SS||;;:J::;r,.::v,/ ^;a^^:;;;?:l^.;::v;:,,;•.■•^ /.j'.v.^-:': •.v;r,v^...\, . •.(.,yv '•m COURTS AND CAMPS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE OTHER WORKS BY CHRISTOPHER HARE 10s. 6d. each. Profusely Illustrated. Demy 8vo., cloth extra. Gilt tops. THE LIFE OF LOUIS XI THE REBEL DAUPHIN AND THE STATESMAN KING " Mr. Hare has mastered the complicated material, and produced an interesting and realistic ■^xauxe,."— Westminster Gazette. " There is hardly a more romantic period in history than that covered by this \,a(ig.," Spectator. THE HIGH AND PUISSANT PRINCESS MARGUERITE OF AUSTRIA "A living picture of a period full of action and intrigue . . . thoroughly interesting and attractive." — Daily Teleg7-aj>h. "The living image of a lady who figured in the_ far away time of Maximilian — a panorama of events ranging from the Diet of Worms to the Field of the Cloth of Qq\A."— Daily Chronicle. A QUEEN OF QUEENS AND THE MAKING OF SPAIN " Begins with the conquest of the_ Moors in a.d. 711, and goes on to the gradual recovery of power and territory by the Christians and the rise of the Christian Kingdoms, Castile and Aragon, after much fighting, confusion and many romantic episodes, including the immortal story of the Cid. The book is agreeable and picturesque, and we have read it with interest and enjoyment." — Spectator. DANTE THE WAYFARER "The pilgrimage cannot possibly be more pleasantly performed than in 'Dante the Wayfarer' with Mr. Christopher Hare as cicerone." Daily Telegraph. " The details of mediaeval life, the road, the inn, the monastery, the faction fights of city life, and the Italian landscape, are pictured with vividness and richness of language." — Guardian. THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS LADIES OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE " Mr. Hare's brilliant gallery is lively and interesting, and represents a good deal of study and a clear realisation of the world in which the ladies moved." — Spectator. r^A^cfJi/uiye^. ,=^^v<^^i.^^. UiyU^c^^r.^d^^'CiA.^ ~^€^^^'^l^^^cc^Tt^^^ COURTS ^ CAMPS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE BEING A MIRROR OF THE LIFE AND TIMES OF THE IDEAL GENTLEMAN COUNT BALDASSARE CASTIGLIONE DERIVED LARGELY FROM HIS OWN LETTERS AND OTHER CONTEMPORARY SOURCES, TO WHICH IS ADDED AN EPITOME OF HIS FAMOUS WORK "THE BOOK OF THE COURTIER" WITH APPRECIATIONS & ANNOTATIONS By CHRISTOPHER HARE author of "marguerite of AUSTRIA," " LOUIS XI," "a QUEEN OF QUEENS," ETC. ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 153-157 FIFTH AVENUE 1908 vs o^' CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Introduction xi Introductory Letter of the Historian, Signor A. Luzio . xiv I. 1478- 1494. Baldassare Castiglione. His Birth and Lineage. His early Home. ' Education in the days of the Renaissance. The Gonzaga Family. Francesco Gonzaga becomes Marchese of Mantua. Chiara Gon- zaga marries Gilbert de Montpensier. Elisabetta Gon- zaga marries Guidobaldo, Duke of Urbino. The coming of Isabella d'Este to Mantua. Story of the New World. Castiglione goes to study at Milan . I II. 1 494-1 503. The Court of Milan in the Reign of LODOVico Sforza. Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. Battle of Fornovo. Death of Count Cristoforo Castiglione. Charles VIII succeeded by Louis XII. Fall of Lodovico Sforza. Csesare Borgia takes Urbino from Duke Guidobaldo 20 III. 1503-1506. Death of Pope Alexander VI. Duke Guido- baldo regains Urbino. Castiglione leaves the service of Francesco, Marchese of Mantua, to take arms under Guidobaldo of Urbino. Gonfaloniere of the Church. Life in camp. Letters of Baldassare Castiglione to his mother. At the Court of Urbino. A mission to Rome 39 IV. 1 504-1 508. Baldassare Castiglione at the Court of Ur- bino, the " Home of Mirth and Joy.^' A galaxy of talent. The origin of the Cortegiano. Castiglione's mission to England to receive the "Order of the Garter" for Duke Guidobaldo. Embassy to Louis XII at Milan. Illness and death of Guidobaldo, Duke of Urbino. Grief of the Duchess Elisabetta. Francesco Maria della Rovere succeeds to the Duchy ... 58 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGB V. 1 508-15 1 1. Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of Ur- bino. His betrothal to Leonora Gonzaga. Various marriage proposals for Count Baldassare Castiglione. League of Cambray. Castiglione fights under the Duke of Urbino. Sends news from the seat of war to his mother. His armour, tents, etc. Venice defeated at the battle of Agnadello. Francesco of Mantua taken prisoner to Venice. Marriage of Francesco Maria to Leonora Gonzaga. Pope JuHus II makes peace with Venice. 15 10, a year of battles. Cas- tiglione's letters from the camp 71 VI. 1511-1516. Pope Julius proclaims a "Holy League" against France. Baldassare Castiglione fights under the Duke of Urbino in the Papal army, which is victorious. The Count is promised the Castle of Nuvillaria. Death of Julius II. Election of Leo X. Castiglione Ambassador in Rome. His friendship with Raphael, etc. Cultured Court of the Vatican. Platon- ism ot the Renaissance. Death of Giuliano dei Medici. Leo X seizes Urbino. Flight of Francesco Maria 90 VII. 1516-1521. Marriage of Count Baldassare Castiglione. The Emperor Maximilian succeeded by Charles V. Death of Francesco, Marchese of Mantua. Castigli- one in Rome. A Latin Ode. Portrait of the Count by Raphael. Death of Ippolita Castiglione, wife of the Count. Death of Leo X. Francesco Maria, Duke of Urbino, at once recovers his estates . .112 VIII. 1 521-1523. Election of Pope Adrian VI. Baldassare Castiglione in Rome as Ambassador from Federico, Marchese of Mantua. Adrian's long delay. Castigli- one's letters. Intrigues in Italy. Francesco Sforza becomes Duke of Milan. Retreat of the French. Destruction of Genoa. The plague in Rome. Federico, Captain-General of the Church. Castiglione returns to Mantua. His art collections. He attends Isabella d'Este to Padua and Venice. Death of Pope Adrian VI 131 CONTENTS lAPTER PACK IX. 1 523-1 525. Cardinal dei Medici becomes Pope Clement VII. Count Castiglione sent to Rome. Received with great honour by the new Pope. Castiglione appointed Nuncio and Collector at the Court of Spain. Battle of Pavia. Francis I taken prisoner to Spain. Many intrigues. Letters of Castiglione. He is in great esteem and friendship with Charles V. Concerning Charles de Bourbon, Due de Montpensier. Death of Elisabetta Gonzaga, Duchess Dowager of Urbino . 149 X. 1 526-1 527. Treaty of Madrid. Francis I breaks his word. League of Cognac. Charles V marries Isabel of Portugal, Colonna raid on Rome. Dismay of Castiglione. His efforts for a firm alliance between the Pope and the Emperor. Battle of Mohkcs (Louis of Hungary defeated and killed by the Turks). Frunds- berg and Charles of Bourbon invade Italy. The taking and the sack of Rome. Bourbon killed. Pope Clement a prisoner 165 XI. 1527-1529. After the sack of Rome. The grief and despair of Castiglione. His justification to the Pope. Many letters. Controversy with Vald^z. Indiscretion of Vittoria Colonna with regard to the Cortegiano. Castiglione publishes his great work. Letter to his children. Death of Baldassare Castiglione. Sorrow of the Emperor, the Pope, and his many friends. Brief account of the poetical works of Castiglione . 181 "The Book of the Courtier." Il Cortegiano. Appreciations 200 IL Cortegiano. Dramatis Personse 205 Book I. The Count of Urbino, and the passing of Pope Julius II (1507). Concerning the Perfect Courtier. All the qualities needful for his perfection .... 207 Book II. Concerning the fashion, the manner, and the time in which the Perfect Courtier must display his qualities. Various "facetis" (jests, etc.) 224 vii CONTENTS CHAPTER PACK Book III. The most excellent Court of Urbino. Concerning the Lady of the Court, as compared with the Perfect Courtier. Woman in the Past and Present. The qualities needful for her perfection .... 248 Book IV. In Commemoration of Departed Friends. Con- cerning the Perfect Courtier in relation to his Prince. The Ideal Government. The duties of Princes. The Courtier considered as a lover. The Platonism of the Renaissance with regard to Heavenly Beauty and Heavenly Love. A rapturous invocation. The dawn of day 265 Books Consulted 280 Index 283 ILLUSTRATIONS Baldassare Castiglione {by Raphael^ Louvre) . Federico of Urbino {by Francesca, Uffizi Gallery) Beatrice d'Este {Fresco attributed to Ltdni, Milan) Cardinal Ippolito dei Medici {by Titian, Pitti Gallery) Ccesare Borgia {by Raphael, Borghese Gallery) Michelangelo {by himself, Uffizi Gallery) . Leonora Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino {by Titian Pita Gallery) Pope Leo X with Cardinals dei Medici and Rossi {by Raphael) . Raphael of Urbino {by himself Uffizi Gallery) . Isabella d'Este {by Rubens, Imperial Gallery^ Vienna) . Francesca Maria /, Duke of Urbino {by Titian) Vittoria Colonna,Marchesa diPescara{Uffizi Gallery) Lodovico Ariosto {reputed) {by Titian, National Gallery) . Emperor Charles V {by Titiaii, Prado, Madrid) Galeazzo di Sanseverino {by Ambrogio de Predis) Elisabetta Gonzaga- Duchess of Urbino {Uffizi Gallery) Bibbiena, Bernardo Dovisi of {by Raphael, Pitti Gallery) Freniispieci Facing page 8 24 32 48 ■ 60 80 96 112 128 „ 160 192 „ 216 „ 240 „ 264 Cover design: Arms of Castiglione {from the '■'' Libro d'Oro," of Mantua) INTRODUCTION It is a truism to remark that the favourite masterpiece of one age may seem to be almost forgotten in a later day. Yet, when the verdict alike of his contemporaries and of posterity has once placed a man amongst the Band of Immortals, we may rest certain that his work will have might to conquer the apparently inevitable result of Time — oblivion. In that roll-call of Honour we venture to place Count Baldassare Castiglione, when we remember the world-wide fame of his Book of the Courtier, "a mirror of the age which gave it birth," a model for all Europe of the Ideal Gentleman, and a textbook on the subject in the spacious days of Elizabethan culture. Thus we stand in need of no apology for telling the little-known story of Castiglione's life, the stirring events in which it was his fortune to take part, and the distinguished group of noble lords and ladies, of great soldiers, scholars, poets, and artists who honoured him with their friendship. In choosing one of the minor characters in the great Drama of History, there is more space and freedom to dwell upon the intimate daily life of the Renaissance, with all its abiding charm. A purely Historical work, dealing mainly with Kings and ruHng Princes, must give such supreme importance to political matters, that there is no time to linger in the pleasant byways of life, where the flowers blossom and the birds sing. INTRODUCTION How often in fiction does the author's instinct lead him to choose some secondary character to tell the story, in which he has the inestimable advantage of being a looker-on as well as an actor ! Never was there a man more fitted by talent and position to play this part than Count Castiglione. His was one of those rare natures which combine absolute honesty and outspoken courage, with all those ideal qualities of a Perfect Courtier which made him every- where beloved and trusted by Popes and Princes and Emperor, so that with his keen insight he gained intimate and unique knowledge of their character and their deeds. Moreover he was an accomplished letter- writer and, fortunately for us, an immense mass of his correspondence has been preserved. We are thus able to look upon that most interesting period of the Italian Renaissance, from the fresh point of view of one who had the good fortune to be behind the scenes, or even on the stage, when any striking per- formance took place. The mere story of Castiglione's own life, his friendships, his marriage, and his adven- tures, is a romance in itself. But his greatest claim to our interest is his famous and entrancing Book of the Courtier^ written in loyal devotion, to preserve the memory of those "golden years of his life" at the Court of Urbino. Here we find ourselves of a sudden wafted into an enchanted land by the magician to whom it occurred, in a moment of inspiration, that he would chronicle the "sweet conversation" of the noble per- sonages gathered round his peerless Duchess, and thus crystallise for ever the evanescent charm of the spoken word. A sketch of the Cortegiano is added to this history INTRODUCTION of Count Baldassare Castiglione, for whom these words of Tasso will prepare the way : — . . . Mentre dureranno le Corti, mentre dureranno i Principi, le donne e i Cavalieri insieme si raccoglieranno ; mentre valore e cortesia avranno albergo negli animi nostri, sara in pregio il nome del Castiglione. (T. Tasso, Diologo della Corle.) (While Courts shall last, while Princes shall endure, and ladies and knights shall meet together ; while valour and courtesy shall have an abode in our souls, the name of Castiglione shall remain precious to us.) INTRODUCTORY LETTER OF THE HISTORIAN, SIGNOR A. LUZIO KEEPER OF THE ARCHIVES OF MANTUA You have given me in advance the pleasure of reading your book, in which, with so much accuracy and sympathy, you speak of the most perfect courtier of his century, B. Castiglione. I thank you with sincere gratitude for your courtesy, and I venture to offer you the copy of a document in the Gonzaga Archives which will introduce your beautiful work better than any modest words of mine. In 1 5 19, the very year in which Castiglione went to Rome as ambassador of the Gonzagas, the representa- tive of Henry VIII at the Court of Leo X, *' Silvestro Gigli," Bishop of Worcester, wrote thus to the Marchese of Mantua : — Ill°^« et Ex^'^ D'^^ . . . Knowing the affection and respect of Your Excellency towards the Most Christian Majesty of my Lord, the King of England, and the universal love towards all the nation, and also the confidence and service which I hold with Your Excellency, I have felt it safe to write to you, feeling certain that in your kindness you do not look upon my letters as trivial. Messer Antonio Frokmorthon (Throgmorton?), the bearer of this present, an English gentleman of honourable and noble parents coming from England hither to Rome together with his father, as fate would have it, his father died by the way. Therefore when he found himself thus in Italy he wrote to his own country, to his elder brother and his relations, asking them to direct him as to what he should do ; from whom he received the reply that for some time he should remain in Italy in the service of some great and honourable Lord, to learn INTRODUCTORY LETTER the customs and manners of this country ; and I on his behalf and that of his kindred, my friends, beg that you will favour and help him to this effect. Thus for the aforesaid reasons, and knowing- the magnanimity, nobility, and munificence of Your Excellency and of your Court, I have thought that in no other place could he better fulfil his desire and be more willingly received than in your service. Wherefore with all my heart I pray that you will deign to receive the said M. Antonio, who has the means to maintain himself well, and to do honour to you without much trouble, and I am certain that he will serve you faithfully. This, as I hope, being accomplished, besides giving great pleasure to the King's Majesty and to many Lords and gentlemen of the nation, will oblige me for ever. Rome, January 9, 1519. Servus Sil. Episcopus Wigorniensis Ch™' Regis Angliee Oratoris. This seems to me one of the most characteristic documents showing the importance which Mantua then had in the civilised world ; it was looked upon as one of the most brilliant centres of the Italian Renaissance ; it was pointed out as the best place where a young English gentleman could perfect his education. Alas ! to-day it has become a squalid provincial city, unjustly neglected by foreigners, although so many historical treasures are collected in its archives, and its monuments are adorned with so many luminous traces of beauty. To you, who with intellectual and loving discern- ment have claimed for Castiglione and his country the attention of the English public, it is a pleasure for me to express my most cordial appreciation and my most sincere praise. ALESSANDRO LUZIO, Direttore delV Archivio di Stato. CHAPTER I 1478-1494 Baldassare Castiglione— His Birth and Lineage— His early home— Education in the days of the Renaissance— The Gonzaga Family— Francesco Gon- ZAGA BECOMES MaRCHESE OF MaNTUA — ChIARA GONZAGA MARRIES Gilbert de Montpensier— Elisabetta Gon- zaga MARRIES GUIDOBALDO, DUKE OF URBINO— THE COMING OF ISABELLA D'ESTE TO MaNTUA— STORY OF THE New World— Castiglione goes to study at Milan. In those stately Courts of the Renaissance, the wise courtier who could guide and counsel his lord, and serve him in diplomacy at home and abroad, had quite as important a part to play as the man of action, the warrior captain of his army. But in Count Baldassare Castiglione we find combined the perfect courtier, the gallant condottiere and the distinguished man of letters. Born of high estate, he was destined to carry on the noblest traditions of his race, to become a citizen of the world, to be a welcome guest at the most cultivated Courts of Europe, and to sit in council with princes and kings, with cardinals and popes. The warrior host, the crash of arms, the triumphant entry ; pomps and pageants alike of peace and war were to him familiar scenes, in which he had to play his own stately part. Count Castiglione had the mar- COURTS AND CAMPS vellous good fortune to be ever at the centre of interest in those epoch-making days of a nation's story. Per- haps no period of Italian history is of more striking interest than the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century — the years between 1478 and 1529, which cover the span of his adventurous life. The mention of a few illustrious contemporaries will place his period more vividly than any list of dates. Born a few years later than Isabella and Beatrice d'Este, their brother Alfonso Duke of Ferrara, Michel- angelo, Leo X, and Titian — the same year as Giorgione the artist and Giovanni dei Medici (delle Bande nere) — Castiglione was five years older than Martin Luther, and Raphael with whom he became linked in the most intimate bonds of friendship. Our courtier was of noble birth (which was greatly to his advantage, on the ground which he points out in the Cortegiano that noblesse oblige), the eldest son of the distinguished condottiere of men-at-arms in the service of the Marchese of Mantua — Count Cristoforo Castiglione III, he was proudly styled, as though of a reigning dynasty. The mother of Baldassare was Aloisia da Antonia Gonzaga, a beautiful and accom- plished woman, a near kinswoman of the ruling family in Mantua. During the whole of his life, the constant and intimate correspondence of her son reveals Ma- donna Aloisia to us as a most wise and devoted mother, worthy indeed of his unchanging love and confidence. Baldassare Castiglione was born on Sunday, the 6th of November, 1478, in the picturesque old castle of Casatico, within the Commune of Maccaria, about twelve miles south-west of Mantua on the way to Cremona. This was one of the hereditary domains of OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE the Castiglione family, who also possessed a grand old thirteenth-century palace in Mantua, whose splendid portals may still be seen on the Piazza Sordello, in the quarter of San Jacobi. There was a passion for beautiful gardens in the Italy of that day, and these were nowhere more luxurious than in the rich fertile country around Mantua. In the charm of its surroundings, the stately home at Casatico could bear comparison with the more famous villas of the Gonzaga princes. We will try to picture its old-world beauty. Closed in by thick dark hedges of box and yew, sheltered by groves of plane-trees to the south, so that there was always shade at noon, the gardens were laid out in terraces in front of the Castello, from whence stretched forth long straight walks covered with vine-grown pergolas, and bordered with rose-trees and jessamine. Green lawns sloped down to the steep banks of the river Oglio, with a marble fountain in the centre of the turf, and orange trees in boxes at every corner, while in distant nooks were sylvan arbours and strange grottoes with quaint figures of animals carved in stone. A place to dream and linger in on a summer evening, ''green with perpetual verdure, musical with the voice of waters, glowing with luscious fruits and sweetest flowers." Such was the home of Baldassare's early days, an ideal spot for the games of happy childhood, for his was no lonely lot. Besides his three sisters Polissena, Francesca, and Anna, and his younger brother Jero- nimo, there was no lack of Gonzaga cousins both at Mantua and at Bozzolo, a few miles to the south of Casatico. One early playmate, Cesare Gonzaga, three years older than himself, remained till death his in- 3 COURTS AND CAMPS separable companion and friend. With kindred tastes, they shared alike in study and in the fortune of war and diplomacy. The Renaissance in Italy was a palmy time for children of high birth. We see it well described in the charming letters of little Piero dei Medici to his father, asking for a new pony, for ''some of the best setters that there are," and merrily describing the doings of his brothers and sisters. A bright-spirited boy would be accustomed from his earliest years to imitate, from afar, the sports and amusements of his elders. Baldassare learnt to ride almost as soon as to walk, and in after years we are constantly reminded of his splendid horsemanship. This was an indispensable accomplishment in those times when so much depended upon individual gallantry, for in the day of battle it might mean life or death to the rider. Thus we remember the three rules which Francesco Sforza, the greatest of the condottieri, gave to his son : — " Leave other men's wives alone. "Strike none of your followers, or if you do, send the injured man far away. "Never ride a hard-mouthed horse, or one who drops his shoe." It was necessary to be a good judge of a horse, as well as a perfect rider. Castiglione himself once, in writing for a war-horse, remarks: "He must be thoroughly trained, and have brains." Amongst numberless other instances, we remember that the life of Charles VIII was saved at the battle of Fornovo by the docility and swiftness of his charger " Savoie." Cristoforo Castiglione encouraged his son in every manly pursuit ; he was early initiated into the mysteries 4 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE of hunting and hawking, and every knightly exercise and pastime. But that which strikes us most in the education of these children of the Renaissance is not only their marvellous proficiency in classical and literary studies, but their enduring love for them. Baldassare Castiglione was one of those happy scholars to whom learning seemed to come so lightly, and yet who, amid the distractions of his full active life, could use Latin as his mother-tongue ; make a stately speech, write a diplomatic letter, or toss off an ode or an epigram. The Classic authors of Greece and Rome remain ever such familiar friends to him that in the Cortegiano, his masterpiece, their deepest thoughts shine forth once more in vivid life and beauty. The education which bore such fruit in the children of the Renaissance deserves a careful study. It is true that Baldassare was fortunate, not alone in the time but in the place of his birth. The labours of the famous Vittorino da Feltre, half a century before, had placed Mantua in the van of educational progress. This great humanist had a lofty ideal of a school- master's mission, and was marvellously successful as a teacher. He came to the Casa Zoiosa (House of Joy) near the Castello of Mantua, as tutor to the Gonzaga princes in the first place, but he soon had quite a group of pupils under his care, including several maidens of high birth. His aim was to give a thorough training of mind and body, and to encourage a simple life, of which virtue and religion were the foundation. The course of study included Greek (in which Vittorino was specially distinguished), Latin, philosophy, logic, gram- mar, mathematics, and also music, dancing, and sing- ing, varied by all kinds of outdoor sports and games, 5 COURTS AND CAMPS amongst which the very energetic palla was most popular in the meadows by the Mincio. An enthusiast himself, Vittorino had the rare and precious gift of inspiring his pupils with his own enthusiasm for learning. With regard to his methods, we are told that he would choose his own favourite passages from Homer, Demosthenes, Virgil, or Cicero, and read them aloud, explaining as he continued ; then encourage his class to learn them by heart in order to improve their style. One of his rules was : '' First be sure that you have something to say, then say it as simply as possible." Those who were slow to learn received special attention from him, and it is interesting to know that he had scholars of all ranks, some who were too poor to pay being received "for the love of God." During the long summer days, he would take his scholars to the rising ground at Pietola, the reputed birthplace of Virgil, and tell them stories of the great heroes of olden time, as they rested after their games ; and we even hear of an occasional visit to the Tyrolese Alps. Amongst his distinguished pupils we find the great Duke of Urbino, Federico di Montefeltro, the Gonzaga princesses, Margherita and Cecilia Gonzaga, and their brothers. The traditions of Vittorino da Feltre still lived in Mantua in the days of Castiglione, and amongst his learned teachers we hear of the Veronese professor Columbino reading Virgil publicly in the city, and Pietro di Vidana, who devoted himself chiefly to dramatic art, having frequent representations of the best comedies of Plautus and Terence. Other dis- tinguished scholars are mentioned as teaching here, such as Giovanni da Cavallana, who encouraged the 6 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE study of Virgil, Ovid, Titus Livius, and also the Italian Classics. Another Mantuan tutor thus de- scribes his method of teaching a young prince : "We have gone through the abridged history of Livy, and he has translated two books of Valerius with my help in case of difficulty, and now he has a good knowledge of Roman history and the Laws and Constitution of the State. ... I have taught him a work of Ovid, In Ibim, full of unfamiliar fables and stories. . . . He has read some beautiful elegies with me, and construes orations with ease. I dictate epistles to him every day . . . and also expound an epistle of Cicero to him, for the sake of his style. ... In modern literature, he has read through Petrarch with me, and other poems . . . * Francesco Vigilius.'" Such interest and enthusiasm as we have seen in the teachers of that day deserved to be successful. They were undoubtedly so in the case of Baldassare, who became a most accomplished youth, and whose love for learning had been so stimulated in early days, that it continued an undying source of pleasure through life. Besides his literary pursuits, we are told that he studied music, architecture, sculpture, and painting, and it is quite possible that he may have been encouraged in the love of art by seeing the famous painter Andrea Mantegna at work on his great series of " Triumphs" for the decoration of the Castello of Mantua. It will be necessary to give a brief sketch of the reigning Gonzaga family, which is so intimately connected with the fortunes of Baldassare Castiglione. In the year of his birth, 1478, Federico Gonzaga suc- ceeded his father Lodovico as Marchese of Mantua, and soon afterwards he lost his young wife Margaret of 7 COURTS AND CAMPS Bavaria, and his six children were left to the care of their grandmother, Barbara of Brandenberg. These were Chiara, Francesco (who succeeded his father in 1484), Sigismondo, Elisabetta (the Duchess of Urbino, famous in the Cortegiano), Maddalena, and Giovanni, who was only five years old. When in 148 1 a marriage was arranged for Chiara with Gilbert, Due de Mont- pensier, we find that Count Cristoforo Castiglione and his wife Madonna Aloisia were in such high esteem at the Court of Mantua that they were chosen to escort the bride to France. This was a splendid match for the young Gonzaga princess, as her husband was one of the first nobles of the realm — of the blood royal, in direct descent from St. Louis, through the brother of Philippe le Hardi, Robert, who married Beatrice of Burgundy. Was there no Court astrologer to predict to the gentle Chiara that her first-born son would be the most splendid and flamboyant figure of the Renaissance — the magnificent Prince Charles, Due de Montpensier, Con- stable of France, who outdid kings in splendour, and whose story was to close with a tragedy of Empire ? The Marchesa Barbara died a few months after the marriage of her eldest granddaughter, and her solemn funeral procession, as she was borne through the streets of Mantua to the Duomo, may have been one of the earliest memories of young Castiglione. When Lorenzo dei Medici came to the city two years later, so illustrious a visitor as the Magnifico cannot fail to have made a vivid impression upon the boy, whose birth gave him a right to share in all that took place at the Court of Mantua. In 1484, the Marchese Federico died and was succeeded by his eldest son Francesco, who at eighteen Andersofi, Photo FEDERICO OF URBINO Francesca To face p. S OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE was already betrothed to Isabella d'Este. There was constant coming and going of great people. In August, i486, we find the young Duke of Urbino arriving as a visitor, on his betrothal to Elisabetta Gonzaga, the eldest of the two remaining princesses. The Court Chamberlain remarks in a letter that the illustrious guest ** went for his pastime in a boat on the lake after having dined, but being unused to the water he became ill and landed at the gate of the Corte. Here he saw the Triumphs of Ccesar, which Mantegna was painting, and took much pleasure in them. Afterwards he passed onward to the Castello by the Via Coperta." This young Guidobaldo of Urbino was a handsome, cultivated youth of fifteen, the same age as his proposed bride, but unfortunately he was delicate in health, and already a sufferer from hereditary gout. He had been a ruling prince during the last four years, since the death of his father Federico Montefeltro in 1482. This prince was destined in future years to have Baldassare Castiglione as his most devoted friend and courtier. The next important visitor at Mantua was Chiara, the Duchess of Montpensier, who had now been married five years, but who still clung to her old home with the most passionate affection, and was never so happy as when she could be with her own people. The three sisters had a gay time together that Christmas of i486, although they had to put off some of their proposed festivities until the New Year on account of the absence of their brother Francesco. The wedding of Elisabetta was arranged to take place early in the year 1488, and there were great preparations for the important event, and a stately ceremony in the Duomo before the bride set forth on her wedding journey. 9 COURTS AND CAMPS It is interesting to suppose that, as the young prin- cess was an intimate friend of his mother, Baldassare may even then have had a childish admiration for his peerless lady of the Cortegta?io, whose idolater he was to become in those halcyon days at the Court of Urbino, with the far-off worship of lowly reverence. To the student of his life and work, all that concerns Elisabetta Gonzaga will be welcome. With a goodly suite in attendance and her youngest brother Giovanni to keep her company, she set sail in a stately bucentaur down the river Po towards Ferrara ; but the wintry weather was unpropitious, and such terrible storms came on, that the bridal party had serious hardships to endure before they were welcomed by Duke Ercole and the Duchess Leonora. Here the gentle, retiring Elisabetta was strongly attracted by the brilliant charm of Isabella d'Este, her future sister-in- law, and the two young girls formed a close friendship which lasted all their lives. It is curious to learn that before proceeding on her journey, the bride was con- firmed by the Bishop of Ferrara in the presence of all the Este family. As she had reached the age of seven- teen, it was an interlude which we should scarcely have expected. After leaving Ferrara the poor bride met with more storms and bad weather, which reached such a pitch at Ravenna that the Podesta's palace was flooded. The mountain travel beyond was still more trying for the delicate girl, the torrents being so swollen as to be almost impassable, and she wrote to her brother Francesco, that if it had not been for the devotion of her attendants she should never have reached Urbino alive. Here a magnificent reception awaited her, to OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE atone for past sufferings. " Ranged upon the hill- slope were the ladies of the city, exquisitely dressed, and the children bearing olive-branches in their hands. As soon as the bridal party came in sight, a screen of mounted choristers rose up before them, accompanied by nymphs in antique garb ; dogs started off in pursuit of hareslet loose for them; thehillsresoundedwith a cantata specially composed, and the Goddess of Mirth in person descended the slope and offered the young Duchess her congratulations and good wishes." Guidobaldo, with knightly devotion, led his lady by the hand down into the splendid palace which seemed to climb the last height above the city, and whose walls were draped with tapestry and cloth of gold, while on every side were costly pictures, antiques, and bronzes, and to crown all, a precious library of the rarest books and manuscripts. As we take leave of Elisabetta in her new and splendid home, it is not without a touch of sympathy for her in the bitter tears she shed, on parting with her young brother and her Mantuan friends. The next event of importance which in any way affected Castiglione was the appointment of Francesco Gonzaga, Marchese of Mantua, to the coveted position of Captain-General of the armies of Venice in 1489, as this would involve his frequent absence, and also that of Cristoforo Castiglione, who served under him as a condottiere. This was a period of comparative peace — a lull before the storm — although there had been serious disturbances, and a revolt of the inhabi- tants both at Forli and at Faenza. In October of this year, 1489, Maddalena, the last of the Gonzaga prin- cesses, was married to Giovanni Sforza of Pesaro, but COURTS AND CAMPS her place was taken the following February by the coming of Isabella d'Este as bride to Francesco. On the magnificence of this favourite of fortune so much glowing enthusiasm has been spent, that it will only be needful to describe briefly the pageants which de- lighted the eyes of the twelve-year-old boy, Baldassare. The wedding party, consisting of most of the Este family, arrived in a splendid gilt bucentaur with at- tendant galleys, and next came the grand procession into the city on horseback, through the streets garlanded with flowers and hung with banners, welcomed by the singing of children and by strange masques. When the bride alighted at the Castello she was met at the foot of the great staircase by Elisabetta, Duchess of Urbino, who had come with her husband to the wedding. They had brought their precious tapestries from Urbino to do honour to the occasion, and it seems strange to hear that the bridegroom had borrowed costly plate and carpets and brocades from all his friends and re- lations. Considering the difficulty and danger of transit in those days, it was very generous of them to lend their treasures ! The festivities continued for days ; banquets, dances, tournaments, and processions, until we should imagine the treasury of the small State would have been almost exhausted. It is true that Isabella brought with her a dowry of some 30,000 ducats, thirteen wedding chests richly decorated with gold leaf and ultramarine, costly hangings and artistic personal ornaments, besides a gilt chariot, a bucentaur of her own, and a silver altar with all needful office- books and vessels. We learn that the young Marchesa found a kindred spirit in Madonna Luigia Castiglione, and that the OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE two ladies soon became inseparable friends. We can imagine them sitting together in the beautiful rooms of the Castello, or in the shady gardens of their country villas, reading the latest romance or poem, playing scartino, or working at some choice embroidery ; while at times the blind improvisatore, Francesco Bello, would delight them with his flowing verse, until the Lord of Bozzolo summoned back his favourite to cheer his sick-room. The coming of Madonna Isabella to Mantua made a gay and brilliant change in Court life. Every form of luxury was natural to her ; splendid and most costly garments and jewels (her favourite dress was em- broidered with notes of music in gold on an azure ground), and gay entertainments of every kind. All her rooms had to be painted and decorated afresh according to her minute directions, and she even brought with her a number of skilled artists to carry out her wishes. Apparently the young princess treated them in the most despotic fashion, and if there was any delay in obeying her orders, the luckless offender was threatened with the Castle dungeon. But when she was pleased she could be supremely gracious, and had a charming welcome for the many interesting visitors who came to do her homage. Amongst these were the young poet Antonio Tebaldeo, also the famous courtier and writer of pastoral plays and other poems, Niccolo da Correggio, with whom young Castiglione now made that first acquaintance which ripened into friendship. He must also have enjoyed meeting the great musicians who came to Mantua to give lessons in singing to the young Marchesa — Giovanni Martini, the organist from Constance, and Girolama da Sestola from Ferrara. 13 COURTS AND CAMPS The famous Florentine, Atalante Migliorotti, came to perform in a gala performance of Poliziano's *'Orfeo" at the villa of Marmirola, in 1491, and made the prin- cess a present of a silver lute, the last fashionable instrument. Mantegna returned to Mantua from Rome the same year, and somewhat later the imperious Isa- bella sent for Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael, to paint her portrait. He came at her request but, before the picture was finished, the poor man fell ill and had to return to the more healthy climate of Urbino. The visit to Mantua, however, proved fatal to the great artist, who never recovered from the fever caught there, and died the following August. The Duchess Elisabetta often visited her old home and, on one occasion at least, a poet with his lyre was sent in the bucentaur which met her, that he might beguile the way with music and singing. Always delicate in i^ealth, she found the low-lying land of her birth suit her better than the bracing hill air which Santi pined for. She also enjoyed the society of her clever sister-in-law, who was sure to have all the newest books and poems and music ; the latest editions of Godefroi de Bouillon, of the History of King Arthur and the Round Table, of the Paladins of France, the Life of Julius Ccesar, Boccaccio, and other romances, besides any classical Latin authors she might desire to read again. The Marchesa also set the example of going to the Duomo to listen to a course of Lenten sermons in 1492 by that popular Augustinian Friar, Fra Mariano de Genazzaro, who was almost as much admired in his day as Savonarola. There is no record of the presence of Baldassare at these pious discourses, although it is extremely probable 14 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE that he escorted his mother to them. But we have little doubt that when, early in 1493, the marvellous news reached Mantua of the return of Cristoforo Col- umbus from his first voyage, and his discovery of the New World, the eager boy and his friend Giovanni Gonzaga listened with rapt excitement to the amazing story. This was the form in which it reached them. A letter from Florence says that : *'. . . the King of Spain sent some ships over the seas, which after a voyage of thirty-six days discovered certain islands, amongst others a very big one lying east, with broad rivers and terrible mountains, and a very fertile land, inhabited by handsome men and women, who go naked or only wear a cotton leaf round the waist. This country abounds in gold, and the people are very courteous and liberal of their property, and there are quantities of palms of more than six different kinds, and some wonderfully tall trees. There are other islands, five of which have been given names, and one which is nearly as large as Italy. And the rivers there run with gold, and there is plenty of copper but no iron, and many other wonders, and you can neither see the Arctic nor the Antarctic poles." A further account was written by some servants of the Marchese of Mantua, who had been sent to buy horses in Spain : *' A Savona sailor named Columbus has landed here, bringing 30,000 ducats in gold, as well as pepper and other spices, and parrots as big as falcons and as red as pheasants. They found trees bearing fine wool, and others which produce wax and linen fibres, and men like Tartars, tall and active with long hair falling over their shoulders. . . . These sailors have brought back IS COURTS AND CAMPS a great quantity of gold, sandal-wood, and spices . . . and sixty parrots of variegated colours ... as well as twelve Indians who have been sent to the King (Fer- nando of Aragon). And that land had great forests in which the trees grow so thickly you may scarce see the sky. ..." Another letter was chiefly interested about the inhabi- tants : **. . . men of our height of copper-coloured skin, with noses like apes. . . . All go naked, men and women alike. No one can understand their language . . . they eat the roots of trees and some kind of nut which is like pepper." ^ As the story grew, how the fabled glories of the East must have loomed in dim magnificence before the imagination of the Italian youths, and we only marvel how they could tamely remain in the Old World ! We can scarcely realise how elementary was the knowledge of geography in those days when distant lands had all the charm of vague romance. A Mappa-mondo drawn in charcoal is believed to have hung on a wall of one of the Mantuan palaces, but it was boldly filled in with the wildest fancies of the artist, for until more than a generation later even the general outline of the New World was not made out. The future of Baldassare had already been a subject of anxious consideration to his parents, who felt that with a son of such great promise no means should be neglected for extending and perfecting his education. At that time the ancient University of Milan was reviv- ing its former glories under the munificent patronage of Lodovico Sforza, and the young prince, Sigismondo Gonzaga, Monsignore il ProtonariOy had but recently 1 G. Berghet, quoted by Mrs. Ady. i6 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE returned from a course of study in that city. There were other reasons which made Milan a desirable abode for young Castiglione ; another branch of his family dwelt there, many of whom were in positions of im- portance. We hear of Giorgio Giacomo Archbishop of Bari, of Giovanni Stefano Count of Serone, Senator and Ducal Councillor ; of Girolamo and Filippo, who were afterwards Presidents of the Senate of Milan ; of Bonaventura, a famous historian, and of other members of the Castiglione clan. By the influence of these noble kinsmen the youth might enter into the service of the Duke Lodovico, and thus not only complete his literary education at the Accademia, but also his courtly and chivalrous train- ing at the cultured Court of Milan. In this city were gathered illustrious men of talent from all parts, from Greece, Florence, Venice, and other Italian states, dis- tinguished in every branch of art and learning, attracted hither by the liberal patronage of Lodovico Sforza. He summoned from Pavia the Athenian scholar, Demetrius Calcondila, to lecture in Greek, and of him a loving disciple wrote : ** It seems to me that in him are figured all the wisdom, the civility, and the elegance of those ancients who are so famous and so illustrious. Merely seeing him you fancy you are looking upon Plato ; far more when you hear him speak." Most of Castiglione's biographers speak of his study- ing under Giorgio Merula, called the *'Sun of Ales- sandria," the historian and professor of Latin and rhetoric, who died in 1494 (which would make his coming to Milan two years earlier than the usually received opinion). He certainly learnt geometry and COURTS AND CAMPS mathematics from Fra Luca Pacioli of Borgo San Sepolcro, the greatest mathematician of the day, who wrote a book De Dimna Proportioned of which the MS. edition, illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci, was presented to II Moro for his wonderful library. History was taught by Ferrari, the first public lecturer on the subject in Italy. Of poets there was no lack ; indeed, every man of culture tried his hand at least on a love sonnet to some fair lady. Amongst those whose poetry deserves special notice were the tre generosi cavallieri of the Court of Milan, Niccolo da Correggio of Ferrara ; Antonio Fregosa, the soldier-poet of Genoa; and Gaspare Visconti, whose graceful, fantastic love lyrics were compared by his friends to those of Petrarch. In the free and constant intercourse of all these gifted people there arose a delightful enthusiasm for any new and interesting work. Thus we are told that when the famous Floren- tine, Angelo Poliziano, brought out his Miscellanea in Milan, the Duke's secretary Jacopo Antiquario one morning found all the clerks eagerly turning over the loose pages of this new book, and he in his turn be- came so eager about the Miscellarbea that he forgot his duties. Castiglione evidently shared the interest in this particular author, for we find him writing on a later occasion from his camp at the seat of war to have a book of Poliziano sent him from Mantua. We also learn from his letters that he possessed and played upon a variety of musical instruments ; the viol is specially mentioned — a name given to several bowed instruments, following the mediaeval fiddle, and com- ing before the violin. At Milan, where there were i8 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE teachers on every subject, he would have had excellent opportunities of learning music, as the priest Franchino Gaffuri was a most distinguished professor in the ** Chair of Music." The Neapolitan musician, Serafino Aquilano, was famous for his improvisations upon the lute, and he delighted the Court of Milan with songs of his own composition. Castiglione had many other teachers at this time ; for his education appears to have been carried out on the broadest lines. He learnt the rudiments of architecture under Bramante, and found a liberal education in art through his inti- macy with Leonardo da Vinci and Cristoforo Romano. In after years he shows great familiarity with the works of Virgil, Tibullus, Propertius, Statius, Cicero, Xeno- phon, Aristotle, and above all with those of Plato, for which he had a special affection. In his introductory letter to the Cortegiano, addressed to the Bishop of Viseo, he remarks : '*Some will say that ... I thought to represent myself as the Perfect Courtier . . . unto such I will not deny that I have attempted all those studies which I assert that the Courtier should have knowledge of. . . . And I think that whoso hath no knowledge of the matters treated in this Book, however learned he may be, cannot well write of them ; but I am not so deprived of judgment in knowing myself, that I should presume to think I know all that is desirable should be known. ..." CHAPTER II THE COURT OF MILAN IN THE REIGN OF LODOVICO SFORZA 1494-1503 Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII— Battle op For- Novo — Death of Count Cristoforo Castiglione — Charles VIII succeeded by Louis XII— Fall of LODOVICO SFORZA— C^SARE BORGIA TAKES URBINO FROM Duke Guidobaldo. As our theme is simply the intimate, personal, and literary history of "a Courtier of the Renaissance," we do but hear from afar the rumours of great events and the distant thunders of war as they reach the Court of Milan. The death of Lorenzo dei Medici had deprived Italy of a great statesman and peace- maker, and the election of the Borgia Pope, Alexander VI, was a presage of evil wherever his influence ex- tended. But the most fatal enemy to his country's peace was Lodovico Sforza himself, when in the hope of furthering his ambitious schemes he sent ambassadors to persuade the wavering Charles VIII to invade Italy and take part in the internecine war against Naples. As we know, he succeeded only too well. Yet, all unconscious of impending disaster, the gay Court of Milan was at this time one round of lavish and splendid entertainments. In 1491 Lodovico Sforza, COURTS AND CAMPS at the age of thirty-nine, had married Beatrice d'Este, the sister of Isabella, Marchesa of Mantua, a young girl of sixteen, who is described to us in the most glowing terms as a ''mirror of Renaissance woman- hood." Her coming to Milan had much the same result as that of Isabella to Mantua, for she dearly loved state and magnificence, and had a passion for every form of dramatic entertainment. Her home at Ferrara had seen the beginning of Italian drama, as distinguished from the earlier form of sacra rappresen- tazione, which were usually performed in the squares of the city or in a church. But these new classical and profane subjects were acted before the Court, usually with some amount of scenery and realism. Thus when the MentEchmi of Plautus was repre- sented, a boat with sails and oars and ten persons on board was made to move across the stage, and excited enthusiastic applause. The Amphitryon of the same author was given with musical interludes ; there was a Paradise or Olympus represented, in which lamps took the place of stars, and little children were dressed as planets. Sometimes the classical plays were given in the original, but more commonly they were carefully translated. When Ercole of Ferrara came to Pavia, he brought a goodly company of young courtiers to perform a series of comedies. Thus they gave the Captivi, the Mercator, and the Pcenulns on three follow- ing evenings, and these entertainments often continued until long past midnight. On one carnival, Mopsa e Daphne^ the Pastoral play of Niccolo da Correggio, was performed with great appreciation, and besides various Italian plays there were splendid concerts, for on another occasion a com- COURTS AND CAMPS pany of wonderful Spanish musicians was sent to Milan from Rome by Cardinal Ascanio, and gave great delight to the assembled guests. It is impossible to convey a full impression of the glowing life and rich variety of entertainments, when gaiety reigned supreme in the city of Milan, and made Lodovico the idol of his Court. There were stately pageants whenever any illustrious visitor arrived, and splendid processions in which the common people could satisfy that southern joy in colour and sound and movement. As for those gay expeditions of noble lords and ladies from the sumptuous ducal villas near Milan, of which we have such full accounts in the letters of Messer Galeazzo and others, we read of fishing parties to Cussago enlivened on the way by music and singing, and of hawking by the river-side and over the low-lying meads with falcons whose skill and courage were a marvel to behold. Still more exciting were the hunting parties in the beautiful wooded valley of the Ticino, where we are told not only of stags, but of wild boars and goats, and even of an occasional bear or wolf . . . then "with much laughter and merriment" the gallant company would ride homeward through the evening shadows to close the day with feasting and dancing. We picture to ourselves Baldassare Castiglione during the period of his many-sided education at Milan, and find him taking some share in the gorgeous life of the epoch, surrounded by poets, musicians, and scholars. We know that he was specially attracted towards Galeazzo di Sanseverino, one of twelve mighty brothers, most of whom became famous ; a perfect knight, dis- tinguished in all courtly exercises, skilled in art, and a brilliant scholar. He was only one in a galaxy of OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE talent, where the young courtier might listen to the singing of Gaspare Visconti the devoted admirer of Petrarch, or take his part in a poetic tournament with Niccolo ''il gran Correggio," or talk of sonnets and of architecture with Bramante as he watched the build- ing of the new cupola of Santa Maria della Grazie, or best of all, when he might look on in silent reverence, as Leonardo da Vinci painted his Cenacolo in the refectory below. As for the delights of Milan itself, a few words of the contemporary Florentine Guicciardini cause them to stand out clearly before us: ''The city is not only full of joy and pleasure, of feasting and delight, but so wonderfully is it increased in riches, magnificence, and glory that it may certainly be called the most flourish- ing and happiest of all the cities of Italy." Castiglione never forgot the vivid impressions of his youth, and looked back upon the Castello of Milan as "being the abode of the flower of the human race," and in his Cortegiano he alludes thus to the Duchess Beatrice : "Had you but known her, you would never more wonder again at a woman's talent." Hitherto all had prospered with Lodovico, but the coming evil days were already casting their shadows for those who could read the signs of the times. Charles VIII had at length crossed the Alps and reached Asti, where the Duke of Bari and his wife hastened to welcome him with every token of joy and respect. Insignificant in person and plain in counten- ance, as we see from his portraits, which always look like caricatures, the French king showed himself most courteous in manner, and in accordance with the fashion of his country, kissed all the Court ladies, 23 COURTS AND CAMPS beginning with Duchess Beatrice herself. His sister, Anne de Beaujeu, received most glowing accounts of the beauty and magnificent dress of these Milanese ladies, and great festivals had been arranged when Charles unfortunately fell ill of smallpox. On his recovery a splendid reception was given him at Vive- gano by Lodovico, but, possibly reminded by Comines of his father's experience at Peronne, Charles asked for the keys of the Castle at night, while his guards watched the gates. The French king also insisted upon seeing Gian Galeazzo, the nominal Duke of Milan, who was very ill, and his wife Isabella, daughter of Alfonso of Naples, ''very sorrowful." She threw herself on her knees before him, and prayed that he would spare her father and brother, only to receive the reply that it was now too late, and she would do better to pray for her husband and herself. The King's forebodings were only too soon realised. Within a week the unfortunate young Duke of Milan was dead, whether by poison or not is one of the un- answered questions of history. Lodovico hastened back to Milan, and was at once proclaimed Duke in name, as he had long been in fact, for no one dared to assert the rights of Gian Galeazzo's infant son. Yet it is interesting to be told that in July, 1498, during the absence of Lodovico, when the small Duchetto used to ride about Milan, the little boys would run after him shouting "Ducha! Ducha ! " As soon as his great- uncle heard of this, he wrote that the boy should be shut up in the Castello, and promptly put an end to these rides. When Lodovico had received his investiture from the Emperor and was in undisturbed possession of the 24 Anderson, Photo BEATRICE D'ESTE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE duchy, both he and his wife Beatrice would seem to have attained the height of their ambition. Yet in truth he was greatly disturbed by the unexpected success of Charles, whose arms were everywhere vic- torious. Still more serious was the presence of Louis Duke of Orleans with an army at Asti, as this was a standing menace. In his alarm, Lodovico approached the Venetians with the suggestion of forming a League to free Italy from the invading French. This was so much in accord with the general feeling that on Palm Sunday, 1495, the Pope, the Emperor, the King of Spain, Venice and Milan had joined this new League, which was publicly proclaimed in the Piazza of St. Mark. When Charles VIII heard the first rumour of this formidable alliance, he was revelling in the delights of conquered Naples, where, as Comines says, **he thought of nothing but pleasure." It was a rude awakening, but even then he scarcely realised the full extent of his danger. Meantime Francesco, Marchese of Mantua, had been appointed to the supreme command of the armies of the League, and Count Cristoforo Castiglione, the father of Baldassare, served as a condottiere under him. The allied forces consisted of about 25,000 men, and the Captain-General wrote to his wife at Mantua; '' I am at the head of the finest army which Italy has ever seen, that we may not only oppose but utterly destroy the French." We cannot dwell upon the tangled intrigues of the various States, or the hurried retreat of the King of France from Naples, so picturesquely told by Comines. '' Hitherto in all this voyage we had no war ; but now it began," he writes when, having with great labour and difftculty crossed the mountains and 25 COURTS AND CAMPS reached Fornovo, the French army found its further progress barred by the enemy. Charles had not more than 9000 men with him, as he had left garrisons in the various conquered cities. On Sunday, July 5, 1495, he encamped in the valley of the Toro, one of the four great river torrents which descend from the Apennines into the Emilian plain. Never has any battle been more vividly described, both from the French and Italian point of view, than that which followed the next day, when the French attempted to break through the encompassing host. The actual fighting scarcely lasted an hour, in the wildest con- fusion, amid thunder and lightning, while the rain fell in torrents. Attacked by the flower of the Italian chivalry, the French drove them back with much slaughter, in broken ranks ; while the Stradiots and Italian infantry had soon left the fray to hurl them- selves upon the royal baggage. We can well under- stand how from the French army came the warning cry, "Remember Guy negate !" that battle which they had lost in past days by turning aside to plunder the enemy's camp. The Marquis of Mantua fought with splendid personal courage, but showed himself a very poor general, for with his immensely superior force he could not prevent the army of Charles from crossing the river and making good their retreat to Asti with all their artillery. Both sides laid claim to the victory. The Italian loss was very heavy, about three thousand, including the brave Rodolfo Gonzaga, and other nobles, whilst thecondottiere Cristoforo Castiglione, Baldassare's father, never re- covered from the wounds which he received, and died the following summer at Mantua. Comines puts down 26 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE the number of French slain as about a hundred, but this was probably an under-estimate. *' God Himself was our guide, and led us home with honour," he adds ; while Francesco of Mantua writes in a boastful letter to his sister, that he has '* brought forth the liberation and liberty of Italy." Nor did his self-decep- tion end here, as he caused Mantegna to paint for him a splendid votive picture, ** La Madonna della Vittoria," in which he appears. A noble character who rarely receives his due share of notice was Gilbert, Duke of Montpensier, the husband of Chiara Gonzaga, who had been left behind to hold Naples with less than 10,000 men, so that on the triumphant return of Ferrante the French were compelled to capitulate. Apparently forgotten by their king, they fought with desperate courage, but met with constant disaster until they were reduced to the last extremity by famine and disease. The brave Gilbert de Montpensier behaved like a hero to the last, for he refused all the persuasions of Francesco Gonzaga to leave his fever-stricken soldiers, and he died in their midst at Puzzuolo.^ When Cristoforo Castiglione returned home after Fornovo, we have every reason to believe that his son Baldassare was with him during his last illness. How- ever absorbed the young scholar may have been in his new life, the claims of family affection were too strong to keep him at a distance from his home in that time of sorrow. His was essentially a home-loving, affectionate nature, as we see him in the whole course of his letters to his mother, taking ever the keenest interest in all ^ For full details, see Queen of Queens.^ by Christopher Hare, p. 259. (Harper Brothers.) COURTS AND CAMPS that concerns his three sisters— Polissena, Francesca, and Anna — and his young brother Jeronimo, There appears to be some uncertainty about the exact date when Baldassare first went to Milan ; at least, one historian suggests that it was not until the year 1496, when he was seventeen years of age. But this statement is difficult to reconcile with the con- stantly repeated assurance of so many writers that the Mantuan youth was a pupil in Milan of the famous Latin professor, Giorgio Merula, who is well known to have died in 1494. It is possible that these two versions may be reconciled by supposing that when Baldassare Castiglione went to Milan after his father's death in June, 1496, it was his second term of residence in the city. This is rendered the more probable when we remem- ber in the Cortegiano his intimate remembrance of the Duchess Beatrice, whom he would otherwise scarcely have known, as she died early in January, 1497. We must now return to a brief account of the history of Milan after the battle of Fornovo, in so far as it is needful for following the career of our hero. After long and tedious negotiations, a peace was patched up, Novara was given up by Louis of Orleans, and, to the great satisfaction of all Italy, Charles VIII crossed the Alps and returned home before the end of the year. There were great festivities that Christmas at the Court of Milan, for Lodovico felt that fortune once more smiled upon him : he was delivered from all his enemies and rivals, and could look forward to a future of unclouded prosperity. Yet in truth from this time began the misfortunes which overwhelmed him in rapid succession. In the autumn of 1496 his OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE illegitimate daughter Bianca, the beautiful young wife of Galeazzo San Severino, died suddenly, to his great grief; and the following January he had to mourn the more bitter loss of the Duchess Beatrice, in the very prime of life and hope ; she was but twenty. His sorrow may have been deepened by remorse for the grief he had caused her in devoting himself so much to Cecilia Gallerani and Lucrezia Crevelli. Yet he showed almost as much interest and affection for the children of these ladies as for the two sons of Beatrice, Massimiliano and Francesco. Comines remarks that in Italy there was but little difference made between legitimate and illegitimate children, and we certainly find him justified at this period. Of the House of Este, the greatest rulers of Ferrara, Leonello and Borso — not to mention ten of their brothers and sisters — were born outside the pale of wedlock. In the House of Sforza the same held true of the great Francesco himself, seven of his daughters and four of his sons, and a large proportion of all his relations. There was no secrecy about such matters, for Cardinal Ippolyto dei Medici founded his claim to Florence on his being, although illegitimate, "at all events the son of a gentlewoman, not like Duke Alessandro, whose mother was a peasant girl." It is needless to give more instances, for the genealogy of every reigning family in Italy is complicated with similar details. If there were a good dowry, the fact of illegitimacy was scarcely considered in a marriage contract. So many near of kin were indeed always useful, as they formed a kind of clan for mutual pro- tection and advancement — at least, when it was once firmly established who was to be head of the family. 29 COURTS AND CAMPS Charles VIII of France died in April, 1498, and was succeeded by Louis Duke of Orleans, whose first thought and ambition was to plan a new campaign in Italy, and Lodovico was not slow in realising that Milan would be the first point of attack. In the hour of his triumph it had been II Moro's proud boast that "Pope Alexander VI was his chaplain, the Emperor Maximilian his condottiere, Venice his chamberlain, and the King of France his courier to come and go at his bidding." Now all was changed, and in his deepest need he had scarcely an ally whom he could trust in Italy, and none whose succour arrived in time ; while outside there was but the doubtful friendship with the Sultan and the support of the distant Emperor Maxi- milian. We have no space to dwell upon the oft-told tale which has been so fully dwelt upon elsewhere,^ of Lodovico's downfall and the victorious campaign of Louis XII. The end had come when on that sad autumn day of 1499 the Duke sent away his two little boys under the care of his brother Cardinal Ascanio and their governess Camilla Sforza, followed by a long train of baggage mules bearing his most precious jewels and his treasure of 240,000 gold ducats. He joined them two days later on his way to Maximilian in the Tyrol, and the French at once entered Milan. It is noteworthy that immediately after Louis XII began hostilities, the relations of Baldassare Castiglione showed their anxiety that the young man should return to Mantua and enter the military service of Francesco Gonzaga. On April 27, his uncle, Giovanni Pietro da Gonzaga, wrote to the secretary of the Marchese, who was then at Naples, alluding to the great loss which ' Ladies of the Italian Hoiaissance, C. Hare. (Harper Brothers.) 30 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE the Magnifico Cristoforo had been to his prince, and offering his son, ''who is now at Milan," to the service of *'His Magnificence," that he may follow in his father's steps. The next we hear of young Castiglione is when the Marchese Francesco, in his eagerness to bow down before the rising sun, set forth in haste from Mantua to welcome the coming of the French king with a numerous escort. However, he was met by a message from the provisional government, and having at their request sent back the greater part of his com- pany, he was very glad to have done so when he found how expensive lodging was at Milan ! His own house had been looted in the disorder of the French occupa- tion, and his people had much difficulty in cleaning it and borrowing a little necessary furniture ; we hear that Count Gilberto Borromeo lent him "trois lits garnis. " When the Marchese — careful man ! — found that he had already spent 300 ducats in honour of the King, he reduced his escort still further, keeping only with him Luigi Cesare de Gonzaga, Baldassare Castiglione, and Uberto de Glinbere. On the 29th of September he went to Pavia to await the coming of Louis XII, and two days later he had the satisfaction of receiving a visit from his nephew Charles of Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier. Chiara Gonzaga, the mother of this splendid young prince of seventeen, had taken up her abode entirely at Mantua after the death of her husband, and dwelt there until her death in poverty and seclusion. Meantime the boy Charles seems to have had many friends at Court ; we hear of him as the playfellow of Fran9ois, the future king, and he was almost adopted by the great Anne of France, who watched over his education and had be- 31 COURTS AND CAMPS trothed him to her only daughter Susanne, the heiress of Bourbon. On the 2nd of October, 1499, the Marchese of Mantua, with young Castiglione in his train, rode two miles outside the town in very heavy rain to meet the King of France, and afterwards with Ercole of Ferrara, and many other Italian princes, formed part of the conqueror's triumphal progress into Milan, where the last act of treachery had already taken place by the base surrender of the great Castello. On the 8th of October, 1499, Castiglione writes a most inter- esting letter to his brother-in-law Messer Jacomo Bos- chetto, who had married his eldest sister Madonna Polissena. He gives a vivid description of the tri- umphant entry into the city with flying banners and trumpets sounding, the horsemen in green and red, five hundred archers on foot with the same colours, the men-at-arms and the splendid guard of the French king, said to be entirely composed of knights and gentlemen. Next rode the King's Majesty Louis XII, attended by his general Trivulzio, the Duke of Ferrara and his sons, with most of the princes of Italy, *'our Marchese Francesco" riding beside the young Duke of Montpensier, while there followed a sumptuous train of ** lords and gentlemen without number, pre- lates, Milanese, and many strangers passing through the decorated streets to the great Castello." On the following Monday there was a solemn Mass at the church of San Ambrogio, attended by all the lords above mentioned, the Mass being sung by the Bishop of Piacenza. On Tuesday morning 'Ml Signer nostro," with two or three cavaliers, each bearing a falcon on his wrist, accompanied the King's Majesty 32 Hanfstaengl, Photo CARDINAL IPPOLITO DEI MEDICI OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE into the country, where they had a day's hawk- ing. "We hope that now our matters will greatly prosper," concludes Castiglione, much impressed by this special sign of friendship towards the Marchese of Mantua. The French king certainly appears to have forgotten his ally's most crooked position in the past, and to have loaded Francesco with honours, enrolling him in the service of France at a salary of 12,000 francs. Most of the other princes who had crowded to welcome Louis XII received very different treatment, and had to pay heavily for his protection. Calmly considered, we cannot admire the conduct of either Francesco Gonzaga or his wife at this crucial moment. They proved themselves to be arrant time- servers. Only a few months before, Lodovico Sforza was their dearest friend ; there was a constant inter- change of affectionate letters and presents between them ; but now they were both ready to cringe before his conqueror and take a part in all the rejoicings over his fall. Moreover, it was always Isabella d'Este's way, when her friends happened to be cast out of their homes, to grasp with greedy haste at all their most cherished possessions which she had probably coveted for years. In the case of any ordinary woman of our acquaintance such behaviour would be condemned as heartless. Thus the Marchesa wrote to Antonio Palla- vicino, who had so basely betrayed his lord, imploring him to lose no time in securing for her a marvellous clavichord of Beatrice's which had always been an object of envy to her. Now that the cause of Lodovico was irrevocably lost, she hastened to pay her court to the French king, and with her usual diplomacy suc- D 33 COURTS AND CAMPS ceeded in gaining his favour. Yet it must be set down to Isabella's account that she received her exiled friends with kindly hospitality, so long as their presence at Mantua was no source of danger to herself. As we only touch upon the history of Italy in so far as it is connected with the fortunes of Baldassare Castiglione, we pass over the next few months until the final disastrous effort of Lodoyico to regain his duchy, when Francesco of Mantua, in spite of his close alliance with France, sent his brother Giovanni Gonzaga to fight on the side of his brother-in-law. This breach of faith well-nigh proved his ruin, for Louis XII had serious thoughts of taking Mantua from him and exchanging it with Venice for Cremona and the Gera d'Adda, but finally the matter was com- promised by a large money payment of the contrite Marchese to the French king. We know how, after the fatal siege of Novara, the hapless II Moro expiated his treason to Italy by that long living death in the Castle of Loches — *'a narrow prison thus enclosing the thoughts and ambitions of him whom first the boundaries of Italy could scarce confine." Yet if Baldassare's present lord escaped his deserts, the future friend and master of the young courtier was in deadly peril, as Pope Alexander was triumphantly carrying out his plan of building up a great Italian kingdom for his son. He began by publishing Bulls declaring that Rimini, Pesaro, Imola, Forli, Urbino, and other States of Romagna were forfeited to the Holy See, their tribute being unpaid. This was in 1500, the year of Jubilee, when the pilgrims to Rome saw with dismay Caesare Borgia receive the Golden 34 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE Rose, and heard him hailed as already conqueror of Forli and Imola. Amongst the visitors to the Sacred City was the pious Elisabetta, Duchess of Urbino, and as her House was under sentence of destruction, Francesco Gonzaga had been anxious to dissuade her from the perilous journey ; but fortunately his sister performed her pilgrimage devotions safely, under the protection of her Colonna friends. There was indeed cause for alarm, as before the Jubilee year was over, Ccesare had set forth on his conquering passage through Romagna with a great army, paid for by the alms of the pilgrims and the sale of twelve Cardinals' hats at the September Consistory. A new and startling piece of diplomacy on the part of the Borgia Pope gave a brief respite to all who were akin to the Este family. It was nothing less than the marriage of his daughter Lucrezia with Alfonso, the heir of Ferrara, to which the proud Duke Ercole was compelled to submit. Duke Guidobaldo received the twice-widowed bride in the doomed palace of Urbino, and the Duchess Elisabetta conducted her with kindly courtesy in her state progress across the mountains and by river ways, past the ravaged cities of Romagna to the gorgeous wedding at Ferrara which was to set the seal on Alexander's triumph. This was in January, 1502, and the gracious lady of Urbino was but ill repaid for her courteous escort when, within a few months, Caesare Borgia treacherously and suddenly invaded her husband's dominions, and the whole duchy was lost in a day. It so chanced that Elisabetta had been paying a most enjoyable visit to Venice with Isabella d'Este, and had only returned with her in June to her villa near 35 COURTS AND CAMPS fugitive, having barely escaped with his life by a mid- night flight, and had since been hunted from place to place. Both Francesco and his wife received the illus- trious exile with every expression of sympathy, and it was very probably on this occasion that Baldassare Castiglione — then in his home at Mantua with his mother, Isabella's inseparable friend — first made close acquaintance with his beloved future lord. All her pity and love for her near relations could not change the Marchesa's nature. With her sharp eye to business, she lost no time in trying to secure her share of those priceless treasures in the palace of Urbino — paintings, statues, tapestries, gold and silver plate, books and manuscripts . . . which the brigand Caesare was at that moment carrying off as his spoil, by long processions of mules, from the hill city. With her usual excellent taste, the lady had set her heart upon a beautiful antique Venus and a Cupid of Michelangelo, which the conquering Borgia sent to her at once, with other marbles, by his Chamberlain. It may be noted here that, when Guidobaldo once more regained his home and begged for the return of his much-valued statues, Isabella made a polite excuse for keeping them in her own possession. Following the chronicle of Baldassare Castiglione, we find him the next month, July 21, 1502, at Vigevano, in the suite of the Marchese Francesco, who had once more gone to meet Louis XII and conduct him to Milan. Here the victims of Borgia treachery, the lords of Urbino and Pesaro, in vain sought the French king's help, for Caesare promptly arrived and made close alliance, defensive and offensive, with His Majesty, 36 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE who was also pleasantly entertained with feasting and dancing. France and Spain were soon about to enter upon a bitter contest for the spoils of conquered Naples, and in order to gain the help of the Pope, Louis was quite willing to connive at the aggressions in central Italy of the Borgia, whom he had already made Duke of Valentino. We cannot enter into the varied fortunes of this disastrous campaign, but after the French defeat at Cerignola in April, 1 503, which decided the possession of Naples for Gonsalvo di Cordova, the Great Captain, Louis XII raised another army under the command of La Tremouille, which was joined by an Italian con- tingent under the Marchese of Mantua. In the course of his knightly training, young Castiglione served in his company, and had his first experience of real warfare under the most trying circumstances. The French army and its allies were opposed and beaten back at every point by Gonsalvo, the great Spanish Captain, "whose marvellous genius and magnetic influence over his men seemed to make them invincible, in spite of being half- fed, without pay, and in the midst of a hostile and desolated country."^ In August the whole of Christendom was thrilled with exultation by the sudden death of Pope Alexander VI. There was a pause of suspense in the contending armies of France and Spain, which both drew near Rome to control, if possible, the election of the new Pope. The result was a compromise, but the infirm old man Pius III lived barely a month, and was succeeded on October 31, 1503, by Giuliano della Rovere, who took the title of Julius II. This warrior ^ Queen of Queens, C. Hare, p. 323. 37 COURTS AND CAMPS Pope, *'who made his tiara a helmet and his crosier a sword," seized the reins of power with a strong hand and completely overthrew the Borgia policy. Meanwhile a serious misfortune had befallen the French army in the illness of its general La Tremouille, when the chief command fell to Francesco of Mantua, a soldier of great personal courage, but a very poor leader. He had not shown much enthusiasm so far, as the news of Pope Alexander's death reached him far off from the scene of action, and we know from a letter of Castiglione's, that some of his young officers were apparently waiting his orders in Rome at the beginning of October. After many delays and some desperate assaults on various fortresses, the two armies at length took a stand on either bank of the river Garig- liano, the ancient Liris which falls into the Gulf of Gaeta. In this marshy swamp, amid heavy rains, when the soldiers on both sides sickened and died of disease and famine, the Marchese Francesco fell ill, and being no longer able to endure "the pride, the discord, and the disobedience of the French army," threw up his command and obtained permission to return home. The young Count Baldassare, who appears to have been in his immediate suite, departed with his lord, and was suffered to attain his heart's desire by paying a visit to Rome, that splendid city, the chosen abode of art and learning, which as with a magnet drew all kindred souls within its walls. 38 CHAPTER III 1503-1506 Death of Pope Alexander VI— Duke Guidobaldo REGAINS URBINO— CASTIGLIONE LEAVES THE SERVICE OF Francesco, Marchese of Mantua, to take arms UNDER Guidobaldo of Urbino — Gonfaloniere of the Church— Life in camp— Letters of Baldassare Cas- tiglione to his mother— At the Court of Urbino— A mission to Rome. The death of Pope Alexander VI and the fall of the Borgia power had far-reaching consequences, and, by a side issue, had great influence on the life of Baldassare Castiglione and his migration to the Court of Urbino. The startling news within a few days reached Venice, where Duke Guidobaldo and his wife had received a hospitable welcome in September, 1502, nearly a year before, when the Gonzagas could no longer offer them a home at Mantua. Guidobaldo lost not a moment ; he set forth at once for Urbino, where his loyal people drove out the soldiers of Caesare Borgia, and received their Duke with acclamation. In one day the whole duchy returned to its allegiance, and the enthusiasm of the hill-city knew no bounds. The children crowded to greet their exiled lord bearing olive branches, and hailing him with songs ; mothers brought their babes in arms, old men wept for joy, and the universal triumph 39 COURTS AND CAMPS was so great that Castiglione says : ''The very stones seemed to rejoice and sing." Other cities of Romagna followed the example of Urbino in throwing off the Borgia yoke, but a fresh difficulty arose, for Guidobaldo was now in the pay of Venice, and it was evident that there would be a struggle between the Republic and Pope Julius for possession of the dominions of Cassare. Thereupon the Duke of Urbino went to Rome on the 21st of November, in obedience to the summons of the Pope, his friend and near kinsman, in order to discuss this difficult matter, and it was settled that Guidobaldo should courteously resign the service of Venice, leave Urbino under the rule of his Duchess, and himself remain for some months at the Papal Court. We have a Venetian letter telling how "there came into the presence of the Signori the Duchess Elisabetta with Madonna Emilia and her company of maidens to take leave, for she is departing home early to-morrow morning ; she goes in a bucentaur by the Po as far as Ravenna, and from thence on horseback ; and the Doge spake her fair, and, having taken leave, we Sages of the Order accompanied her as far as the palace gates, and she proceeded along the Merceria, reaching home on December 2." The seneschal of the Duchess relates how ''after suffering from bad weather, bad roads, and bad hostelries," the gracious lady was welcomed back with even greater joy and affection than her husband, the people thronging down the hill to meet her four miles from the castle gates of Urbino. In the meantime, we are chiefly interested in the fact that while Duke Guidobaldo remained in Rome for the 40 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE winter, he renewed his acquaintance with Castiglione, and won his devoted affection. This alone may have been a sufficient reason for the young courtier's desire to enter the Duke's service, in which a friend and kinsman of his, Cesare Gonzaga, was already enrolled. But it is quite possible that there were other causes which made Baldassare desire a change of patron. Francesco of Mantua does not strike us as a very noble or amiable character ; he was rough in manner, often surly and ill-tempered, and had very small share in his wife's intellectual tastes. Indeed, he wrote to her once about his little son that *'he did not mean the child to have much book-learning." That the Marchese was a brave soldier was not enough to win the whole-hearted allegiance of so cultured and many-sided a character as Castiglione, who found in the gracious, high-minded scholar and gentleman, Guidobaldo, a friend and master after his own heart. In any case, on May 27, 1504, the Duke of Urbino writes a most courteous letter to the Marchese of Mantua, saying that as he is forming a company of men-at-arms, he prays His Excellency to permit Baldassare Castiglione to enter his service. This was the cold brief answer, which gives a hint of Francesco's wounded pride, but scarcely prepares us for the vindictive hatred which he long felt for his former favourite : ''Illmo. Sig. Duca. Quando a Baldassare de Cas- tione piacira il venire a servire V. Sig. per la parte nostra siamo molto contenti e se in altro la possemo compiacere siamo piu che mai disposti. Gonzaga, 9junis, 1504. "Francesco Gonzaga." 41 COURTS AND CAMPS Baldassare also wrote a most respectful and sub- missive letter to the Marchese, stating his wish to serve the Duke of Urbino, but expressing his intention to be entirely guided by the will of His Excellency, and signing himself " Di V. ra Ex"^ fidelissimo Servitore, Baldassare Castiglione. Mantua, lo June, 1504." The Marchese of Mantua thus replied : "Baldassare. As we have replied to the Sig. Duca d'Urbino when he asked permission to be your leader, thus we say again to you that in regard to us, we are content that you should serve him, and we give you good permission. Respects (Reveri). 11 June, 1504." It was quite true that Guidobaldo was forming a company of men-at-arms, for Pope Julius had just appointed him Gonfaloniere of the Church, with a yearly pay of 7000 ducats, that he might subdue the citadels of Romagna which the Castellans still held in the name of Caesare Borgia, notwithstanding his abject submission to the Pope and the Duke of Urbino. The closest bond between these two last was their young nephew, Francesco Maria della Rovere, — son of the Pope's brother Giovanni, Prefect of Rome, and the Duke's sister Giovanna. This lad of fourteen was acknowledged as his successor by Guidobaldo, who was tenderly attached to him. The young Prefettino, as he was called, had recently returned from France, where he had taken refuge from the Borgia plots, and had been page of honour to Gaston de Foix, receiv- ing from Louis XII the distinguished Order of St. Michael. When Guidobaldo set forth on this expedition, his nephew accompanied him and Castiglione, with a com- OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE mand of fifty men-at-arms. Already Fano, Faenza, and Rimini had surrendered, and the garrisons of Cesena and Bertinoro soon came to terms. But an unfortunate incident occurred, as when Baldassare was going to the camp before Cesena, his horse fell and he received a severe injury to his foot. With charac- teristic fortitude he remained in the field, but possibly on this account the accident had more serious results, and he suffered from the wound for a long time after- wards. He mentions it in a very interesting letter to his mother, written at the siege of Forli whose Cas- tellan, in secret understanding with Cassare, still stood out, unmoved by threats or bribes : " 12 August, 1504. Alia Magnifica e Generosa Donna, M. Aloisia da Castiglione. Madre sua Ono- randa." . . . He is glad to hear about the new little nephew, and sends friendly greeting to the father and mother (Tommaso Strozzi and Francesca). . . ''Accord- ing to the conditions ... I have provision from the Illustrious Sig. Duca of 400 ducats for my person, and 50 men-at-arms . . . with a companion who will prob- ably be M. Cesare Gonzaga. . . . The detestable enterprise of this Rocca [fort on a rock] will cost us dear, as all this country has done ... it is a pity. I have touched no money yet, but I think that I shall have 100 ducats to-day, as I have heard the Sig. Duca received 1000 ducats yesterday. . . . Sebastian cannot know much about me . . . because the first day I went to Cesena I had other things to think about than my condition. This foot has made me see the stars in the middle of the day. ... I wish I were free from pain, which I certainly am not ; if I go very gently it does not hurt me, but I can do no other. ... I have 43 COURTS AND CAMPS sent you several letters. ... I pray Magnificenza Vostra to be of good cheer, as I am . . . and although I grieve at being so far from my country and so many people whom I love, yet I content myself in the midst of these troubles with having a quiet mind . . . ed alia M. V. mi raccomando " (which may be some- what freely translated, ''and to Your Magnificence I send loving greeting "). I have already alluded to the keen home feeling of Castiglione, and his warm interest in all that con- cerned his family and friends in Mantua. Of his three sisters, Polissena the eldest had been married some time to Messer Jacomo Boschetto, Francesca married the learned Tommaso Strozzi of Mantua, and the youngest, Anna, who appears to have been his special favourite, was brought up for the cloistered life. We have also constant allusions to the young brother Jeronimo. But the close love and perfect confidence which existed between Baldassare and his mother is proclaimed in every page of his private letters, of which so great a number have been preserved. It was one of those intimate, perfect friendships "which have mastered Time " ; a sympathy so complete that years of absence could not dim it, and distance was no barrier, for the son had found in his mother a faithful comrade to whom he could pour out his soul alike in sorrow and in joy, and her reign was unchallenged until his latest breath. All the years of his happy childhood were spent under her watchful care, and it was Madonna Aloisia who moulded his youthful tastes and guided the course of his varied studies. A woman of cultivated tastes and high attainments herself, she rejoiced in the boy's 44 OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE responsive eagerness and talent, and when the oppor- tunity occurred for him to complete his education at the Court of Milan, she suffered no personal feeling of natural affection to keep him with her at Mantua. A worthy descendant of Farinata degli Uberti, the great Ghibelline chief, she could show courage herself, and make any sacrifice in later years to advance her gallant son's knightly training. After her husband's death, Madonna Aloisia was left in charge of her son's patri- mony at Casatico and other parts of Mantuan territory, and although the revenue rarely sufficed for the heavy claims which Castiglione's high position made upon it, with his lord always deeply in his debt, yet his mother never shrank from her heavy task, but met all his appeals with unfailing devotion. A knight sans peur et sans reproche, as we may almost venture to call him, Baldassare proved himself worthy of such a mother's love, and these letters seem to run like a silver thread through the whole texture of his ever-changing life. We find a curious simplicity in them ; there are no repeated professions of affection, for between these two the half-spoken word was understood, and there was no need to fan the flame of love. It is interesting to note the respectful form of address which the son always uses — '' Magnificenza Vostra," shortened to *