
 little. The shoulder seam should be taken up if the neck is too 
 large. 
 
 (it) The draft, like the commercial pattern, is made for the shoul- 
 der of regulation height; in consequence, if the shoulders of the 
 wearer are very square or very sloping changes are required. 
 
 If the shoulders are square they lift the waist too much at the 
 point or end of the shoulder and there will be a wrinkle running 
 across the waist. This should be remedied by taking up the shoul- 
 der seam near the neck and cutting out the surplus material, which 
 is thus brought up around the neck. If the shoulders are very 
 sloping the waist drops at the end of the shoulder and the wrinkle 
 will extend downward from the neck toward the armseye. To 
 change this the shoulder seam is taken up at the point of the shoul- 
 der, and the armseye cut out at the underarm seam. (For further 
 details, see The Use of Commercial Patterns.) 
 
 (Hi) After such changes have been made care must be taken to re- 
 establish a good neck line and shoulder seam. The direction of the 
 
Drafting a?id Pattern- Making 183 
 
 neck line has already been given. The shoulder seam should be 
 about i " back of the highest part of the shoulder and, as has been 
 said, in line with the underarm seam. If this seam is too far back 
 it gives a narrow appearance to the back of the waist. If, on the 
 other hand, it is too far front it may give the appearance of round 
 shoulders. 
 
 {iv) The armseye line is one of the most important in the waist. 
 It should extend from the point of the shoulder down over the little 
 muscle where the arm joins the body in front and, coming up as 
 high under the arm as is perfectly comfortable, form a nearly 
 straight line up the back to the shoulder. 
 
 (v) If the waist is too tight over the bust it may be made a little 
 larger by letting out the underarm seam. Too much cannot be let 
 out, however, or the armseye will be too large. Difficulty of this 
 kind usually means that too small a bust measure was taken. 
 
 (vi) A shirt-waist should not be overfitted. There should not be 
 any wrinkles at the neck or shoulder; the seam-lines should be good 
 and the waist should fit well but loosely. Before the waist is taken 
 off it should be carefully inspected as a whole and all the necessary 
 changes indicated by pins, tailor's chalk, or pencil. 
 
 (8) Altering the Pattern. — After removing the waist all required 
 changes should be marked on the side just fitted, with the tracing- 
 wheel or with colored cotton. Care should be taken to keep the 
 original lines sufficiently distinct to have them serve as guides in 
 marking the unfitted half of the waist. All the seams should then 
 be opened and the two sides of the waist placed together with the 
 original lines matching. They should be pinned and correspond- 
 ingly marked. 
 
 If a new neck, armseye, or waist line has been made, colored cot- 
 ton should be used to indicate it. The tracing-wheel may be used 
 for changing the seam-lines, unless they can be too easily confused 
 with the old tracings and rebasting made difficult. All changes 
 should be indicated on the paper pattern, which is to be kept for 
 future use. 
 
 (9) Rebasting the Pattern. — If many and important alterations 
 have been necessary the waist should be rebasted, following all the 
 directions given for the first basting; the belt should be attached 
 and the whole should be put on for final inspection. 
 
 (10) Refitting the Pattern. — In refitting, the waist should again be 
 put on right side out. The underarm and shoulder seams should be 
 turned to the front. If the left side requires any changes because 
 of the unevenness of the figure they should be made now and the 
 waist again generally inspected for fit and for seam-line. 
 
184 Dressmaking 
 
 (a) If the shirt-waist sleeve has been drafted and cut in material 
 it may be basted into the waist and fitted at this time. (For direc- 
 tions, see Shirt-Waist Sleeve.) (b) A collar-band may also be made, 
 basted to the waist, and fitted. This is a good plan for tailored 
 shirts which require a neck-band. It need be only a straight 
 band, unless the neck is much smaller at the top than at its base. 
 (/') To prepare this, a strip is cut on the lengthwise of the material 
 2" in width and the size of the neck plus 1" in length. On the 
 two lengthwise edges J4" should be turned in and creased and on 
 each end yi" . When the piece is folded lengthwise in the centre 
 it makes a band yi" wide and the correct length to meet at the 
 centre front without lapping. As a guide in attaching to the waist, 
 the centre of the band should be marked with colored basting, (ii) 
 The neck of the waist may be slipped into it, pinned evenly, and 
 basted. The lower edge of the band should lie along the line of 
 basting which indicates the correct neck line. If the worker is in- 
 experienced this band will help to keep the neck of the waist from 
 stretching while it is being handled. 
 
 II. Shirt-Waist Sleeve 
 /. Drafting the Pattern 
 
 REGULATION MEASURES 
 
 (1) Armseye 16" 
 
 (2) Length inside 18K" 
 
 (3) Girth of arm 11" 
 
 (Taken over the muscle of the upper arm, 
 with the arm bent.) 
 
 (4) Size at hand iyi" 
 
 Individual measures are taken as described in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 The shirt-waist sleeve pattern is composed of only one piece. To 
 make the pattern in one piece it is necessary to have the lengthwise 
 centre of the sleeve drafted on a fold of paper. If a piece of paper 
 27" in length and 24" in width is folded along its lengthwise centre 
 it will be large enough for any pattern. 
 
 After folding the paper the work proceeds as follows: 
 
 (1) To Determine the Top of the Sleeve: 
 
 UPPER 
 
 A = 8" down from the top of the paper. Locate this 
 point on the folded edge. 
 
186 Dressmaking 
 
 AB = y the required width of the sleeve; that is, the 
 
 girth of the arm plus the fulness desired. 
 
 Draw a line at right angles to the folded edge 
 
 at point A. 
 BC = y 2 " measured in from point B on the line BA. 
 AD = y of the armseye measure plus 3 4 ", measured up 
 
 from point A on the folded edge. 
 DC = Connect these points with a straight line. 
 DE = K of the line DC. 
 F = From point E, at right angles to the line DC, draw 
 
 a line extending to the folded edge of the paper. 
 
 At the point of intersection of this line and the 
 
 line AB place point F. 
 FG = 3 " below point F on the extension of the line EF 
 
 mark point G. If point G does not fall on the 
 
 paper the point of intersection of the line EF 
 
 and the folded edge of the paper may be used 
 
 instead. 
 DC = With point G as a pivot and the distance from 
 
 point G to point D as a radius, swing a curve 
 
 from point D to point C. 
 H = Measure up i " from point C on this curve and 
 
 place point H. 
 HB = Connect points H and B with a slight inward 
 
 curve. 
 DHB = Curve for the upper part of the top of the sleeve. 
 
 UNDER 
 
 DI = % of the line DE. 
 
 IJ = }i" above point I, a dotted line drawn at right 
 angles to the line DE. 
 EK = y of the line EC. 
 
 KL = y" below point K, a dotted line drawn at right 
 angles to the line EC. 
 DEB = Curve for the under part of the top of the sleeve. 
 Connect with a curved line points DJELC and 
 continue to point B on the straight construction 
 line. 
 (2) To Determine the Bottom of the Sleeve: 
 
 This is the same for the upper and the under parts of the sleeve. 
 AM = The inside length of the sleeve minus the width 
 of the cuff, measured down from point A on 
 the folded edge of the paper. 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 187 
 
 MN = K the length of the cuff plus i", or the desired 
 amount of fulness, drawn from point M at 
 right angles to the line AM. 
 MO = i" measured down from point M on the folded 
 
 edge of the paper. 
 NO = Bottom of the sleeve. Connect these points with 
 a curved line, starting at point N and making 
 the line nearly straight for i ". 
 (3) To Determine the Side Seam: 
 This is the same for the upper and under parts of the sleeve. 
 
 BN = Connect these points with a straight dotted line. 
 BP = Y* of the line BN. 
 
 PQ = y 2 " in, to the left of point P, a dotted line drawn 
 at right angles to the line BN. 
 BQN = Connect these points with a curved line to form 
 the side seam. 
 This draft gives a plain shirt-waist sleeve with little fulness. 
 
 77. Fitting the Pattern 
 
 After the drafting is finished there are certain directions to be 
 followed preliminary to the cutting of patterns in material for 
 fitting. 
 
 (1) Testing the Draft. — The draft itself should be tested to the 
 measures used for (a) length of sleeve and (b) widths and all neces- 
 sary corrections made. 
 
 (2) Seam Allowances for a Paper Pattern. — In general it is much 
 simpler to use a paper pattern which is cut out exactly along the 
 drafted lines than one which has the necessary allowances added 
 to it for all seams. If it is thought necessary to add them, how- 
 ever, they should be as follows: i" on the lengthwise seams; y" at 
 the top; %" at the bottom. 
 
 (3) Marking the Paper Pattern. — Before the paper pattern is cut 
 out some tracing is necessary to make the complete sleeve. 
 
 (a) With the paper still folded as for drafting, the underarm 
 curve, DJELC, the line at the bottom, ON, and the side-seam 
 line, BN, should all be traced through to the under half of the 
 paper. When the paper is opened the complete outline of the sleeve 
 is indicated and the pattern may be cut out. (b) Marks should 
 also be made to indicate the points between which gatherings are 
 to be placed at the top and bottom of the sleeve to regulate the 
 fulness, (i) For the top J and H indicate the points between which 
 gatherings are required. (//) For the bottom the position of the 
 
1 88 Dressmaking 
 
 placket should first be marked. This is i " in from the folded edge 
 on the under side of the sleeve, point R. From this point the 
 gatherings are made around the entire bottom of the sleeve. 
 
 (4) Placing the Paper Pattern on the Material and Cutting. — 
 Economy of material should always be considered in placing a 
 pattern. When possible the two sleeves should be cut at once. 
 For a pattern, however, only one sleeve is necessary. 
 
 The centre line of the sleeve indicated by the fold of the pattern 
 should be placed on the lengthwise straight of the material. 
 
 The seam allowances necessary for fitting should be measured 
 and the pattern pinned in place and cut. 
 
 The allowances for the cloth pattern are the same as those al- 
 ready suggested for the paper; that is, 1" on the lengthwise seams; 
 %" at top; l A" at bottom. 
 
 (5) Marking the Cloth Pattern. — The cloth pattern should be 
 marked to indicate the exact size of the pattern as drafted, to give 
 the correct seamdines. A tracing-wheel may be used. The entire 
 sleeve should be traced and the location of the placket and the 
 marks for the gathering at the top should be indicated. 
 
 (6) Basting the Pattern. — The sleeve should be laid on a table 
 and folded along its centre line. If it is correctly drafted its trac- 
 ings match. They should be pinned together and basted, begin- 
 ning at the wrist. The basting should be done with white thread 
 and the stitches need not be short, as there is no strain. 
 
 (7) Fitting the Pattern. — Before the sleeve is fitted it should be 
 gathered at the top and bottom and basted into the waist, as its 
 general fit and hang cannot be otherwise determined. It is not 
 necessary to add a cuff; the bottom of the sleeve may be drawn 
 up to the required size and the gathering-thread held by a pin 
 during the fitting. 
 
 (a) Gathering the Sleeve. — The first row of gathering at the top 
 should be }i" in from the edge, which is also the line of basting. 
 The other should be y&" in from that, to hold the gathers in place. 
 
 (b) Pinning and Basting the Sleeve to the Waist. — In pinning and 
 basting a sleeve to a waist the position of the work is important. 
 The following rule may be observed for placing the sleeve in the 
 correct position in the waist. Using a point 1 " back of the shoul- 
 der seam, the armseye of the waist should be folded in half and the 
 opposite point marked. This point indicates the location of the 
 sleeve seam. The sleeve is then ready to be pinned in and basted. 
 In doing this: (i) The waist should be held with the wrong side and 
 the underarm toward the worker, (it) The sleeve should be drawn 
 up into the armseye and the seam pinned to the point indicated. 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 189 
 
 {Hi) The ungathered or underarm part of the sleeve should be pinned 
 to the underarm of the waist, matching the armseye tracings of the 
 waist and the sleeve, (iv) With the waist still toward the worker, the 
 gathering-threads should be drawn up around the upper part of 
 the sleeve until the sleeve fits the armseye. (v) With the waist still 
 in the same position, but with the shoulder turned back so that the 
 upper part of the sleeve can be more easily seen, the gathers should 
 be adjusted, (vi) The centre of the sleeve and the largest amount of 
 the fulness should fall over the shoulder-bone, which in most cases 
 is from ^4" to i}4" forward of the shoulder seam, (vii) The rest of 
 the fulness should be eased off to the front and back toward the 
 points which indicate the end of the gathering. 
 
 (c) Fitting the Sleeve. — The fit of the sleeve depends somewhat 
 on the position of the line of the armseye at the shoulder. This 
 changes as the shoulder of the waist is long or short, according to the 
 demands of fashion. If the shoulder is short more length may be 
 required from point A to point D. The curve from point D to 
 point C may be too full in proportion to the length from point D to 
 point A and cause a bulge in the sleeve just in front of the shoulder. 
 
 The sleeve should be put on right side out, with the armseye 
 seam turned up on the shoulder, (z) The straight thread of the 
 material should fall in a straight line down the arm from the bone 
 in the shoulder. If the fulness is not so arranged as to do this the 
 location of the gathers should be changed, (u) If the sleeve is too 
 large or too small it should be changed on the lengthwise seam. 
 Shirt-waist sleeves should not be too tight. {Hi) The length should 
 be observed; there should be enough extra length over the elbow to 
 prevent the sleeve's pulling up at the back and away from the wrist 
 when the elbow is bent. 
 
 (8) Altering the Pattern. — After the fitting and before removing 
 the sleeve from the waist it should be so marked that it may be 
 put in again without difficulty, with the proper arrangement of 
 fulness. When the sleeve is taken out and the seam opened, all 
 required changes should be indicated with the tracing-wheel or 
 colored cotton and the paper pattern altered to correspond. The 
 paper pattern is to be kept for future use. 
 
 (9) Recasting the Pattern. — If many alterations have been neces- 
 sary, the sleeve should be rebasted and placed in the waist, follow- 
 ing the directions given for the first basting. 
 
 (10) Refitting the Pattern. — In refitting, the waist and sleeve 
 should be put on as before, with the armseye seam of the sleeve 
 turned to the shoulder. The sleeve should again be observed as 
 to fit and hang and any required changes made. 
 
190 Dressmaking 
 
 III. Foundation Skirt 
 /. Drafting the Pattern 
 
 REGULATION MEASURES 
 
 (i) Waist 26" 
 
 (2) Hip (first measure) 38" 
 
 (6" down.) 
 
 Depth of dart, 6". 
 
 (3) Hip (second measure) 43 " 
 
 (10" down; from 4" to 6" larger than first hip 
 measure.) 
 Depth of dart, 10". 
 
 (4) Length of front 40" 
 
 (5) Length of side 41" 
 
 (6) Length of back 41 " 
 
 Individual measures are taken as described in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 The skirt draft is based on the hip measure and the width of the 
 skirt at the bottom. No matter what these measures may be, the 
 method of procedure is practically the same for all, but the results 
 differ as the skirts are narrow or full; that is, for a narrow or straight 
 skirt the curve of the waist line is large and has little depth, and as 
 the skirt increases in width at the bottom the curve of the waist 
 becomes shorter and deeper. The two drafts shown here illustrate 
 this point. The regulation measures have been used; the first 
 skirt is about 60" in width at the bottom, the second is a few inches 
 less than three yards. 
 
 In drafting a skirt which is to measure less than two yards around 
 the bottom, 2" should be added to the full hip measure. This 
 augmented measure is then used in the construction and testing of 
 the draft. The 2" is removed later in the fitting by the use of 
 darts or gores. 
 
 This change in the hip measure is not required for full skirts, as 
 their width at the bottom gives sufficient size at the hip. 
 
 For making the draft, a piece of paper the length of the skirt plus 
 10" is needed. In the upper left-hand corner of it two lines at 
 right angles should be drawn. The work then proceeds as follows: 
 
 (1) To Determine the Rectangle Which Forms the Foundation for tin- 
 Draft: 
 
 AB = ]/ 2 the first hip measure (taken 6" down) marked 
 on the horizontal line. 
 
Tight-fitting skirt draft 
 
192 Dressmaking 
 
 AC = Ko of y 2 the desired width at the bottom of the 
 skirt, marked on the vertical line. While the 
 size of a skirt at the bottom is, in general, de- 
 termined by the prevailing fashion, it cannot be 
 an arbitrary amount, but must be regulated by 
 the hip measure in order to suit the figure of 
 the wearer. This is especially true when nar- 
 row skirts are worn. For a narrow skirt a little 
 more than i}4 times the hip measure may be 
 used. This may be increased to 1%, 2, 2%, 
 and 3 times the hip measure, as fashion demands 
 the wider skirt. 
 ABCD = The complete rectangle. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Waist Line: 
 
 BE = yi of yi the desired width at the bottom of the 
 skirt, measured in on the line BA from point B. 
 
 EF = A line drawn parallel to the line BD. Point F is 
 on the line CD. 
 
 CG = M of the line CF. 
 
 GH = The difference between the length of the front of 
 the skirt and the length of the side, measured 
 up from point G, a dotted line drawn at right 
 angles to the line CF. 
 CHE = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 waist line of the skirt. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Hip Line: 
 
 This hip line does not parallel the waist line. 
 
 HI = The first depth of dart, 6" ', measured down from 
 point H. The line HI should be drawn at 
 right angles to the waist line CH. 
 
 CJ = The first depth of dart measure, 6", less the dif- 
 ference between the front length and the side 
 length of the skirt. The line CJ should be 
 measured straight down from point C, a contin- 
 uation of the line AC. 
 EK = HI, the first depth of dart measure, 6", measured 
 down from point E. A dotted line drawn at 
 right angles to the line EH. This line is not 
 permanent in length or direction; it is used to 
 determine the general direction of the hip line. 
 Any difference between the length of the side 
 and the length of the back of the skirt must be 
 
Circular skirt draft 
 
194 Dressmaking 
 
 regulated later by changing the length of this 
 line, by raising or lowering the waist line at 
 point E. 
 JTK = Connect the three points with a curved line to 
 form the hip line. The line JI does not parallel 
 the line CH. The line IK must parallel the 
 line HE, as the lines HI and EK are equal in 
 length. On this line, JIK, measure y 2 the hip 
 measure, or the augmented hip measure if that 
 has been used, from point J through point I and 
 locate permanently point K. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Line at the Bottom: 
 This line at the bottom parallels the hip line. 
 
 CL = The full length of the front. 
 
 LM = The line for the bottom of the skirt. To get 
 the direction of this line, measure the line JL. 
 Using that amount, measure down from point I 
 and from point K, keeping the skirt-rule at right 
 angles to the hip line, JIK. Indicate these 
 lengths by dots. From point L, through these 
 dots, measure )4 the width of the bottom of the 
 skirt. The end of this line is marked point 
 M. This makes the hip line and bottom line 
 parallel. 
 EKM = The line for the centre back. This line must pass 
 through point K to give the required hip size, 
 even though in doing this it does not meet the 
 waist line at point E. If it falls at the right 
 or left of point E, the length of CHE, the waist 
 line, can be regulated later by darts. Before 
 locating this line, EKM, permanently, the 
 width of the skirt at the 12" hip measure 
 should also be tested, especially if the skirt is 
 narrow, in order to insure sufficient fulness at 
 that point. 
 
 (5) To Correct the Length of the Line KE and Locate Permanently 
 the Waist Line, HE: 
 
 In determining the line at the bottom of the skirt the length of 
 back and the length of side measures were made equal below the 
 hip line. In consequence, if the full length of back measure differs 
 from the full length of side measure as taken, the difference must be 
 adjusted either by adding to or subtracting from the centre-back 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 195 
 
 line above the hip line, measuring up from the point K. When 
 KE has been made the right length the waist line should be adjusted 
 by gradually raising or lowering it, as required, from point H to- 
 ward point E to give the desired curve. 
 
 The hip line, as has been said, should always parallel the line at 
 the bottom of the skirt, and all changes in length should be made 
 above it. It is above the hip line that the contour of the normal 
 figure varies. 
 
 This draft gives a foundation-skirt pattern of any desired width 
 without gore divisions. 
 
 77. Testing the Foundation-Skirt Pattern 
 
 Before proceeding beyond this point it is wise to test this founda- 
 tion skirt to the measures used to be sure that no mistakes have 
 been made in drafting. 
 
 (i) Hip Lines. — The hip line 6" down should be, for a straight 
 skirt, 2" more than the correct hip measure; for a full skirt, the cor- 
 rect hip measure; at 10" down, for the straight skirt, it should be the 
 required size; for a full skirt it will probably be more, but should 
 never be less, than the required size. 
 
 (2) Lengths. — The full lengths at centre front, centre back, and 
 side (over the hip) should correspond with the measures taken. 
 These lengths at centre front, centre back, and side should measure 
 exactly the same below the hip line. All differences in length should 
 be adjusted and indicated above that line. 
 
 (3) Waist Line. — In all skirt patterns less than two yards or two 
 and a half yards at the bottom there is extra width at the waist line. 
 In fitting the foundation pattern this extra width must be regulated 
 by darts, which will extend from the waist line below the 6" hip 
 line and take out the 2" added there. Most skirts measuring two 
 and a half or three yards at the bottom require small darts, if any, 
 because their width gives them a short and curving waist line. 
 
 The exact amount to be removed at the waist is determined 
 by subtracting one-half the correct waist measure from the waist 
 measure of the draft. This amount will vary as the relative size 
 of the waist and hip varies. A waist small in proportion to the 
 hip will require longer and deeper darts than a large one. It is 
 more satisfactory to use several small darts than one large one. 
 These darts must be carefully placed to give good shape to the pat- 
 tern. The largest, in depth and length, is always made over the 
 hip because of the greater curve of the figure at the hip. The 
 other, somewhat smaller darts should be placed at the side front 
 and side back. 
 
196 Dressmaking 
 
 In placing the darts the work is found to be much simplified if 
 some gore division, such as the four or six gore, is first indicated 
 on the pattern. If this is done the darts should then be so ar- 
 ranged as to give good seam-lines and good proportions to the 
 gores. Before any gore divisions are made the pattern should be 
 cut out, for convenience, along the drafted lines. 
 
 77/. Dividing the Foundation-Skirt Pattern into Gores 
 
 All the directions given in skirt cutting are for measures which 
 are approximately regulation. While it may not be possible to 
 follow them absolutely where individual measures vary greatly from 
 the regulation, they will serve to indicate, as do the directions for 
 gore divisions, a general method by which to work. 
 
 Directions for the division of skirts into gores are very difficult 
 to give, because the amount of fulness used in a skirt varies fre- 
 quently, as fashion demands, and with each variation requires a 
 change in the size and number of the gores. The directions given 
 here are merely suggestive and as such may serve as a foundation 
 for required variations. 
 
 In dividing a plain skirt into gores, divisions are indicated at the 
 hip line and at the bottom. The points showing these desired di- 
 visions are connected by lines which are continued to the waist line, 
 where all additional fulness is later taken out by the darts. 
 
 In all gore divisions the width of a gore at the bottom should 
 bear a certain proportionate relation to its size at the hip. As the 
 width at the bottom increases the proportion increases, or vice 
 versa. 
 
 (i) Four-Gore Divisions. — For a skirt which is at the bottom i}4 
 to 1^3 times the hip and is to have a front gore or panel, a back 
 gore or panel, and a side gore with dart at hip. 
 
 (a) Front Gore or Panel. 
 
 (i) At the hip line: % of }4 the hip measure. 
 (ii) At the bottom: \ l A times the width at the hip. 
 {Hi) Connect the points at the bottom and the hip with a line 
 which extends to the waist line. 
 
 (b) Back Gore or Panel. 
 
 (i) At the hip line: % of % the hip measure. 
 (ii) At the bottom: i^ times the width at the hip. 
 (Hi) Connect the points at the bottom and the hip with a line 
 which extends to the waist line. 
 
 (c) Line for Direction of Dart at the Hip. 
 
 (i) At the hip line: divide the remaining amount of the hip line 
 in half. 
 
L«- 
 
 Six-gore division 
 
198 Dressmaking 
 
 (ii) At the bottom: divide the remaining amount at the bottom 
 in half. 
 
 (Hi) Connect the points at the bottom and the hip with a dotted 
 line, which extends to the waist line. 
 
 (d) Darts to Remove Fulness at the Waist Line. 
 
 (i) Front gore or panel: y 4 " from the side seam. 
 
 (ii) Side gore: yi" from the front edge; yi" to K" from the back 
 edge. 
 
 (tit) Back gore or panel: l A" to H" from the side seam. 
 
 (iv) Dart at the hip: the remaining amount of extra fulness is 
 taken out on each side of the dart line in such proportion that the 
 sum of the front panel and half the side gore will equal the other 
 half of the side gore plus the back panel. 
 
 (2) Six-Gore Divisions. — A skirt with six gores may easily be 
 made from the four-gore skirt, which has the front and back panel 
 and the side gore with a dart. To do this the wide side gore is 
 made into two gores by extending the dart to form a seam the di- 
 rection for which is already determined. 
 
 (3) Five-Gore Divisions. — For a skirt which is at the bottom i}4 
 or 1^3 times the hip and is to have a back gore or panel, a side 
 gore, and a side front gore. 
 
 This gives a seam at the centre front which is very satisfactory 
 for wash skirts. 
 
 (a) Back Gore or Panel. 
 
 (i) At the hip line: y$ of yi the hip measure. 
 (it) At the bottom: i}4 times the width at the hip. 
 (Hi) Connect the points at the bottom and the hip with a line 
 which extends to the waist line. 
 
 (b) Front and Side Gores. 
 
 (i) At the hip line: divide the whole hip line in half and mark 1" 
 to the front. 
 
 (it) At the bottom: divide the remaining amount from the back 
 gore to the centre front in half and mark 1" to the front. 
 
 (Hi) Connect the points at the bottom and the hip with a line 
 which extends to the waist line. 
 
 (c) Darts to Remove Extra Fulness at Waist Line. — These vary 
 according to the proportion of the waist to the hip and the width 
 of the skirt at the bottom. 
 
 (i) Back gore or panel: %" to J4" from the side seam. 
 (ii) Front gore: iK" to \%" from the back edge. 
 (Hi) Side gore: X" to iX" from the front edge; H" to \%" 
 from the back edge. 
 
M 
 
 Five-gore division 
 
200 Dressmaking 
 
 (4) Two-Gore Divisions. — A skirt with two gores, having a seam 
 at the side, may be designed from the five-gore pattern. The side 
 seam is placed as in the five-gore skirt and all the fulness at the 
 waist is taken out there. 
 
 (5) Seven-Gore Division. — For a skirt which is at the bottom iK 
 or 1^ times the hip and is to have a front gore or panel and three 
 side gores. 
 
 This gives a seam at the centre back and three side seams. 
 
 (a) Front Gore or Panel. 
 
 (i) At the hip line: % of ]/ 2 the hip measure. 
 
 (ii) At the bottom: \]/ 2 times the width at the hip. 
 
 (b) Gores. — Divide the remaining space in thirds at the hip and 
 at the bottom. 
 
 (i) First gore: [a] At the hip line: add y 2 " . [b] At the bottom: 
 add 1 ". 
 
 (ii) Second gore: (This has lost yi" at the hip and 1" at the 
 bottom. To make it equal in size to the first gore, twice as much 
 must be added to it as has been added to the first gore.) [a] At 
 the hip line: add 1". [b] At the bottom: add 2". 
 
 (Hi) Third gore: This is formed by the remainder. 
 
 By this division the two side-front gores are equal in size, while 
 the third gore is smaller. This gives less width to the figure at the 
 back. 
 
 (c) Darts to Remove Extra Fulness at the Waist Line. — These vary 
 according to the proportion of the waist to the hip and to the 
 width of the skirt at the bottom. In making darts to remove the 
 extra fulness, the larger amounts should be taken out on the seams 
 falling nearest the hip, where there is the greatest curve of the 
 figure; the least should be taken out near the front, except for a 
 figure which is very large there. A medium amount should be 
 taken out in the back, depending on the curve of the figure. 
 
 IV. Fitting the Pattern 
 
 After the drafting is finished and the gore divisions made there 
 are certain directions to be followed preliminary to the cutting of 
 patterns in material for fitting. 
 
 (1) Testing the Draft. — The draft is already carefully tested and, 
 where necessary, corrected. As a result: 
 
 (a) It should be the correct size at the waist, hip, and around the 
 bottom. 
 
 (b) The hip line should parallel the bottom line of the skirt. 
 
 (c) In addition, if there are gores, they must now be tested and 
 
Seven-gore division 
 
202 Dressmaking 
 
 their lines trued. As has been said, in drafting a skirt all its lengths 
 are made the same from the hip line to the floor, but above the 
 hip they vary. In dividing a skirt into gores and removing the ex- 
 tra fulness at the waist by the use of d;irts, all the seam-lines of the 
 gores are necessarily made more uneven in length, because they are 
 given curves which vary according to the location of the seam and 
 the consequent size of the dart; the larger the dart the more curved 
 the edge of the gore. In making these lines true either the 6" or the 
 10" hip line is used as a guide, depending on the point where the 
 dart lines meet. With the point where the two side lines of the dart 
 meet at the hip line as a pivot and with the distance from this point 
 on the hip line to the waist line measured on the original dividing 
 line of the two gores as a radius, an arc should be swung cutting the 
 two side lines of the dart. The points determined in this way give 
 the correct length of those lines. 
 
 (2) Seam Allowances for a Paper Pattern. — In general it is much 
 simpler to use a paper pattern which is cut out exactly along the 
 drafted lines than one which has the necessary allowances added to 
 it for all seams. This is especially true of a skirt pattern which is 
 cut into gores and may be used as a foundation for the making of 
 many designs. In such work seam allowances would be found a 
 great inconvenience. 
 
 If it is thought necessary to add them, however, they should be 
 as follows: 1" on all lengthwise seams; yi" at the waist line. 
 
 (3) Marking the Paper Pattern. 
 
 (a) For a Plain Skirt with Darts. — The hip line should be traced 
 with the wheel and all dart lines should be distinctly indicated, 
 but the darts should not be cut open. If seam allowances have 
 been made the waist line and the seam-lines should be marked. 
 
 (b) For a Skirl with Gores. — The pattern must be cut apart into 
 gores for use. Before this is done (■/) the hip line should be care- 
 fully traced with the wheel. It is necessary in basting the gores 
 together and in fitting the pattern, (ii) Each gore should be marked 
 with numbers to indicate its position in the skirt, and correspond- 
 ing edges should be marked with corresponding notches. The 
 grain of the paper is not a correct guide in placing the straight and 
 bias edges. If seam allowances are desired in the pattern these 
 gores must be placed on paper and new gores traced and cut. 
 
 (4) Placing the Paper Pattern on the Material and Cutting. — Even 
 though these patterns are to be cut in inexpensive materials for the 
 first fittings, attention should be paid to the economy of material 
 by careful placing. Half the pattern is never satisfactory for fit- 
 ting. The complete garment, carefully cut, traced, and basted, is 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 203 
 
 absolutely necessary for good results. When possible, all pieces 
 of the pattern should be cut at the same time with corresponding 
 ones together. This saves confusion and duplication especially 
 when there are many gores. 
 
 (a) In general, the wide end of a gore is placed to the cut end 
 of the material. This brings the top of the gore into the body of 
 the material, and by placing the second gore on in the opposite 
 way its narrow end will slip by that of the first and thus length 
 of material is saved. 
 
 (b) In cutting the plain skirt there may be a seam at the centre 
 front and centre back. The centre front must be on the straight 
 of the material. The centre back then falls on the bias. 
 
 (c) In the skirts with gores there are two suggestions which may 
 be found helpful: 
 
 (i) All centre-front and centre-back panels usually have their 
 centre lines placed on a straight lengthwise fold of material. 
 
 (ii) The front edge of all other gores generally falls on the 
 straight of the material, below the hip line; that is, below the curve 
 made by the dart. 
 
 After the pattern is arranged with attention to the straight of 
 the material, the seam allowances necessary for fitting should be 
 measured and the pattern pinned in place and cut. 
 
 The seam allowances for the cloth pattern are the same as those 
 already suggested for the paper; that is, i" on all lengthwise seams; 
 }4" at the waist line. 
 
 No allowance need be made for a hem in the pattern, as the 
 skirt measures were taken to the floor and the skirt drafted that 
 length. If the skirt is cut exactly like the pattern 2" at least of 
 its length may be used for a hem. 
 
 (5) Marking the Cloth Pattern. — The cloth pattern should be 
 marked to indicate the exact size of the pattern as drafted, to give 
 the correct seam-lines. A tracing-wheel may be used, supplemented, 
 where necessary, by colored bastings. 
 
 (a) For the plain or foundation skirt with darts a tracing should 
 be made: 
 
 (i) Around the pattern, to indicate the waist line and the seam- 
 lines. 
 
 (ii) Through the hip line. 
 
 (Hi) Through any gore divisions which are already indicated in 
 the pattern as an aid in fitting and in locating the necessary darts. 
 
 (iv) To indicate all darts (which, as has been said, are not to be 
 cut). 
 
 In addition to these tracings colored bastings should be placed 
 
204 Dressmaking 
 
 in the hip and waist lines. They prevent the loss of these lines 
 and also aid in indicating their direction during the fitting. 
 
 (b) For all skirts with gores a tracing should be made: 
 
 (/) Around each gore, to indicate the waist line and the seam- 
 lines. 
 
 (ii) Through the hip line of each gore. 
 
 (Hi) To indicate any darts (which are not to be cut) where there 
 are not seams, as in the four-gore skirt. 
 
 In addition to these tracings colored bastings should be placed 
 as in the plain foundation skirt, and marks should be made to in- 
 dicate the position of the gores in the skirt. 
 
 (6) Basting the Pattern. 
 
 (a) All seams and darts should be basted with white thread, as 
 colored is needed to indicate the hip and waist lines and later 
 alterations. 
 
 (/;) Scams should be pinned together before basting. In joining 
 any seams the hip lines should be carefully matched and the pinning 
 done from that point, up and down. If the seam-lines have been 
 trued they will be of equal length; but in any case the hip lines 
 must match. 
 
 (c) While basting, the work should be placed on a table and kept 
 there until finished. Long seams cannot be satisfactorily pinned 
 or basted if held in the lap. 
 
 (d) In joining gores: 
 
 (/) An edge which is straight below the hip and an edge which is 
 bias frequently fall together, as in the five-gore skirt, in which the 
 straight front edge of the side gore is joined to the bias back edge 
 of the front gore. 
 
 In pinning such scams together the bias edge must be held to- 
 ward the worker; that is, the gore with the straight edge is placed 
 on the table and the gore having the bias edge is then placed on it. 
 In this way the bias is not stretched. 
 
 (ii) Two bias edges may fall together, one more bias than the 
 other, as in the five-gore skirt, in which the slightly bias edge of 
 the back gore or panel is joined to the more bias back edge of the 
 side gore. In pinning such seams together the more bias edge 
 must be held toward the worker. 
 
 (Hi) Two equally bias edges may fall together, as is often seen 
 in the centre-back seam or in two-piece skirts having a seam at the 
 side. In joining such seams care must be taken to join them evenly 
 and not to stretch the edges. 
 
 (e) In basting darts: 
 
 In both pinning and basting the work should begin at the end 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 205 
 
 or point of the dart and go toward the waist. Care must be taken 
 to baste smoothly without fulness along either line. The dart, 
 when basted, should form on the right side of the skirt an outward 
 curve to correspond with the curve of the figure. Darts must not 
 be cut open until after the fitting, as they often require altering. 
 
 (/) Basting plackets: 
 
 A 12" opening is a regulation length. Additional length may be 
 required if the skirt is made for a stout person. 
 
 (/) If the placket is in the centre-back seam, both edges should 
 be turned back along the seam-line and basted flat. 
 
 (ii) If the placket is at one side of a panel, the panel edge should 
 be turned back along the seam-line and basted flat. The edge of 
 the gore should be allowed to extend and its seam-line should be 
 distinctly marked. 
 
 (7) Filling the Pattern. 
 
 (a) For the first skirt-fitting it is wise to use a skirt with but 
 few indicated seams or gores, such as the plain foundation pattern 
 or the six-gore pattern, (i) If the foundation pattern is used it may 
 be cut with seams at the centre front and centre back and may 
 have the four-gore divisions indicated on it in pencil. The centre- 
 front and centre-back seams give an even division of the skirt 
 which simplifies fitting. The placket may be placed in the centre- 
 back seam. The indicated lines of the four-gore division — which 
 is one of the simplest — determine the position and direction of the 
 darts without difficulty, (ii) If the six-gore skirt is used it may 
 be cut with a centre-front and a centre-back panel and a side scam. 
 The placket may be at the left side of the back panel. 
 
 (b) In the first fitting the fit and hang of the skirt should be given 
 the most attention; in the second fitting the direction of the seams 
 and the general proportion of the gores in relation to the figure 
 should be observed and altered as required. 
 
 (c) Before any fitting is done it is necessary to have a belt made, 
 to which the skirt may be attached either before or during the 
 fitting. It is usually more satisfactory to join the belt to the skirt 
 during the fitting, as in the directions here, but it may be done 
 before if desired. Cotton belting %"' or 1" wide may be used for 
 a belt. It should be cut 2" longer than the waist measure. To 
 prepare it, the extra 2" is turned to the wrong side, 1" at each 
 end, to serve as a foundation for the necessary fasteners. Hooks 
 and eyes should be used and so placed as to make the belt, when 
 finished, the correct size. To do this the hooks should come to 
 within yi" of the end and the eyes should extend just enough beyond 
 the other end of the belt to fasten easily, about yi". The centre 
 
206 Dressmaking 
 
 of the belt should be marked with a colored thread to serve as a 
 guide. 
 
 (d) In fitting, the belt is first adjusted; it should be put on right 
 side out, with its lower edge exactly at the normal waist line, from 
 which all lengthwise skirt measures were taken. Its opening must 
 be placed to correspond with the placket 0I the skirt. The skirt 
 should also be put on right side out. All darts and gore divisions 
 are more easily seen and their general directions appreciated if 
 the seams are on the inside, though they may not be as easy to 
 adjust if any changes are necessary. After the skirt is settled to 
 the figure the placket should be pinned up exactly on the indi- 
 cated lines. 
 
 (e) Only one side of the skirt, the right side, should be fitted. 
 The other is altered to correspond after the skirt has been taken off. 
 Exceptions to the above directions may be necessary, however. 
 If the right and left sides of a person vary greatly both sides of the 
 skirt should be fitted. 
 
 (/) In attaching the skirt to the belt it should be pinned to it at 
 the centre front, centre back, and at each side. Even though but 
 half of the skirt is to be fitted, it must be carefully attached to the 
 belt all the way around. The traced waist line of the skirt should 
 fall exactly along the lower edge of the belt. When all this is done 
 the skirt is ready for inspection. 
 
 (g) No alterations should be made until the general fit of the 
 skirt has been observed. 
 
 (/) The darts or seams should extend at right angles to the waist 
 line. Even though the skirt fits well, [a] if the seams run toward 
 the front as they near the bottom of the skirt they give a very ugly 
 appearance and should be altered; or [b] if the darts are not in good 
 direction and well placed their position should be changed. 
 
 (//) The skirt should fit smoothly from waist to hip and, below 
 the hip, fall straight to the floor. 
 
 (Hi) The skirt should not poke out from the figure in an ungainly 
 way at the front, back, or side. 
 
 (iv) The line around the bottom should parallel the floor. 
 
 (h) In fitting, care should be taken lest too much be done, as is 
 the tendency especially with the inexperienced. 
 
 (/) The hip line and the line around the bottom should parallel 
 the floor and each other. If the hip line does not parallel the floor 
 a new one should be established. A hip line which drops at the 
 back may cause the whole skirt to drop at the back. This usually, 
 by throwing the fulness forward, makes the skirt stand out at the 
 centre front. The skirt should be raised a little at the centre back; 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 207 
 
 this may necessitate opening the dart to regulate the amount of 
 fulness included in it, or changing the seam at the side back, to 
 alter slightly its direction. Too much lifting must not be done, as 
 it spoils the general hang of the skirt. If the skirt is raised or low- 
 ered at the waist line it must be very carefully readjusted to the 
 belt and a new waist line indicated. 
 
 (ii) Very often a wide, flat figure with rather prominent hip 
 bones will cause a skirt to pull up and stand away from the figure 
 at the side. This may usually be remedied by freeing the skirt 
 from the band and dropping it a little just over the hips to give 
 extra length. After making this change the direction of the hip 
 line must be corrected and also the line around the bottom. 
 
 {Hi) If the skirt is too tight or too loose at the waist it may 
 easily be regulated by changing the darts or seams, taking care to 
 keep their general direction good. As has been said, all dart lines 
 must run at right angles to the waist line. The darts must also 
 taper to a point at the hip and be of sufficient length to give the 
 skirt good shape. 
 
 (iv) If the skirt is too tight or too loose below the hips the fitting 
 may be done in the seams, usually at the centre back in the plain 
 skirt and in the side-back seam of the six-gore skirt. 
 
 (v) If the line around the bottom is not good the skirt must be 
 rehung. This may be done by a variety of methods. A small 
 skirt-marker which carries chalk, a square, or a stiff card notched 
 to the correct depth may be used. As has been said, 2" from the 
 floor is a satisfactory length for a pattern. In marking a skirt the 
 wearer should stand in her ordinary position, and, if possible, on a 
 table or stand, to lessen the task of the worker. 
 
 (vi) After the fitting is finished but before the skirt is taken off 
 all the necessary changes must be plainly indicated by chalk, pen- 
 cil, or pins to insure satisfactory alterations. 
 
 (8) Altering the Pattern. — In taking off the skirt, if the direction 
 of the placket has been changed the pins should be left in one side 
 to indicate the change of line. 
 
 After the skirt is removed all the changes, no matter how trifling, 
 must be marked in the fitted side with the tracing-wheel or colored 
 cotton. If colored cotton is used it should be unlike that already 
 used for waist and hip lines. The tracing-wheel requires less time 
 and is as satisfactory as the cotton (for all except waist and hip), 
 unless the new tracings cannot easily be distinguished from the 
 original, in which case the basting must be done. Pins are not 
 satisfactory to indicate alterations, except temporarily, as they so 
 often drop out. 
 
208 Dressmaking 
 
 The waist and hip lines must be marked with cotton if any change 
 has been made. None of the old lines should be lost, as they are 
 needed as guides in placing the two sides of the skirt together to 
 make corresponding alterations. 
 
 The care with which the alterations are marked has much to do 
 with the final success of the pattern. 
 
 In the plain skirt all the darts should be opened so that the two 
 sides of the skirt may be placed together, with the original hip and 
 waist lines matching. In the gored skirt all seams which have been 
 changed should be opened and the gores placed on corresponding 
 ones, with the original waist and hip lines matching. All necessary 
 corrections may then be indicated on the unfitted side, but before 
 rebasting all changes should be indicated on the paper pattern, 
 which is to be kept for future use. 
 
 (o) Rebasting the Pattern. — If many alterations have been neces- 
 sary the skirt should be rebastcd along the new lines, following the 
 directions given for the first basting. In addition, the skirt should 
 be attached to the belt for the second fitting. In doing this the 
 work should be held over the hand with the belt inside the skirt 
 and away from the worker, so that the skirt may be eased to it. 
 Care must be taken to have the two sides of the skirt even. 
 
 (10) Refuting the Pattern. — For refitting, the skirt should again 
 be put on right side out. There may be a few changes necessary 
 on the left side if it differs materially from the right. These should 
 be made and the same points observed as in the first fitting. 
 
 In addition, the gore divisions should be much more carefully 
 considered as to the general direction of line and the proportionate 
 size of the gores. 
 
 Directions cannot be given for any corrections or changes which 
 may be required in this, as it depends on the figure of the wearer 
 and also somewhat upon the taste of the wearer and the demands 
 of the current fashion. 
 
 Appreciation for good proportion can be gained only by work in 
 design, by observation, comparison, and discrimination. 
 
 After the pattern has been satisfactorily fitted it is an excellent 
 plan to use it as a basis for different gore divisions and, as sug- 
 gested under Designing, for various more elaborate designs. 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 209 
 
 IV. Tight-Fitting Waist and Collar 
 /. Drafting the Patterns 
 
 REGULATION MEASURES 
 (i) WAIST 
 
 Length Measures — 
 
 (i) Length of back 15" 
 
 (2) Length of front 1 5 y 2 " 
 
 (3) Depth of dart %y 2 " 
 
 (4) Length of underarm 7 yi " 
 
 Width Measures— 
 
 (1) Width of back 13^" 
 
 (2) Width of chest 14" 
 
 (3) Bust 37" 
 
 (4) Waist 25" 
 
 (5) Neck 13" 
 
 (6) Armseye 15" 
 
 (2) COLLAR 
 
 (1) Base of neck 13" 
 
 (2) Top of neck 12}* 
 
 (3) Height at back 2 ^ 
 
 (4) Height at front 2 y A 
 
 (5) Height at side 3 " 
 
 Individual measures are taken as described in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 tight-fitting waist 
 
 This waist pattern is composed of five pieces: the centre front, 
 side front, underarm, side back, and centre back. These may all 
 be made, side by side, on one sheet of drafting-paper about one 
 and a half yards in length. The foundation lines are practically 
 the same as for the shirt-waist. The centre and side back are 
 drafted together and the centre and side front, while the under- 
 arm is placed in a separate rectangle. 
 
 The centre and side back are drafted first. 
 
 Centre and Side Back 
 In the upper left-hand corner of the paper two lines at right 
 angles and of indefinite length should be drawn. The work then 
 proceeds as follows: 
 
£10 Dressmaking , 
 
 (i) To Determine the Foundation Lines: 
 
 AB = Length of back, marked on the vertical line. 
 B = Draw a line at right angles to the line AB to in- 
 dicate the waist line. 
 AC = y 2 of the line AB. Draw a line at right angles 
 
 to the line AB to indicate the bust line. 
 AD = yi of the line AC. Draw a line at right angles to 
 the line AB to indicate the width of back line. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Neck Line: 
 
 AE = % of the neck measure, marked on the horizontal 
 
 line from point A. 
 EF = y A " above point E, a dotted line drawn at right 
 
 angles to line AE. 
 AF = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 
 neck line. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Centre-Back Line: 
 
 BG = 1" measured in on the waist line B. 
 
 AG = New centre-back line. On this line mark the 
 points of intersection at point D and point C 
 as D 2 C 2 and use these points in measuring all 
 widths. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Shoulder Line: 
 
 D 2 H = y 2 the width of back. 
 
 HI = AE, which is % of the neck measure, a dotted 
 line drawn at right angles to the line D 2 H at 
 point H. For sloping shoulders subtract yi" 
 from the line; for square shoulders add %" to 
 the line. 
 
 I J = H" to the right from point I, a dotted line drawn 
 at right angles to the line HI. 
 
 FJ = Connect these points to form the shoulder line. 
 
 (5) To Determine Side Lines of Centre Back and Side Back : 
 
 C 2 K = K of the bust measure minus 2J4". 
 GL = Ko of the waist measure on the waist line B. 
 FM = /2 of the shoulder line FJ. 
 ML = side line of the centre back. 
 LN = y" measured to the right from point L on the 
 
 waist line B. 
 MN = Line of the side back. This line coincides with the 
 
 line ML from M to the point of its intersection 
 
 with the line C 2 K. 
 NO = % of the waist measure on the waist line B. 
 

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 00 
 
 Ss 
 
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 CN 
 
 
 <D 
 
 <o 
 
212 Dressmaking 
 
 OP = Underarm measure plus \ l A", drawn from point 
 O through point K. The end of this line is 
 marked point P. This seam falls a few inches 
 back of the centre underarm and must, in con- 
 sequence, be longer than the underarm meas- 
 ure. 
 
 (6) To Determine the Armseye: 
 
 JHP = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 armseye. 
 
 (7) To Determine the Basque: 
 
 GQ =4" measured down from point G with the ruler 
 
 placed on points FGQ. 
 LR =4" measured down from point L at right angles to 
 
 the waist line B. 
 NR = Line connecting these points. 
 OS =4" measured down from point O with the ruler 
 
 placed on points MOS. 
 QRS = Connecting line to form the bottom of the basque 
 
 for the centre and side back. 
 
 (8) To Determine the Curve of the Shoulder Seam : 
 
 MM 2 = }i" down from point M, a dotted line drawn at 
 
 right angles to the line FJ. 
 FM 2 J = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 
 to form the shoulder. 
 
 Underarm ■ 
 
 Extend the waist line B to form the waist line of the underarm. 
 The work then proceeds as follows: 
 
 (1) To Determine the Foundation Lines: 
 
 AB = Underarm measure plus i}4", drawn at right 
 
 angles to the waist line B. 
 BC = % of the waist measure on the waist line B. 
 ABCD = Complete the rectangle. The line DC parallels 
 
 the line AB. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Back and Front Lines: 
 
 AE = }/i" measured in from point A on the line AD. 
 
 EB = Connect these two points with a curved line 
 starting from point E, meeting the line AB half- 
 way down, and continuing straight to point B. 
 
 CF = Underarm measure on the line CD, measured up 
 from point C. 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 213 
 
 (3) To Determine the Armseye: 
 
 EF = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 armseye. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Basque: 
 
 EG = X A of the curved line EF. 
 
 BH =4" measured down from point B with the ruler 
 
 placed on points GBH. 
 CI =4" measured down from point C with the ruler 
 
 placed on points GCI. 
 HI = Connecting line to form the bottom of the basque 
 
 for the underarm. 
 
 Centre and Side Front 
 
 Extend the line A of the back of the waist across the sheet and 
 draw a line at right angles to it in the upper right-hand corner for 
 the centre-front line of the pattern. The work then proceeds as 
 follows: 
 
 (1) To Determine the Foundation Lines: 
 
 AB = The difference between one-half of the bust meas- 
 ure and the sum of the centre-back, side-back, 
 and underarm pieces at the bust line C, marked 
 on the horizontal line from point A. 
 
 BC = Length of back, a line drawn at right angles to the 
 line BA. 
 
 BD = yi of the line BC. 
 
 AD 2 = BD. Connect points DD 2 . This line is a con- 
 tinuation of the width of back line DH. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Neck Line: 
 
 AF = ]/ t of the neck measure plus }4", marked on the 
 
 horizontal line AB. 
 AG = J4 of the neck measure plus 24", marked on the 
 
 vertical line from point A. 
 FG = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 
 neck line. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Shoulder Line: 
 
 BH = K of the line BD. 
 H = Line of indefinite length drawn at right angles to 
 the line BD. This serves as a construction 
 line for the shoulder. 
 FI = Shoulder line, which should be %" shorter than 
 the shoulder line of the back. The square is 
 placed on point F and swung until the desired 
 
214 Dressmaking 
 
 length of shoulder touches the line H. This es- 
 tablishes point I. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Underarm Seam: 
 
 D 2 J = yi the width of front, measured in on the chest 
 line D 2 D from the centre-front line A. 
 
 CK = y 2 " measured out, to the left, from point C on the 
 waist line. 
 
 CL = The height of underarm, measured up from point 
 C on the line CB. 
 
 KL = Underarm line. Connect these two points with a 
 curved line starting from point K, meeting the 
 line CL half-way up, and continuing straight to 
 point L. 
 
 (5) To Determine the Armseye: 
 
 FK = Connect these two points with a dotted line. 
 M = At the point of intersection of the line FK with 
 the extension of the bust line C of the back of 
 the waist mark point M. 
 GN = Length of front, measured from point G on the 
 centre-front line A. Extend this line 4" below 
 point N for the basque. 
 N = Draw an indefinite line at right angles to the line 
 GN to indicate the waist line. 
 NMO = i l /i" measured up from point M with the ruler 
 
 placed on points NMO. 
 IJOL = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 armseye. 
 
 (6) To Determine the Side Lines of the Centre Front and Side 
 
 Front : 
 D 2 P = ]/ 2 of the line D 2 J, the width of front, minus Y", 
 
 measured from point D 2 . 
 PQ = Line drawn from point P, at right angles to the 
 line JD 2 , and touching the waist line N at 
 point Q. 
 R = Height of dart, measured from point G, touching 
 the line PQ at point R. 
 NS = % of the line NQ. This is the waist line of the 
 
 centre front. 
 FT = ^ of the shoulder line FI. 
 TRS = Side line of centre front. Draw a straight line 
 from point T to point R and a slightly inward 
 curving line from point R to point S. 
 
Drafting and Pattern -Making 215 
 
 KU m Waist line for side front. Ii equals the difference 
 between half the w;iist measure and t he sum of 
 the waist measures of the centre hack, GL, the 
 side back, NO, the underarm, BC, and the cen- 
 tre front, NS. As a guide for the direction of 
 the trial line, place the square on point K and 
 touch on the centre front line about 4" below 
 point N. 
 
 RU = Side line of the side front. Beginning 1" above 
 point R on the line TR, draw a curved line in- 
 side point R to point U. The line KU should 
 now be so drawn that the line RU is %" longer 
 than the line RS. 
 
 RU = RS plus X". 
 
 (7) To Determine the Basque: 
 
 NV =4" measured down from point N. 
 
 SW =4" measured down from point S at right angles to 
 
 the line SN. 
 UX = 4" measured down from point U with a ruler 
 
 placed on points AUX. 
 KY = 4" measured down from point K with a ruler 
 
 placed on points AKY. 
 WV = Connecting line to form the bottom of the centre 
 
 front. 
 YX = Connecting line to form the bottom of the side 
 
 front. 
 
 (8) To Determine the Curve of the Shoulder Seam: 
 
 IP = yi of the line IT, which is X the shoulder, 
 pp _ y^ii U p f rom p i n t p ; a dotted line drawn at right 
 angles to the line IT. 
 IPT = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 to form the shoulder. 
 TF = Remains unchanged. 
 
 The lengthwise seams may now be slightly curved near the 
 waist line or it may be done when the pattern is cut. 
 
 This draft gives a fitted waist without fulness, which serves as 
 a foundation or lining. 
 
 COLLAR 
 
 The collar pattern is composed of one piece, one-half the collar. 
 It may be made on the same sheet of drafting-paper with the 
 tight-fitting waisl or on a small piece by itself. 
 
216 Dress making 
 
 Two lines at right angles and of indefinite length should be drawn. 
 The work then proceeds as follows: 
 
 (i) To Determine the Foundation Lines: 
 
 AB = yi the size at the base of the neck, marked on the 
 
 horizontal line. 
 AC = Height of neck at the side, marked on the vertical 
 line. 
 ABCD = Complete the rectangle. The line BD parallels 
 the line AC. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Top Line of the Collar: 
 
 AE = yi of the line AB plus %", measured over from 
 
 point A. 
 CF = Height of the neck at the front, measured up from 
 
 point C. 
 DG = Height of the neck at the back, measured up from 
 point D. 
 FEG = Connect these points with a curved line to form 
 the top of the collar. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Darts: 
 
 CH = ]/ 2 of the line CD plus j4", measured over from 
 
 point C. 
 EH = Dotted line connecting these two points to give 
 
 the direction of the dart. 
 EI = K of the line EH. Measure yi" to the right and 
 
 %" to the left of point I and draw curves from 
 
 E to H through these two points. (These two 
 
 curves must be regulated by the curve of the 
 
 neck.) 
 EJ = yi of the line EB. 
 HK = yi of the line HD. 
 JK = Dotted line connecting these two points to give 
 
 the direction of the dart. 
 LM = Difference between the size at the bottom and at 
 
 the top of the collar. Half this amount must 
 
 be taken out each side of point J. 
 LK = Connect these two points to form the curved side 
 
 line of the dart. 
 MK — Connect these two points to form the curved side 
 
 line of the dart. 
 
 Both these lines should curve outward from the line JK to fit the 
 inward curve of the neck. 
 
 This draft gives a plain fitted collar. 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 217 
 
 II. Fitting the Patterns 
 
 After the drafting is finished there are certain directions to be 
 followed preliminary to the cutting of patterns in material for 
 fitting. 
 
 (i) Testing the Draft. — The drafts should be carefully tested to 
 the measures used and, if necessary, corrected. 
 
 (a) Waist. 
 
 (i) The length of back must be exact, and the width of back, 
 and the bust lines in proper position. 
 
 (ii) The size of the bust should equal the measure as taken, 
 measuring all pieces of the waist on the bust line. 
 
 (Hi) The waist line should equal the measure as taken, measur- 
 ing all pieces of the waist on the waist line. 
 
 (iv) The width of back and the width of chest must correspond 
 to the measures taken. 
 
 (v) The two seams of the underarm piece should match the 
 seams to which they will be joined in the basting of the waist. 
 
 (vi) It is important to measure the neck of the front and back 
 carefully. In measuring any curved lines the tape-measure should 
 be held upright; that is, on edge, with the numbered edge on the 
 paper. 
 
 (vii) The two side-front seams should correspond; that is, RU 
 of the side front should equal RS of the centre front plus yi" . 
 
 If any of these measures vary much from the required size there 
 has, without doubt, been a mistake in following the drafting direc- 
 tions, in which case the pattern should be redrafted and the mis- 
 take rectified before proceeding with the work. 
 
 (b) Cottar. — The testing of the collar is comparatively simple. 
 (i) The size at top and bottom should be measured and (ii) the 
 heights at centre front, centre back, and side. 
 
 (2) Seam Allowances for a Paper Pattern. — In general, it is simpler 
 to use a paper pattern which is cut out exactly along the drafted 
 lines than one which has the necessary allowances added to it for 
 all seams. If it is thought necessary, however, to add them they 
 should be as follows: 
 
 (a) Waist: 1" on all lengthwise seams; 1" on the shoulder seam; 
 }4" at the neck and armseye. 
 
 (b) Collar: 1" at the centre back; H" at the top and bottom 
 edges. 
 
 (3) Marking the Paper Pattern. 
 
 (a) Waist. — The pattern must be cut apart for use. Before 
 this is done it is wise to mark with corresponding notches or trac- 
 
218 Dressmaking 
 
 ings the edges which are later to be joined. In addition to this 
 (i) the waist line on the five pieces, (it) the width of back, (Hi) 
 the width of chest line, and (iv) the depth of the dart, point R, on 
 the centre and side fronts, should all be distinctly marked. If 
 seam allowances are desired in the pattern all the pieces except the 
 underarm must be placed on paper and new pieces traced and cut. 
 (b) Collar. — The whole collar pattern should be cut. This is 
 done by folding the paper at the centre front and tracing the out- 
 line of the collar. The centre and side lines of the darts should be 
 indicated. 
 
 (4) Placing the Paper Pattern on the Material and Cutting. 
 
 (a) Waist. — Economy of material should always be considered in 
 placing the pieces of this pattern. The complete pattern must be 
 cut in order to give a satisfactory fitting. When possible, all 
 pieces of the pattern should be cut at the same time, with cor- 
 responding ones together. This saves confusion and duplication. 
 In placing this pattern on the material the following lines should 
 be used as guides and placed on the straight crosswise threads of 
 the material: the width of back line for the centre and side backs, 
 the chest line for the centre and side fronts, and the waist line 
 for the underarm. After the pattern is arranged with attention to 
 the straight of the material the seam allowances should be meas- 
 ured and the pattern pinned in place and cut. The seam allowances 
 for the cloth pattern are the same as those already suggested for the 
 paper; that is, 1" on all lengthwise seams; 1" on the shoulder seam; 
 yi" at neck and armseye; no allowance is needed at the bottom. 
 
 (b) Collar. — The whole collar should be cut, as in the paper. 
 In placing it on the material the centre-front line AC should be 
 on a crosswise thread and the bottom line on a lengthwise thread 
 of material. After this is arranged the seam allowances should be 
 measured and the pattern pinned in place and cut. The size at 
 the bottom should correspond to the neck measure and the size 
 of the neck in the waist pattern as well. The seam allowances for 
 the cloth pattern should be the same as those already suggested 
 for the paper; that is, 1" at the centre back of the collar; yi" at 
 the top and at the bottom. 
 
 (5) Marking the Cloth Pattern. 
 
 (a) Waist. — The cloth pattern should be marked to indicate the 
 exact size of the pattern as drafted, to give the correct seam-lines. 
 A tracing-wheel may be used, supplemented where necessary by 
 colored bastings. A tracing should be made to indicate: (7') all seam- 
 lines, the centre-front, the side-front, the two underarm, the side- 
 back, the centre-back, and the shoulder; (ii) the neck line; (Hi) the 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 
 
 219 
 
 armseye; (iv) the waist line; (v) the depth of dart point on both 
 the centre and the side front seams. 
 
 In addition to these tracings, colored bastings should be placed 
 in the neck, armseye, waist, and centre-back lines. They prevent 
 the loss of these lines and 
 also aid in indicating their 
 direction during the fit- 
 ting. 
 
 (b) Collar. — A tracing 
 should be made around the 
 entire collar and through 
 the centre and side lines 
 of the darts. The centre 
 front and centre backs 
 should be indicated by 
 colored bastings. 
 
 (6) Basting the Pattern. 
 
 (a) Waist. — All seams 
 should be basted with white 
 thread, as colored is used 
 for marking and altera- 
 tions. Fine stitches should 
 be used and the thread well 
 fastened. Seams should be 
 pinned together before 
 basting. 
 
 (i) For the lengthwise 
 seams tracings should be 
 matched at the neck, at the 
 waist, at the shoulder, and 
 at the armseye, and both 
 the pinning and basting 
 should be done between the 
 points. As the waist is to 
 fasten at the centre back, 
 that seam should not be 
 basted, but the seam allowance should be turned in and basted flat. 
 
 Exception. — In basting the centre front and the side front together 
 the more bias edge of the side front should be toward the worker, and 
 care should be taken to stretch the bias edge of the side front from i " 
 below the waist line to the bust. This helps to spring the lining 
 into the curve of the waist. The shoulder and waist lines should 
 be matched and pinned. The pinning should then be done from 
 
 Correct seam-lines for the tight-fitting waist 
 
220 Dressmaking 
 
 the shoulder down toward the bust and from the waist up toward 
 the bust. In this way the extra fulness of the side-front seam is 
 brought near the bust. The placing of this fulness is very impor- 
 tant; it should be distributed very carefully, about i" above and i" 
 below point R, the depth of dart. 
 
 (it) For the shoulder seam, the neck and armseye lines and the 
 two dart seams are matched and pinned. As the front shoulder 
 seam is }i" shorter than the back, it requires stretching to give it 
 sufficient length. After it is stretched it should be basted, holding 
 the back shoulder toward the worker. The stretching of the front 
 shoulder along the seam-line makes the waist spring better into the 
 curve of the shoulder of the wearer. 
 
 The material for the seam allowances on the side-front and side- 
 back seams should not be caught down when the shoulder is basted. 
 
 (b) Collar. — In preparing the collar the darts should be basted 
 from the bottom of the collar upward, taking care to fold them ex- 
 actly on their centre lines. The }&" allowance at top and bottom 
 should be turned and basted, but the i" allowance at the centre 
 back should be left free for the fitting. 
 
 (7) Fitting the Pattern. 
 
 (a) Before putting on the waist each lengthwise seam should be 
 notched to within }i" of the basting at the waist line; otherwise 
 the waist will not fit in to the curves of the figure. 
 
 (b) For the first fitting the waist is put on right side out and 
 but one side, the right, is fitted, unless, as has already been sug- 
 gested, the right and left sides of the wearer vary greatly. In this 
 case time is probably saved by fitting the entire waist at once. 
 
 (c) The waist should be settled to the figure and pinned together 
 at the centre back exactly on the turned-in edges. These should be 
 pinned first at the waist and at the neck, matching the lines, and 
 then at intervals between, using enough pins to hold the seam to- 
 gether closely. To hold the waist in place during the fitting, it 
 should be pinned just below the waist line to the corset, at the centre 
 front, the centre back, and under the arm. The whole waist should 
 be carefully inspected before any fitting is done. There are vari- 
 ous important things to observe and do. 
 
 (d) In fitting any seam of a waist there are three methods of 
 procedure, (i) An equal amount may be taken up on each side of 
 the seam. This means pinching the seam exactly along its line. 
 (ii) An unequal amount may be taken up on each side; that is, 
 one piece may need more taken from it than the other, in which 
 case the original seam does not lie along the centre of the amount 
 pinned up. (///) The entire amount may be taken up on one side 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making L 2 L ll 
 
 of the seam. This should be so done that the row of pins taking 
 up the amount to be removed is directly along, or practically on, 
 the original seam-line. In making any alterations the pins must 
 be put in on a line with the original seam to maintain the correct 
 direction. 
 
 (e) If the entire waist is large or small and there is much fitting 
 to do, care should be taken to observe the direction of the lines 
 and the proportion of the pieces in their relation to the figure. The 
 original lines and proportions of the draft should be maintained 
 even though it is necessary to increase or diminish the size of the 
 whole waist. Too much fitting should not be done. The waist 
 should be made to fit easily and without wrinkles. If the lengthwise 
 seams wrinkle a little near the waist it is of no importance. In a 
 lining these wrinkles may be removed, by boning the seams. 
 
 (/) This draft, like the commercial pattern, is made for the 
 shoulder of regulation height; in consequence, if the shoulders of 
 the wearer are very square or very sloping, changes are required. 
 If the shoulders are square they lift the waist too much at the 
 point or end of the shoulder and there will be a wrinkle running 
 across the waist. This should be remedied by taking up the shoul- 
 der seam near the neck and cutting out the surplus material, which 
 is thus brought up around the neck. If the shoulders are very 
 sloping the waist drops at the end of the shoulder and the wrinkle 
 will extend downward from the neck toward the armseye. To 
 change this the shoulder seam should be taken up at the point of 
 the shoulder and the armseye cut out near the underarm seam. 
 After any required changes are made a good shoulder line should 
 be established. The shoulder seam should be about i " back of the 
 highest part of the shoulder. It is not in a direct line with an un- 
 derarm seam, as this waist has an underarm piece. If this seam is 
 too far back it gives a narrow appearance to the back of the waist; 
 if, on the other hand, it is too far front it may give the appearance 
 of round shoulders. 
 
 (g) The waist should fit very closely over the chest. Usually it 
 is necessary to take up the waist on the centre-front seam to give 
 the required curve from the neck toward the bust line. 
 
 (h) The armseye line is one of the most important in the waist. 
 It should extend from the point of the shoulder down over the 
 little muscle where the arm joins the body in front and, coming up 
 as high under the arm as is perfectly comfortable, form a nearly 
 straight line up the back to the shoulder. 
 
 (i) If the armseye is full at the front a little above the under- 
 arm seam, it is often an excellent plan to make a small dart rather 
 
222 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 than to attempt removing the fulness by taking up either the shoul- 
 der or the underarm seam. The dart is occasionally necessary at 
 the back. 
 
 (j) If the colored basting indicating the direction of the waist 
 line does not correspond to the normal waist line of the wearer a 
 
 new line should be indi- 
 cated. This may best be 
 done by placing a tape- 
 line around the waist and 
 marking its lower edge 
 with a row of pins. 
 
 (k) In general, the neck 
 line should run from the 
 bone at the base of the 
 neck in the back in a good 
 line or curve to the hollow 
 in front just above the 
 two small bones. The line 
 should be rather high at 
 the side just under the 
 ear. 
 
 The shape of the neck, 
 or its length, may affect 
 this line slightly; that is, 
 for a long neck the line 
 should be as high as pos- 
 sible in front and for a 
 short neck low. If the 
 neck of the waist is not 
 right the necessary fitting 
 should be done and a new 
 line indicated. If it is too 
 high or too tight it may 
 be slashed. If it is too 
 low the shoulder seams 
 may be taken up a little. 
 When the necessary changes have been made the collar should be 
 attached to the waist. The centre-front line of the collar should 
 be pinned to the centre-front line of the waist at the neck line. 
 The lower edge of the collar should then be stretched around the 
 base of the neck to the centre back and pinned up the centre back, 
 taking care to have this line on the thread of the material. It 
 should then be carefully pinned to hold it in place around the 
 
 Correct seam-lines for the tight-fitting waist 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 223 
 
 neck. All changes in the size of the collar at the top should be 
 made in the darts. 
 
 The front dart should be about in line with the shoulder seam and 
 end a little back of the ear. The second dart is half-way between 
 the front dart and the centre back. After the collar is pinned in 
 place and fitted, any desired change may be made in its height. 
 
 Exception. — For a person whose neck varies greatly in size at 
 top and bottom it is sometimes necessary to change the direction 
 of the centre line and shape it in a little at the top. This should be 
 avoided when possible. 
 
 Before the waist is taken off it should be carefully inspected as 
 a whole and all necessary changes in it and in the collar plainly in- 
 dicated by pins, tailor's chalk, or pencil. 
 
 (8) Altering the Pattern. — After removing the waist all the re- 
 quired changes should be marked on the side just fitted, with the 
 tracing-wheel or with colored cotton. Care should be taken to keep 
 the original lines sufficiently distinct to have them serve as guides 
 in marking the unfitted half of the waist. The collar should be 
 taken off, all the seams should be opened, and the two sides of the 
 waist placed together — with the original lines matching — and cor- 
 respondingly marked. 
 
 If a new neck, armseye, or waist line has been made, colored cot- 
 ton should be used to indicate it. The tracing-wheel may be used 
 for changing the seam-lines, unless they can be too easily confused 
 with the old tracings and so make the rebasting difficult. All 
 changes should be indicated on the paper pattern, which is to be 
 kept for future use. 
 
 (9) Rebasting the Pattern. — If many alterations have been neces- 
 sary the waist and collar should be rebasted along the new lines; 
 the collar should be basted on, following all the directions given for 
 the first basting, and the whole should be put on for final inspection. 
 
 (10) Refitting the Pattern. — In refitting, the waist should again be 
 put on right side out. The shoulder seams should be turned to the 
 front. If the left side requires any changes, because of the uneven- 
 ness of the figure, they should be made now and the whole waist 
 generally inspected again for fit and for seam-lines. 
 
 The general fit of the collar and the direction of the neck line 
 should be carefully observed. As has already been said, the direc- 
 tion of the line at the base of the neck should depend on the length 
 of the neck of the wearer. In order not to emphasize a long neck, 
 the line may be slightly raised at the front, or for a short neck 
 it may be lowered. A neck line should not be too low at the back 
 no matter what the length of the neck. 
 
224 Dressmaking 
 
 If the tight-fitting sleeve has been drafted and cut in material it 
 may be basted into the waist and fitted at this time. (For direc- 
 tions, see Tight-Fitting Sleeve.) 
 
 V. Tight-Fitting Sleeve 
 /. Drafting the Pattern 
 
 REGULATION MEASURES 
 
 (i) Armseye 15" 
 
 (2) Length outside, shoulder to elbow 13" 
 
 (3) Length outside, elbow to wrist 10" 
 
 (4) Size at elbow 1 1 }4 " 
 
 (5) Size at hand iX" 
 
 Individual measures are taken as described in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 The tight-fitting-sleeve pattern is composed of two pieces, the 
 upper and the under sleeve. The upper is drafted first and the 
 under is based on it and drawn inside it. A piece of paper 27" in 
 length and 18" wide is necessary. 
 
 In the upper left-hand corner of the paper two lines at right 
 angles and of indefinite length should be drawn. The work then 
 proceeds as follows: 
 
 UPPER 
 
 (1) To Determine the Top of the Sleeve: 
 
 AB = y£ the armseye measure, marked on the hori- 
 zontal line. 
 B = Line drawn at right angles to the line AB, parallel- 
 ing the vertical line A. 
 
 AC = }4 of the line AB. Draw a line at right angles to 
 the line AB, paralleling the vertical lines A 
 and B. 
 
 CD = $i" above point C, a dotted line drawn at right 
 angles to the line AB. (This amount varies 
 with fashion. If sleeves are large the amount 
 should be larger.) 
 
 AE = }A, the length of the line AC, measured down on 
 the vertical line from point A. 
 
 EF = $i" out, at the left of point E, a dotted line drawn 
 at right angles to the line AE. 
 
 BG = BC, measured down on the vertical line from 
 point B. 
 
Tight-fitting-sleeve draft 
 
226 Dressmaking 
 
 GH = yi" out, at the right of point G, a dotted line 
 drawn at right angles to the line BG. 
 FDH = Connect these points with a curved line to form 
 the top of the sleeve. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Outside Seam: 
 
 EI = Length of sleeve from the shoulder to the elbow, 
 marked on the line A. 
 
 FI = Line curving from point F, meeting the line A half- 
 way down and continuing straight to point I. 
 
 IJ = Length of sleeve from the elbow to the wrist. 
 The direction of this line is determined by 
 placing the corner of the square on the line C, 
 with the inch-mark for the correct length fall- 
 ing on the vertical line A at point I. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Line at the Bottom: 
 
 JK = With the square in the same position, measure 
 to the right from point J, half the hand meas- 
 ure plus 1", and mark the point K. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Inside Seam: 
 
 GL = yi of the line GK, marked on the line B. 
 LM = 1" in, to the left, from point L, a dotted line 
 drawn at right angles to the line BL. 
 HMK = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 inside seam-line. 
 
 UNDER 
 
 (1) To Determine the Top of the Sleeve: 
 
 EN = yi of the line AC, a dotted line measured in at 
 
 right angles from point E. 
 NG = Connect these two points with a straight line. 
 GO = 1 " in, to the left, from point G on the line GN. 
 NP = # of the line NG. 
 PQ = y^" down from point P, a dotted line drawn at 
 
 right angles to the line NG. 
 NQO = Connect these points with a curved line to form 
 
 the top of the sleeve. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Outside Seam: 
 
 IM = Connect these two points with a straight line to 
 
 indicate the line of the elbow. 
 IR = EN, measured in, to the right, on the line IM. 
 JS = iK" measured in, to the right, from point J on 
 the bottom line JK. 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 227 
 
 NRS = Connect these points to form the outside-seam 
 line. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Line at the Bottom: 
 
 KT = Yt" measured in, to the left, from point K on the 
 
 bottom line KJ. 
 ST = Bottom line of the under part of the sleeve. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Inside Seam: 
 
 RU = Remainder of the elbow measure; that is, the 
 line RU equals the elbow measure minus the 
 line IM. 
 OUT = Connect these points with a curve to form the 
 inside-seam line. 
 This draft gives a plain two-piece sleeve with little fulness. 
 
 77. Fitting the Pattern 
 
 After the drafting is finished there are certain directions to be 
 followed preliminary to the cutting of patterns in material for 
 fitting. 
 
 (1) Testing the Draft. — The draft itself should be tested to the 
 measures used: (a) for the full length of the sleeve on both the out- 
 side and inside seams; (b) for the length of the sleeve from the 
 shoulder to the elbow on the outside seam; (c) for the size at the 
 top in relation to the size of the armseye; (d) for the size at the 
 elbow and the wrist. If these do not correspond to the measures 
 taken they should be corrected as necessary. 
 
 (2) Seam Allowances for a Paper Pattern. — In general, it is much 
 simpler to use a paper pattern which is cut out exactly along the 
 drafted lines than one which has the necessary allowances added 
 to it for all seams. If it is thought necessary to add them, how- 
 ever, they should be as follows: 1" on all lengthwise seams; %" 
 at the top; yi" at the bottom. 
 
 (3) Marking the Paper Pattern. — The use of the pattern is much 
 simplified if, in cutting it out, the under sleeve is traced on another 
 sheet of paper so that the two pieces of the sleeve are entirely 
 separate. Before doing this, however, tracings and marks should 
 be made to indicate the proper direction for the straight thread of 
 the material, the arrangement of fulness at the top and at the elbow 
 of the sleeve, and the point of joining on the inside seam of the 
 sleeve, (a) The vertical line C in both the upper and under sleeve 
 indicates the direction for the straight thread of the material and 
 should be distinctly traced, (b) In the top of the sleeve the gather- 
 ing should extend from point F around the top of the upper part of 
 
228 Dressmaking 
 
 the sleeve to within iyi" of point H. Marks should be made to 
 indicate these two points, (c) The outside-seam line, FIJ, of the 
 upper is longer than that, NRS, of the under; the extra length is 
 arranged at the elbow. To indicate the points at which these 
 seams should be joined at the elbow, radiating lines are drawn from 
 point M touching both seam-lines. The exact direction of these 
 lines is found by measuring up from point R i " and marking point 
 V, and measuring down from point R the same distance and mark- 
 ing point X. Lines are then drawn from point M through these 
 points and continued to touch line FIJ. These points may be 
 marked W and Y. Marks should be made on the paper pattern 
 to indicate the four points VW and XY. (d) Points M and U 
 should also be marked on the inside seams of the sleeve to show the 
 point of joining there. 
 
 (4) Placing the Paper Pattern on the Material and Cutting. — 
 Economy of material should always be considered in placing a pat- 
 tern. When possible, the corresponding pieces of the two sleeves 
 should be cut at once. For a pattern, however, only one sleeve is 
 necessary. 
 
 Both the upper and the under should be placed on the length- 
 wise straight of the material. After the sleeve is arranged with 
 attention to the straight of the material' the seam allowances should 
 be measured and the pattern pinned in place and cut. The seam 
 allowances for the cloth pattern are the same as those already sug- 
 gested for the paper; that is, 1" on all lengthwise seams; yi" at 
 top; yi" at bottom. 
 
 (5) Marking the Cloth Pattern. — The cloth pattern should be 
 marked to indicate the exact size of the pattern as drafted, to give 
 the correct seam-lines. A tracing-wheel may be used. Both pieces 
 of the sleeve should be traced around and the elbow marks on all 
 four seams and the points for gathering indicated. 
 
 (6) Basting the Pattern. — As has been said, for this fitting only 
 one sleeve, the right, is necessary. The fit of a sleeve depends very 
 largely on the way it is put together. The inside seam should be 
 basted first. The two pieces of the sleeve should be placed flat on 
 the table, with the under next the worker and the inside seams to- 
 gether. These two seams should fall together without difficulty. 
 Points U and M at the inside elbow should be matched and pinned 
 and the seam pinned from this point up and down. 
 
 In basting the outside seam the sleeve should still be kept flat 
 on the table; the upper sleeve is turned over until its seam lies 
 along the seam of the under. This seam should be pinned at the 
 elbow first, matching point V with W and Y with X. This holds 
 
Drafting and Pattern- Making 229 
 
 in the additional fulness of the upper. The wrist and the top 
 should next be pinned, working from the elbow up and down. 
 
 When these two lengthwise seams are finished the sleeve should 
 lie flat and smooth without twisting; if it does not, the drafting 
 and cutting have not been correctly done and should be tested 
 again. It is useless to try fitting a sleeve which, when basted, does 
 not lie perfectly flat. 
 
 (7) Fitting the Pattern. — Before the sleeve is fitted it should be 
 gathered at the top between the indicated points and basted into 
 the waist. Its general fit and hang cannot be otherwise satisfac- 
 torily determined. 
 
 (a) Gathering the Sleeve. — The first row of gathering should be 
 %" in from the edge and the second y&" in from that, to hold the 
 gathers in place. 
 
 (b) Pinning and Basting the Sleeve to the Waist. — This is done in 
 much the same way as for the shirt-waist sleeve. 
 
 For placing the sleeve in the waist the same rule should be ob- 
 served. Using a point i " back of the shoulder seam, the armseye 
 of the waist should be folded in half and the opposite point marked. 
 This point indicates the location of the inside seam. The sleeve 
 is then ready to be pinned in and basted. In doing this (i) the 
 waist should be held with the wrong side and the underarm toward 
 the worker, (ii) The sleeve should be drawn up into the armseye 
 and the seam pinned to the point indicated. {Hi) The under part 
 of the sleeve should be pinned to the underarm of the waist, match- 
 ing the armseye tracings of the waist and the sleeve, (iv) With 
 the waist still toward the worker, the gathering-threads should be 
 drawn up around the upper part of the sleeve until the sleeve fits 
 the armseye. (v) With the waist still in the same position, but 
 with the shoulder turned back so that the upper part of the sleeve 
 can be more easily seen, the gathers should be adjusted, (yi) The 
 centre of the sleeve and the largest amount of the fulness should 
 fall over the shoulder-bone, which in most cases is from %" to i l A" 
 forward of the shoulder seam, (vii) Any remaining fulness should 
 be eased off to the front and back to the points which indicate the 
 end of the gathering. 
 
 (c) Fitting the Sleeve. — The sleeve should be put on right side 
 out, with the armseye seam turned back on the shoulder. The fit 
 of the sleeve depends somewhat on the position of the line of the 
 armseye at the shoulder. This changes as the shoulder of the 
 waist is long or short, according to the demands of fashion. If the 
 shoulder is short, more height in the sleeve may be required. This 
 is secured by raising point D. The curve from point D to point H 
 
230 Dressmaking 
 
 may be too full in proportion to the length and cause a bulge in 
 the sleeve at the front of the shoulder. 
 
 (/) If the sleeve is too long or too short, care must be taken in 
 changing to make the alteration so that the proper position of the 
 elbow is kept. Too short an elbow makes an uncomfortable sleeve. 
 (it) If the sleeve is too large around or too small, changes are easily 
 made in the outside seam. In general, the inside seam of a sleeve is 
 not touched; all alterations should be made on the outside seam. 
 
 (8) Altering the Pattern. — After the fitting and before removing 
 the sleeve from the waist it should be marked so that it can be 
 easily basted into the waist again with the proper arrangement of 
 fulness. When the sleeve is taken out and the seams opened all 
 required changes should be indicated with the tracing-wheel or col- 
 ored cotton and the paper pattern altered to correspond. The 
 paper pattern is to be kept for future use. 
 
 (q) Rebasting the Pattern. — If many alterations have been neces- 
 sary the sleeve should "be rebasted and placed in the waist, following 
 the directions given for the first basting. 
 
 (10) Refitting the Pattern. — In refitting, the waist and sleeve 
 should be put on as before, with the armseye seam of the sleeve 
 turned to the shoulder. The sleeve should again be observed care- 
 fully as to fit and hang and any necessary changes made. 
 
 VI. Kimono Waist 
 /. Drafting the Pattern 
 
 REGULATION MEASURES 
 
 Length Measures — 
 
 (i) Length of back 15" 
 
 (2) Length of front isH" 
 
 (3) Length of underarm 7^" 
 
 Width Measures — 
 
 (1) Width of back 14" 
 
 (2) Width of chest 14K" 
 
 (3) Bust 38" 
 
 (4) Waist 26" 
 
 (5) Neck 13K" 
 
 Length of Sleeve — 
 
 (1) Neck to wrist 28K" 
 
 (2) Neck to elbow 18K" 
 
 (3) Size at elbow 1 1 X" 
 
 (4) Size at hand 7 l A" 
 
232 Dressmaking 
 
 Individual measures are taken as described in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 The kimono pattern is composed of one piece, which forms one- 
 half the front and one-half the back and one sleeve. This should 
 be made on a sheet of drafting-paper about one and a half yards in 
 length. 
 
 Along the lengthwise edge of the paper, parallel to the worker, 
 an indefinite line should be drawn. This horizontal line should be 
 at least 45" long, as both the back and the front are to be drafted 
 on it. The work then proceeds as follows: 
 
 A = centre point of the horizontal line. From this 
 point at right angles to the horizontal line draw 
 a short dotted line. 
 
 BACK 
 
 (1) To Determine the Neck Line: 
 
 AB = yi of the neck measure, marked on the dotted 
 vertical line from point A. 
 
 AC = 1" to the right of point A, marked on the hori- 
 zontal line. 
 
 BC = Connect these two points with a curve to form 
 the neck line. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Centre-Back Line: 
 
 CD = Length of back, measured to the right on the 
 horizontal line from point C. 
 
 DE = 3" in from point D. A dotted line drawn at 
 right angles to the line CD. (The location of 
 this point determines somewhat the length of 
 the kimono over the shoulder from waist line to 
 waist line. For a sloping shoulder the measure 
 should be at least 4".) 
 
 CE 2 = Length of back measure, a line drawn from point 
 C toward point E. This forms the centre-back 
 line. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Waist Line: 
 
 E' 2 F = y 2 the width of back plus its one-half (that is, 
 y 2 of the result), a line drawn at right angles to 
 the line CE 2 . 
 
 FRONT 
 
 (1) To Determine the Neck Line: 
 
 AG = l / b of the neck measure plus 1 ", measured to the 
 left of point A on the horizontal line. 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 233 
 
 BG = Connect these two points with a curve to form the 
 neck line. 
 CBG = Complete neck line. 
 
 (2) To Determine the Waist Line: 
 
 GH = Length of front, measured to the left on the hori- 
 zontal line from point G. 
 
 AI = y 2 of the line AH. Draw a line at right angles 
 
 to AH to indicate the bust line. 
 IJ = X of the bust measure plus its one-half; that is, 
 K of the result. 
 
 JK = The underarm measure plus X", a dotted line 
 drawn, to the left, from point J at right angles 
 to the line IJ. 
 HK = Connect these two points to form the waist line. 
 
 (3) To Determine the Sleeve: 
 
 BL = With the corner of the square on point B and the 
 24" mark on the square touching an extension 
 of the horizontal line AH at point L draw a 
 dotted line. 
 BM = Length of sleeve from the neckline to the wrist, a 
 line drawn from point B at right angles to the 
 dotted line BL. 
 BN = Length of sleeve from neck line to elbow, measured 
 from point B on the line BM. 
 ONP = Desired width of the sleeve at the elbow. A dotted 
 line drawn at right angles to the line BM 
 through point N, with an equal amount each 
 side of point N. The line ON at the left of 
 BM must equal the line PN at the right. 
 
 QMR = Desired width of the sleeve at the wrist. A 
 dotted line drawn at right angles to the line 
 BM through point M, with an equal amount 
 each side of point M. The line QM at the left 
 of BM must equal the line RM at the right. 
 
 KFF 2 = Connect KF with a straight dotted line and con- 
 tinue %" beyond point F. The end of the line 
 is marked point F 2 . This line serves as a guide 
 for the curving underarm seams. 
 E 2 F 2 = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 to form a new waist line for the back. 
 
 F 2 PR = Connect these points with a curved line to form 
 the underarm and sleeve seam of the back. 
 
234 Dressmaking 
 
 KOQ = Connect these points with a curved line to form 
 the underarm and sleeve seam of the front. 
 QS = Extend the line KOQ y 2 ", }{", or i", to point S, 
 so that the line connecting the points S and 
 R, which form the bottom of the sleeve, will lie 
 on the straight of the material. 
 SR = Connect these two points to form the line for the 
 bottom of the sleeve. 
 
 (4) To Determine the Basque of the Back : 
 
 E 2 T =4" measured down from point E 2 with the ruler 
 placed on points CE 2 T. 
 
 F 2 U =4" measured down from point F 2 with the ruler 
 placed on points BF 2 U. 
 
 TU = Connect these points with a line to form the bot- 
 tom of the back of the waist. 
 
 (5) To Determine the Basque of the Front : 
 
 HV =4" measured down from point H on the horizontal 
 
 line. 
 KW =4" measured down from point K with the ruler 
 
 placed on points BKW. 
 VW = Connect these points with a slightly curved line 
 
 to form the bottom of the front of the waist. 
 
 In cutting the neck a new line should be made just inside point 
 B to give a better curve. 
 
 When the bust is large in proportion to the width of back, the 
 curve KOS will become too short for F 2 PR. In this case increase 
 the width of E 2 F (the waist line of the back) to make the curves 
 more nearly equal in length. 
 
 This draft gives a foundation or plain kimono waist with fulness 
 at the waist and armseye. 
 
 77. Fitting the Pattern 
 
 After the drafting is finished there are certain directions to be 
 followed preliminary to the cutting of patterns in material for fitting. 
 
 (1) Testing the Draft. — The draft itself should be carefully tested 
 to the measures used and, if necessary, corrected. The following 
 measures should be exact: 
 
 (a) Size of neck. 
 
 (b) Length of front and back. 
 
 (c) Full length of sleeve. 
 
 (d) Length of sleeve to elbow and to wrist. 
 
 (e) Size at elbow and wrist. 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 235 
 
 If any of these vary much from the required sizes, there has been 
 a mistake in following the drafting directions which should be rec- 
 tified before any more work is done. 
 
 (2) Seam Allowances for a Paper Pattern. — In general, it is much 
 simpler to use a paper pattern which is cut out exactly along the 
 drafted lines than one which has the necessary allowances added 
 to it for all seams. If it is thought necessary, however, to add them 
 they are as follows: 1" on the underarm and sleeve seam; X" at 
 the neck. 
 
 (3) Marking the Paper Pattern. — After the pattern is cut out, if 
 the seam allowances have been added to it, it is wise to trace with 
 a wheel about the pattern to show the exact size of the draft. In 
 addition, the waist lines should be carefully traced. If, as is gen- 
 eral, the pattern has been cut out along the seam-lines, the only 
 tracing necessary is that to indicate the waist line. 
 
 (4) Placing the Paper Pattern on the Material and Cutting. — 
 Economy of material should always be considered in placing a pat- 
 tern. The complete kimono waist must be cut in order to give a 
 satisfactory fitting. Half the pattern does not give sufficiently 
 exact results. The centre front should be placed on a lengthwise 
 fold of the material, which brings a slightly bias edge at the opening 
 of the waist at the centre back. 
 
 After the pattern is arranged with attention to the straight of the 
 material the seam allowances should be measured and the pattern 
 carefully pinned in place. The seam allowances for the cloth pat- 
 tern are the same as those already suggested for the paper; that is, 
 1" on the underarm and sleeve seam; yi" at the neck. In addi- 
 tion, however, there should be 1 " added at each centre back in or- 
 der to fasten the waist for fitting. When these allowances have 
 been measured the waist may be cut out. 
 
 (5) Marking the Cloth Pattern. — The cloth pattern should be 
 marked to indicate the exact size of the pattern as drafted, to 
 give the correct seam-lines. A tracing-wheel may be used, supple- 
 mented, where necessary, by colored bastings. 
 
 A tracing should be made to indicate: (a) the centre-front line, 
 to aid in fitting; (b) the underarm and sleeve seam; (c) the centre- 
 back lines; (d) the waist line; and (e) the neck line. In addition 
 to these tracings, colored bastings should be placed in the centre- 
 front line, waist, and neck lines. These bastings emphasize the 
 direction of important lines during the fitting and aid in determin- 
 ing their correct location. 
 
 (6) Basting the Pattern. — All basting should be done with white 
 thread and not with colored, which is used only in making altera- 
 
236 Dressmaking 
 
 tions and in marking. There is but one seam, the underarm and 
 sleeve. It should be pinned at the waist line and wrist and any 
 surplus fulness should be arranged at the elbow and directly under 
 the arm. The centre-back lines should be turned on the tracings 
 and basted flat. 
 
 (7) Fitting the Pattern. — Before the waist is ready for a fitting it 
 must be gathered at the waist line and a belt prepared. 
 
 (a) Gathering the Waist. — Two rows of gathering should be put 
 in around the entire waist, one just at the waist line and another 
 about yi" above. This makes the arrangement of the fulness into 
 the belt a very simple matter in the fitting. 
 
 (Jo) Making a Belt. — For this, non-elastic tape ^i" in width may 
 be used, or a band of the material itself. It should be cut 2" or 
 3 " longer than the waist measure to allow for lapping and pinning 
 at the centre front. 
 
 (c) Fitting the Waist. — This waist is an exception to the general 
 rule of fitting all garments right side out. Because the seam is very 
 much curved, the fitting is simpler with the seam outside. Con- 
 sequently, for the first fitting, the waist is put on wrong side out. 
 Only one side, the right, is fitted, unless the right and left sides of 
 the wearer vary greatly. In this case time is saved by fitting the 
 entire waist. 
 
 The waist should first be settled to the figure and pinned to- 
 gether at the centre back, exactly on the indicated lines. The belt 
 is then put on with its lower edge just at the normal waist line of 
 the figure, even though the line of gathering in the waist may not 
 be correctly placed. The centre mark of the belt should be placed 
 exactly at the centre-front line of the waist. The fulness is regu- 
 lated after the direction of the underarm seam is determined. This 
 seam should fall from the centre underarm straight down to the 
 waist. Occasionally it is better if it is allowed to slant slightly 
 toward the back. 
 
 The extra fulness at the waist may be placed somewhat as desired. 
 There are general directions, however, which it is wise to follow. 
 In front the gathers should be spread rather than drawn together 
 at the centre in order to give width. It is a good plan to distrib- 
 ute the gathers across the back to within about 2 " of the underarm 
 seams, to avoid an evidence of much fulness. If the waist is 
 bloused slightly it gives a straighter and more becoming line to the 
 back. In attaching the belt to the waist sufficient length of ma- 
 terial should also be left under the arm to allow free movement 
 of the arm. This should be tested before pinning too carefully. 
 
 In fitting a kimono waist fewer changes can be made than in 
 
Drafting and Pattern-Making 237 
 
 a waist of any other design, because the shoulder seam, which 
 usually plays an important part in the fitting, is lacking. 
 
 (i) Shoulder. — In general, a kimono waist is not becoming to a 
 very sloping shoulder, and for such a figure it cannot easily be 
 made to fit well. In the majority of patterns and drafts there is too 
 much fulness over the shoulder, and, once the kimono is cut, but 
 little of this fulness can be removed. As suggested in the draft, 
 this defect may be somewhat remedied by lengthening the line DE, 
 thus making the back more bias and giving a waist with less length 
 over the shoulder. Sometimes a little fulness may be removed from 
 the shoulder, at the back, by drawing the material toward the cen- 
 tre back and taking out the surplus by changing slightly the centre- 
 back line. Care must be taken not to twist the sleeve and pull it 
 out of place. 
 
 (ii) Underarm. — Fulness under the arm is a different matter and 
 may generally be removed by changing the line of the underarm 
 and sleeve seam. Here, also, care must be taken, as, if too much 
 material is removed, the waist is too narrow through the bust line. 
 
 (Hi) Sleeve. — The length of sleeve is easily adjusted; it should 
 be given ample length, as in movement it is somewhat drawn up 
 from the hand. 
 
 (iv) Neck. — A standing collar or collar-band is practically never 
 used on a kimono waist. In consequence, the line of the neck 
 should be carefully considered and cut to be becoming to the 
 shape of the face and neck of the wearer. A round line, close to the 
 neck, is generally unbecoming. All kimonos, when worn, have a 
 tendency to drop away at the back of the neck and at the shoulder. 
 In cutting, the line should be high at these two points and then 
 shaped to a point or square or curve as desired at the centre front. 
 If the waist draws at the neck it may be necessary to slash it 
 slightly to allow it to settle to the figure better and prevent a slight 
 drawing toward the shoulder. 
 
 The kimono should not be overfitted; its success lies in its free- 
 dom of line and in the ease of its fit. 
 
 Before it is taken off it should be carefully inspected as a whole and 
 all the necessary changes indicated by pins, tailor's chalk, or pencil. 
 
 (8) Altering the Pattern. — After removing the waist all required 
 changes should be marked, on the side just fitted, with the tracing- 
 wheel or with colored cotton. Care should be taken to keep the 
 original lines sufficiently distinct to have them serve as guides in 
 marking the unfitted half of the waist. The seams should then be 
 opened and the two sides of the waist placed together, pinned, and 
 the corresponding sides marked. 
 
238 Dressmaking 
 
 If a new neck or waist line has been made, colored cotton should 
 be used to indicate it. The tracing-wheel may be used for chang- 
 ing the seam-line, unless it can be too easily confused with the old 
 tracing and rebasting made difficult. All changes should be indi- 
 cated on the paper pattern, which is to be kept for future use. 
 
 (9) Rebasting the Pattern. — If many alterations have been made 
 the waist should be rebasted, following the directions given for the 
 first basting; the belt should be attached and the whole should be 
 put on for final inspection. 
 
 (10) Refitting the Pattern. — In refitting, the waist should be put 
 on right side out. If the left side requires any changes, because of 
 unevenness in the figure, they should be made now and the waist 
 again generally inspected for fit and for line. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 THE USE OF COMMERCIAL PATTERNS 
 
 One method of making patterns has already been dis- 
 cussed, that of drafting to regular or individual measures. 
 There are two others: one, modelling on the form, or de- 
 signing; and the other, the method very frequently used, 
 that of cutting from ready-made or commercial patterns. 
 
 There are many different makes of patterns on the market 
 to-day. Some are undeniably poor; others are uniformly 
 good. It is always wiser to purchase from a maker who is 
 well known and whose patterns, tested by long use, are 
 constantly being improved and changed to meet the de- 
 mands of fashion. 
 
 I. General Preliminary Directions 
 
 Before a pattern is cut in material there are certain things 
 to be done, such as the careful reading of directions, the 
 testing to individual measures, and the preliminary fitting. 
 
 i. Reading Directions. — Many patterns are discarded 
 as useless merely because the directions either were not 
 read or were not understood. While patterns and the di- 
 rections for their use may vary with different makes, they 
 all indicate such necessary details as the number of pieces, 
 the amount of seam allowance, notches for joinings, and 
 perforations for straight of material. All the pieces of the 
 pattern should be carefully looked over and a general idea 
 formed of the way in which they go together before any 
 further steps are taken. 
 
 2. Testing Patterns. — The pattern must next be tested 
 and altered to individual measures. Good patterns are no 
 longer drafted to a "perfect" size, but are based on what 
 are estimated to be average measures. This average is 
 
 239 
 
240 Dressmaking 
 
 secured by the careful taking and comparing of the meas- 
 ures of very many different figures. In spite of this, how- 
 ever, the patterns often need at least slight alterations. 
 
 If a pattern is tested to individual measures and altered 
 before it is cut in material, it frequently saves much time, 
 trouble, and material. If cut in material first there are 
 often necessary alterations which cannot be made, even by 
 the most skilful fitting, without affecting the appearance 
 and style of the whole garment. For this testing accurate 
 individual measures are necessary. 
 
 Some patterns give a list of the regulation measures to 
 which they are cut; if so, these may be used to compare 
 with the required individual measures; otherwise the pat- 
 tern must be measured before the necessary alterations are 
 made. 
 
 3. Fitting Patterns. — There may be in a pattern one 
 or two necessary changes which the testing will not show. 
 For instance, the slope of the shoulder is planned for the 
 average shoulder, but there are very sloping and very 
 square shoulders. To the experienced the general shape 
 of the pattern at the shoulder will mean much; to the in- 
 experienced it will mean nothing; neither will any necessary 
 change be shown in a comparison of measurements. There- 
 fore, in addition to the test by a comparison of measure- 
 ments any pattern which is used for the first time should 
 be cut in inexpensive materials for a preliminary fitting. 
 
 4. Cutting and Placing All Patterns. — In cutting any 
 garments the corresponding notches in the patterns, which 
 usually show points or seams to be joined, should never be 
 made in the material, but their position should be marked by 
 a few colored threads or tracings. Too generous notches, 
 sometimes made by a slip of the scissors, may make serious 
 difficulty. In placing the pattern on material great at- 
 tention should be paid to the tracings or series of marks 
 which are used to indicate the " straight of material" or 
 the way in which the pattern is to be placed on the cloth. 
 This is exceedingly important, as no garment can be made 
 to fit well or hang correctly which has been cut without 
 proper attention to the direction of the threads of the fabric. 
 
The Use of Commercial Patterns 241 
 
 All seam-lines should be marked, according to the material, 
 with tracing- wheel, chalk, or bastings and the seam allow- 
 ance added in the cutting. The traced seam-lines indicate 
 the line of bastings and, consequently, play an important 
 part in the fitting. 
 
 II. Special Directions 
 
 i. Shirt-Waist Pattern. — Shirt-waist patterns are pur- 
 chased according to the bust measure. This is not always 
 an indication, however, that the neck, armseye, and length 
 measures will correspond to the required individual meas- 
 ures. The alteration of a pattern is usually very simple. 
 There are three pieces to consider: the front, back, and 
 sleeve. Any other pieces, such as collar-band, cuffs, and 
 plackets, are determined later by the choice of the wearer 
 or are dependent for size on the changes made in the waist 
 itself. 
 
 (i) Testing. 
 
 (a) Waist. — To test the pattern the shoulder seams of 
 the back and front should be pinned together on the trac- 
 ings. The neck should be measured and if found too large 
 the line may be altered by raising it slightly; that is, 
 by making a smaller curve. It is better to make it too 
 small than not small enough, as it can easily be cut out a 
 little in fitting. With the seam still pinned, the armseye 
 should next be tested. If it is too large it can be changed 
 by raising the line under the arm on both the front and back 
 of the waist. It is better to add more to the front than 
 the back. If it is not quite right then, it can be changed 
 still more by taking in at the underarm seam in fitting. If 
 the neck and the armseye of the pattern are too small they 
 can be satisfactorily altered in the fitting and no prelimi- 
 nary change need be made. The width of chest and back 
 must be tested. Although the bust measure is correct, 
 these widths may be incorrect. They can vary greatly 
 with different individuals. If the back of the wearer is 
 wide or a little round, more width is often needed in the 
 pattern. A too narrow back in a waist gives an ugly arms- 
 
242 Dressmaking 
 
 eye line and a pinched look to the figure. This may be 
 remedied generally by straightening the line from the 
 shoulder toward the underarm to give added width at the 
 armseye. 
 
 If the waist is too wide either at the front or the back, 
 the bust full, and the shoulder long, it may easily be changed 
 by taking a tuck from the centre of the shoulder to the 
 bottom of the waist. On the other hand, if the waist is 
 too narrow, width may be added by opening the pattern 
 along the same line and inserting a piece. It is seldom 
 wise, however, to try to use a pattern which has a small 
 bust measure. All the measures will probably be cor- 
 respondingly small and require much changing. It is im- 
 portant to realize that there should never be any attempt 
 to make alterations at the centre front or back in a waist 
 which is too small or too large in the bust. As suggested, 
 it must be done on the shoulder; otherwise it will change 
 the neck size and cause difficulties which fitting cannot re- 
 move. 
 
 The waist line of the shirt-waist may be regulated when 
 the belt is put on in the fitting or it may be established in 
 the testing. 
 
 (b) Sleeve. — The shirt-waist sleeve, like the shirt-waist, 
 is not difficult to alter. Fulness may be taken out by laying 
 a plait or tuck its full length in the upper side of the sleeve, 
 as that will not affect its fit; or, if the sleeve is too small 
 for the prevailing style, it may be opened along the same 
 line and fulness added. In either case the curve at the top 
 of the sleeve should be corrected. It may be shortened or 
 lengthened in the same way, taking out or putting in ma- 
 terial above or below the elbow according to the length 
 measures of the arm. 
 
 (2) Fitting. — When the testing has been done and the 
 changes made, the patterns should be cut in material for 
 the trial fitting. In the fitting the results of the testing 
 may be seen and other necessary changes made. 
 
 One change which is often necessary and has already been 
 mentioned is the adjusting to square or sloping shoulders. 
 Drafts and patterns are made to fit shoulders of medium 
 
The Use of Commercial Patterns 243 
 
 height. If shoulders are square the waist will wrinkle 
 across the front and back from shoulder to shoulder. 
 Letting out the shoulder seam near the armseye will remedy 
 this, but it will also enlarge the armseye; consequently it 
 is not safe to do this. The correct change is to take up on 
 
 Adding fulness to a shirt-waist sleeve and correcting 
 its curves 
 
 the shoulder seam at the neck. This makes the neck too 
 small, but it may be cut out both at the front and at the 
 back. This will remove the wrinkle without changing the 
 fit elsewhere. 
 
 If the shoulders are sloping the wrinkle will run from 
 the neck at the shoulder seam slanting to the armseye. 
 For this the shoulder seam should be taken up at the point 
 of the shoulder where there is too much material and the 
 
244 Dressmaking 
 
 armseye, which is usually made too small, cut out near the 
 underarm. 
 
 For an exceedingly full bust, waists are often improved 
 by lowering the front a little, perhaps an inch, at the un- 
 derarm seam and sliding the front shoulder seam on the 
 back shoulder seam so that it extends beyond it at the 
 point of the shoulder. This change makes the front of the 
 waist too low at the neck and too low under the arm, but 
 arranges the fulness over the bust to better advantage. As 
 can easily be seen, this change must be made in a fitting 
 where trial material is being used. It necessitates adding 
 material to the front of the waist under the arm and also 
 at the neck. 
 
 2. Tight-Fitting-Waist Pattern. — Tight-fitting-waist pat- 
 terns are purchased according to the bust measure. For 
 a fitted lining more changes may be required, and, as the 
 pattern is complicated by having more pieces, the changes 
 may not seem quite as simple but are not in reality diffi- 
 cult. There are seven pieces in the pattern if the sleeve is 
 included — the centre and side fronts, the centre and side 
 backs, the underarm, and two sleeve pieces, the upper and 
 the under. 
 
 There are four changes which may be necessary in this 
 waist pattern in addition to those already suggested for 
 the shirt-waist. These are as follows: to increase or de- 
 crease the size at the waist line — this is very important, as 
 the waist must fit closely; to lengthen or shorten the length 
 of waist; to increase or decrease the size of the bust; to 
 increase or decrease the length of the back for round shoul- 
 ders or for a very short, straight back. The necessity for 
 the majority of these changes may be determined in the 
 testing. 
 
 (i) Testing. 
 
 (a) Waist. — The neck and armseye lines and the width 
 of chest and back are tested in this as in the shirt-waist. 
 
 (i) Size at Waist Line. — If the waist requires alterations 
 at the waist line the changes are evenly made on each seam 
 unless the proportion of the pieces is not suited to the indi- 
 vidual, in which case an uneven amount may be removed. 
 
The Use of Commercial Patterns 245 
 
 (it) Length of Waist. — In testing a pattern for length it 
 is necessary to use the individual measures for length of 
 front, length of back, and underarm. It is usual to take 
 out or add length to a waist below the bust line, about 
 
 
 i'ii 
 
 Mr 
 
 SI,:; 
 
 
 Adding length to (.4) the back and (B) the front of a tight-fitting waist 
 
 2^2" or 3" above the waist line. If the pattern is, for in- 
 stance, 2" longer than the required measure, a plait i" 
 wide should be laid in each piece. This will take up the 
 surplus 2" . If it is 2" too short the waist may be opened 
 on the same line and 2" added. It may sometimes happen 
 that the difference in length is above the bust and that the 
 underarm measure is correct; in this case the change 
 should be made only on the centre and side fronts about 
 2" below the neck line. 
 
246 Dressmaking 
 
 (Hi) Size of Bust. — If the individual is between sizes, 
 and it is necessary to increase or decrease the bust measure 
 to make the entire waist larger or smaller, the changes are 
 made evenly on each piece. It is wise, however, before 
 doing this to test quite carefully for width of back to de- 
 termine if more or less fulness is needed at the back or front. 
 
 To change for an extra-large or a small bust is a different 
 matter. This does not mean increasing or decreasing in 
 size around the pattern; it means adding or taking away 
 fulness in the length of the front at the bust line. 
 
 To add length, the centre front is opened at the bust line 
 and the two sections separated the necessary amount, while 
 the side front has a bias slash which runs from the bust 
 line toward the armseye but does not reach it. As the 
 slash does not completely divide the side front, the pattern 
 is swung out a little toward the armseye to open the slash 
 and the material added in that way. If there is a tendency 
 to stoop, or the bust is small, the fulness is removed over 
 the bust by tucks which are taken in the same way. The 
 tuck in the side front tapers to nothing as it nears the 
 armseye. 
 
 (iv) Length of Back. — Practically this same kind of change 
 is occasionally needed in the back of the tight-fitting waist 
 for a person who stoops or stands too erect, whose back 
 is consequently too short or too long. For the round shoul- 
 ders material is added by having the centre back opened 
 straight across about one-third of the way down and the 
 side back slashed and opened from the same point nearly 
 across to the armseye seam. For the short back the ma- 
 terial is removed by laying tucks along these same lines. 
 
 After these tucks or slashes have been made in any part 
 of the patterns the edges of the pieces should be straight- 
 ened and corrected so that a satisfactory pattern could be 
 cut for a fitting. 
 
 (b) Sleeve. — The fitted sleeve is treated in the same way 
 as the shirt-waist sleeve for alteration, both in length and 
 fulness, except that more care must be exercised as to the 
 exact change above and below the elbow. The elbow of a 
 tight sleeve must be correctly placed to wear well, look 
 
The Use of Commercial Patterns 247 
 
 well, and feel comfortable. Many arms are short from 
 the elbow down and of average length to the shoulder, or 
 vice versa. In such cases the sleeve may need changing 
 in only one place, which must be ascertained by a careful 
 comparison of measures. 
 
 (2) Fitting. — -When the testing has been completed and 
 the changes made, the patterns should be cut in material 
 for the trial fitting. In the fitting the results of the test- 
 ing may be seen and other necessary changes made. It is 
 in the fitting, as in the shirt-waist, that the pattern must 
 be adjusted to square or sloping shoulders. 
 
 3. Skirt Pattern. — Skirt patterns vary greatly as to the 
 number of pieces included. This variation is due to fash- 
 ion, which may dictate at one time eleven or fifteen gores 
 and at another only two or four. Not long ago many 
 skirts were made of only one width of material. Such 
 patterns, however, require actual draping for adjusting 
 to the proper size and can hardly be regulated by any 
 measurements. All skirt patterns should be purchased 
 according to the hip measure, which is taken around the 
 large part of the hip about six inches down from the waist 
 line, an easy measure. In locating this hip line the meas- 
 ure should be taken down over the hip and not at the 
 centre front or back. 
 
 Before making alterations or accurate tests or giving 
 any attention to details in the pattern, it is a good plan to 
 pin the gores of the skirt together and put it on in order 
 to judge its general appearance. Skirt-fitting is difficult, 
 and if the pattern does not fit and hang fairly well it is 
 much better to discard it entirely and try one of another 
 make. Too many alterations will, usually, spoil the size 
 and shape of the garment. 
 
 (1) Testing and Fitting. 
 
 (a) Size of Waist. — The size of the waist should be 
 tested. If it is only a little too large or too small the 
 simplest method is to take a deeper or smaller seam on 
 each gore in basting and leave whatever else may be re- 
 quired until the fitting. 
 
 If the waist is much too large or too small it is better 
 
248 Dressmaking 
 
 to regulate the pattern itself. Special attention should be 
 paid to maintaining the good shape and proportion of the 
 gores. In regulating a skirt pattern the figure of the 
 wearer should be carefully considered. A pattern may be 
 made to fit yet be unbecoming. Two figures may measure 
 the same but be quite unlike in shape; for instance, there 
 is the rather flat figure with fulness or width at the hips 
 and the round, full figure — it may be full either at the back 
 or in front — with small hips. Accordingly, the pattern 
 must be made to suit the individual figure, adding extra 
 size or removing it to give not only a good-fitting skirt but 
 becoming lines. General directions are difficult for such 
 alterations. They require the discrimination which comes 
 from careful observation and much practice. Good lines 
 in a gored skirt have much to do with making a figure ap- 
 pear well proportioned. However, for the many figures 
 which are not unusual, but may not be exactly regulation 
 size at the waist in proportion to the hip, the changes are 
 simple. 
 
 The waist of the pattern should be measured and com- 
 pared with the individual measures. If it is found too 
 small the amount to be added may usually be evenly dis- 
 tributed on each side of each gore, tapering to nothing at 
 the hip fine. Occasionally, as in a six-gored skirt, which 
 has a panel front and back and two side gores, it may be 
 found better not to change the width of the panels but to 
 add the necessary amount to the gores on the seam over 
 the hip. In a skirt of this kind the side seam should fall 
 just back of the hip, straight to the floor, so that it may 
 not be seen from the front. The line of this seam should 
 be carefully observed when any changes are made. 
 
 (b) Fulness at Front, Back, or Hips. — Much difficulty is 
 often found in changing a skirt pattern to suit the figure 
 which has unusual fulness in front. This fulness usually 
 causes the skirt to stand out at the centre front. To avoid 
 this a tuck may be laid along the hip fine, about %" deep, 
 beginning at the seam in front of the hip and tapering to 
 nothing as it nears the front. If, as is often done, the 
 whole skirt is lifted at the back in an attempt to take out 
 
The Use of Commercial Patterns 249 
 
 the front fulness, all the seam-lines will be wrong and too 
 much fulness drawn to the back. After the tuck is taken 
 the seam must be straightened and extra material added 
 at the bottom to give the required length. If the figure 
 is very full it may be found necessary to add length and 
 size at the top of the front and side-front gores. If the 
 skirt stands out at the side because of very large hips, the 
 tuck may be taken back of the hip, tapering toward it to 
 make the skirt hang straight. 
 
 (c) Length of Skirt. — In lengthening or shortening skirts 
 the change should always be made a few inches below the 
 hip line. The same procedure is followed as in waists: 
 tucks are laid parallel to the hip line to take out extra 
 length or the skirt is slashed along the same line and 
 length added. 
 
 (d) Fulness A round the Bottom. — If fulness is to be taken 
 out around the bottom, in skirts with gores it is generally 
 done on the bias side of the gore. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 PATTERN-DESIGNING AND DRAPING 
 
 Designing involves not only good technique but a knowl- 
 edge of textiles and their manufacture; of historic cos- 
 tume, its value and use; and, to as great a degree, a work- 
 ing knowledge of the rules of design and color in their 
 direct application to costume. In addition to this definite 
 technical knowledge and much broad general information 
 in allied fields, there must also exist an indefinite something 
 which Mr. Paul Poiret has called a "sort of feeling." A 
 detailed consideration of all the necessary elements is im- 
 possible in this book. An effort has been made, however, 
 to present a few essentials regarding technique, textiles, 
 and historic costume. In this chapter directions are given 
 for the preparation and use of the dress-form and for some 
 draping problems; a few general suggestions are also made 
 for the critical study, discriminating and thoughtful obser- 
 vation, and research necessary to attain the appreciation 
 and right feeling which, with much practice, form the basis 
 for good work in design. Without this feeling and true ap- 
 preciation successful designing is impossible. But while 
 directions may be given for securing much of the required 
 information, for that more intangible but even more neces- 
 sary factor, feeling, it is impossible to do more than 
 indicate in a general way various subjects which should 
 be taken up and work which should be done to form the 
 requisite background or base of supplies. 
 
 One of the most important factors in successful and orig- 
 inal designing is the critical faculty. Thoughtful discrim- 
 ination, which is appreciation, may be developed only 
 through constant, conscious, analytical observation. It is 
 really the power to see with the mind what is constantly 
 presented to the eyes, to see not only that a costume, a 
 
 250 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 251 
 
 picture, a statue is good or bad, but why it is so. Only 
 after such searching analysis does the critical faculty come 
 into existence; nor Can it function without a background, 
 a base of supplies from which to draw endless examples 
 for comparison and constructive criticism. To establish a 
 background extensive knowledge of what has already been 
 done in art is necessary, and especially in art as applied to 
 costume. "Contact with the best works of art is an es- 
 sential part of art education, for from them comes power 
 and the stimulus to create." Costumes have been made 
 and worn for many thousands of years. Nothing entirely 
 new is conceived ; the old serves as an inspiration and lends 
 itself by skilful adoption or adaptation to meet any modern 
 need. Consequently, these old costumes, of which there 
 are numberless records, must serve as the treasure-house 
 for the designer. These records exist not only in books on 
 historic costume, which are somewhat difficult of access 
 to the majority, but also, with the added charm of the 
 artist's conception, in the costumes of practically all cen- 
 turies which are presented copiously in sculpture, paint- 
 ings, and engravings. 
 
 At the present time reproductions of many of these 
 works of art and of many costume prints may be obtained 
 without difficulty and at small cost. There are those 
 which the newspapers and fashion magazines frequently 
 present with their current fashions. In general, these are 
 copies of the costumes of the earlier centuries which are 
 most directly influencing modern costume at the moment. 
 Inexpensive post-cards, copies of costumes, of portraits or 
 statues, are sold in shops and in museums. Prints are 
 issued in great numbers and at a minimum cost by such 
 firms as the Perry Picture Co. and the Bureau of Univer- 
 sity Prints. Catalogues of these prints may be obtained 
 upon request. 
 
 A collection of all such illustrative material should be 
 made and, if arranged according to design or period in a 
 scrap-book, proves of the greatest use. 
 
 Before the designing collection can be considered com- 
 plete, representative textile fabrics should also be carefully 
 
252 Dressmaking 
 
 chosen and classified according to texture, flexibility, or 
 wearing quality. 
 
 While many books on historic costume are too expensive 
 and too difficult for the majority to procure, inexpensive 
 reprints may frequently be obtained. Second-hand copies 
 of originals may be purchased at sales if the market is 
 watched. The regular and special catalogues of firms in 
 large cities in America and Europe are always sent upon 
 request, and by a careful perusal of these a good, if small, 
 library may be selected. 
 
 The imagination is greatly stimulated by visits to the 
 theatre and opera, where it is possible to observe not only 
 faithful reproductions of attractive adaptations of period 
 costume, but also skilful and extremely artistic color com- 
 binations. Nothing which stimulates the creative power 
 should be overlooked in the training for designing. 
 
 The same conscious and analytical observation which is 
 required in developing the critical faculty is as necessary 
 in determining all the practical working details of cos- 
 tumes which are constantly seen by the worker in every- 
 day life — such details as the grain of the material, the key- 
 note to a successful execution of any design; the location 
 of the necessary seams and openings; the finishes of all the 
 edges, and the detailed arrangement of the decoration. 
 Each part is an important factor in the making of the 
 whole, and no detail, however minute, should escape the 
 discriminating eye of the designer. Any observation is of 
 little value which does not include a decision on the worth 
 of the design and an analysis of the parts in which its real 
 value consists. 
 
 In choosing a design for a costume there are many fac- 
 tors to be considered if it is to fulfil its purpose satisfactorily. 
 The purpose of a costume is briefly to serve as a suitable 
 covering for the body. "Right dress is, therefore, that 
 which is fit for the station in life, and the work to be done 
 in it, and which is otherwise graceful, becoming, lasting, 
 healthful, and easy; on occasion splendid; always as beau- 
 tiful as possible." * 
 
 * " Arrows of the Chase," J. Raskin. 
 
Silhouettes, i8i2-igi2 
 
254 Dressmaking 
 
 The individual — that is, the human factor and not the 
 prevailing fashion — should be the dominant note in any 
 scheme of costume. Costume should be appropriate. No 
 design nor material should be chosen which is not suited 
 to the intended purpose and does not bear a general rela- 
 tion to its surroundings or setting. All garments should 
 allow perfect freedom of action. They should not in any 
 way impede the movement of the entire body nor interfere 
 with its exercise. The most artistic costume is that which 
 indicates and in general follows the leading lines of the 
 figure. No costume can be really graceful or beautiful, 
 though it may be considered fashionable, interesting, or 
 picturesque, which perverts the natural outline of the fig- 
 ure by the addition of various pads, humps, and puffings. 
 In the designs it is usually possible to accentuate or empha- 
 size the good points or lines of the figure and make the 
 less desirable ones inconspicuous. To do this successfully 
 it is necessary to give the silhouette careful consideration. 
 The general scheme of the costume, with all details elim- 
 inated, should first be outlined and chosen. This will 
 usually give greater consistency to the whole costume 
 and bring it into closer relation to the figure of the 
 wearer. 
 
 A costume should be made not only to give freedom of 
 action to the body, or a graceful interpretation of its out- 
 fine and movements, but it should also express the in- 
 dividuality and the personality of the wearer. This is a 
 • difficult problem, and unless the good taste of the designer 
 is exercised the results may be an eccentric representation, 
 inartistic or even grotesque. The result may be equally 
 grotesque if no allowance is made for individuality. The 
 latest fashion is often worn without any thought as to the 
 fitness of that fashion for a particular personality. It is 
 also a mistake to assume that a costume becoming to one 
 person will necessarily be attractive on another and to 
 choose a costume on that basis. 
 
 It is the skilful designer who detects and appreciates the 
 good qualities, and emphasizes them, and yet makes the 
 costume sufficiently fashionable to be inconspicuous. It is 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping %55 
 
 equally unfortunate to be too much out of fashion. Both 
 extremes lead to conspicuousness. 
 
 Simplicity in costume, in line, and in decoration cannot 
 be overemphasized. Overelaboration and profuse dec- 
 oration in general mark the work of the amateur. Mr. 
 Paul Poiret has said that he has formulated only two prin- 
 ciples in his art: the search for greater simplicity and the 
 search for original detail. These both imply study and 
 research in design and in historic costume. As a stimulus 
 for original detail there must be constant contact with the 
 best that has already been created both in design and in 
 the costume of past centuries. 
 
 To secure good design there must be a general knowledge, 
 simple yet workable, of certain fundamental rules in art 
 governing line and color. From the point of view of de- 
 sign a dress may be considered as a composition. It is 
 made up of lines, some necessary in the actual construction, 
 others added purely for decoration. It has also color, the 
 use of which involves not only the question of harmony 
 but that of the proportionate amount to be used as well as 
 its placing. Both these subjects are too complex and too 
 important to be dealt with in any detail here. A few sug- 
 gestions for line design are given, but they can prove of no 
 value unless supplemented by the careful perusal of books 
 by well-known masters of line and a study of fine old 
 portraits, Greek statues, etc. Color is too difficult and 
 intricate a subject, and too many factors are involved for 
 more than a passing notice. General suggestions are in 
 too many cases more harmful than helpful when adopted 
 by the beginner. Careful study and observation of fine 
 paintings, Japanese prints, etc., are absolutely necessary. 
 
 In all designs there should be unity ; that is, there should 
 be such a combination of the various parts as to give one 
 general harmonious effect. All the lines of a costume 
 should so work together that the design presents at once 
 the one main or controlling idea underlying it. It should 
 impress the beholder as the expression of one thought, not 
 in fragments but unified. 
 
 Good proportion in a costume, as in a picture, is secured 
 
256 Dressmaking 
 
 by the correct arrangement of line. Again unity is the first 
 consideration. There must be some general movement or 
 rhythm of line. A repetition of lines or shapes, if well done, 
 usually makes rhythm. 
 
 But repetition of itself does not create beauty; there 
 must be fine spacing and harmony of line in addition. The 
 chief danger in such an arrangement of line is monotony. 
 The most usual illustrations of repetition in fine are found 
 in the decoration of shirt-waists, when lengthwise hems and 
 plaits and tucks are used, and in skirts when a hem and tucks 
 are placed at the bottom. In planning a shirt-waist, for 
 instance, if the tucks are of the same width as the hem of 
 the opening, the result is uninteresting. In any arrange- 
 ment of tucks it is usually better to group the tucks and 
 repeat the groups rather than to repeat the separate tucks. 
 
 While plaiting has repetition of line because of its move- 
 ment when the figure is in motion, there is additional play 
 of line and a constant change in the light and shadow 
 which prevents any monotony. 
 
 Splendid examples of rhythmic arrangement of lines are 
 to be observed in architecture. There are many buildings 
 in which the height is divided into spaces by lines of win- 
 dows or definite decorations and in which columns of good 
 height are so placed as to give the desired effect of light- 
 ness, of space, of dignity, or solidity. A careful observa- 
 tion of such effects will be most helpful and suggestive. 
 
 For the amateur it is usually safer to try only bisym- 
 metric line arrangement. The even balance of line which 
 this gives produces the effect of completeness. Variation 
 or an unbisymmetric grouping requires great skill and the 
 touch of a master of line. 
 
 Too many lines in opposition give an effect of violence 
 which may be counteracted by the introduction of a few 
 curved lines. A design which has lines placed in opposition 
 requires, in general, skill in spacing, a careful choice of 
 texture, and a good silhouette upon which to base the work. 
 A common illustration of such an arrangement is found 
 in the lengthwise straight box plait, or fastening, with a 
 straight belt line or a straight yoke line placed at right 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 257 
 
 angles or in opposition to it. On a well-rounded figure of 
 graceful outline such a placing of lines serves to enhance 
 and set off to best advantage the curving lines of the sil- 
 houette. The use of the same lines for a flat figure, angular 
 in outline, emphasizes the angularities and gives an un- 
 fortunate effect. 
 
 Designs in which there is a gradual transition from one 
 line to another are more generally becoming. In such de- 
 signs one line grows out of another and all corners or sharp 
 angles are replaced or softened by curving and slanting 
 lines. In this method the square yoke line is replaced by 
 slanting or curving lines which flow into a straight centre- 
 front line. The waist line, in turn, is curved rather than 
 straight; such arrangements, in which sharp angles and 
 contrasts are avoided, soften the outlines of the angular 
 figure and enhance the curving lines of the more rounded 
 silhouette. 
 
 In many designs certain lines are given special emphasis. 
 This is frequently done to bring into prominence some good 
 points of the figure. All the other lines of the design should 
 be arranged to be in harmony with those main lines. They 
 should not detract in any way from the central idea, but 
 should be subordinated to it and should supplement it in 
 such a way as to give added emphasis. 
 
 Of equal importance with the line arrangement are the 
 spaces formed by these fines. As in repetition of line, there 
 should be special effort to avoid monotony, which is gen- 
 erally caused by too even a division of space. For example, 
 a skirt which opens exactly at the centre-front line, unless 
 treated in some special way, is not as interesting as one 
 which opens slightly to one side. A double skirt is not 
 good if it has the bottom line of the upper skirt dividing 
 the full length exactly in half. 
 
 The various divisions of space should always be well 
 balanced. Too large a space may completely overbalance 
 and obscure the smaller divisions. A skirt is very poorly 
 designed which is divided so that a narrow centre-front 
 panel is entirely overbalanced by two wide spaces on each 
 side. 
 
2o8 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Greek costume shows many examples of good space re- 
 lation. In general, the main masses are large and simple, 
 while the smaller are made by the folds of drapery and are 
 entirely subordinate to the large masses and supplement 
 
 them in such a way as to 
 make the design complete 
 and satisfactory. 
 
 In choosing colors for a 
 costume there are several 
 factors to be considered : a 
 good combination of color 
 in the costume; the propor- 
 tion and careful placing of 
 the colors selected ; and the 
 general becomingness of the 
 color or colors to the wearer. 
 To determine color com- 
 binations and color value 
 successfully it is necessary 
 to be familiar with the rules 
 which govern them and to 
 have had much practice in 
 their use. As has already 
 been said, if it is not pos- 
 sible to secure good instruc- 
 tion in color work much 
 may be done by study and 
 observation. Such a book 
 as Munsell's "Color Nota- 
 tion " will prove exceedingly 
 helpful, if supplemented by careful, discriminating obser- 
 vation of good paintings and Japanese prints. 
 
 In testing for colors to suit the wearer no rules can 
 be given; the problem differs with each individual. Sat- 
 isfactory results can be secured only by a careful study 
 of the individual, her style, and the details which go to 
 make up the general impression conveyed. It is better to 
 overstudy than to understudy and to experiment with 
 various combinations before choosing any one. 
 
 Greek costume showing good space 
 relation 
 
Patter?r- Designing and Draping 259 
 
 Some colors may enhance the hue of the eyes by giving 
 depth or strength to their color. This seems to be more 
 frequently and evidently true of blue eyes than any others. 
 Rather pale blue eyes may be much strengthened by the 
 right shade of blue in the costume. This can be best de- 
 termined by a trial of many different shades. Other colors 
 may be chosen to give the skin clearness, while still others 
 give brightness and better color to the hair. The designer 
 must determine by a careful study of the individual whether 
 eyes, hair, or skin should be emphasized. This decision 
 should be, in turn, affected by another factor; that is, the 
 purpose of the costume and when it is to be worn. If it 
 is a street costume the wearer is subjected to the brightest 
 light and it may be wise to enhance the skin. On the 
 other hand, if it is for evening wear the desire is to give a 
 good general impression. An evening dress is most fre- 
 quently seen with many others of the same general char- 
 acter and should emphasize whatever individual character- 
 istic seems most striking, probably most often the hair. 
 
 A demure person may easily be made to appear absurdly 
 dressed if strong colors are used in her costume. She 
 will be completely obscured and, if at all sensitive, pain- 
 fully conscious of her too vivid plumage. On the other 
 hand, the strong, distinctive personality should not at- 
 tempt expression in pastel tones. A careful consideration 
 of different personalities and their expression or lack of ex- 
 pression in costume proves not only interesting but help- 
 ful in a study of color. 
 
 There is a quality in material which is so closely allied 
 to color as to be often confused with it; this is its texture. 
 Texture may be defined as the surface quality of a fabric. 
 It depends on the composition; that is, on the manner of 
 making and arranging the threads and their finishing. It 
 is this texture, or surface quality, that determines the way 
 in which any fabric, because of its rough or smooth finish, 
 absorbs or reflects the light and does or does not give va- 
 riation in light and shadow. For example: 
 
 (a) Cottons. — There is great variation of texture in cot- 
 ton materials. The crisp organdie, with its distinct threads 
 
260 Dressmaking 
 
 breaking up the reflection of light, serves as an excellent 
 mill nisi to the batiste ;m<l cambric surfaces, which have 
 unbroken lustrous surfaces from the use of mercerized 
 
 threads or because of finish. 
 
 (b) Wools. Some broadcloths, because of their smooth 
 and polished surfaces, have a lustre which gives in drapery 
 marked light and shadow; in contrast, Serge, whipcord, or 
 diagonal has, because of its distinct weave, an uneven sur- 
 face which breaks up the reflections of light and has little 
 variation in Light and shadow. 
 
 (<) Silks. The smooth surface and very high finish of 
 satin give it a brilliant, almost metallic, high light and a. 
 Very deep shadow; in contrast, i ripe i/c chine has a sonic 
 what rough, pebbly surface which, by lack of reflection of 
 
 light, gives a light and shadow without much contrast. 
 
 In any folds or drapery tin- light melts gradually into the 
 shadow. Ordinary velvet has scarcely any high light, while 
 mirror and panne velvet have a strong light, and corre 
 Spondingly deep shadow. 
 
 (d) Linen. Contrast is secured both by weave and finish. 
 Some fabrics, such as those with a satin weave, have a high 
 lustre, while many others with a plain weave have practi- 
 cally none. 
 
 Text ure, as can readily be seen, is an extremely subtle 
 quality and for that reason is often overlooked in the con- 
 sideration of a costume. Its influence on color is very 
 great, and it is in turn affected by color but must be con- 
 sidered and treated as a factor by itself. Because of its 
 subtlety, the unconscious successful use or abuse of it fre- 
 quently makes or mars an artistic creation, downs are 
 often seen which have beautiful harmonious colors and 
 grace of line, yet lack something for complete success. 
 
 To the casual observer the lack will be indefinable, while 
 
 the- experienced designer will probably observe at once that 
 the combination of text urc is wrong. It is just as necessary 
 
 for successful designing to have the proper combination of 
 
 texture to secure a pleasing play of light as it is to have 
 harmony of color. The kind of combination depends en- 
 tirely upon the effect desired. As in color work, violent 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 2(>1 
 
 contrasts may be made, or, on the contrary, the entire cos- 
 tume may be kept in the same lone. For one costume 
 depth and richness may be required; for another, lightness 
 and airiness. The great perfection of the textile industry 
 has made available all varieties of materials, and with 
 sufficient knowledge and experience any desired effect can 
 be secured. 
 
 Contrasts are seen in such combinations as a dull- 
 finished broadcloth and a lustrous satin; a serge and a 
 satin; or, even more striking, a deep velvet and a brilliant 
 satin. Combinations without contrasts are given by the 
 use of the same dull-finished broadcloth and a chiffon or 
 crepe de chine. The most interesting results are in general 
 achieved by extremes; that is, by great contrasts or by no 
 contrasts whatever. 
 
 Very frequently the accessories give the desired play of 
 light and shadow to the costume. 
 
 For cotton and linen dresses the right effect is often se- 
 cured by the use of pearl, bone, or crochet buttons, of 
 buckles, or of belts of leather, velvet, satin, taffeta, moire, 
 grosgrains, etc. 
 
 Many taffetas, which have no high lights or deep shadows, 
 may be made exceedingly effective if fur, a velvet flower, 
 or lace with a metal thread is combined. 
 
 When in keeping with the style of costume, artificial 
 flowers of different textures may be used to give interesting 
 combinations, or when accessories are not possible, shoes 
 may be so chosen as to give the necessary note. Patent- 
 leather shoes give a bright, lustrous surface, while calf or 
 suede provide the opposite effect. 
 
 In general, it is safe to say that the stout figure should 
 never be clothed in fabrics having a bright texture, as the 
 lustrous surface reflects the light and increases the effect of 
 size. 
 
 As in the use of color and choice of lines, for successful 
 combination of texture there must be much experimenting 
 based on careful study and thoughtful analytical observa- 
 tion. Merely following rules or suggestions will not make 
 the successful designer. 
 
202 Dressmaking 
 
 Designing should not be attempted until enough work 
 has been done in both drafting and fitting to form a basis 
 for appreciation not only of the proper relations between 
 the lines of the pattern and those of the individual figure, 
 but also of good lines and proportion in patterns. 
 
 In the drafting, a flat pattern of the required number of 
 pieces is made by following definite constructive direc- 
 tions. In following these directions there is nothing to 
 indicate to the inexperienced the correct position of the 
 lines or seams of this pattern on the figure for which it is 
 intended. As the location of these lines and their relation 
 to the lines of the figure is most important, this lack must 
 be supplied. It may be satisfactorily done in the careful 
 trying on and fitting of the pattern, which should always 
 follow the drafting. There should be sufficient practice in 
 fitting to familiarize the worker with the correct position 
 and direction on the figure of the foundation lines of all 
 patterns. 
 
 The designing problems should be such as require initi- 
 ative and originality on the part of the worker. The first 
 should be flat-paper work or pattern-designing done on the 
 table in cither tissue or drafting paper. Any desired style 
 of pattern or design may be worked out, using as a founda- 
 tion the flat patterns which have been constructed in the 
 drafting. The second should be the more advanced de- 
 signing or modelling — the construction of designs in flexible 
 materials on the dress-form to suit the individual. For 
 both the same general rules for direction of line and pro- 
 portion are observed, but in the latter no patterns are used. 
 
 I. Flat-Paper Work or Pattern-Designing 
 /. Shirt-Waisl Designs 
 
 The first designing which is done on the foundation pat- 
 terns is usually applied to the shirt-waist. 
 
 i. Tucks. — The simplest designing is that of placing 
 tucks in groups or in regular order for the back and front 
 of a shirt-waist. Lengthwise tucks may be laid from the 
 neck and from the shoulder. They should run with the 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 2(i.S 
 
 grain or thread of the material straight up and down the 
 waist. They arc designed before the waist is cut, and, con- 
 sequently, careful planning is needed to make the shoulder 
 tucks match perfectly when the shoulder seams of the waist 
 are joined. It can be done only by a frequent placing of 
 the pattern on the material as the work progresses. Tissue 
 is better than stiff paper for this work. This problem must 
 be considered from the standpoint of good design quite as 
 much as from that of good technique. Careful joining of 
 shoulder tucks cannot give beauty to the waist if the rules 
 of design in relation to space-filling are ignored. 
 
 2. Thd Gibson Plait. — The Gibson plait is often a diffi- 
 cult problem because the plait is not included — that is, 
 stitched flat, as are other plaits — in the shoulder seam. It 
 is so made as to form a continuous plait from the front 
 waist line to the back waist line, running with the straight 
 of the material in the front but slightly on the bias in the 
 back, to give good proportion to the figure. 
 
 To design the plait the shoulder seams of the foundation 
 shirt-waist should be joined. Another waist is made on 
 it in tissue in which a plait is laid both back and front, 
 the desired depth, and carefully matched at the shoulder. 
 After the plait is pinned in place the shoulder seam should 
 be distinctly traced and its seam allowance made. The 
 plait and the shoulder seam are then opened and the 
 shoulder seam is basted together exactly on the traced 
 lines. These lines will not be straight because of the plait. 
 When the plait is relaid and pinned, it should lie flat its 
 entire length and fit the shoulder closely. 
 
 3. Yokes. — Shirt-waists may be designed with applied 
 yokes of various shapes into which the material is usually 
 gathered or plaited. With these any desired amount of 
 fulness may be used in the lower part of the waist, while 
 the shoulders are kept perfectly fiat. 
 
 (1) A yoke may be used only across the back, extending 
 to the shoulder seams. The technique of this arrangement 
 is very simple, especially if the centre back of the yoke is 
 placed on a lengthwise fold. It is a little more difficult 
 if striped material is used and by making a scam in the 
 
2G4 Dressmaking 
 
 centre back the stripes are so placed as to give a herring- 
 bone effect. In either case the neck and armseye lines and 
 the desired shape of the yoke are traced directly from the 
 shirt-waist pattern and the lower part of the waist planned. 
 Not much extra material is added, as fulness in the back is 
 not generally becoming. The problem in such a yoke is 
 the designing of a good line across the back. 
 
 (2) In general, yokes are more attractive and becoming 
 when they extend a little over the shoulder seam and form 
 a straight line in front from neck to armseye into which 
 the fulness of the front may be gathered. The location of 
 the line in front and the direction of that at the back must 
 depend on the taste of the designer and the figure to be 
 suited. Before designing a yoke which is to extend over 
 the shoulder it is necessary to join the shoulder seams of 
 the shirt-waist foundation. The yoke material must be 
 carefully placed at the centre back of the pattern but may 
 fall as it will at the front. The centre back is usually on a 
 lengthwise fold, but a seam may be used for a special de- 
 sign. After the placing of the material the cutting of the 
 yoke is simple. The armseye and neck lines of the yoke 
 are traced; then the fulness for the lower part of the 
 waist may be arranged. 
 
 4. Collars. — Flat collars of all shapes may be made in 
 the same general way as are the yokes. If they are not 
 cut to have a slightly bias edge over the shoulder they 
 may sometimes require a little extra fulness there to give 
 them sufficient spring. To secure this fulness the shoulder 
 seams of the foundation waist are not brought together 
 when the pattern is made, except at the neck. At the 
 armseye they may be %" or y 2 " apart. The centre back 
 of the pattern is placed on a lengthwise fold of material, 
 unless a special design is to be made, and the desired neck 
 line and shape of the collar are traced. The neck line and 
 the shape of the collar should depend entirely upon the 
 face and figure of the wearer and should have correct re- 
 lation to any other lines in the costume. A high, round 
 neck is seldom becoming. A slightly lowered curve or a 
 point at the centre front is better suited to the majority. 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 265 
 
 5. Kimono Waists. — As a more difficult problem in de- 
 signing, the shirt-waist may be used as a foundation for 
 the making of kimono blouses. The general style and 
 amount of fulness desired determine the various ways in 
 which this may be done. One simple method is suggested 
 here which gives the rather full, free kimono, especially 
 becoming to a tall, slender figure. A few directions are 
 added as a guide for alterations, if less fulness is desired. 
 
 Kimono waist designed from a shirt-waist 
 
 (1) Placing the Foundation Pattern. — To design the ki- 
 mono waist the shirt-waist pattern is placed on some 
 firm material, either stout tissue-paper or cambric, about a 
 yard and a quarter in length, (a) The shirt-waist front is 
 placed first, with the bottom of the pattern to the cut end 
 of the material; the centre-front line at the neck, point A, 
 should be ^2" in from the lengthwise edge of the material 
 and its waist line, point B, 2" in from the same edge. 
 (b) The back is so placed that its centre-back line at the 
 neck, point C, is on the lengthwise edge and its shoulder, 
 point D, is }4" away from the front shoulder, point E, and 
 as nearly as possible in line with it. The end of the back 
 shoulder line, point F, should be 2" or 3" away from the 
 end of the front shoulder line, point G. This brings the 
 
c 2(>() Dressmaking 
 
 waist line of the back, point II, about 2} /' to 3" from the 
 lengthwise edge. These measurements may of necessity 
 
 vary somewhat if the shirt-waist pattern used has been 
 drafted to measures which are far from normal. A little 
 experience soon teaches the proper adjustments. 
 
 (2) Constructing the Kimono.- After the shirt-waist is 
 pinned in this position the lines for the kimono may be 
 constructed. The work proceeds as follows: 
 
 (a) Neck. — It is not wise to follow exactly the neck line 
 formed by this placing of the pattern. A new line should be 
 drawn inside, which makes the neck line smaller and some- 
 what higher, especially at the back and shoulder. Kimo- 
 nos have a tendency to draw away or drop at the neck, as 
 they have no fitted armseye to keep them in place. 
 
 (b) Armseye. — Before beginning the sleeve the armseye 
 must be located as a basis from which to work. The size 
 of the armseye for a kimono is somewhat a question of 
 choice, but it should be at least 2" larger than an easy 
 armseye measure taken over the dress; otherwise it will 
 be too close for comfort. If the waist is placed as directed 
 above, the distance from underarm seam to underarm 
 seam, points J and I, is usually about 6" too short; to get 
 additional length it is necessary to measure down 3" on 
 each underarm seam, to points L and K. A line should be 
 drawn between these points and its centre marked, point M . 
 
 (c) Sleeve. — From half-w r ay between points E and D on 
 the neck line, through point M, a line should be drawn the 
 intended length of the sleeve. The measure for this is 
 taken from the neck line down over the shoulder and t he 
 arm to the desired point. For a full-length sleeve, which 
 it is wise to make in this foundation pattern, the measure 
 will probably not exceed 28" or 29". Point N should be 
 marked to indicate the length, and from this point the 
 length of the arm from elbow to wrist, point 0, should be 
 measured back on the line. At the elbow, point 0, the 
 sleeve should be 2" more in width than the elbow measure. 
 This gives points P, Q, which are measured an even dis- 
 tance each side of point 0. The width of the sleeve at the 
 wrist averages 9"; this amount is to be measured at point 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 267 
 
 N, using it as the centre; points R, S should be marked. 
 As guide lines, points K and R, L and S, and R and S 
 should be connected. 
 
 (d) Underarm and Sleeve Seam. — If a full waist is de- 
 sired the lines for the sleeves may extend from the waist 
 line of the foundation pattern, points T and U, to the bot- 
 tom of the sleeve, points R and S. These lines should form 
 continuous curves passing a little inside the straight sleeve 
 lines above the elbow. If the curves as indicated in the 
 illustration give too much fulness they need not be drawn 
 from the waist line, but from a point several inches above, 
 as shown by the dotted line. 
 
 (e) Waist Line. — The waist lines in this pattern should 
 be traced accurately; they are necessary not only in more 
 elaborate designing, but they also serve as guides in bast- 
 ing together the waist. The basque should also be traced 
 before cutting out. 
 
 (/) Centre-Back Line. — If the centre-back line of the 
 shirt-waist, CH, is used as the centre back of the kimono 
 blouse it does not give sufficient width. On the other 
 hand, if the straight of the material from C is used as the 
 centre-back line it generally gives more fulness than is de- 
 sirable. A new line may be drawn from C to within about 
 i" or 1^4" of point H. This gives a medium amount of 
 fulness. 
 
 (g) Centre-Front Line. — If the waist opens in the back the 
 centre-front line must of necessity be on a straight fold 
 of the material; otherwise the amount of fulness and its 
 arrangement may be determined by the taste of the designer. 
 
 If the kimono is designed for a sloping shoulder the pat- 
 tern should be so placed that there is less distance between 
 points I and J, as less length is required over the shoulder. 
 This may be accomplished by swinging in the back of the 
 shirt-waist pattern and bringing the points G and F closer 
 together. 
 
 This flat kimono pattern may be adapted to an endless 
 variety of designs, for which costume prints and fashion 
 sheets offer many suggestions. Better results will be ob- 
 tained if tissue rather than stiff paper is used. 
 
268 Dressmaking 
 
 II. Sleeve Designs 
 
 A few designs may be made in flat paper from the shirt- 
 waist and the tight-fitting sleeve patterns. The majority 
 of sleeve designs are, however, more satisfactorily executed 
 if made on a stiff paper or a padded sleeve. They are, in 
 consequence, considered under 77. Designing and Draping 
 on the Dress Form. 
 
 i. Shirt-Waist Sleeve. — Some of the fulness may be re- 
 moved from the shirt-waist sleeve below the elbow. It is 
 done in various ways: 
 
 (i) By placing a seam from the wrist to the elbow. This 
 must be done with care or the sleeve will be ugly at the 
 elbow. The seam should be placed on the under side of 
 the sleeve to extend from the point of the elbow to the 
 wrist in a line with the little finger. This new seam does 
 not affect in any way the regular sleeve seam. 
 
 (2) By drawing up the material on the under part of the 
 sleeve and arranging it in tucks near the bend of the elbow. 
 The seam line on the under part of the sleeve from elbow 
 to wrist and also the bottom line of the sleeve should then 
 be reshaped; the seam line of the upper part of the sleeve 
 should remain unchanged. 
 
 (3) By placing a series of small tucks extending upward 
 from the wrist. They should taper to a point toward the 
 elbow. 
 
 2. Tight-Fitting Sleeve. — A one-piece sleeve with ful- 
 ness at the top or bottom may be made from the tight- 
 fitting pattern. 
 
 (1) For fulness at the top the upper and under pieces of 
 the sleeve are placed with the outside seams together from 
 the elbow to the wrist. This placing causes them to spread 
 from the elbow to the top. The curve at the top of the 
 upper should be extended to join the top line of the un- 
 der, the size desired determining somewhat the direction 
 of this new top line. The straight of the material should 
 lie from the point of the elbow straight up. 
 
 (2) For fulness at the bottom of the sleeve the same 
 seams are brought together from the elbow to the top; this 
 
270 Dressmaking 
 
 causes them to spread from the elbow to the wrist. A new 
 line is made for the bottom of the sleeve. Its direction is 
 determined by the size of the puff desired at the wrist. 
 The straight thread falls from the elbow straight down 
 through the centre of the puff. 
 
 777. Skirl Designs 
 
 Skirt designing is rather more difficult than that for 
 waists and sleeves, because skirts change in shape and size 
 and line so greatly and with such frequency. Waists and 
 sleeves, no matter what the fashion, conform in a general 
 way to the outline of the figure. Skirts cover the figure 
 but do not necessarily take their outline from it, and in 
 consequence there is greater opportunity for change in 
 shape. In all skirt work, in addition to the problem of 
 fitting there is that of hanging as well. Much practice is 
 required for the execution of successful designs. 
 
 The plain drafted skirt pattern is used as a foundation for 
 the work. From the draft given in this book a narrow or 
 a full skirt may be made; as a basis for the designs it is wise 
 to choose one of medium size. In adapting a pattern to 
 suit the figure of the wearer, and at the same time making 
 it conform to the general requirements of the fashion of 
 the period, many excellent problems are provided. 
 
 The dividing of a skirt into gores of various sizes forms 
 the necessary basis for skirt designing. If directions for 
 making these divisions have not been given in connection 
 with the preceding drafting work they should form the pre- 
 liminary work in designing. 
 
 As has been said, mere technique without reference to 
 good design is of little value. The work of dividing a plain 
 skirt into gores suiting the figure of the wearer is a problem 
 which necessitates a knowledge of the rules of good spacing. 
 
 There are two general methods of procedure which may 
 be followed in the making of skirt designs. For both, the 
 foundation draft is made and on it the desired gore divisions 
 are. worked out according to the drafting directions, the 
 extra fulness at the waist is determined, the seam fines are 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 271 
 
 trued, and, when finished, all the necessary lines are plainly- 
 indicated on the pattern with a heavy pencil line. 
 
 (i) The skirt may be left whole and tissue-paper used 
 over it for the designing, as the indicated seams can easily 
 be seen through. 
 
 (2) The skirt may be cut apart into the indicated gore 
 divisions and the designs made by combining the gores. 
 For this either heavy or tissue paper may be used, as the 
 separate gores are placed in any desired position on the 
 paper to serve as guides in the making of patterns. 
 
 If the first method is followed and the foundation pat- 
 tern is not cut apart into gores, it is necessary to remove 
 some, at least, of the surplus fulness which has already been 
 indicated by the darts and gore divisions at the waist. 
 This may be done by pinning in a few shallow darts where 
 the fulness is shown. It may not be possible to make 
 them deep enough to take out all the extra size, but a 
 sufficient amount may be removed to make the pattern a 
 good shape and satisfactory to work with. 
 
 As can easily be seen, if the skirt work is to be done in 
 the full size and the patterns used for cutting in materials, 
 more accurate results are attained by the second method — 
 that of the separate gores — as by this method the exact 
 amount of fulness at the waist is removed and the pattern 
 made the correct size. For this work the six-gore division 
 is excellent when made with a centre-front and centre-back 
 gore or panel and two side gores. The same skirt may have 
 a four-gore division by using a dart over the hip rather than 
 a seam. The centre front and back gores will not require 
 changing for this. 
 
 When possible, both methods of procedure in making or 
 designing should be tried, as they give variety of practice 
 and one is frequently found to be better suited than the 
 other to certain styles of skirts. In all skirt work great care 
 should be taken to indicate on all patterns and all pieces of 
 a pattern the correct location and direction of the waist 
 and hip lines. 
 
 1. Centre-Front Decoration. — Many skirts are cut to 
 have a seam at the centre front. This offers opportunity 
 
272 Dressmaking 
 
 for a variety of simple designs, as the placket, or skirt-open- 
 ing, is usually placed in the seam and requires an attractive 
 finish. Either a slot seam or a lengthwise tuck of any 
 width desired may be used. The exact location of the 
 opening should depend somewhat on the decoration. A 
 slot seam should be in the centre, while a tuck should, in 
 general, be placed a little to the left. 
 
 2. Designs Based on the Four or Six Gore Division. — 
 As has been said, the four or six gore division makes a 
 good foundation pattern for a variety of designs, using 
 either method of procedure. For example, the centre-front 
 and centre-back gores may be treated as panels with tucks 
 or other decorative finishes at their seams. The side gore 
 or gores may be arranged in an even greater variety of ways. 
 
 (i) The dart may be used for a plain four-gore or an 
 undecorated seam for the six-gore. A tuck is not used at 
 this seam generally, as it will not he flat over the curve of 
 the hip. It is seldom wise to emphasize this seam line by 
 using any kind of decoration. 
 
 (2) Gathers may be used in place of the dart or seam to 
 draw the fulness in at the waist. These gathers may be 
 covered with a strap or belt placed near the waist fine and 
 variously finished. 
 
 (3) Fine tucks, rather than gathers, may be made. 
 Care should be taken to taper them to nothing near the hip 
 line; otherwise too much fulness will be taken out below or 
 at the hip, and the skirt will not look well nor will it fit. 
 
 3. Tucks. — The simplest work in designing is that of 
 using tucks at the seams of a gored skirt. Either of the 
 methods of procedure suggested above may be followed. 
 In both, careful attention should be paid to the placing of 
 the straight of the material. In general, it should fall at 
 the centre front, at the front edge of each gore below the 
 hip line, and, if a panel back is used, at its centre. 
 
 (1) Tucks are placed at the back edge of gores, except 
 at the centre back where there is a plain seam or an inverted 
 plait as desired. If there is a centre-back panel, however, 
 the tucks can be used by placing them at each edge and 
 turning them toward the front. 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 
 
 273 
 
 (2) In adding material to the gores for the tucks an equal 
 allowance is made on the back edge of one gore and the 
 front edge of the next. This does not add width to the 
 gores, but leaves them their original size and merely gives 
 enough extra material for the under side of the tuck, so that 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 - ■■» i 
 
 
 
 
 1_ J L _^^^»»»^ 
 
 Adding material to the gores of a skirt to form a 
 tuck at the seam 
 
 the stitching may be as far in from the original gore line as 
 is desired to form the tuck. As can easily be seen, if the 
 width of the tuck is added to the original size of each gore 
 the size of the skirt will necessarily be much increased or 
 the back gores made so small as to be entirely out of pro- 
 portion to the rest of the skirt divisions. 
 
 (3) The work proceeds as follows: 
 
 (a) The front gore or panel is planned first. The cen- 
 tre front is placed on the lengthwise straight and its back- 
 
274 Dressmaking 
 
 seam line indicated on the paper. Beyond the seam line 
 once the width of the tuck plus the seam allowance is 
 added. The lines forming these should be exactly parallel 
 to the original seam line, as the tuck is of even width its 
 full length. The width of the tuck is a matter of choice. 
 It should not be too wide. The seam allowance should 
 be Ya" or J "- Whichever width is decided on should be 
 kept uniform throughout. After these are added to the 
 gore, it should be cut off and its edge turned back exactly 
 along the original seam line; this turns one width of the 
 tuck and the seam allowance to the wrong side. 
 
 (b) The same method is followed for other gores which 
 are to have the tucks. The seam. allowance and once the 
 width of the tuck are added to each seam line of the gore. 
 The back edge of the gore is turned in along its seam line, 
 but the front edge is allowed to extend, as the back edge of 
 the gore in front of it must be placed on it in joining them 
 together. To join them correctly, the folded edge, which 
 is the original seam line of the front gore, is placed to the 
 original seam line of the next gore and pinned flat. 
 
 (c) After the two gores are pinned together, if the wrong 
 side is observed, it will be seen that the lines indicating the 
 width of the tucks on both gores fall exactly together, ready 
 for stitching, and that the two raw edges are also together. 
 By employing this method of making tucks the edge of 
 the tuck on the right side is not a new line, but the original 
 drafted seam line, and the gores are unchanged in size or 
 shape. In consequence, the lines are more easily kept 
 straight and the gores in good proportion. 
 
 4. Inverted Plaits. — Many skirts have inverted plaits 
 added at the seams for decoration or to give additional 
 width in walking. At the centre back, where such plaits 
 are most often used, or at the centre front they generally 
 extend the full length of the skirt, but in finishing are 
 stitched flat for some distance below the waist. On other 
 seams they are frequently made not more than 8", 10", or 
 12" in length. 
 
 To make these plaits, extra material must be added 
 to the seam lines of the gores. This is not done in the 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 
 
 275 
 
 same way on all seams; their position in the skirt deter- 
 mines the exact method of procedure. 
 
 (i) For a plait at the centre back of a skirt an equal 
 amount — twice the width of the plait plus the seam allow- 
 ance — is added to the adjoining seams of the two back 
 
 ■■111 
 
 ft---: 
 
 Adc 
 
 res of a skirt to form an 
 
 dpla 
 
 gores. Then, when the plait is laid, the seam line falls at 
 the centre back where the plait meets, exactly as it would 
 without the plait. 
 
 (2) For a plait, whether full length or not, placed be- 
 tween any other two gores an equal amount is not added 
 to the adjoining seam lines of the gores. When the plait 
 is laid, the seam should not be in its original position — that 
 is, exactly in the centre, as without the plait — but concealed 
 at one side in a fold of the plait. To place the seam cor- 
 rectly the material is added in this way: to the back edge 
 
27G Dressmaking 
 
 of the front gore once the width of the plait plus the seam 
 allowance is added; to the front edge of the next gore, 
 which is usually straight below the hip, three times the 
 width of the plait plus the seam allowance is necessary. 
 This brings the seam in the fold of the plait of the front 
 gore. 
 
 (3) The work proceeds as follows: 
 
 (a) The front gore is placed on the correct grain or thread 
 and its back seam line indicated on the paper. Beyond the 
 scam line once the width of the plait is added. This plait 
 differs from the tuck in that it is not of equal width its full 
 length. The desired width should be measured over at the 
 hip and a proportionate amount at the bottom. A usual 
 proportion is one and a half times the hip at the bottom. 
 The points at the hip and at the bottom should be con- 
 nected with a straight line. This line should be continued 
 from the hip to the waist in a curve which exactly parallels 
 the curved seam line of the gore. The usual seam allow- 
 ance should be made the full length of the gore. When 
 both the plait and the seam allowance are added, the gore 
 should be cut off and its edge turned back along the orig- 
 inal seam line; this turns one width of the plait and the 
 seam allowance to the wrong side. 
 
 (b) To the front seam line of the next gore three times 
 the width of the plait at the hip and at the bottom is needed. 
 The front edge of the gore is placed on the correct grain or 
 thread and its seam line indicated on the paper. Beyond 
 this seam line twice the width of the plait is measured over 
 at the hip and bottom lines. These two points should be 
 connected and the line continued straight up to the waist. 
 From this new line once the width of the plait should be 
 measured over at the hip and bottom lines. These two 
 points should be connected and the line continued to the 
 waist. Beyond this the seam allowance should be indi- 
 cated. The back edge of this gore should be treated like 
 the back edge of the front gore and the gore cut off. Af- 
 ter this gore is cut out its front edge is turned back along 
 the original seam line. To lay the plait the original seam 
 line is then folded over or brought to the centre line of the 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 277 
 
 plait. This requires twice the width of the plait. One 
 width of the plait plus the seam allowance is thus left 
 and extends beyond the gore. 
 
 (c) In joining the two gores the original seam-line of the 
 front gore should be placed to the original seam-line of the 
 back gore. This brings together the edges of the turned- 
 back width of plait on the back seam of the front gore 
 and the extending width of plait on the front seam of 
 the back gore and also the two seam allowances. As in 
 making tucks, the lines of the gores and their proportions 
 are unchanged. When a gore which has three times the 
 width of an inverted plait added to its front seam is placed 
 on material for cutting, the original front seam should 
 always be placed on the straight lengthwise thread. 
 
 Care must be taken to cut these plaits with the proper 
 length and curve at the waist line so that they can be in- 
 cluded easily in the belt. 
 
 5. Side Plaits. — Many narrow skirts have short and 
 rather shallow side plaits set in at the seams to give ad- 
 ditional width for walking. These may be easily worked 
 out in tissue, following the directions for making tucks. 
 Sufficient width is generally given if they are placed at 
 each side of the front and back panels. Eight or ten 
 inches is the usual length, while the width or depth of the 
 plait may vary according to the choice of the wearer. 
 These plaits should always turn away from the centre of 
 the panels and, if placed on the side gores, they should be 
 backward turning, as are tucks. If desired the plaits can 
 be arranged to show only when the skirt is in motion, by 
 not allowing them to extend beyond the edge of the gores. 
 Either narrow side or box plaits may be used, however, to 
 give not only fulness but decoration as well, by extending 
 them over the next gore and giving them an ornamental 
 finish. 
 
 6. Plaited Skirts. — Plaited skirts may be developed from 
 the plain foundation skirt. This is done in various ways, 
 depending on the material used, the prevailing fashion, and 
 the choice of the wearer. Plaids, checks, and stripes, when 
 plaited, usually need special treatment; otherwise the result 
 
278 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 is unsatisfactory. There are two general methods of de- 
 signing plaited skirts, both of which may be varied some- 
 what. 
 
 (i) In the first method the foundation pattern is cut 
 into a number of gores and a plait of required depth is 
 made on the back edge or seam-line of each gore. 
 
 method of making a plaited skirt 
 
 (a) These plaits are made by the same general method 
 as are the tucks. There are slight differences in detail, 
 however. 
 
 (i) As has been said, tucks are of even width their full 
 length, while these plaits, like the inverted, are wider at 
 the bottom and require more material. 
 
 (ii) In finishing, tucks are generally stitched flat their 
 full length, while plaits are left free some inches up from 
 the bottom and give additional fulness. 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 279 
 
 (b) The number of gores used in making a plaited skirt 
 depends entirely upon choice. The more gores the greater 
 will be the number of plaits and the consequent fulness at 
 the bottom. P'or instance, an eleven-gore skirt will have 
 six plaits on each side of the skirt, the two at the centre 
 back meeting, if desired, to form an inverted plait. 
 
 (c) The method of procedure is alike for each gore and 
 is as follows: 
 
 (i) The front gore or panel is planned first. The centre 
 front is placed on the lengthwise straight and its back seam- 
 line indicated. To this seam-line is added once the width 
 of the plait plus the usual seam allowance. The width of 
 the plait is determined as in making an inverted plait; 
 that is, by measuring the required width at the hip and at 
 the bottom and connecting these two points with a straight 
 line. This line should be continued from the hip to the 
 waist in a curve which exactly parallels the original seam- 
 line curve. After the usual seam allowance is made the 
 full length of the seam the gore should be cut out. This 
 added amount, the width of plait and seam allowance, is 
 turned to the wrong side, the original seam-line serving as 
 a guide. 
 
 (ii) The same amount is added to the front seam-line of 
 the second gore, but it is allowed to extend as in making 
 the tucks. 
 
 (in) The fold of the back edge of the front gore is placed 
 to the original seam-line of the front edge of the second gore 
 and the first plait is made. 
 
 (iv) An inverted plait at the centre back may be made as 
 already suggested. The gores are unchanged in size or 
 general proportion. 
 
 (d) In adding material to the gores to form any of these 
 plaits, care must be taken to have it cut sufficiently long 
 above the hip line to continue the curve of the gores and 
 form a good waist line. 
 
 (2) The second method of making plaited skirts is one 
 which is much used for short skirts and is especially suit- 
 able for checks and stripes. Straight breadths of material 
 are joined and the pattern is so placed that the bottom of 
 
280 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 the skirt and the centre of each gore are on the straight 
 threads. The material for these straight plaited skirts is 
 generally used lengthwise, but may be crosswise if desired, 
 if it has sufficient width and no defined up and down. It 
 is usually found, however, that the lengthwise material 
 hangs better and presses better. In this method as many 
 gores are used as desired; the more gores the greater the 
 
 Second methc 
 
 making 
 
 laited skirt 
 
 number of plaits. The number does not in any way affect 
 the method of procedure, which is as follows: 
 
 (a) In planning the gores the foundation skirt is divided 
 into equal parts, (i) At the bottom, beginning with the 
 front, where, as usual, only half the width of the gore is 
 measured, (it) At the hip, beginning with the front. In 
 order to give the plaits good direction over the fulness of 
 the hips, the gores which form the side front and side of 
 the skirt should be a little wider on the hip line than 
 those at the back and side back. 
 
 (b) After the skirt has been divided into the required 
 number of gores (i) each gore should have its hip lines at 
 6" and 10" carefully marked; (//') the gores should be 
 numbered and corresponding edges notched, beginning at 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 281 
 
 the front, and then cut apart for placing on the material; 
 (Hi) the lengthwise centre of each gore should be distinctly 
 indicated by a tracing. The direction of this tracing is 
 easily secured by folding the gore lengthwise so that its 
 bottom line falls together. 
 
 (c) (i) The material is joined in lengths and folded 
 along its lengthwise centre to give an even amount for each 
 half of the skirt, (ii) The centre of the front gore is placed 
 on this fold and pinned. (Hi) The bottom of each gore 
 must be placed upon exactly the same crosswise thread of 
 the material. This will bring the lengthwise tracing of 
 each gore on a lengthwise thread, (iv) The gores should 
 be placed at the bottom of the skirt at equal distances 
 from one another, that distance depending upon the depth 
 of plait required. The first designing by this method is 
 somewhat simpler if the distance between every two gores 
 at the bottom equals the width of the gore. If this makes 
 too shallow a plait the distance may be increased to one 
 and a half times the width of the gore. 
 
 (d) When the gores are placed in order, according to 
 their numbers, they should be pinned and traced. These 
 tracings must indicate the seam-lines and the hip, waist, 
 and bottom lines of each gore. For the stiff paper, which 
 is the most satisfactory medium for designing the first 
 plaited skirt, the tracing-wheel may be used. 
 
 (e) After the tracing is finished (i) the separate gores 
 may be removed and some of the surplus material may be 
 cut out to make the skirt less clumsy at the waist and hips. 
 The material should not be cut out for more than 6" be- 
 low the waist until the skirt has been plaited and tested. 
 (ii) A seam allowance of yi" is required at the waist line 
 beyond the tracing and i" where the lengthwise seams are 
 to be cut. In making a skirt of this kind, the amount 
 which may be cut out in the finishing depends entirely on 
 the length to which the plaits are stitched flat. Where 
 the plaits are securely stitched only a i" seam allowance 
 is necessary. 
 
 (/) In laying the plaits the work should begin at the 
 front, (i) The back edge of the front gore should be brought 
 
282 Dressmaking 
 
 back to the front edge of the second gore, matching seam- 
 lines, waist, and hip lines perfectly, (it) The back edge of 
 gore two must be brought back to the front edge of gore 
 three, and so on. As the paper has no right nor wrong 
 side, this work may be done from either side. In using ma- 
 terial the right side of it should be toward the worker in 
 order to bring the plait to the wrong side. 
 
 In explaining these two methods, only plaits laid in 
 regular order have been suggested; but with these methods 
 as a foundation the grouping of plaits may easily be worked 
 out. 
 
 7. Gathered Skirts. — Gathered skirts may be made in 
 various ways, the method chosen depending on the general 
 effect desired. 
 
 (1) The simplest method is that in which straight 
 lengths of equal width at the top and bottom are used and 
 the fulness is gathered in at the waist line. If the skirt is 
 very full this gives a large amount of material at the waist. 
 Such a skirt requires little skill in designing, except in the 
 placing of the gathers to give a becoming arrangement of 
 fulness at the waist. 
 
 (2) In general, a more satisfactory method is that in 
 which some of the fulness is removed at the waist line of 
 the skirt by goring it out on the seams. 
 
 (a) In designing a skirt of this kind the plain founda- 
 tion pattern may be used, drafted to measure about two 
 yards around the bottom. The pattern should be evenly 
 divided into gores, the number of gores depending entirely 
 on the width of the material to be used in making the 
 skirt. For a material of average width, three gores of 
 equal size may be used. 
 
 (b) The work proceeds as follows: 
 
 (i) The pattern is divided at the waist line and bottom 
 line into three equal parts, or gores. The points indicating 
 these divisions are connected by straight lines along which 
 the skirt is cut apart. This gives three gores of equal size, 
 the front edges of which should be placed on the straight 
 lengthwise thread in designing the new pattern. 
 
 (it) In making the gathered skirt from these the desired 
 

 If* 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 : 
 
 tdllb 
 
 H « 
 
284 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 amount of fulness is secured by setting the straight front 
 edge of each gore a little hack from the edge of the ma 
 terial. The amount added in this way depends on the size 
 desired for the finished skirt. 
 
 Circular skirt with a centre-back scam 
 
 (Hi) In making this pattern care must be taken to main- 
 tain a good waist line. The new front line of each gore 
 should be the same length as its original front line, but the 
 new waist line should not be formed by a straight line con- 
 necting the two front lines. In shaping the waist line for 
 the enlarged gore it must rise gradually from the new 
 front line, going above the original front line, until it joins 
 the old waist line at the back edge of the original gore. 
 In this way height or length enough is given to arrange 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 
 
 285 
 
 or push the fulness from the front of the gore along its full 
 width as required to suit the figure. 
 
 8. Circular Skirts and Tunics. — Circular skirts and tunics 
 may be made in two general ways. 
 
 \ 
 v 
 
 k \ 
 
 k* 
 
 
 Circular skirt with centre-back and side seams 
 
 (i) By using the skirt draft in Chapter V, which may 
 be adapted to various depths or lengths or widths. This 
 method needs no further explanation here. 
 
 (2) By combining the separate gores of the six-gore skirt, 
 which may be so arranged as to give any desired depth and 
 length and width. If a circular skirt or tunic is to be made 
 from a six-gore pattern the work proceeds as follows: 
 
 (a) For a circular skirt with centre-back seam: (i) The 
 centre of the front panel is on the lengthwise straight fold. 
 
280 Dressmaking 
 
 (ii) The front seam-line of the second gore is placed to 
 touch the side seam of the front panel at the waist line 
 and for a few inches below; from this point it gradually 
 spreads until the two gores at the bottom are some distance 
 apart. (Hi) The third gore and the back panel are placed 
 in turn in the same way with these, and a circular skirt is 
 made without any seam but that of the centre back. 
 
 (b) For a circular skirt with centre-back and side seams: 
 (i) The front panel and the second gore are placed as before 
 and cut. (//) The third gore and the back panel are ar- 
 ranged together in the same way, and, in cutting, the front 
 seam-line of the third gore is placed on the straight of the 
 material. With a seam over the hip as well as at the centre 
 back there is less likelihood of the skirt's sagging. Fre- 
 quently the centre-back line is better if it is made some- 
 what more bias. The amount depends on the width re- 
 quired for the skirt. 
 
 By either of these methods the waist line or curve at 
 the top of the skirt or tunic is the same size as it was orig- 
 inally, but deeply curved, as is necessary for circular skirts 
 and tunics. The depth of a tunic may be regulated as 
 desired. 
 
 9. Circular Flounces.— A circular flounce can easily be 
 made by using the undivided foundation of a rather 
 narrow skirt. An exact pattern should be cut of that part 
 of the skirt for which the flounce is intended. The depth 
 may be as desired. This pattern is then slashed at regular 
 intervals from the bottom to within X«" of the top and 
 spread to the required width at the bottom. As in the 
 last method of designing a circular skirt or tunic, this makes 
 the curve at the top edge much more circular but does not 
 change its size, while the lower edge is more circular and 
 has more width. 
 
 10. Triple Skirts. — Triple skirts may be designed from 
 the plain skirt. Triple skirts are of several kinds and are 
 made in many different ways. 
 
 (1) By the use of straight or somewhat fitted flounces, 
 the upper slightly gored and cut from the drafted pattern 
 and the two lower straight, or slightly gored, with their 
 
g88 Dressmaking 
 
 fulness held in as desired al the side and back. These three 
 flounces may be attached t<> each oilier, in which case no 
 foundation is necessary, This is a satisfactory style for 
 soft wash materials. The fitted top flounce may serve as 
 .1 yoke and the lower rather straight flounces maj be joined 
 
 together and attached to it l>y cordings or shillings. 
 
 (2) l>\ the USe Oi three straight flounces which arc n«»l 
 
 gored l»ui have their fulness either gathered or plaited, [f 
 plaiting is used it mas be either side, box, or accordion. 
 Flounces of this style should be attached to a foundation 
 skirt. 
 
 ( •) |{\ theuseoi three circular flounces, n theseextend 
 around the entire skirt it is generally better to cul them in 
 sections to prevent the material from becoming too l>ias 
 at the side or hack oi the skirt. The centre front should 
 be placed on a fold, the fronl edge oi each section on a 
 straighl edge. These sections of the flounce correspond to 
 
 the gores of a skirt and are like them in their general shape. 
 II these flounces are used on a skirt whit h has a panel front, 
 the fulness of the llounee hangs better and is less likely to 
 
 fall to the front, ii the front edge of the flounce, where it is 
 joined t«» the panel, is slightl) bias rather than straight. 
 
 II' a series of llonuces is used on a skii I ami attached to a 
 
 foundation, as is generally necessary, care should be taken 
 to have ea< h flounce deep enough to overlap the one below 
 satisfactorily. Good division of space should always be 
 considered in determining the width oi the various flounces 
 v. niiK h pra< ii* e as possible should be given to skirt de 
 signing, as man} find it a difficult problem. For practice, 
 different shaped yokes may be added. Yokes may be 
 combined with front, back, or side panels in various ways; 
 
 shaped pieces, plain or arranged in gathers, or plaits ih.i\ 
 
 be inset; the six gore skirt may be so combined by spread 
 ing the gores at the waist as to give a skirt having fulness 
 at the top and little width al the bottom. An example of 
 
 such a skirt is the peg top, which has the centre front and 
 
 ba< 1. cams slightly bias and the lengthwise straight of the 
 material over the hip, where there is also extra length of 
 materia] to form the drapery 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping %H l .) 
 
 II. Designing and Draping on the Dress-Form 
 
 In designing in materials on the dress-form the kind of 
 design to be chosen, the main divisions of the figure, the 
 finer relations of line and combination of color depend en- 
 tirely upon the individuality of the wearer, the fabric used, 
 and the general fashion followed. All these factors are, 
 therefore, obviously variable and subject to no rules. 
 
 Good technique in this work can be acquired only after 
 much practice in drafting and pattern-designing, as all the 
 general principles embodied in these are needed. Drafted 
 patterns are not used except for linings, but a knowledge 
 of the proportions taught by drafting is necessary. 
 
 A dress-form is required for the work, as it is not con- 
 venient or even possible in the majority of cases to work 
 directly on the figure. The form should be so arranged as 
 to have, in as far as possible, the general outline and shape 
 of the person for whom the design is to be made. In conse- 
 quence, the selection of the design to be made cannot be 
 arbitrary. The design may be based on an illustration in 
 the latest fashion book or on an eighteenth-century cos- 
 tume, but whatever its source it must be adapted to suit 
 the wearer. 
 
 /. Preparation of the Dress-Form for Draping 
 
 While the dress-form is considered here purely as a 
 necessary tool in designing, its use is really one of the most 
 important things to learn in dressmaking. Not only is it 
 necessary in the designing of a costume but in the making 
 as well. When its use is understood and skill is acquired 
 by practice, not only the designing but much of the fitting, 
 adjusting, and sewing may be done on it. Only the most 
 experienced designers attempt to do much work directly on 
 the person, and then usually because of some peculiarity in 
 the individual which makes the finding and adjusting of a 
 suitable style extremely difficult. 
 
 i. Purchase of a Form. Dress-forms of various kinds 
 may be purchased at varying prices. The expensive ones, 
 
290 Dressmaking 
 
 such as those which may be adjusted by various mechan- 
 ical devices to the required sizes, are not necessary and are 
 not considered here. The most satisfactory for general 
 use are the non-adjustable, which may be purchased at 
 small cost and are of good shape in recent makes. In the 
 selection of a form, care should be taken to get one small 
 enough. It is not safe to depend entirely on the bust 
 measure of the form which may be the required size, while 
 the rest of the measures will be much too large. The neck, 
 bust, and hip measures should all be tested. A form which 
 is too small may be made larger but one which is too large 
 is quite useless. 
 
 2. Preparation of the Dress-Form Cover. — The prepara- 
 tion of the form requires a little time and care; all forms 
 are made in what are considered to be regulation sizes 
 but may be made the desired size by covering and pad- 
 ding. It is very easy to make a form the correct size and 
 shape by covering it with a tight-fitting waist and a plain 
 skirt drafted to the required individual measures. These 
 covers may be made to fit smoothly and closely by using 
 soft tissue-paper or cotton wadding as a padding. 
 
 The material used should be strong and not easily 
 stretched. Unbleached muslin, of a quality costing about 
 fifteen cents per yard, is preferable. It is usually kept on 
 the form for some time and has much work done on it, and 
 its firmness prevents any stretching. 
 
 (i) Tight-Fitting Waist and Collar. Making and Padding. 
 
 (a) Making. 
 
 (i) Waist. — The cover for the waist or bust is made first. 
 For this the tight-fitting waist, drafted to the required in- 
 dividual measures, is used. (See Drafting.) If the waist 
 pattern is cut to extend 10" below the waist it is more 
 satisfactory for the padding. It should be very carefully 
 and rather closely fitted; otherwise the garments made 
 over it, when it is on the form, will be too large. In this 
 fitting care should be taken that the direction of the seam- 
 lines is good; for, while these seams are not usually indi- 
 cated in any way in the designs themselves, yet they 
 serve as a basis for them and affect their quality. To pre- 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 291 
 
 pare this tight lining for the form after the fitting, the seams 
 are stitched and notched, a collar is made and basted on, 
 and the centre-back lines, height of bust, waist line, and 
 armseye line are marked with blue cotton. 
 
 (ii) Collar. — The collar may be constructed from the 
 draft (see Drafting) or by fitting a straight piece of material 
 (see Waists). After it is fitted it is turned to the exact 
 size and height and its darts carefully stitched. It is better 
 to baste rather than stitch it to the waist, as collars cannot 
 be used on all forms. 
 
 (b) Padding. 
 
 (i) Waist. — After the collar is attached the waist is 
 slipped on the form to see where the padding is needed. 
 After the way in which the pattern fits is carefully ob- 
 served, it is taken off and the padding arranged as required. 
 It is not satisfactory to put the waist on first and push the 
 padding in, as is sometimes tried. 
 
 Soft but strong tissue-paper is a very satisfactory padding; 
 other materials, such as cotton wadding, are frequently 
 used. In arranging the padding on the form every effort 
 should be made to have it smooth and so placed that the 
 waist will not only fit well but indicate very definitely the 
 particular outline and shape of its wearer; otherwise the 
 designs made on it will not be becoming. There are no 
 detailed rules which can be given for the placing of the 
 paper; in general, it gives a better surface if put on in folds 
 without any bunching. If the form is too small below the 
 bust, at the waist, or over the hips, the paper may be 
 wrapped around it in smooth layers. Often, in order to 
 have the neck the correct size, a form must be purchased 
 which is otherwise too small. To remedy this, the paper 
 may be wrapped around as already suggested and still 
 more added by arranging it surplice fashion — that is, strips 
 are brought over each shoulder from waist line to waist line 
 and crossed at centre front and back. If the shoulders 
 are too sloping, extra strips may be used there and also 
 around the armseye. If the lining, which is cut 10" be- 
 low the waist line, is carefully padded, a skirt need not 
 necessarily be added. 
 
c 292 Dressmaking 
 
 After all the padding which seems necessary has been 
 added, the lining is put on the form once more and care- 
 fully smoothed into place. The form must be firm and the 
 correct shape. If not, the lining must be taken off once 
 more and the padding rearranged or more added as is 
 necessary. 
 
 (it) Collar. — It is frequently difficult to pad the collar 
 successfully or to keep the padding in place once it is ar- 
 ranged. A piece of stiff paper may be used in addition to 
 the padding. If it is cut wider than the collar, and the cor- 
 rect length, and is placed between collar and padding, it will 
 usually keep the collar stretched into shape and free from 
 wrinkles. 
 
 Both the waist and the collar, when satisfactorily ar- 
 ranged on the form, should be sewed together along the 
 centre-back line with rather long stitches. Pins are some- 
 times used, but they catch in the designing fabrics and 
 are not convenient. 
 
 (2) Tight-Fitting Sleeve. Making and Padding. 
 
 (a) Making. — One sleeve, the right, is prepared. A pat- 
 tern of the tight-fitting sleeve is drafted to the required 
 measures. A lining is then cut from this pattern and care- 
 fully basted, fitted, and stitched. (See Drafting.) This 
 lining should not be permanently attached to the waist. 
 It is often in the way when work is going on, or it may 
 be required for separate sleeve-designing. If the armseye 
 line is plainly marked in the sleeve and the waist, and the 
 positions for the correct placing of the sleeve indicated in 
 the sleeve and the waist, it can be either basted or pinned 
 in when needed. 
 
 (b) Padding. — The sleeve must be very firmly padded 
 with tissue-paper or with curled hair. To keep the padding 
 in place it is necessary to cover the sleeve at the armseye 
 line or top and also at the wrist with an extra piece of 
 material. 
 
 (3) Skirt. — As has been said, if the tight-fitting waist 
 is cut to extend 10" below the waist and is well padded, a 
 skirt is not really necessary. 
 
 Without a skirt the form is frequently more satisfactory 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 293 
 
 for draping close-fitting skirts and is also more convenient 
 for general handling and moving. If one is used, however, 
 there is no definite rule in choosing it, as to the number 
 of gores required. The plain foundation pattern may be 
 used. It is drafted to the required measures, carefully 
 fitted, and hung. (See Drafting.) After it is stitched and 
 a belt attached it is put on the form, and if more padding 
 about the hips is required than has been used for the waist, 
 it is added, using the same methods as for the waist. 
 
 The placket should be fastened, as was the centre back 
 of the waist, with a few rather long stitches. 
 
 A few seam-lines should be indicated in pencil on the 
 skirt to serve as a guide in the designing and draping. The 
 seam-line most generally useful, aside from those of the 
 centre front and back, is a line well placed at the side over 
 the hip. A four, five, or six gore skirt may be used satis- 
 factorily. 
 
 Whatever division is made, great care should be taken 
 to proportion the gores so that their seams give good lines 
 to the figure for which the skirt is intended. This is a 
 design problem in itself, and as these lines serve as a basis 
 for many other designs it is of special importance that they 
 should be technically and artistically correct. A success- 
 ful division of gores requires much practice based upon 
 appreciation for good spacing. While in drafting it is 
 necessary to give certain definite directions for these gore 
 divisions, which are in general based upon the hip measure, 
 in designing, these arbitrary divisions should be considered, 
 if at all, as suggestive, as providing merely a starting-point 
 for the work. Two figures may have practically the same 
 hip measure but be quite unlike in contour; one may be 
 wide and fiat, the other full and round. They naturally 
 require different designs, and in consequence attention 
 must be given to these differences in the padding of the 
 forms and in the making of the gore divisions of the skirts 
 to be used on the forms. While the width of the gores in 
 a skirt may be largely determined by the prevailing fashion, 
 they can and should be so modified as to be well pro- 
 portioned and consequently becoming to the wearer. 
 
i ?i) l< Dressmaking 
 
 II. Technique of the Dress Form 
 
 Draping and designing <>n the form can be done with 
 much less difficulty if the worker firsl familiarizes herself 
 with [ts mechanical construction and manner of operation. 
 Any form may l><- raised or lowered on its standard to a 
 convenient height, which should be such as to enable the 
 worker to use il wiilioni unnecessary fatigue. Il is im- 
 possible to bend over or reach up for any length of time; 
 and, as all good designing requires time and an attention 
 no! diverted l>v inconvenience, it is necessary for the worker 
 to l>e comfortable before attempting even the simplest 
 problem. The pari of the form in use should be as much 
 
 as possible williin easy reach and also on a level with the 
 eyes, so lhal eyes and hands may work together. II the 
 
 form is nol arranged so thai it is practically stationary on 
 its standard, il proves very annoying, as il moves and turns 
 with each movemenl of the worker. This difficulty can be 
 
 easily remedied by I he use of a wooden collar (here should 
 
 be such a collar on every standard. 1 1 his into the opening 
 in the wooden base of the form and is held there by a metal 
 
 hand which can he kepi firmly in (he required position 
 
 by turning its screw. Willi the careful tightening of the 
 screw or head ai the lop this should make the form practi- 
 cally motionless on ils standard. There should be Sufficient 
 space aboul I he dress form lor (he worker to step away and 
 gel a good perspective of her work. 
 
 These may seem minor details, hut they play an impor- 
 tant part in i he ease wilh which satisfactory results are se 
 cured, especially with beginners. 
 
 ///. Handling Materials 
 
 As materials are to he used in this designing, certain gen- 
 eral information is required regarding the various types or 
 
 classes of standard fabrics which are in most common use. 
 
 Such information can be satisfactorily acquired only 
 
 through experience in I he actual handling of fabrics, based 
 
 on the knowledge which may be acquired in a study of tex- 
 tiles. Some fabrics, such as soft satins, are exceedingly 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 295 
 
 pliable and lend them elves to elaborate design in drapery. 
 Others, like the heavy bengaline in ill:, and the erg< 
 and < heviol i in wool,, are in general mu< h le i flexible and 
 in con sequence require simpler treatment. Many material . 
 like broadcloth, have a decided up and down; becau <■ ol 
 their napped surface this is easy to determine. On the 
 other hand, there are material \, like benrietta and < ashmere 
 with as decided an up and Mown, which affects their color 
 in draping but which have no nap to serve as a guide in 
 the work. There are many materials which have a pile 
 surfa< e, su( h as velvets, < orduroys^ and plushes. 'I hese re 
 quire special attention in making, as they have a decided 
 lip and down. Mirror and chiffon velvets must be user! 
 with the pile running down; otherwise the polished or mir- 
 rored surface is destroyed. Many velvel and plushes are 
 made, however, with the pile standing, as this gives a much 
 ri( her surface to the fabric. If also gives a rougher surface 
 whi( h ea ily cafo he Must. 
 
 In working with materials the ringers should be highly 
 sensitive and as active as the eyes. Flexibility is of as 
 great importance in the hands of the designei a in I he hand 
 of the niu ,i< ian, and it i i a< quired in nun h i he .one way — 
 through continuous u <■. Fingers may be mad' capable in 
 judging and skilful in arranging materials only through 
 constanl and thoughtful use. They should be, through 
 practice, so well trained in recognizing the general quality, 
 the up and down, and right and wrong of fabri< - as to 
 render a decision as quickly and as sati factorily as the 
 eyes. Without well-trained eyes and hands successful 
 dressmaking is impossible. In manipulating material the 
 whole hand should be brought into u <■ rather than, a i too 
 often happens, ju i a few fingers. All the fingers should 
 be dexterous; I hey should hold thefabru firmly but lightly. 
 Material should never be clutched or grasped, and in ar- 
 ranging it in the desired way there ihould be no dragging 
 of the fabrii , cither up or down, into place. If it < annol be 
 made to fall naturally into the required folds, another ar- 
 rangement to which the material will lend itself should be 
 
 tried. 
 
296 Dressmaking 
 
 IV. Important Factors in Designing 
 
 (i) Emphasis has already been laid on the necessity for 
 accuracy in dressmaking; it cannot be overstressed here. 
 Even trifling variation in the details of the designing work 
 affects the result seriously. In testing for accuracy in the 
 size and shape of pieces and to secure true direction of line, 
 there is no more useful tool than the tape-measure. In 
 establishing the long seams of a skirt which is made in 
 flexible material, it is frequently difficult to keep straight 
 lines. If the tape-measure is attached to the waist and 
 drawn tautly to the floor in the desired direction, it acts as 
 a guide in truing the lines. 
 
 (2) The greatest care is required in maintaining in all 
 draping the correct grain of the material. The slightest 
 variation may completely ruin a costume. 
 
 It may safely be said, in fact, that the successful execu- 
 tion of all designs is dependent on the placing or locating 
 of the straight grain or thread of the material. In copy- 
 ing any designs this is the most important detail to observe 
 and the one most frequently ignored by the beginning de- 
 signer. Its placing in waist, sleeve, and skirt is not subject 
 to rules but depends entirely upon the design. 
 
 If a centre front or centre back of a costume requires the 
 lengthwise straight of the material, as it frequently does, 
 the most careful attention should be paid to the establish- 
 ment of the straight grain the entire length and width of 
 the piece. The same is true of a bias; if a true bias is 
 required it must be maintained. 
 
 A variation in grain, even though it is a slight one, on the 
 two sides of a costume makes it absolutely impossible to 
 arrange the fulness in the same way or to have the folds 
 take the same lines. The two sides will vary decidedly. 
 No general rules can be given for the placing of the straight 
 grain or thread of material, as the character of the design 
 determines its position. 
 
 (3) In arranging folds in both waists and skirts the grain 
 of the material must be carefully observed. Folds running 
 on the lengthwise threads give a straight effect and can 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 297 
 
 be pressed flat. This is frequently very important in skirt 
 work when plaits are used and a sharp edge is desired. 
 Folds on the crosswise threads are much rounder; they give 
 the tubular effect which is sometimes desirable. They 
 can be pressed to give a fairly sharp edge but are not as 
 satisfactory in this way as folds on the lengthwise. They 
 are, in general, less graceful than the lengthwise folds. 
 
 Folds on the bias of the material are exceedingly artistic 
 and graceful in the way in which they hang and the gen- 
 eral effect they give. They are most desirable in all elab- 
 orate designing, especially when silk material is used. If a 
 sharp edge is required they are not good. They will not 
 press flat, as the fold crosses two threads of the material. 
 But, on the other hand, they give very excellent service, as 
 they do not crease or mat in wearing. 
 
 (4) When the divisions or lines of a garment are to be 
 determined, the varying outlines of the human figure must 
 be considered as the space to be filled. Because of the 
 great variation in the general outline no exact rules can be 
 given. Each figure presents an individual problem. In 
 beginning designing it is frequently helpful to use tape to 
 indicate on the form the lines desired in the costume. If 
 the tape is of contrasting color the lines show clearly and 
 give a well-defined design, which may then be judged as to 
 correctness of proportion, becomingness, and general suit- 
 ability. 
 
 V. Suggestive Designing Problems 
 
 Designs which may be easily executed should be chosen 
 for the first work in draping on the dress-form. However 
 simple the problem may be, it must necessarily involve 
 some new factors. No attempt should be made at first at 
 originality or adaptation of elaborate patterns, and it is 
 much wiser to have the materials of such kind as to be 
 easily handled. Cheese-cloth, net, unbleached muslin, and 
 outing flannel are all good for beginning draping; they 
 drape easily and hang well, and do not require any atten- 
 tion to nap or pattern. Draping which demands consider- 
 ation of combination of color and texture may follow after 
 
298 Dressmaking 
 
 the worker has had some experience in using the dress-form 
 and in the handling of simple materials. 
 
 i. Linings. — For the preliminary drill various linings 
 and foundation patterns may be made, until facility is ac- 
 quired in working directly on the form and in cutting the 
 material into the required shapes without the guide-lines 
 of a pattern. 
 
 Directions are given here for draping a shirt-waist or 
 semifitting lining and an evening-waist lining. One or both 
 of these may be attempted to gain experience — each offers 
 a slightly different problem. 
 
 In any draping too many pins should not be used. 
 Very frequently many attempts must be made before the 
 desired effect is secured, and when the draping is done di- 
 rectly in the material it becomes defaced by pin-holes. In 
 attaching the material to the form a few pins may be placed 
 horizontally to hold it in place. In fastening the seams 
 together the pins, with their points down, should parallel 
 the seam-lines. The regulation seam allowances should be 
 made even though the models are not to be used later. 
 
 (i) Shirt-Waist Lining, Opening at Centre Front. — This 
 lining is simpler in construction than any other. It has 
 three pieces, the back and the two fronts. The back and 
 one front are all that need be made if trial material is used. 
 The amount of material is approximately twice the length 
 from the highest point of the shoulder down the front to 
 the bottom of the waist, with an additional 2" for seams. 
 
 (a) The back of the waist is draped first. The material 
 may be more easily managed if the required length is cut off. 
 The centre-back line is marked with colored cotton and 
 the material folded along the line so that the two sides may 
 be draped together. The draping is done on the right side 
 of the form. In pinning this lengthwise centre fold to the 
 centre-back line of the form it should be placed Me" to the 
 right to allow for the material included in the fold. Extra 
 material should extend above the neck line to form the 
 shoulder and its seam. The straight threads of the ma- 
 terial must be carefully watched throughout the work. 
 They should extend straight across the back from armseye 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 299 
 
 to armseye. Pins placed near the armseye will hold the 
 material in place while the neck is shaped. The material 
 must be carefully fitted about the curve of the neck to the 
 shoulder seam. A seam allowance of nearly }4" should be 
 left at the neck line which may require slashing to fit 
 smoothly. The general position of the shoulder seam may 
 be regulated as in the draft, but its exact direction and 
 location should be guided by the requirements of the pad- 
 ded form. It is generally most becoming when it lies just 
 back of the highest part of the shoulder. The material 
 is pinned in place to indicate the seam, but it should not be 
 cut until the underarm seam and the waist line are pinned, 
 as some adjusting may be necessary. The underarm seam 
 falls in a straight line from the centre of the underarm to 
 the waist. The amount of fulness at the waist line is a 
 question of taste. Too much makes the waist clumsy, 
 while none usually makes too great a bias at the seam. In 
 determining the amount of fulness the material should be 
 smoothed down over the back from the armseye along the 
 underarm seam to the waist and pinned at the waist line. 
 The general appearance of the back should then be ob- 
 served as to fit and direction of grain of material and the 
 shoulder and underarm seam cut with a ?/\" allowance. An 
 allowance of Yi" must be made at the armseye, which 
 must be cut sufficiently high under the arm to give a good 
 line. The location of the neck, shoulder, underarm, and 
 armseye fines must be indicated with colored bastings on 
 the two thicknesses of material while it is still pinned in 
 place on the form. It should then be opened and pinned 
 to the form in correct position. If the left side of the padded 
 form is not exactly like the right, any required alterations 
 may be made in the pattern and the bastings changed to 
 indicate the correct lines. 
 
 (b) The making of the front is simple, as the seam-lines 
 are already indicated. In pinning the material at the 
 centre front more must be allowed than at the back above 
 the neck line to reach the shoulder seam. The straight 
 threads must extend across the front from armseye to 
 armseye. 
 
300 Dressmaking 
 
 The material should be pinned in place near the arms- 
 eye while the neck is shaped. The front shoulder seam 
 must be shorter than the back seam, and consequently it 
 must be stretched until the two edges can be smoothly 
 pinned together. This seam is not cut until the front is 
 finished. In order to give fulness over the bust the ma- 
 terial should be eased in or swung in a little from the point 
 or end of the shoulder. In doing this care should be taken 
 not to make the armseye too full. The fulness at the front 
 is adjusted at the waist line before the underarm seam is 
 pinned. The front should be inspected for fit and grain of 
 material and all its seams marked to form good lines and 
 cut with correct allowances. The seams of the front and 
 back may be pinned together matching bastings, and when 
 an even line is made around the bottom the waist is fin- 
 ished. If the entire waist is to be made the two fronts 
 should be draped together. 
 
 Following this, various other linings to be used later may 
 be made — net, China silk, crepe de chine, and muslin are all 
 satisfactory. The linings may be made in various ways, 
 the style and material chosen depending on the figure of 
 the wearer and the kind of dress in which they are to be 
 used. A good armseye and neck line should be established; 
 the shoulder seam should be correctly placed ; the fulness at 
 the waist line should be carefully arranged; and the required 
 straight grain or thread of material should be preserved. 
 
 (2) Evening-Waist Lining. — Evening-waist linings and 
 wide girdles give variety of practice, as they have more 
 seams than the shirt-waist. Their seams are not always 
 placed as are those of the form cover, as many linings are 
 made without an underarm piece. 
 
 An evening-waist lining opening at the centre back may 
 be made from a straight piece of 20" material about 18" in 
 length. The draping may be done directly in the lining 
 material. 
 
 (a) The lengthwise centre of half the length of the ma- 
 terial is marked and pinned to the centre-front line of the 
 form. It is then drawn easily over the bust to the under- 
 arm, where there should be a seam. The width of the 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 301 
 
 material brings the selvage about in position for the seam 
 which falls from the centre underarm straight down to the 
 waist. The fulness in the front below the bust is removed 
 by darts — one at each side of the centre. For a 36" bust 
 measure these darts are about 3" apart at the waist line 
 and 5" at the top. They extend from the waist to within 
 about ij4" of the upper edge of the lining. 
 
 (b) To form the back the second length of material is 
 cut lengthwise along its centre. The back is usually made 
 with two pieces, a centre and a side back, both wider than 
 the corresponding pieces of the form cover because there 
 is to be no underarm piece. The centre and side back 
 pieces should be well proportioned to fill the space to the 
 underarm seam. Attention should be given to the direc- 
 tion of the seam-lines, to the required seam allowances, and 
 to the grain of the material before the lining is considered 
 finished. 
 
 A tight lining may also be draped, but, as the correct 
 lines are definitely indicated by the form cover, there is no 
 great advantage to be gained unless the worker uses an- 
 other dress-form of a size and shape requiring some varia- 
 tion. For instance, for a stout figure two underarm pieces 
 are frequently used and the side front may be cut to have 
 a bias grain of material across the chest rather than a 
 straight. 
 
 Following the making of linings, the designs suggested 
 for the flat paper work will serve as well for practice in 
 draping. Their becomingness to a special figure can now 
 be tested and necessary alterations made. 
 
 2. Shirt-Waist Designs. — As the shirt-waist designs are 
 the simplest, they are the first to be made. Various 
 forms of decoration, such as tucks and gathers, which intro- 
 duce fulness, may be attempted, as well as different styles 
 of yokes and turnover collars. When these are made in 
 material it can be seen how important it is to give careful 
 attention to the proper direction of the threads, as on this 
 depends much of the fit and hang of the garment. 
 
 3. Kimono-Waist Designs. — The plain kimono- waist 
 gives a very good draping problem. The waist is often 
 
l MH Dressmaking 
 
 found to Hi better when draped <>n the form than when 
 drafted to measure or designed from the shirt-waist pal 
 tern. This is largely because the height of shoulders va 
 lies, and, as the plain kimono has no shoulder seam, it is 
 practically impossible to alter by refitting, once the waisl 
 
 is cut. 
 
 ( i ) While draping the kimono the padded sleeve should 
 be attached to .the form practically at righl angles to it 
 otherwise there is no opportunity for testing to gel sufficient 
 length of material from armseye to waisl to allow freedom 
 of motion. No definite instructions can be given for the 
 direction of the crosswise threads which run from the shoul 
 der down through the sleeve to the wrist, as this depends 
 so largely on the height of the shoulder and the general 
 shape of the figure. They should he so arranged as to re- 
 move any unnecessary fulness at the hack near the arms 
 eye. This requires practice' and for this reason is an ex 
 (client problem. The lengthwise threads which go around 
 the sleeve should be made to meet at the seam by holding 
 or easing in any extra fulness or length near the armseye 
 and above the elbow. This makes it possible to match 
 the stripes or cords in materials like Bedford cord and 
 pi(|iie. In draping any kimono very careful consideration 
 
 must he given to the threads of the material. 
 
 (2) A kimono-waist may he (lose fitting or full, (a) In 
 making a rather full kimono the centre hack and centre 
 
 front may both be on the straight of the material. Some 
 of the fulness may be removed In the underarm and sleeve 
 seam. {/>) [fa kimono pattern is required which has little 
 fulness the extra material may he removed in three differ- 
 ent ways; that is: (/) The material may he drawn to the 
 front and the centre front finished with a slight bias, or 
 with the extra materia] turned hack to form decorative 
 revers. (w) The centre hack may have a seam the edges 
 
 of which are slightly bias. This removes the extra fulness 
 and allows the front to he Straight. {Hi) A seam may be 
 made, extending from the neck line down t he shoulder and 
 arm to t he wrist. 
 
 All these methods should be tried for the experience they 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 303 
 
 give. The patterns acquired may be used for a foundation 
 for various designs which are made by the introduction of 
 lines forming different divisions. As illustration, the raglan 
 sleeve may be suggested by using a line which forms a 2" 
 yoke at the centre back and gradually drops in a curve 
 under the arm and is then brought up again in a straighter 
 line at the front to form a shallow yoke. There are many 
 possible variations of these lines to suit different figures. 
 
 4. Sleeve Designs. — Designs may be made from the 
 foundation or plain shirt-waist sleeve and the plain fitted 
 sleeve. Both lend themselves to a great variety of treat- 
 ment. The designing may be done in several ways: on a 
 sleeve form which may be purchased and prepared; on a 
 sleeve which has been drafted to individual measures made 
 in material and padded; on a stiff-paper sleeve which is 
 made from the drafted pattern. 
 
 Of these the first method is the least satisfactory. The 
 form is expensive; it is heavy and stiff, difficult to manage 
 in consequence, and it requires as much preparation as the 
 other methods. Like the dress-forms, it must be padded 
 to fit a covering which has been drafted to individual meas- 
 ures and fitted. 
 
 As sleeves are an exceedingly important part of any 
 costume and are often difficult to make satisfactorily, all 
 possible practice should be given in their designing. For 
 this practice it is a good plan to have a stiff-paper sleeve 
 and a padded sleeve ; for, as the stiff-paper sleeve is flat and 
 the padded sleeve is round, each is specially suited to cer- 
 tain kinds of sleeve work. For instance, in the making of 
 a rather elaborate fitted sleeve of chiffon with a net or 
 mousseline-de-soie lining the material can, in general, be 
 more easily manipulated and sewed on the flat-paper sleeve; 
 on the other hand, in the making of semifitted sleeves and 
 shirt-waist sleeves the padded sleeve is much more satis- 
 factory. 
 
 In preparing both the stiff-paper sleeve and the padded 
 sleeve it is necessary to draft a fitted pattern to individual 
 measures, cut it in material, and baste and fit it. The stiff- 
 paper sleeve should be made first, as the muslin pattern 
 
304 Dressmaking 
 
 from which it is cut may afterward be made by padding 
 into a padded sleeve, 
 (i) Making the Sleeves. 
 
 (a) The Stiff-Paper Sleeve. — (i) A muslin sleeve is first 
 made to measure, using the tight- fitting-sleeve draft. If 
 this sleeve is correctly drafted and basted and its seams 
 notched, it will lie flat on the table without twisting or 
 drawing and the straight of the material will lie along its 
 back fold from armseye to elbow. It is easier to cut the 
 paper pattern from the sleeve if its seams are turned to the 
 wrong side, as no seam allowances are made in the paper — 
 the pattern is cut the exact size of the sleeve, (ii) The 
 paper should be heavy but not so stiff as to break or crack 
 in the handling. As the pattern must be double, like the 
 sleeve, a large sheet about 30" by 20" should be used and 
 folded in the centre on the lengthwise straight, (Hi) The 
 work proceeds as follows: The straight fold of the basted 
 sleeve from armseye to elbow is placed to the lengthwise 
 fold of the paper and the sleeve held in place by pins, per- 
 fectly smooth and flat, while its entire outline is traced with 
 a wheel. 
 
 A tracing should also be made to indicate the line of the 
 top of the under part of the sleeve. After the muslin 
 sleeve is removed from the paper all the traced lines of the 
 pattern should be trued, as it is usually difficult to get good 
 lines in tracing around soft materials. The pattern is then 
 cut out along the seam tracings and the top shaped by the 
 traced line. The sleeve will be in one piece, as it must not 
 be cut open along the fold. If the pattern is well made the 
 muslin sleeve should slip over it and fit perfectly. 
 
 (b) The Padded Sleeve. — (i) The muslin sleeve which 
 served as a pattern in cutting the stiff paper is used for the 
 padded sleeve, (ii) In preparing it for cutting in the paper 
 it was necessary only to baste the seams carefully and notch 
 them. Before it can be padded, however, the seams must 
 be stitched in order to stand the pressure of the padding. 
 (Hi) After stitching, the seams are turned to the inside and 
 the sleeve firmly and evenly padded with tissue-paper or 
 with curled hair, which is much better but more expensive. 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 305 
 
 (2) Materials. — Flexible materials, such as cheese-cloth, 
 unbleached muslin, cambric, tissue-paper, and inexpensive 
 net are most satisfactory for practice in sleeve designing. 
 
 (3) Shirt-Waist-Sleeve Designs. — The padded sleeve is 
 usually found to be more satisfactory for shirt-waist-sleeve 
 designing than the stiff paper. 
 
 To aid in the designing, a plain shirt-waist sleeve which 
 has been drafted to measure, fitted, and made should first be 
 placed on the padded sleeve and pinned in proper position 
 for general inspection as to the direction of its seam and the 
 location of the straight of the material. The seam should 
 be in line with the inside seam of the padded sleeve, just 
 inside the arm, but not too much under it. The thread of 
 the material should fall from the highest or central point 
 of the sleeve in a straight line to the elbow. The grain or 
 straight thread of the material is as important in sleeve 
 designing as in all other designing. 
 
 (a) There is a regulation model for the sleeve of the 
 strictly tailored shirt. Its only variation is in size; that is, 
 in the amount of fulness used and in the width of its cuff — 
 details which are regulated by fashion. Such changes are 
 easily made and do not provide a designing problem. 
 
 (b) Sleeves which are used in semi- tailored waists and in 
 lingerie or silk waists, however, may be changed in many 
 ways; while their general style as to the size, location of 
 fulness, or decoration is usually determined by the demands 
 of fashion, the details of execution — that is, the methods 
 used for adding or removing fulness and for making decora- 
 tion—are determined by the design. In general, there is 
 much less opportunity for decoration above the elbow of a 
 full or semifitted sleeve than below. 
 
 Occasionally fashion demands a sleeve which is full be- 
 low the elbow and close above. One method of making 
 such a sleeve is by removing the fulness at the top by a 
 series of tucks or plaits of the desired length. These must 
 always be laid absolutely along the straight threads of the 
 material. Tucks are also used around a sleeve its full 
 length; these are purely decorative. They must be made 
 on the straight crosswise threads, and may be in groups or 
 
306 Dressmaking 
 
 at regular intervals and with or without the added decora- 
 tion of insertion. The use of tucks always provides a 
 problem in good spacing. 
 
 There are many variations in methods of finishing below 
 the elbow or at the wrist. The straight cuff and placket 
 are usually omitted. The sleeve may be made to fit 
 closely below the elbow by removing its fulness in a seam, 
 as suggested in the flat-paper work. This seam runs from 
 the point of the elbow to the hand in a straight fine, which 
 if extended would touch the little ringer. It may be fin- 
 ished as a plain seam or to form a decoration. If the ful- 
 ness is allowed to remain it may be tucked or gathered in 
 at the wrist and the sleeve finished with a plain band cut 
 the lengthwise straight of the material and finished in 
 different ways: a plain band with a plaiting or ruffling 
 f ailing over the hand ; a circular or flaring cuff falling over 
 the hand; or various-shaped turn-back cuffs. 
 
 (4) Tight-Fitting-Sleeve Designs. 
 
 (a) Fitted Linings. — As beginning-work with the tight- 
 fitting sleeve, pattern finings should be made. They give 
 excellent preliminary drill in the use of the stiff-paper 
 sleeve and may be used later as foundations for the more 
 elaborate designs in fitted or semifitted sleeves. If pos- 
 sible, net should be used in making the linings, although 
 tissue-paper is satisfactory. The net is strong enough to 
 be used as a foundation for the making of several designs, 
 and because of this strength and its flexibility it is easier 
 for the inexperienced to handle. 
 
 Three different linings may be made. They serve as 
 linings or foundations for practically all types of sleeves. 
 These three differ chiefly in length. They are: the full 
 length, or long sleeve, covering the wrist; the three-quarter, 
 or short sleeve, extending a few inches below the elbow; and 
 the very short sleeve, or cap, only a few inches in length 
 and generally used in fitted and semifitted waist linings 
 and for evening dresses. 
 
 (i) Long Sleeve Lining. — The long sleeve lining does not 
 require much material — once its length and a little more 
 than twice its width, about three-quarters of a yard of 18" 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 307 
 
 material. The work proceeds as follows: The materialis 
 folded in the centre on the lengthwise straight thread and 
 the paper sleeve slipped into it, with the fold of the pattern 
 along the fold of the material. Before beginning the work 
 the material should be pinned in place, as its straight thread 
 must be kept along this fold from armseye to elbow. The 
 
 I 
 
 I A 
 
 m ji 
 
 mi Mm 
 
 1 1 
 
 mm 
 W i 
 
 Net linings made on the stiff-paper sleeve 
 
 material is next pinned along the inside of the sleeve its 
 full length, close to the pattern; this forms a seam which 
 takes the place of the inside seam of the original muslin 
 sleeve. When this is done the upper part of the sleeve — 
 that is, above the elbow — is fitted and finished except for 
 cutting the proper seam allowance. Below the elbow at 
 the back, however, there is surplus material which must 
 be taken out to give shape to the lower part of the sleeve. 
 This surplus is removed by making a seam, not on the out- 
 side of the sleeve along the edge of the paper, but on the 
 under side, from the point of the elbow to the centre of the 
 
308 Dressmaking 
 
 wrist. If this seam were to extend along the outer edge of 
 the pattern, as seems its natural position, it would bring 
 both the seam and the sleeve opening (which, if one is 
 needed, should be in this seam) too far back on the arm, 
 to look well. It may seem difficult at first to draw the 
 surplus material smoothly around to the proper place and 
 make a good seam-line, but it can be accomplished with a 
 little practice. The direction of the seam should be straight 
 for about 2" up from the bottom of the sleeve because of 
 the opening, which must be straight. This makes the 
 seam for 2" at right angles to the lower edge of the sleeve. 
 From the 2" point it should slant directly toward the el- 
 bow. This direction may be indicated first in pencil on 
 the paper pattern. After the material is drawn into place 
 and the seam pinned, the surplus material may be cut away, 
 leaving only a seam allowance which will be narrow as it 
 nears the elbow. 
 
 (it) Short Sleeve Lining. — A short sleeve lining extend- 
 ing a few inches below the elbow may be made in much the 
 same way. The material is placed with its straight threads 
 along the fold of the pattern as before and its inside seam 
 securely pinned. There is a different method, however, 
 for removing surplus fulness below the elbow. In place 
 of the downward-slanting seam from the elbow the ma- 
 terial is drawn up to fit the pattern by making a crosswise 
 seam. This seam is laid just in the bend of the elbow so 
 that in wearing it seldom shows. It extends straight across 
 and is quite deep at the inside of the elbow but tapers to 
 nothing at the point. 
 
 (Hi) The Cap, or Very Short Lining. — This very short 
 sleeve differs from the longer ones in that it has but one 
 seam which is placed exactly in the centre of the under 
 side of the pattern. This requires less work in making 
 and also prevents the seam showing if, as is frequent, 
 transparent fabrics are used in the making of the sleeve 
 itself. The lining is very simple to design; there is no 
 surplus fulness to remove and the material may be drawn 
 smoothly around the pattern with its straight threads ex- 
 tending along the fold. The seam when finished should 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 309 
 
 form a straight line along the lengthwise centre of the 
 under sleeve. 
 
 (6) Fitted Sleeves. 
 
 (i) Unlined. — When practice in the modelling of linings 
 has given sufficient skill a sleeve without a lining should 
 be made, with the usual inside seam but with the surplus 
 fulness below the elbow taken out in such a way as to give 
 the sleeve its distinctive style. The fulness need not nec- 
 essarily be removed on the under side of the sleeve, as in 
 the linings, but may be drawn to the upper side and so ar- 
 ranged and cut out as to form the decoration. Cambric 
 and unbleached muslin are very satisfactory mediums for 
 this designing. 
 
 (it) Lined. — In making many of the elaborate sleeves 
 over linings frequently one seam is all that is required in 
 the sleeve itself. This one should fall from the centre of 
 the underarm; that is, the centre of the under side of the 
 pattern straight down the sleeve and join the lining seam 
 at the point 2" above the wrist, where that seam straightens 
 for the opening. As an example of a sleeve which may be 
 made in this way, directions are given for the mousque- 
 taire. 
 
 The mousquetaire sleeve may be worked out successfully 
 with tissue. Unless it is to be very full — and it should not 
 be — one and a half times the length of the sleeve is ma- 
 terial enough for the fulness. This fulness may be ar- 
 ranged in various ways: by the use of lengthwise shirred 
 tucks, cording, gathers, or by crosswise shallow tucks or 
 plaits. The amount of material required in width depends 
 somewhat upon the method chosen. In making the mous- 
 quetaire sleeve, no matter what the style of decoration may 
 be, the straight of the material must be kept in the centre 
 of the upper side of the sleeve from shoulder to wrist; 
 that is, half-way between the two edges of the paper pat- 
 tern. Any lengthwise decoration for the centre of the upper 
 side of the sleeve, such as shirred tucks, gathers, or cord- 
 ing, is made on the straight of the material and drawn up 
 to the required length before being pinned in place on the 
 sleeve. After the material is prepared the work proceeds 
 
310 Dressmaking 
 
 as follows: the straight of the material is first pinned along 
 the centre line of the upper side of the sleeve, which may 
 be indicated in pencil on the paper. It is wise to pin the 
 material in place as well along both edges of the pattern. 
 If this is done the fulness can be better arranged. By 
 keeping the straight of the material in the centre of the 
 upper side when the material is drawn around to the un- 
 der part of the sleeve for adjustment, there is necessarily 
 additional fulness at the inside or bend of the elbow, to 
 give sufficient fulness at the point of the elbow. This ful- 
 ness can without difficulty be gathered or laid in small 
 plaits and, if lightly attached to the lining, will lie flat 
 and stay in place. When all the fulness is satisfactorily 
 arranged the edges of the material are brought together 
 along the centre line of the under side of the sleeve and 
 cut off evenly, allowing %" on one edge and enough on 
 the other for a small ]4," turning to finish the seam neatly. 
 Both edges are gathered, one along the raw edge, the other 
 after the yi/' turning is made. The gathered raw edge is 
 pinned to the net lining and then covered by the folded 
 edge. 
 
 By this same general method of procedure, using the 
 padded or stiff-paper sleeve, fulness may be arranged in 
 various attractive ways, caps and cuffs may be added, 
 slashings may be introduced, all according to the prevail- 
 ing fashion and suitably adapted by the taste of the de- 
 signer. All fashion sheets and historic costume prints and 
 books give an endless variety of designs for simple and 
 elaborate, full, semifitted, and fitted sleeves. 
 
 5. Skirt Designs. — Skirt work in draping, as in pattern- 
 designing, should begin with the making of gore divisions 
 which form the basis for all other designs. In making these 
 the principles of construction used in drafting should be 
 kept carefully in mind. Special figures must now be con- 
 sidered; there should be much testing of various divisions, 
 such as have already been tried in the flat-paper work, with 
 regard to the becomingness of the lines and the proportions 
 of the gores. It will soon be seen that any definite rules 
 already given for gore directions can be only generally sug- 
 
Pattern-Designing and Draping 311 
 
 gestive for this work. In many cases they do not give well- 
 proportioned divisions or the most becoming lines to the 
 figure for which they are intended. While the general style 
 of a skirt and its divisions are somewhat determined by 
 fashion, they may always be modified to be in good pro- 
 portion and give grace of fine to the figure. All gore lines 
 should be at right angles to the waist line. If the tape- 
 measure is pinned at the waist and drawn down to the floor 
 it shows the effect of the gore divisions distinctly and also 
 gives good direction of line. Many of the gored skirts made 
 may serve as foundations for more elaborate draping for 
 which very few directions can be given. 
 
 In the draping of all skirts there are certain factors to be 
 observed. 
 
 (i) In general, (a) if a straight-hanging skirt is desired 
 — that is, straight as a plumb-line falls — the straight 
 lengthwise thread should be used. This gives a waist line 
 with little curve, (b) If a skirt which flares or stands away 
 from the figure is required the bias should fall from the 
 waist to the floor; this gives a waist line which is rather 
 deeply curved. It will be remembered that, in drafting, 
 the narrow, straight skirt had a fairly straight waist line 
 when compared to the deeply curving one of the circular 
 'skirt. The same principle holds true in draping. 
 
 (2) In manipulating material in the skirt work it will be 
 seen : (a) that in the straight skirt with the straight length- 
 wise threads there is always the straight crosswise thread 
 of the material around the hip; (b) that as the material 
 is drawn up off the straight crosswise grain from the front 
 toward the back, the skirt becomes narrower at the bottom 
 line and fuller at the hip; (c) that, on the contrary, as the 
 grain is allowed to sag or drop, making the circular waist 
 line, the skirt begins to flare. The amount of flare is always 
 determined by the depth of the waist circle, the greatest 
 flare coming where the circle is deepest. 
 
 As facility is secured in executing waist and skirt designs 
 in rather simple materials, those requiring more skill in 
 manipulation and a more subtle combination of textures 
 and colors should be attempted, their choice depending 
 
312 Dressmaking 
 
 always on the individuality of the wearer. Because of the 
 great number and variety of the factors involved and the 
 amount of practice necessary before any skill can be ac- 
 quired, too rapid progress in designing should not be at- 
 tempted or expected. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 WAISTS 
 
 There are two general types of waists: the shirt-waist or 
 semifitting waist; the tight-fitting or draped waist. 
 
 There is opportunity for great variety in each type of 
 waist. 
 
 The shirt-waist or semifitting waist may be cut from a 
 pattern or draped on the form; it may be made flat on the 
 table without the use of the dress-form; it may be lined or 
 unlined. A lining is not necessary, as generally the main 
 sections or pieces of the waist are sewed together into one 
 garment. A lining is frequently used as a protection to 
 the material of the waist or it serves as a foundation to 
 which various accessories, such as collars and vests, may be 
 attached. 
 
 The tight-fitting or draped waist is draped on the form 
 directly in the material or in trial material which serves as 
 a pattern or is cut from a pattern and the form is used 
 in arranging the various sections of the waist. It should 
 be made on the form. It cannot be successfully made if 
 the work is done flat on the table, as generally the various 
 sections are not attached to each other but to the founda- 
 tion to secure the desired free effect; it is lined and the lining 
 serves as a foundation to which the various main sections 
 and such pieces as sleeves, vests, collars, etc., are attached. 
 
 In this chapter the making of (I) shirt-waists, (II) 
 guimpes, and (III) linings is discussed. Fairly definite 
 directions are possible for making the various styles of 
 shirt-waists or semifitted waists. In general construction 
 they are much alike, and general directions for making can 
 be followed with slight modifications to meet any varia- 
 tions in detail. 
 
 Draped or tight-fitting waists, on the contrary, vary so 
 greatly in construction as to shape, size, and number of 
 
 313 
 
314 Dressmaking 
 
 pieces required to complete the design, that general direc- 
 tions for making are practically useless. The same may 
 be said regarding the making of sleeves other than those 
 suitable for shirt-waists. They also vary greatly, as they 
 must bear close relation to the design of the dress. Each 
 waist and its sleeve presents a special problem, in the 
 working out of which it is possible to give here only a few 
 directions, such as those for the making of linings and 
 various finishings. These directions combined with those 
 already given for designing and draping should make much 
 less difficult the satisfactory construction of any draped 
 waist. 
 
 I. Shirt- Waists 
 
 The discussion in this chapter presupposes a good-fitting 
 foundation shirt-waist pattern, the detailed directions for 
 securing which by various methods have already been 
 given in Chapters V, VI, VII. Those directions are, of 
 necessity, frequently referred to here, but repetition is 
 avoided when possible. 
 
 There are many styles of waists which may be made 
 from the foundation shirt-waist pattern. All unlined 
 waists, in fact, except the kimono, are cut on practically the 
 same general lines and differ chiefly in finish and in the 
 amount and kind of decoration. For better organization 
 of the directions for making these waists the various styles 
 may be grouped under two heads or as two general types: 
 tailored shirt-waists, non- tailored or fancy waists. 
 
 i. Tailored Shirt-Waists. — There are many ways in 
 which tailored shirt-waists may be made, but in general 
 they may be said to open at the centre front, to have a 
 stitched centre-front plait, little fulness, a narrow collar- 
 band, and plain sleeves finished with stiff cuffs. Variety 
 is given in different ways: in the use of yokes, in the ar- 
 rangement of the fulness by gathers, tucks, or plaits, and 
 in the manner of putting in the sleeve. All tailored shirts 
 are machine-made. They are plainer from point of deco- 
 ration than any other, but they are not as a result simpler 
 to make. They are dependent for their finish and good 
 
Waists 315 
 
 style on cut and workmanship, and consequently emphasis 
 must be placed on the technique. Cottons, as madras, 
 pique, percale; wash silks, as silk duck, China silk, pongee, 
 and habutai; wools, as flannels, batiste, or nun's veiling; 
 and fairly heavy linens and crashes are the materials most 
 frequently used. 
 
 2. Non-Tailored or Fancy Waists. — For waists which are 
 not tailored there is unlimited variety in cut and finish. 
 They may be made by hand or machine; they may be cut 
 to open at front or back, to be full or plain, to have short 
 or long sleeves, a standing or flat collar; and they may be 
 finished in a way best suited to the material used. Cottons, 
 as batistes, dimities, crepes, and voiles; silks, as crepe de 
 chine, crepe meteor, poplin, and taffeta; and handkerchief 
 linens and linen lawns are all suitable materials. 
 
 /. General Directions for Making 
 
 In making waists of both types, with few exceptions, the 
 same general procedure must be followed; that is, there 
 must be: 
 
 (i) Securing the pattern. 
 
 (2) Preliminary preparation of the material for cutting. 
 
 (3) Arranging seam allowances; placing the pattern and 
 cutting. 
 
 (4) Marking for basting. 
 
 (5) Basting and preparation for fitting. 
 
 (6) Fitting. 
 
 (7) Making and finishing. 
 
 In the detail of these steps there is great opportunity for 
 variation, owing to the many kinds of material it is possible 
 to use and to the constant change in fashions it is possible 
 to have. For this reason general directions are given which 
 are necessary in the making of practically all waists; and, 
 in addition, a few suggestions are included which it is hoped 
 will aid in adapting the general rules to meet the require- 
 ments of specific problems. 
 
 1. Securing the Pattern. — Four general methods of pro- 
 cedure may be followed; the pattern may be: 
 
 (1) Drafted to measure. (See Drafting.) 
 
3 1 Dressmaking 
 
 (2) Adapted from a commercial pattern. (See Use of 
 Commercial Patterns.) 
 
 (3) Designed in paper or material on a flat foundation 
 pattern. (See Designing.) 
 
 (4) Draped on the dress-form. (See Designing.) 
 
 No definite directions can be given for the selection of 
 a suitable method for securing a pattern. There are too 
 many varying factors, such as the experience of the worker, 
 the type of waist, its material and style. 
 
 2. Preliminary Preparation of the Material for Cutting. 
 — In addition to the shrinking or sponging of the material 
 which is generally preliminary to the making of any gar- 
 ment (see General Suggestions), there is other preparation 
 necessary before a waist can be cut out. All waist openings, 
 whether at the centre front, centre back, or side front, 
 should be planned if not made. Much of the decoration 
 which may be used, such as tucks, shirrings, cordings, and 
 smocking, should also be planned if not entirely finished. 
 
 Lace insets forming a design which extends over the 
 shoulder from front to back cannot be included in this list. 
 It is necessary to cut the waist and join it at the shoulder 
 seam before the lace can be applied. Straight rows of lace, 
 however, which are inset in both the front and the back and 
 so planned as to meet at the shoulder seam and be included 
 in it, should be applied before any cutting is done. 
 
 (1) Openings. — The majority of waists, whether the open- 
 ing is at the front or the back, have the right side fasten- 
 ing over the left, as it is in general easier for the wearer 
 to manage. This is not, however, an arbitrary rule. 
 
 In making any style of hem or plait whatever, the selvage 
 of the material should first be removed. It does not give, 
 as the body of the material does, and frequently puckers 
 or draws. 
 
 After either a centre back or front opening is made, the 
 lengthwise centre line of the opening finish of each side of 
 the front or back must be carefully indicated by a line of 
 colored basting. This line serves many important pur- 
 poses — in planning the decoration and in the cutting, 
 fitting, and finishing. 
 
Waists 317 
 
 (a) Centre-Back Openings. — If the necessary openings in 
 a waist are placed at the centre back there is less chance 
 for variety in planning. They are usually finished with 
 plain hems of equal or nearly equal width. These hems are 
 seldom wider than y±" or i", and are made in the regula- 
 tion way by first turning in the raw edge about }i" and 
 then making a second turning the width desired. 
 
 (b) Centre or Side Front Openings. 
 
 (i) Plain Hems. — If plain hems are used at the centre 
 or side front, the hem on the right side is often somewhat 
 wider than that of the left but not necessarily so. It should 
 always be in good proportion to any other decoration on 
 the waist. Extremes in width should be avoided whatever 
 the general decoration. These hems are made in the usual 
 way. 
 
 (ii) Box Plait and Hem. — A centre-front opening which 
 is frequently used is that which has a box plait and hem. 
 This is especially true of all styles of tailored waists, which 
 are seldom finished in any other manner. The width of 
 the box plait may vary to suit the taste of the wearer or to 
 correspond to any other decoration used on the waist. It 
 is generally not less than i" in width and not more than 2" . 
 
 (a) Making the Box Plait. — In commercial patterns 
 there is frequently a separate piece for the box plait. The 
 work is much more quickly done, however, if the plait is 
 cut in one piece with the waist. It can then be planned 
 and entirely finished before the waist is cut out. There 
 are many ways of making plaits. The following is an ex- 
 ceedingly simple method : 
 
 The raw edge is turned to the wrong side the width of 
 the plait and basted carefully about y&" in from its folded 
 edge. The material is then turned to the wrong side again ; 
 this time the turning is made along the line of the raw edge 
 and encloses it. This makes the second turning the same 
 width as the first; that is, the width of the plait. This 
 folded edge should be basted, as was the first, y&" in; this 
 distance is sufficient to enclose the raw edge if the folding 
 has been done close to it, as it should be. 
 
 The plait is ready for stitching. The first row may be 
 
,'JIS Dressmaking 
 
 made along the fold just turned. The distance in from 
 the edge depends upon the width of the plait; it must be 
 sufficient to enclose and hold the raw edge. It should not 
 be less than y&" and generally not more than %" '. After 
 the first stitching is done the plait is turned back to the 
 right side and creased into place. It will be seen that this 
 stitching forms a tuck which is one edge — the inside edge 
 — of the plait. The opposite folded edge, which is the first 
 one turned and basted, should be stitched to correspond 
 and the plait is completed. 
 
 (b) Making the Hem. — The width of the hem used to 
 finish the other side of the waist opening depends on the 
 width of the plait. It should be a little narrower to avoid 
 showing its stitched line beyond the plait. For a i" plait 
 a hem $/%" or $/%' wide is satisfactory. It is made in the 
 regulation way. 
 
 After the hem and plait are finished the line of colored 
 basting must be placed along the lengthwise centre of each 
 to indicate the centre-front line of both sides of the waist. 
 
 (2) Decoration. — From the point of view of decoration 
 waists should be divided into two classes: those that re- 
 quire constant laundering and those that do not. 
 
 Under the first head may come all kinds of tailored and 
 the so-called lingerie waists which are made up in linens, 
 cottons, wash silks, and flannels. 
 
 Such decoration should be chosen for these as can be 
 designed to follow the threads of the material; that is, 
 tucks, plaits, shirrings, and smockings. The Gibson plait 
 is an exception to this. For part of its length, at least, it 
 must be on the bias, but if made in firm material and care- 
 fully planned it does not twist when laundered. 
 
 Under the second head may be included the fancy waists, 
 for which silks and satins are generally used. For these 
 the same decorations may be used as well as many others, 
 but they may all be arranged in designs which require 
 curved and bias lines as well as straight. 
 
 (a) ir<7/'.s7 Decoration. — In making any decoration for 
 the front and back of a waist, preliminary to cutting it out, 
 the work is much simplified if the design is first planned on 
 
Waists 319 
 
 the pattern. The pattern should then be frequently laid 
 on the material in order to determine exactly where the 
 line of decoration is to fall. The centre front and centre 
 back of the waist must first be definitely indicated and a 
 lengthwise centre line marked to serve as a guide in plac- 
 ing the pattern; this line and the armseye line regulate the 
 placing of practically all decoration. 
 
 Difficulty is frequently experienced in planning tucks, 
 in making the two sides of the waist perfectly even, and in 
 matching the tucks at the shoulder seams when they are 
 used both in the front and back. 
 
 There are a few suggestions which may be of assistance 
 in securing evenness: 
 
 (i) To Tuck the Front of a-Waist Which Has a Centre-Front 
 Opening. — (The following is a convenient method but not 
 always an economical one.) In general, two lengths of ma- 
 terial are needed to make the fronts of such a waist. If 
 these two lengths are torn or cut off in one whole piece 
 and the tucks for both sides are made at the same time in 
 the length of the material, the two fronts are sure to 
 match when the waist is cut out. The tucks cannot be 
 made, however, until the centre-front opening has been 
 planned, as their location and spacing are largely deter- 
 mined by the width of the plait or hem. 
 
 (a) In Making the Centre-Front Openings. — If hems of 
 equal width are to be used for the two sides they can be 
 made, as are the tucks, the full length of the material. No 
 directions are required here. 
 
 If, on the other hand, a box plait and hem or two hems 
 of different width are used, as is probable, a little planning 
 is necessary. After the full length of material for the fronts 
 is cut off, the selvage along one edge should be removed. 
 The material is then folded in half, end to end, and a slash 
 made straight in from the raw edge at right angles to it 
 along this fold, about 2 1 /^" or 3" in depth. This slash 
 makes it possible to finish the centre front of each half in a 
 different way without difficulty. 
 
 When the box plait and hem are used the method of 
 making is as already described. The plait is folded first. 
 
320 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 It must be planned to come on the half which, when cut, 
 will form the right side of the waist. After the plait is 
 made the desired width, its lengthwise centre is marked 
 by a colored basting. This line of basting should be ex- 
 tended the full length of the other half, or front, to serve 
 as a guide for indicating the centre line of the hem which 
 is to be made. The hem is made, as 
 usual, somewhat narrower than the plait, 
 and in the making care must be taken to 
 have it an equal width each side of the 
 centre colored marking already made; 
 that is, the true centre line of the hem 
 must be the continuation of the centre 
 line of the plait. 
 
 When hems of different widths are 
 used to finish the centre-front openings 
 the same general method is followed. 
 
 After the hems or the plait and hem 
 are basted, the tucks may be planned 
 and made, using the line of colored bast- 
 ings as the basis for all measurements. 
 
 (b) In Making the Tucks. — If the tucks 
 are to extend the full length of the front 
 the procedure is very simple. The pat- 
 tern is placed on the material with its 
 centre-front edge to the centre front of 
 the plait to locate the first tuck. It 
 should also be used to determine the number of tucks 
 necessary to give the right width to the shoulder of the 
 waist. 
 
 If the tucks are to be made only long enough to form a 
 yoke, more definite indications are required. The shape 
 of the yoke and its depth should be traced on the pattern. 
 The material is then folded, end to end, as for cutting the 
 slash, the pattern is laid on, and a mark is made through 
 the two thicknesses of material to indicate the length of 
 the first tucks. The material may then be opened and the 
 tucks turned and made between the two points. The 
 length of the tucks should be frequently tested by the pat- 
 
 Making the two fronts 
 of a waist (with the 
 box plait and hem) 
 in one length of ma- 
 terial 
 
Waists 321 
 
 tern in order that they may form, when finished, a good 
 line for the bottom of the yoke. 
 
 (it) To Tuck the Front of a Waist Which Has a Centre- 
 Back Opening. — If one length of material is not sufficiently 
 wide to form the front a second length is added. Generally 
 half of this is sewed to each side of the full width and an 
 attempt is made to have the joining inconspicuous by plac- 
 ing it so that it is concealed by some lengthwise decoration. 
 Before any decoration is planned, however, the lengthwise 
 centre line must be indicated by a colored basting. The 
 material is then folded along this basting and the two sides 
 marked at once for the lines of decoration, beginning at the 
 centre front and working toward the armseye. 
 
 (Hi) To Make the Back of a Waist Which Has a Centre- 
 Front or Centre-Back Opening. — One length of material is 
 usually all that is necessary to form the back of any waist. 
 
 (a) If the opening is in the back the selvage may be re- 
 moved from both edges of the material and the two hems 
 for the opening turned along these edges. After these hems 
 have their centre lines indicated they should be pinned to- 
 gether along these lines and the two sides should be marked 
 at once by the pattern for the lines of decoration. If the 
 decoration of the front extends entirely across the front to 
 the armseye so that it is included in the shoulder seams, 
 the decoration of the back must be so planned as to match 
 any there may be on the front shoulder. This is easily 
 done by placing the shoulder seam of the pattern of the 
 back to the shoulder seam of the material for the front — 
 which should have its decorations already made — and mark- 
 ing with tracings their exact location. If the decoration 
 of the front does not extend to the shoulder, that of the 
 back should be planned with reference to the centre-back 
 hem. 
 
 (b) If the opening is in the front, before planning any 
 decoration the lengthwise centre-back line must be estab- 
 lished as a guide. The material is folded along this Line 
 and both sides are marked at once. The decoration of 
 the back should be planned with reference to that of the 
 front. 
 
322 Dressmaking 
 
 (b) Sleeve Decoration. — In making any decoration for a 
 fancy sleeve preliminary to the cutting out, the design is 
 planned on the pattern which is then frequently laid on the 
 material in order to determine the correct location of the 
 lines. Both sleeves should be marked at once. Care is 
 needed in placing lengthwise decoration on a shirt-waist 
 sleeve — its centre line should fall from the central point of 
 the shoulder straight down. 
 
 The sleeves of strictly tailored waists should have no 
 decoration. 
 
 (c) Collar and Cuff Decoration. — Many of the lingerie 
 and fancy waists have decoration on the collar and cuffs. 
 This should be planned if not made before any cutting out 
 is done. The decoration of the two cuffs and of the two 
 sides of the collar should be made to correspond by pre- 
 liminary tracing and careful use of the pattern. For the 
 straight cuffs and the collar-band of the tailored waists 
 no decoration is used and no patterns are required, as they 
 are made to the desired measures with their length on the 
 lengthwise straight of the material. 
 
 3. Arranging Seam Allowances; Placing the Pattern and 
 Cutting. 
 
 (1) Seam Allowances. — When placing any pattern for 
 cutting it is absolutely necessary to notice whether the 
 seam allowances have already been added to it and if not 
 to plan for them. The majority of commercial patterns 
 have a regulation allowance which is explained in* the de- 
 scription of the pattern and indicated generally by perfor- 
 ations; drafted and designed patterns may or may not 
 have, according to the choice of the worker. Occasion- 
 ally it may seem safer for a beginner to use a pattern with 
 the allowance added. Seam allowances are, in general, as 
 follows: 
 
 (</) For the waist: 1" on the lengthwise and shoulder 
 seams and }<£" at tnc neck and armseye. 
 
 (b) For the sleeve: 1" on the lengthwise seams and y^" 
 at the top and bottom. 
 
 (c) For the yoke, collar, collar-band, and cuffs: }^" is 
 sufficient for finishing on all edges. 
 
Waists 323 
 
 (d) For the placket pieces: ]/%' is sufficient. 
 
 (e) As the centre-front or centre-back openings are 
 planned before placing the pattern, no extra allowance is 
 needed. 
 
 (/) If the waist pattern is cut to extend 4" below the 
 waist line it is sufficiently long for finishing. 
 
 (2) Placing and Culling. — When possible the entire waist 
 pattern should be placed and cut at once; that is, all the 
 parts of the waist itself— front, back, sleeves, and such 
 minor parts as the yoke, collar, collar-band, cuffs, and any 
 pieces for finishing the sleeve or the sleeve placket. In 
 general, the material should be folded and all correspond- 
 ing pieces cut together, as it saves time and confusion and 
 helps to prevent having two pieces for one side if the ma- 
 terial has a right and a wrong side. (For exceptions, see 
 General Suggestions.) 
 
 In placing a pattern, economy of material should be con- 
 sidered. No definite rule for doing this can be given be- 
 cause of the variety of designs and the fact that the ma- 
 terials used differ as greatly in width as do the patterns in 
 size. 
 
 The direction of the lengthwise and crosswise threads of 
 the material is exceedingly important in placing and cutting 
 a pattern. For a regulation shirt-waist the two fronts, the 
 back, the length of the sleeve, the length of the straight 
 collar or collar-band, the length of the belt, the length of 
 the pieces for the sleeve placket, and the length of any 
 straight cuff are, in general, placed on the lengthwise 
 straight grain or thread of the material. The various 
 pieces of elaborate waists usually require different treat- 
 ment in placing. This should always be indicated in the 
 pattern whether it be purchased or made by the worker. 
 
 All commercial shirt-waist patterns include such pieces 
 as those for yokes, cuffs, collar-band, collars, and sleeve 
 plackets, as the pattern is for one definite design and con- 
 sequently requires a special shape for these. The way in 
 which they are to be placed on the material is usually 
 indicated. The drafted shirt-waist pattern given under 
 Drafting does not include any special directions for such 
 
324 Dressmaking 
 
 pieces, as it is merely a foundation pattern on which may 
 be made a variety of designs, each of which affects some- 
 what differently the size and style of the various pieces. 
 
 (a) Placing the Waist. — In cutting out a waist which 
 opens at the centre front and has a box plait and hem or 
 two hems, the lines of colored bastings which indicate the 
 exact centre line of the fronts of the waist should be care- 
 fully pinned together and the centre-front edge of the pat- 
 tern should be placed to them. 
 
 The half of both the plait and hem which extends be- 
 yond this centre-front line should be turned back on the 
 waist and pinned firmly while the neck is cut out. Each 
 half of the plait and hem must have the same curve at 
 the neck in order to go into the band correctly. If al- 
 lowed to extend while the cutting is done, the extensions 
 are frequently cut off straight across and are thus made 
 too short. They are then very difficult to manage in the 
 making. The same procedure should be followed for a 
 waist which has its opening at the centre back. Care 
 should be taken to match and pin in place any decora- 
 tion already made in the material so that the two sides of 
 the waist when cut may correspond and all shoulder dec- 
 orations meet. 
 
 (b) Placing the Yoke. — When a yoke is used it is gen- 
 erally cut with its centre-back line on a lengthwise fold. 
 If there is a special design and the material has stripes or 
 figures, a seam is usually necessary. The material at this 
 seam may be either bias or straight. Two yokes are oc- 
 casionally required, one of which serves as a lining. The 
 grain of the material in these two yokes should correspond. 
 
 (c) Placing the Collar and Collar-Band. — There are two 
 general styles of collars which may be used on all but the 
 strictly tailored waists — these are the standing collar and 
 the flat or turnover collar. 
 
 (i) If a standing collar is to be attached to a waist, un- 
 less a special pattern is used its length is cut on the length- 
 wise thread and its centre front or back, as required, on the 
 straight crosswise fold. It should equal in length the neck 
 measure plus one-half the width of any plaits or hems used 
 
Waists 325 
 
 at the waist opening, plus a hem allowance which matches 
 in width the hems or plaits of the waist opening. The 
 finishing of the opening of the collar should appear as a 
 continuation of the opening of the waist. 
 
 («) When a flat or turnover collar, opening in front, is 
 used, if it. is not cut in some special design its centre back 
 should be placed on a fold which may be the lengthwise 
 straight grain or a true bias. 
 
 {Hi) If a collar-band is used, unless there is a great dif- 
 ference in the size of the neck of the wearer at the top and 
 the base a straight band may be made. It can be cut in 
 one piece and folded lengthwise, and in consequence time 
 and difficulty are saved. This band, whether straight or 
 curved, should not be too wide when finished — not more 
 than i "—as it serves merely as a band to which the collar 
 is attached. In length, when finished, it should equal the 
 neck size plus one-half the width of the plait and hem or 
 hems used at the centre front. 
 
 (d) Placing the Sleeve. — The cutting of any sleeve pat- 
 tern is very important. If the lengthwise threads do not 
 fall as they should, according to the pattern used, the sleeve 
 will twist and the most careful fitting cannot make it hang 
 well. The directions for the lengthwise threads should 
 always be indicated in some way in all patterns. In gen- 
 eral, they should fall in a straight line from the point of the 
 shoulder to the elbow. 
 
 (e) Placing the Cuffs. — There are many kinds of cuffs 
 which may be used, depending on the style of the waist. 
 
 (i) Tailored cuffs are always straight pieces. They de- 
 pend in length on the wearer's hand and wrist, in width on 
 the prevailing style. An average finished size is 9" in 
 length and 2^2" in width, (a) If a plain material is used 
 the cuff pieces are often cut the required length and three 
 times the width. This gives a cuff with a folded edge at 
 the hand and allows one width to be turned in to give a 
 little additional stiffness to the cuff. When cutting a cuff 
 in this way %" seam allowance is made on each lengthwise 
 end; that is, }4" in all, but only %" is necessary on the 
 width, (b) If figured or striped material is used the cuff 
 
326 Dressmaking 
 
 is cut the required length and only twice the width, with the 
 regular seam allowances. To give the necessary stiffness, 
 plain and heavy material must be cut to take the place of 
 the extra width of the other cuff. 
 
 (ii) Straight soft cuffs and shaped cuffs are frequently 
 used on all but the tailored waists. No directions can be 
 given for their size or their cutting, as both depend entirely 
 upon the design, which is, in turn, determined by the wearer 
 and the prevailing fashion. 
 
 (/) Placing the Pieces for the Sleeve Placket of a Tailored 
 Waist. — The pieces for finishing the sleeve plackets should 
 be cut with their length on the lengthwise straight grain. 
 If the material of the waist is figured or striped the pieces 
 must be cut to match the sleeve. This finishing may be 
 cut in one piece or two for each sleeve, governed by the 
 method of making. 
 
 The width of the pieces is a matter of choice but the 
 length of the placket is not. When finished, a placket 
 should be sufficiently long to allow a cuff to open enough 
 to lie flat when ironed. It must be half the length of the 
 cuff to do this; consequently, its length is dependent upon 
 the size of the cuff. 
 
 4. Marking for Basting. — There are three ways of 
 marking the lines which are necessary in the basting and 
 making of a garment. (See General Suggestions.) The 
 majority of the materials ordinarily used for unlined 
 waists — that is, cottons, linens, and wash silks — can be 
 satisfactorily marked with the tracing-wheel. If wool is 
 used tailor's chalk and tailor bastings may be required. 
 
 If the tracing-wheel is used all the necessary marking 
 may be done after the waist pattern is pinned in place and 
 before cutting out. If the material is such that the trac- 
 ings do not show or will not last, the waist may be marked 
 temporarily and cut. In making the tailor bastings, after 
 cutting out, especial care should be taken to have the two 
 pieces of material so firmly pinned together that they can- 
 not slip and their corresponding seam-lines be uneven. 
 
 Tracings should be made around the pattern of the front 
 and back, which gives the seam-lines, the neck, armseye, 
 
Waists 327 
 
 and bottom lines; through the waist line; around the yoke 
 and through its centre-back line; around the collar or collar- 
 band and through its centre back or front line; around the 
 belt and through its centre back or front line; around the 
 cuffs and placket finishings; around the sleeve to give the 
 seam- lines; and through the tracings in the sleeve to in- 
 dicate the line of gathering and the location and length of 
 the placket opening. In marking the seams of a pattern 
 it must be remembered that it is the seam-line itself and 
 not the seam-allowance line which should be marked. 
 These tracings are to indicate the lines on which the bast- 
 ing and the sewing are to be done, and they must be cor- 
 rectly placed and true. 
 
 The neck, armseye, and waist lines, and the cross-marks 
 at the shoulder, the marks for sleeve-gathering and the 
 centre front or back lines of yokes, collars, etc., serve 
 various important purposes in the making of a waist and 
 must be carefully maintained until the waist is practically 
 finished. They act as a guide (a) in the joining of the va- 
 rious pieces of the waist; (b) in the adjusting of the collar- 
 band, sleeve, and belt; (c) in the placing of corresponding 
 pieces together for needed alterations after one side of the 
 waist is fitted. As the mark of the tracing-wheel is easily 
 lost in handling the material in the sewing and fitting, these 
 lines and markings should be retraced by bastings of 
 colored cotton after the waist is cut out. Colored cotton 
 is used because it can be plainly seen in the fittings and 
 shows the correctness of the placing of the lines, and it can 
 also be easily distinguished from the other basting lines. 
 
 5. Basting and Preparation for Fitting. — There are a 
 few general rules for the basting of all waists. These have 
 already been suggested in the making of the shirt-waist 
 pattern under Drafting but are treated here in more detail. 
 
 Seams are basted on either the right or the wrong side 
 of the waist, depending on the style of finish. For French 
 seams, for fells, or for entre-deux with French-seam finishes, 
 all of which are used for wash waists, the basting should be 
 done on the right side, as the seams are required there for 
 the finishing. The basting should be done on the wrong 
 
328 Dressmaking 
 
 side for all plain seams, for a welt seam, and for entre-deux 
 with bound-seam finishes. 
 
 In basting for fitting: (a) The thread should be well 
 fastened in the beginning and the finishing and short 
 stitches should be used where there is any strain. If the 
 waist does not need fitting and the basting merely serves 
 to keep the seam-lines in place for stitching, longer stitches 
 may be used. Unless a worker is very experienced, stitch- 
 ing should not be attempted without basting. Even care- 
 ful pinning is not satisfactory, (b) The line of the basting 
 should always follow the exact line of the tracing, (c) Be- 
 fore basting any seams together all corresponding tracings 
 should be matched and pinned. For example, in basting 
 the underarm seam the waist lines should be pinned to- 
 gether, the material should be smoothed toward the armseye 
 and pinned again there, matching armseye tracings. This 
 keeps the seam-lines together and makes their basting 
 simpler. It also prevents the slight fulling of the side 
 nearest the worker, which frequently occurs, especially in 
 the work of the inexperienced or careless. 
 
 (i) Basting the Waist. — (a) For the lengthwise waist 
 seams the basting is done from the armseye line to the 
 waist line and i" below. If the two underarm seams do 
 not correspond exactly in length, due to careless measur- 
 ing and cutting, the difference should come at the armseye 
 and not at the waist line, (b) In the shoulder seams the 
 two armseye tracings, the two neck tracings, and the centre 
 tracings, or cross-marks, are placed together and pinned. 
 In doing this in the majority of waist patterns it is neces- 
 sary to stretch the front shoulder, since it should always 
 be cut about ~%" shorter than the back. By pinning the 
 seam at the centre as well as at both ends the fulness is 
 regulated and it is easier to baste. In the basting, the 
 back shoulder seam should be toward the worker, as the 
 fulness is easier to manage, especially if the work is held 
 over the fingers of the left hand, (c) As nearly all waists 
 are planned to have fulness at the waist line in the back, 
 the row of gathering should be put in exactly on the waist 
 line from underarm seam to underarm seam. The fronts 
 
Waists 
 
 329 
 
 may also be gathered, but, in general, waists ' opening in 
 
 front, especially those which are to be washed, are more 
 
 satisfactory if the fulness is left free and is held in, when 
 
 worn, by fastening a belt over it. (d) A belt is necessary 
 
 for the fitting. Non-elastic tape may be used or one may be 
 
 made of the material of the waist. If made of the material 
 
 it may be cut in one piece, about i^"or 2" in width, with 
 
 sufficient length allowed beyond the actual waist size to 
 
 fasten satisfactorily. The belt should be, when finished, not 
 
 more than %" or V^" wide. After 
 
 all the edges have been turned 
 
 in %" the belt may be folded 
 
 along its lengthwise centre and 
 
 basted on this fold and on the 
 
 remaining three sides. An open 
 
 edge is not needed, as the belt 
 
 is attached to the outside of the 
 
 waist with its upper edge on the 
 
 waist line. Its centre should be 
 
 marked with colored bastings. 
 
 The belt is not basted to the 
 
 waist when it is being prepared 
 
 for the fitting but is pinned on 
 
 during the fitting. 
 
 (2) Basting Yokes. — If a yoke 
 is to be used it must be at- 
 tached to the waist before any of the waist seams are basted. 
 Yokes are of many shapes and are used in all styles of 
 waists. Depending upon the definite style of the waist, 
 they may be lined or unlined. 
 
 (a) Unlined. — When unlined they are most frequently 
 used in thin wash waists and are joined to the waist by 
 entre-deux, or beading. The fulness in the waist must be 
 arranged and the yoke entre-deux and waist joined by 
 basting according to the kind of seam finish chosen. Care 
 must be taken not to stretch the yoke out of shape while 
 the work is being done. 
 
 (b) Lined. — The procedure for lined yokes may differ 
 in detail, depending on various factors. If there is fulness 
 
 Basting a lined yoke to a waist 
 
330 Dressmaking 
 
 in the waist at the front or back it is arranged in the de- 
 sired tucks, plaits, or gathers. The two yoke pieces are 
 carefully hasted wrong sides together before joining to the 
 waist in order to have the yoke perfectly flat when finished. 
 This basting is done down the centre-back line and around 
 the entire yoke i" in, as it must not be close enough to the 
 front and back edges of the yoke to interfere with the work 
 of joining. After the yoke and waist are prepared they 
 may be joined in two ways, giving the same results. 
 
 (i) The piece serving for the lining of the yoke is basted 
 to the waist along the tracings with the seams to the right 
 side. These seams are creased to the lining and basted 
 flat. The yoke itself with its turned-in seam allowances 
 is then basted to the waist with its edges following and 
 covering the seams by which the lining is joined. 
 
 (ii) The seam allowance on the two pieces is turned in 
 to correspond and the waist slipped in between the edges, 
 as the neck of the waist is slipped into the collar-band, and 
 basted. This is a good method if the yoke has a very 
 curved or pointed line across the back or front and it is 
 difficult to make a good seam otherwise. 
 
 A yoke is sometimes applied to the back of a waist by 
 much the same method, if the back is cut the regulation 
 size, and serves as a lining. This can be done only when 
 the back has no fulness from armseye to armseye. The 
 yoke should be carefully basted to the back to keep it flat, 
 while its lower edge is turned in and basted. 
 
 For many fancy waists, where a lining is desired for 
 protection or to keep the yoke in shape, both yoke and 
 lining are joined to the waist in a seam on the wrong side 
 and may be finished as desired. 
 
 (3) Basting the Sleeve. — The sleeve should be placed flat 
 on the table and the seam tracings should be brought to- 
 gether and pinned, beginning at the wrist. If the sleeve 
 does not lie flat after the tracings are matched, a readjust- 
 ment is necessary before any basting is done. It is better 
 to have the sleeve smooth without twisting than to have 
 the tracings match. 
 
 If there is any fulness whatever the sleeve should have 
 
Waists 331 
 
 two rows of gatherings at the top before it is basted into 
 the waist for the first fitting. The amount to be gathered 
 is indicated by marks or tracings. The first gathering 
 should be %" in on the traced seam-line, which is also the 
 basting line; the second should be y&" in from that, to 
 hold the gathers in place. The bottom of the sleeve should 
 be gathered in the same way as the top, beginning at the 
 opening and going entirely around it. 
 
 When a sleeve is basted into a waist it is placed in the 
 armseye and corresponding marks are pinned together. 
 The number and location of these marks may differ widely, 
 according to the pattern used. But in every case they 
 should be carefully observed. 
 
 If the drafted pattern is used or a pattern which has no 
 marks indicated, the rule for placing and basting a sleeve to 
 a waist, already given under Drafting, may be safely fol- 
 lowed and need not be repeated here. The same general 
 procedure is followed, but the work is simplified somewhat 
 if the sleeve is nearly the same size as the armseye of the 
 waist and there is no necessity for gathers and their adjust- 
 ment. 
 
 (4) Basting the Collar and Collar-Band. 
 
 (a) Collars. 
 
 (i) If the standing collar is a straight, unshaped piece, 
 as is usual in a wash waist, it requires no preparation ex- 
 cept the basting of the necessary turnings on each edge 
 and the hems at each end. As has been said, these hems 
 must be cut and basted to match the finishes of the waist 
 openings. If this collar is to be attached before the fitting, 
 it is basted to the right side of the waist, with its centre 
 marking at the centre mark of the neck and its folded 
 edge along the indicated neck line of the waist. 
 
 (ii) The flat or turn-over collar should have its edge 
 basted for the desired finish and should be attached to the 
 waist. It should be placed flat, with its wrong side to the 
 right side of the waist, its centre mark on the centre mark 
 of the neck, and its neck line matching the neck line of the 
 waist. 
 
 (b) Collar-Bands. 
 
332 Dressmaking 
 
 (i) There are two ways of making collar-bands: by using 
 a straight strip of material or one which is slightly shaped; 
 the former is generally satisfactory. 
 
 (a) If a straight lengthwise strip is used for a collar- 
 band it is cut in one piece the required length and width, 
 with yi," allowed on all edges for seams. In preparing it 
 for basting to the waist the }/$" turning is made around it 
 and basted. It is then folded through its lengthwise centre 
 and basted along the fold and at each end to prevent any 
 twisting. The lengthwise edges are left open to insert the 
 waist. 
 
 (b) If a shaped band is used it is cut in two pieces, with 
 the length on the lengthwise thread of the material. Each 
 piece must have the usual %" allowance on all edges for 
 seams. The two pieces are placed together, right side to 
 right side, and stitched ~%" in on all but the lower edge. 
 The band is then turned right side out, the stitched edge 
 creased and basted fiat, and when the allowance is turned 
 on its lower edges it is ready for basting to the waist. 
 
 (ii) In basting any kind of collar-band to a waist the 
 edge of the band should fall exactly on the indicated neck 
 line. The band may be basted on in two ways. 
 
 (a) The neck of the waist is slipped into the band with 
 its centre mark to the centre mark of the neck-band. It 
 should be pinned there and at each end. Care must be 
 taken to have the two sides of the waist correspond ex- 
 actly and not to stretch the neck of the waist in the pinning 
 or basting. It should be eased in, as it is curved, while the 
 band is straight or nearly so. 
 
 (b) The waist may be basted to the outside piece of the 
 band first and then the inside piece basted fiat to the two. 
 
 6. Fitting. — In many cases much time is wasted by too 
 frequent fittings, which are usually necessitated by the lack 
 of proper preparation for fitting. Except for very elabo- 
 rate waists, two fittings are all that is necessary, if the 
 pattern used has been properly made, tested, and fitted. 
 For a first fitting the whole waist should be together; that 
 is, the seams of the waist and the sleeve should be basted 
 and the sleeve basted in. A belt should be prepared to be 
 
Waists 
 
 333 
 
 pinned in place after the waist is put on, and also a collar 
 or collar-band as the style of the waist requires; thus the 
 fit of the waist and collar and the length, fit, and hang of 
 the sleeve may all be determined. If the fitting is carefully 
 done and the work which follows is equally careful, the 
 second fitting may be a finished fitting with the waist and 
 sleeve seams stitched, the belt and collar attached, the 
 
 bottom of the waist finished, and the sleeves finished and 
 sewed in. The fitting of the waist itself and of the sleeves 
 and the alterations which any changes may necessitate are 
 exactly the same as for the shirt-waist and shirt-waist- 
 sleeve patterns, which are given under Drafting, and in 
 consequence are not repeated here. 
 
 7. Making and Finishing. — The kind and variety of 
 finishes necessary in the making of a waist depend upon so 
 many factors, and these are so variable, that only gen- 
 eral directions are possible. The directions given here are 
 purely suggestive and deal with only a few of the many ways 
 in which a desired result may be successfully secured. 
 
334 Dressmaking 
 
 The finishing of a waist requires: 
 (i) Making seams. 
 
 (2) Finishing the bottoms of waists. 
 
 (3) Making and attaching belts. 
 
 (4) Making and attaching collars and collar-bands. 
 
 (5) Making and attaching yokes. 
 
 (0) Making and attaching sleeves. 
 (7) Making buttonholes. 
 
 (1) Making Seams. — There are several seams which may 
 be used in shirt-waists. 
 
 (a) Plain seam. 
 
 (b) Fell seam. 
 
 (c) Welt seam. 
 
 (d) French seam. 
 
 (e) Seam finished with entre-dcux. 
 (/) Hemstitched seam. 
 
 The choice of seams must be governed by the style of 
 the waist and the kind of material of which it is made. 
 Generally in all wash waists, whether tailored or lingerie, 
 such seams are used as in the making and finishing enclose 
 the raw edges or so attach them that they cannot fray. 
 Whatever kind of finish is chosen as suitable for the seams 
 of a waist should generally be maintained throughout. It 
 need not be made by the same method in all parts of the 
 waist, but its appearance should be the same when com- 
 pleted ; that is, in a tailored waist, if either the fell or welt 
 seam is used, the shoulder, underarm, and sleeve seams are 
 made in that way; and the armseye seam, the cuffs, and 
 the yoke, if there is one, are finished to give the same ef- 
 fect. In a lingerie waist, if entre-deux is used it should be 
 placed in the shoulder, underarm, sleeve, and armseye 
 seams, and it should also join to the waist any yoke, col- 
 lar, or cuffs which may be used. 
 
 (a) Plain Scam. — This seam is not satisfactory in wash 
 waists, but is much used for fancy waists of silk, satin, 
 and wool. There are various ways in which its raw edges 
 may be finished. (/) Pinking or notching is the simplest 
 finish. It should be used only for materials which do not 
 fray, (it) Overcasting is frequently used. The two edges 
 
Waists 335 
 
 of a seam may be overcast separately or together, (iii) 
 Binding with taffeta ribbon makes a satisfactory finish for 
 many seams. The two edges may be bound together or 
 separately. A bound seam does not launder well, and it 
 sometimes makes too thick an edge for waists which require 
 frequent pressing, (iv) Turning in the edges is used to 
 make an open or closed seam. The open seam is not very 
 satisfactory for heavy materials nor for those requiring 
 frequent laundering. The closed seam may be satisfac- 
 torily used in wash waists and in any style not requiring a 
 tailored finish. 
 
 (b) Fell Seam. — This seam is used for the majority of 
 tailored waists. It is easily made and presses and launders 
 well. 
 
 (c) Welt Seam. — This seam launders well, is frequently 
 used in machine-made waists, and is especially good in 
 heavy materials. 
 
 (d) French Seam. — -This seam may be used for many 
 wash waists and also for silk and fancy waists. It should 
 not be used for those which are strictly tailored. 
 
 (e) Seams Finished with Entre-Dcux. — Such seams are 
 suitable only for lingerie waists. There are several meth- 
 ods of finishing: by the use of French seams, by the use of 
 bound seams, or by rolling and whipping the raw edges. 
 A seam finished by any one of these methods launders well. 
 When the French seam is used its second line of stitching 
 must be exactly on the seam-line of the waist and close to 
 the edge or cord of the entre-deux embroidery, otherwise 
 the seam will be unattractive and the size of the waist 
 changed. The bound seam is generally found more satis- 
 factory than the French seam. It, like the French seam, 
 is standing rather than flat, and no stitching shows on the 
 right side of the garment. Rolling and whipping are very 
 satisfactory for fine materials. 
 
 (/) Hemstitched Seam. — This finish requires a special 
 machine and consequently cannot be generally considered 
 as a means of joining and finishing. It may be used for 
 practically all waists except the strictly tailored ones. 
 
 For details in making and finishing seams, see Finishings. 
 
336 Dressmaking 
 
 (2) Finishing the Bottoms of Waists. — The raw edges of 
 the bottom of a waist may be finished by overcasting, by 
 binding, or by hemming. Whatever method is chosen, the 
 effort should be to have the edge flat, otherwise it will 
 form a ridge which will show through the skirt. 
 
 (a) Overcasting, if closely done, may be used for all 
 kinds of materials. It is done in the usual way. 
 
 (b) Binding is more satisfactory for waists which are not 
 to be laundered. It is done as for seams. 
 
 (c) Hemming by hand or machine may be used for all 
 kinds of material. A narrow hem should be made. 
 
 If the material is heavy it is frequently a good plan to 
 finish the hem by a row of running stitches or to make only 
 one turning and to stitch that twice — once along the fold 
 and again close to the raw edge to keep it from fraying. 
 
 If, as is usual, the underarm seams are stitched together 
 only 1" below the waist line to give sufficient spring over 
 the hips, their free edges should be finished to correspond 
 with the bottom of the waist. 
 
 (3) Making and Attaching Belts. — In attaching a belt to 
 a waist there should be a row of stitching, by hand or ma- 
 chine, at the top and bottom edges of the belt; this will 
 keep the gathers of the waist in place and the belt flat. 
 
 When the waist fastens in front and the belt is to be at- 
 tached only from underarm seam to underarm seam the 
 stitching should be carried across the belt at these seams 
 and along both edges between the seams. If it has been 
 made of material its free ends should also be finished by a 
 row of stitching close to the edge. The method of fasten- 
 ing such a belt may be a matter of choice; it may be the 
 correct length and finished with a hook and eye; it may be 
 cut a few inches too long and be fastened by pinning or 
 tying. When the waist fastens in the back the belt is 
 generally cut the correct waist measure and is attached to 
 the waist its full length. It may be fastened as desired. 
 
 (4) Making and Attaching Collars and Collar-Bands.— 
 Collars should be as nearly finished as possible before be- 
 ing permanently attached to the waist, as this prevents 
 handling the entire waist while the work is going on. 
 
■Waists 337 
 
 (a) Standing Collars. — These may be finished in a great 
 variety of ways, both by hand and by machine, depending 
 upon the finish of the waist. 
 
 For lingerie waists the collar hems are usually turned on 
 a straight thread and match in width those of the waist 
 opening. A collar fastening either at the centre back or 
 front may have its hems turned slightly off the thread if 
 the neck is much smaller at the top than at the base. In 
 many cases this is not required, as the necessary boning 
 holds the collar up and makes it fit the neck sufficiently 
 well. Standing collars may also be made to fit by the use 
 of one or two darts at the side. These are usually finished 
 to be inconspicuous. Entre-deux, lace beading, and inser- 
 tion are all used to attach as well as decorate collars. 
 For these the sewing may be done by hand or by machine. 
 
 There are several methods of attaching a standing col- 
 lar when no decoration is used in the seam. 
 
 (i) Stitching by Machine. — The first row of stitching 
 may be made on the right side close to the folded edge of 
 the collar. By this method the seam is already turned up 
 on the collar and is ready to be stitched again. The raw 
 edges, if likely to fray, may be overcast closely or, before 
 the second stitching, they may be turned in. With this 
 finish binding may also be used. It is included in the first 
 stitching; the raw edges of the material are cut close and 
 the folded edge of the binding stitched flat to the collar. 
 Care must be taken in this finishing not to have the seam 
 clumsy. These methods are suitable for practically all 
 materials on which machine stitching may be used. 
 
 (ii) Stitching by Hand or Machine and Hemming by Hand. 
 — The sewing line of the collar may be placed to the neck 
 line and stitched by hand or machine with the seam to 
 the wrong side. The seam may then be turned up on the 
 collar, its edges properly cut and turned in and hemmed by 
 hand. This finish is used in waists on which no machine 
 stitching shows. 
 
 {Hi) Stitching by Hand or Machine and Whipping. — In 
 many materials, especially the thinner ones, an inconspicu- 
 ous and sufficiently strong seam is made if the collar and 
 
338 Dressmaking 
 
 waist are stitched together along the tracings, with the 
 seam to the wrong side, and the edges are then cut a small 
 yi" away from the stitching and whipped together. Such 
 a seam launders well. 
 
 (b) Flat or Turn-Over Collars. — For attaching a flat collar 
 to a waist the wrong side of the collar is placed to the right 
 side of the waist, with neck tracings together. To provide 
 a finish a bias strip is placed to the collar and included 
 in the stitching. The seam edges and the bias strip are 
 creased down to the wrong side of the waist and basted 
 flat along the turning. If the prepared bias binding with 
 a folded edge is not used, the edge of the bias must be 
 turned in and basted flat to the waist. It may be stitched 
 by machine or hemmed by hand. The stitching or hand 
 sewing on the right side is concealed by the collar. 
 
 (c) Collar-Bands. — If a collar-band is carefully basted to 
 a waist its finishing is very simple. It is stitched to the 
 neck of the waist and the stitching continued completely 
 around it, close to its edge, to keep it perfectly flat. It 
 may be stitched once or twice. 
 
 (d) Shaped Neck Line without a Collar. — If no collar is 
 used and the neck line is shaped, it may be finished with 
 a facing or by machine hemstitching, cording, piping, etc. 
 (For details, see Finishings.) 
 
 (5) Making and Attaching Yokes. — The making of yokes 
 is very simple if they are carefully basted according to the 
 directions given. They require only the finishing of the 
 joining seam. This may be done by hand or machine to 
 correspond with the other finishings of the waist. For any 
 stitched yoke the first row of stitching must be close to the 
 edge of the yoke to hold it flat and in place for laundering. 
 The basting holding the yoke and lining together should 
 not be removed until the collar-band and sleeve are at- 
 tached and the waist practically finished. 
 
 (6) Making and Attaching Sleeves. 
 (a) Tailored Sleeve. 
 
 (i) Planning the Sleeve. — In making a tailored sleeve a 
 shirt-waist-sleeve pattern should be used. 
 
 The sleeve may or may not have fulness at the top, ac- 
 
Waists 
 
 339 
 
 cording to the fashion; the amount of fulness does not 
 affect the general method of procedure. 
 
 The sleeve is usually finished with either a fell or a welt 
 seam, as they give the desired tailored appearance. 
 
 This sleeve should have a tailored placket and a stiff cuff. 
 
 (ii) Making the Placket. — The placket should be com- 
 pletely finished before anything else is done, as it cannot 
 be made after the sleeve seam is stitched. There are many 
 ways in which a placket may be 
 made, any one of which may be 
 chosen if it is found to give the 
 desired result — strength and neat- 
 ness. The placket opening must 
 be cut on a lengthwise thread of 
 the material. It should be of suf- 
 ficient length to allow the cuff to 
 he perfectly flat upon the table 
 for ironing. Its position in the 
 sleeve varies somewhat accord- 
 ing to the taste of the wearer and 
 as the amount of fulness to be 
 gathered into the cuff varies. It 
 is never cut exactly in the centre 
 of the sleeve, but should be in the 
 under half of it and near enough to the seam to give little 
 fulness to that section of the sleeve which comes under the 
 arm. 
 
 The usual position is i" from the centre. A placket 
 in the finished sleeve should lie along the outside of the 
 arm in a line with the elbow and little finger. 
 
 The following is an exceedingly simple method of making. 
 Two pieces of lengthwise material are needed for the 
 finishing, one twice the length of the opening, the other 
 
 The placket finished on the under 
 part of the sleeve 
 
 about 
 
 longer than the length of the opening. The 
 
 width of these is somewhat a matter of taste, but when 
 finished, a placket should not be more than i", \%" , or 
 iyk" wide. The long piece of material is used first; it is 
 basted and stitched around the entire opening, with its 
 right side placed to the wrong side of the sleeve. The seam 
 
340 Dressmaking 
 
 which joins this strip to the sleeve should be on the right 
 side of the sleeve and not too wide; it should be yk in 
 width at the ends of the opening, tapering near its upper 
 point until just at the point it takes in as small an amount 
 as possible. The narrow seam is to prevent having a pucker 
 or fold in the sleeve at this point. The inexperienced 
 worker may require a little practice before a satisfactory 
 seam can be made. When the stitching is finished the 
 other edge of this strip should be turned to the wrong side 
 yi" and creased. Half the length of this strip, the half 
 which is stitched to the under part of the sleeve, should be 
 folded over on to the sleeve, creased along the seam-line 
 just made, and then basted flat to the sleeve. When this is 
 stitched that half of the opening is finished. The placket 
 is stronger and irons better if the stitching is done com- 
 pletely around the piece except at the open end, which is 
 to go into the cuff: The other, or upper, half of the open- 
 ing with its extension should next be finished. The short 
 strip of material is for that purpose; it is to cover the raw 
 edges. Its two edges should be turned in until it is of the 
 same width as the under strip, or extension, and when 
 basted flat to it will cover it and the stitching which joins 
 it to the sleeve. The iV 2 " of extra length on the short 
 strip extends beyond the point of the opening and should 
 be turned in and basted flat to form a point or a square. 
 The point makes a better finish. When the basting is done 
 the stitching of this strip requires a little planning. The 
 simplest method is to turn back the under half of the 
 sleeve out of the way and to stitch up one side, straight 
 across, just at the fold of the long strip and down the other 
 side. This leaves the point to be stitched. lo do this 
 the under half must be turned down into its proper place 
 again; then the stitching may easily be done and the placket 
 
 completed. . . , 
 
 {Hi) Making the ^SYa///.— After the placket is finished, 
 before putting on the cuff, the sleeve seam must be stitched 
 to match the seams of the waist. 
 
 (/\.) Making the Cuffs. Stiff ruffs require three thick- 
 nesses of material; that is, the cuff itself and one interlining. 
 
Waists 
 
 341 
 
 The tailored placket and cuff to 
 fasten with links 
 
 Butcher's linen is frequently used for interlining, as it takes 
 
 starch well. The directions given here are for the making 
 
 of the cuff which is cut in 
 
 one piece, as it is exceedingly 
 
 simple. The cuffs are cut to 
 
 the required length plus a 
 
 seam allowance on each end 
 
 and three times the desired 
 
 width plus one seam allow- 
 ance. The ^4 " allowance on 
 
 the width is turned to the 
 
 wrong side and basted. The 
 
 material is then divided 
 
 widthwise into three equal 
 
 parts and folded in this way: 
 
 the centre third is folded over 
 
 on to the third which has the 
 
 turned seam allowance, right 
 
 sides together, the remaining third is folded back over the 
 
 centre third, wrong sides together, with its raw edge coming 
 
 just to the folded edge. These 
 three thicknesess should then 
 be basted flat and stitched to- 
 gether across each end in the 
 seam tracings. In turning 
 these seams to the wrong side 
 the two pieces basted right 
 sides together come out and 
 form the cuff. It should be 
 carefully creased and basted 
 along the two stitched ends 
 and across the folded edge 
 and its centre marked. It is 
 then ready to be joined to 
 the sleeve. 
 
 (v) Attaching the Cuffs to 
 the Sleeve. — If the cuffs are to 
 
 fasten with links the placket extension on the under part 
 
 of the sleeve is turned to the wrong side and pinned to 
 
 The tailored placket and cuff to 
 button 
 
342 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 keep it in place. If the cuff is to button it is allowed to 
 extend. Two rows of gathering are needed around the 
 bottom of the sleeve from one edge of the placket to the 
 other. The gathering is drawn up to make the sleeve the 
 required size. It is slipped into the cuff, the centre of 
 which is about y 2 " away from the sleeve seam on the upper 
 part of the sleeve. It is pinned there and at each end. The 
 gathers should be arranged so that most of the fulness 
 comes near the placket on the back of the upper part of 
 
 the arm. The cuff 
 must be carefully 
 pinned and basted, 
 as good stitching is 
 otherwise difficult. 
 The first row of 
 stitching should be 
 on the very edge of 
 the cuff, entirely 
 around it. The 
 second row may be 
 placed to correspond 
 to the seam finishes 
 of the waist or it may extend only across the top of the 
 cuff y 2 " in from the first to keep the lining in place. 
 
 (vi) Putting in the Sleeve. — Directions for the careful 
 basting of a sleeve are emphasized elsewhere and need not 
 be repeated here. The finishing may be done in several 
 ways. In any finish but the fell the seam must be turned 
 up on the waist and never toward or into the sleeve. 
 
 (a) The welt seam is frequently used; the second row of 
 stitching holds the seam to the waist. The raw edges of 
 the seam may be cut close to the stitching or be left wide 
 enough to be overcast. 
 
 (b) The plain seam may be used and bound with bias 
 seam binding. There are two methods: 
 
 In the first method the binding, waist, and sleeve are 
 stitched at once, with the right side of the binding to the 
 wrong side of the waist. Careful basting must be done. 
 For the beginner it is wise to baste the sleeve in first and 
 
 Basting the sleeve to the waist 
 
Waists 343 
 
 then add the binding, as it must be held loosely enough 
 not to draw. After the stitching, the edges are cut and 
 the binding is turned to enclose them and is hemmed to 
 the stitching line. This makes a standing seam which 
 should be caught to the waist at the shoulder seam; other- 
 wise it turns into the sleeve and causes the gathers in the 
 sleeve to stand up in an ugly manner. 
 
 In the second method the binding is put next the sleeve, 
 basted and stitched. The seam is then turned up on the 
 waist and the raw edges are covered by the binding, which 
 is stitched flat to the waist. On the right side this has 
 the appearance of a welt seam. 
 
 (c) The fell is frequently used if there is no fulness in 
 the sleeve and the material is not too heavy. When used 
 the seam edges of the waist turn over to enclose the sleeve 
 seam. 
 
 (b) Non-Tailored or Fancy Sleeve. 
 
 (i) Planning the Sleeve. — In making a sleeve for non- 
 tailored and fancy waists much greater freedom can be ex- 
 ercised, as there are practically no limitations to the com- 
 binations which may be made. Because of this only very 
 general directions are possible. Such sleeves are usually 
 cut from the shirt-waist pattern. The details in the mak- 
 ing are governed by fashion — the sleeve may be long or 
 short, large or small, and finished without a cuff or with 
 any style of cuff which matches the waist. If an opening 
 or placket is needed to give sufficient size for the hand 
 and opportunity for pressing it can be quickly made. It 
 must be finished before the seam is stitched. 
 
 (it) Making the Placket. — It is cut and placed much as 
 is the tailored placket, but is much simpler. To finish it 
 only one strip of material is necessary, cut twice the length 
 of the opening and about 1%" wide, which allows for the 
 seam. It is stitched around the opening of the sleeve with 
 its right side to the wrong side of the sleeve. The seam is 
 then creased flat to the strip, the other edge of which is 
 turned in y&" and basted to the line of stitching. This 
 encloses the raw edges and finishes the opening. If this 
 placket is to be sewed by hand it should be sewed first to 
 
344 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 the right side of the sleeve and turned to the wrong side 
 
 for the hemming. 
 
 (///) Making the Cuffs. — The finishes for a sleeve are 
 
 much the same whether it is cut to come to the elbow, to 
 
 the wrist, or nearly to the wrist. 
 
 (a) A long sleeve may have a cuff made in practically 
 
 the same manner as was the strictly tailored one. It is 
 not always necessary to have an extra 
 thickness for stiffening. Waists of nearly 
 all materials may have this style of cuff if 
 they are to be finished with stitching. The 
 method of procedure is as already given. 
 
 (b) A sleeve may have a soft cuff which 
 fits the arm at the elbow or wrist rather 
 closely and is usually made single. Such 
 cuffs are generally cut on the straight 
 length of the material, with the necessary 
 allowances for seams and hems. The dec- 
 oration and the hems should be made be- 
 fore attaching the cuff to the sleeve. If 
 the cuff is at the elbow no opening is neces- 
 sary; if at the wrist an opening is a matter 
 of choice. It is usually placed in line with 
 
 the sleeve seam and may be made by cutting the cuffs 
 
 long enough to have their hems overlap and fasten. 
 
 The cuffs are joined to the sleeve with a seam finish which 
 
 matches that used in the waist. 
 
 (c) A sleeve may have a deep cuff from the elbow to the 
 wrist which is shaped to fit the arm by a seam at the back. 
 These cuffs are single and are attached to the sleeve with 
 a finish which corresponds with the seams of the waist. 
 They are usually close-fitting and require an opening which 
 may be placed in the seam. 
 
 (d) A sleeve may have a turn-back cuff. If the sleeve is 
 long it is usually large enough to allow the hand to pass 
 through to avoid an opening. The cuff may be made 
 single or double and decorated and finished as desired. If 
 a double cuff is used the joining seam should be concealed 
 between the two thicknesses of the cuff. If a single cuff 
 
 A finish for a sleeve 
 which has no open- 
 ing at the wrist 
 
Waists 345 
 
 is used it may be joined in two ways, according to the ma- 
 terial. The seam may come between the sleeve and the 
 cuff on the right side of the sleeve and be finished by 
 overcasting. It is concealed by the turn-back cuff. The 
 cuff, sleeve, and a facing may be stitched together, turned 
 to the wrong side, and finished as in the attaching of the 
 flat collar. 
 
 (e) A sleeve may have a hem or decorated edge. Fre- 
 quently sleeves of lingerie or silk waists are made the de- 
 sired length and are finished with a hem and decorated 
 edge. These are usually more attractive if large enough to 
 go over the hand without an opening. They may be made 
 to fit closely, when worn, by having a row of corresponding 
 loops and buttons a short distance apart. These, when 
 fastened, make a small fold or tuck in the sleeve which 
 does not detract from its appearance. The fastenings 
 should be placed as is a sleeve-opening. If a hem is used 
 to finish a sleeve it is usually sewed by hand and carefully 
 pressed to show as little as possible. 
 
 (7) Making Buttonholes. — The size of any buttonhole de- 
 pends on the diameter of the button used plus a small al- 
 lowance for the thickness of button. 
 
 (a) For Tailored Waists. 
 
 (i) In the front the buttonholes ate placed lengthwise 
 in the plait. The number used depends on the size — an 
 average number is five. The first one is usually placed 
 */4" or 2" below the neck line and the last one should be 
 at or just above the waist line. These buttonholes should 
 be barred at each end. After they are made the hem and 
 plait should be pinned with their lengthwise centre lines 
 together and the position of the button carefully marked 
 at the centre of the buttonhole. 
 
 (ii) In a collar-band three crosswise buttonholes are 
 required — one at the centre back, about y^" up from the 
 stitched edge, and one in each end. The latter should be 
 so placed that the end of each buttonhole and not the 
 centre comes just to the centre-front fine; otherwise when 
 worn the band will not be the correct size. 
 
 (in) In the cuff placket only one buttonhole is needed. 
 
340 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 It is placed lengthwise in the upper or outer half, about 
 
 i" up from the edge of the cuff and in the centre of the 
 
 placket. 
 
 (iv) In the cuff two crosswise buttonholes, one at each 
 
 end, are required for links. They are placed about }/$" 
 
 in from the edge, at right angles to it, and about in the 
 
 centre of the width of the cuff and possibly a little nearer 
 
 the top. If the cuff 
 is to button, two cross- 
 wise buttonholes 
 should be placed in 
 one end. 
 
 (b) For Fancy Waists. 
 — Definite rules can- 
 not be given because 
 of the variety of fast- 
 enings possible. 
 
 Buttonholes are 
 usually placed length- 
 wise in the centre- 
 front plaits but width- 
 wise in any hems. 
 
 At the centre back they are found more satisfactory if 
 
 made widthwise, as there is more strain. 
 
 Crosswise buttonholes are placed in straight cuffs, the 
 
 number depending on the size of the cuff. 
 
 When a waist is finished it should be carefully pressed, 
 
 even though much pressing has been done in the making. 
 
 (For details, see General Suggestions.) 
 
 Buttonholes in the centre-front plait and neck- 
 hand of a tailored waist 
 
 77. Guimpes 
 
 A guimpe is a kind of chemisette or underwaist usually 
 made of wash silk or net, to be worn with waists or one- 
 piece dresses in place of an attached lining. Guimpes pro- 
 tect the waist and they also frequently serve as a foundation 
 to which collars and vests or fancy fronts of all kinds may 
 be attached. As they are not fastened to the waist itself, 
 they may be worn with several different waists, and they 
 
Waists 347 
 
 may also be laundered or cleansed without including the 
 entire garment. 
 
 Guimpes are made from the plain shirt-waist pattern 
 and are finished at the neck, armseye, etc., according to 
 their use. As it is possible to cut and make a plain guimpe 
 by following the directions given elsewhere for plain shirt- 
 waists, the discussion here deals with a more elaborate style 
 of guimpe — one which is draped on the form and has a 
 stretched yoke and plain standing collar. The guimpe is, 
 in general, more satisfactory if made of a fairly firm net, 
 while the yoke and collar may be made of a finer net or lace. 
 
 i. To Drape the Foundation. — The net foundation is 
 made on the form, following the general directions for drap- 
 ing a shirt-waist. There are a few changes necessary, as 
 the guimpe is to open at the centre back and the front is 
 to be draped first. To keep the grain of the material 
 straight its lengthwise centre is marked with a line of col- 
 ored basting. 
 
 The net is folded along this line and the two sides are 
 draped together. The draping is done on the right side of 
 the form. The fold is pinned M<>" to the right of the centre- 
 front fine of the form to allow for the extra material re- 
 quired in the fold. At least 4" of material should extend 
 above the neck line. After the net is pinned in place it is 
 slashed to within %" of the neck line to make possible the 
 smoothing of the material around the neck. The draping 
 of the front proceeds as for the shirt-waist. Care must be 
 taken not to draw the material too closely about the form 
 or to cut it to be too narrow across the chest, as net usually 
 shrinks in laundering. Both thicknesses of net should be 
 marked separately with colored cotton to indicate the neck, 
 shoulder, underarm, and armseye seams. The net is then 
 opened, the entire front is pinned in place, and any neces- 
 sary alterations are made. 
 
 In draping the back the centre line of the net is marked 
 and it is folded like the front. This fold should be placed 
 1" beyond the centre line of the form to give an extension 
 for the finishing of the opening. The back of the guimpe 
 is draped, marked, opened, and pinned in place as in the 
 
348 Dressmaking 
 
 shirt-waist. Any necessary alterations are made in the left 
 side. 
 
 The seams of the front and back are pinned together, 
 matching bastings, the waist is taken off and its seams are 
 finished. In draping this foundation waist the material 
 should be cut to the waist line plus i" for finishing. The 
 1" is turned to form a hem around the waist, and elastic 
 of the required length is run in to hold the guimpe in place. 
 
 2. To Stretch the Yoke. — The yoke may be made in 
 two ways, with shoulder seams or without. If the seams 
 are used two thicknesses of material are draped together, 
 marked, and opened, as in draping the guimpe itself. No 
 further directions are needed than those already given. 
 If no seams are used the two sides are draped separately 
 in order to stretch the material over the shoulder and se- 
 cure a good-fitting yoke. Directions are given here for the 
 draping of such a yoke. 
 
 The material may be of fine net or of all-over lace. If 
 all-over lace is used, a design which has no up and down 
 is necessary for a yoke without shoulder seams, as the pat- 
 tern when correctly placed at the front will be upside down 
 at the back. About one-half yard in length is needed for 
 the yoke. Usually the material is wide enough to allow 
 the cutting off of a strip along one side to make the collar. 
 The length of the collar should be on the lengthwise of the 
 material and in width the strip should be i" wider than 
 the finished collar. 
 
 The lengthwise centre of the yoke material should be in- 
 dicated with a colored basting. The depth of the yoke in 
 front is a question of choice. If it is to be g" ', which is an 
 average depth, the material is cut open along the centre 
 line of basting, leaving uncut only the g" which is to make 
 the front. The material for the front is pinned on the form 
 with its lengthwise basting to the centre front basting of 
 the foundation. The end of the cut is placed exactly at 
 the neck line of the form and the material is drawn tightly 
 down from there. As the grain of the material is very 
 important, it is necessary to pin it firmly in place across 
 the chest to keep the crosswise threads perfectly straight 
 
Waists 349 
 
 while the net is drawn around the neck and over the shoul- 
 der. To draw it around the neck it must be slashed. This 
 requires care, as the slashes should not be too deep. In 
 stretching the net the work should be done with or along 
 the threads of the material. As the material is drawn back 
 over the shoulder the lengthwise threads run in closer to 
 the neck and at the centre back they form almost a true 
 bias. (In the yoke having shoulder seams the centre back 
 is on the straight.) The material must really be stretched 
 over the shoulder; otherwise when the net lining is cut out 
 the yoke will not fit closely into the curve of the shoulder. 
 
 The finishing of the two yokes is much the same. In 
 either, a }4" seam allowance is made at the neck and i" at 
 the centre back for finishing. The lower edge of the yoke 
 may be shaped across the back and front as is desired. 
 
 Before the guimpe is removed from the form the yoke 
 must be very carefully pinned and basted to it and its neck 
 line clearly marked with colored basting. The hems at 
 the centre back of the yoke are more easily turned in to 
 form the correct opening, while the guimpe is still on the 
 form. In turning these to the wrong side they should not 
 include the foundation hems; otherwise there is difficulty 
 when the guimpe is cut away under the yoke in the fin- 
 ishing. 
 
 3. To Make the Collar. — The collar of the guimpe may 
 be made in a new way; that is, the pattern may be 
 draped or fitted rather than drafted. In this draping the 
 work must be done directly on the person rather than on 
 the form. It is a good plan to fit a collar while a tight- 
 fitting lining or a shirt-waist is being fitted, as it must be 
 pinned to a correct neck line. It frequently requires less 
 time to drape than to draft a collar. A lengthwise strip of 
 material is necessary; it should be in length the size of 
 the neck at the base plus 1", in width the required height 
 at the highest part of the neck plus y 2 " . Its centre front 
 is marked with a line of colored basting and one length- 
 wise edge is turned in %". This folded edge is pinned 
 along the neck line of the waist, beginning at the front and 
 placing the centre-front marking to the centre front of the 
 
350 Dressmaking 
 
 waist. The material should be drawn rather tightly toward 
 the back and pinned together at the centre back along its 
 straight grain. Some fulness is thus left at the top of the 
 collar which may be removed by making one or two darts. 
 The first dart is placed back of the ear in line with the 
 shoulder seam of the waist. The second is half-way be- 
 tween that and the centre back. If the neck is straight 
 one dart may be sufficient. The darts must be deep enough 
 at the top to make the collar fit the neck closely and they 
 should taper to nothing near the neck line. The top line 
 of the collar should be correctly shaped by slashing the 
 material and turning over the edges. When finished the 
 centre back and the neck line of the collar should be on 
 the straight grain of the material. For fitting a neck which 
 is very different in size at top and bottom, however, it may 
 be found impossible to maintain a straight line at the 
 centre back, in which case the line may slant in slightly at 
 the top. 
 
 A stiff-paper pattern is cut from this draped collar. The 
 collar should first be tested; that is, it should be folded 
 along the centre basting line and the two sides should be 
 made exactly even. It may then be pinned to paper such 
 as is used for the stiff-paper sleeve and a tracing made 
 around it and to indicate the centre-front line. The paper 
 is cut out, following the traced lines, and taking care to 
 make the pattern true and the edges straight. 
 
 The net or lace collar is made on this paper pattern. 
 The centre of the material is marked by a colored basting 
 and a %" hem is turned along one lengthwise edge. This 
 folded edge must be stretched as much as possible in order 
 to have the centre-back opening on the straight of the ma- 
 terial. In pinning the net to the paper the centre-front lines 
 of paper and material are matched and the hem is toward 
 the worker. The net must be stretched evenly in both 
 directions from this centre line and when pinned at each 
 end it should be tight enough to curl the paper a little. 
 The top of the collar is made by turning the net to match 
 the line of the pattern. The width of the hems at each 
 end should match those of the yoke of the guimpe. To do 
 
Waists 351 
 
 this the hem at the left must be made to extend slightly 
 beyond the centre-back line of the collar as there must be 
 an extension on the guimpe for the fastenings. A collar 
 of this kind requires boning; usually five bones are neces- 
 sary, one at the centre back on the left or under side, one 
 just back of the ear in line with the shoulder seam, and one 
 in front slanting from i" away from the centre front, at the 
 bottom of the collar, to a point at the top half-way between 
 the centre-front line and the side bone. 
 
 While the net is still on the paper, the bones, except 
 possibly those at the side which may require changing, may 
 be sewed in. In sewing them the hems at the top and bot- 
 tom of the collar should not be caught down as they must 
 be free for the finishing of the collar. Small, flexible bones, 
 as invisible as possible, should be used; in attaching them 
 no more stitches should be put in than are necessary, but 
 they must be firmly sewed at the top and bottom. The 
 bone at the left-centre back may be placed to cover the raw 
 edge of the hem. On the right side a second turning must 
 be made to finish the hem. 
 
 4. To Finish the Guimpe. — After the guimpe is taken 
 from the form the collar should be pinned and basted to 
 the yoke, its lower edge falling exactly on the indicated 
 neck line. The basting should be on the folded edge of the 
 collar and only through the yoke, as the foundation is to 
 be cut away. The raw edges of the bottom of the yoke are 
 turned in and sewed to the foundation with fine running 
 stitches and an occasional back stitch. The foundation is 
 then cut out about 3/%" away from the stitches just made 
 and its edges are turned in and sewed to the yoke. 
 
 The guimpe is given a final fitting for the yoke and col- 
 lar, and if no changes are required the finishing may be 
 done. 
 
 The underarm seams may be French-seamed or felled and 
 the hem at the bottom stitched. The simplest way of at- 
 taching the collar is by using fine running stitches on the 
 right side close to the edge of the collar. The raw edges 
 on the wrong side are then cut to a little less than y&" and 
 whipped together, drawing them in enough to give the ap- 
 
i55£ Dressmaking 
 
 pearance of a rolled hem but not enough to tighten the edge 
 of the collar and make it draw. 
 
 There are various attractive methods for finishing the 
 top of collars. A very simple one is by turning the raw 
 edge to the right side and covering it with a narrow lace 
 insertion or picot. 
 
 As has already been said, in finishing the centre-back 
 openings the hems of collar and yoke should match and 
 appear continuous. The hem may be held in place by the 
 running stitch or by hemming. Small hooks — No. o or i 
 — or snaps are used on the collar and yoke and placed 
 about yi" apart and y&" in from the edge. On the left 
 side thread or twist loops, peets, or snaps are used. They 
 are placed on the bone in the collar and along the hem of 
 the yoke, exactly on the centre-back line. Below the yoke 
 not many fasteners are required and they may be a larger 
 size. One fastener should be placed at the belt and sewed 
 through net and elastic. 
 
 The armseye may be finished by using a narrow lace edge, 
 by rolling and whipping, or by adding a short sleeve. If a 
 sleeve is required the stiff-paper pattern should be used for 
 the draping. (See under Draping.) The sleeve is usually 
 short and very little work is required in its making. The 
 seam may be a French seam or a fell; the bottom may have 
 a narrow hem or, if the waist with which it is to be used is 
 very transparent, a rolled hem or an added lace edge. The 
 sleeve may be joined to the waist by a fell, French seam, or 
 by stitching and whipping the edges. 
 
 77/. Linings 
 
 Linings may be placed in practically all kinds of waists. 
 There are two general styles or types in each of which much 
 variety of cut and finish is permitted. These two styles 
 may be designated as (a) semifitting linings (based on the 
 foundation shirt-waist pattern); (/>) tight-fitting linings 
 (based on the foundation tight-litting-waist pattern). 
 
 The kind of lining chosen for a waist should depend 
 largely upon two factors: the figure of the wearer and the 
 cut or style of the waist in which the lining is to be used. 
 
Waists 353 
 
 A waist which is to be made for a stout figure requires a 
 close-fitting lining with several seams many of which are 
 boned. If a waist is to be made for a slight figure, and it is 
 not desirable to follow too closely the fines of the figure, a 
 semifitting lining, one with few seams and a little fulness, 
 is generally more satisfactory. 
 
 Semifitting Linings. — Semifitting linings may be used in 
 any waist which, because of its style or the figure of its 
 wearer, does not demand a close-fitting boned foundation. 
 They require less time in the cutting and making and 
 form a sufficiently firm foundation for many designs. Such 
 linings may open at the centre front or back; they may 
 be cut with a round, high neck line or with a somewhat 
 shaped one or in suitable line for an evening waist, and they 
 may be with or without sleeves. Very little fulness if any 
 is used at the centre back and generally but little in the 
 front. All fulness in the front may be removed by the 
 use of darts at each side of the centre front. 
 
 Semifitting linings may be made in silks, such as Cor- 
 sica and China silks, crepe de chine, and chiffon ; in net and 
 in lawn. The last, while least expensive, is generally found 
 to be least satisfactory for continued wear. 
 
 Tight-Fitting Linings. — The tight-fitting-waist pattern 
 may be cut to give a greater variety of linings than the 
 semifitting. There may be (a) Regulation tight-fitting 
 linings. These vary somewhat in their cut in such details 
 as the exact number of pieces, the shape of the neck line, 
 and the use of sleeves, (b) Evening-waist finings. These 
 may be made exactly as the tight lining and differ from it 
 only in the cut-out shape of the neck or yoke line. They 
 frequently, however, are not cut to extend over the shoul- 
 ders, but have the lining material there replaced by chiffon 
 or mousseline de soie or bands of lace or ribbon to give a 
 desired transparent effect, (c) Girdles. These are cut to 
 extend only a few inches above and below the waist. They 
 are generally used in waists and dresses which do not re- 
 quire linings but need more foundation than is given by the 
 use of wide belting. They are given firmness and are held 
 in place by the use of bones in the seams. They are often 
 
354 Dressmaking 
 
 used in evening dresses, when they may have a chiffon 
 or net semifitting lining attached to them, (d) Princess 
 linings. These are really a combination of a tight-fitting- 
 waist lining and a skirt. They are most frequently used 
 as unattached slips or foundations in lingerie dresses or in 
 such transparent dresses as require a one-piece foundation. 
 
 All of these fitted linings may be cut to open at the centre 
 front or back. The number of seams used is not an ar- 
 bitrary matter but may depend on the necessity for boning 
 and the general style of the waist. They require more 
 time in the making than the semifitting because of the 
 greater number of seams to be finished. 
 
 Fitted linings may be made of silk, such as Corsica, mes- 
 saline, China silks, crepe de chine, or of lawn. The material 
 chosen should be a firm quality to stand the strain which 
 is frequently demanded of close-fitting waists. 
 
 /. General Directions for Making Semifitting and 
 Tight-Fitting Linings 
 
 In cutting and making all types of linings practically 
 the same general procedure must be followed; that is, 
 there must be: 
 
 (i) Securing the pattern. 
 
 (2) Arranging seam allowances; placing the pattern and 
 cutting. 
 
 (3) Marking for basting. 
 
 (4) Basting and preparation for fitting. 
 
 (5) Fitting. 
 
 (6) Making and finishing. 
 
 In the details of these various steps there is an op- 
 portunity for variation because of the possible difference 
 in materials and in design. For this reason all directions 
 given are made as general and as inclusive as possible. 
 
 1. Securing the Pattern. — To secure a pattern for these 
 two general types of linings three methods of procedure may 
 be followed; the pattern may be: 
 
 (1) Drafted to measure. (See Drafting.) 
 
 (2) Adapted from a commercial pattern. (See Use of 
 Commercial Patterns.) 
 
Waists 355 
 
 (3) Draped on the dress-form. (See Designing.) 
 The discussion in this chapter presupposes not only well- 
 fitting patterns but practice in their making by these meth- 
 ods, the directions for securing which have been already 
 given elsewhere. As far as possible the directions for the 
 work are not repeated here, but of necessity are frequently 
 referred to. 
 
 There are various factors to consider in choosing a suit- 
 able method for the making of different lining patterns. 
 These factors include, in general, the experience and skill 
 of the worker, the material to be used," and the style of 
 lining to be made. 
 
 (1) Shirt-Waist or Semifitting Linings. — For these all 
 three methods may be satisfactorily used. If patterns 
 made by drafting or by adapting a commercial pattern are 
 used the lining must be cut in material from them. In 
 draping, the pattern may be secured by using trial ma- 
 terial or the lining itself may be draped directly in the 
 material. If the lining itself is made it should be trued 
 and tested when removed from the form; if the pattern is 
 draped it should be trued and then cut in material. 
 
 (2) Tight-Fitting Lining. — The most direct and satisfac- 
 tory method of securing a tight-fitting lining is by draft- 
 ing to measures. A commercial pattern may be used, but 
 if there are irregularities in the hgure the pattern must 
 be altered. In doing this, time is consumed and the lines 
 of the pattern may be spoiled. Good lines are as impor- 
 tant in the lining of a waist as in the waist itself, as they 
 are frequently used as guides in draping and making. In 
 general, the draping of a lining is not a suitable method, as 
 it requires too much time and skill to make the several 
 pieces well proportioned with correct seam-lines and true 
 grain of material. 
 
 (3) Evening Waists and Girdles. — Many evening waists 
 — especially those which are not cut to extend over the 
 shoulders — and all girdles are easily draped. They do not 
 require as many seams as the regulation tight lining and 
 may be done directly in the material. If a pattern is used, 
 the regulation tight-waist lining may be cut the required 
 
356 Dressmaking 
 
 height by measuring along the seams above the waist and 
 making adjoining seam-lines equal in length. The height 
 of a girdle may be determined by taste. The evening 
 linings which do not extend over the shoulders should 
 come well up under the arms. 
 
 (4) Princess Lining.— Unless the worker is experienced 
 or desires to gain experience in draping, the quicker and 
 more generally satisfactory method of securing a princess 
 pattern is by drafting to measure or by adapting a com- 
 mercial pattern. 
 
 2. Arranging Seam Allowances; Placing the Pattern and 
 Cutting. 
 
 (1) If a pattern is used for any of the linings it must be 
 placed on the material for cutting with regard to the grain 
 of the material and required seam allowances. Directions 
 for this need not be repeated here, as they are given under 
 Shirt-Waists and Drafting. 
 
 (2) If a draped lining is used it is already placed and 
 cut with regard to the grain of material and the seam 
 allowances. 
 
 (3) Reinforcements for Fitted Linings. — To withstand the 
 strain along the line of fastening, all tight- fitting linings re- 
 quire reinforcing of the centre front or back pieces, depend- 
 ing on the opening. This reinforcement extends about 5" 
 above the waist line and 2" below and is of the same ma- 
 terial as the lining and cut on the same grain with the same 
 seam allowances. It should be traced to match the cor- 
 responding waist pieces. Girdles, when made of thin ma- 
 terial, are frequently cut double. 
 
 3. Marking for Basting. 
 
 (1) The Pattern. — While the pattern is pinned in place, 
 and before cutting, it should be marked for basting. Di- 
 rections for this need not be repeated here, as they are 
 given in detail under Shirt-Waists and Drafting. 
 
 (2) The Draped Lining. — The two thicknesses of the 
 lining are draped at the same time and the seam-lines 
 marked. After it is taken from the form the seams are 
 basted and it is again put on the form for any necessary 
 alterations on the left side. 
 
Waists 357 
 
 4. Basting and Preparation for Fitting. — The finish of a 
 seam determines the method of basting; the finish in turn 
 is determined by the material of the lining and its cut. 
 
 (1) Semifitting linings are usually finished with a French 
 seam or with a fell and are basted as the finish requires. 
 Directions for this are given under Shirt-Waists and need 
 not be repeated here. 
 
 (2) The seams of all fitted linings are basted to the wrong 
 side, as they are to be stitched and pressed open for finishing. 
 
 Before any tight lining is basted together the reinforce- 
 ments should be basted to the centre front or back pieces 
 along the seam-lines and at the waist line and the two sides 
 of the opening should be completely finished. (See Making 
 and Finishing.) The basting of the waist then proceeds 
 according to the directions given under Drafting. These 
 directions may be applied, with a few minor alterations, to 
 all styles of tight-fitting linings. 
 
 (3) When the girdle or the fitted evening- waist lining 
 which does not extend over the shoulder is cut from pat- 
 terns the waist lines are matched and the basting is done 
 up and down from that. 
 
 (4) In Basting the Princess. — For the waist the tight- 
 lining directions are followed; for the skirt the general 
 directions for matching hip lines and for holding all bias 
 seam edges toward the worker to prevent stretching. 
 
 5. Fitting. — Directions for fitting are given under Draft- 
 ing and need not be repeated here. Only one fitting should 
 be necessary for a lining cut from a pattern or for a lining 
 draped on the dress-form, if the work has been properly 
 done; that is, the pattern tested or the dress-form carefully 
 prepared. 
 
 6. Making and Finishing. — The two general kinds of 
 linings differ in their finishing. 
 
 (1) Semifitting Linings. — The making of a semifitting 
 lining is very simple. It includes the finishing of (a) 
 seams; (b) centre front or back opening; (c) waist line; 
 (d) armseye; (e) neck line. 
 
 (a) Seams. — A semifitting lining has two seams, the 
 shoulder and underarm. For these a French seam or a 
 
358 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 fell seam is generally used. The fell is preferred for l In- 
 shoulder. 
 
 A plain seam may be used for a silk or lawn lining, but 
 it requires finishing by binding, overcasting, or turning 
 in the edges. 
 
 Directions for the making of seams are given under 
 Shirt-Waists and need not be repeated here. 
 
 (b) Centre Front or Back Openings. Whether the open 
 ings o\ the linings are at the centre front or back they arc 
 
 very simple to finish. A '_." 
 hem is made at each edge of the 
 opening and fasteners, either 
 
 hooks and ryes or snaps, are 
 sewed on. The location of all 
 fastenings should be marked be 
 Tore any are sewed on. One 
 should be placed at the extreme 
 top of the opening and one about 
 i" or i ! j" above the waist line. 
 There may be two or three be 
 tween, according to the length 
 of the opening. 
 
 (c) The Waist-Line Finish. 
 {i) All semifitting linings should 
 extend only to the waist line and 
 should be attached there to stiff belting to keep them in 
 place, (it) Belting about 2" or :' j" wide is generally used. 
 It is cut the correct waist si/e plus 'j" for finishing. It 
 should be darted to Tit it to tin- figure and each end should 
 be turned in ' ," and hooks and eyes sewed on. Usually 
 three are necessary, one each at tin- top and bottom and one 
 at the centre. After they are attached, a piece oi taffeta in- 
 Prussian binding-ribbon is hemmed on to cover both the raw 
 edge <A the belt and the sewing of the hooks and eyes. (Hi) 
 The centre bark or front oi the belt must bo marked by a line 
 of colored basting and attached to the corresponding mark 
 in the lining, (iv) The underarm seams should be placed 
 to fall straight down to the waist line. Any fulness at the 
 waist may be arranged as desired. It is usually more satis- 
 
 A finished semifitting lining 
 
Waists 359 
 
 factory if if is spread rather than confined in a small space 
 .-it the centre front or back, (v) The lining should be i 
 to the outside of the belt. It is generally attached along 
 the centre of the bell rather than at the top or bottom 
 edge of it. The waisl it eli may then be attached to the 
 lower edge of the belt without making too muchthickm 
 ;it the waisl line. Alter the lining is pinned to the belt 
 and sewed, it- should be cul ofl jn i below I he line oi I ii 
 and its raw edge covered by taffeta or I'm sian binding 
 stitched flal on ea< h edge by hand or machine. Care should 
 be taken nol to strike the fasteners al the end ol the belt 
 ii the stitching is done by machine, ft Prus ian or taffeta 
 binding ribbon is not available the lining may be .til 
 on and its raw edge held in place by catch I e 
 
 joining when finished should be flat. 
 
 (d) The Armseye Finish. There are various finishes \'>r 
 the arm e) e of a lining: 
 
 (i) I! ithout a Sleeve, (a) The edge of a net lining may 
 oiled and whipped. 'I his method gi 
 firm edge and one which is inconspicuous and riot clui 
 (\>) The raw edge may be turned in and a narrow lace 
 edge sewed by hand over it. This is suitable for all ma- 
 terials. (< ) Sills linings may have the armseye hound with 
 taffeta binding-ribbon. This finish is nol satisfactory for 
 wash material, as the ribbon yellows. 
 
 (ii) Willi a Sleeve. — Sleeves are frequently used in the 
 semifjtting linings, especially in those which have collars 
 or fancy fronts atta< bed. They make a lining lit better by 
 keeping it in place on the shoulders. Such sleeves are 
 usually short and without fulness. The top of the sl< 
 should be cut 3/i" larger than the armseye of the lining. 
 No matter what the material of the lining may be, the 
 le< ve is most satisfactory when made of net. as it fits the 
 arm better and is less conspicuous. It may be joined by 
 four different methods: (a) Tells may be used for linings 
 of silk, net, or lawn, as they give the desired flat finish. 
 (b) A French seam may be used in any kind of material, 
 but is not generally as satisfactory as the fell because of 
 the method of making. (< ) Taffeta binding ribbon b fre 
 
8(50 Dressmaking 
 
 quently used to finish the armseye of a silk lining and a 
 net sleeve, (d) A net lining and net sleeve may be stitched 
 together by hand or machine and the edges cut to a y&" 
 width and whipped together. 
 
 (e) The Neck-Line Finish. 
 
 (i) With a Collar. — Directions for attaching standing, 
 flat, or turnover collars to a high or shaped neck line are 
 given under Shirt-Waists and need not be repeated here. 
 The method chosen should depend largely upon the Lining 
 and the collar material. 
 
 (ii) Without a Collar. — There are two usual methods of 
 finishing the neck line if it has no collar. It is seldom fin- 
 ished at the normal neck line but is somewhat shaped to 
 suit the cut of the waist. It may be finished with a very 
 narrow hem sewed by hand. This is not as satisfactory 
 nor as attractive as the edge which is given by using a 
 narrow finishing lace. The raw edge of the material is 
 turned to the wrong side and basted in place. The lace 
 is sewed on to cover the raw edge and to allow its edge 
 to extend beyond the lining. These lace edges come in 
 many patterns and give an attractive and quickly made 
 finish. They may be bought with sufficiently open edges 
 to allow the running in of narrow ribbon, which may 
 be drawn up to regulate the size and height of the neck 
 line. 
 
 (2) Tight-Fitting Linings. — The finishing of a tight-fitting 
 lining is in general rather tedious. The usual method of 
 procedure in making is as follows: finishing centre front or 
 back openings; basting and fitting waist; general finishing. 
 To assemble all finishing directions, however, those for the 
 centre front or back openings are given here rather than 
 in their proper place before basting. The finishing in- 
 cludes the making of (a) Seams: (i) stitching; (ii) finish- 
 ing the edges; (Hi) boning, (b) Centre front or back 
 opening, (c) Belt and its attaching, (d) Bottom finish. 
 (e) Armseye finish. (/) Neck line or top finish. 
 
 (a) Seams. 
 
 (i) Stitching. — All the seams of the lining are stitched on 
 the wrong side just outside the line of basting. As stitch- 
 
Waists 361 
 
 ing is much firmer than basting the size of the waist is not 
 changed. 
 
 (ii) Finishing the Edges. — All the bastings are removed, 
 the seam allowances are cut to an even width, %" , and 
 notched. The notches are made at the waist line and 2" 
 above to give sufficient spring to the seams to fit the curves 
 of the figure without drawing. They are cut to within %" 
 of the stitching which leaves width enough for the sewing 
 in of the bones. The sharp corners of the notches should 
 be rounded off as they bind more easily. (The princess 
 lining should be notched again 1" or 1%" below the waist 
 line.) The seams are then pressed. It is easier to press 
 open a curved seam if the seam-line is placed on the curv- 
 ing edge of the ironing table or board rather than on its 
 flat surface. 
 
 There are four ways in which the seam edges may be 
 finished. They may be pinked or notched, overcast, bound 
 with taffeta binding-ribbon, or their edges turned to the 
 wrong side and run. (For details, see Finishings.) 
 
 {Hi) Boning. — Bones may be placed in every seam of a 
 lining. Frequently, however, only the centre front and back 
 and the underarm seams are boned. The length of the 
 bones depends upon the length of the waist of the wearer. 
 They should never be high enough to poke out and show. 
 The centre front and back bones are shorter than the others. 
 An average length is 4" above the waist line at the centre 
 front, with each bone toward the back increasing a little in 
 height. Whalebone or featherbone may be used. Whale- 
 bone requires more time, as a casing must be made and 
 attached to the lining by hand. Featherbone has its own 
 casing and may be stitched by machine to the lining. 
 Whalebone is also more expensive, but it gives a lighter and 
 more flexible waist, which is to be considered if man)' bones 
 are necessary. Either kind of boning gives satisfaction. 
 
 (a) Whalebone. — A casing must be made for each bone. 
 Prussian binding is used and is prepared as follows: Before 
 sewing to the waist, 1" of the binding is turned over to the 
 wrong side and the edges are overhanded to make a closed 
 pocket to hold the upper end of the bone. In attaching the 
 
362 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 binding to the seam this pocket is left free. Beginning at 
 the bottom of the pocket, the binding is sewed with a run- 
 ning stitch along each edge flat to the seam with its centre 
 line exactly over the seam-line. It should be fulled slightly, 
 especially near the waist line, to allow the bone to be sprung 
 in. To prevent catching any stitches through into the 
 waist itself the seam allowance may be held parallel with 
 the worker, with the fingers behind the half of the seam on 
 which the sewing is being done. The binding is carried 
 
 Seam boning and finishing featherbone used and seam edges (.4) turned in 
 and run, (B) notched or pinked, and (C) overcast 
 
 about 1" below the waist line. A bone with rounded end 
 is slipped into the casing to within %" of the top of the 
 pocket. To keep it in this position a few stitches are taken 
 through it and the casing just at the bottom of the pocket. 
 Heavy sewing silk or twist should be used and a fairly large 
 needle. Featherbone offers no resistance to the needle and 
 the whalebone can be pierced if softened a little by the heat 
 of the fingers. By leaving the pocket unattached to the 
 seam, the end of the bone, while covered and firmly fastened 
 to the casing, is still sufficiently free to prevent its wearing 
 through the lining. Before attaching the bone at the waist 
 line it should be sprung a little. This gives it a slight curve 
 which makes it fit into the figure better. The bone is at- 
 tached again at the waist line and the Prussian binding is 
 
Waists 
 
 363 
 
 cut off 1 2" below the end of the bone and turned up and 
 sewed to form another pocket for it. 
 
 (b) Featherbone. — A pocket made of its own casing is 
 formed at each end of the featherbone. The stitching 
 which holds the bone and the casing together is ripped and 
 about %" of the bone is cut off and 
 its end rounded. The casing is turned 
 to the wrong side and, without being 
 drawn too tightly over the end of the 
 bone, is overhanded into place. The 
 bone is stitched to the seam, begin- 
 ning about y 2 " from the end of the 
 bone and extending to within y 2 " of 
 the lower end. The line of stitching 
 which joins bone and casing serves as 
 a guide and is placed just to the right 
 of the seam-line. The waist is turned 
 back so that the stitching does not go 
 through it, and the bone is stitched to 
 the right seam allowance close to the 
 seam-line. If Warren featherbone is 
 used directions for its use and a guide 
 fitting any sewing-machine may be 
 secured. The stitching of the bone 
 in place is simplified by the use of the 
 machine attachment. 
 
 (b) Centre Front or Back Openings. 
 — As the finish is the same for the 
 front or back, to simplify the discus- 
 sion the opening may be considered as at the centre back. 
 Both sides of the opening are finished in exactly the same 
 manner. 
 
 (i) In cutting the lining and the reinforcements a 1" 
 seam allowance was made. This is turned to the wrong 
 side along the tracings. As the two thicknesses of silk are 
 not firm enough for the fasteners, a narrow strip should be 
 included in this turning, extending from the top of the re- 
 inforcement to the neck of the waist. The waist is then 
 stitched its entire length y&" in from this folded edge. 
 
 (A) Side-hack seam boned 
 with whalebone and 
 bound with taffeta rib- 
 bon. (B) Centre-back 
 seam finished with Prus- 
 sian binding 
 
364 Dressmaking 
 
 A casing for the bone must next be made. If featherbone 
 is used a bone without any covering is required. In a girdle 
 the bone extends the entire length; in all other linings its 
 length depends on the length of the other bones. To make 
 the bone casing, a second stitching is made parallel to the 
 first and just far enough in to permit a bone to slip in. 
 The distance is about x /i" or f&". The bone should fit 
 closely. This stitching should be made not the length of 
 the bone but the full length of the lining, to give strength 
 and a firm line on which to sew the hooks and eyes. The 
 end of the bone should be rounded to prevent its pushing 
 through the fining with wear. The bone is held in place by 
 a few stitches at the waist line and at about }4" in from 
 each end. 
 
 (ii) For fastenings a plain hook without any hump, like 
 the Swan-bill, should be used. No. 4 is the usual size; the 
 color, black or white, depends on the color of the lining. 
 The hooks and eyes should alternate and their position 
 should be indicated before any are sewed on. Beginning at 
 the waist line, they are placed about 1%" apart. (For de- 
 tails, see Finishings.) While both the hooks and eyes should 
 be sewed on very firmly, it is not necessary to use the blanket 
 stitch in the rings. Several stitches in each ring and at the 
 outer end of each hook and eye are all that is necessary. 
 Twist is better than sewing-silk. 
 
 When the fasteners are attached the extending edge of 
 the centre-back seam allowance should be cut off and both 
 its raw edge and the sewing of the hooks and eyes should be 
 covered by a strip of wide taffeta ribbon or Prussian bind- 
 ing, which is slipped under the hooks and hemmed on each 
 edge flat to the waist. 
 
 (c) Belt and Its Attaching. — A belt should be used in any 
 kind of fitted lining; it assists in holding it in place. 
 Belting 1^2" in width is all that is necessary. It is pre- 
 pared as is the wider belting, but requires only one fasten- 
 ing placed at the centre. It should be %" to 1" shorter 
 than the waist measure of the lining. The belt is sewed to 
 the inside of the lining with its centre to the centre-front 
 seam of the lining and its lower edge exactly along the 
 
Waists 365 
 
 waist line. It is attached to the centre and side front seams 
 by catch-stitching, which should not show on the right side 
 of the waist but should be taken through the bones to give 
 firmness. 
 
 (d) Bottom Finish. — There are various methods for fin- 
 ishing the bottom of tight linings, (i) The raw edge may 
 be overcast. This gives very little thickness and is often ad- 
 visable, (ii) The raw edge may be turned y&" to the wrong 
 side and the folded edge overcast. {Hi) The raw edge may 
 be bound, as are the seams, with binding-ribbon, (iv) The 
 raw edge may be turned 3 / s" to the wrong side and finished 
 with a lace edge like the neck line of the semifitting lining. 
 
 The finishing of the bottom of the princess is a problem 
 in skirt-making and is not considered here. 
 
 (e) Armseye Finish. — For this the same methods may be 
 used as for the semifitting waists and need not be repeated 
 here. 
 
 (/) Neck Line or Top Finish. — There are many different 
 ways in which each lining may be finished at the top. 
 Several suggestive methods, each capable of variation, are 
 given here. 
 
 (i) Regulation Tight-Fitting Lining. — This may be fin- 
 ished with (a) a normal neck line and attached collar or (b) 
 a shaped neck line with or without a collar. 
 
 (a) A Normal Neck Line with a Standing Collar of Lace 
 or Net Attached. — There are three general ways in which 
 this may be made. 
 
 The lining material may extend to the neck fine and 
 have the collar sewed to it. This is possible only when the 
 waist itself is cut to extend to the collar line and conceals 
 the lining entirely. 
 
 The fining material may be replaced by a shallow yoke 
 formed by a lace edge or insertion which is fitted to the 
 required shape. Such a yoke is frequently used when the 
 waist does not extend quite to the collar line and something 
 is required to replace the lining above the line of the waist. 
 The work is done on the form. The centre front of the 
 lace is marked with colored basting and attached to the 
 centre front of the waist. The lower edge is pinned in place 
 
80(5 Dressmaking 
 
 first— it should be eased enough to lie perfectly flat. The 
 fulness at the neck line may be removed in two ways — by 
 the use of darts or by applique work; the design of the 
 lace generally determines the method. Beginning at each 
 side of the centre front, darts may be made at regular in- 
 tervals. A more even circle for the neck line is secured 
 if many shallow darts, rather than a few deep ones, are 
 taken. The darts may be finished in two ways. They 
 may be carefully marked, turned to the wrong side, sewed, 
 cut, and pressed open; they may be hemmed flat, with in- 
 visible stitches, on the right side. For the latter method 
 they should be turned on each side toward the back. In 
 many designs the darts show very little. Frequently the 
 design of the lace is such that the piecing done in shaping 
 the collar may be entirely concealed. This is done by ap- 
 plique; that is, the figures in the lace are cut around and 
 skilfully lapped. 
 
 The neck line of the waist may be rather uneven, due 
 to the edge of the lace, and if the collar is made of the same 
 lace it may also be uneven. This necessitates planning in 
 the making and attaching of the collar. The kind of sew- 
 ing stitch used should be determined by the condition of the 
 two edges. 
 
 A net or chiffon lining may be used for these shallow 
 yokes; it should be fitted or stretched to the lining and 
 cut in the desired shape. It serves as a guide in shaping 
 the lace, but it frequently makes too thick a yoke. Its 
 use affects but little the method of making the yoke. The 
 stitches are taken through the net and the sewing is done 
 either from the right or wrong side. 
 
 The lining material may be replaced by a deep yoke of 
 net, lace, or chiffon, which is stretched and cut in the desired 
 shape. The work is done on the form. The yoke may be 
 made in two ways — without any seam except in the centre 
 back, where the yoke must open, as suggested for the yokes 
 of the guimpe, or with a seam on each shoulder. This lat- 
 ter method has advantages. It requires less skill in fitting 
 and brings the straight of the material at the centre back, 
 which makes finishing much easier. It may be used if it 
 
Waists 367 
 
 is necessary to have the opening of a waist at the centre 
 front, as the fastening of the yoke may then come on the 
 shoulder. 
 
 If the yoke is to be covered on the shoulder by the waist 
 the shoulder seam does not show and the only requirement 
 is a flat finish. If the yoke is not covered the seam is often 
 not attractive unless finished by some decoration such as 
 machine hemstitching. The seam may be stitched and its 
 edges whipped to make it less conspicuous. 
 
 In making a yoke with a shoulder seam, if the front 
 shoulder is stretched to the back a much better yoke is se- 
 cured than by having the back and front shoulder seam 
 edges even. This really follows the drafting rule of hav- 
 ing the front shoulder ^4" shorter than the back. Direc- 
 tions for the making of yokes are given under Guimpes and 
 need not be repeated here. 
 
 In making a standing collar the pattern may be secured 
 by drafting (see Drafting) or by fitting a straight length 
 of material. (See Guimpes.) 
 
 The collar should be as nearly finished as possible before 
 attaching it to the waist. Directions for making a net or 
 lace collar are given under Guimpes and need not be re- 
 peated here. 
 
 In attaching the collar it should be pinned to the lining 
 after it is taken from the form. Its lower edge should lie 
 along the indicated neck line with the centre-front mark 
 at the centre front of the waist. The curved neck line of 
 the waist should be eased to the straight edge of the collar. 
 
 In finishing the lining the same directions should be fol- 
 lowed as are given in the making of the guimpe yoke for 
 marking the centre front and the neck line, for turning in 
 the allowances at the centre-back opening without includ- 
 ing the fining, and for attaching the yoke to the lining along 
 the lower edge. 
 
 When these are done and the lining is removed from the 
 form, the yoke and collar should be carefully basted in 
 place and the yoke lining cut out. The lining is then ready 
 for the fitting. Skill is required in stretching yokes and at- 
 taching collars to fit well, and the work should be care- 
 fully tested to secure good results. 
 
368 Dressmaking 
 
 The linings require finishing at the neck line, at the open- 
 ing of yoke and collar, and around the bottom of the yoke. 
 
 The neck-line finish for collar and yoke or for collar 
 and lining should be as inconspicuous as possible. A gen- 
 erally satisfactory method is that already described under 
 Guimpes; that is, the attaching of the collar along its edge, 
 from the right or wrong side, as can be most easily done, 
 and the finishing of the edge on the wrong side by whip- 
 ping. 
 
 If two finished lace edges come together, as is possible 
 in the shallow yoke, they may be hemmed, run, or whipped 
 as required. 
 
 If the opening of yoke and collar is at the centre back 
 the hems of yoke and collar should match in width. Their 
 finish may be as directed for the opening of the guimpe. 
 
 If the collar is sewed to the lining it may be finished 
 before attaching, with the exception of the fastening at 
 the very bottom, which should be put on just at the neck 
 line, after the collar is joined to the lining. 
 
 If the opening of the yoke is on the shoulder the fasten- 
 ing should be from front to back. The seam allowance of 
 the front is turned back and the hooks are sewed to it y&" 
 in. The allowance, with its raw edge turned in, is then 
 slipped under the hooks and hemmed flat for a finish. 
 The extending allowance on the back should be turned and 
 hemmed to come sufficiently beyond the seam-line to serve 
 as a foundation for hooks or peets. 
 
 The finish at the bottom of the yoke may be as directed 
 for the yoke of the guimpe. If decoration is desired a 
 narrow lace edge or insertion may be run on along the line 
 of the yoke. The turned-back edge of the lining may 
 be covered with taffeta binding. It sometimes gives a 
 smoother finish than hemming the turned-in edges of the 
 silk. 
 
 (b) A Shaped Neck Line. — Without a collar the neck line 
 may be finished as in the semifitting lining, directions for 
 which are given in this chapter. With a flat or turnover 
 collar attached the finishing may be done as in the shirt- 
 waists, directions for which are given in this chapter. 
 
Waists 
 
 369 
 
 (ii) Tight-Fitting Evening-Waist Linings. — Each evening- 
 waist lining may be said to require somewhat different 
 treatment, as it must be made to meet the requirements of 
 the dress to which it is to be attached. To simplify the 
 discussion, however, 
 these linings may 
 be considered as of 
 two general kinds. 
 
 (a) Linings Cut 
 to Extend Over the 
 Shoulder. — These 
 are like the regula- 
 tion tight-fitting 
 lining but they re- 
 quire entirely dif- 
 ferent treatment in 
 the shaping and 
 finishing of the 
 neck line. This line 
 is indicated while 
 the waist is on the 
 form or during a 
 fitting. The shape 
 of the neck depends 
 upon the face and 
 figure of the wearer. 
 
 The lining is cut 
 out along the indi- 
 cated line and the 
 raw edge is turned 
 
 back 
 
 to the 
 
 Elaborate finish for tight -fitting evening-waist 
 lining 
 
 wrong side and 
 
 covered with lace beading sewed flat to the waist. This 
 makes the opening somewhat larger than indicated. If a V- 
 shaped neck is used the point of the V must be slashed and 
 the beading carefully turned to keep the finish flat. Even 
 more care must be taken if the neck is square. The ma- 
 terial at each corner must be slashed and the beading 
 mitred. Ribbon is run through the beading to keep the 
 
370 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 neck of the lining in place. If the ribbon is not considered 
 sufficient a tiny round elastic is used in addition. When 
 the raw edge of the material is turned to the wrong side a 
 row of running stitches is made just far enough in from 
 the folded edge to hold the elastic. For a V-shaped neck 
 the elastic is attached at the front point of the V and 
 carried over the shoulder, where the ends are fastened, or 
 are left to pull up and tie. For the square neck the elastic 
 is frequently carried only over the shoulders, but it may 
 
 also be carried 
 across the front 
 and back. 
 
 Some transparent 
 material, such as 
 silk net, tulle, chif- 
 fon, Georgette 
 crepe, or mousse- 
 line de sole, is used 
 to give a soft fin- 
 ishing line to the 
 opening. It is put 
 on in many differ- 
 ent ways. 
 
 Folds of net or 
 tulle are frequently 
 made and invisibly 
 attached from the wrong side. For the V-shaped neck 
 two strips are needed. They are attached to the centre 
 front and drawn up over the shoulder, where a tiny dart 
 is usually needed at the seam to make them fit closely. 
 Their ends are turned in and securely sewed at each side 
 of the centre-back opening. For the square neck, strips 
 are drawn across the front and the back first and securely 
 fastened, allowing the required opening. Other strips are 
 then fastened at the front corners and carried over the 
 shoulders, where they are darted if necessary. 
 
 Chiffon, crepe, and mousselinc de sole may be put on in 
 a somewhat different way. Strips of material are folded in 
 the centre, to be two or three inches wide. The fold forms 
 
 \ » 
 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 V 
 
 k^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^toa^^^^^^ 
 
 
 Front of finished girdle 
 
Waists 371 
 
 the edge of the opening. For a square neck one strip is 
 stretched as tightly as possible across the front; the back 
 is likewise arranged, allowing for the opening. The two 
 strips for the shoulders frequently have the tiny round 
 elastic run in the fold for which a row of running stitches 
 is made close to the folded edge. The strips and the elas- 
 tic are attached at the front corners of the square opening 
 and drawn tightly over the shoulders to the other corners. 
 The elastic is drawn up, and it and the material are se- 
 curely fastened. If necessary a dart is made at the shoul- 
 der seam. For the V-shaped neck these strips are carried 
 —as are the folds of tulle — from point to point. 
 
 In attaching any of these finishings the stitches must not 
 be taken through the beading already fastened to the neck 
 line, otherwise the ribbon cannot be drawn through. 
 
 (b) Linings Cut to Extend Only to the Bust Line. — These 
 are, in general, like the regulation tight-fitting lining, but 
 in place of the lining material they have bands of lace and 
 ribbon over the shoulders. The line of the top is tested for 
 direction and for height on the figure before finishing. 
 
 The raw edge of the material is then turned to the wrong 
 side }4" and a row of running stitches is made less than y%' 
 in. This forms a casing for the elastic, which is needed to 
 hold the lining in place and to make it fit the figure closely. 
 The raw edge is covered with lace beading through which a 
 ribbon is run. 
 
 A simple or an elaborate decoration may be added to 
 this as a finish. 
 
 Shoulder straps may be made of lace insertion over- 
 handed together to carry ribbon. The decoration of the 
 edge of the lining may correspond; that is, a strip of inser- 
 tion with lace overhanded to each edge may be attached to 
 the right side of the lining with one lace edge extending 
 above the edge of the lining. Ribbon like that of the 
 shoulder straps is then drawn through the insertion and 
 finished at one end by small bows. 
 
 For a simpler finish, chiffon, Georgette crepe, or mous- 
 seline de soie may be used over the shoulders. Strips are 
 folded in the centre to give strength and thickness as well 
 
372 
 
 Dress7)iaking 
 
 as a folded edge for the neck line. These strips may be wide 
 enough to meet under the arms and form an armseye. 
 Each strip should have the elastic placed in the fold and its 
 raw edges should be rolled and whipped or turned in and 
 run to form the armseye. 
 
 In attaching either the bands or the chiffon top the 
 lining must be tried on to insure their correct placing. 
 
 (iii) Girdles.— The two edges — that is, the top and bot- 
 tom — of a girdle are finished in the same way, and if a semi- 
 fitted net or chiffon 
 lining is to be at- 
 tached it does not 
 change its finish, as 
 the lining should be 
 sewed to the waist 
 line of the girdle 
 rather than to the 
 top. The edges 
 may be finished, as 
 are the seam edges, 
 by enclosing them 
 in the folded taffeta 
 binding-ribbon. A 
 somewhat flatter 
 edge may be se- 
 cured by using two 
 pieces of binding- 
 These are held to- 
 
 Back of finished girdle with centre-back seam boned 
 
 ribbon, one on each side of the lining 
 gether by running stitches at each edge. 
 
 For decoration, the raw edges of the girdle may be 
 turned to the wrong side and covered with a lace edge, as 
 already suggested for neck finishes. More decoration is 
 secured by whipping together a narrow lace insertion and 
 edge and sewing them on to cover the raw edge which is 
 then turned to the right side. A ribbon may be drawn 
 through under the insertion. 
 
 (iv) Princess Lining. — The princess may be finished by 
 any method already described for tight-fitting linings and 
 evening-waist linings. No other directions need be given. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 SKIRTS 
 
 The discussion in this chapter presupposes a well-fitting 
 foundation-skirt pattern and experience in the division of 
 a plain skirt into gores. Detailed directions for securing 
 such a pattern and for skirt work based on the pattern are 
 given in Chapters V, VI, VII. Those directions are, of 
 necessity, referred to here, but repetition is avoided when 
 possible. 
 
 There are many different kinds of skirts which may be 
 made from the foundation-skirt pattern. Any definite 
 division into distinct types is very difficult, because the 
 variety in each type is so great and because many of the 
 characteristics of each seem interchangeable. For better 
 organization of the directions for making skirts, however, 
 they may be grouped under four general heads or as four 
 general types: Foundation Skirts or Linings; Tailored and 
 Semi-Tailored Skirts; Lingerie Skirts; Draped Skirts. 
 
 i . Foundation Skirts or Linings. — Foundation skirts may 
 be made in various ways by the use of drafted, designed, 
 or commercial patterns. They may be sewed by hand or 
 machine. They may be cut and made flat on the table or 
 modelled on the form. They are usually cut in gores to 
 remove all fulness at the waist. There may be any number 
 of gores, but generally few are used to avoid having many 
 seams to finish. The skirt may be with or without decora- 
 tion at the bottom, depending on the style of the costume 
 with which it is to be worn. 
 
 Silks — such as messaline, peau de cygne, soft satin, China 
 silk, habutai, and crepe de chine — make the most satis- 
 factory foundation skirts, as they generally do not wrinkle, 
 are light in weight, and do not catch or stick to the material 
 of the dress. Cottons — such as lawn, sateen, and percaline 
 — are frequently used. 
 
 373 
 
374 Dressmaking 
 
 2. Tailored and Semi-Tailored Skirts. — Tailored and 
 semi-tailored skirts may be made in many ways by the use 
 of drafted, designed, or commercial patterns. They are 
 sewed by machine; they do not require a foundation skirt 
 and may be cut and made flat on the table or modelled 
 on the form; they may be cut in plain or decorated gores 
 or in gores or straight lengths to be plaited, gathered, or 
 somewhat draped; they may be close-fitting or free at the 
 hips, narrow or wide at the bottom, and with plain or 
 decorated seams. Such "skirts are generally plainer from 
 point of decoration than any other, but they are not, as a 
 result, simpler to make. They are dependent for their 
 finish, style, and good design on the cut, fit, and workman- 
 ship, and consequently emphasis must be placed on the 
 technique. Cottons, as duck, indian-head, poplin, and 
 pique; silks, as silk serge, wash silks, pongee, and shantung; 
 wools, as serge, broadcloth, covert cloth, diagonal, gaber- 
 dine, prunella, etc.; and linens, as dress linen, crash, and 
 Jacquard designs, are the materials most frequently used. 
 
 3. Lingerie Skirts. — Lingerie skirts may be made in 
 many ways by the use of drafted, designed, or commercial 
 patterns. They are sewed by hand or by machine. They 
 may or may not require a foundation, and may be cut and 
 made flat on the table or modelled on the form. They may 
 be cut in plain or decorated gores or in gores or straight 
 lengths to be plaited, gathered, or somewhat draped. They 
 are usually not made to fit as closely as other skirts. 
 They may be narrow or wide at the bottom, with or with- 
 out flounces, and with plain or decorated seams. Such 
 decoration as will launder well or clean easily should be 
 chosen. 
 
 Cottons, as dimity, organdie, crepe, voile, batiste, and 
 lawn; linens, as handkerchief linen and linen lawn, are all 
 suitable materials. 
 
 4. Draped Skirts. — Draped skirts may be made in a 
 greater variety of ways than any of the others. They may 
 be made by the use of designed or commercial patterns or 
 they may be draped directly on the form. They are sewed 
 by hand or by machine. Generally they require a founda- 
 
Skirts 375 
 
 tion skirt to which various pieces may be attached to secure 
 the desired effect. They cannot be satisfactorily arranged 
 and draped without a dress-form. Draped skirts are less 
 mechanical and require greater skill in the manipulation 
 of material than any of the others. They should not be 
 attempted until much experience has been gained in the 
 making of the simpler kinds of skirts. 
 
 Silks and wools are more frequently used for draped 
 skirts; silks, as charmeuse, crepe de chine, crepe meteor, satins 
 and failles, chiffon and chiffon cloth; wools, as voile and 
 fine broadcloth. 
 
 General Directions for Making 
 
 Skirt-making cannot be well done unless it is thoroughly 
 understood before beginning that its success depends al- 
 most entirely upon the careful observance, in the cutting 
 and making, of the correct grain or thread of the material. 
 The grain required for the desired hang and effect in the 
 different parts of the skirt must be determined and main- 
 tained absolutely. 
 
 If two sides of a skirt, whether it is gored or draped, are 
 to give the same effect the thread of the material must ex- 
 actly correspond in each; the same shape in the pieces, 
 without the same grain, cannot produce similarity of ap- 
 pearance and hang. A skirt may sometimes be made to 
 fit at waist and hip, but it cannot be made to hang well 
 unless a true grain is kept. Different effects in folds and 
 in light and shadow, etc., may also be secured by the cor- 
 rect placing of the lengthwise, crosswise, or bias thread of 
 the material. (See Designing.) Skill in securing a desired 
 effect comes from much experience in the handling of 
 materials and from a knowledge of the results which may 
 be obtained by the use of a certain direction of grain. 
 
 In making nearly all skirts much the same general pro- 
 cedure must be followed; that is, there must be: 
 
 (i) Securing the pattern. 
 
 (2) Arranging seam allowances; placing the pattern and 
 cutting. 
 
376 Dressmaking 
 
 (3) Marking for basting. 
 
 (4) Basting and preparation for fitting. 
 
 (5) Fitting. 
 
 (6) Making and finishing. 
 
 In the detail of these steps there is great opportunity for 
 variation, owing to the many kinds of material it is possible 
 to use and to the constant change in fashions it is possible 
 to have. 
 
 The same method of procedure cannot always be fol- 
 lowed for draped skirts as for the others, especially if the 
 design is made on the form, working directly in the ma- 
 terials. Because of this, and because of the many differ- 
 ent styles and methods of making, the general directions 
 may require much modifying and adapting to meet the 
 specific problems which arise in the making of draped 
 skirts. 
 
 /. Securing the Pattern 
 
 Four general methods of procedure may be followed; 
 the pattern may be: 
 
 (1) Drafted to measure. (See Drafting.) 
 
 (2) Adapted from a commercial pattern. (See Use of 
 Commercial Patterns.) 
 
 (3) Designed in paper or material on a flat foundation 
 pattern. (See Designing.) 
 
 (4) Draped on the dress-form. (See Designing.) 
 
 No definite directions can be given for the selection of 
 a suitable method for securing a pattern. There are too 
 many varying factors to be considered, such as the ex- 
 perience of the worker, the type of skirt, its material and 
 style. 
 
 II. Arranging Seam Allowances; Placing the Pattern 
 and Cutting 
 
 1. Seam Allowances. — Before using any pattern it is ab- 
 solutely necessary to notice whether any seam allowances 
 have been made. The majority of commercial patterns have 
 a regulation allowance which is explained in the description 
 of the pattern and indicated generally by perforations. 
 
Skirts 377 
 
 Drafted and modelled patterns may or may not have these 
 allowances, according to the choice of the worker. It is 
 simpler to use patterns without allowances, but it is some- 
 times thought safer for a beginner to have them added. 
 The following allowances are usually made in the placing 
 of a skirt pattern: i" on all the lengthwise seams; }/$" at 
 the waist line. 
 
 The hem allowance is variable, depending on the style 
 and finish of the skirt; the finishing allowance on any yoke, 
 flounce, or applied piece also depends on the finish. 
 
 2. Placing and Cutting. — When possible the entire skirt 
 pattern should be placed and cut at once; that is, all 
 gores or lengths and any decorative pieces such as yokes 
 and flounces. In general, the material should be folded to 
 have all corresponding pieces cut together, as it saves time 
 and confusion and prevents having two pieces for one side 
 if the material has a right and a wrong side. Care should 
 be taken to observe, when necessary, the up and down of 
 material. Even if there is no nap to be considered, the 
 color is frequently affected by a reversal of the up and 
 down. (See General Suggestions.) In placing a pattern, 
 economy of material should be considered. No definite 
 rules for doing this can be given because of the variety of 
 design and the fact that the materials used differ as greatly 
 in width as do the patterns in size and length. As has 
 been said, the direction of the threads of the material is 
 exceedingly important. 
 
 A few general suggestions or rules may be given for 
 placing and cutting. To nearly all of these, however, 
 there may be exceptions. 
 
 (i) Different Ways in Which Skirts May Be Cut. — Skirts 
 may be made to fall straight or to flare; they may be 
 plain, plaited, or gathered. To secure the desired effect 
 they may be cut in straight lengths or divided into a few 
 large gores or many small ones. Usually for straight, close- 
 fitting skirts few gores are used, while for wide skirts many 
 gores are frequently considered better, as they give greater 
 opportunity for adding fulness without too great bias. In 
 general — 
 
378 Dressmaking 
 
 (a) The straight, narrow skirts usually have two, four, 
 five, or six gores. The gores should be nearly equal in size 
 at the top and the bottom, with the fulness held in at the 
 waist to give the best results. A narrow skirt which is 
 gored and fitted in at the waist and the hip usually fits 
 the figure too closely and gives it an ugly fine at the back. 
 
 (b) The flaring or full skirts may be made in two ways. 
 (i) By the use of many gores cut wide at the bottom in 
 
 proportion to the size at the hip; that is, gores which may be 
 fitted at the waist and the hip and have a flare added be- 
 low at one or both edges. The greater the number of gores 
 the greater the width at the bottom. Such a skirt is sel- 
 dom cut in less than six gores. 
 
 (ii) By the use of the circular skirt, which may be a 
 complete circle or a part of a circle and cut in gores. 
 
 A narrow circular skirt cut in gores may be made to fit 
 at the hip as well as at the waist, but as the circle increases 
 in size it fits closely only at the waist line and hangs free 
 from the figure below. Two or four gores are the usual 
 divisions. The complete circle may be in one or two 
 pieces. 
 
 (c) The plaited skirts may be made in two ways. 
 
 (i) By the use of gores to which plaits are added. The 
 greater the number of gores the greater the number of plaits. 
 Such skirts may fit at the waist and the hip. 
 
 (ii) By the use of straight lengths in which plaits are 
 so laid as to fit at the hip and the waist. 
 
 (d) The gathered skirts may be made in two ways. 
 
 (i) By the use of gores which are cut sufficiently large 
 to allow gathers at the waist line. 
 
 (ii) By the use of straight lengths which are gathered at 
 the waist line. Both these skirts are made to fit at the 
 waist but fall free from the figure below. 
 
 (For details in planning tucks, plaits, and gathers for 
 skirts, see Designing.) 
 
 (2) Arrangement of Gore Divisions. — When the general 
 style of the skirt and the number of gores are decided, there 
 is still the question of the arrangement of the gores in the 
 skirt. Several possible arrangements are suggested. 
 
Skirts 379 
 
 (a) Skirts with Two Gores. 
 
 (i) Straight Skirts. — A straight skirt may be cut with a 
 seam at the centre front and centre back. If the centre- 
 front seam is straight and the centre-back is slightly bias 
 there is less fulness at the waist than if two straight seams 
 are used. 
 
 A straight skirt may also be cut with a fold at the centre 
 front and centre back and with a seam at each hip. If 
 these two seams are slightly bias there is less fulness at the 
 waist than if they are straight. 
 
 For all of these straight skirts there is fulness at the 
 waist which may be arranged in folds, plaits, or gathers. 
 The waist lines are wide and only slightly curved. 
 
 (ii) Circular Skirts. — A circular skirt may be cut with a 
 seam at the centre front and centre back. If the centre- 
 front seam is slightly bias and the centre-back is bias there 
 is less fulness at the waist than if a straight centre-front 
 seam and a bias centre-back seam are used. 
 
 A circular skirt may also be cut with a fold at the centre 
 front and centre back and with a seam at each hip. These 
 seams are both bias. 
 
 For all of these circular skirts there need be no fulness at 
 the waist. The waist lines are the required size and more 
 deeply curved than for the straight skirts. 
 
 (Hi) Peg-Top Skirts. — The peg-top skirt, which has two 
 gores, is an exception to any of the above. It has a centre- 
 front and centre-back seam, both of which are bias and are 
 cut to give more width at the waist than at the bottom. 
 The waist line is irregular and curves up over the hip to 
 give material for the drapery. The straight of the material 
 extends down over the hip. 
 
 (b) Skirts with Four Gores. 
 
 (i) Straight Skirts. — A straight skirt may be cut with a 
 seam at the centre front, centre back, and at each hip. 
 The centre-front seam is straight, the centre-back is slightly 
 bias, while the hip seam has a bias and a straight edge. 
 
 A straight skirt may also be cut with a panel front which 
 has slightly bias edges, a panel back with slightly bias 
 edges, and a wide side gore which requires a dart or some 
 
380 Dressmaking 
 
 other device for removing the fulness at the waist line. 
 The side gore may have its front edge straight below the 
 hip or slightly bias. Its back edge is bias. 
 
 (ii) Circular Skirts. — A circular skirt may be cut with a 
 seam at the centre front, centre back, and at each hip. 
 The centre-front seam may be straight, the centre-back 
 bias, while the hip seam has a bias and a straight edge. 
 
 A circular skirt may also be cut with the front seam 
 slightly bias rather than straight and with the usual bias 
 back seam and the hip seam with a bias and a straight edge. 
 
 While the circular skirt is cut much as is the straight one, 
 it secures its fulness or flare by the curving waist line, which 
 brings its seams, especially that of the centre back, much 
 more bias than any of those of the straight skirt. 
 
 (c) Skirts with Five Gores. — A skirt with five gores has a 
 panel with slightly bias edges placed either at the centre 
 front or back. Its two side gores may be cut to hang 
 straight or to have a circular flare. If the panel is placed 
 at the centre back there is a straight seam at centre front 
 and a hip seam with a bias and a straight edge. If the 
 panel is placed at the centre front there is a bias seam at 
 centre back and a hip seam with a bias and a straight edge. 
 
 (d) Skirts with Six Gores. — The most frequently used de- 
 sign for the skirt having six gores has a panel front with 
 slightly bias edges, a panel back with slightly bias edges, 
 and a seam at each hip which may have two slightly bias 
 edges or a bias and a straight edge. 
 
 (e) Skirts with Seven Gores. — The most frequently used 
 design for the skirt having seven gores has a panel front and 
 three gores on each side. The panel front has slightly bias 
 edges and the centre-back seam is bias. The two seams at 
 each side may have two slightly bias edges or a bias and a 
 straight edge. (For the proportion of various gores, see 
 Drafting.) 
 
 (3) Different Ways in Which the Gores or Lengths of Skirts 
 May Be Placed on the Material. 
 
 (a) The lengthwise centre of a centre front or back panel 
 is placed on a lengthwise straight fold. This makes its 
 two seam edges slightly bias. 
 
Skirts 381 
 
 (b) The fronts of all the gores of a skirt are placed, be- 
 low the hip line, on a lengthwise straight thread. This 
 makes the front seam edge straight and the back slightly 
 bias. In joining such gores a slightly bias and a straight 
 edge fall together. 
 
 Exception. — The exception made to this is so frequent 
 that it may also be considered a rule. The lengthwise centre 
 of a gore may be placed on a lengthwise straight thread. 
 
 This makes the front and back seam edges bias. In 
 joining such gores two bias edges fall together. By cutting 
 the gores in this way a different flare is given the skirt. If 
 the side and back gores of a skirt are cut with the straight 
 lengthwise centre they will stand out in the large, tubelike 
 folds which are sometimes demanded by fashion. 
 
 (c) In placing gores which have tucks or any style of 
 plaits added at their seams, the original gore line rather 
 than the line which forms the edge of the tuck or plait 
 must always be the one to determine the direction of the 
 lengthwise thread. The front of the gore should be placed 
 on the straight lengthwise grain. 
 
 (d) In placing a skirt which is a complete circle the 
 centre front and centre back are both on the lengthwise 
 straight thread. The centre front may be on a fold, if de- 
 sired. In piecing material to secure sufficient size for such 
 a skirt the joining- is done along the selvage and the seam 
 slants upward and toward the back. 
 
 (e) In placing a skirt which is circular but not a com- 
 plete circle, many different ways are possible. 
 
 (i) It may be cut with a lengthwise straight fold at 
 centre front and back and with a seam at each hip. This 
 brings two quite bias edges together at the hip. The finish 
 of this seam should be such as to hold the edges in place 
 and keep them from stretching. The slot seam is frequently 
 used. Such a skirt will flare at the side and be rather 
 straight at the back. 
 
 (it) It may be cut with four seams — one at the centre 
 front and back and at each hip. The seam at the centre 
 front may be on a straight lengthwise thread. This throws 
 the ripple of the skirt to the side. It may be slightly bias, 
 
382 Dressmaking 
 
 placing the pattern 6" or 8" in at the waist line. This 
 grain gives a better effect and a better fit, as the thread of 
 the material lends itself to the line of the figure. The ripple 
 or flare comes nearer the front. If striped material is used 
 the stripes are frequently made to form a design by cutting 
 the centre-front seam slightly bias. The centre-back and 
 the hip seams are bias. 
 
 (/) Plaited and gathered skirts may be cut in two ways — 
 in straight lengths or in gores. If they are cut in gores the 
 rules already suggested may be followed. If they are cut 
 in straight lengths the lengthwise of the material is gen- 
 erally used for the length of the skirt but need not neces- 
 sarily be so used. If material is of sufficient width it may 
 be made up crosswise into plaited or gathered skirts. The 
 edges of the plaits do not press as sharply and the gathers 
 do not hang as well. 
 
 No directions need be attempted for placing commercial 
 skirt patterns. They always have a definite design and 
 include all the necessary pieces for the gores, yokes, and 
 various decorative pieces. Their proper placing is indi- 
 cated in the pattern. 
 
 The skirt draft given in Drafting is for a foundation 
 skirt on which any variety of design may be made. Each 
 design affects somewhat differently the size and style of 
 the various pieces. When any gores or decorative pieces 
 are designed on this pattern, marks for their placing must 
 be clearly indicated. 
 
 Skirts which are draped directly in the material require 
 rather different treatment from those cut from patterns. 
 In their draping regard is given to the grain of material 
 and the arranging of proper seam allowance. The sugges- 
 tions given above may be followed in their draping, or more 
 elaborate designs may be used for which no rules can be 
 given. 
 
 777. Marking for Basting 
 
 There are three ways of marking the lines which are 
 necessary in the basting and making of a garment. (See 
 General Suggestions.) Some of the materials used for skirts 
 
Skirts 383 
 
 can be satisfactorily marked with the tracing-wheel. Others 
 require tailor's chalk and tailor bastings. If the tracing- 
 wheel is used, all the necessary tracing may be done after 
 the pattern is pinned in place and before cutting out. If 
 the material is such that the tracings do not show or will 
 not last, the skirt should be marked temporarily with chalk 
 and cut. In making the tailor bastings, after cutting out, 
 especial care should be taken to have the two pieces of 
 material so firmly pinned together that they cannot slip 
 and their corresponding seam-lines be uneven. 
 
 A tracing should be made around the entire pattern, 
 which gives the waist, bottom, and all seam-lines of the 
 skirt; through the hip lines just at the seam-lines, to aid in 
 joining the seams; to indicate any darts which are used; 
 through all guide lines for the turning of tucks or plaits or 
 the making of gathers; through the joining lines of the 
 placket. In marking the seams of a pattern it must be 
 remembered that it is the seam-line itself and not the 
 seam-allowance line which should be marked. These trac- 
 ings are to indicate the sewing lines and must be correctly 
 placed and true. 
 
 If there are gores it is an excellent plan to cross-mark 
 corresponding seam -lines. These serve as a guide in basting 
 the seams together and also in matching adjoining gores. 
 Without some indicating marks the wrong edges of gores 
 are frequently joined by the inexperienced or careless. 
 
 The waist and hip lines are very important in the bast- 
 ing, fitting, and making of a skirt, and must be carefully 
 maintained until the skirt is practically finished. As the 
 mark of the tracing-wheel is easily lost in the necessary 
 handling of the material and in the sewing and fitting, these 
 lines should be retraced by bastings of colored cotton after 
 the skirt is cut out. Colored cotton is used because it can 
 be plainly seen in the fittings and shows the correctness of 
 the placing of the lines, and it can also be distinguished 
 from the other basting lines. 
 
 If the design of a draped skirt is such that there are cor- 
 responding pieces, they should be placed together and their 
 seam-lines trued, straightened, and traced. 
 
384 Dress m a k i / 1 g 
 
 IV. Basting and Preparation for Fitting 
 
 There arc a few general rules for the hasting of all skirts. 
 Those required in the making of a skirt pattern have al- 
 ready been given under Drafting. More detailed direc- 
 tions are necessary for the making of the skirt itself be- 
 cause of the variety of design possible. 
 
 Seams are basted on either the right or the wrong side 
 of a skirt, depending on the Style of the finish. In basting 
 for fitting the thread should be well fastened in the begin- 
 ning and the finishing and short stitches should be used 
 where there is any strain. If the skirt has been fitted and 
 the basting serves merely to keep the seam-lines in place 
 for stitching, longer stitches may be used. Unless a worker 
 is very experienced, stitching should not be attempted with- 
 out basting. Even careful pinning is not satisfactory. The 
 line of basting should always follow exactly the line of trac- 
 ing. Before basting any seams together the corresponding 
 tracings should be matched and pinned and all long seams 
 pinned together at short intervals. This keeps the seam-lines 
 together and makes their basting simpler. It also prevents 
 the slight fulling of the side nearest the worker, which fre- 
 quently occurs, especially in the work of the inexperienced 
 or careless. All skirt basting should be done with the work 
 flat on the table, as the seams are too long to be handled 
 well in the lap. For a fitting all the pieces of a skirt should 
 be joined and a belt prepared but not attached. The style 
 determines the number of pieces in the skirt and the kind 
 of belt required. The width of the belt depends on the 
 height of the skirt at the waist. 
 
 i. To Join Plain Gores. — An edge which is straight be- 
 low the hip and an edge which is bias frequently fall to- 
 gether. In pinning and basting such seams the bias edge 
 must be toward the worker; that is, the gore with the 
 straight edge is placed Hat on the table and the gore with 
 the bias edge is placed on it. If the edge is very bias it may 
 be more easily managed if some of the basting is done over 
 the hand. If two bias edges fall together, with one more 
 
Skirts 385 
 
 bias than the other, the more bias edge should he toward 
 the worker. Two equally bias edges may come together 
 as in many centre-back seams. When this occurs great care 
 should be taken to join them evenly and not to stretch the 
 edges. The basting must be done with the work flat on 
 the table. 
 
 2. To Join Gores Which Have Tucks or Plaits at Their 
 Seams. If tucks or plaits of any kind arc used on the 
 seams of gores they must be basted in pla< e before the 
 gores are joined. It must be remembered that all tucks 
 and plaits are so cut and made as not to change the original 
 size of the gore. (For details in planning tucks, plaits, 
 etc., see Designing.) 
 
 (i) Tucks are placed at the back edge of gores, but an 
 equal allowance is made for them on the adjoining edges of 
 each gore. 
 
 To prepare the gores for joining, the back edge of the 
 front gore is turned to the wrong side, exactly along the 
 original seam-line, and basted flat. This turns the width 
 of the tuck and the seam allowance to the wrong side. The 
 tuck and seam allowance on the front edge of the next 
 gore are not turned back but are allowed to extend. 
 
 The folded .edge of the front gore is placed to the seam- 
 line of the second gore and pinned and basted along its 
 folded edge. If the pins are put in at right angles to the 
 edge they are more easily managed and hold the material 
 better. A second basting should be put in parallel to the 
 first to indicate the width of the tuck where the stitching or 
 the required finish is to come. 
 
 (2) Side plaits are basted and joined in the same manner. 
 
 (3) Inverted plaits require a little more planning. 
 
 (a) If inverted plaits are placed at the centre back of a 
 skirt, an equal allowance is made on the adjoining edges 
 of the gores and the edges are basted in the same way; that 
 is, the edge of the gore is turned to the wrong side along 
 its seam-line and basted flat. This folded edge is then 
 placed to the edge of the plait, which is also the sewing 
 line for the centre-back seam and is already indicated by 
 a tracing, and is pinned and basted in place. When this 
 
386 Dressmaking 
 
 is done on the two gores the back seam which joins these 
 gores is basted, with the seam edges to the wrong side. 
 
 (b) If an inverted plait is placed at the back of a gore 
 the basting is done in much the same way. The back edge 
 of the front gore is turned to the wrong side and basted 
 flat. This turns the width of the plait and the seam al- 
 lowance to the wrong side. The front edge of the next 
 gore is turned to the wrong side and basted flat along the 
 fold. This folded edge is then brought forward to the indi- 
 cated centre of the plait and is pinned and basted in place. 
 As three times the width of the plait plus the seam allow- 
 ance was added here, one width of plait and the seam al- 
 lowance still extends. The turned-in edge of the front gore 
 is placed on this extension close to the turned-in edge of 
 the back gore and is pinned and basted in place. The 
 skirt may then be turned to the wrong side and the two 
 raw edges basted together along their indicated seam-line. 
 This seam is in the fold of the front plait and turns to the 
 front of the skirt. 
 
 3. To Join Panels. — Panels are usually finished with a 
 tuck at ea'ch seam. These tucks are arranged and the 
 panel is joined to the next gore in the same way as are 
 the gores which have tucks at their seams. No directions 
 are necessary. In all this work much attention should be 
 paid to careful matching of hip-line tracings. 
 
 4. To Turn Hems. — The bottom of the skirt should be 
 turned on the indicated hem line and basted along the 
 fold. The second basting at the top of the hem need not 
 be a careful one, as it merely holds the hem in place during 
 fitting. If there are tucks or plaits they are already basted 
 flat the full length of the skirt and should not be opened 
 for this basting. 
 
 5. To Arrange Fulness at the Waist Line. — Fulness at 
 the waist line is arranged by the use of darts, gathers, 
 plaits, or tucks. 
 
 (1) If darts are used they are indicated by tracings and 
 are basted before any gores are joined. They require care- 
 ful work. The basting should be done from the point of 
 the dart to the waist line. The two seam-lines should al- 
 
Skirts 387 
 
 ways be pinned first, as it is very easy to match the trac- 
 ings incorrectly or to full one side too much. Darts, when 
 basted, should always have an outward curve to follow the 
 lines of the figure. 
 
 (2) If gathers, plaits, or tucks are used they generally 
 cannot be made until the different parts of the skirt are 
 joined. The plaits or tucks should be arranged or the 
 gathering stitches made before the skirt is put on for a 
 fitting. 
 
 6. To Attach Yokes and Decorative Pieces. — Definite 
 directions cannot be given for these as they vary too much 
 in design. When possible, all such pieces should be at- 
 tached to that section of the skirt to which they belong 
 before the whole skirt is put together. This saves the 
 handling of the entire skirt as well as the wrinkling and 
 the wear of the material. 
 
 Yokes are usually joined to skirts in the same manner as 
 panels; that is, their joining edge is turned in along its 
 seam-line and basted flat to the skirt, matching tracings. 
 Decorative pieces which are applied to the skirt may be 
 finished in the same way. When pieces are inset the edges 
 of the skirt to which they are attached are generally turned 
 in and stitched flat to them. 
 
 7. To Finish the Waist Line. — The material and the cut 
 of a skirt determine its waist-line finish. 
 
 (1) For a foundation skirt or lining two or three waist 
 finishes are possible. Those most frequently used are the 
 narrow standing belt, which encloses the raw edge of the 
 skirt, and the narrow bias facing, which also encloses the 
 raw edge and is sewed to the wrong side of the skirt. 
 With either of these methods a flat, thin finish is pos- 
 sible. 
 
 (a) Belt. — If a standing belt is used it is generally of the 
 material of the skirt. It is cut twice the required finished 
 width plus }4" for seam allowances and the required length 
 plus finishing and seam allowances. For the fitting its 
 lengthwise centre line and its crosswise centre line should 
 be marked. From the crosswise centre mark the exact 
 waist size should be measured and indicated in order to 
 
888 Dressmaking 
 
 have the two sides of the skirt even when the belt and skirt 
 are joined in the fitting. 
 
 (b) Bias Facing. — If a bias facing is used it need not be 
 prepared for the fitting. The skirt is fitted to the required 
 size and the facing is attached in the finishing. This fac- 
 ing may be arranged to give less thickness around the 
 waist than the standing belt, as, if desired, the top line of 
 the skirt when finished may come just to the waist line. 
 
 (2) For the majority of skirts a standing belt made of 
 belting is required. For wash skirts a belting which does 
 not lose its stiffening in laundering should be chosen. It 
 should be shrunk before making. For cloth skirts this need 
 not be considered. For all kinds of belting the following 
 preparation is necessary: 
 
 It is cut the required length plus yi" for finishing. The 
 centre line is indicated, the y£" at each end is turned in, and 
 the hooks and eyes are attached. The number of fasten- 
 ings varies with the width of the belt; one is sewed at the 
 top edge and another at the lower edge, with the required 
 number between, about }4" or Y\" apart. Even a wide 
 belt seldom requires more than three. The position of all 
 should be indicated before any are sewed on. The hooks 
 are sewed on the right side and the eyes on the left. They 
 should be placed so that the two edges of the belt exactly 
 meet. In sewing, strength and not finish is required, as 
 they are to be covered by binding-ribbon or Prussian bind- 
 ing, hemmed at each edge to the belting. (For details in 
 sewing on fastenings, see Finishings.) 
 
 V. Fitting 
 
 In many cases much time is wasted by too frequent 
 fittings, which are usually necessitated by the lack of 
 proper preparation for fitting. Except for very elaborate 
 skirts, two or three fittings are all that is necessary, if the 
 pattern used has been properly made, tested, and fitted. 
 For a first fitting the whole skirt should be together and a 
 belt should be prepared, to which the skirt may be pinned 
 during the fitting. Before the skirt is put on, the belt is 
 
Skirts 389 
 
 placed around the waist with its lower edge just at the nor- 
 mal waist line. The general appearance of the skirt, its fit, 
 hang, and length, and the direction of the waist and the 
 bottom lines may all be observed and the skirt and belt 
 may be attached. If the fitting is carefully done and the 
 work which follows is equally careful, at the second fitting 
 the skirt may be nearly completed and a finished fitting 
 may follow. 
 
 The fitting of the skirt and the alterations which any 
 changes necessitate are practically the same as for the 
 foundation skirt, which are given in detail under Drafting 
 and need not be repeated here. 
 
 VI. Making and Finishing 
 
 After a skirt is properly fitted and basted it is ready 
 for the finishing. Many different kinds of finishes are 
 required not only because of the four general types of 
 skirts but also because of the great variety of style and 
 material possible in each type. For instance, a tailored 
 skirt may be plain or plaited, may have few seams or 
 many, may be made of wool, silk, linen, or cotton. For 
 such a skirt at least three or four different finishes are 
 possible for the seams and an equal number for the placket 
 and belt. The choosing of suitable finishes for any skirt 
 must necessarily be a question of good judgment rather 
 than an attempt at strict adherence to any one rule. For 
 this reason only a few directions for finishings are given 
 here, with suggestions for their application to the different 
 kinds of skirts. These directions include only a few of the 
 many methods by which practically the same results may 
 be achieved. Each skirt presents its own special problem 
 of design and material, and the finishings chosen should be 
 such as to meet that problem. 
 
 The finishing of a skirt usually requires: 
 
 (i) Stitching and finishing seams. 
 
 (2) Planning and making the placket. 
 
 (3) Attaching the belt and finishing at the waist. 
 
 (4) Finishes for the bottom of skirts, the edges of tunics, 
 overskirts, flounces, etc. 
 
390 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 i. Stitching and Finishing Seams. — There are many 
 seams which may be used in skirts. Certain seams are 
 suitable for only one type of garment while others may be 
 adapted for all types. The seams most frequently used are: 
 
 ( i ) Plain seam with dif- 
 ferent finishes. 
 
 (2) French seam. 
 
 (3) Seam finished with 
 entre-deux. 
 
 (4) Fell seam. 
 
 (5) Welt seam. 
 
 (6) Lapped seam. 
 
 (7) Slot seam. 
 
 (8) Strapped seam. 
 
 (9) Machine-hem- 
 stitched seam. 
 
 In making any seam 
 finish, whether plain or 
 fancy, care should be 
 taken to keep the skirt 
 absolutely its original 
 shape and size. All the 
 correct seam-lines must 
 be indicated by some 
 means which is sufficiently 
 plain to be easily seen and 
 sufficiently permanent to 
 last as long as needed. 
 
 Whatever kind of finish 
 is chosen as suitable for 
 the seams of a skirt should be maintained throughout. 
 It need not be made by the same method in all parts of 
 the skirt, but its appearance should be the same when 
 completed. 
 
 (1) Plain Seam. — The method of making this seam is 
 very simple. It may be finished in different ways, both 
 on the right and on the wrong side. 
 
 (a) Finishes for the wrong side, (f) Notching or pink- 
 ing is the simplest finish, (if) Overcasting may be satis- 
 
 Plain seam finished by (.4) overcasting, (B) 
 binding, and (C) notching 
 
Skirts 
 
 391 
 
 factorily used in all styles of skirts made in all kinds of 
 materials. {Hi) Binding with taffeta ribbon gives a neat 
 finish to seam edges. It may be used for silk seams, which 
 do not require pressing or laundering, and is frequently 
 seen in wool skirts of various kinds. It is used for the 
 
 / 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ~ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 j 
 
 • 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 LA 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 
 !■■ ■ -1 
 
 Plain seam stitched to give tailored finish 
 
 seams of linings, {iv) Turning in the edges is used to 
 make an open or a closed seam. It is an especially good 
 method for finishing the seams of the foundation skirts or 
 linings; it is quickly done and does not necessitate the 
 purchase of any extra finishing materials. The open seam 
 is not satisfactory in very heavy materials, but for light- 
 weight fabrics it does not give too much thickness. It 
 is frequently used in silks, linens, and cotton, where too 
 
392 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 frequent laundering is not required. The closed seam is 
 exceedingly satisfactory for wash materials which are not 
 tailored, as the raw edges are enclosed. 
 
 (b) Finishes for the right side: In making a plain seam 
 
 ••V 
 
 \ 
 N 
 
 .. -va 
 
 Right and wrong side of a welt seam 
 
 no stitching is required on the right side. One or more 
 rows may be added to give a tailored finish. 
 
 (2) French Seam. — The use of the French seam in dress- 
 making — in skirt-making especially — should in general be 
 discouraged. It may be used occasionally in straight seams 
 in lingerie skirts but it is not satisfactory in fitted linings. 
 
 (3) Seam Finished with Entre-Deux. — Such seams are 
 suitable only for lingerie skirts. There are several meth- 
 
Skirts 
 
 393 
 
 ods of finishing — by the use of French seams, which is the 
 least satisfactory; by the use of bound seams, which is the 
 simplest method; and by rolling and whipping the raw 
 edges, which gives the most inconspicuous seam but is suit- 
 able only for the thin materials. 
 
 (4) Fell Seam. — The fell is a flat seam frequently used 
 for tailored skirts and satisfactory for all but very heavy 
 materials. It wears and launders well. 
 
 (5) Welt Seam. — This seam has somewhat the same ef- 
 fect as the fell and is frequently found to be more satis- 
 
 Lapped seam with raw edges 
 
 Strapped seam with turned-in edges 
 
 factory for the heavy materials. It launders and wears 
 well. It is very frequently used for tailored skirts and also 
 for many of the softer materials which are machine stitched 
 but not strictly tailored. 
 
 (6) Lapped Seam. — This seam is used in tailored skirts 
 and is made in two ways — with raw edges or with turned- 
 in edges. The general effect is the same for either method. 
 
 (7) Slot Seam. — The slot seam is frequently used to 
 form a decorative finish to a centre-front seam. It is also 
 very good for a circular skirt which has a seam over the 
 hip in which two bias edges come together. It prevents 
 the sagging of the seam. It is generally used in tailored 
 and semi-tailored skirts. 
 
 (8) Strapped Seam. — This seam is made in two ways — 
 with a strap having turned-in edges or with a strap hav- 
 
394 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 ing raw edges. It may be used as a finish in silks, wools, 
 cottons, and linens in tailored and semi-tailored skirts. 
 
 (9) Hemstitched Scam. — Machine hemstitching requires 
 a special machine and consequently cannot be generally 
 used as a seam finish. It is used for thin materials, such 
 
 V 
 
 mm 
 
 Right and wrong side of a slot seam 
 
 as chiffon, net, and crepe, and for lingerie skirts. It is 
 both strong and decorative. 
 
 (For details in making and finishing seams, see Finish- 
 ings.) 
 
 2. Planning and Making the Placket. — There are many 
 different methods possible for the finishing of plackets, and, 
 as they are in general not easy to make successfully, care 
 
Skirts 
 
 395 
 
 should be exercised in choosing the most suitable methods. 
 The directions given here are merely suggestive and must 
 be applied and modified by the worker to meet the prob- 
 lems presented in each different skirt. 
 
 Several factors must be considered in deciding upon the 
 suitable finish — the general type or kind of skirt, whether 
 foundation, tailored, lingerie, etc. ; the definite style within 
 that type, whether made by hand or machine; the mate- 
 rial used, whether firm or easily drawn out of shape; the 
 exact location of the placket, 
 whether at the centre front 
 or centre back, at the side, 
 or over the hip, and whether 
 the placket is to form a part 
 of the decoration of the skirt 
 or is to be concealed. 
 
 The placing of a placket is 
 somewhat a matter of choice. 
 It is usually in a seam of the 
 skirt. It should be arranged 
 for the convenience of the 
 wearer, and its fastenings 
 and the details of finishing 
 should be made as invisible 
 
 as possible. Too much finishing is frequently attempted, 
 especially by the beginner, and the placket made both 
 clumsy and conspicuous. The finish used should, as far as 
 possible, accord with that chosen for the rest of the skirt. 
 
 (i) Plackets for Foundation Skirts or Linings. — These 
 plackets are as simply made as possible. If the lining is 
 to be attached to a skirt the placing of the placket depends 
 upon the opening of the skirt; if the lining is to be free, 
 and to be worn with one or many skirts, its placing may 
 be governed entirely by the convenience of the wearer. 
 When possible the placket is made in a seam. It is about 
 12" or 14" in length and opens from right to left. One 
 simple method of making is as follows: 
 
 (a) To form the upper or outer side of the placket the 1" 
 seam allowance is turned along the seam-line to the wrong 
 
 Foundation skirt with finished placket 
 and standing belt 
 
3 9G Dressmaking 
 
 side, its raw edge is turned in, and it is stitched flat to the 
 skirt. The stitching may also be done along the outer edge 
 of the placket Imt should not extend across the lower end. 
 If the seam is bias a straight facing may be Included in 
 the turning to prevent any stretching. 
 
 (b) For the other side of the opening the i" seam allow- 
 ance acts as an extension. A reinforcement of some kind 
 must be added to which the fastenings may be sewed. 
 (/') If the edge is not very bias a piece of Prussian binding 
 placed to the wrong side along the line of fastening may be 
 all that is necessary. The edge of the extension is then 
 overcast, bound, or hemmed, (it) If the edge is very bias, 
 however, it may be wise to face the entire seam allowance 
 with a straight lengthwise piece of material the same width 
 and length as the allowance. This is stitched to the raw 
 edge of the extension, with right sides together; it is then 
 turned to the wrong side, its raw edges are turned in, and it 
 is stitched flat at both lengthwise edges. 
 
 (c) The placket should be closed accurately, with its 
 opening line forming a continuation of the seam-line of the 
 skirt, and a row of stitching should be made across its lower 
 end. This prevents the tearing down of the placket. With 
 the placket still closed the position of the fastenings should 
 be indicated. They must be placed to keep the placket 
 neatly closed and the fit of the skirt unchanged. Hooks 
 and peets or snaps may be used. 
 
 (2) Plackets for Tailored Skirts. — Tailored plackets are 
 most frequently placed, according to the number and posi- 
 tion of the seams of a skirt, at the centre front, centre 
 back, left side front, and left side back. Some styles of 
 skirts, however, may require a somewhat different man- 
 agement. For instance, if there is only one seam, and 
 that over the hip, the placket must be placed in it. This 
 is a less desirable position than the others, as it is con- 
 spicuous. The seam is usually curved and its edges are 
 bias and the placket is in consequence difficult to make suc- 
 cessfully. Such a placket must always be stayed or faced 
 to prevent its edges stretching. 
 
 Generally the right side of a placket laps over the left; 
 
Skirts 397 
 
 this cannot be considered a definite rule, however, as the 
 construction of the dress frequently requires the opposite 
 treatment. Plackets vary in length, depending on the 
 size of the waist in relation to the size of the hips and the 
 width of the shoulders of the wearer. The placket must 
 be sufficiently long to allow the skirt to be put on easily. 
 An average length varies from 12" to 14". 
 
 Nearly all plackets, whatever the method of making, 
 require facings or reinforcements to prevent the stretching 
 of their edges and to strengthen the sewing lines of the 
 fastenings. The exact placing and the size of the facing 
 depend in general upon the kind of material used for the 
 skirt, the position of the placket, and the strain on the 
 fastenings. The amount of material used should be only 
 such as gives the required strength and neatness to the 
 placket. All unnecessary thickness should be carefully 
 avoided. 
 
 If the design of the skirt is such that the outer or upper 
 edge of the placket may be finished by stitching, its mak- 
 ing is much simplified and it is less likely to get out of 
 shape in wearing. The majority of tailored plackets are 
 stitched. 
 
 (a) A placket is placed in many skirts in a seam which 
 is finished with a stitched tuck. Such a placket is easy to 
 make and is very firm because the stitching of the tuck not 
 only keeps the material in place but gives, as well, a sew- 
 ing line for the fastenings. 
 
 As it is not possible to include all the methods which 
 may be followed for the making of plackets, directions 
 are given here for one placed in a seam which is finished 
 with a tuck, as it is a finish in general use. With slight 
 differences in detail, the directions may be used for mak- 
 ing many different plackets. To simplify these direc- 
 tions they are applied to a definite style of placket — a 
 placket 14" in length, fastening from right to left with 
 hooks and peets, and placed in a seam which is finished 
 with a tuck ^.-" wide and has a seam allowance of 1" . 
 With the directions are included a few suggestions for pos- 
 sible changes in detail. 
 
398 Dressmaking 
 
 (i) Basting the Tucks and the Seam. — Preliminary to 
 making the placket the tuck is turned, basted, and pressed 
 its full length. The two gores of the skirt should then be 
 basted together along the indicated seam-line, matching 
 all tracings, to within 15" of the top. The extra 1" in the 
 opening is for convenience in the finishing of the placket. 
 The work then proceeds as follows: 
 
 (ii) Making the Right Side of the Placket. — The basting 
 is removed from the tuck the length of the placket to al- 
 low its being opened for a facing or reinforcement. The 
 facing may be of silk, satin, sateen, or cambric, depending 
 on the material of the skirt. It should not be too stiff 
 or too heavy. It should be a lengthwise straight strip 15" 
 long and 4%" wide. It is cut this width in order to line 
 the tuck, and not only to enclose the raw edge of the seam 
 allowance but also to extend to cover the sewing which 
 keeps the hooks in place. The 4^" strip is slipped into 
 the tuck with its raw edge to the fold of the tuck and its 
 right side to the wrong side of the skirt. It must be 
 basted so that it is perfectly smooth otherwise the tuck 
 will not lie flat. The tuck is then stitched along its seam- 
 line from the top of the skirt just the finished length of the 
 placket, 14". While this is done the left side of the placket 
 must be turned back out of the way in order not to be in- 
 cluded in the stitching. 
 
 The extending raw edge of the facing is turned in }i" 
 and basted. It is then folded over, enclosing the raw edge 
 of the seam allowance of the skirt, is basted flat to the 
 tuck y 2 " in from its edge, and carefully pressed. The bast- 
 ing is removed later when the fastenings are sewed on. 
 This side is now ready for the fastenings, but before they 
 are attached the left side should be faced. 
 
 (a) Possible Changes in Making the Right Side. — The 
 width of the facing or reinforcement may vary according 
 to the choice of the worker, depending somewhat upon 
 certain details — such as the width of the tuck and the seam 
 allowance (as these are greater or less the facing is wider or 
 narrower); the kind of fasteners used (if snaps are used 
 their sewing cannot be concealed and the facing need then 
 
Skirts 399 
 
 be only of sufficient width to line the tuck and enclose the 
 raw edge of the seam allowance); the material of the 
 skirt (if this is very firm and will not ravel, the facing need 
 not enclose the raw edge, it need only line the tuck and be 
 included in the stitching which holds the tuck). 
 
 (Hi) Making the Left Side of the Placket. — A lengthwise 
 straight strip 15" long and 1%" wide is required. The 
 raw edges of this are turned in %" , except across one 
 end, and are basted and pressed. The wrong side of this 
 facing is then placed to the wrong side of the gore with the 
 end having the raw edge at the top of the placket and 
 with one turned-in edge close to the notched or overcasted 
 raw edge of the seam allowance. It should be basted in 
 place and pressed and stitched close to its turned-in edges. 
 
 (a) Possible Changes in Making the Left Side. — There 
 are various other methods of facing this side of the placket. 
 
 If the material of the skirt ravels or frays easily the 
 facing is sewed on to enclose its raw edge. This is easily 
 done. The raw edges of the facing are not turned in; the 
 facing is placed to the edge of the placket-seam allowance, 
 with its right side to the right side of the material, and 
 stitched. It is then turned to the wrong side and basted 
 along the turning, its raw edges are turned in except across 
 the top, and it is basted flat to the skirt. 
 
 If the material is firm a piece of Prussian binding is fre- 
 quently all that is necessary for a reinforcement. It is 
 placed under the sewing line of the fasteners to give the 
 necessary firmness. It may be stitched along both edges 
 or it may be temporarily basted in place and later held by 
 the sewing on of the fasteners. This is a matter of choice. 
 It should not be stitched unless the stitching is entirely 
 covered by the tuck on the upper edge of the placket. 
 
 (iv) Finishing the Placket. — If the seam allowance on 
 the gore edges is exactly 1", as directed, and the tuck is 
 Ya" 1 one row of stitching on the left or under side of the 
 placket — the row nearest the joining seam-line of the gores 
 — should fall, when the placket is closed, exactly in line 
 with the edge of the facing basted y 2 " in from the edge of 
 the tuck on the right or upper side of the placket. If it 
 
MM) Dressmaking 
 
 does not, the work has not been accurately done and must 
 be corrected. These two lines serve as guides for the fast- 
 enings, and unless they fall together the placket will not 
 fasten well. If they are correct the gores of the skirt should 
 be permanently joined by completing the stitching of the 
 tuck along its seam-line. This stitching should be a con- 
 tinuation of the 14" of stitching already done the length of 
 the placket. 
 
 The placket should be correctly closed and pinned to 
 hold it in place while the stitching is done. If the stitch- 
 ing begins 1" or 2" above the end of the 14" of stitching it 
 makes a neat joining; it also includes both facings and 
 gives a firm finish to the end of the placket. After stitch- 
 ing, both the seam and the placket must be well pressed, 
 as the pressing cannot be done as thoroughly after the 
 fastenings are sewed on. If sufficiently long ends of silk 
 are left when the stitching is started they may be drawn 
 through to the wrong side and used for a row of catch- 
 stitching across the end of the placket through the two 
 facings to hold them together. These stitches must not be 
 taken through to the right side of the skirt. 
 
 Hooks and peets or snaps are used to fasten the placket. 
 If a skirt fits very closely, hooks and peets are frequently 
 found more satisfactory as they are less likely to unfasten. 
 Each side of the placket should be marked for the fasten- 
 ings before any are sewed on. The hooks or the snaps are 
 placed about 1%" or 1%" apart. The first one should be 
 at the very top of the placket; its location may be marked, 
 but it should not be attached until the belt of the skirt is 
 adjusted. 
 
 If hooks are used they should be spread slightly to pre- 
 vent their pulling out of place. As the placket fastens 
 from right to left, the hooks are sewed to the right side of 
 the placket. The basting which holds the facing to the 
 tuck is removed and the hooks are sewed with twist to the 
 st itching-line of the tuck. Stitches should also be taken 
 across the shank of the hook near the end. All these 
 stitches are covered by the facing which, after the fast- 
 eners are attached, is slipped back into place under the 
 
Skirts 
 
 401 
 
 ends of the hooks. It is held by hemming, which should 
 begin about Ya" down from the top. This end of the fac- 
 ing must be left free to finish the top of the skirt after 
 the belt is put on. The facing comes just to the end of 
 the hooks and makes a very neat finish. If snaps are used, 
 some of the stitches which 
 attach them should be taken 
 into the line of the stitching 
 to keep them in place. 
 
 The peet, or the other half 
 of the snap, is sewed to the 
 line of stitching which holds 
 the facing on the left side 
 of the placket. If Prussian 
 binding has been used and 
 there is no stitching, the ex- 
 act position of the fasteners 
 must be tested by closing the 
 placket. If the fasteners are 
 not correctly placed an oth- 
 erwise well-made placket is 
 spoiled and the fit of the 
 skirt is changed. 
 
 (b) Plackets which are 
 placed in seams not finished 
 by tucks are frequently 
 stitched for a finish on the 
 outer or upper side. The stitching should parallel the 
 opening line of the placket and be placed at such a distance 
 from the edge that the fastenings may be sewed to it. It 
 may be carried for a finish in a straight or slanting line 
 across the end of the placket. The use of stitching simplifies 
 the finishing of any placket and is generally permissible, 
 although the seams of the skirt are not similarly decorated. 
 
 (3) Plackets for Semi-Tailored and Fancy Skirts Made by 
 Hand or by Machine. — For all such skirts practically one 
 general method of finishing may be followed; but there 
 is as much variation possible in the details of the finishing 
 as there is variety possible in the styles of the skirts. 
 
 Tailored placket, showing (A) facings 
 on right and left sides, (B) peets at- 
 tached to line of stitching, (C) hooks 
 spread and attached to line of stitch- 
 ing 
 
402 Dressmaking 
 
 In many skirts the style is such and the placket so 
 placed that no facing or reinforcement is necessary; while 
 in others as firm a facing is required as in many tailored 
 skirts, especially if the gores are bias and the material is 
 not firm. 
 
 (a) For Straight or Nearly Straight Edges. — Very little 
 finishing is necessary for a placket in a skirt which has 
 gathers at the waist. There is no strain on the placket and 
 it is generally concealed in the fulness. The edges of the 
 gores of such skirts are usually nearly straight, and unless 
 the material is easily stretched out of shape no facing is 
 needed. There should be the usual i" seam allowance to 
 give material enough for the finishing of the placket. The 
 length of the placket is regulated as in the tailored skirt. 
 Its placing may be determined by the convenience of the 
 wearer or by the position of the waist opening. 
 
 The placket is made as follows: Both the seam allow- 
 ances are turned in the same direction; that is, one edge 
 extends, the other folds back. The folded edge is gen- 
 erally the right one and becomes the upper or outer edge 
 of the placket. 
 
 No stitching is necessary along this folded edge as there 
 is no strain on it because of the fulness in the skirt. The 
 fold may be carefully pressed and held in place by the sew- 
 ing on of the belt. 
 
 The finishing is simple; the raw edges are bound with 
 taffeta ribbon or are overcast, according to the material. 
 Binding is usually preferred. Each side should be marked 
 for fasteners; either snaps or hooks and peets are used. 
 The first fastening should be near the top of the skirt as 
 in the tailored placket. Its position may be marked, but 
 it should not be put on until the belt is adjusted. 
 
 The fastenings on the upper or outer edge of the placket 
 are sewed to the turned-back seam allowance. In the 
 sewing, stitches should not be taken through to the right 
 side of the skirt. The other row of fasteners is sewed to 
 the extending side of the placket. Unless the material 
 is very firm it is usually more satisfactory to baste a piece 
 of Prussian binding to the wrong side of this and sew the 
 
Skirts 403 
 
 fasteners through to that. This is especially the case if 
 snaps are used, as the skirt material is easily torn in un- 
 fastening the placket. 
 
 To strengthen the end of the placket and prevent its 
 tearing down, the two seam allowances should be firmly 
 sewed together across the end of the placket. No at- 
 tempt need be made to catch them to the skirt. The sew- 
 ing may be stitching or catch-stitching. 
 
 (b) For Slightly Bias or Very Bias Edges. — This same 
 finish may be used in many different skirts with slight 
 changes. 
 
 (i) For slightly bias edges or for material which stretches. 
 If the outer or upper edge of a placket needs reinforcing 
 to prevent stretching, a piece of wide taffeta binding-ribbon, 
 a lengthwise piece of silk, or of thin cambric is slipped into 
 the fold. This is held in place either by sewing the fasten- 
 ings through to it or, if the seam can be decorated by a 
 line of hand or machine stitching on the right side, by stitch- 
 ing through the facing to hold it firmly in place. The row 
 of stitching may be used for just the length of the placket 
 if it can be repeated on the corresponding skirt seam. It 
 then appears as a decoration, even though the other seams 
 are not finished in the same way. 
 
 (ii) For very bias edges. If the two edges of a placket 
 are quite bias they must be carefully stayed to prevent 
 stretching. Such seam edges are frequently found in skirts 
 which are very circular and are cut to have only two 
 gores, a wide front and a wide back gore. A straight 
 piece of silk cut about i^" wide and the length of the 
 placket may be used to reinforce the upper or outer edge 
 of the placket. Its straight raw edge is placed to the bias 
 raw edge of the placket and folded over with it. When 
 folded the three edges must not fall together, as they make 
 too heavy a fine and show when pressed. If the seam 
 allowance is the usual i" and the facing is cut as directed, 
 \Ya" wide, there will be no difficulty. 
 
 If possible this folded edge should be finished with a 
 line of sewing either by hand or machine through the four 
 thicknesses to give it the required firmness. Running 
 
M)4 Dressmaking 
 
 stitches or stitching placed about 1 4" in may be used to 
 simulate a tuck. This should be repeated on the corre- 
 sponding skirt seam. It then appears as a decoration. 
 
 The fasteners — hooks or the upper section of the snaps 
 — may be more firmly attached to the placket if they are 
 lirst sewed to a piece of Prussian binding which is then 
 hemmed to the placket. Its front edge should be placed 
 along and attached to the line of sewing just made. 
 
 The left or under side of either placket may be finished, 
 as already suggested, by placing the Prussian binding to the 
 wrong side along the sewing line of the fasteners. 
 
 The edges of the plackets are finished by overcasting 
 or binding. The ends must be carefully stayed by stitch- 
 ing the two seam allowances together. 
 
 3. Attaching the Belt and Finishing at the Waist. — To 
 simplify the directions for the finishing of skirts at the 
 waist line two general divisions may be made. 
 
 (1) Foundation skirts or linings. 
 
 (2) Skirts attached to waists and separate skirts, tailored, 
 semi-tailored, lingerie, or draped. 
 
 For the finishing of all these certain preliminary steps are 
 necessary — the skirt must be carefully fitted and hung, 
 the seams must be finished, and the placket made. A good 
 waist line must be determined. The required kind of belt 
 must be prepared. 
 
 Directions for the fitting and hanging of the skirt and 
 for the finishing of the seams and the placket have al- 
 ready been given and need not be repeated here. 
 
 The direction and exact location of the waist line de- 
 pends upon the figure of the wearer and the general de- 
 sign of the skirt. For foundation skirts and linings the 
 sewing line of the skirt to which the belt or facing is at- 
 tached is generally at the normal waist line. For skirts 
 which are to be attached to waists the sewing line varies 
 greatly. It may be at the normal waist line or several 
 inches above. Tin- method of attaching is practically the 
 same for all. The majority of separate skirts are finished 
 to extend somewhat above the normal waist line. This 
 is a matter of taste and fashion. In general, a waist line 
 
Skirls 405 
 
 which is slightly higher at the back than at the front is 
 more becoming than one which has the same height its 
 entire length. The height and direction of the line at 
 the top of the skirt should be chosen for its becomingness 
 rather than to meet the demands of fashion. 
 
 When the sewing line of any skirt is determined it is 
 carefully marked by a basting. A seam allowance of yi" 
 or more is measured above this and the top of the skirt is 
 cut in a good straight line. The exact width of the allow- 
 ance depends on the kind of skirt and on the style of its 
 finish. The centre front, centre back, and sides of the top 
 of the skirt are marked. Care must be taken to have the 
 two sides of the skirt exactly equal in size and even in 
 height, unless a difference is demanded by some peculiar- 
 ity in the figure of the wearer. 
 
 Belts are of two general kinds — those made of the ma- 
 terial of the skirt and seldom used except for foundation 
 skirts; those made of stiff belting and used for prac- 
 tically all separate skirts and for those which are to be 
 attached to waists. Both kinds of belts need some prep- 
 aration before they are attached to the skirt. 
 
 (i) Finishing the Waist Line of Foundation Skirts or 
 Linings. — Linings may be finished at the waist in two 
 ways — by using a standing belt or a bias facing. 
 
 (a) Standing Belt. — Belts made of the material of the 
 skirt are in general use only for foundation skirts or 
 linings. Such skirts are usually made of silk, satin, per- 
 caline, and lawn. 
 
 (i) Making the Belt.- — The belt is cut with its length on 
 the length of the material. In width it should be twice 
 the finished width plus ]/ 2 " for seam allowances and in 
 length the waist size plus about 3". This gives sufficient 
 length for the placket extension, which usually measures 
 from ^i" to 1", and a }4" turning at each end to provide 
 firmness for the fasteners. Such a belt should not be 
 over ^4" in width when finished and may be as narrow as 
 %" • It is prepared and attached to the skirt in two dif- 
 ferent ways. For both it should be folded along its length- 
 wise centre and basted close to the fold to prevent its 
 
406 Dressmaking 
 
 twisting. The crosswise centre should be marked, and 
 measuring from that, each way, the correct waist measure 
 should be indicated. 
 
 (ii) Attaching the Belt to the Skirt. — The belt is placed 
 with its right side to the right side of the skirt with the 
 centre marks together and with its y^" seam-line to the sew- 
 ing line of the skirt. This sewing line is usually %" in from 
 the edge of the skirt. The belt is basted in place and 
 stitched along the sewing line. The bastings are removed 
 and the belt is turned up, creased, and basted along the 
 fold. The exact length of the belt may now be deter- 
 mined. It is cut off to have only the y^" seam allowance 
 at each end. These are turned in, and also the %" allow- 
 ance along the unattached side; the belt is already turned 
 along its lengthwise centre line and is ready to be basted 
 flat to the wrong side of the skirt along the line of stitch- 
 ing just made. In doing this the centre markings and the 
 two ends of the belt must be matched correctly. The edge 
 of the belt may be hemmed to the skirt and the ends fin- 
 ished by overhanding. 
 
 Practically the same effect is secured by the use of 
 another method. More preparation is needed before sew- 
 ing the belt to the skirt. The folding, basting, and mark- 
 ing are done as for the other and the raw edge along each 
 side of the belt is turned in y$" and basted. The skirt 
 is then slipped into the belt so that the lower edge of the 
 belt lies along the indicated sewing line of the skirt and 
 all corresponding markings match. The belt is pinned 
 in place and cut to the required length for the %" allow- 
 ance at each end. These allowances are turned in and 
 the belt is basted to the skirt and across each end and is 
 stitched. The stitching should hold both edges of the belt 
 in place; it may be carried entirely around the belt to 
 make a neat finish. 
 
 (Hi) Fastenings. — For such belts two hooks and eyes 
 or two snaps are usually required, one to hold the skirt 
 together at the top of the placket, another to hold the ex- 
 tension of the placket in place. The correct position for 
 all the fasteners must be carefully indicated before any are 
 
Skirts 407 
 
 sewed on. They should be placed to give the correct size 
 to the skirt and, as well, a neat closing to the belt and 
 placket. Twist is satisfactory for sewing on the fasteners. 
 
 (b) Facing. 
 
 (i) Preparing the Facing. — A facing for the top of a 
 skirt must be cut on the true bias. Its width should be 
 once the finished width plus }4" for seam allowances, and 
 in length, like the belt, the waist size plus about 3". The 
 facing should not be more than $4" wide when finished 
 and may be slightly narrower. Its crosswise centre should 
 be marked, and measuring from that, each way, the cor- 
 rect waist measure should be indicated. 
 
 (it) Attaching the Facing. — To attach it to the skirt it is 
 placed with its right side to the right side of the skirt, with 
 the centre marks together, and its %" seam-line to the 
 seam-line of the skirt. It is basted and stitched in place. 
 The exact length is determined, the belt is cut off, and the 
 seam allowance turned in. The facing is then turned over 
 to the wrong side along the line of stitching and is creased 
 and basted close to the fold. Its raw edge is turned in 
 %" and basted flat to the skirt. Stitching or hemming 
 may be done to hold the edge in place and the ends may 
 be overhanded. In general, it is better to stitch entirely 
 around the facing; it gives a flatter finish. 
 
 {Hi) Fastenings. — The fastenings for a skirt finished 
 with a facing are the same as for one with a standing belt. 
 One fastening is needed at the top of the placket and 
 another to hold the extension of the placket in place. 
 
 (2) Finishing the Waist Line of Separate Skirts and of 
 Skirts Attached to Waists (Tailored, Semi-Tailored, Lingerie, 
 and Draped). 
 
 For practically all such skirts stiff ribbon belting is used, 
 as it keeps the skirt in place and does not lose its firmness 
 when worn. Some lingerie skirts are an exception to this. 
 The belting may vary in width from ?/i" to 3^"- It should 
 be prepared before being attached to the skirt. 
 
 The finishings for the separate and attached skirts are 
 of two kinds: (a) Those which are not decorative and are 
 usually concealed by additional belts and girdles of the 
 
108 Dressmaking 
 
 same or contrasting material. (6) Those which are deco 
 rative and are not concealed by additional belts or girdles. 
 
 (a) Non Decorative Waist Finishes (Tailored, .Semi Tai 
 lored, Lingerie, and Dra ped Skirts). 
 
 (i) .Skirts Which Are Attached to Waists. The belt which 
 is used to join a waist and skirt may be of any width; it is 
 frequently sufficiently wide to form a kind of girdle. It 
 
 is usually shaped by the use of darts, and it may also hi' 
 
 stiffened by the stitching on of several strips of feathei 
 
 hone which should extend from edge to edge. 'The lower 
 
 edge of the belt falls at the waist line and the skirt is at 
 tadied to its right side in the desired position, which 
 should be determined in the fitting. Its position should 
 not be the same as lor the waist, as that gives too many 
 
 thicknesses of material in one line. The skirt is attached 
 by hand or by machine. The sewing must he sufficiently 
 strong to stand not only the weight of the skirt but any 
 unusual strain to whieh it may be subjected. 
 
 The skirt may he hasted to the belt, matching all cor- 
 responding markings, and its edge eovered by a piece of 
 taffeta binding-ribbon, whieh, if stitched at each edge, 
 makes a neat finish as well as a firm one. If taffeta bind- 
 ing-ribbon is not used the skirt may be sewed by hand or by 
 machine and its raw edge held in place by a row of catch- 
 st itching. The finish must be Hat, and all extra thickness 
 from unnecessary material must be avoided, as a fancy 
 
 girdle or belt is to be added later. 
 
 Belts for lingerie dresses frequently differ from those just 
 described. The waist and skirl may be joined by a belt 
 made of the material. This should be double and t he two 
 strips should be cut separately, as the raw vib^c of waist 
 and skirt are to be enclosed. The two Strips should be (lit 
 on the lengthwise of the material the required length pins 
 1 .•" for seam allowances and the desired width plus the same 
 seam allowances. They may be attached in various ways. 
 
 They may be basted together through their lengthwise 
 centre, a '/' turning may he made around each, and the 
 skirt and waist may be slipped in and stitched; the stitch- 
 ing should extend around the entire belt. 
 
Skirts 409 
 
 The skirt may be placed between the two lengthwise 
 bands, with raw edges together, and basted and stitched. 
 The waist may then be stitched to the other edge of the 
 band which forms the right or outside of the belt. When 
 this seam is turned to the belt and basted, the raw edge 
 of the inside belt is turned in and basted flat along the 
 stitched line. This may be hemmed in place and the ends 
 of the belt overhanded. By this second method no stitch- 
 ing shows. 
 
 (ii) Separate Skirts. — The separate skirt is sewed to a 
 belt in practically the same manner as just described for 
 the skirt which is attached to a waist. Its exact position 
 is determined in the fitting, and all the necessary finishing 
 is done as neatly as possible, although, when worn, it is to 
 be covered. 
 
 (b) Decorative Waist Finishes (Tailored, Semi-Tailored, 
 and Lingerie Skirts). 
 
 (i) Separate Skirts. — These are generally more difficult to 
 finish than the attached skirt and are consequently given 
 first. 
 
 The majority of tailored and semi-tailored skirts have a 
 slightly raised waist line. The finishing of a skirt of this 
 kind should be very carefully done, as belts and girdles 
 are seldom worn and it in consequence forms a part of the 
 decoration. The finishing of all tailored skirts with the 
 raised waist line is much the same. There is usually a row 
 of stitching near the top of the skirt to which is attached 
 a standing belt placed inside the skirt to hold it in place. 
 The row of stitching gives firmness but is not necessary 
 and does not affect the general method of procedure. 
 
 The width of the belt is determined by the height of 
 the skirt above the waist line, as one edge of it is placed 
 about yi" down from the top of the skirt and the other 
 falls just at the normal waist line. While the belt need 
 not be tight, it should fit the waist sufficiently close to 
 hold the skirt in to the figure at the top and keep it in its 
 proper position. The belt is cut and made according to 
 directions given above. 
 
 The line for the top of the separate skirt is of greater 
 
410 Dressmaking 
 
 importance than for any of the others; the skirt should 
 be put on, the placket should be fastened, and the skirt 
 settled into its proper position. The turning or sewing line 
 should be distinctly indicated, the skirt should be removed, 
 and the line marked by a row of basting. Although a line 
 may have been indicated when the skirt was cut and 
 marked, its direction is easily changed during the necessary 
 fitting and making, and it should not be used until tested. 
 The seam allowance necessary beyond this turning line de- 
 pends on the finish. It should not be less than $<£,". After 
 the seam allowance is carefully measured the extra ma- 
 terial should be cut off to give an even edge. 
 
 To finish the top of the skirt it is to be turned to the 
 wrong side exactly on the indicated turning line and 
 stitched. The details in this finishing may vary some- 
 what. A facing or reinforcement may or may not be 
 placed in this turning. Its use is determined by several 
 factors. If the material is firm or heavy and the worker 
 experienced, the turning can probably be made and stitched 
 without stretching the edge. If the worker is inexperi- 
 enced or the material has a tendency to stretch out of 
 shape easily, the facing or reinforcement is of assistance 
 in maintaining the correct shape and size of the top of the 
 skirt. 
 
 The facing is cut a true bias, about i" in width and of 
 the required length. Thin material, such as silicia or cam- 
 bric, is used to avoid a clumsy fold. It is necessary to 
 shrink the facing, otherwise it will pucker when wet or 
 dampened in the subsequent laundering or pressing which 
 the majority of tailored skirts require. The facing is at- 
 tached before the top of the skirt is turned. It is placed 
 to the wrong side, with its raw edge to the raw edge of the 
 skirt, and is basted, without stretching or fulling, along the 
 line of basting which indicates the turning line of the skirt. 
 If the facing is not held securely in place along this line it 
 may not turn evenly with the skirt. If the seam allow- 
 ance of the skirt is Y>" and the facing is cut, as directed, 
 \" in width, the two edges of the facing will not fall to- 
 gether when the turning is made. The facing should al- 
 
Skirts 
 
 411 
 
 ways be of such a width that the turning will not lie ex- 
 actly at its centre. If its two edges fall together they may 
 be of sufficient thickness to make a line or mark on the 
 skirt when it is pressed. The facing should extend from 
 one placket facing to the other. If it extends over these 
 facings it makes the top of the skirt clumsy. When the 
 facing is once attached its use does not change in any way 
 the subsequent steps required in the finishing of the skirt. 
 
 The top of the skirt 
 is turned over along 
 the indicated line, is 
 basted flat close to 
 the folded edge, and 
 pressed. The placket 
 extension on the left 
 side of the skirt should 
 be included in this 
 turning, but the facing 
 of the right or upper 
 side should not be. 
 In making the right 
 side of the placket one 
 edge was not hemmed 
 but was left free 24" 
 at the top. To make 
 a neat finish the other 
 edge must also be 
 freed. It may be slit down about 24" along its edge just 
 under the fold so the slash will not show. The end of the 
 facing is then perfectly free and can be brought up over 
 the raw edge of the skirt turning, to cover it. 
 
 Before the folded edge of the skirt is stitched or finished 
 in any way it should be carefully inspected to see that it 
 is absolutely straight. The skirt is then ready for stitch- 
 ing and for the sewing in of the belt. There are two meth- 
 ods of doing this. 
 
 (a) The skirt may be stitched by machine and the belt 
 may then be hemmed by hand to the line of stitching. 
 
 The stitching is done by machine around the skirt the 
 
 Tailored placket, showing (^4) edge of skirt turned 
 
 and stitched; (B) end of placket free 
 
 for finishing at the top 
 
41 > 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 required distance from the edge. If a facing is not used 
 great care must be taken not to stretch the edge of the 
 skirt. The stitching, like the basting, includes the facing 
 on the extension or under side of the placket but leaves 
 
 free that on the upper 
 or outer side. 
 
 The belt is already 
 prepared. It should 
 be placed in the dress 
 so that the hooks and 
 eyes are next the 
 wearer. If the hooks 
 and eyes have been 
 sewed on correctly the 
 two ends of the belt 
 meet when fastened; 
 and if the measuring 
 and making have been 
 carefully done the 
 belt and the skirt, 
 when the placket is 
 properly closed, are of 
 the same length. The 
 top of the belt and 
 the skirt are not the 
 same size. The skirt 
 is necessarily the 
 width of the placket extension longer than the belt, as the 
 two ends of the belt meet when fastened, while one side of 
 the placket laps over the other. 
 
 The belt should be pinned in place— matching all cross- 
 marks — with its upper edge just at the line of stitching. 
 The end of the belt to which the eyes are sewed should be 
 placed to the left or extension edge of the placket, with 
 the edge of the extension and the end of the belt together. 
 The pinning should begin at this point, and the belt should 
 be just long enough to extend around the skirt and to meet 
 and fasten at the edge of the placket extension when the 
 placket is closed. (In the tailor placket described above 
 
 Inside of finished skirt, showing belt and 
 placket closed 
 
Skirts 413 
 
 the belt comes just to the edge of the facing of the upper 
 or right side of the placket.) If the placket and the belt 
 do not come together exactly they must be altered until 
 they do. When they are correct the belt is basted in 
 place and sewed permanently. In basting, the work should 
 be held over the hand, with the skirt toward the worker, 
 to ease it to the belt. It should then be firmly finished by 
 hemming along its top edge to the line of stitching. The 
 stitches should not be taken through to the right side of 
 the skirt. The lower edge of the belt is left free. When 
 the hemming is done the top of the skirt is finished, ex- 
 cept for the right side of the placket, which extends beyond 
 the belt and is not covered by it. If the placket facing is 
 brought up it will cover nearly all of this. The raw edge 
 of the facing is turned in the required amount to bring it 
 in line with the upper edge of the belt. It is then hemmed 
 to the skirt as was the belt. 
 
 In sewing on the fasteners for the placket the position 
 of the top ones is always indicated but they are not at- 
 tached until the belt finish is made. If there is a tuck of 
 any width on the upper side of the placket it is usually 
 better if the top hook is sewed on, not in line with the 
 other hooks, but nearer the edge of the tuck. 
 
 If any of the folded-over raw edge of the skirt is not 
 covered by the right placket facing, as it will not be if the 
 tuck is wide, the hook may be sewed on to cover this raw 
 edge. It serves as a finish for the edge and is also in good 
 position to keep the tuck flat and in place at the waist line. 
 It may fasten to a loop of twist or to a peet placed in the 
 required position on the other side of the placket. As this 
 hook is not covered, if it is sewed on with the buttonhole 
 stitch a neater and stronger finish is given. 
 
 (b) The belt may be stitched to the skirt by machine. 
 This method requires only one sewing to finish the top of 
 the skirt and to attach the belt to it. 
 
 The belt is pinned and basted to the skirt as already 
 directed. Its top edge should be placed a small Xe" above 
 the line indicated for stitching. This allows the worker to 
 stitch just inside the corded edge, which nearly all stiff 
 
414 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 belting has, and makes it less difficult to keep a straight line 
 in stitching. Only this corded edge of the belt must be 
 allowed to project above the stitching line, as the top of 
 the skirt when worn may turn back slightly and the belt- 
 ing may show. The skirt should be eased to the belt when 
 the basting is done and should fit as described above. All 
 the finishing after the belt is stitched on is the same. 
 
 The first method is 
 by far the safer and 
 better, especially for 
 the inexperienced. 
 The combined thick- 
 ness of the skirt and 
 belt make good stitch- 
 ing difficult; and if the 
 stitching is not straight 
 and the stitches of 
 good size the top of 
 the skirt will not look 
 well. (The majority of 
 tailors stitch belts in 
 by machine, as the 
 process is quicker.) 
 
 The distance from 
 the edge at which the 
 stitching is placed may 
 vary somewhat; the 
 usual widths are from 
 yi" to yi" . If the stitching is too far in, the folded edge 
 may roll over and stand away from the figure. The 
 stitching must go entirely around the top of the skirt an 
 even distance from the edge. 
 
 (it) Skirts Which Are Attached to Waists. — The tailored 
 and semi-tailored skirts are finished at the waist line much 
 as are the separate skirts. There are a few necessary dif- 
 ferences; there may or may not be a belt. If one is used 
 it is prepared as directed above and the waist is attached 
 to it. The use of the belt does not affect the preparation 
 of the skirt. The line at the top is determined and plainly 
 
 Right side of skirt, showing placket and belt 
 entirely finished 
 
Skirts 415 
 
 marked; the facing, or reinforcement, is placed from placket 
 finish to placket finish and is basted to be included in the 
 turning; the turning is made, basted, and pressed. 
 
 There are two methods of attaching the skirt after it is 
 carefully prepared; that is, it may be stitched first en- 
 tirely around the top and attached by hand to the belt 
 and waist or to the waist; it may be basted to the waist 
 and the stitching may be made through both the waist and 
 the skirt. The method chosen should depend largely upon 
 the thickness of the material, as to the ease with which 
 it may be handled, and on the skill of the worker. 
 
 Lingerie skirts are frequently joined to waists with dec- 
 orative finishes which are not suited to any other style 
 of skirt. These finishes usually include the joining by 
 hand of bands of lace, embroidery, or entre-deux to form a 
 belt to attach the skirt and waist. If these belts or gir- 
 dles are shaped — they are frequently made on flat-paper 
 patterns designed for the purpose — their making is a sew- 
 ing problem and need not be discussed here. 
 
 4. Finishes for the Bottom of Skirts, the Edges of 
 Tunics, Overskirts, Flounces, etc. — The finishes for founda- 
 tion skirts or linings are discussed separately, as they re- 
 quire somewhat different treatment. (1) Finishes may be 
 made in different ways, according to the design of the skirt, 
 by the use of (a) hems, (b) facings, (c) bindings, (d) cord- 
 ings and pipings, (e) machine hemstitching, (/) roiling and 
 whipping, and (g) thin linings for the entire skirt. 
 
 Before any finishing is done the skirt must be carefully 
 hung and its turning line at the bottom must be plainly 
 indicated. Any surplus material beyond the hem and 
 finishing allowance should be cut off and a straight edge 
 should be made. Generally, skirts are cut to be an even 
 distance from the floor. Fashion occasionally suggests, 
 however, the use of points, scallops, or curving lines. 
 
 Hems and facings are more generally used than any 
 of the other suggested methods, as they are suitable fin- 
 ishes for practically all styles of garments and for all kinds 
 of materials. 
 
 A hem can be satisfactorily made only on a straight 
 
416 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Plain hem with turned-in edge, 
 machine-stitched 
 
 edge; a facing, however, may be used with equal success 
 on a straight or a shaped edge. 
 
 (a) Hems. — Hems may be made by many different meth- 
 ods and may be finished on the right or the wrong side 
 
 of the skirt. For convenience 
 they may be divided into plain 
 and fancy hems. 
 
 (i) Plain Hems. — These may 
 be made with one or two turn- 
 ings, according to the material 
 of the skirt. The turning of the 
 material to the wrong side to 
 form the hem is done in the 
 same way for all. The skirt is 
 turned along the indicated line 
 and its folded edge is basted and 
 pressed. The edge line, except 
 for some silks, should be straight 
 and sharp. 
 
 (a) A Hem with Two Turnings. — The allowance for such 
 a hem is the finished width plus }i" for the turning in of 
 the raw edge. The %" is turned in and basted flat to the 
 skirt. It may be hemmed in- 
 visibly by hand or stitched by 
 machine. A final pressing should 
 be given and all bastings should 
 be removed. This kind of hem 
 is suitable in hand and machine 
 made garments in practically all 
 materials. 
 
 (b) A Hem with One Turning. 
 — The allowance for a hem with 
 one turning is the required width 
 of the hem with little, if any, ad- 
 ditional material for finishing the 
 raw edge. 
 
 The raw edge may be finished 
 by catch-stitching or binding. Catch-stitching attaches the 
 hem to the skirt, encloses its raw edge, and prevents any 
 
 Plain hem with raw edge, catch- 
 stitched 
 
Skirts 
 
 417 
 
 ravelling. It is frequently used for soft wool material like 
 broadcloth. (Catch-stitching is a sewing stitch and re- 
 quires no explanation here.) 
 
 Binding is done with taffeta ribbon, Prussian or bias 
 binding. Taffeta ribbon should not be used in skirts 
 which are to have hard wear. Prussian binding is gen- 
 erally easier to handle than bias binding and makes a fin- 
 ish which looks and wears well. Bias strips of cambric 
 may be used if Prussian bind- 
 ing cannot be procured. Any 
 binding should be shrunk be- 
 fore using. They may all be 
 attached in the same way. 
 
 The hem is turned the re- 
 quired amount, is basted and 
 pressed. One edge of the bind- 
 ing is then stitched to its raw 
 edge about y&" in and the 
 other edge is attached to the 
 skirt by hand hemming or 
 machine stitching. The hem is 
 pressed and all bastings are 
 removed. Such hems are in 
 
 general use in materials which are heavy and which re- 
 quire frequent pressing. If a folded edge is used the fine 
 of the top of the hem shows plainly on the right side when 
 pressed. 
 
 Nearly all hems at the bottom of skirts have surplus 
 fulness at the upper edge which must be taken care of in 
 some way. Extra thickness makes a hem clumsy and 
 when the hem is pressed it usually causes creases or shiny 
 spots on the right side. In all tailored or semi- tailored 
 skirts this fulness is removed by shrinking. 
 
 The skirt is turned along the indicated line and its 
 folded edge is basted and pressed. A line of running 
 stitches is placed at the edge or top of the hem to hold the 
 fulness in evenly and make the edge the correct size. The 
 hem is then turned back from the skirt, covered with a 
 damp cloth, and pressed with a hot iron until the fulness 
 
 Plain hem with raw edge covered 
 with Prussian binding 
 
•US Dressmaking 
 
 is removed by the shrinking, which is caused by the damp- 
 ness and the heat. The iron must not l>e pushed back and 
 forth or up and down, but must be lifted from place to 
 place to prevent any stretching of the material. Such hems 
 usually have one turning. Their raw edges ;ire finished with 
 catch stitching or binding. 
 
 In thin material and in those which cannot be shrunk. 
 the fulness may be arranged by gathers or plaits to give 
 a flat hem. For the gathers the line of running stitches 
 is made and the fulness arranged to make an even hem. 
 When the fulness is removed by plaits then- should be sev- 
 eral small plaits properly placed rather than a few large 
 ones. With several small ones it is easier to keep good 
 lines at the edge of the skirt and at the top of the hem. 
 Plaits should not be placed too near or on the skirt seams, 
 as they then give too much thickness in one place. They 
 should be at right angles to the hem. 
 
 (m) Fancy lions. 
 
 (a) A straight edge may have a hem turned to the right 
 side and finished to give' added decoration to the skirt. 
 The raw edge may be turned in and stitched or it may be 
 turned in and finished with cording or piping. The cord 
 may be Included in the second turning of the hem or it 
 may be made separately and joined. Such a finish is gen- 
 erally used for soft materials, like crepe dc chine, which 
 have no definite right or wrong side. 
 
 (b) A hem may be turned once to the wrong side and 
 its raw edge finished by a row of machine hemstitching. 
 This is a satisfactory finish for many thin materials; it 
 wears and launders well. 
 
 (c) A hem may be turned to the wrong side and hand 
 hemstitched. This can be done only on the hems of thin 
 cottons, linens, and chiffons which are turned on a straight 
 thread, as threads must be drawn for the work. 
 
 (b) Facings. Facings are applied to the wrong side of 
 the skirt. They are, in general, used on edges which are 
 too shaped to permit the turning of a hem. Facings are 
 more frequently seen in semi tailored, in fancy, and in 
 draped skirts than in those which are strictly tailored. 
 
Sleirts 4 1 '.) 
 
 (t ) Bindings. Bias bindings are used to give a decora 
 tive finish to edges. They are more frequently seen on 
 the edges of skirts which have flounces, overskirts, or 
 tunii than on the bottom edge of plain skirts. 
 
 (d) Cordings and Pipings. These finishes are not suit- 
 able for tailored skirts and arc generally not used in those 
 whi< h are made of the heavier materials. For soft silks 
 and chiffons the cordings frequently serve to give weight 
 as well as decoration to the edges. In general, cordings 
 and pipings are not satisfactory in garments requiring 
 constant laundering. 
 
 (e) Machine Hemstitching.- — Machine hemstitching is 
 M ed for thin materials. It gives an edge which is at- 
 tractive and strong without the use of extra material, 
 much skill or time. It requires a special machine. 
 
 ( f ) Rolling and Whipping. I his finish, like the machine 
 hemstitching, is used for thin materials. It gives a firm 
 and attractive edge. After skill is acquired in its making 
 it may be quickly done. 
 
 (g) Linings. Linings are sometimes used in elaborately 
 draped afternoon and evening dresses. They are of thin 
 materials, usually chiffon or net. They give additional 
 weight to the dress material and make the finishing of 
 edges easier. 
 
 (For details in making fancy hems, facings, etc., see 
 Finishing:.) 
 
 (2) Foundation skirts or lining are usually finished at 
 the bottom in a somewhat different way from those given 
 above. Their finish depends upon the general design. 
 Linings may be made as follows: 
 
 (a) They may be cut the full length and may be finished 
 with a hem sewed by hand or machine. 
 
 (b) They may be cut the full length and may be finished 
 with a hem and with a ruffle or side plaiting which is set 
 up on the skirt rather than attached to its edge. The e 
 may be finished and attached to the skirt with (t) a bias 
 fold stitched flat at each edge or with (ii) a tuck for which 
 an allowance of twice its width must be made in the cut- 
 ting of the skirt. The tuck must, be carefully placed; its 
 
420 Dressmaking 
 
 lower edge when stitched flat should cover the sewing line 
 of the ruffle. 
 
 (c) They may be cut several inches shorter than the 
 finished length and have the edge finished with a ruffle or 
 plaiting. These may be attached, as when set on, by a 
 bias fold or a tuck. In making the tuck twice the width of 
 the tuck plus the seam allowance is required. The tuck is 
 made; the ruffle is attached to the skirt with the seam to 
 the right side; the seam is then turned up under the tuck, 
 the lower edge of which is stitched flat to cover the row of 
 stitching just made. 
 
 (d) They may be cut about three-quarter length and 
 have a circular flounce added to give the required length 
 and fulness. This flounce may be cut (i) from a commer- 
 cial pattern, (it) from a circular skirt draft, or (Hi) by 
 using the bottom of the pattern from which the skirt 
 top was cut and slashing it to give the fulness as directed 
 under Designing. 
 
 The circular flounce may be attached to the skirt by a 
 bias fold or by a tuck. It may be finished at the bottom 
 by a plain hem. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 FINISHINGS AND EMBROIDERY 
 
 I. Finishings 
 
 It is not possible to give many definite rules for dress 
 finishings because there is from time to time such a great 
 difference in their use and in the methods of their making. 
 These differences are due to the constantly changing de- 
 mands of fashion, which require at one time decorative 
 finishings and fastenings and at another those which are 
 practically invisible. An effort is made here to give sug- 
 gestions for the finishings which are discarded so seldom 
 as to be in almost constant use. 
 
 Finishings must be chosen according to the general de- 
 sign of the costume; that is, according to the cut of the gar- 
 ment and the material of which it is made. For instance, 
 in chiffons such finishings are generally used as are dec- 
 orative, since it is practically impossible, because of the 
 thinness of the fabric, to make them invisible. In such 
 non- transparent material as broadcloth and serge, invisible 
 finishings of edges and seams are possible. In many cases, 
 however, tailored finishings, which generally include deco- 
 rative stitchings, are used. 
 
 To simplify the suggestions given here, finishings are 
 divided as follows: 
 
 (i) Seam Finishes. 
 
 (2) Edge Finishes. 
 
 (3) Fastenings. 
 
 (4) Decorative Ways of Securing Fulness. 
 
 (5) Decorative Methods of Finishing Plaits, Stitching, 
 Buttons, etc. 
 
 1 . Seam Finishes. — In making any seams there are a few 
 general directions to be remembered. 
 
 421 
 
422 Dressmaking 
 
 Pinning. — Before basting a seam the tracings and cor- 
 responding markings should be matched and the seam 
 should be pinned its entire length. 
 
 Basting should always be on the traced seam-lines. The 
 bastings should be removed after the seam is stitched and 
 before any other finishing is done. In removing them 
 the stitches should be cut at close intervals and the short 
 threads pulled out. There is less chance of injury to the 
 material if these directions are followed. 
 
 Stitching, by hand or machine, should be placed not 
 on the basted line but as close to it as possible and just 
 outside. This makes the removing of the bastings a sim- 
 ple matter, and, as stitching is much firmer than basting, 
 it does not change the size of the garment. 
 
 Pressing. — After a seam is stitched and the bastings are 
 removed it is pressed. The exact manner of pressing de- 
 pends on the kind of scam; some finishings require a flat, 
 open seam, others a closed one. In pressing open a plain 
 seam preparatory to certain kinds of finishings, if the seam 
 is curved, it is often easier to manage if the seam-line is 
 pressed over the curving edge of the ironing-board rather 
 than, as is usual, on its flat surface. The pressing of 
 curved seams is also much simplified if their edges are 
 given more spring by notching. 
 
 The seams in general use in waists and skirts are: 
 
 (i) Plain Seam, which is made by hand or machine and 
 is suitable for all materials. 
 
 This seam is more quickly made than any other, but 
 additional time is required in the finishing of its raw edges. 
 The method of making is very simple. The pinning, bast- 
 ing, and stitching are done on the wrong side. The bast- 
 ings are removed and the seam edges are cut y 2 " or Y" in 
 width. They are pressed either open or closed, as required 
 by the finish. 
 
 If it is necessary to notch a seam because of its curve, 
 the notches should be placed where the curve is greatest. 
 They should not be too deep; if they are cut to within y&" 
 of the stitching they usually give sufficient spring to the 
 edges of the seam. The corners of the notches should be 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 423 
 
 rounded off to give a better appearance and to make the 
 finishing of the seam easier. 
 
 (a) Finishes for the Wrong Side. — The raw edges of a 
 plain seam may be finished in various ways. 
 
 (i) Pinking or Notching. — This is the simplest method of 
 finishing, but it can be used only for very firm materials 
 which do not fray in wearing. 
 
 (ii) Overcasting. — This is frequently used, as it wears and 
 launders well. Unless carefully done it does not make as 
 neat a finish as binding. The stitches should be closely and 
 carefully made to keep the edges from fraying. Overcast- 
 ing gives less thickness to the edges than does binding, a 
 fact which is of importance in garments requiring frequent 
 pressing. The two edges of a seam may be overcast sepa- 
 rately or together. 
 
 (Hi) Binding. — Taffeta binding-ribbon makes a satisfac- 
 tory finish for seam edges. The ribbon should be folded 
 lengthwise and should either be creased with the ringers or 
 pressed with an iron. The fold thus made should not be 
 in the exact centre of the ribbon, and when the seam edge 
 is slipped into it the extra width should be at the back of 
 the seam or away from the worker. If held in this way it 
 is easier to include both edges of the binding in the sewing. 
 The ribbon should be eased on, so that the seam edges are 
 not drawn, and should be sewed with the running stitch. 
 The two edges of a seam may be bound together or sepa- 
 rately. A bound seam does not launder well, as the silk 
 binding-ribbon soon yellows. It sometimes makes too 
 thick an edge for garments which require frequent pressing. 
 
 (iv) Turning in the Edges. — This finish may be used to 
 make an open or closed seam. For either it is attractive 
 and may be quickly done. The seam edges should be 
 about y 2 " in width. 
 
 (a) For an Open Seam. — The seam is pressed open, the 
 raw edges are turned in to the wrong side toward the gar- 
 ment, ]/%' to yi" , and are held in place by running stitches 
 which must not be caught into the waist itself. This finish, 
 like overcasting, gives less thickness to the edges than bind- 
 ing and is more quickly done. It is not very satisfactory 
 
424 Dressmaking 
 
 for heavy materials nor for those requiring frequent laun- 
 dering. 
 
 (b) For a Closed Seam. — The two edges of the seam are 
 pressed together, their raw edges are turned in evenly, to 
 the inside, and held together by running stitches. This en- 
 closes the raw edges as does the French seam. In general 
 it is much more satisfactory for dressmaking than the 
 French seam. In making it the stitching is done along the 
 seam-line and the original shape and size of the garment 
 is easily maintained. In the French seam the first stitch- 
 ing is not on the seam-line, and if its distance from that 
 line is not successfully gauged the second stitching may 
 not be properly placed. This seam may be satisfactorily 
 used in wash waists and in any style of waist not requiring 
 a tailored finish. 
 
 (b) Finishes for the Right Side. — Added decoration may 
 be given the plain seam by rows of stitching on the right 
 side. The stitching must parallel the seam-line. The 
 number of rows used — that is, one or two — and their exact 
 location may be determined by the taste of the worker. 
 There must be the same number on each side of the seam. 
 The seam is pressed open after it is stitched. If one row 
 of decorative stitching is used the seam allowance should 
 be such that but little of the raw edge projects beyond the 
 stitching. The raw edges may be finished by overcasting. 
 
 If another row is added the seam allowance must be 
 sufficiently wide to allow this row to be the required dis- 
 tance from the first. The raw edges may be finished as 
 with one row of stitching. To make an attractive seam 
 the rows of stitching must be absolutely parallel and well 
 spaced. Such a finish is used only in tailored garments. 
 
 (2) Fell seam, which is suitable for linings and for ma- 
 chine-made garments. This is a flat seam stitched to the 
 right side of a garment. It is simple to make and when 
 well made is extremely neat in appearance and satisfactory 
 for pressing and laundering. The seam is basted and 
 stitched along the seam-line with the raw edges to the right 
 side. It is cut to be a little less than y 2 " in width, is turned 
 and pressed toward the front of the garment, and is then 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 425 
 
 basted flat, close to the line of stitching. This basting keeps 
 it in place and prevents any twisting. The under or inside 
 edge of the seam is again cut, this time to make it less than 
 y^" wide, and the outer edge is folded over to enclose the 
 narrow inner one. When the folded edge is perfectly 
 straight the seam is basted once more, flat to the garment 
 along this folded edge, and is stitched. This gives a seam 
 about yi" wide stitched at each edge. It can easily be 
 seen that if the two lines of stitching are not parallel or the 
 edge is not neatly folded the seam will not be attractive. 
 This seam is not satisfactory in a hand-made garment; its 
 purpose is to give a tailored effect which, to be successful, 
 requires machine stitching. 
 
 (3) Welt seam, which is suitable for machine-made gar- 
 ments. This seam, like the fell, is flat, is simple to make, 
 and launders well. It is frequently used and is especially 
 good in heavy materials. Unlike the fell, it is made on the 
 wrong side of the garment. 
 
 A plain seam is made on the wrong side of the material 
 and is cut to the required width, about Y%' . It is turned 
 toward the front of the garment and basted flat, close to 
 the line of stitching, to keep it in place and prevent any 
 twisting. It is then stitched about l /^" away from the 
 first stitching and parallel to it. This is the only row of 
 stitching which shows on the right side. The edges of the 
 seam, although raw, may be kept from fraying by the stitch- 
 ing, or they may be overcast. 
 
 (4) French seam, which is not a generally satisfactory 
 dressmaking finish. It may be used for lingerie waists and 
 skirts. It should not be used for any garments which are 
 strictly tailored. It does not give a tailored appearance; 
 it is not flat and there is no stitching on the right side. 
 In many cases the French seam is found to be unsatis- 
 factory. If the material used is heavy the seam will be 
 clumsy; if the seam is very much curved it will draw; if 
 the second stitching is not correctly placed the size of the 
 garment will be changed. 
 
 The basting is done along the seam-line with the seam 
 to the right side. The first stitching is nearly %" away, 
 
426 Dressmaking 
 
 toward the raw edge, from this basting. The edges are 
 cut close to the stitching and the bastings are removed. 
 The seam is turned to the wrong side, is creased to form a 
 fold along the line of stitching, and basted. The second 
 stitching should be exactly on the original seam-line trac- 
 ing so that the size of the garment will be unchanged. 
 The French seam is more used for underwear than for the 
 finishing of dresses. 
 
 (5) Lapped seam, which is suitable only for tailored gar- 
 ments. It is finished, according to the material, with raw 
 edges or with turned-in edges. 
 
 (a) The lapped seam with raw edges is very satisfac- 
 tory for heavy materials which do not ravel. It is most 
 frequently used for wools. The sewing line must be plainly 
 indicated and the two seams must be cut the required width 
 with clean, straight edges. These edges are lapped with one 
 raw edge to the right side and one to the wrong. Their 
 seam-lines must He exactly together, otherwise the size of 
 the garment will be changed. After the seam is pinned it 
 should be basted along the seam and also along the raw 
 edges. If the edges are not carefully basted the material 
 may push out of place, or the edges may be stretched, 
 in the stitching. 
 
 The first row of stitching is done close to the raw edge 
 on the right side; the other is frequently placed exactly 
 on the seam-line, but its position may be a matter of 
 taste. The raw edge on the wrong side may be cut rather 
 close to the stitching or allowed to extend and be fin- 
 ished by overcasting or binding. 
 
 (b) The lapped seam with turned-in edges is made in 
 much the same way. It may be used for a variety of ma- 
 terials but is not satisfactory for the very heavy ones. 
 The edges of the material are carefully cut and lapped 
 with the seam-lines placed together. After pinning and 
 basting along the seam to hold the material in place, the 
 raw edges on both the right and the wrong side are turned 
 in an even amount and basted flat. They are then pressed 
 and stitched close to the turned-in edge. The edges must 
 be turned and stitched to make straight, parallel lines, 
 otherwise the seam is very ugly. 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 427 
 
 (6) Slot seam, which is suitable for machine-made gar- 
 ments, especially skirts. It is frequently used to give a 
 decorative finish to the centre-front seam of a skirt. It is 
 also very good for a circular skirt which has a seam over 
 the hip in which two bias edges come together. It pre- 
 vents the sagging of the seam. It is generally used in 
 tailored and semi-tailored skirts. 
 
 The two seam-lines are placed together as in the making 
 of a plain seam. They are basted with short stitches, but 
 not stitched, and the seam is pressed open. A piece of ma- 
 terial cut on the lengthwise straight, the length of the seam, 
 and nearly wide enough to extend from edge to edge of the 
 seam allowance, is required. Its lengthwise centre is in- 
 dicated by a basting, and it is pinned and basted flat to 
 the back of the seam just made. It should be basted at 
 the centre and along each edge, with its lengthwise centre 
 basting directly along the seam-line. It is then pressed, to 
 make it lie perfectly flat, and is carefully stitched. There 
 should be one or two rows of stitching each side of the 
 seam-line. The first should not be too far away from the 
 seam, otherwise, when the bastings which hold the seam 
 together are removed, the tuck formed by the folded 
 edges will be too wide and stand away from the skirt too 
 much. After all the bastings are cut and removed the 
 seam should again be pressed. 
 
 In finishing this seam on the wrong side the edges of 
 the applied piece and of the seam allowance may be al- 
 lowed to fall together, or, as suggested, the piece may be 
 cut slightly narrower. If the edges do not fall together 
 they require separate finishing, but when pressed they are 
 less likely to make a line on the face of the material. 
 
 (7) Strapped seam, which is suitable for machine-made 
 garments. This seam is made in two ways — with a strap 
 having turned-in edges or with a strap having raw edges. 
 It may be used as a finish in many materials and in tailored 
 and semi-tailored garments. 
 
 (a) For a strapped seam with turned-in edges the two 
 seam-lines are placed together and stitched with their raw 
 edges to the right side. The strap to be applied is in gen- 
 eral cut on the lengthwise straight thread but may, for 
 
428 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Entre-deux finished with a bound seam 
 
 special reasons, be cut on the crosswise or the true bias. 
 It is cut the length of the seam and wide enough to give 
 the desired finish plus an allowance for turning in. Very 
 little seam allowance should be left on the skirt, and the 
 turnings of the strip should be of such width that there 
 is no overlapping of their edges with those of the skirt, 
 otherwise the seam will be very clumsy. The edges of the 
 strap should be turned in, basted, and pressed before it is 
 basted to the skirt. In attaching it to the skirt its length- 
 wise centre should 
 be plainly indi- 
 cated and placed 
 and pinned along 
 the seam-line of 
 the skirt. It 
 should be basted 
 flat at the centre 
 and also at each 
 edge to keep it in place for the stitching. It should be 
 stitched rather close to the edge and pressed. 
 
 (b) For a strapped seam with raw edges the same gen- 
 eral method of procedure is followed. The strap to be ap- 
 plied is cut the exact width without seam allowance. Its 
 centre line is marked and it is placed flat to the skirt; 
 it should then be pinned, basted, pressed, and stitched in 
 place. The stitching must be close to the raw edge to pre- 
 vent any ravelling. This finish is not satisfactory for ma- 
 terials which fray easily. 
 
 (8) Seam finished with entre-deux, which is suitable for 
 lingerie waists and skirts. There are several methods of 
 finishing by hand or by machine — by the use of French 
 seams, by the use of bound seams, or by rolling and whip- 
 ping the raw edges. A seam finished by any one of these 
 methods launders well. 
 
 (a) The French seam has already been described. When 
 used its second line of stitching must be exactly on the 
 seam-line of the waist and close to the edge or cord of the 
 entre-deux embroidery, otherwise the seam will be unat- 
 tractive and the size of the waist will be changed. 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 429 
 
 (b) The bound seam is generally found more satisfac- 
 tory than the French seam. The seams are basted to the 
 wrong side with the edge of the entre-deux to the traced 
 line of the garment; the stitching should be done along this 
 line. The material of the waist is cut away to leave only 
 a narrow edge beyond the stitching and the material of 
 the entre-deux is cut about y&" wide. Its raw edge is turned 
 in and it is turned and basted to the line of stitching, thus 
 enclosing the standing edge of the material. It is finished 
 by hemming into the stitching. This seam, like the French 
 seam, which it 
 closely resembles, 
 is standing rather 
 than flat, and no 
 stitching shows 
 on the right side 
 
 o ' Entre-deux finished by rolling and whipping the seam 
 
 (c) Rolling and 
 
 whipping are used for fine materials. The material of the 
 waist should be held firmly in the right hand and rolled 
 against the first finger of the left hand with the thumb. 
 The raw edge of the entre-deux should be trimmed to 
 within yi" of its cord and overcast closely to the roll of 
 the material working from right to left. 
 
 (9) Seam finished by machine hemstitching, which is suit- 
 able only for thin materials, such as chiffon, net, or crepe. 
 It requires a special machine and consequently cannot be 
 generally used. It is both strong and decorative. It re- 
 quires no preparation except the basting together of the 
 two pieces to be joined and no finishing except the cutting 
 off of the raw edges close to the line of stitching. 
 
 (10) There are two additional methods which are par- 
 ticularly suitable for thin materials, such as fine net, chif- 
 fon, or Georgette crepe, when (a) a finish is required which 
 is, as far as possible, invisible or when (b) the finish is made 
 to appear a part of the decoration of the costume. 
 
 (a) A seam shows very little if it is joined by machine 
 stitching or by running stitches and its edges are cut close 
 and whipped together to form a small roll. If the seam is 
 
430 Dressmaking 
 
 machine-stitched, fairly thick paper is used in the stitching 
 to prevent any drawing along the stitched lines. For all 
 thin materials a machine should be regulated to have a 
 medium stitch and a loose tension. 
 
 (b) For decoration, two edges of a seam may be turned 
 in and joined by fagoting. This requires time, as it is 
 done entirely by hand. There are three different kinds of 
 fagoting which may be used, the plain herring-bone stitch, 
 the Indian herring-bone stitch, and the straight fagoting 
 stitch. Directions for making these stitches are given un- 
 der Embroidery. 
 
 2. Edge Finishes. The edge finishes in general use are: 
 (i) Hems. — (a) The usual methods of making hems are: 
 (i) With two turnings to the wrong side and the hem- 
 ming done by hand. This hem is suitable for all materials 
 and for hand and machine made garments, (ii) With two 
 turnings to the wrong side and the hemming done by 
 machine. This hem is suitable for all materials and for 
 machine-made garments. (Hi) With two turnings to the 
 right side and the edge finished with a row of stitching or 
 with piping or cording (see Cordings and Pipings), (iv) 
 With one turning to the wrong side and the raw edge fin- 
 ished by catch-stitching, binding, or machine hemstitching. 
 Catch-stitching and binding are suitable for heavy mate- 
 rials and machine hemstitching for thin, transparent ones. 
 Directions for making these hems are given under Waists 
 and Skirts and need not be repeated here. 
 
 (b) In addition to these usual methods for making 
 hems, there are other finishes which are more decorative 
 and are especially suitable for thin materials. 
 
 (i) If the hem is turned on a straight grain so that 
 threads may be drawn, it may be finished by hand hem- 
 stitching either single or double. (Hemstitching is a sew- 
 ing stitch and requires no explanation here.) (ii) Ber- 
 muda, French, and Cuban fagoting somewhat resemble 
 hand hemstitching, but, as they do not require any draw- 
 ing of threads, and consequently may be done both in 
 straight and curved lines, they are frequently found more 
 convenient than the hemstitching, (iii) Various other 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 431 
 
 embroidery stitches which form single or double rows of 
 decoration at the top of the hem may be made. Those 
 most used are the Portuguese laid work, the outline stitch, 
 the chain stitch, the beading stitch, the feather stitch, and 
 the coral stitch, (iv) The fagoting stitches, the plain her- 
 ring-bone, the Indian herring-bone, and the straight fagot- 
 ing, which were suggested for the finishing of seams, may 
 all be used to finish edges. They join to the garment, 
 for a hem, a prepared band of the same or other material. 
 Directions for all these decorative stitches are given under 
 Embroidery and need not be repeated here. 
 
 (2) Facings. — Facings are used to finish the edges of 
 waists, sleeves, and skirts. They are cut in two ways, on 
 the true bias or to match the shape and grain of the ma- 
 terial to which they are applied. 
 
 True bias strips are generally used in waists to face the 
 sleeves, the neck and centre-front openings, any armseye 
 to which the sleeve is not attached, and sections or pieces 
 which have free edges requiring finishing. Shaped pieces 
 are more frequently used in skirts to finish the bottom of 
 the skirt and any free edges of drapery. 
 
 Both facings are put on in various ways, by machine 
 or by hand, according to the material used and the shape, 
 placing, etc., of the pieces. 
 
 (a) The turning edge of the garment is carefully indi- 
 cated. The facing is cut with a %" seam allowance. The 
 seam-line of the facing is placed to the turning line of the 
 garment with the two right sides together and is basted 
 with the facing toward the worker. It should be eased on. 
 The stitching by hand or by machine is done, not on this 
 seam-line, but close to it on the side toward the raw edge. 
 The bastings are removed and the seam is turned to the 
 wrong side. If this turn is made on the indicated turn- 
 ing line rather than exactly on the stitched seam the fac- 
 ing will not show along the edge. It is basted in place 
 along the turning and is pressed. The raw edge of the 
 facing is then turned in and basted flat to the garment. 
 It may be stitched on this edge, if a row of stitching is 
 desired on the right side, or it may be hemmed by hand. 
 
432 Dressmaking 
 
 This latter, if carefully done, makes the edge finish invis- 
 ible. 
 
 If a scalloped edge is to be faced the facing is cut to 
 match the edge of the garment in shape and in grain. The 
 facing is placed, basted, and sewed as just described. 
 Before turning it to the wrong side, however, the seam 
 allowance should be slashed all around the curve, and es- 
 pecially at the point between the scallops, to allow the edges 
 to slip by, otherwise the seam allowance cannot lie flat. 
 
 (b) In facing the edges of irregular-shaped pieces, such 
 as the drapery or the bottom edge of a shaped skirt, a dif- 
 ferent method is used. The turning line of the piece to 
 be faced is distinctly marked and a generous seam allow- 
 ance, about i", is made. The facing must be cut exactly 
 the same grain and shape and the required width plus 
 seam allowances. The seam allowances of the garment and 
 of each edge of the facing are turned in and basted. The 
 folded edge of the facing is then placed about y&" in from 
 the folded edge of the garment. In basting the facing on, 
 the work should be held over the fingers, with the facing 
 toward the worker, to ease it on. It is necessary to have 
 the facing looser than the outside. It may be blind 
 hemmed at each edge. The materials used affect the de- 
 tails of this method somewhat. 
 
 For either method, if the material used for facing were 
 wool or heavy linen, its upper edge should not be turned 
 in but should be finished according to directions already 
 given for hems. 
 
 (3) Linings. — Very frequently the pieces which form 
 the drapery on skirts and waists are lined throughout. 
 These linings must be cut the correct grain, shape, and 
 size, with seam allowances. The edges of the drapery and 
 of the lining are turned in and the lining is basted in place 
 and its folded edges are blind hemmed or run. Care 
 should be taken to ease the lining to the outside to prevent 
 its drawing. If the draped pieces are large and hang 
 free, the lining may be caught to them by a few stitches 
 in one or two places. Such materials as chiffons, nets, and 
 crepes are most used for these linings. 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 433 
 
 (4) Bias Bindings. — Bias and straight edges may be 
 bound with bias folds of the same or different material. 
 All bias folds are cut and applied in the same way, with 
 one exception. This one exception is a simulated rather 
 than a true bias fold, which is frequently convenient. 
 
 (a) Bias Folds. — The material for the folds must be cut 
 absolutely on the true bias, of the required width plus a 
 seam allowance of about }4,". The width may be deter- 
 mined in this way. When 
 finished, one-half of the 
 fold shows on the right 
 side, consequently, in cut- 
 ting, it should be twice 
 this finished width plus a 
 seam allowance for each 
 edge; that, is, a ~%" fold 
 requires a strip 1" wide. 
 (The method of cutting a 
 band on the true bias need 
 not be given here, as it is 
 included in all sewing di- 
 rections.) In sewing bias 
 strips together care must 
 be taken to have the grain of each strip run in the same 
 direction. It is very easy to piece the strips to give the 
 required lengths and yet have the grain wrong. 
 
 The raw edge of the bias fold is placed to that of the 
 material, with right sides together, and is basted. As the 
 bias fold must be eased on, it is held toward the worker. 
 It may be sewed by hand or by machine. Hand sewing 
 is preferable on curved and bias edges; it must be done 
 carefully in either case. If it is drawn or puckered the 
 effect is spoiled. 
 
 The unattached edge of the bias fold is turned in and 
 that folded edge is then turned up over the extending raw 
 edges and is basted and hemmed along the line of sewing 
 just made. Great care should be taken in the turning 
 and basting not to draw the material so that the fold twists. 
 The bias fold may be any width desired ; if it is to be nar- 
 
 Id (wrong side) 
 
m 
 
 Dress in a Icing 
 
 row, however — that is, y&" or ]/£' in width — the extend- 
 ing seam allowances must be cut narrow enough to lie flat 
 in the fold. If they are too wide, they will be turned up 
 with the bias and will make a thick edge. 
 
 Curved edges or scallops are frequently bound with 
 bias folds. In making these the bias fold should be basted 
 and stitched as when applied to any edge. Before turn- 
 ing the bias to the wrong side over the raw edges, how- 
 ever, the edges should be shaped somewhat; that is, the 
 
 seam allowance should be 
 made much narrower as 
 it nears the point between 
 every two curves than it 
 is at the greatest depth of 
 the curves. This makes 
 the finishing of the fold at 
 the point much simpler 
 and less clumsy. 
 
 (b) Simulated Bias 
 Folds. — These are fre- 
 quently used on the edges 
 of an overskirt or tunic. 
 They are made of the 
 edge of the garment itself 
 without applying an extra piece, and consequently have 
 the same grain. Extra length must be allowed on the ma- 
 terial, the exact amount depending, as in the true bias, on 
 the width of the fold. A Y" fold requires a 1" allowance. 
 The fold, to be entirely successful, should be made by 
 hand. If a J /i" fold is to be made, i" of material is 
 turned up to the right side and is pinned or basted along 
 the folded edge. A line of running stitches is then made 
 y%" or /lV in from the edge; this sewing forms a tuck on 
 the wrong side. The raw edge of this turned-up piece is 
 turned in to the wrong sidej^" and is basted. This folded 
 edge is then turned over to the wrong side, enclosing the 
 tuck, and is hemmed to the tuck elose to the row of run- 
 ning stitches. This tuck, like the extending seam allowance 
 in the true bias, must not be too wide to be easily in- 
 
 Simulated bias fold (wrong side) 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 435 
 
 eluded in the fold which is formed by turning the material 
 up on to the wrong side. 
 
 As in the true bias, care must be taken to prevent the 
 fold from twisting. If the work is held over the finger 
 while the hemming is done, any extra fulness in the edge 
 can be held in and smoothly hemmed to the tuck. The 
 edge of the fold may be left round or pressed flat. 
 
 (5) Cordings and Pipings. — These two kinds of decora- 
 tion are made in much the same way and may be used to 
 finish any edge whether bias, straight, or shaped. Both 
 are made of folded strips of material cut on a true bias. 
 The piping, be- 
 cause it has no p^^T"^ ^ 
 
 enclosure, is flat ] ^ ~ tezzzzzzT 
 
 and when pressed I rfr**** — - """' ..S ~\ 
 
 has a sharp edge. sfr \ 
 
 The cording, be- /$— _* 
 
 cause of the fine ffl Cording 
 
 or heavy cord or v 
 
 roll enclosed, is round and firm and adds to an edge not 
 
 only decoration but firmness. For both, bias strips of 
 
 material are cut the required width and are joined as in 
 
 making bias folds. 
 
 (a) Cordings. — The size of the cord used depends upon 
 its place in the garment and the taste of the worker. 
 Small cords are generally better for finishing the edges of 
 the various pieces of waists and skirts, but large ones may 
 be used for the bottom of the skirts. A smooth cord should 
 always be chosen. If one having pronounced twists is 
 used, the twists show even when covered with heavy ma- 
 terial, and the covering wears off much more quickly. In 
 making the cording the bias strip may be folded nearly 
 in the centre; that is, with the raw edges about yi" apart 
 to prevent their making a ridge, or it may be folded un- 
 evenly with one edge much wider than the other. This 
 latter method is followed when the edge of the wider side 
 is to be finished with a hem and is to serve as a facing for the 
 garment. The cord is sewed into the bias strip in the same 
 manner for both methods. It is placed in the fold and held 
 
43G Dressmaking 
 
 there by a row of fine running stitches made as close as 
 possible to it. If* the bias is not drawn smoothly and 
 tightly over the cord it does not look well. When the bias 
 strip is to serve as a facing the wider side is finished by hav- 
 ing its raw edge turned to the wrong side and run. Before 
 applying cording by any method the turning line of the 
 piece to which it is to be attached must be plainly indi- 
 cated by bastings, otherwise the finished edge may not 
 be true or the size of the piece may be changed. 
 
 Cording is applied in different ways. 
 
 (/) The line on which the edge of the garment is to be 
 turned is indicated; the sewing line of the cording is placed 
 to this on the right side of the garment with the raw edges 
 together. According to the shape of the garment, all these 
 edges may be bias or one may be straight. The sewing 
 should be carefully done by hand along the line of stitches 
 in the cording. After the cording is attached the raw edges 
 are all turned to the wrong side, along the indicated line of 
 the garment, and are basted and pressed. This leaves just 
 the cord extending. If the cording serves as a facing the 
 narrow side is placed next the garment and the extending 
 side has sufficient width, after its raw edge is turned in and 
 run, to cover all the raw edges of the garment and the 
 cording. 
 
 Frequently the garment is lined; if so, the edge of the 
 lining is turned in and blind stitched to the sewing line of 
 the cord. It covers all lines of sewing and all raw edges. 
 
 (ii) The edge of the garment may be turned to the 
 wrong side before the cord is applied. 
 
 (a) The edge of the garment is turned in along the indi- 
 cated line, is basted and pressed; the cording is so placed 
 as to allow just the cord to extend beyond this folded edge. 
 It is attached by machine stitching or by running stitches. 
 Care is necessary not to take any of the running stitches 
 through to the right side. 
 
 (b) After the edge of thegarment is turned in, basted, and 
 pressed, it may be stitched about V or l A" in, according 
 to the general design. This stitched edge is firm and sim- 
 plifies the attaching of the cording, as the sewing may be 
 
Fin ish i ngs and E m b ro i dery 
 
 4ii? 
 
 done through the row of stitching. This is the method 
 generally used if a stitched edge is desired. Stitching and 
 pressing the folded edge before applying the cording pre- 
 vents any puckering and gives a much better finish than is 
 secured if the stitching is done after the cord is basted on. 
 
 The cording may be cut and made to serve as a facing or 
 its sewing line and raw edges may be concealed by a lining. 
 
 (iii) The bias covering of cords is sometimes gathered 
 and put on full. This adds somewhat to the decoration. 
 It is satisfactory for 
 silks, but is not a suit- 
 able method for heavy 
 materials nor should it 
 be used in tailored gar- 
 ments. Large, rather 
 soft cords covered in 
 this way are frequently 
 used to finish the bot- 
 tom of skirts. 
 
 The bias strip, be- 
 cause of its fulness, 
 cannot be used as a 
 facing. A facing may 
 be added by hemming 
 one edge to the cord and blind hemming the other to the 
 skirt. Another method is occasionally used. The turned- 
 up edge of the skirt may be wide enough to be brought up 
 and folded over to enclose the raw edges of the cording to 
 which it may be hemmed. Its upper folded edge should be 
 blind hemmed to the skirt; otherwise it will stand away 
 from the skirt and the cording will not hang correctly. 
 This facing is not, of course, a true bias; its grain is that 
 of the bottom of the skirt. 
 
 (iv) Cording is frequently used to join cuffs to sleeves. 
 In general, the sleeves have fulness and the cuffs are lined. 
 The cording may be attached to sleeve, cuff, and lining 
 with one sewing, by placing it between their two right sides 
 with all the raw edges extending in the same direction, but 
 not falling exactly together. The sewing should be done 
 
 Cording which serves as a facing, applied to 
 a stitched edge 
 
438 Dressmaking 
 
 through the seam-lines of the cuff and the sleeve and the 
 sewing line of the cord. To finish the lower edge of the 
 cuff, the cording and the cuff are sewed and the lining is 
 then turned in and hemmed to the cording. All the raw 
 edges are enclosed in the cuff. 
 
 (v) A cord is frequently used as a finish at the top of 
 a hem which is turned to the right side. Such hems are 
 generally in straight breadths of material. The cord is 
 placed in the fold of the first turning and is run. The 
 hem is sewed to the garment by running stitches along 
 this same line. 
 
 (b) Pipings. — No special directions need to be given for 
 the making and applying of pipings, as the general method 
 of procedure is practically the same as for the cordings. 
 
 (6) Machine Hemstitching. — This finish is used for such 
 materials as chiffons, gauzes, crepes, thin silks, and sheer 
 linens and cottons, but, as it necessitates the use of a hem- 
 stitching machine, it is not always possible. The hem- 
 stitching is done on the raw edge of the material along the 
 indicated finishing line. The material may be cut just at 
 the edge of the stitching. This gives somewhat the effect 
 of applied entre-deux. The cutting may be done through 
 the centre of the stitching. This gives a slightly irregular 
 edge which has the appearance of a picot added to a 
 whipped edge. 
 
 (7) Rolling and Whipping., — This finish is practicable 
 for much the same class of material as the machine hem- 
 stitching. The edge of the material is cut close, is rolled, 
 and whipped. Occasionally the whipping is done a sec- 
 ond time; it should be started at the finishing end of the 
 first row. These stitches will slant in the opposite direction, 
 and by placing the needle in the same holes as in making 
 the first row, they will form a cross over the edge. The 
 silk used need not be of the same color as the garment. 
 
 3. Fastenings. — There are several ways in which gar- 
 ments may be fastened. These include the use of fasteners, 
 such as (1) hooks and eyes, peets, or loops; (2) snaps; also 
 the use of (3) buttons and buttonholes; (4) bound and 
 tailor buttonholes; (5) eyelets for lacing. 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 439 
 
 Care should be taken in making the fastenings of any 
 garment, as much of its appearance and its general satis- 
 faction depend upon such details. Before any fastenings 
 are made or attached, the exact location of all should be 
 carefully marked, otherwise the pieces to be joined may 
 not match when finished. If fastenings are to be sewed 
 along the two edges of a garment opening, the two edges 
 and a tape-measure are placed together side by side and 
 pins are put straight through both edges to mark the 
 location of the fastenings. A basting is then made, taking 
 a stitch at right angles to the edge, each stitch indicating 
 the position of a fastening. The basting may be done 
 down one edge and up the other with the pins still holding 
 them together. 
 
 (i) Hooks and Eyes, Hooks and Peets, or Hooks and 
 Loops. — Hooks and eyes are sewed to the wrong side of a 
 garment. The rings of each hook should be spread, as this 
 distributes any strain which may come on it and prevents 
 its pulling forward. The end of the hook is placed y&" in 
 from the edge; it is sewed through both rings and across 
 the end. The stitches should be taken entirely around the 
 rings and not grouped in one place. In a tight-fitting 
 lining the hooks and eyes usually alternate on each side to 
 prevent unfastening. The eye is placed to extend just 
 enough beyond the edge to allow the hook to slip in easily. 
 It is sewed around the rings, as is the hook, and across 
 each side near the edge of the garment. If the stitches in 
 the hooks and eyes are not to be concealed by a facing, 
 they have a neater appearance if the blanket stitch is used 
 in the rings. This is not a necessity, however. 
 
 Peets and loops are placed on the right side of the gar- 
 ment. They are usually l /&" in from the edge and are so ar- 
 ranged that the hooks slip into them easily. The stitches 
 should be made around the rings of the peets. Loops are 
 used where it is desirable to have as flat and invisible an 
 opening as possible. The method of making is a sewing 
 problem and need not be described here. 
 
 (2) Snaps or Ball-and-Socket Fasteners. — These have re- 
 placed hooks and eyes in many cases. They make a flat 
 
440 Dressmaking 
 
 and secure opening. Their attaching is too simple to need 
 explanation. 
 
 (3) Buttons and Buttonholes. — The sewing on of buttons 
 and the making of plain buttonholes are problems in sewing 
 and need not be discussed here. 
 
 (4) Bound Buttonholes and Tailor Buttonholes. — There 
 are buttonholes which are decorative as well as useful and 
 the making of which requires explanation. 
 
 (a) Bound Buttonholes. — There are two general methods 
 of making bound buttonholes each of which may be varied 
 in its detail and may be adapted to suit the material of 
 the garment and the location of the buttonhole. 
 
 (i) Reinforcing Material. — The material in which the 
 buttonholes are to be made should be reinforced. The 
 kind of reinforcing material used depends entirely upon the 
 material of the garment. For chiffon, the same material 
 should be used. For broadcloth and other wool fabrics, 
 silk or a fairly fine cambric may be used. For silk, the 
 same material, or a thin silk or soft muslin is good. For 
 cotton and linen, thinner cotton fabrics may be used, their 
 quality depending upon the quality of the garment material. 
 If cottons and linens are used it is a good plan to shrink 
 them first, especially if they are to be placed in a garment 
 which is to be laundered, cleaned, or pressed. The rein- 
 forcement is always cut on the bias; it should be about 1" 
 wider than the buttonhole is to be long and long enough 
 to include all the buttonholes in the group. The reinforcing 
 material should be basted to the wrong side of the garment, 
 to extend ]/?!' beyond each end of the buttonhole. 
 
 (ii) Size of Buttonholes. — The length of a buttonhole 
 depends on the size of the button. It should equal the 
 diameter of the button plus its thickness. The spacing of 
 the buttonholes is determined by their position in the 
 garment, by their size, and the taste of the worker. 
 
 (Hi) Marking. — The location and the size of each but- 
 tonhole must be very carefully marked before any cutting 
 is done. Two parallel bastings the full length of the gar- 
 ment may be made to indicate their length. Another bast- 
 ing at right angles to these should show the exact line of 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 441 
 
 cutting for each buttonhole. This insures absolute reg- 
 ularity. These bastings should show both on the wrong 
 side and on the right side. 
 
 (iv) Binding Material. — The binding may or may not 
 be of the same material and color as the garment. 
 Chiffon may be bound with silk, silk may be bound with 
 cloth, or cloth with satin. It is entirely a question of the 
 design of the costume. The cutting of the binding mate- 
 rials is determined by the way in 
 which the buttonhole is to be 
 made. The binding may be con- 
 tinuous or it may be in two sec- 
 tions. For both, the material 
 must be cut absolutely on the 
 true bias. 
 
 (v) Methods of Making. 
 
 (a) Buttonhole with a Continu- 
 ous Binding. — In width the bind- 
 ing should be the same as the 
 reinforcement; in length it is not 
 necessary to have it all in one 
 piece, if there are short lengths to 
 be used, as it is later cut apart 
 between every two buttonholes. 
 Having it in one piece usually 
 saves time in basting it on. 
 
 The right side of the binding 
 material is basted to the right 
 side of the garment in the same 
 position as the reinforcement. As the location of the but- 
 tonholes is indicated on the wrong side, the work is done on 
 that side. The stitching may be done by hand or by ma- 
 chine. Machine stitching is better because it is firmer. 
 Stitching to indicate the shape of the buttonhole must be 
 done through the three thicknesses of material. The suc- 
 cess of the buttonhole depends entirely upon the stitching. 
 The stitching begins at the inside lengthwise basting, close 
 to the crosswise basting indicating the buttonhole. It should 
 curve out gradually to the centre of the buttonhole and 
 
 : B -- : ±- 
 
 Buttonholes with a continuous 
 binding, showing (^4) rein- 
 forcement, (B) basting to in- 
 dicate length and position of 
 buttonhole, (C) stitching to 
 give the required shape 
 
442 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 should then curve in to a point at the other end. The 
 second side should match the first. All the buttonholes 
 are stitched in the same way. If the stitching is not the 
 same on all they will not match in shape and size when 
 finished. The ends of the sewing silk must be fastened 
 securely to prevent any ravelling. The buttonholes are 
 cut exactly along the line of basting from point to point, 
 
 taking care to cut close to but 
 not through the stitching. 
 Sharp scissors are necessary. 
 The binding material is next 
 cut half-way between the but- 
 tonholes and is brought through 
 each buttonhole to the wrong 
 side. It requires a little pulling 
 into place to make the edges 
 even before it can be turned 
 back to enclose the extending 
 raw edge and basted close to 
 the edge of the buttonholes. 
 Because of the direction in 
 which it is stitched, more of the 
 binding material shows at the 
 sides of the buttonhole than at 
 the ends. The buttonholes 
 must be carefully pressed on the 
 wrong side. They are then finished, except for the raw 
 edges of the binding, on the wrong side. Because of the con- 
 tinuous binding, this buttonhole is suitable for garments 
 which are to be laundered frequently. 
 
 (b) Buttonhole with the Binding in Two Sections. — This 
 method of binding gives a more decorative buttonhole. 
 The two pieces of bias binding material are cut about i" 
 wide and }4" longer than the buttonhole. These are 
 placed with edges touching, one on each side of the cross- 
 wise basting, with their right sides to the right side of the 
 material and are firmly basted. These strips extend ]/^" 
 beyond each end of the buttonhole. They are stitched on 
 with straight, not curved, lines. The two rows of stitch- 
 ing parallel the- crosswise basting and their distance each 
 
 Right side, showing (.1) finished 
 
 buttonholes, (B) buttonhole 
 
 ready for cutting 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 443 
 
 side of that basting determines the width of the binding 
 in the finished buttonhole. A regulation width is about 
 yi" . The stitching must extend from one lengthwise 
 basting to the other. The ends of the sewing silk must be 
 firmly fastened before the buttonhole is cut. 
 
 The extra length of binding which extends beyond each 
 end of the buttonhole is turned back to its wrong side and 
 
 i — 
 
 zd 
 
 ■^ 
 
 r ~~~ _.j 
 
 Buttonhole with binding in two 
 
 sections — wrong side, ready 
 
 for cutting 
 
 Right side, showing (A) finished 
 
 buttonholes, (B) buttonhole 
 
 ready for cutting 
 
 creased or basted. These turnings make the bindings 
 just the length of the buttonholes. They must be even at 
 each end of each strip, otherwise the buttonhole will be 
 unevenly finished. The buttonholes are cut exactly on 
 the crosswise basting, the binding is drawn through to the 
 wrong side, is turned back to enclose the extending raw 
 edges, and is basted and pressed. If the stitching is y&" in, 
 the binding on each side of the buttonhole is that width. 
 If well made the binding is of even width, its folded edges 
 are straight and meet the length of the buttonhole, each 
 end of which is square. 
 
 (b) Tailor Buttonhole. — The preparation for reinforcing 
 and marking the length and the exact location of a tailor 
 buttonhole is the same as for a bound buttonhole. In addi- 
 
444 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 tion, it is necessary to mark on the right side the width of 
 the finished buttonhole. If it is to be y&" finished, two 
 rows of bastings Y%' apart must be made; that is, each 
 must be placed %&" away from the basting which marks 
 the cutting line. 
 
 Two pieces of bias binding material are cut i" wide and 
 y 2 " longer than the buttonhole. These are folded in the 
 
 Right side of tailored button- 
 hole, showing (A) finished 
 buttonhole, (B) one length 
 of folded binding basted in 
 place 
 
 Wrong side of tailored button- 
 hole, showing (A ) lines for cut- 
 ting buttonhole, (B) folded 
 binding stitched and turned 
 to form the buttonhole 
 
 centre, right side out, and are placed to the right side 
 of the material on each side of the buttonhole with the 
 folded edge to the line of basting, Z A" in from the cut- 
 ting line, and the raw edges toward the cutting line. It 
 is simpler to manage if one fold at a time is placed, 
 basted, and stitched. The fold is stitched to the garment 
 Me" in from its folded edge and the length of the button- 
 hole. The second strip is placed, basted, and stitched in 
 the same way. The ends of the machine silk must be 
 securely fastened. This buttonhole is cut open a little 
 differently from the others. It is not cut the full length 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 445 
 
 of the basting, but to within y&" of each end, and from 
 each end of this cut diagonal cuts or slashes are made to 
 the stitched lines. This leaves a tiny projection at each 
 end of the buttonhole, which is turned to the wrong side 
 with the bias binding and prevents a raw edge at the end 
 of the buttonhole. In drawing this binding to the wrong 
 side the raw edges of the seam allowance are not allowed 
 to extend to be enclosed by the binding, as usual, but are 
 turned back along the line of stitching. The folded edges 
 of the binding project, however, and fill the space. If 
 the ends of the buttonhole require a little finish to make 
 them strong, a few stitches on the wrong side may be taken 
 to hold in place the small, turned-in piece of material. 
 
 (c) Finishing Bound and Tailor Buttonholes.— AW. these 
 buttonholes may be finished on the wrong side in two ways, 
 according to the material used, (i) The raw edges of the 
 binding material may be turned in and run or hemmed 
 to the reinforcement or (ii) a facing may be applied the 
 entire length of the garment. If the facing is used a slit 
 is made in it at each buttonhole and its raw edges are 
 turned in and hemmed. 
 
 (5) Eyelets. — The making of eyelets is a problem in sew- 
 ing and need not be discussed here. Eyelets are not in 
 constant use in dressmaking. 
 
 4. Decorative Ways of Securing Fulness. — The usual 
 way of securing fulness is by the use of a row of gathering 
 stitches. For decoration there are various other means. 
 These include the use of: 
 
 (1) Plain Shirring. — Several rows of running stitches 
 are made in which the stitches may be even or uneven. 
 In general the rows are parallel, but need not be, as their 
 spacing is merely a matter of taste. 
 
 (2) Tucked or Corded Shirring. — A small tuck may be 
 made at each row of gathering or a cord may be enclosed 
 as in making cording. The cord is used to draw up the 
 material and to regulate the fulness. As many rows of 
 the tucks or of the cordings may be made as desired. 
 
 (3) Lengthwise Tucks or Plaits. — These need no expla- 
 nation. 
 
44(5 Dressmaking 
 
 (4) Smocking. — The preparation of the material for 
 smocking and the making of various stitches are given in 
 detail under Embroidery and need not be repeated here. 
 
 5. Decorative Methods of Finishing Plaits, Stitching, 
 Buttons, etc. — The decorative finishes which are most 
 often used are the bar tacks, arrowhead tacks, and crow 
 tacks, or crow's-foot tacks. These are generally made of 
 firmly twisted, rather coarse silk or twist, according to the 
 fabric on which they are used. Occasionally, however, 
 some of the finishes are for purely decorative purposes, 
 such as the ornamentation of buttons made of materials, 
 and a greater variety of threads may then be used. 
 
 (1) Bar Tacks. — The length and the direction of the bar 
 are marked and several long stitches are made close to- 
 gether from end to end of the indicated line. The thread 
 is carried through to the wrong side each time to make the 
 bar sufficiently strong. These stitches are then closely cov- 
 ered by others which cross them from side to side at right 
 angles. The cross stitches are taken in two ways: (a) to 
 include only the lengthwise stitches or (b) to include the 
 material as well as the stitches. The first gives a free bar; 
 the second, one firmly attached to the material. 
 
 (2) Arrowhead Tacks. — There are several varieties, or 
 they may be called modifications or combinations of the 
 arrowhead tacks. Many of them are made by a series of 
 two stitches taken alternately, first on one side, then on 
 the other, of the design, which is in general shape like a 
 right-angle triangle. 
 
 Before any stitches are taken the desired shape of the 
 design must be clearly marked. (Chalk is a good me- 
 dium for this.) To place the stitches accurately the 
 needle must be carried up and down through the material, 
 as when a hoop is used in embroidery. This is more 
 easily done if the material is stretched firmly in the left 
 hand with the thumb and first finger on top, with the 
 middle finger underneath pressed to the first finger, and 
 with both the third and little lingers pressed to the thumb. 
 
 (a) The simplest form of arrowhead tack is described 
 first. A triangle with a stem is drawn. If its three points 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 447 
 
 are marked — the upper a, the left b, the right c — the ex- 
 planation is much simplified. From the upper point, a, 
 of the triangle down through the centre of the stem a 
 straight line is needed as a guide for the placing of the 
 stitches. With these indications, and with the material 
 properly held, the work proceeds as follows: (i) Two 
 stitches are made on the left side. The needle is brought 
 up at the upper point of the triangle, a, and carried down 
 through the left point, b; it is brought 
 up again close to this point, to the 
 right, on the line be and carried down 
 on the centre line near the upper point, 
 a. This gives the required two stitches 
 side by side extending from the upper 
 to the left point, {it) Two stitches 
 are made on the right side by follow- 
 ing the same procedure: the needle is 
 brought up in the hole used for the 
 first stitch at the upper point, a, and 
 carried down through the right point, 
 c, is brought up close to this point, to 
 the left, on the line cb and carried 
 down in the hole of the second stitch 
 on the centre fine. This gives the re- 
 quired two stitches side by side ex- 
 tending from the upper to the right 
 point, (iii) The needle is next brought 
 up on the centre fine near the upper 
 point, and the work continues as described, making two 
 stitches to the left and two to the right until the triangle 
 and its stem are filled. The thread should be securely 
 fastened on the wrong side. 
 
 (b) A more complicated and firmer arrowhead may be 
 made by using the same outline and interlacing the stitches 
 somewhat. The centre line is not required, but the tri- 
 angle should be marked, as for the other, abc. The work 
 may proceed in two different ways as follows: 
 
 Two stitches at a time are made on each side. 
 
 (/) Two stitches are made on the left side. The needle 
 
 Simplest form of arrow- 
 head 
 
448 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 is brought up at the upper point, a, and carried down at 
 the left point, b. It is brought up again close to this 
 point, to the right, on the line be and carried down, not 
 on a central line, as in the other arrowhead, but on the line 
 ac joining the upper and right points. This gives the re- 
 quired two stitches side by side on the left. 
 
 (ii) Two stitches are made on the right side. The 
 needle is brought up close to the upper point, a, on the 
 
 Arrowhead formed by using two stitches at a time on each side 
 
 line ab. This brings the thread outside the first stitch 
 taken from a to b. In carrying the thread down to 
 the right point, c, it must go under the second thread be- 
 tween a and b. The needle is slipped under this second 
 stitch and the thread carried down to the right point, c. 
 It is brought up again close to the point, to the left, on the 
 line cb and carried down near a on the line ab outside the 
 two stitches from a to b. This gives the required two 
 stitches side by side on the right. 
 
 (Hi) Two stitches are made on the left side. The needle 
 is brought up near point a on the fine ac outside the two 
 stitches from a to c and carried down near point b on the 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 449 
 
 line be. It is brought up again on this line, to the right, 
 close to the last stitch, and carried down on the line ac 
 outside the stitches from a to c. This gives the required 
 two stitches side by side on the left. 
 
 (iv) Two stitches are made on the right side. The 
 needle is brought up on the other side of the triangle 
 on the line ab, outside the stitches from a to b. In carry- 
 ing this thread down to the right point, c, it must go 
 under the last (the fourth) thread between a and b. The 
 needle is slipped under this stitch and a 
 
 the thread carried down to the line cb jL 
 
 near c. It is brought up again on this ^ll^f=^ 
 
 line, to the left, close to this last stitch, /^^^^^^\ 
 
 and carried down on the line ab outside JmW^^^\ \ 
 the stitches from a to b. This gives h J^W^ xx&m I 
 the required two stitches side by side 'w^^^^^ J 
 on the right. , ^ s ^^sC 
 
 (v) The needle is brought Up On the Arrowhead formed by 
 
 line ac and^ the work continues as al- fZeZ SfsiS 
 ready described. This method is not 
 difficult if the directions are followed accurately. It gives 
 a series of parallel lines on the wrong side across the tri- 
 angle between lines ab and ac. 
 
 One stitch at a time is made on each side. 
 
 (J) The needle is brought up at the left point, b, and 
 carried down at the upper point, a. It is brought up 
 again at point c and carried down near point a, outside 
 the stitch from a to b. 
 
 (ii) The needle is brought up at point b, to the left, on 
 the line be and carried down near point a on the line ac. It 
 is brought out again near point c on the line cb and carried 
 down near point a on the line be outside the stitch from 
 b to a. 
 
 This method is somewhat simpler than the other de- 
 scribed, but the wrong side does not have as neat an ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 (c) Several variations may be made: The triangle may 
 be drawn without the stem. It is filled in in the same 
 manner. A diamond-shaped stay may be made by placing 
 
450 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 two triangles with their bases together. Each triangle is 
 filled in separately. Three and five pointed stars may also 
 be worked out, using the same general method of procedure. 
 Squares filled in with stitches forming a basket pattern are 
 easily made. The square is marked and the threads are 
 laid in one direction, forming a warp. The number should 
 be divisible by three, five, or seven, according to the size of 
 the square. The crosswise threads are interwoven. They 
 pass over three, five, or seven, under 
 three, five, or seven, and over three, 
 five, or seven. There must be the three 
 
 04) Diamond-shaped stay; (B) five- pointed star; (C) square with a 
 basket pattern 
 
 divisions to balance the design. This is a good design for 
 ornamenting buttons. 
 
 (3) Crow Tacks. — The second method given for making 
 arrowhead tacks may be slightly changed for the making 
 of crow tacks. 
 
 A triangle is used, but each side should be slightly in- 
 dented at its centre. Its points must be marked a b c. 
 The stitches are made one at a time around the triangle. 
 
 (i) The needle is. brought up at point a, carried down 
 at point b. It is brought up again at b, a little to the 
 left on ba, and carried down at c. It is brought up at c 
 on the line cb and carried down at a outside the first 
 stitch on the line ab, 
 
 (ii) The needle is brought up at a on the line ac, out- 
 side the stitch already taken, and carried down near b 
 on the fine be, outside the stitch already taken. It is 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 451 
 
 brought up near b on the line ba, outside the two stitches, 
 and carried down near c on the line ca and outside the 
 stitches from a to c. It is brought up near c on the line 
 cb, outside the stitches, and carried down near a on the 
 line ab outside the stitches. 
 
 (iii) The needle is brought up near a on the line ac, and 
 the work continues as already described. Each succeeding 
 round of stitches is placed outside those already made. If 
 the needle is carried back and forth through the indented 
 lines of the triangle the stitches are drawn in and the de- 
 sired effect is secured. When the tack is finished there is 
 
 Crow tacks 
 
 a small triangle at the centre, formed by the stitches, with 
 its points touching the indentation of the side lines of the 
 big triangle. 
 
 II. Embroidery 
 
 For several years embroidery as a means of decoration and 
 finish has held an important place in dressmaking. While 
 from time to time it appears to change in general style, 
 the fundamental stitches are practically the same, and the 
 chief difference is really in the manner of their application. 
 
 The stitches may be used in various ways; they may be 
 combined to form an all-over decoration for a waist or dress, 
 they may be made to serve as a finish to edges, or on 
 otherwise plain costumes they may be used to ornament 
 the collars, cuffs, girdles, panels, etc. 
 
 i . Design. — The design and the color chosen for any em- 
 broidery are very important. The choice usually depends 
 
452 Dressmaking 
 
 on the dictates of fashion, in many cases influenced some- 
 what by individual taste. Neither the pattern nor the 
 color should be chosen without careful consideration, for 
 upon these, more than upon the variety of stitches and the 
 workmanship, depend the beauty and the suitability of the 
 finished work. Patterns in which all the rules of design 
 governing the placing and the spacing of lines, the combina- 
 tion of colors, and the proportion of dark and light are 
 ignored cannot give satisfactory results, though the em- 
 broidery itself is most skilfully done. 
 
 Much of the technical as well as all of the artistic suc- 
 cess of embroidery depends on the choice of the pattern. 
 The design should be suited to the material and to the 
 stitches which are most satisfactorily made on the ma- 
 terial. For instance, on a transparent material a fairly con- 
 tinuous design should be used and should be embroidered 
 in a stitch which requires little breaking of threads. An 
 excellent illustration is the use on chiffon of a design simu- 
 lating braiding, which is made by a combination of con- 
 tinuous running stitches. 
 
 Patterns prepared in various ways may be secured for 
 use. Many publications issue designs. Some are made 
 with perforated patterns which are transferred to the ma- 
 terial by using a specially prepared powder; others are 
 not perforated and are transferred merely by pressing 
 with a hot iron. If the design is made rather than pur- 
 chased the perforating may be done at a shop. When 
 embroidery is done on such transparent materials as chif- 
 fons and nets the design is frequently made on tissue-paper 
 and basted to the under side of the work. It can easily be 
 seen, and the paper gives body to the material while the 
 work is being done. Often in doing solid French embroid- 
 ery on a thin material, or on a material like net, the design, 
 stamped on lawn, is basted to the right side of the net and 
 the work is done over it. When the work is finished any 
 lawn which shows is cut away. This method simplifies 
 the work and gives firmness to the design. 
 
 2. Tools. — A few tools which are not required for dress- 
 making are needed for dress embroidery. The most im- 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 453 
 
 portant of these are an embroidery-frame, crewel needles, 
 and a case for holding embroidery silks. 
 
 (i) Frame. — Embroidery-frames may be made or pur- 
 chased. They are needed for nearly all dress embroidery. 
 To make a frame, four pieces of soft wood are required, 
 each about two and a half feet long, i" wide, and %" or 
 }4" thick. A piece of heavy muslin i" wide is tacked 
 along the side of each strip of wood. The strips are ar- 
 ranged to form a square and are held in place at the four 
 corners by metal clamps which may be purchased at any 
 hardware store. As these clamps are easily operated, 
 there is no difficulty in regulating the size of the square to 
 that of the material to be embroidered. 
 
 The material is held in the frame by sewing it to the 
 pieces of muslin. If the material to be embroidered is 
 very [uneven in shape it may be attached to extra pieces 
 of muslin, which are in turn fastened to the attached 
 strips. The material must be held taut while the work is 
 going on. The frame is placed between tables or chairs 
 so that it need not be held in the hands of the worker. 
 Both hands are thus left free to pass the needle back and 
 forth, as is necessary in much of the dress embroidery. 
 When finished, all embroidery should be pressed before 
 being removed from the frame. The right side of the ma- 
 terial is placed against a soft pad, the wrong side is 
 dampened slightly and very carefully pressed with a warm 
 iron. 
 
 (2) Needles. — Many different sizes of crewel needles 
 should be purchased, as the numbers required vary greatly, 
 depending on the material and the silks. A needle too 
 small for the silk often ruins the effect of a stitch and may 
 also tear or pull the material. 
 
 (3) Cases for Silks. — Of the many kinds of embroidery 
 cases any is satisfactory which is so arranged that the 
 silk will not become tangled and roughened while in use. 
 
 3. Materials. — Embroidery materials, like the designs, 
 change with the changing fashions. Each fashion brings 
 in a new variety and usually revives an old. Besides the 
 usual embroidery flosses, of which there is an endless vari- 
 
4.54 Dressmaking 
 
 ety in twist and in finish, there are many sizes and kinds 
 of gilt and silver threads, chenille and art worsteds, also 
 rat-tail braid, soutache braid, soft ribbons, beads, bugles, 
 spangles, and brilliants. 
 
 The choice of embroidery materials depends on the gar- 
 ment to be decorated; that is, it depends on the purpose 
 for which the garment is intended, the fabric of which it is 
 made, and the kind of stitches which are chosen as suit- 
 able for the fabric and the design. 
 
 In the following explanation of the various stitches an 
 effort has been made to suggest possible uses and suitable 
 embroidery materials for each; but, as has already been 
 said, too much depends upon the changing demands of 
 fashion to permit much detail. 
 
 In making any kind of embroidery stitches a knot 
 should not be used in starting. The thread may be fast- 
 ened at the beginning and at the end of the work by a few 
 stitches easily concealed by the embroidery. 
 
 4. Stitches. 
 
 (1) Running Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This is an adaptation of the running stitch 
 used in sewing. The method of procedure in sewing and 
 in embroidery is the same; but in the latter there may be 
 variation in the proportionate length of stitch and space, 
 according to its use. 
 
 The running stitch has various uses — to outline a de- 
 sign with a single row of even stitches (the proportionate 
 length of stitch and space should be well chosen) ; to form 
 a design such as that of a leaf or a flower petal by grouping 
 a number of uneven stitches; to simulate braiding, which 
 is generally used to form a border, by a few parallel rows 
 of even stitches; to make a background by covering the 
 entire surface with parallel rows of stitches. 
 
 (b) Materials. — In general such threads should be used 
 as pull through easily and are suited to the material and 
 the design. These include a great variety of gold and 
 silver threads, embroidery silks, and worsteds. The very 
 decorative chenilles and soft ribbons may also be used, 
 with care, on many fabrics. The softly twisted threads 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 455 
 
 usually prove most satisfactory in making the background 
 for a design. 
 
 (c) Method. — The work is done from right to left. In 
 sewing it is made with an even stitch and space; in em- 
 broidery the stitch is made to give a long thread and a 
 
 (A) Running stitch; (B) outline stitch ; (C) chain-stitch ; (D) wide 
 chain-stitch ; (E) magic chain-stitch ; (F) lazy-daisy stitch 
 
 short space. Its purpose is not to give strength but to 
 cover the surface of the fabric as much as possible with 
 embroidery. 
 
 In using the stitch to outline, its length may depend on 
 the kind and size of the design; but the length chosen 
 must be kept uniform throughout. 
 
 In forming a design by grouping a number of stitches 
 the desired effect is more easily secured by the use of un- 
 even stitches, as the space to be filled is usually irregular 
 in size. 
 
456 Dressmaking 
 
 When a braiding or an entire background is made all 
 the stitches should be of even length. They may be two 
 or three times the length of the space. The rows must be 
 straight and parallel, and in making each row a stitch 
 should be placed opposite a space. If the stitches are 
 opposite each other the effect is that of a stripe, which 
 is not generally desirable. 
 
 (2) Portuguese Laid Work. 
 
 (a) Use. — The running stitch forms the framework or 
 foundation for Portuguese laid work, which is used chiefly 
 as a border decoration. 
 
 (b) Material. — A great variety of threads may be used. 
 The stitch gives opportunity for variety of both material 
 and color, as two different kinds of thread may be com- 
 bined. The foundation may be of fine threads, while the 
 blocks are formed of heavy silks, chenille, or ribbon of the 
 same or contrasting color. 
 
 (c) Method. — The work progresses in two directions, 
 the running stitch from right to left, as usual, the blocks 
 from left to right. Three parallel rows of even running 
 stitches are made some distance apart, about Y\" . The 
 stitches are longer than the spaces and are opposite each 
 other in the three rows. These rows are joined in alter- 
 nate groups — that is, first, one and two; second, two and 
 three — by a series of blocks, each one of which is formed 
 by three over and over stitches placed close together. The 
 blocks and the spaces between should be equal in size. 
 
 (3) Outline Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — The outline stitch is chiefly used to outline 
 designs. It may be made, however, to form a border or 
 a background by placing several parallel rows rather close 
 together. It is then usually called Bulgarian stitch. 
 
 (b) Materials. — It is better to make this stitch with 
 materials which will pull through the fabric without much 
 difficulty and without becoming rough. Soft and hard 
 twisted silks, cottons, and wools are most frequently used. 
 
 (c) Method. — Unlike the majority of stitches, the work 
 progresses from left to right. Each stitch is made, how- 
 ever, by putting the needle in from right to left. The 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 457 
 
 length of the stitch varies according to the size of the em- 
 broidery material used; but the length chosen must be 
 kept uniform throughout. From }i" to %&" or %" is usu- 
 ally found satisfactory. 
 
 The thread is always kept to the left of the needle away 
 from the worker. For the first stitch the needle is put 
 in the required length of stitch in advance, to the right of 
 the starting-point, and brought back and out again exactly 
 beside the starting-point; for the second stitch the needle 
 is put in the same distance in advance, to the right of this 
 first stitch, and brought back exactly beside its end. By 
 bringing the needle out beside the end of the last stitch 
 each time, rather than in the same hole with it, the outline 
 is given a little breadth and each stitch is given a slight 
 curve. 
 
 (4) Chain-Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — The chain-stitch is most frequently used to 
 outline designs. It may also serve to fill in a design or 
 to form a solid background by using several parallel rows 
 placed close together. 
 
 (b) Materials. — In general, the materials most used are 
 the twisted silks, cottons, and wools. Chenilles and rib- 
 bons, however, if carefully used, give attractive results. 
 
 (c) Method. — The work is done toward the worker. 
 The stitch is made up of a series of loops resembling the 
 links in a chain. The length of each loop depends on the 
 choice of the worker, the kind of material used, and the 
 purpose of the stitch. For instance, in outlining, too long 
 a stitch should not be used for a curving line. For a back- 
 ground, however, a long loop is as effective as a short 
 one and the space is more quickly filled. The size, once 
 decided, must be uniform throughout. The material 
 should be held over the finger; the needle is brought out 
 at the starting-point, the thread is held down toward the 
 worker by the left thumb, and the needle is inserted in 
 the same hole as before and is then brought out a short 
 distance, y&" or %" , in advance. While bringing the 
 needle out, the thread which the thumb has been holding 
 is freed and is drawn up into a loop under the needle and 
 
458 Dressmaking 
 
 the thread just drawn out. The length of this loop is de- 
 termined by the amount of material taken up as the 
 needle is brought forward and out. For the second stitch 
 the needle is put back in the hole at the end of the last 
 loop, through which it was just drawn, and is brought for- 
 ward and out as before, with the thread held down by the 
 thumb. For each stitch the thread is pulled out from the 
 end of the last loop and the needle is put back in it. 
 
 (5) Magic Chain-Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use and Materials. — This is a variation of the plain 
 chain-stitch. It is used for the same purposes and is made 
 of the same general kinds of material. It differs in that 
 two threads of different colors are used in its construction 
 instead of one. 
 
 (b) Method. — The stitch is made toward the worker. It 
 is composed of a series of loops which alternate in color. 
 The two colored threads are carried by the same needle 
 and the alternation of color is caused by holding down 
 under the thumb only one of these threads at a time. Both 
 threads are brought to the right side each time, but, as the 
 needle, in forming the loops, is put back in the same hole 
 through which it has just been drawn, the free thread 
 not held down by the thumb is carried back with it to the 
 wrong side and does not show at all on the face of the 
 fabric until it is drawn through again and is held in place 
 to form the next loop. 
 
 (6) Wide Chain-Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This is another variation of the plain chain- 
 stitch. Because of its width it is used for border designs. 
 For additional ornamentation French knots, made of the 
 same or another material, may be placed in the centre of 
 each loop. 
 
 (b) Material. — The same materials as for the plain chain- 
 stitch are most satisfactory for general use. 
 
 (c) Method. — The method of making is much the same 
 as for the plain chain. Instead, however, of putting the 
 needle back in the same hole through which it has just 
 been drawn, it is put in on the same line with that hole, 
 but to the right of it, and is drawn out directly in line with 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 459 
 
 the first point at which it was brought out. When the 
 needle is put down through, at the right, each time, it must 
 be inside the loop just made. If the needle is carried to 
 the right a quarter of an inch and is then brought forward 
 the same distance, a perfect square is formed. 
 
 (7) Lazy Daisy. 
 
 (a) Use. — A variation of the chain-stitch is used to form 
 flowers and leaves. In place of a series of loops, one fol- 
 lowing the other in outline, each loop is separate and is so 
 arranged as to form the petal of a flower or a leaf. It is 
 combined with feather-stitching and French knots to form 
 designs. These are very often used with tucks on lingerie 
 dresses but are also suitable as a decoration for silks. 
 
 (b) Materials. — It is most frequently done in cottons, 
 such as D.M.C., in twisted silks, and in wools. 
 
 (c) Method. — The needle is at the centre of the flower 
 when the work begins. Each petal is formed of one loop, 
 which may be any size desired. The loops are made ex- 
 actly as in the regular chain-stitch, except that after the 
 needle is brought out at the end of the petal or loop it is 
 put back into the cloth just outside the end of the loop 
 rather than inside, as when forming a second loop. By 
 this method the end of the loop is held in place at the end 
 of the petal by the small overstitch. The needle is then 
 carried back to the centre of the flower and the other petals 
 are made. The stem may be in the outline or the running 
 stitch. The leaves on the stem are formed by one loop. 
 French knots usually finish the centre of the flower. 
 
 (8) Feather-Chain. 
 
 (a) Use. — In this the chain-stitch is combined with a 
 long slanting stitch to form a vine-like design. It may be 
 used as a border or to form the design itself. 
 
 (b) Materials. — As great a variety of materials is suit- 
 able for this as for the plain chain-stitch. 
 
 (c) Method. — Each chain-stitch forms a leaf. These are 
 placed in a slanting position on alternate sides of a stem. 
 As the long stitches for the stem should slant a little from 
 right to left and from left to right, to give the desired 
 effect, they do not form a straight centre line. This 
 
460 Dressmaking 
 
 makes it more difficult to keep an equal amount of em- 
 broidery at each side of the centre of the design. The 
 stitch is made toward the worker. In beginning, a chain- 
 stitch is made at the right, slanting in to the centre. After 
 the thread is drawn out at the lower end of this stitch or 
 loop the needle is put in about a quarter of an inch below, 
 to form the slanting stem, and is brought out a little above 
 that point and to the left, to begin the second chain. 
 
 (9) Beading-Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This is another variation of the chain-stitch 
 and is used to form borders and to outline designs. 
 
 (b) Materials. — It may be made with the same materi- 
 als as the chain-stitch. 
 
 (c) Method. — The stitch is made toward the worker 
 and the method is much the same as for the plain chain- 
 stitch. The needle is brought up through on the centre 
 line, at the starting-point; the thread is held in a straight 
 line by the thumb, as in the plain chain-stitch. Instead, 
 however, of putting the needle back through the same 
 hole as in the chain-stitch, it is put in y&" below that point, 
 and a little to the left, over the held-down thread. The 
 needle should be slanted downward and brought out on 
 the centre line, at the right of the held-down thread and 
 through the loop which it forms. As the thread is freed 
 by the thumb and drawn through, a slanting loop is made, 
 which looks like a knot, across the end of the straight 
 thread. The effect of this stitch is of a straight line crossed 
 at intervals by a slanting knot. 
 
 (10) Feather -Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch has a variety of uses, both by 
 itself and in combination with other stitches, such as 
 French knots and the lazy daisy. It is used to outline 
 and to form designs. It may be made in straight lines, in 
 curves, or to form squares, circles, the Greek key, etc. The 
 design chosen should not be intricate but should be made 
 up of fairly simple lines. Tucks and hems may be held 
 in place and finished by various uses of the feather-stitch. 
 
 (b) Materials.— -It is most frequently made in materials, 
 like D.M.C., which will launder. Silks, linens, and wools 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 461 
 
 may, however, be used successfully, especially if they are 
 rather firmly twisted. 
 
 (c) Method. — Feather-stitching is always done toward 
 the worker. A good centre line must be kept with an 
 
 (A) Indian herring-bone stitch; (B) herring-bone with interlacing; 
 
 (C) oriental stitch; (D) feather-chain stitch; (£) coral 
 
 stitch; (F) feather-stitch 
 
 equal amount of embroidery on each side. This is accom- 
 plished if, in making the slanting stitches on alternate sides, 
 the needle is brought back to the centre line each time. 
 The method of procedure somewhat resembles that of the 
 chain-stitch. In starting, the needle is at the centre line. 
 
462 D r ess making 
 
 A slanting stitch is made at the right by putting the needle 
 in about }/%" to the right and just below the starting-point 
 and by bringing it out yi" down from this point on the 
 centre line. By holding the thread under the thumb when 
 the needle is put in, as in chain-stitch, it forms a loop 
 through which the needle is drawn out. For the second 
 stitch the needle should be put in to the left, jMT'over, and 
 just below the end of the hist stitch, and should be brought 
 out again l /&" down on the centre line. With the thread 
 held down as before, another loop is formed. One side of 
 these open loops forms an almost straight line down the 
 centre; the other gives the slanting stitches on alternate 
 sides, Groups of two or three stitches on alternate sides 
 may be made. This is a rather more difficult but more 
 elaborate stitch. The stitches must be fairly close together 
 and absolutely even, otherwise the result is unattractive. 
 (n) Coral Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use and Materials. — This stitch is used for prac- 
 tically the same purposes as the feather-stitch. It may be 
 employed by itself or in combination with others. It is 
 made with the same materials. 
 
 (b) Method. — The method is much the same as for 
 feather-stitching, and there must be an equal amount of 
 embroidery on each side of the centre. There is, however, 
 no straight centre line formed of embroidery stitches to 
 serve as a guide as in the feather-stitch. The stitches are 
 perpendicular rather than slanting and in consequence do 
 not come to the centre. This causes the centre line to 
 slant first to the right and then to the left. In starting, 
 the needle is brought out at the centre line and a perpen- 
 dicular stitch is taken, putting the needle in y&" to the 
 right and bringing it out, straight down, y&" below. By 
 holding the thread under the thumb while taking the stitch 
 the loop is formed as the needle is drawn out. For the 
 second stitch the needle should be put in to the left, y&" 
 from the centre, opposite the end of the stitch just taken, 
 and should be brought out straight down. One side of 
 these open loops forms, as has been said, a centre line 
 which slants from side to side. Groups of two or three 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 4(13 
 
 perpendicular stitches on alternate sides may also be made. 
 The stitches must be evenly spaced and the design evenly 
 balanced. 
 
 (12) Oriental Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch is considered a variation of the 
 feather-stitch, but, although it is made in somewhat the 
 same manner, there is really very little resemblance when 
 it is finished. It has various uses, but is most frequently 
 employed to form borders or to fill in leaf-shaped designs 
 and such surfaces as are too wide for a successful use of 
 the satin stitch. 
 
 (b) Materials. — Nearly all kinds of materials may be 
 used — silks, wools, linens, cottons, also chenilles and soft 
 ribbons. 
 
 (c) Method. — This stitch is done toward the worker, as is 
 the feather-stitch, but the stitches are placed close together, 
 are nearly horizontal, and are held at the centre by a small 
 overstitch. The small stitches form the centre line, on each 
 side of which there must be an equal length of stitch. 
 
 The needle is brought out about y&" to the left of the 
 centre and is put in again y&" to the right of the centre and 
 exactly in line with the point of bringing out at the left. 
 After this stitch is made the needle is brought up at the 
 centre of it, but just above, and is put in again below and 
 close to it. This forms the small vertical overstitch which 
 encloses and holds in place the long crosswise stitch. 
 
 (13) Satin Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — The satin stitch is used in a design which has 
 small surfaces or spaces to be entirely covered with em- 
 broidery. 
 
 (b) Materials. — Practically all kinds of embroidery mate- 
 rials may be used. The rather softly twisted threads fill the 
 spaces more quickly and are generally most effective. 
 
 (c) Method. — The satin stitch for dress embroidery is 
 practically the same as that used for household linens. 
 The same general method of procedure is always followed, 
 but in the dress embroidery there may be more variation 
 as to the amount, if any, of padding used and the close- 
 ness with which the stitches are placed. 
 
464 Dressmaking 
 
 If heavy materials like chenilles and soft, bulky silks 
 are used, especially on thin materials like chiffons, the 
 padding is often omitted and the stitches are so placed 
 as not to give too solid a surface or too heavy an effect. 
 
 (i) Padding. — Padding must be carefully done. The 
 outline, the running, and the chain stitches are all used, 
 the choice depending generally on the size of the space to 
 be filled. The chain and the outline stitches cover the 
 space more quickly than the running stitch. The running 
 stitch should always be made with a long stitch and a 
 short space, to give all the thread possible on the surface. 
 Whichever stitch is used, the stitches must be kept well 
 within the lines of the design, otherwise the space is much 
 enlarged when the satin stitch is added, and the padding 
 stitches must be made the lengthwise of the space; that is, 
 in the opposite direction from that of the satin stitch itself. 
 If they are made in the same direction the satin stitches 
 sink into the spaces between the padding stitches and give 
 an uneven surface. 
 
 (it) Satin Stitch. — The work is done from left to right. 
 As each stitch is made the needle is brought through 
 the material toward the worker. The stitches are taken 
 across the space to be filled and should cover smoothly 
 the back as well as the face of the design. When padding 
 is used the satin stitches should be placed so close to- 
 gether as to conceal it completely. The satin stitches 
 should, in general, parallel each other. When, however, 
 a curve is embroidered, it is necessary to crowd the stitches 
 on the inside in order to cover the outside edge completely. 
 
 (14) H erring-Bone. 
 
 (a) Use and Materials. — This is an adaptation of a stitch 
 used in sewing and in dressmaking to finish seams. In em- 
 broidery it is made by the same method. It is used to fill 
 in borders and designs and may be made in a great variety 
 of materials. For additional ornamentation, threads of a 
 different material and color may be interwoven or made 
 into French knots. 
 
 (b) Method. — The work is done from left to right, but 
 each stitch is made by putting the needle in from right to 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 4(>.5 
 
 left. The thread is always kept to the right of the needle. 
 There are two parallel rows of small stitches connected 
 by slanting threads. These stitches are made alternately 
 in the two rows and are so placed that a stitch is over a 
 space. 
 
 The needle is brought through on what is to form the 
 upper line of the design; a stitch is taken a little to the 
 right on the lower line, followed by another at the right 
 on the upper line, and so on. In making these stitches, 
 the needle is put in, in the opposite direction from which 
 the work is progressing. By doing this the slanting threads 
 which join the stitches form little crosses. The stitches 
 must be not only even in length and evenly spaced but on 
 perfectly straight lines. This regulates the direction and 
 length of the slanting threads. 
 
 (15) Indian H erring-Bone. 
 
 (a) Use and Materials. — This stitch may be used for the 
 same purposes and made of the same materials as the 
 plain herring-bone. 
 
 (b) Method. — The method is much the same as for plain 
 herring-bone. The work is done from left to right, but each 
 stitch is toward rather than parallel to the worker. The 
 thread is always at the right of the needle. In making 
 the stitches in the row nearer the worker the position of 
 the material must be changed a little to get the stitch 
 absolutely straight. The stitches are the same size as in 
 the plain herring-bone, but they are vertical rather than 
 horizontal, and in making them the needle points toward 
 the centre instead of to the left. 
 
 This gives a somewhat open stitch, and for that reason 
 the French knot forms a satisfactory decoration when 
 placed in the centre of each space. 
 
 (16) French Knots. 
 
 (a) Use. — French knots are used alone and in combi- 
 nation with other stitches in a great variety of ways — 
 to outline designs, to form designs, to simulate flowers by 
 careful grouping, and to make a solid background. 
 
 (b) Materials. — Almost all kinds of materials are satis- 
 factory, the choice depending largely on the special use 
 
46'u' Dressmaking 
 
 of the knots. For instance, when a well-covered back- 
 ground is to be made, fine materials, such as fine silks and 
 worsteds, are best. 
 
 (c) Method. — The needle is brought out at the point 
 where the work is to begin. The thread is held firmly 
 under the left thumb. The needle is put under the thread 
 and so manipulated by turning that the thread is wound 
 or twisted around it two or three times, according to the 
 desired size of the knot. With the thread wound tightly 
 around the needle and still held by the thumb, the needle 
 
 *& 
 
 -^^^ 
 
 
 French knots 
 
 is turned and put back into the material very close to the 
 point at which it came out. As the thread is slowly freed 
 by the thumb and drawn down through the material it 
 encloses and holds in place the little circles of thread which 
 were formed by the twisting around the needle. The nee- 
 dle is then brought up in position for the next knot. 
 (17) Bullion Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use and Materials. — This stitch is used to form 
 flowers and leaves, which are, in turn, arranged in com- 
 bination with other stitches to form both designs and bor- 
 ders. As the making of this stitch necessitates winding 
 the threads many times about the needle, too heavy em- 
 broidery materials should not be used. 
 
 (b) Method. — In forming a flower, the base of the petal 
 which is being made is held toward the worker. The 
 thread is brought out at the base of the petal; the needle is 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 
 
 4C7 
 
 then stuck in the material at the top of the petal and its 
 point brought out again at its base. Around this pro- 
 jecting point the thread is wound six or eight times, depend- 
 ing on the length of the petal and the size of the embroid- 
 ery thread. In doing this care must be taken not to use 
 the thread near the eye of the needle but rather at the end 
 where it comes up to the surface and is near the point of 
 the needle. After the thread is wound on the needle it is 
 held in place by the thumb while the 
 needle is drawn out through the coils. 
 These coils should be tightened gently 
 as the thread is drawn through them. 
 The needle is carried away from the 
 worker and put through to the wrong 
 side again at the point or tip of the 
 petal. One stitch is made for each 
 petal; for a leaf, two of these stitches 
 should generally be used. 
 (18) Couching. 
 
 (a) Use. — Couching is used to form 
 borders, to cover seams and whole sur- 
 faces, and to form and outline pat- 
 terns. The designs used should be 
 simple, as couching does not lend itself 
 satisfactorily to many or intricate lines. 
 It may be made in several ways. 
 
 (b) Materials. — Practically all kinds 
 of materials are used. The choice de- 
 pends upon the use of the stitch and the fabric to which it 
 is applied. Two threads are necessary, consequently, two 
 materials are generally combined — a heavy, softly twisted 
 one which is attached to the fabric by a much finer one. 
 It is sometimes desirable to use different colors. In ad- 
 dition to twisted and untwisted silks, wools, linens, and 
 cottons, the chenilles, fancy ribbons, and gold and silver 
 threads give satisfactory results. 
 
 (c) Method. — The variety of design is usually produced 
 by the method of attaching the embroidery materials to 
 the fabric. For all methods the material to be attached 
 
 Bullion stitch 
 
468 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 is drawn through from the wrong side and is laid in the 
 desired direction on the surface of the material. 
 
 (i) For the simplest method a series of small stitches is 
 taken at regular intervals at right angles to this material 
 and enclosing it. 
 
 04) Plain couching ; (B) puffy couching ; (C) twisted couching ; 
 (D) brick couching ; (£) Portuguese laid work 
 
 (it) In puffy couching the material to be attached is held 
 loosely and is thus allowed to form little puffs between the 
 small stitches, which are made as in the plain couching. 
 
 (Hi) Brick couching is used chiefly for covering sur- 
 faces. The method of procedure is the same as for the 
 plain couching, but there are several parallel rows of the 
 material to be attached, and each is held in place by small 
 stitches which are placed to alternate with each succeed- 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 469 
 
 ing row and thus form brick-shaped blocks. One row is 
 made at a time. The rows must be so close to each other 
 that the fabric does not show between them. 
 
 (iv) If a heavy material with a pronounced twist is at- 
 tached it may be held in place by using slanting rather 
 than straight stitches. The work is more effective and 
 the attaching stitch is invisible if it follows the twist of 
 the material. 
 
 Another method of invisible attaching is by the use of 
 fine silk or thread; the stitches must be taken through 
 rather than over the embroidery material. The work may 
 be done from the right or the wrong side. For thin ma- 
 terials like chiffon it is easier, and the fabric is less likely 
 to pucker if it is done from the wrong side. 
 
 (v) In twisted couching the effect is produced by having 
 both materials^ of equal weight but generally of contrast- 
 ing color. The attaching thread is twisted around the 
 other material and is caught into the fabric in such a way 
 as to form a slightly slanting thread on the right side and 
 a nearly straight line in the back. 
 
 (19) Interlacing Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch is used to outline patterns, to 
 form narrow borders, and to simulate braiding. 
 
 (b) Materials. — It is usually made of two materials which 
 may be of the same or contrasting colors; for instance, the 
 foundation stitch may be of heavy, softly twisted silk and 
 the interlacing threads of gold or silver cord. 
 
 (c) Method. — All the work is done from right to left. 
 The stitching stitch forms the foundation; the length of 
 the stitch may vary, but too short a stitch is not effective 
 unless the materials used are very fine. There are two 
 rows of interlacing threads put in, one at a time. After 
 the stitching stitch is made the interlacing thread is 
 brought to the surface at the beginning of the stitching 
 stitch and is carried down through or under one stitch 
 and up through or under the next, forming a stitch first 
 on one side, then on the other, with a space between every 
 two stitches. This space is filled when the second row of 
 interlacing is done. It begins at the same point as the 
 
470 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 other and goes up under the stitch through which the first 
 row was carried down, and so on. 
 
 (20) Seed Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch is sometimes used to outline de- 
 signs but its general use is to fill in spaces. It may be 
 
 {A) Interlacing stitch ; (B) seed stitch; (C) German knot stitch 
 (D) beading-stitch 
 
 used to fill a conventional design or the leaves and petals 
 of flowers, or it may form an entire background. 
 
 (b) Materials.— Twisted and untwisted silks, wools, gilt 
 and silver threads, and chenille may all be used. Gilt thread 
 on a velvet background is effective, as is the soft chenille. 
 
 (c) Method. — The stitch is worked from right to left 
 and is exceedingly simple. It is a short back-stitch with 
 the space between somewhat longer than the stitch. The 
 length of the stitch and of the space may both vary, but 
 the length chosen should be kept uniform throughout. 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 471 
 
 When made in rows, to form a background, a stitch should 
 be opposite a space to prevent an effect of stripes. 
 
 (21) German Knot Stitch. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch is used to outline designs and to 
 form borders. 
 
 (b) Materials. — Practically all kinds of materials are 
 suitable for this stitch. 
 
 (c) Method. — This stitch is made toward the worker. 
 The needle is brought out at the starting-point and a slant- 
 ing thread is formed by putting the needle into the ma- 
 terial horizontally, from right to left, about y&" below this 
 point, and taking a stitch a little less than y&" in length. 
 While doing this the thread must be kept to the right or 
 above the needle. The thread is then carried up over this 
 slanting stitch and the needle is brought down under it, 
 eye foremost. The eye is used rather than the point, as 
 the needle is to pass under the stitch but not through the 
 fabric. With the thread held to the left with the left 
 thumb, the needle is brought down through again in the 
 same way and is drawn out and over the held-down loop 
 of thread, which, when pulled up, forms a blanket stitch 
 over the first slanting line of thread. 
 
 (22) Fagoting. 
 
 (a) Use. — Fagoting is used to join two edges. Neces- 
 sary seams may be made more decorative and materials of 
 the same or different kinds may be joined to form a trim- 
 ming. Collars and cuffs are often made by joining bands 
 of material and lace. 
 
 (b) Materials. — Fagoting is usually done with fairly 
 firmly twisted materials in silks, wools, and cottons. 
 
 (c) Method. — The edges to be joined by fagoting can- 
 not be raw but must be finished in some way before the 
 fagoting is done. 
 
 (i) In making bands which are to be joined for trim- 
 ming, the material is generally so folded as to have its raw 
 edges turned in to form a seam along one edge. The ma- 
 terial must be cut double the width of the finished bands 
 plus a seam allowance at each edge. The seam edges are 
 held together by the fagoting. 
 
472 Dressmaking 
 
 (ii) The edges of seams are finished according to the 
 material and the strength required of the seam. A French 
 hem makes an excellent finish. 
 
 {Hi) In preparing any material for fagoting the finished 
 edges are basted face to each other on stiff paper or glazed 
 muslin with a space of the required width between. 
 
 (iv) There are various methods by which fagoting may 
 be done; the two simplest are those in which the plain 
 herring-bone or the Indian herring-bone stitches are used. 
 When these stitches are used to join edges they are made 
 in the same way as when they serve purely as a decora- 
 tion. 
 
 The two rows of alternating stitches are taken from left 
 to right along the two edges of the material. In the In- 
 dian herring-bone, however, where the stitch is vertical, the 
 needle is put into the material as usual, but instead of com- 
 ing out in the material and making the usual stitch it is 
 brought forward and comes out in the space. 
 
 In straight fagoting the work is done from left to right, 
 but the lines go, as the term indicates, straight across the 
 space from side to side. The needle is brought up through 
 from the wrong side in the edge toward the worker, is 
 carried straight across to the other side, and put down 
 through the material from the right side. Before inserting 
 the needle again in the edge toward the worker, to make 
 a second stitch, it should be carried around, that is, back 
 of the stitch just taken, and should then be brought up 
 through the material l /&" to the right. Each bar across is 
 thus made up of two threads twisted about each other, 
 which gives added strength and beauty. 
 
 (23) Bermuda Fagoting. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch is used to outline designs, to finish 
 hems in chiffon and in other thin fabrics, and to insert 
 lace. 
 
 (b) Materials. — To be effective it must be done with a 
 coarse needle, size 1, and with fine, firmly twisted ma- 
 terials, such as fine thread or silk. 
 
 (c) Method. — Parallel rows of holes are made by using 
 a large needle in a fairly firm fabric. These holes are so 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 473 
 
 placed and so connected by stitches that the finished work 
 has the appearance of a row of squares. 
 
 The stitches are usually about yi" in length, making 
 the holes that distance apart. The stitch is made toward 
 the worker. 
 
 The process in general is this: Two adjoining holes at 
 the right are connected or bound together by two stitches. 
 The two holes at the left, directly opposite these, are also 
 bound with two stitches in the same way. Then these 
 two parallel sets are connected by binding together the two 
 holes nearest the worker by two stitches, which are at right 
 angles to those just made. If the rows of holes at the right 
 are considered to be marked i, 3, 5, 7, and those at the left 
 2, 4, 6, 8, the explanation of the method is much simplified. 
 
 The work in detail proceeds as follows: To make the 
 right side of the square a stitch is taken y&" long from 
 the starting-point, 1 to 3; the thread is tied and the knot 
 is drawn through to the wrong side. The needle is put in 
 at 1 again, to make the second stitch between 1 and 3, and 
 with a slanting stitch at the back is brought out, at the 
 left, at 4, exactly opposite 3. To make the left side of the 
 square the needle is put in at 2, brought out at 4, put in 
 at 2 again, to make the second stitch between 2 and 4, 
 and with a slanting stitch at the back is brought out, at 
 the right, at 3. To make the lower side of the square the 
 needle is put in at 4, brought out at 3, put in at 4 again, to 
 make the second stitch between 3 and 4, and with a slant- 
 ing stitch at the back is brought out, at the right, at 5. 
 From this point the work proceeds as explained, connect- 
 ing 5 and 3 at the right with two stitches, 6 and 4 at the 
 left with two stitches, and completing the square by join- 
 ing 5 and 6, after which, to continue the work, the needle 
 is carried forward and across to 7. As has been said, when 
 finished the right side of the work shows a series of squares 
 at the back of each of which a cross has been formed by 
 the slanting stitches. 
 
 (24) French Fagoting. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch is used as is the Bermuda fagoting. 
 
 (b) Materials. — The same materials are employed. 
 
474 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 (c) Method. — While the same general method is employed 
 as for Bermuda fagoting, it differs from the Bermuda in 
 that the holes, while arranged in two parallel rows, are not 
 opposite each other, but are so placed and so connected as 
 to give, in place of the straight stitches which form squares, 
 
 (A) Straight fagoting ; (B) Cuban fagoting ; (C) French fagoting ; 
 (D) Bermuda fagoting 
 
 a series of straight and slanting stitches which form tri- 
 angles. The stitch is made toward the worker. 
 
 The process in general is this: Two upward slanting 
 stitches are made from left to right; two vertical stitches 
 are made at the right; two upward slanting stitches are 
 made from right to left; two vertical stitches are made at 
 the left, and so on. The holes may be numbered, as before, 
 i, 3, 5, 7 at the right, 2, 4, 6, 8 at the left. 
 
 The work in detail proceeds as follows: To make the 
 slanting stitch from left to right a stitch is taken }i" long 
 from the starting-point, 1 to 2. The thread is tied and 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 475 
 
 the knot is drawn through to the wrong side. The needle 
 is put in at i again to make the second stitch between i 
 and 2, and with a straight stitch at the back is brought 
 out at 3. To make the vertical stitches the needle is put 
 in at 1, brought out at 3, put in at 1 again, to make the 
 second stitch between 1 and 3, and is brought out at 3. 
 
 To make the slanting stitch from right to left the needle 
 is put in at 2, brought out at 3, put in at 2 again, to make 
 the second stitch between 2 and 3, and with a straight stitch 
 at the back is brought out at 4. To make the vertical 
 stitch the needle is put in at 2, brought out at 4, put in 
 at 2 again, to make the second stitch between 2 and 4, and 
 is brought out at 4. 
 
 To make the slanting stitch from left to right, which 
 parallels the first slanting stitch made, the needle is put 
 in at 3, brought out at 4, put in at 3 again, to make the 
 second stitch between 3 and 4, and with a straight stitch 
 at the back is brought out at 5, and so on, as explained. 
 When finished, the work at the back shows a series of tri- 
 angles. 
 
 (25) Cuban Fagoting. 
 
 (a) Use. — This stitch is used as are the Bermuda and 
 the French fagoting. 
 
 (b) Materials. — The same kind of needle is necessary, 
 No. 1, but, in place of the fine thread or silk, coarse mate- 
 rials are used. In chiffon or chiffon cloth it is most effect- 
 ive when done in heavy twisted worsteds or silks. A 
 rather tightly twisted material simplifies the work and 
 gives better results. 
 
 (c) Method. — The finished work has the appearance of a 
 row of stitching stitches, except that between every two 
 stitches there is a distinct hole through which nothing 
 shows at the back. This hole is made by using a big 
 needle. The thread does not show because it is kept first 
 to the right, or below the needle, while two stitches are 
 taken, and then to the left, or above the needle, while 
 the next two stitches are taken, and so on. The stitch is 
 made from right to left. 
 
 The process in general is that of stitching. In stitching 
 
476 Dressmaking 
 
 the thread is brought forward, underneath, the length of 
 two stitches and carried back on the surface the length 
 of one, brought forward two and carried back one. In 
 Cuban fagoting the thread is brought forward two stitches, 
 but in place of one back-stitch two are made, one over 
 the other, before the thread is again carried forward the 
 length of two stitches. 
 
 A stitch is taken yi" long from the starting-point, i to 2, 
 the thread is tied, and the knot is drawn through to the 
 wrong side. The needle is put in with the thread below 
 the needle at 1 and brought out at 3. The distance from 
 2 to 3 equals that from 1 to 2. The first back-stitch is 
 made by putting the needle in at 2 and out at 3. While 
 doing this the thread should still be below the needle or 
 toward the worker. When the second back-stitch and the 
 long forward stitch are taken, by putting the needle back 
 in at 2 and bringing it forward to 4, the thread should 
 be above the needle. To make the first back-stitch, the 
 needle is put in at 3 and brought out at 4, with the thread 
 still above the needle. When the second back-stitch and 
 long forward stitch are taken by putting the needle in 
 again at 3 and bringing it forward to 5, the thread must 
 be below the needle. To make the first back-stitch, the 
 needle is put in at 4 and brought out at 5, with the thread 
 still below the needle. When the second back-stitch and 
 the long forward stitch are taken by putting the needle 
 in again at 4 and bringing it out at 6, the thread must be 
 above the needle. 
 
 The success of the stitch depends almost entirely on 
 keeping the thread in the proper position and in having 
 the stitches at the back entirely distinct. If the needle is 
 caught in these stitches while the work is being done, the 
 thread shows through the holes and the effect is spoiled. 
 
 (26) Rococo or Ribbon Embroidery. 
 
 (a) Use. — Narrow silk embroidery ribbons are fre- 
 quently combined with various kinds of threads in the 
 making of many of the stitches already described. Their 
 chief use, however, is for the so-called ribbon or rococo 
 embroidery. 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 477 
 
 This embroidery is too decorative and perishable to be 
 suitable for all fabrics or for all types of garments. It 
 does not lend itself to conventional designs but rather to 
 the more elaborate floral ones; in consequence, it is more 
 satisfactory on taffeta, chiffon, mousselines de soie, net, and 
 lace, when these are made into such garments as evening 
 coats, waists, and dresses which are not required to give 
 much service. 
 
 (b) Materials. — Embroidery ribbons are made in a vari- 
 ety of colors, either plain or shaded, and in several widths 
 and qualities. The colors most frequently used are the 
 more delicate ones; that is, the soft pinks, blues, lavenders, 
 and greens. There are two widths, %" and %" , of a soft 
 grosgrain with a picot edge, which are much used in form- 
 ing flowers. There are also the softer ribbons as narrow 
 as y&", which are made into flowers and into leaves and 
 stems as well.- Both kinds of ribbon may be combined in 
 one design, or either may be used as flowers, with the 
 twisted embroidery silks serving as stems and leaves. 
 
 (c) Method. — There are three general ways in, which the 
 ribbon may be applied to the fabric: First, by shirring 
 it on one edge and forming it into the desired shape before 
 attaching it. In sewing it to the fabric the raw edges of 
 the ends of the ribbon must be concealed as well as all the 
 necessary stitches. The wider ribbons lend themselves to 
 this treatment better than the narrower. 
 
 Second, the ribbon may be made into loops to form the 
 separate petals of a flower. The ends of the loops are 
 caught to the fabric by invisible stitches, for which sewing- 
 silk of the same color is used. The design is more attract- 
 ive if the ribbon is twisted somewhat and if the arrange- 
 ment is not too much alike for each petal. The ends of the 
 ribbon are usually drawn through to the wrong side and 
 attached. 
 
 Third, both narrow and wide ribbon may be threaded 
 into a needle and drawn back and forth through the fabric, 
 much as is embroidery silk, to form both leaves and flow- 
 ers. This may be done in two ways: (/) by drawing the 
 ribbon through so that it lies perfectly flat on the surface 
 
478 Dressmaking 
 
 of the fabric or (ii) by drawing it through to leave short 
 standing loops. In general the design chosen determines 
 the width of ribbon to be used and the method of appli- 
 cation. In all the designs the ribbons, if shaded, are so 
 applied that the darker tones form the shadows, such as 
 the centre of the flowers or the base of the flower petals. 
 (27) Smocking. 
 
 (a) Use. — Smocking is a decorative method of arrang- 
 ing fulness in garments. It is used to form yokes in waists 
 and skirts, to form cuffs, and to decorate sleeves, waists, 
 and skirts. 
 
 (b) Materials. — The materials used are twisted embroid- 
 ery silks or wools for silk and wool fabrics and embroid- 
 ery cottons, such as D.M.C., for wash fabrics. 
 
 (c) Preparation of the Material. — Much of the beauty 
 of the finished work depends upon the care with which 
 the material is prepared for the smocking. This prepara- 
 tion includes (i) marking and (ii) gathering, both of which 
 are done on the wrong side of the material. The purpose 
 of the gathering is to draw together in even tucks or plaits 
 as much material as is required for fulness. These tucks 
 are then held in place by the smocking stitches which are 
 so taken in their folded edges as to form designs. 
 
 (i) Marking. — To have the tucks absolutely even it is 
 necessary to indicate not only the lines of gathering but 
 the location of each stitch. A series of parallel lines at 
 right angles to each other are made over the entire surface 
 to be smocked. The crosswise lines indicate the direction 
 of the gathering and the lengthwise the length of the space 
 between the gathering stitches. This length of space is 
 determined entirely by the amount of fulness required or 
 desired in the garment. The space may be as small as y&" 
 but usually not less. Too much fulness makes the tucks 
 too deep and the garment clumsy and unbecoming. 
 
 (ii) Gathering. — The rows of gathering are put in on 
 the crosswise lines with a small stitch at each lengthwise 
 line. A separate thread should be used for each row, 
 which is started with a knot. The gathers should be 
 drawn up so that the tucks or plaits which are formed will 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 479 
 
 lie closely side by side. With the tucks held firmly in 
 place, the threads are fastened about pins placed at the 
 end of each row of gathering. 
 
 As smocking is done by joining the tucks in various ways, 
 if the tucks are drawn into shape — that is, if the edge of 
 each tuck is made to he straight its full length — the work is 
 much simplified. When the smocking is finished all the 
 gathering- threads are removed and the tucks spread out 
 in the shape allowed by the design used. 
 
 If the work is done on an evenly striped material, like a 
 dimity, the marking of the lengthwise lines may be omitted 
 and the stripes used as guides. The same care should 
 be taken to keep the crosswise lines straight and evenly 
 spaced. 
 
 There is a great variety of stitches which may be used 
 in joining the tucks. The design depends not only upon 
 the kinds chosen but upon the way in which they are 
 combined. 
 
 If a yoke is to be made, straight lines of stitches which 
 do not allow the tucks to spread or open much are usually 
 chosen to form the neck line; while for the bottom of the 
 yoke the opposite is done, and the decoration is more often 
 in the form of points or curves. 
 
 (d) Stitches. 
 
 (i) Rope-Stitch. — The simplest form of smocking stitch is 
 called the rope-stitch. It is an outline stitch which may be 
 made like the outline stitch or maybe slightly varied. It is 
 worked from left to right. In making the regular outline 
 stitch a small back-stitch is taken up in each tuck, with 
 the thread held above the needle or away from the worker. 
 In the variation, the stitch is the same, but the thread is 
 at the side of the needle next the worker. There is little 
 difference in the appearance of the stitches made by these 
 two methods. The first gives more the appearance of a 
 solid line of color than the latter. 
 
 In making either, the line of tucks is at right angles to 
 the worker, and the stitches are easily taken in the edge of 
 the tuck, putting the needle in from right to left.' This is 
 an excellent stitch, when made in a straight line, to use in 
 
480 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 beginning any smocking. It holds the fulness in place, at 
 a neck line to form a yoke and at the bottom of a sleeve 
 to form a cuff. It may be made in curving lines. Two 
 or more rows may be arranged to form spaces in which 
 
 dots or flowers are placed to 
 give added decoration. 
 
 A variation of the rope-stitch 
 gives two parallel rows of sepa- 
 rate stitches, each stitch includ- 
 ing two folds or plaits. The 
 work is more easily done away 
 from the worker, with the 
 thread first to the left, then to 
 the right of the needle. The 
 thread is drawn to the surface 
 and is carried forward over two 
 plaits. A back-stitch is made 
 in the second plait, with the 
 thread to the left of the needle. 
 Instead of putting the needle in 
 straight toward the worker and 
 bringing it out on the same line, 
 as in regular rope-stitch, it is 
 slanted to the right, to come 
 out in the same fold but a short 
 distance, about Ke" or %", be- 
 low. The thread is carried for- 
 ward on this new line, over two 
 plaits; a back-stitch is taken 
 in the second; this time the 
 thread is to the right of the 
 needle and the needle slants to the left, which brings it 
 back to the original line again. With this method alter- 
 nate folds are joined by the two rows of stitches. 
 
 The outline stitch may be so used as to form points by 
 having the work progress in a slanting direction, first up 
 and then down. Two rows parallel to each other may be 
 used to make a heavier line of points, or two rows may be 
 so placed, facing each other, as to form diamonds. In 
 
 Smocking 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 481 
 
 making the stitches on the upward slant the thread is 
 held below the needle, next the worker. In making the 
 stitches on the downward slant, the thread is held above 
 the needle, away from the worker. 
 
 In detail, the work is this: The thread is drawn to the 
 surface in the first tuck and a back-stitch is taken directly 
 opposite in the second tuck. Then, with the thread below 
 the needle, back-stitches are taken, upward in progression, 
 in three different tucks. After taking the third stitch 
 the thread is thrown above the needle and another stitch 
 is taken opposite this third stitch in the next tuck. This 
 makes the centre point. With the thread still above the 
 needle, three stitches are taken, in downward progression, 
 in three different tucks. After the third stitch is taken, 
 another is made opposite it in the next tuck, with the 
 thread below the needle. This indicates the centre of the 
 point and should be exactly in line with the first stitch 
 taken. The three upward stitches follow with the thread 
 down. The centre of the point is made with the thread 
 up, and so on. 
 
 If a parallel row is made the stitches must be taken 
 and the thread held in the same way in the second row as 
 in the first, and the two must be absolutely parallel. If 
 the rows are placed face to face to form a diamond, in 
 making the first stitch of the three downward stitches 
 the thread must be above the needle for the stitch at the 
 centre point, and for the three upward stitches it must be 
 below, and so on. 
 
 If desired, more than three stitches may be used and 
 the points made deeper. 
 
 (ii) Cable-Stitch.— This stitch has somewhat the same 
 effect as the separated rope-stitches. In this, however, 
 the work is done from left to right along one straight line. 
 Each stitch encloses two tucks. In making these stitches 
 the needle is not slanted, as in the other, but is carried 
 straight through the tucks from right to left. The effect 
 of separate stitches is secured by holding the thread first 
 above and then below the needle. After the thread is 
 drawn to the surface in the first tuck the first stitch is 
 
482 Dressmaking 
 
 taken in the next tuck with the thread above the needle. 
 For the second stitch taken in the third tuck, it is below 
 the needle; for the third stitch, above; and so on. This 
 may be made more elaborate by adding a second row close 
 to the first. But whereas the first stitch in the first row 
 was made with the thread above the needle, in the second 
 row it is made with the thread below the needle. This 
 brings the first stitches in the two rows apart and the 
 second together, the third apart, etc. If a fairly heavy, 
 solid fine of color is desired, three or four rows of this can 
 be used. In this case the first and third rows are alike and 
 the second and fourth. 
 
 {Hi) Diamond-Stitch. — This stitch also forms points 
 which, placed face to each other, form diamonds. Rows 
 of these points are so arranged in diamonds as to form deep 
 points which are very decorative. They are especially 
 satisfactory for the bottom of yokes, as they allow the 
 tucks to spread and the fulness to fall as desired. The 
 stitches slant first down, then up, and, as in forming the 
 other diamonds, in the downward stitches the thread is 
 above the needle and in the upward it is below. 
 
 In working, the thread is drawn to the surface in the 
 first tuck. A stitch is taken directly opposite in the sec- 
 ond tuck, with the thread above the needle. The next 
 stitch is taken y&" below in the third tuck, with the thread 
 still above the needle. With the thread below the needle, 
 the next stitch is taken directly opposite this, in the fourth 
 tuck. With the thread still below, a stitch is taken yi" 
 above, on the original fine. With the thread thrown above 
 the needle, a stitch directly opposite is taken, and another 
 yi" below, and so on. 
 
 In making the second row of points, which completes the 
 first row of diamonds, the same procedure is followed. 
 The thread is so arranged in making the straight stitches 
 at the meeting of the points that they parallel each other. 
 
 The first and second rows of stitches begin in the first 
 tuck; the third row may begin at the third tuck, and so 
 on, to form the point which may be regulated in width and 
 in length according to taste. 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 483 
 
 (iv) Van Dyke Stitch. — Unlike the majority of stitches, 
 this begins at the right and progresses to the left. The 
 stitches in this slant, first down, then up, and form points, 
 and these points, placed face to face, form diamonds. 
 
 The thread is drawn to the surface in the second plait 
 and a stitch is taken to include it and the first plait, bringing 
 the needle out as at first. One-eighth inch below, the needle 
 is passed through the second and third plaits and a stitch 
 is taken back over them, with the needle brought out in the 
 same place. The next stitch is on the original line, through 
 the third and fourth plaits, with a stitch over them. Work- 
 ing in this way brings more of the embroidery thread on 
 the top of the tucks. The same effect with more elasticity 
 may be obtained by combining one and two on the first 
 line, three and four on the second, five and six on the first, 
 and so on. 
 
 (v) Plain Smocking. — A simple form of smocking is 
 often used. It gives fulness, but shows very little of the 
 embroidery materials and is not so decorative as the 
 methods just described. 
 
 Dots instead of lines may be made to indicate the posi- 
 tions. If the lines are used the lengthwise are put in, as 
 for the other work, but the crosswise must be nearer to- 
 gether. The distance between them usually nearly equals 
 that of the lengthwise. Gatherings need not be put in; 
 the tucks and folds are caught together by stitches placed 
 at the intersection of the two sets of lines. 
 
 The work is done from left to right, beginning in the 
 upper left-hand corner. Two rows of alternating stitches, 
 each stitch joining two tucks, are made at a time; that is, 
 the first and second rows, the third and fourth, etc. The 
 slanting threads which are necessarily made in passing from 
 one row to another show only on the back. The thread is 
 brought up in the first or upper row through the first tuck, 
 which is joined to the second tuck by two back-stitches 
 taken one over the other. In making the second back- 
 stitch the needle is put back through the second tuck at 
 the same point and is carried straight down to the second 
 row, and brought out in this same fold, the second, which 
 
484 Dressmaking 
 
 is then joined at this point to the third tuck by two back- 
 stitches. The needle is put back through the material at 
 this point, carried straight up to the first row, and brought 
 out in this same fold, the third, which is then joined at 
 this point to the fourth tuck, and so on until the first and 
 second rows are finished. In smocking in this way, the 
 second or last tuck of the group enclosed by one stitch 
 should form the first tuck of the group to be enclosed by 
 the succeeding stitch. The third and fourth rows are done 
 in the same way, and the fifth and sixth, to the desired 
 number. 
 
 This may be arranged, as were the diamonds, to form a 
 deep point or a succession of points. 
 
 (vi) Feather-Stitching and Chain-Stitching. — These may 
 both be used to keep the tucks in place. For both, the 
 material must first be gathered. The work proceeds as 
 usual, the stitches joining as many tucks as desired. 
 
 (vii) French Knots and Flowers. — Various decorations 
 may be added in the way of French knots and flowers. 
 These are usually placed in the centre of diamonds or 
 between curved rows of rope-stitch. Both French knots 
 and the lazy daisy are used. They are made as already 
 directed in this chapter. In addition to these there is a 
 small flower which is made of stitches resembling those 
 used in the smocking itself. 
 
 It is made as follows: The needle is brought up to the 
 surface in a tuck (4) and a stitch is taken joining this 
 tuck to the next (5). A second stitch is taken, below and 
 parallel to this first, close to it, and joining the same two 
 tucks. The thread is then carried back underneath, to a 
 tuck (3), and a stitch is taken joining two tucks (3) and (4). 
 This stitch should be just below the last and practically 
 touching it at tuck 4. A second stitch is taken here also, 
 below and parallel to the first, close to it, and joining the 
 same two tucks. From this stitch the needle is brought 
 out in tuck 4 and a stitch is taken joining two tucks (4) 
 and (5), followed by a parallel stitch. These two stitches 
 should touch the last two at tuck 4 and should be directly 
 under the first two, as they join the same two tucks. The 
 
Finishings and Embroidery 485 
 
 needle is then carried up to join two tucks (5) and (6) with 
 two parallel stitches, which should be directly opposite 
 those joining the tucks 3 and 4. This completes the mak- 
 ing of one flower. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 HISTORY OF COSTUME 
 
 Racinet: "Histoire du Costume." 
 
 Erman: "Life in Ancient Egypt." 
 
 Wilkinson: "The Ancient Egyptian." 
 
 Evans: "Greek Dress." 
 
 Hope: "Costume of the Ancients." 
 
 Abrahams: "Greek Dress." 
 
 Preston and Dodge: "Private Life of the Romans." 
 
 Smith: "Dictionary of Classical Antiquities." 
 
 Harper: "Dictionary of Classical Antiquities." 
 
 Planche: "History and Cyclopedia of Costume." 
 
 Quicherat: "Histoire du Costume en France." 
 
 Viollet-le-Duc: " Dictionnaire du Mobilier Frangais." 
 
 Renan: "Le Costume en France." 
 
 Robida: "Ten Centuries of Toilette." 
 
 Hottenroth: "Le Costume chez les Peuples Anciens et Modernes." 
 
 Pauquet Freres: "Modes et Costumes Historiques." 
 
 Challamel: "The History of Costume in France from Gallo-Roman 
 to Present Time." 
 
 Le Comte de Riset: "Modes et usages au temps de Marie An- 
 toinette." 
 
 La Croix: "Manners, Customs and Dress During the Middle 
 Ages and Renaissance." 
 
 Uzanne: "Fashion in Paris. 1797-1897." 
 
 Hughes: "Dress Design, An Account of Costume for Artists and 
 Dressmakers." 
 
 Fairholt: " Costume in England." 
 
 Calthorp: "English Costume." 
 
 Hill: "History of English Dress." 
 
 Ashdown: "British Costume." 
 
 Clinch: "English Costume." 
 
 McClellan: "Historic Dress in America." 
 
 TEXTILES 
 
 Woolman and McGowan: "Textiles." 
 Walton: "The Story of Textiles." 
 
 486 
 
Bibliography 487 
 
 American School of Correspondence: "Cyclopedia of Textile 
 
 Work." 
 Posselt: "Textile Library." 
 Barker: "Textiles." 
 Watson: "Textiles and Clothing." 
 Dooley: "Textiles." 
 Gibbs: "Household Textiles." 
 Matthews: "Textile Fibres." 
 
 Mitchell and Prideau: "Fibres Used in Textile Industries." 
 Kinne and Cooley: "Shelter and Clothing." 
 Earle: "Home Life in Colonial Days." 
 Marsden: "Cotton Spinning." 
 Marsden: "Cotton Weaving." 
 Nasmith: "Students' Cotton Spinning." 
 Hooper: "Hand Loom Weaving." 
 Brooks: "Cotton." 
 
 Wilkinson: "The Story of the Cotton Plant." 
 McLaren: "Wool Spinning." 
 
 American Woolen Company: "From Wool to Cloth." 
 Chittick: "Silk Manufacturing and Its Problems." 
 Bennet: "Cotton Glossary." 
 Bennet: "Woolen and Worsted Glossary." 
 American Silk Company: "Glossary of Silk Terms." 
 Kastanek: "Manual of Weave Construction." 
 Watson: "Textile Design and Color." 
 Watson: "Advanced Textile Design." 
 Pellew: "Dyes and Dyeing." 
 
 DRESSMAKING 
 
 DESIGN 
 
 Dow: "Composition." 
 
 Ross: "A Theory of Pure Design." 
 
 Ross: "On Drawing and Painting." 
 
 COLOR 
 
 Munsell: "A Color Notation." 
 
 TECHNIQUE 
 
 Woolman: "A Sewing Course." 
 
 Butterick Publishing Co.: "The Dressmaker." 
 
 Baldt: " Clothing for Women." 
 
488 Bibliograpliy 
 
 LACE 
 
 Sharp: "Point and Pillow Lace." 
 Palliser: "History of Lace." 
 
 EMBROIDERY 
 
 Day: "Art in Needlework." 
 
 Christie: "Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving. 
 
 "D. M. C. Encyclopedia of Needlework." 
 
INDEX 
 
 Accuracy — 
 
 in designing, 296. 
 in technique, 156. 
 Alterations — 
 
 foundation skirt, 207, 208. 
 in commercial patterns, 239, 240. 
 kimono-waist, 237, 238, 265-267. 
 shirt-waist, 183, 241-244. 
 shirt-waist sleeve, i8g, 242. 
 skirt, 247-249. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 230, 246, 247. 
 tight-fitting waist, 244-246. 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 223. 
 Angle-stripper, 51. 
 Apotygma, 6. 
 
 Appearance of hand-loom, 68-71. 
 Appreciation — 
 
 development, 250, 251. 
 necessary in designing, 250. 
 Armseye — 
 
 basting sleeve to, shirt-waist, 188, 189, 
 
 331; tight-fitting, 229. 
 covering padded sleeve at, 292. 
 darting, 222. 
 facing, 431. 
 
 finishing, in evening-waist lining, 372; 
 in guimpe, 352; in semifitting li- 
 ning, 359, 360; in shirt-waist, 334, 
 34 2 > 343; in tight-fitting lining, 
 365- 
 lines of, matched in basting — 
 
 in shirt-waist, 181, 328; in tight- 
 fitting waist, 219, 220. 
 locating, in designing kimono-waist, 
 266; in shirt-waist, 183; in tight- 
 fitting waist, 221. 
 marking — 
 by colored basting, in dress-form 
 cover, 291, 292; in draped li- 
 ning, 299; in guimpe, 347; in 
 shirt-waist, 180, 181, 327; in 
 tight-fitting waist, 219-223. 
 by tracing, in designing yokes, 264; 
 in shirt-waist, 180, 326; in 
 tight-fitting waist, 219. 
 regulation measure of, in shirt-waist, 
 174; in shirt-waist sleeve, 184; in 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 224; in tight- 
 fitting waist, 209. 
 removing fulness at, in draping kimo- 
 no, 302. 
 
 seam allowances for, in shirt-waist, 
 
 180, 299, 322; in tight-fitting 
 waist, 217, 218. 
 
 sleeve-fitting dependent on, 189, 229. 
 
 spreading shoulder seams at, in de- 
 signing collars, 264. 
 
 taking measure of, 169. 
 
 testing in commercial patterns, in 
 shirt-waist, 241, 242; in tight- 
 fitting waist, 244. 
 Arrowhead tacks — 
 
 making by more complicated method, 
 447-449. 45o. 
 
 making by simplest method, 446, 447. 
 
 making of design, 446. 
 
 methods of making, 446, 447. 
 
 variations, 449, 450. 
 Artificial silk, 116, 117. 
 Automatic feed, 50. 
 
 Basquine, 19. 
 Basting — 
 
 collars, 220, 351. 
 
 cotton used for, isg, 160. 
 
 darts, 204, 205, 387. 
 
 linings, 357. 
 
 plackets in skirts, 205. 
 
 seams, general rules for, 422. 
 
 shirt-waists, 181, 327-333. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeves, 188. 
 
 skirts, 384-388. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeves, 228, 229. 
 
 tight-fitting waists, 223. 
 Batten, 68. 
 
 Bar tacks, making, 446. 
 Belts- 
 fastenings in foundation skirts or 
 linings, 406, 407. 
 
 making and attaching in foundation 
 skirts or linings, 387, 405, 406. 
 
 making and attaching in kimono- 
 waists, 236. 
 
 making and attaching in semifitting 
 linings, 358, 359. 
 
 making and attaching in shirt-waists, 
 
 181, 182, 183, 329._336. 
 making and attaching in skirts, 205, 
 
 206, 208, 388, 389, 404-415. 
 making and attaching in tight-fitting 
 
 linings, 364, 365. 
 making in lingerie dresses, 408, 409. 
 
 489 
 
490 
 
 Index 
 
 use in foundation skirts or linings, 
 
 4°S- 
 
 width in finishing skirts at waist line, 
 407. 
 Bertha, 45. 
 Bias bindings — 
 
 simulated fold, 434, 435. 
 
 true bias, 433, 434. 
 
 use for edge finishes, 433-435. 
 Bias edges, basting, 204. 
 Bias facings — 
 
 for foundation skirts or linings, 388. 
 Bias folds — ■ 
 
 attaching, 433, 434. 
 
 cutting and making, 433. 
 
 on scalloped edges, 434. 
 
 use in joining ruffles to foundation 
 skirts or linings, 419, 420. 
 Binding — ■ 
 
 continuous, for bound buttonholes, 
 441, 442. 
 
 for tailor buttonhole, 444. 
 
 in two sections, for bound button- 
 holes, 442, 443. 
 
 use on seam edges, 423. 
 Bindings, use in skirts, 419. 
 Bisymmetric line arrangement — 
 
 in design of costume, 256. 
 Bleaching, 117. 
 Bleaching, scouring, and dyeing, 117- 
 
 119. 
 Bliaud, 12-14. 
 Block-printing — 
 
 by hand, 139. 
 
 by machine, 139. 
 Bobbin, 56, 70. 
 
 Bodice, in historic costume, 20, 21, 22, 
 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 39, 
 42. 
 Boning — 
 
 seams of tight-fitting lining, 361- 
 
 363, 364. 
 Bound buttonholes — 
 
 binding material, 441, 442, 443. 
 
 finishing, 445. 
 
 marking, 440, 441. 
 
 methods of making — 
 
 continuous binding, 441, 442. 
 two sections of binding, 442, 443. 
 
 reinforcing material, 440. 
 
 size, 440. 
 
 use for fastenings, 440-443, 445. 
 Box plaits — 
 
 making, in shirt-waist, 317, 318 
 Bradford system — 
 
 doubling and drawing, 92, 93. 
 
 gilling, 92. 
 
 spinning, 93. 
 Breaker, 52. 
 Burr guards, 51. 
 Burr-picking, 94. 
 
 Bustle, in historic costume, 47. 
 Buttonholes — 
 
 making in non-tailored waists, 346. 
 
 making in tailored waists, 345, 346. 
 Buttons and buttonholes — 
 
 use for fastenings, 440. 
 
 Cap spinning, 66. 
 Carding — 
 
 cotton, 53. 
 
 hand, 49, 50. 
 
 machine, 50-83. 
 
 process of, 48-53. 
 
 wool, 50-53. 
 Carding-machines — 
 
 for cotton, 53. 
 
 for wool, 50-53- 
 Cases for embroidery silks, 453. 
 Centre-front decoration — 
 
 designing on skirt pattern, 271, 272. 
 Chemise, in historic costume, 14, 19, 37. 
 Chiton, 6, 7. 
 Circular flounces — 
 
 designing on skirt pattern, 286. 
 
 joining to foundation skirts or linings, 
 420. 
 
 use in foundation skirts or linings, 
 420. 
 Circular skirts — 
 
 cut with four gores, 380. 
 
 cut with two gores, 379. 
 
 designing on skirt pattern, 285, 286. 
 Classes of fibres, 76. 
 Classification of weaves, 129. 
 Cloth-beam, 68. 
 Clothing, 50. 
 
 Coiffure a. la Fontanges, 27, 28. 
 Cold-water retting, n 1. 
 Collars — 
 
 alteration of pattern, 223. 
 
 attaching to guimpe, 351, 352. 
 
 attaching to semifitting lining, 360. 
 
 basting for fitting, 220. 
 
 basting in guimpes, 351. 
 
 basting for tracing, 219. 
 
 boning in guimpes, 351. 
 
 cutting in guimpes, 348. 
 
 cutting in material, 218. 
 
 decoration in shirt-waist making, 322. 
 
 designing on shirt-waist pattern, 264. 
 
 drafting pattern, 215, 216. 
 
 draping pattern in guimpes, 349, 350. 
 
 fastenings in guimpe, 352. 
 
 finishing top in guimpe, 351, 352. 
 
 finishing in tight-fitting lining, 367, 
 368. 
 
 fitting, 222, 223. 
 
 making for dress-form cover, 291. 
 
 making in guimpes, 349-351. 
 
 making in tight-fitting linings, 367. 
 
 making pattern for, 217-224. 
 
Index 
 
 491 
 
 marking pattern — 
 
 in cloth, 219. 
 
 in paper, 218. 
 measures, how taken, 168, 169. 
 padding for dress-form cover, 292. 
 placing on material, 218. 
 rebasting pattern, 223. 
 refitting pattern, 223. 
 regulation measures, 209. 
 seam allowances for, 217, 218. 
 taking measures for, 168, 169. 
 testing draft, 217. 
 Collars and collar-bands — 
 
 basting in shirt-waists, 331, 332. 
 making in shirt-waists, 332, 336-338. 
 placing and cutting in shirt-waists, 
 
 324. 325- 
 
 seam allowances for, 322. 
 Collar-bands — 
 
 buttonholes, 345. 
 
 placing and cutting, 325. 
 Colonial loom, 68. 
 Color in costume — 
 
 choice, 258, 259. 
 
 combinations, 258, 259. 
 
 in relation to eyes, 259. 
 
 in relation to hair, 259. 
 
 in relation to light, 259. 
 
 in relation to personality, 259. 
 
 in relation to skin, 259. 
 Color in materials — 
 
 difference in, in cutting, 163, 164. 
 Commercial patterns — 
 
 makes, 239. 
 
 measures, 239, 240. 
 
 preliminary directions for use — 
 cutting, 240, 241; fitting, 239; 
 placing, 239, 240; reading di- 
 rections, 239; testing, 239, 240. 
 
 shirt-waist, directions for use, 241- 
 244. 
 
 shirt-waist, fitting, 242-244. 
 
 shirt-waist, purchase, 241. 
 
 shirt-waist, testing, 241, 242. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, directions for use, 
 242. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, testing, 242. 
 
 skirt, fitting, 247-249. 
 
 skirt, purchase, 247. 
 
 skirt, testing, 247-249. 
 
 special directions for use, 241-249. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, testing, 246, 247. 
 
 tight-fitting waist, directions for use, 
 244-247. 
 
 tight-fitting waist, fitting, 247. 
 
 tight-fitting waist, purchase, 244. 
 
 tight-fitting waist, testing, 244-246. 
 
 use, 239. 
 Comparison of fibres, 123-126. 
 Condenser, 53. 
 Consulate, fashions of the, 38, 39. 
 
 Cordings — 
 attaching, 436-438. 
 making, 435, 436. 
 use to finish hems, 438. 
 use to finish skirt edges, 437. 
 use to join sleeves and cuffs, 437, 438. 
 Cordings and pipings — 
 use as edge finishes, 435. 
 use in skirts, 419. 
 Corset, 19, 37. 
 Costume — 
 
 accessories for use in design, 261. 
 bisymmetric line arrangement in de- 
 sign, 256. 
 choice of colors, 258, 259. 
 Egyptian, 3-5. 
 eighteenth century, 28-39. 
 factors important in choice of design, 
 
 254. 255- 
 good proportion, 255, 256. 
 Greek, 5-8. 
 
 harmony of line in design, 256. 
 historic development, 1-48. 
 lines in opposition in design, 256, 257. 
 lines in subordination in design, 257. 
 lines in transition in design, 257. 
 nineteenth century, 39-47. 
 of Gauls, Gallo-Franks, early Franks, 
 and French through Middle 
 Ages, 10-18. 
 purpose, 252. 
 
 repetition of lines in design, 256. 
 rhythmic arrangement of lines in de- 
 sign, 256. 
 Roman, 9, 10. 
 seventeenth century,. 23-28. 
 simplicity in construction, 157. 
 simplicity in design, 255. 
 sixteenth century, 18-23. 
 space relation in design, 256, 257, 258. 
 texture of fabric in design, 259, 260,261. 
 unity of design, 255. 
 Costume books, securing, 252. 
 Costume prints — 
 
 collection for use in designing, 251. 
 securing, 251. 
 Cotle, 14, 16, 20. 
 Cotton — 
 colors for use in basting, 160. 
 for basting, 159, 160. 
 processes of manufacture — ■ 
 baling, 77 
 carding, 79. 
 combing, 79, 80. 
 doubling and drawing, 80. 
 drawing and twisting, 80, 81. 
 field picking, 77. 
 finishing: 
 
 (a) regular processes: 
 bleaching, dyeing, or printing, 
 83- 
 
492 
 
 Index 
 
 calendering, 8.3. 
 inspecting and marking for re- 
 pairs, 82. 
 repairing, 82 
 singeing, 83. 
 spraying, 83 
 starching, 82. 
 (b) special processes, 83, 84. 
 ginning, 77. 
 opening, 78. 
 picking, 78, 79. 
 spinning, 81. 
 twisting, 81. 
 weaving, 81, 82. 
 weighing, 77. 
 texture of, 259, 260. 
 Cotton, processes of manufacture for, 
 
 76-84. 
 Cotton carding, 53. 
 Creel feed, 52. 
 Critical faculty — ■ 
 
 how secured, 251, 252. 
 important factor in original design- 
 ing, 250. 
 Crampton's mule, 60, 61. 
 Crow tacks, making of, 450, 451. 
 Cuffs- 
 buttonholes, 34s, 346. 
 decoration in shirt-waist making, 322. 
 folding material for, 341. 
 making and attaching in tailored 
 
 shirt-sleeve, 340-342. 
 making in non-tailored or fancy 
 
 sleeve, 344, 345. 
 placing and cutting for shirt-waist, 
 
 325. 326. 
 seam allowances, 322, 325, 341. 
 stiffening for, 326, 340, 341. 
 styles in non-tailored or fancy sleeve, 
 
 344. 345- 
 use of striped material, 325, 326. 
 
 Cylinders, 50, 51, 52. 
 
 Darts — 
 
 basting, 204, 205, 387. 
 
 direction at hip of four-gore skirt, 
 
 196. 
 in armseye of tight-fitting waist, 221, 
 
 222. 
 in five-gore skirt design, 272. 
 in folds of net in V-shaped neck line, 
 
 370, 37 1- 
 marking, 202. 
 
 position in fitting skirts, 206, 207. 
 to remove fulness in foundation-skirt 
 
 draft, 195, 196. 
 to remove fulness in four-gore skirt, 
 
 198. 
 to remove fulness in five-gore skirt, 
 
 198. 
 
 to remove fulness in seven-gore skirt, 
 200. 
 
 to remove fulness in skirts, 386, 387. 
 Decoration — 
 
 kinds in shirt-waists, 318. 
 
 of cuff in shirt-waist making, 322. 
 
 of sleeve in shirt-waist making, 322. 
 
 of waist in shirt-waist making, 318- 
 321. 
 Decorative methods of finishing — 
 
 plaits, stitching, buttons, etc., 446- 
 
 45i. 
 use of arrowhead tacks, 446-450. 
 use of bar tacks, 446. 
 use of crow tacks, 450, 451. 
 Decorative ways of securing fulness, 
 
 445. 446. 
 Design by — 
 
 warp printing, 128, 129. 
 weaves, 129-139. 
 yarn, 127, 128. 
 Design — 
 
 choice for costume, 252. 
 
 choice in relation to design, 155, 156. 
 
 in textiles — 
 
 structural, 126-139. 
 surface, 139-141. 
 of costume — 
 
 determined by textile, 155, 156. 
 with color, 139, 140. 
 by hand: 
 
 block-printing, 139. 
 stencilling, 139. 
 by machine: 
 
 block-printing, 139. 
 machine printing, 140. 
 without color, 140, 141. 
 moireing, 141. 
 on plain weave, 140. 
 on pile weave, 140, 141. 
 Designing — 
 
 flat-paper work, 262-288. 
 handling materials, 294, 295. 
 illustrative materials, 251, 252. 
 important factors, 296, 297. 
 kimono-waist, 265-267, 301-303. 
 linings, 298-301. 
 mousquetaire sleeve, 309, 310. 
 necessary elements involved, 250-261'. 
 on dress-form, 289-303. 
 shirt-waist decoration, 301. 
 shirt-waists in flat paper, 262-267. 
 shirt-waist sleeves on padded form, 
 
 •305, 306. 
 skirts in flat paper, 270-288. 
 skirts on dress-form, 310-312. 
 sleeves in flat paper, 268-270. 
 sleeves on form and stiff-paper pat- 
 tern, 303-310. 
 suggestive problems, 297-312. 
 technique based on, 289. 
 
Index 
 
 493 
 
 tight-fitting sleeves, 309, 310. 
 
 lined, 309; unlined, 309, 310. 
 tight-fitting-sleeve linings, 306-309. 
 Development of spinning-machine, 5 7-67. 
 Dew retting, in. 
 Directory, fashions of the, 37, 38. 
 Distaff, 54. 
 Dobby, 73. 
 Doffer, 51, 53. 
 Doffer comb, 51. 
 Doric chiton, 6. 
 Drafting — 
 
 basis for designing, 262. 
 
 general construction lines, 172, 173. 
 
 kinds of garments — 
 
 foundation skirt, 190-195. 
 kimono-waist, 230. 
 shirt-waist, 174-179. 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 184-187. 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 224-227. 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 209- 
 216. 
 practicability, 173. 
 regulation measures — 
 
 foundation skirt, 190; kimono- 
 waist, 230; shirt-waist, 174; 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 184; tight- 
 fitting sleeve, 224; tight-fitting 
 waist and collar, 209. 
 taking measures for, 166-170. 
 testing — 
 
 in kimono, 234, 235; in shirt-waist, 
 179; in shirt-waist sleeve, 187; 
 in skirt, 195, 196, 200-202; in 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 227; in 
 tight-fitting waist, 217. 
 tools, 172. 
 use — 
 
 for designing, 262, 265, 268, 270, 
 
 271, 289, 303, 304. 
 for securing patterns, 315, 354, 355, 
 
 373, 374- 
 Drafting system — 
 
 advantages, 172. k 
 
 garments included, 172. 
 —order of procedure, 174. 
 Draped skirts — 
 
 how made, 374, 375. 
 
 materials for, 375. 
 Draped waists, style of, 313, 314. 
 Draping on dress-form. See Designing. 
 Drawing, 54. 
 Drawing-off rolls, 51. 
 Dress-form — 
 
 designing on, 289-303. 
 
 preparation for draping, 289-293. 
 
 technique, 294. 
 Dress-form cover — 
 
 preparation, 290-293; collar, 291, 292; 
 skirt, 292, 293; sleeve, 292; waist, 
 290, 291, 292. 
 
 "Dressmaking-sewing," definition of 
 
 term, 156. 
 Drop-box, 71. 
 
 Drying material after shrinking, 161. 
 Dyeing, n 7-1 19. 
 
 Early hand weaving, 67, 68. 
 Edge finishes, 430-438. 
 bias bindings, 433-435- 
 cordings and pipings, 435-438. 
 facings, 431, 432. 
 hems, 430, 431. 
 linings for drapery, 432. 
 machine hemstitching, 438. 
 rolling and whipping, 438. 
 Egyptian costume, 3-5. 
 Eighteenth-century, costume, 28-39. 
 Elastic — 
 
 use in evening-waist linings, 370-372. 
 Embroidery, 451-485. 
 color in, 451, 452. 
 design in, 451, 452. 
 materials — 
 
 kinds, 453, 454. 
 
 preparation of for smocking, 478, 
 479- 
 patterns for, 452. 
 ribbons for, 477. 
 stitches, 454-485 
 beading-stitch, 460. 
 bullion stitch, 466, 467. 
 chain-stitch, 457, 458; in smocking, 
 
 484. 
 coral stitch, 462, 463. 
 couching, 467-469. 
 brick, 468, 469. 
 plain, 468. 
 puffy, 468. 
 twisted, 469. 
 fagoting, 471-476. 
 Bermuda, 472, 473. 
 Cuban, 475, 476. 
 French, 473-475- 
 straight, 472. 
 by use of Indian herring-bone 
 
 stitch, 472. 
 by use of plain herring-bone 
 stitch, 472. 
 feather-chain stitch, 459, 460. 
 feather-stitch, 460-462. 
 use in smocking, 484. 
 • use with lazy daisy, 459. 
 French knots, 465, 466. 
 use in smocking, 484. 
 use with lazy daisy, 459. 
 German knot stitch, 471. 
 herring-bone stitch, 464, 465. 
 
 use in fagoting, 472. 
 Indian herring-bone, 465. 
 
 use in fagoting, 472. 
 interlacing stitch, 469, 470. 
 
494 
 
 Index 
 
 lazy-daisy stitch, 459. 
 
 use in smocking, 484. 
 magic chain-stitch, 458. 
 oriental stitch, 463. 
 outline stitch, 456, 457. 
 
 use in smocking, 479, 480. 
 Portuguese laid work, 456, 457. 
 rococo or ribbon embroidery, 476- 
 
 478. 
 running stitch, 454-456. 
 
 in Portuguese laid work, 456. 
 satin stitch, 463, 464. 
 
 use in padding, 464. 
 seed stitch, 470, 471. 
 smocking — 
 
 preparation of material, 478, 479. 
 stitches, 479-485. 
 cable, 481, 482. 
 diamond, 482. 
 plain smocking, 483, 484. 
 rope, 479-481. 
 Van Dyke, 483. 
 use of feather-stitching and chain- 
 stitching, 484. 
 use of French knots and flowers, 
 484, 485. 
 wide chain-stitch, 458, 459. 
 tools, 452, 453. 
 
 cases for silks, 453, frames, 453; 
 needles, 453. 
 use in finishing hems, 430, 431. 
 Emery, 158. 
 
 Empire, fashions of the, 39-41. 
 Evening-waist linings- 
 cut to extend to bust line, finishing, 
 
 37i. 372. 
 cut to extend over shoulder, finishing, 
 
 369-371. 
 designing on dress-form, 300, 301. 
 making and finishing, 369-372. 
 pattern, how secured, 355, 356. 
 
 Fabrics — 
 
 general comparison, 142, 143. 
 testing for fibres and finish, 145-153. 
 testing for strength and color, 143- 
 
 153- 
 tests, 141-153. 
 Facings — 
 attaching to foundation skirts or 
 
 linings, 407. 
 fasteners for in foundation skirts or 
 
 linings, 407. 
 for irregular-shaped pieces, 432. 
 for scalloped edges, 432. 
 making and attaching to edges, 431, 
 
 432. 
 preparing for foundation skirts or 
 
 linings, 407. 
 use for edge finishes, 431, 432. 
 use in skirts, 418. 
 
 Fagoting — 
 
 use in finishing hems, 430, 431. 
 
 use in finishing seams, 430. 
 Fancy, 51. 
 
 Fancy hems, making in skirts, 418. 
 Fastenings, 438-445. 
 
 belt for foundation skirt or linings, 
 406, 407. 
 
 bound buttonholes, 440-443, 445. 
 
 buttons and buttonholes, 440. 
 
 guimpes, 352. 
 
 hooks and eyes, 439. 
 
 hooks and loops, 439. 
 
 hooks and peets, 439. 
 
 importance of, 439. 
 
 kinds of, 438. 
 
 plackets in tailored skirts, 400, 401. 
 
 semifitting linings, 358. 
 
 semi-tailored skirts, 404. 
 
 separate skirts, 413. 
 
 snaps for, 439, 440. 
 
 standing belt of skirts, 388. 
 
 tailor buttonholes, 443-445. 
 
 tight-fitting lining, 364. 
 Featherbone — ■ 
 
 preparing and attaching, 363 
 Feed — 
 
 automatic, 50. 
 
 creel, 52. 
 
 traverse. 52. 
 Feeding the fibre, 52. 
 Feeling — . 
 
 necessary in designing, 250. 
 Fell seam — 
 
 attaching sleeve to semifitting lining, 
 35Q- 
 
 attaching tailored sleeve to waist, 343. 
 
 making and use, 424, 425. 
 
 use in semifitting lining, 357, 358. 
 
 use in shirt-waists, 335. 
 
 use in skirts, 393. 
 Fibre- 
 feeding the, 52; removing the, 52, 53. 
 Fibres — 
 
 classes, 76; comparison of, 123-126; 
 substitutes for, 150; testing for 
 cotton, 145; for linen, 152, 153; 
 for silk, 149-15 1 ; for wool, 146- 
 148. 
 Fichu, in historic costume, 11, 35, 36, 
 
 40, 47. 
 Final processes necessary for both 
 woolen and worsted — 
 
 burling, 97. 
 
 fulling, 97. 
 
 gigging and shearing, 98. 
 
 inspecting, 99. 
 
 mending, 97. 
 
 perching or inspecting, 96. 
 
 steaming, 98. 
 
 tentering, 99. 
 
Index 
 
 495 
 
 twisting, g5. 
 washing, 98. 
 weaving, 96. 
 Finish — 
 
 testing for — 
 cotton, 145, 146. 
 linen, 153. 
 silk, 151, 152. 
 wool, 148, 149. 
 Finisher, 52. 
 Finishes for bottom line of foundation 
 
 skirts or linings, kinds, 419, 420. 
 Finishes for bottom line of skirts, kinds, 
 
 41S. 
 Finishes for edges, 430-438. 
 Finishes for seams, 421-430. 
 Finishing bottom line of skirts, tunics, 
 
 etc., 415-420. 
 Finishing bottoms of waists — 
 in shirt-waists, 336. 
 in tight-fitting linings, 365. 
 Finishing — 
 
 by decorative methods, 446-451. 
 guimpes, 351, 352. 
 linings, 357~37o. 
 
 evening-waist, 369-372; girdles, 
 372; semifitting, 357-360; 
 tight-fitting,,36o-369; princess, 
 372. 
 shirt-waists, 333-346. 
 skirts, 389-420. 
 waist lines in skirts, 404-415. 
 Finishing processes usual for woolen, 99, 
 
 100; worsted, 99. 
 Finishings — 
 choice of, 421. 
 kinds of, 421. 
 Fitting — 
 
 commercial patterns, 240, 242-249. 
 shirt-waist, 242-244. 
 tight-fitting waist, 247. 
 skirt, 247-249. 
 general rules, 165. 
 guimpes, 351. 
 kimono-waist, 236, 237 
 linings, 357. 
 shirt-waist sleeves, 188. 
 shirt-waists, 181-183, 332, 333. 
 skirts, 205-207, 388, 389. 
 tight-fitting sleeves, 229, 230. 
 tight-fitting waists, 220-223. 
 Five-gore skirts, how cut, 380. 
 Flaring or full skirts, how cut, 378. 
 Flat-paper work. See Pattern-design- 
 ing. 
 Fly-shuttle, 71. 
 Flyer, 56, 57. 
 Flyer spinning, 66, 67. 
 Foundation — 
 
 cutting away in guimpe, 351. 
 draping in guimpe, 347, 348. 
 
 Foundation skirts or linings — 
 
 attaching belt, 406. 
 
 attaching facing, 407. 
 
 circular flounces in finishing, 420. 
 
 cutting and finishing, 419, 420. 
 
 fastenings for belt, 406, 407. 
 
 fastenings for facing, 407. 
 
 finishes for bottom, 419, 420. 
 
 finishing waist line, 387, 388, 405-407. 
 
 how made, 373. 
 
 making belt, 405, 406. 
 
 making placket, 395, 396. 
 
 materials, 373. 
 
 placing plackets, 395. 
 
 preparing facing, 407. 
 
 use of bias fold in joining ruffles, 419, 
 420. 
 
 use of tucks in joining ruffles, 4ig, 
 420. 
 Four-gore division — 
 
 use in designing, 272. 
 Four-gore skirts, how cut, 379, 380. 
 Frames, for embroidery, 453. 
 French seam — 
 
 joining sleeve to semifitting lining, 
 359- 
 
 making, 425, 426. 
 
 semifitting lining, 357. 
 
 use, 425. 
 
 use in skirts, 392. 
 
 use in shirt-waists, 335. 
 French system, back-washing — 
 
 doubling and drawing, 93, 94. 
 
 gilling, 93. 
 
 spinning, 94. 
 Fulness — 
 
 removing in skirt hems, 417, 418. 
 
 securing, 445, 446. 
 
 Garde corps, 15. 
 Gathered skirts — 
 
 designing on skirt pattern, 282-285. 
 
 how cut, 378. 
 
 methods of procedure, 282. 
 
 placing on material, 382. 
 Gibson plait — • 
 
 designing on shirt-waist pattern, 263. 
 Girdle, in historic costume, 8, 9, 10, 11, 
 
 14, 16, 18, 21, 31, 37. 
 Girdles — 
 
 finishing edges, 372. 
 
 pattern, how secured, 355, 356. 
 Good quality in material, requisites for, 
 
 121-123. 
 Gore divisions — 
 
 arrangement in skirts, 378-380. 
 
 circular skirts with four, 380. 
 
 circular skirts with two, 379. 
 
 for dress- form cover, 293. 
 
 in foundation-skirt pattern, 196-200. 
 
 peg-top skirts, 379. 
 
496 
 
 Index 
 
 skirts with five, 380. 
 
 skirts with six, 380. 
 
 skirts with seven, 380. 
 
 straight skirts with four, 379, 380. 
 
 straight skirts with two, 379. 
 Gores — 
 
 five-gore division of skirt, 198. 
 
 four-gore division of skirt, 196-198. 
 
 seven-gore division of skirt, 200. 
 
 six-gore division of skirt, 198. 
 
 two-gore division of skirt, 200. 
 
 marking, 203, 204. 
 
 placing on material, 203, 380-382. 
 
 testing, 200-202. 
 
 trueing lines of, 202. 
 Gores, plain — 
 
 basting for fitting, 204, 384, 385. 
 Gores with tucks or plaits — 
 
 basting for fitting, 385. 
 Grain of material, 348. 
 
 importance in dressmaking, 161; in 
 skirt cutting, 375. 
 
 importance in designing, 252, 296. 
 
 in arranging folds in designing, 296, 
 
 297. 
 Greek costume, 5-8; return to, 37. 
 Guimpes — 
 
 attaching collar to, 351, 352. 
 
 cutting collar, 348. 
 
 draping foundation, 347, 348. 
 
 fastenings, 352. 
 
 finishing, 351, 352. 
 
 finishing armseye, 352. 
 
 fitting, 351. 
 
 general method of making, 347. 
 
 making collar, 349-351. 
 
 making sleeve, 352. 
 
 purpose, 346, 347. 
 
 seams, 351. 
 
 stretching yoke, 348, 349. 
 
 Hair. Sec Head-dress. 
 Hand carding, 49, 50. 
 Hand-looms — 
 
 preparation of warp and threading, 
 
 73-75- 
 process of operating, 70, 71. 
 Hand weaving, 67, 68. 
 early appearance of hand-loom, 68- 
 
 7i- 
 inventions in — 
 drop-box, 71. 
 fly-shuttle, 71. 
 Hanging material after shrinking, 161. 
 Harness, 69. 
 Harness-loom, 71, 72. 
 attachments — 
 Dobby, 73. 
 Head-motion, 73. 
 lappet, 73. 
 swivel, 73. 
 
 Head-dress in historic costume, 5, 8, io, 
 14, 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28,30, 
 S3, 34. 38, 39. 43. 44. 45- 
 Head-motion, 73. 
 Heddle, 68. 
 Hemp, 116. 
 Hems — 
 
 as finishes for edges, 430, 431. 
 
 finish in shirt-waist, 317, 318. 
 
 finished with cording, 438. 
 
 finished with embroidery, 430, 431,, 
 
 finished with fagoting, 430, 431. 
 
 finished with hemstitching, 430. 
 
 for skirts, 415-418. 
 
 fancy, 418; plain, 416-418. 
 
 turning in skirts, 386. 
 Hemstitched seam — 
 
 use in shirt-waists, 335. 
 
 use in skirts, 394. 
 Hemstitching by hand — 
 
 use in finishing hems, 430. 
 Hemstitching by machine, 335, 394, 419, 
 
 438. 
 Hennin, 17, 18. 
 Himation, 6, 7. 
 Historic costume — 
 
 use in designing, 251, 252. 
 Historic development of costume, 1-48. 
 Hooks and eyes — ■ 
 
 use for fastenings, 439. 
 Hooks and loops — 
 
 use for fastenings, 439. 
 Hooks and peets — 
 
 use for fastenings, 439. 
 Hoop, 28, 29, 32, 46, 47. 
 Houppclande, 17. 
 
 Illustrative material for designing — 
 
 where found, 251, 252. 
 Imagination, stimulation, 252. 
 Individual — 
 
 as important factor in choice of cos- 
 tume, 254. 
 Inventions in hand weaving — 
 drop-box, 71. 
 fly-shuttle, 71. 
 Inverted plaits — 
 
 basting in skirts, 385, 386. 
 designing on skirt pattern, 274-277. 
 at centre-back seam, 275. 
 between any other two gores, 275- 
 277. 
 Ionic chiton, 6. 
 Iron — 
 
 use in pressing after shrinking, 161; 
 in pressing, 162, 163; in sponging, 
 162. 
 
 Jack-spool, 53. 
 Jacquard loom, 72. 
 Jersey wheel, 55, 56. 
 
Index 
 
 497 
 
 Jewelry. See Jewels. 
 
 Jewelry in historic costume, 8, 10, 21, 26, 
 
 30, 32, 33, 37. 39- 
 Jute, 116. 
 
 Kimono- waists — 
 altering pattern, 237, 238. 
 basting for fitting, 235, 236. 
 basting for tracing, 235. 
 belt, making and attaching, 236. 
 cutting in material, 235. 
 designing on dress-form, 301-303. 
 designing on shirt-waist pattern, 265- 
 
 267. 
 drafting pattern, 230-234. 
 fitting, '236. 
 fulness at waist line regulated in 
 
 fitting, 236. 
 gathering for fitting, 236. 
 making pattern, 234-238. 
 marking pattern in cloth, 235; in 
 
 paper, 235. 
 neck line, direction in fitting, 237. 
 placing pattern on material, 235. 
 preparation for fitting, 236. 
 rebasting pattern, 238. 
 refitting pattern, 238. 
 regulation measures for, 230. 
 seam allowances for, 235. 
 shoulder in fitting, 237. 
 sleeve in fitting, 237. 
 taking measures for, 166-169. 
 testing draft, 234, 235. 
 underarm, in fitting, 237. 
 
 La Belle Poule, 34. 
 Lace bands — 
 
 at shoulders of evening-waist lining, 
 371; on girdle, 372. 
 Lace beading — 
 
 used in evening- waist linings, 369, 
 370, 37i- 
 Lapped seam — 
 
 making, 426. 
 
 use in skirts, 393, 426. 
 Lappet, 73. 
 Lathe, 68. 
 Lay, 68. 
 Lease-rods, 70. 
 Linen — 
 
 processes for short fibre or tow, 114, 
 115. 
 
 processes for true or line fibre, 110- 
 114. 
 
 texture, 260. 
 Linings — 
 
 basting for fitting, 357. 
 
 choice of, 352, 353. 
 
 cutting in material, 356. 
 
 designing, on dress-form, 298-301. 
 
 evening-waist, 300, 301 ; shirt-waist, 
 298-300; tight-fitting, 301. 
 
 fitted sleeve linings, designing, 306- 
 3°9- 
 
 fitting, 357- 
 
 materials, 353, 354. 
 
 making and finishing, 357~372. 
 
 marking for basting, 356. 
 
 patterns, how secured, 354~35°- 
 
 placing on material, 356. 
 
 seam allowances, 356. 
 
 styles of, 352. 
 
 use in skirts, 419. 
 
 use of for edge finishes, 432. 
 Lingerie dresses — 
 
 making and attaching belts of, 408, 
 409. 
 Lingerie skirts — 
 
 how made, 374. 
 
 joining to waists, 415. 
 
 materials for, 374. 
 Line — 
 
 harmony of in design of costume, 256. 
 
 repetition of in design of costume, 
 256. 
 Lines in opposition — 
 
 illustration of in costume, 256, 257. 
 
 in design of costume, 256, 257. 
 Lines in subordination — 
 
 in design of costume, 257. 
 Lines in transition — 
 
 illustration of in costume, 257. 
 
 in design of costume, 257. 
 Loom — 
 
 hand or Colonial, 68-71. 
 
 power, 71-73- 
 Louis XIV, fashions of the period of, 
 25-29, 31, 32. 
 
 Machine carding, 50-53. 
 Machine hemstitching — 
 
 use for edge finishes, 438. 
 
 use in shirt-waists, 335. 
 
 use in skirts, 394, 419- 
 Machine printing, 140. 
 Maintenon, Madame de, 27. 
 Making and finishing — 
 
 evening-waist linings, 369-372. 
 
 linings, 357-372. 
 
 shirt-waists, 333 _ 340- 
 
 skirts, 389-420. 
 Manufacture of textiles, 48-119. 
 Marie Antoinette, 32. 
 Marking — 
 
 bound buttonholes, 440, 441. 
 
 linings for basting, 356. 
 
 methods of, 164, 165. 
 
 shirt-waists for basting, 326, 327. 
 
 skirts for basting, 382, 383. 
 
 with cotton, 159. 
 
 with silk, 159, 160. 
 
498 
 
 Index 
 
 with tailor basting, 165. 
 
 with tailor's chalk, isg, 165. 
 
 with tracing-wheel, 150, 164. 
 Materials — 
 
 choice in relation to design, 155, 156. 
 
 difference in color in cutting, 163, 
 164. 
 
 folds in designing, on the bias, 297; 
 on crosswise thread, 297; on length- 
 wise thread, 296. 
 
 for draped skirts, 375. 
 
 for foundation skirts or linings, 373. 
 
 for guimpes, 346. 
 
 for lingerie skirts, 374. 
 
 for non-tailored or fancy waists, 315. 
 
 for semifitting linings, 353. 
 
 for sleeves in semifitting lining, 359. 
 
 for tailored and semi-tailored skirts, 
 
 374- 
 for tailored shirt-waists, 315. 
 for tight-fitting linings, 354. 
 general rules for cutting, 163, 164. 
 handling in designing, 294, 295. 
 kinds for designing, 297, 298, 305. 
 kinds for embroidery, 453, 454. 
 nap in cutting, 164. 
 preparation for cutting shirt-waists, 
 
 316-322. 
 preparation for smocking, 478, 479. 
 preparation, 160-163. 
 
 pressing, 162, 163; shrinking, 160, 
 161; sponging, 161, 162. 
 removing selvage, 316, 321. 
 requisites for good quality in, 121- 
 123. 
 Measures — 
 
 how taken, 165-170. 
 regulation — 
 
 foundation skirt, 190. 
 kimono-waist, 230. 
 shirt-waist, 174. 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 184. 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 224. 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 209. 
 Method of making weaves — 
 double cloth, 136. 
 figure, 135. 
 gauge, 138, 139. 
 lappet and swivel, 138. 
 leno, 139. 
 pile, 136, 137. 
 plain, 129-132. 
 satin, 133-135- 
 twill, 132, 133. 
 Mineral fibres, 116. 
 Mirror velvet, making of, 163. 
 
 use in designing, 295. 
 Modern types of spinning-machines — 
 mules — 
 woolen, 62. 
 worsted, 63, 64. 
 
 upright spinning-frames — 
 cap spinning, 66. 
 flyer spinning, 66, 67. 
 ring spinning, 65. 
 Moireing, 141. 
 Mousequetaire sleeve — 
 designing on stiff-paper sleeve, 309, 
 310. 
 Mules, 62-64. 
 
 Neck— • 
 
 finishing at normal neck line with 
 standing collar, 365-368. 
 
 finishing in semifitting lining, 360. 
 
 finishing in tight-fitting linings, 365- 
 37i. 
 
 finishing shaped line in tight-fitting 
 lining, 368. 
 Needles — ■ 
 
 for basting, 158. 
 
 for dressmaking, 158. 
 
 for embroidery, 453. 
 
 for fagoting, 472, 473, 475. 
 
 for pinning, 160. 
 
 for sewing, 158. 
 Net- 
 stretching on stiff-paper collar, 350, 
 35i- 
 
 use in guimpes, 347, 348. 
 Nineteenth-century costume, 39-47. 
 Noble comb, 90, 91. 
 Non-tailored or fancy waists — 
 
 general style of, 315. 
 
 materials for, 315. 
 
 Old costumes, records, 251, 252. 
 Openings — 
 
 at centre back in shirt-waists, 317. 
 
 at centre or side front in shirt-waists, 
 317. 318, 319. 320. 
 
 fastenings in shirt-waists, 345, 346. 
 
 finishing in kimono, 302. 
 
 finishing in semifitting linings, 358. 
 
 finishing in tight-fitting linings, 363, 
 
 3 6 4-. 
 making in shirt-waists, 316-318. 
 marking lengthwise centre in shirt- 
 waists, 316. 
 Ornaments, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 23, 25. 
 Overcasting — 
 
 use on seam edges, 423. 
 
 Padded sleeve — 
 preparing, 304. 
 
 use for shirt-waist-sleeve designing, 
 305, 306. 
 Palatine, 26. 
 Palla, 9. 
 
 Panels, joining in skirts, 386. 
 Panier in historic costume, 28, 29, 32, 
 5i, 35. 36, 37- 
 
Index 
 
 499 
 
 Panne velvet, cutting, 163. 
 Pattern-designing, 262-288. 
 shirt-waist designs, 262-267. 
 skirt designs, 270-288. 
 sleeve designs, 268-270. 
 Pattern-making — 
 altering — 
 
 foundation skirt, 207, 208. 
 
 kimono-waist, 237, 238. 
 
 shirt-waist, 183. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 189. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 230. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 
 basting — 
 
 foundation skirt, 204. 
 
 kimono-waist, 235, 236. 
 
 shirt-waist, 181. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 188. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 228, 229. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 
 220. 
 collar, draping, 349, 350. 
 cutting — 
 
 foundation skirt, 202, 203. 
 
 kimono-waist, 235. 
 
 shirt-waist, 180. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 188 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 228. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 
 fitting — 
 
 foundation skirt, 205-207. 
 
 kimono-waist, 236, 237. 
 
 shirt-waist, 181-183. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 188, 189. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 229, 230. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 
 223. 
 marking the cloth — 
 
 foundation skirt, 203, 204. 
 
 kimono-waist, 235. 
 
 shirt-waist, 180, 181. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 188. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 228. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 
 219. 
 marking the paper — 
 
 foundation skirt, 202. 
 
 kimono-waist, 235. 
 
 shirt-waist, 180. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 187, 188. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 227, 228. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 
 218. 
 placing on material — 
 
 foundation skirt, 202, 203. 
 
 kimono-waist, 235. 
 
 shirt-waist, 180. 
 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 188. 
 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 228. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 
 
 rebasting — 
 
 foundation skirt, 208. 
 kimono-waist, 238. 
 shirt-waist, 183. 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 189. 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 230. 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 223. 
 refitting — 
 
 foundation skirt, 208. 
 kimono-waist, 238. 
 shirt-waist, 183, 184. 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 189. 
 22 3- tight-fitting sleeve, 230. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 223. 
 seam allowances — 
 
 foundation skirt, 202, 203. 
 kimono-waist, 235. 
 shirt-waist, 179, 180. 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 187, 188. 
 2io> tight-fitting sleeve, 227, 228. 
 
 tight-fitting waist and collar, 217, 
 218. 
 testing drafts — 
 
 foundation skirt, 195, 196, 200, 201. 
 kimono-waist, 234. 
 shirt-waist, 179. 
 shirt-waist sleeve, 187. 
 tight-fitting sleeve, 227. 
 218. tight-fitting waist and collar, 217. 
 
 three methods, 239. 
 Patterns — 
 commercial — 
 
 careful reading of, 239. 
 cutting and placing, 240. 
 different makes of, 239. 
 220_ fitting of, 240; shirt-waist, 242, 243; 
 
 tight-fitting waist, 247; skirt, 
 247-249. 
 marking, 241. 
 
 testing of, 239, 240; shirt-waist, 
 
 241, 242; shirt-waist sleeve, 
 
 242; tight-fitting waist, 244- 
 
 246; tight-fitting sleeve, 246, 
 
 21 8, 247; skirt, 247-249. 
 
 designed, 297-312. 
 
 kimono-waist, 301-303; linings, 
 298-301; shirt-waists, 301; 
 skirts, 310-312; sleeves, 303- 
 310. 
 drafted, 174-234. 
 
 foundation skirt, 190-195; kimono- 
 217, waist, 230-234; shirt-waist, 
 
 174-179; shirt-waist sleeve, 
 184-187; tight-fitting sleeve, 
 224-227; tight-fitting waist 
 and collar, 209-216. 
 flat-paper, 262-286. 
 
 shirt-waist, 262-267; skirts, 270- 
 288; sleeves, 268-270. 
 218. kinds for embroidery, 452. 
 
500 
 
 Index 
 
 Pattern-weaving, 72. 
 Peg-top skirts, how cut, 379. 
 Pelerine, 26. 
 Peplum, 24. 
 
 Pile weave, design on, 140, 141. 
 Pincushions, 159. 
 Pinning seams, general rules, 422. 
 Pins, choice, 158. 
 Pipings, use, 438. 
 Placing and cutting — 
 linings, 356. 
 shirt-waist, 323-326. 
 
 collar and collar-band, 324, 325; 
 cuffs, 325, 326; sleeve, 325; 
 sleeve placket, 326; waist, 324; 
 yoke, 324. 
 skirts, 377-382. 
 Plackets — 
 
 choice of finish in skirts, 395. 
 fasteners in semi-tailored and fancy 
 
 skirts, 404. 
 fasteners in tailored skirts, 400, 401. 
 finishing in semi-tailored and fancy 
 
 skirts, 401-404. 
 finishing in tailored skirts, 399-401. 
 length in shirt-waists, 339. 
 length in skirts, 397. 
 making in bias edges, 403, 404. 
 making in foundation skirts or li- 
 nings, 395, 396. 
 making in non-tailored or fancy 
 
 sleeve, 343, 344. 
 making in skirt seam finished with 
 
 tuck, 397-401. 
 making in straight or nearly straight 
 
 edges, 402, 403. 
 making in tailored shirt-sleeve, 339, 
 
 340- 
 making in tailored skirts, 396. 
 making left side in tailored skirts, 
 
 399- 
 making right side in tailored skirts, 
 
 398, 399- 
 placing in foundation skirts or li- 
 nings, 395. 
 placing in tailored skirts, 395, 3g6. 
 planning and making in skirts, 394- 
 
 404. 
 seam allowances, 323. 
 stitching in tailored skirts, 400. 
 Placket pieces — 
 
 placing and cutting for shirt-waist, 
 326. 
 Plain harness-loom, 71-73. 
 Plain hems — 
 
 making in skirts, 416-418. 
 
 removing fulness, 417, 418. 
 
 Plain hems with one turning — 
 
 making and finishing, 416-418. 
 Plain hems with two turnings — ■ 
 making, 416. 
 
 Plain seams — 
 
 binding edges, 423. 
 
 finishes for right side, 392, 424. 
 
 finishes for wrong side, 390-392, 423, 
 424. 
 
 for attaching tailored sleeve to waist, 
 342, 343- 
 
 for semifitting linings, 358. 
 
 making 422, 423. 
 
 making in skirts, 390, 391. 
 
 notching edges, 422, 423. 
 
 overcasting edges, 423. 
 
 turning in edges — 
 
 closed seam, 424; open seam, 423, 
 424. 
 
 use, 422. 
 
 use in shirt-waists, 334, 335. 
 Plaited skirts — 
 
 designing on s"»: ; rt pattern, 277-282. 
 
 how cut, 378. 
 
 methods of procedure in designing, 
 
 278--282. 
 
 placing on material, 382. 
 Polonaise, 31. 
 Pompadour, Madame, 31. 
 Power-looms — 
 
 Jacquard, 72. 
 
 plain harness, 71-73. 
 
 preparation of warp and threading 
 for, 75, 76. 
 
 use, 71-76. 
 Preliminary processes necessary for 
 
 worsted and woolen, 85, 86. 
 Preparation of shoddy — 
 
 carbonizing, 102. 
 
 dusting, 102. 
 
 oiling, 102. 
 
 picking, 102. 
 
 sorting, 101. 
 
 washing, 101. 
 Preparation of warp and threading for 
 
 hand and power looms, 73-76. 
 Pressing seams, general rules, 422. 
 Pressing materials — 
 
 after shrinking, 161; for sponging, 
 161, 162; general method of, 162, 
 163; silk, 163; velvet, 163. 
 Princess lining- 
 finishing, 372. 
 
 pattern, how secured, 356. 
 Printing — 
 
 block, 139. 
 
 machine, 140. 
 
 roller, 140. 
 Proportion in costume, 255, 256. 
 
 Ramie, 115. 
 Raw silk — 
 processes for — 
 reeling, 104, 105. 
 
Index 
 
 501 
 
 throwing — 
 
 kinds of thread used in, 106. 
 operations included in, 106, 107. 
 Redingote in historic costume, 40. 
 Reed, 69. 
 
 Regency, fashions of, 29, 30." 
 Regulation measures, 174, 184, 190, 209, 
 
 224, 230. 
 Reinforcements for fitted linings — 
 
 cutting and tracing, 356. 
 Reinforcements for waist line in separate 
 
 skirts, 410, 411. 
 Relation of lines of draft to lines of 
 figure taught by fitting pattern, 
 262. 
 Renaissance, fashions of, 18-23. 
 Repetition of line — 
 
 illustration of in costume, 256. 
 in design of costume, 256. 
 Republic, fashions of the period of, 46. 
 Restoration, fashions of, 41-44. 
 Retting— 
 
 cold-water, in. 
 dew, in. 
 Revolution, fashions of, 36, 37. 
 Rhythm in design of costume, 256. 
 Rhythmic arrangement of line — 
 
 illustration of in architecture, 256. 
 Ribbons — 
 
 for embroidery, 477. 
 
 used in evening- waist linings, 369, 370, 
 
 37i, 372- 
 
 used in girdles, 372. 
 Right dress, 252. 
 Ring spinning, 65. 
 Rock {see Distaff), 54. 
 Roller-drawing, 60. 
 Roller-printing, 140. 
 Rolling and whipping — 
 
 use for edge finishes, 438. 
 
 use in skirts, 419. 
 Roman costume, 9, 10; return to, 37. 
 Romantic period, fashions of, 44-46. 
 Roving, 53. 
 Ruff, 21, 22, 23, 24, 39. 
 
 Sandals, 4, 8, 9, 10. 
 Saxony wheel, 56, 57. 
 Scalloped edges — 
 
 bias folds, 434. 
 
 facings, 432. 
 Scissors, 158. 
 Scouring, 94, 117. 
 Seam allowances — 
 
 for collars, 217, 218, 322. 
 
 for cuffs, 322. 
 
 for kimono-waist, 235. 
 
 for linings, 356. 
 
 for shirt-waists, 179, 180, 322, 323. 
 
 for shirt-waist sleeves, 187, 188. 
 
 for skirts, 202, 376, 377. 
 
 for tight-fitting sleeve, 227, 228. 
 
 for tight-fitting waists, 217, 218. 
 Seam finishes, 421-430. 
 
 fell, 424, 425; finished with entre-deux, 
 428, 429; French, 425, 426; 
 lapped, 426; plain, 422-424; slot, 
 427; strapped, 427; welt, 425. 
 Seam finished with entre-deux — 
 
 making and use, 428, 429. 
 
 use in shirt-waists, 335. 
 
 use in skirts, 392, 393. 
 Seams — 
 
 basting, 422. 
 
 basting for placket in skirts, 398. 
 
 finishing in guimpes, 351, 352. 
 
 finishing in tight-fitting linings, 360- 
 
 363-. 
 
 for making semifitting linings, 357, 
 358. 
 
 general rules for making, 422. 
 
 pinning, 422. 
 
 pressing, 422. 
 
 stitching, 422. 
 
 stitching and finishing for skirts, 390- 
 394- 
 Seams finished with fagoting, 430. 
 Seams finished with machine hem- 
 stitching — 
 
 making and use, 429, 430. 
 Second Empire, fashions of, 46, 47. 
 Securing pattern — 
 
 of evening-waist linings, 355, 356. 
 
 of girdles for linings, 355, 
 
 of princess lining, 356. 
 
 of semifitting lining, 355. 
 
 of shirt-waist, 315, 316. 
 
 of skirts, 376. 
 
 of tight-fitting lining, 355. 
 Semifitting linings- 
 attaching belt, 359. 
 
 attaching collar, 360. 
 
 designing on dress-form, 298-300. 
 
 fastenings, 358. 
 
 finishing armseye, 359, 360. 
 
 finishing neck line, 360. 
 
 finishing openings, 358. 
 
 finishing waist fine, 358, 359. 
 
 how cut, 353. 
 
 making and attaching sleeves, 359, 
 360. 
 
 making and finishing, 357-360. 
 
 making belt, 358. 
 
 materials, 353. 
 
 pattern, how secured, 355. 
 
 seams, 357, 358. 
 Semifitting waists — 
 
 style, 313. 
 Semi-tailored skirts — 
 
 making plackets, 401-404. 
 Sequence in technique, 156. 
 Seven-gore skirt, how cut, 380. 
 
502 
 
 Index 
 
 Seventeenth-century costume, 23-28. 
 Sewing-boxes, 157. 
 Sewing-machines, 157. 
 Shaped neck line without collar — 
 
 finishing in shirt-waist, 338. 
 Shedding, definition of, 67. 
 Shirring — 
 
 use for securing fulness, 445. 
 Shirt-waists — 
 
 alteration of pattern, 183. 
 
 armseye line in fitting, 183. 
 
 basting for fitting, 181, 327-333. 
 
 basting for tracing, 180, 181. 
 
 belt, attaching, 182, 336. 
 
 belt, making, 181, 329. 
 
 box plaits, making, 317, 318. 
 
 buttonholes in non-tailored, 346. 
 
 buttonholes in tailored, 34s, 346. 
 
 centre-back openings, 317. 
 
 centre or side-front openings, 317, 
 
 318. 
 collar-band — 
 attaching, 184. 
 making, 184. 
 collar line, direction in fitting, 182, 
 
 183. 
 cutting in material, 180, 323-326. 
 decoration, 318-322. 
 designing in flat-paper work, 262- 
 267. 
 collars, 264; Gibson plait, 263; ki- 
 mono-waist, 265-267; tucks, 
 262, 263; yokes, 263, 264. 
 designing on dress-form, 301. 
 drafting pattern, 174-179. 
 finishing bottoms, 336. 
 finishing shaped neck line, 338. 
 fitting, 181-183, 332, 333. 
 fitting in commercial pattern, 242- 
 
 244. 
 fulness at waist line regulated in 
 
 fitting, 182. 
 gathering for fitting, 181. 
 hems, making, 317, 318. 
 lace insets, 316. 
 
 making, general directions, 314-346. 
 making back, with centre front or 
 
 back opening, 321. 
 making front, with centre-back open- 
 ing, 321. 
 making front, with centre-front open- 
 ing, 319-321. 
 making and attaching belts, 329, 336. 
 making and attaching collars and 
 
 collar-bands, 332, 336-338. 
 making and attaching sleeves, 338- 
 
 34S- 
 making and attaching yokes, 338. 
 making and finishing, 333-346. 
 making pattern, 179-184. 
 marking for basting, 326, 327. 
 
 marking lengthwise centre of opening 
 finish, 316. 
 
 marking pattern — 
 
 in cloth, 180, 181; in paper, 180. 
 
 materials, 315. 
 
 non-tailored or fancy, 315. 
 
 non-tailored sleeve, making and fin- 
 ishing, 343-345- 
 
 openings, making, 316-318. 
 
 pattern, how secured, 315, 316. 
 
 placing on material, 180, 323-326. 
 
 preparation for fitting, 181. 
 
 preparation of material for cutting, 
 316-322. 
 
 purchase of commercial pattern, 241. 
 
 rebasting pattern, 183. 
 
 refitting pattern, 183, 184. 
 
 regulation measures, 174. 
 
 seam allowances, 179, 180, 322, 323. 
 
 seams — 
 
 kinds, 334; making, 334, 335. 
 
 shoulder in fitting, 182, 183. 
 
 shoulder seams in basting, 181. 
 
 style, 313. 
 
 tailored, 314, 315. 
 
 tailored sleeve, making and finishing, 
 338-343- 
 
 taking of measures, i66-i6g. 
 
 testing draft, 179. 
 
 testing in commercial patterns, 241, 
 242. 
 
 tucks, making, 319, 320, 321. 
 
 types, 314, 315. 
 Shirt-waist lining. See Semifitting li- 
 ning. 
 Shirt-waist sleeves — 
 
 altering pattern, 189. 
 
 basting for fitting, 188. 
 
 basting to waist, 188, 189. 
 
 cutting in material, 188. 
 
 designing in flat-paper work, 268. 
 
 designing on padded sleeve, 305, 306. 
 
 drafting pattern, 184-187. 
 
 fit dependent on armseye line, 188. 
 
 fitting, 188. 
 
 gathering for fitting, 188. 
 
 making pattern, 187-189. 
 
 marking pattern — 
 
 in cloth, 188; in paper, 187, 188. 
 
 pinning to waist, 188, 189. 
 
 placing on material, 188. 
 
 placket, position, 188. 
 
 preparation for fitting, 188, 189. 
 
 rebasting pattern, 189. 
 
 refitting pattern, 189. . 
 
 regulation measures, 184. 
 
 seam allowances, 187, 188. 
 
 size at hand, regulation measure, 184. 
 
 taking measures, 169. 
 
 testing draft, 187. 
 
 testing in commercial patterns, 242. 
 
Index 
 
 503 
 
 Shoddy — 
 
 definition of, 101. 
 
 preparation of, 101-103. 
 Short fibre or tow, processes for, 114, 
 
 "5- 
 
 Shoulder straps — 
 
 in evening-waist lining, 371. 
 Shrinking — ' 
 
 fulness in skirt hems, 417, 418. 
 Shrinking materials — 
 
 drying afterward, 161; hanging after- 
 ward, 161; in sponging, 161; 
 method of, 161; necessity for, 
 160, 161; pressing afterward, 161. 
 Shuttle, 68, 70. 
 Side plaits — 
 
 basting in skirts, 385. 
 designing on skirt pattern, 277. 
 Silhouette — 
 
 importance in costume, 254. 
 Silk- 
 artificial, 116, 117. 
 processes for raw, 104-106. 
 processes for spun or waste, 106-108. 
 processes for both raw and spun, 108- 
 110. 
 Silks- 
 basting, 160; pinning, 160; pressing, 
 
 163. 
 texture, 260. 
 Silkworm, 103, 104. 
 Simplicity — 
 in construction of costume, 157. 
 in design of costume, 255. 
 Simulated bias folds- 
 making of, 434, 435. 
 Six-gore division, use in designing, 272. 
 Six-gore skirts, how cut, 380. 
 Sixteenth-century costume, 18-23. 
 Sizing — 
 
 removal by shrinking, 160. 
 Skirt in historic costume, 12, 13, 17, 
 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 29, 31, 32, 
 33. 35. 37, 39. 42, 43, 44, 46. 47- 
 Skirt-rules and squares, 160. 
 Skirts — 
 
 alteration of pattern, 207, 208. 
 arranging fulness at waist line, 386, 
 
 387- 
 arrangement of gore divisions, 378- 
 
 380. 
 attaching of belt, 404-415. 
 attaching yokes and decorative 
 
 pieces, 387. 
 basting — 
 
 for fitting, 204, 205; darts, 204, 
 205; gores, 204; plackets, 205; 
 seams, 204. 
 basting for fitting, 384-388. 
 basting for tracing, 203, 204. 
 
 belt- 
 attaching, 206. 
 
 making, 205, 206, 387, 388. 
 bias edges — ■ 
 
 basting for fitting, 204. 
 bias facing, 388. 
 bindings at edges, 419. 
 bottom line — 
 
 position in fitting, 207. 
 
 testing, 200. 
 circular, 379, 380. 
 
 cordings and pipings at edges, 419. 
 cutting in material, 202-204, 377~ 
 
 382. 
 darts — 
 
 basting for fitting, 204, 205. 
 
 marking, 203, 204. 
 
 opening for alterations, 208. 
 
 position in fitting, 206. 
 designing in flat-paper work, 270-288. 
 
 centre-front decoration, 271, 272; 
 circular flounces, 286; circular 
 skirts, 285, 286; four and six 
 gore divisions, 272; gathered 
 skirts, 282-285; inverted plaits, 
 275-277; plaited skirts, 277- 
 282; side plaits, 277; triple 
 skirts, 286-288; tucks, 272- 
 274; tunics, 285, 286. 
 designing on dress-form, 310-312. 
 
 circular, 311; straight, 311. 
 different ways of cutting, 377, 378. 
 division into gores, 196-200. 
 drafting of pattern, 190-195. 
 facing at edges, 418. 
 fastenings for belts, 388. 
 finishes for bottom, 415-419. 
 finishing at waist, 404-415. 
 finishing at waist line, 387, 388. 
 fitting, 205-207, 388, 389. 
 fitting in comrnercial pattern, 247- 
 
 249. 
 five-gore division, 198. 
 flaring or full, how cut, 378. 
 four-gore division, 196-198. 
 
 use in fitting, 205. 
 gathered — 
 
 designing on pattern, 282-285. 
 
 how cut, 378. 
 
 methods of procedure, 282. 
 
 placing on material, 382. 
 gore divisions for dress-form cover, 
 
 293- 
 gores — 
 
 basting for fitting, 204. 
 
 marking, 203, 204. 
 
 placing, 203. 
 
 testing, 200-202. 
 
 trueing lines of, 202. 
 hems, 415-418. 
 
 turning, 386. 
 
504 
 
 Index 
 
 hem allowance in pattern, 203. 
 hip line — 
 
 marking, 203, 204. 
 
 position in fitting, 206, 207. 
 
 testing, 195, 200. 
 hip measure, augmented for close- 
 fitting skirt, 190. 
 joining panels, 386. 
 lengths — 
 
 testing foundation pattern, 195. 
 linings in finishing, 419. 
 machine hemstitching at edges, 419. 
 making and finishing, 389-420. 
 making for dress-form cover, 292, 293. 
 making patterns for, 195-208. 
 marking for basting, 382, 383. 
 marking pattern, 202, 203, 204. 
 
 in cloth, 203, 204; in paper, 202. 
 measures, how taken, 169, 170. 
 methods of procedure in designing on, 
 
 270, 271. 
 peg-top, how cut, 379. 
 placing of gores or lengths on mate- 
 rial, 380. 
 placing on material, 202-204, 377- 
 
 382. 
 plackets — 
 
 basting for fitting, 205. 
 
 planning and making, 394-404. 
 
 position, 205. 
 pattern, how secured, 376. 
 plaited, how cut, 378. 
 preparation for dress- form cover, 292, 
 
 293- 
 preparation for finishing bottom line, 
 
 415- 
 preparation for finishing at waist line, 
 
 404, 405. 
 preparation for fitting, 205, 206, 388, 
 
 389. 
 purchase of commercial pattern, 247. 
 rebasting pattern, 208. 
 refitting pattern, 208. 
 regulation measures, 190. 
 rehanging, 207. 
 
 rolling and whipping edges, 419. 
 seam allowances, 202, 203, 376, 377. 
 seams — 
 
 basting for fitting, 204. 
 
 stitching and finishing, 390-394. 
 seam-lines, marking, 203, 204. 
 seven-gore division, 200. 
 six-gore division, 198. 
 
 use in fitting, 205. 
 straight, 379, 380. 
 straight, how cut, 378. 
 taking measures, 169, 170. 
 testing draft, 200. 
 
 testing foundation pattern, 195, 196. 
 testing in commercial pattern, 247- 
 
 249. 
 
 two-gore division, 200. 
 
 use in fitting, 205. 
 types, 373. 
 waist line — 
 
 marking, 203, 204. 
 
 testing foundation pattern, 195, 
 196, 200. 
 Ski'ts attached to waists — 
 attaching->belt, 408, 409, 415. 
 decorative finishes for waist line, 414, 
 
 415- 
 finishing waist line, 407, 414, 415. 
 making belt, 408, 409, 414. 
 non-decorative finishes for waist line, 
 
 408, 409. 
 Skirts, separate — 
 
 attaching belt, 409, 412, 413, 414. 
 decorative finishes for waist line, 409- 
 
 414. 
 fasteners, 413. 
 
 finishing waist line, 407, 409-414. 
 non-decorative finishes for waist line, 
 
 409. 
 making belt, 4og, 412. 
 reinforcement for waist line, 410- 
 
 4.1 1- 
 stitching waist line, 411-414. 
 Skirts with four gores — 
 circular, how cut, 380. 
 straight, how cut, 379, 380. 
 Skirts with five gores, how cut, 379. 
 Skirts with seven gores, how cut, 3S0. 
 Skirts with six gores, how cut, 380. 
 Skirts with two gores — 
 circular, how cut, 379. 
 straight, how cut, 378. 
 Sleeves — 
 
 attaching in semifitting linings, 359, 
 
 360. 
 basting in shirt-waist, 330, 331. 
 decoration in shirt-waist making, 322. 
 designing on sleeve form, 305, 306. 
 designing on stiff-paper sleeve, 306- 
 
 310. 
 gathering in shirt-waist, 331. 
 making and finishing in guimpe, 352. 
 material in semifitting lining, 359. 
 measures, how taken, 169. 
 methods of procedure in designing, 
 303, 304. 
 use padded sleeve, 303, 304. 
 use stiff-paper sleeve, 303, 304. 
 placing and cutting for shirt-waist, 
 
 325- 
 Sleeves, non-tailored or fancy — 
 
 making cuffs, 344, 345. 
 
 making placket, 343, 344. 
 
 planning, 343. 
 Sleeves, tailored — ■ 
 
 attaching cuffs, 341, 342. 
 
 attaching to waist, 342, 343. 
 
Index 
 
 505 
 
 making cuffs, 340, 341. 
 
 making placket, 339, 340. 
 
 making seam, 340. 
 
 planning, 338, 339. 
 Sliver, 49, 50, 51, 53. 
 Slot seam — 
 
 in centre front of skirt, 272. 
 
 making, 427. 
 
 use, 393, 427. , 
 
 Smocking — 
 
 use for securing fulness, 446. 
 Snaps (ball and socket) — 
 
 use for fastenings, 439, 440. 
 Space relation — 
 
 illustration in costume, 257. 
 
 illustration in Greek costume, 258. 
 
 in design of costume, 256, 257, 258. 
 Spencer, 39, 40. 
 Spindles, 54. 
 Spinning — 
 
 cap, 66. 
 
 definition of, 54. 
 
 flyer, 66, 67. 
 
 hand, 54, 55. 
 
 machine, 57-67. 
 
 process of, 54-67. 
 
 ring, 65. 
 Spinning-jenny, 58, 59. 
 Spinning-machines — 
 
 Crompton's mule, 60, 61. 
 
 development of, 57-67. 
 
 modern types of, 61-67. 
 
 spinning-jenny, 58, 59. 
 
 water-frame, 59, 60. 
 Spinning-wheels — 
 
 introduction of, 55. 
 
 Jersey, 55, 56. 
 
 Saxony, 56, 57. 
 Sponging materials, 161, 162. 
 Spun glass, 117. 
 Spun or waste silk — 
 
 processes for — 
 
 beating and opening, 107. 
 boiling and schapping, 106. 
 combing, 107. 
 conditioning, 107. 
 doubling and drawing, 108. 
 gassing, 108. 
 
 inspecting and cleaning, 107. 
 mixing, 106. 
 
 preparing and drawing, 108. 
 slubbing, 106. 
 spinning, 108. 
 Square neck line — 
 
 finish of in evening-waist linings, 370- 
 372. 
 Standards for judging textiles, 120-123. 
 Standing collars — 
 
 finishing in shirt-waists, 337, 338. 
 
 placing and cutting, 324, 325. 
 Stays, 39. 
 
 Stencilling, 139. 
 Stiff-paper collar pattern — 
 
 making, 350. 
 
 stretching of net, 350, 351. 
 Stiff-paper sleeve pattern — 
 
 preparing, 304. 
 
 use, 306-310. 
 Stitching — 
 
 decorative finish for plain seam, 424. 
 
 seams, general rules, 422. 
 Stockings, 32. 
 Slola, 9. 
 Straight of material — 
 
 in placing commercial patterns, 240. 
 Straight skirts — 
 
 cut with four gores, 379, 380. 
 
 cut with two gores, 379. 
 Straight, narrow skirts — 
 
 how cut, 378. 
 Strapped seam — 
 
 making, 427, 428. 
 
 use in skirts, 393, 394, 427. 
 Stripper, 50. 
 
 angle, 51. 
 Structural design, 126-139. 
 Substitute fibres, 150. 
 Substitutes used in manufacture of 
 wool — 
 
 cotton, 100, 101. 
 
 wool, 101-103. 
 Surcot, 14, 15, 16. 
 Surface design, 139-141. 
 Swivel, 73. 
 System or sequence in technique, 156. 
 
 Taffeta silks — 
 
 basting and pinning, 160. 
 Tape-measures, selection of, 159. 
 Tailor basting — 
 
 for marking, 165. 
 
 method of making, 165. 
 Tailor buttonholes — 
 
 finishing, 445. 
 
 making, 444, 445. 
 
 preparation, 443, 444. 
 
 use for fastenings, 443-445. 
 Tailor's chalk, use, 159, 165. 
 Tailored and semi-tailored skirts — 
 
 how made, 374. 
 
 materials, 374. 
 Tailored shirt-waists — 
 
 general style, 314, 315. 
 
 materials, 315. 
 Tailored skirts — 
 
 placing of plackets, 396. 
 Taking measures, 165-170. 
 Tape — 
 
 use in outlining design on dress-form, 
 297. 
 Tape-measure, use in designing, 296. 
 Technique, essentials, 156, 157. 
 
506 
 
 Index 
 
 Temple, 70. 
 Testing patterns — 
 
 commercial, general directions, 239, 
 240. 
 Tests for fabrics, 141-153. 
 Tests (in fabrics) — 
 for color, 144, 145. 
 for fibres and finish, 145-153. 
 for strength, 143, 144. 
 Textiles — 
 
 collection for use in designing, 251, 
 
 252. 
 definition of, 48. 
 
 determine design of costume, 155, 156. 
 manufacture of, 48-119. 
 Textile design — 
 structural, 126-139. 
 surface, 139-141. 
 Textile fabrics, standards for judging, 
 
 120-123. 
 Textile manufacture, 48-11 a. 
 Texture — 
 
 contrasts in, 260, 261. 
 definition, 259. 
 in costume, 259-261. 
 in cottons, 259, 260. 
 in linens, 260. 
 in silks, 260. 
 in wools, 260. 
 relation to color, 259. 
 Thimbles, 158. 
 Throwing silk — 
 
 kinds of thread used in — 
 organzine, 105. 
 singles, 105. 
 tram, 105. 
 twist, 105. 
 operations included in — 
 doubling and finishing, 106. 
 drying, 106. 
 
 washing or soaking, 105. 
 winding, 106. 
 Tight-fitting linings — 
 attaching belt, 364, 365. 
 designing on dress-form, 301. 
 fastenings, 364. 
 finishing armseye, 365. 
 finishing at normal neck line with 
 
 collar, 365-368. 
 finishing bottom, 365. 
 finishing neck or top line, 3°5 _ 37 2 - 
 finishing openings, 363, 364. 
 finishing seams — 
 
 boning, 361-363; finishing edges, 
 361; stitching, 360, 361. 
 finishing shaped neck line, 368. 
 finishing yoke, 367, 368. 
 kinds, 353, 354. 
 
 making and finishing, 360-372. 
 making belt, 364. 
 making yoke, 365-368. 
 
 materials, 354. 
 pattern, how secured, 355. 
 reinforcements, 356. 
 Tight-fitting sleeves — 
 altering pattern, 230. 
 basting for fitting, 228, 229. 
 basting to waist, 229. 
 cutting in material, 228. 
 designing on stiff-paper sleeve, 309, 
 
 310. 
 designing in flat-paper work, 268-270. 
 drafting pattern, 224-227. 
 fit determined by armseye line, 229. 
 fitting, 229, 230. 
 gathering for fitting, 229. 
 making pattern, 227-230. 
 making for dress-form cover, 292. 
 marking for gathering, 227, 228. 
 marking for joining seams, 228. 
 marking pattern — 
 
 in cloth, 228; in paper, 227, 228. 
 padding for dress-form cover, 292. 
 pinning to waist, 229. 
 placing on material, 228. 
 preparation for fitting, 229. 
 rebasting pattern, 230. 
 refitting pattern, 230. 
 regulation measures, 224. 
 seam allowances, 227, 228. 
 taking measures, 169. 
 testing draft, 227. 
 testing in commercial pattern, 246, 
 
 247. 
 Tight-fitting-sleeve linings — 
 
 designing on stiff paper, 306-309. 
 cap, 308, 309; long sleeve, 306-308; 
 short sleeve, 308. 
 Tight-fitting waists — 
 altering pattern, 223. 
 armseye line in fitting, 221, 222. 
 basting for fitting, 219, 220. 
 basting for tracing, 219. 
 centre-front seam in fitting, 221. 
 collar, direction in fitting, 222, 223. 
 cutting in material, 218. 
 darts at armseye to remove fulness, 
 
 222. 
 drafting pattern, 209-215. 
 fitting, 220-223. 
 
 fitting in commercial pattern, 247. 
 making for dress-form cover, 290, 291. 
 making pattern, 217-224. 
 marking pattern — 
 
 in cloth, 218, 219; in paper, 217, 218. 
 method of procedure in fitting seams, 
 
 220, 221. 
 neck line — 
 
 direction in fitting, 222. 
 notching seams for fitting, 220. 
 padding for dress-form cover, 291, 
 
 292. 
 
Index 
 
 507 
 
 pinning in place for fitting, 220. 
 
 placing on material, 218. 
 
 purchase of commercial pattern, 244. 
 
 rebasting pattern, 223. 
 
 refitting pattern, 223, 224. 
 
 regulation measures, 209. 
 
 seam allowances, 217, 218. 
 
 shoulders in fitting, 221. 
 
 style, 313, 314. 
 
 taking measures, 166-169. 
 
 testing in commercial pattern, 244- 
 
 247. 
 testing draft, 217. 
 Tools— 
 
 for use in drafting, 172. 
 for use in dressmaking, 157-160. 
 for use in embroidery, 452, 453. 
 Tow, processes, 114, 115. 
 Tracing-wheel — 
 selection, 159. 
 use in marking, 164. 
 Traverse feed, 52. 
 Treadles, 69. 
 Triple skirts — 
 
 designing on skirt pattern, 286-288. 
 True or line fibre — 
 processes for — 
 breaking, in. 
 
 doubling and drawing, 112, 113. 
 drying, in. 
 finishing, 114. 
 gilling, 112. 
 hackling, 111. 
 retting, in. 
 rippling, no. 
 spinning, 113. 
 twisting, 113. 
 weaving, 114. 
 Trumpet, 51. 
 Tucked or corded shirring — 
 
 use for securing fulness, 445. 
 Tucks — 
 
 basting in skirts, 385. 
 
 basting in skirt seam for placket, 398. 
 
 designing on shirt-waist pattern, 262, 
 
 . 26 > 
 designing on skirt pattern, 272-274. 
 making in front of shirt-waist, 319, 
 
 320, 321. 
 use in joining ruffles to foundation 
 
 skirts or linings, 419, 420. 
 use, lengthwise, for securing fulness, 
 445- 
 Tunic, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14. 
 Tunics — 
 
 designing on skirt pattern, 285, 286. 
 Turning in edges — 
 
 use in finishing seams, 423, 424. 
 Turnover collars — ■ 
 
 finishing in shirt-waists, 338. 
 placing and cutting, 321. 
 
 Twizzle, 66. 
 
 Two-gore skirts, how cut, 379. 
 
 Unity in design of costume, 255. 
 Upright spinning-frames, 64-67. 
 
 Velvet- 
 basting, 160. 
 
 mirror velvet made from, 163 
 pressing, 163. 
 nap — 
 
 in cutting, 163. 
 in pressing, 163. 
 use in designing, 295. 
 Verlugale, 19. 
 V-shaped neck line — 
 
 finish of in evening-waist linings, 369- 
 372. 
 
 Waist line — 
 
 arranging fulness in skirts, 386, 387. 
 
 decorative finishes in skirts attached 
 to waists, 414, 415. 
 
 decorative finishes in separate skirts, 
 409-414. 
 
 finishing in foundation skirts or li- 
 nings, 405-407. 
 
 finishing in semifitting linings, 358, 
 359- 
 
 finishing in separate skirts, 407, 409- 
 
 4.14- 
 
 finishing in skirts, 387, 388. 
 
 finishing in skirts attached to waists, 
 408, 409, 414, 415. 
 
 non-decorative finishes in separate 
 skirts, 409. 
 
 non-decorative finishes in skirts at- 
 tached to waists, 408, 409. 
 Waists — ■ 
 
 basting in shirt-waist, 328, 329. 
 
 measures, how taken, 166-169. 
 
 placing in shirt-waist, 324. 
 
 types, 313, 314. 
 Warp — 
 
 preparation of and threading for 
 hand and power looms, 73-76. 
 Warp-beam, 68. 
 
 Warp printing, design by, 128, 129. 
 Waste silk. See spun or waste silk. 
 Waste wool — 
 
 dusting, 103. 
 
 removing burrs, 103. 
 Water-frame, 59, 60. 
 Watteau fashions, 15, 30, 32, 35. 
 Weaves — 
 
 basket, 130. 
 
 classification, 129. 
 
 design, 129. 
 
 double cloth, 136. 
 
 double pile, 137, 138. 
 
 figure, 135. 
 
508 
 
 Index 
 
 filling pile, 137. 
 
 gauze, 138, 139. 
 
 lappet and swivel, 138. 
 
 leno, 139. 
 
 method of making, 129-139. 
 
 pile, 136, 137. 
 
 plain, 129-132. 
 
 satin, 133-135- 
 
 twill, 132, 133. 
 Weaving — 
 
 hand, 67-71. 
 
 machine, 71-76. 
 
 pattern, 72. 
 Weighting (in silk), 150. 
 Welt seams — 
 
 for attaching tailored sleeve to waist, 
 342. 
 
 making, 425. 
 
 use, 425. 
 in shirt-waists, 335. 
 in skirts, 393. 
 Whalebone — 
 
 preparing and attaching of, 361-363 
 Whorl, 54. 
 Wool, 84, 85. 
 
 processes of manufacture, 85-103. 
 
 substitutes used in manufacture, 100- 
 
 i°3- 
 Wool carding, 50-53. 
 Wool extract, 101. 
 Woolen — 
 
 special processes — 
 burr picking, 94. 
 carding, 95. 
 drying, 94. 
 mixing, 94. 
 scouring, 94. 
 spinning, 95. 
 usual finishing processes, 99, 100. 
 Woolen and worsted — 
 
 final processes, 95-99. 
 Woolen mule, 62. 
 
 Wools — 
 
 texture, 260. 
 Worsted — ■ 
 
 special processes — 
 
 blending or mixing, 86. 
 carding — 
 cards, 88. 
 preparers, 89. 
 preparing, 88. 
 combing, 90. 
 drying, 88. 
 dusting, 86, 87. 
 gilling, 89. 
 oiling, 88. 
 scouring, 87. 
 spinning — 
 
 Bradford system, 92, 93. 
 French system, 93, 94. 
 usual finishing processes, 99. 
 Worsted mule, 63, 64. 
 Worsted and woolen — 
 
 preliminary processes, 85, 86. 
 
 Yoke lining- 
 making in tight-fitting lining, 365- 
 367- 
 \okes and decorative pieces — 
 
 attaching in skirts, 387. 
 Yokes — 
 
 basting in shirt-waists, 329, 330. 
 
 lined, 329, 330; unlined, 329. 
 designing on shirt-waist pattern, 263, 
 
 264. 
 finishing in guimpes, 351, 352. 
 finishing in shirt-waists, 338. 
 finishing in tight-fitting lining, 365- 
 
 367- 
 placing and cutting for shirt-waist, 
 
 324- 
 seam allowances, 322. 
 stretching in guimpes, 348, 349. 
 
/