i^ii=^ HISTORY OF GREEC sui Class- PN ^-l W ■■ Book .ilh. _. 0. iwbe 1^, /iLX-r-j-jr-iuiN oc 00., NEW YORK. / THE ART OF SPEECH. IN TWO VOLUMES. STUDIES IN POETRY AND PROSE. i w y\ A BY L. TV TOWNSEND, D. D., w FROFESSOR IN BOSTON UNIVERSITY, AUTHOR OF ** CREDO,' ETC, ETC -EB 20 1891 NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, I, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. I 885. COPYRIGHT BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1879. m H TO J. H. VINCENT, D. D., IMS MASTKB OF SABBATH SCHOOL ASSEMBLIES, AND THE PROJECTOR AXD ORGAISTIZER OF THE people's college, E;ijb €xtntm 18 RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. 6i NUV •-•uciiOX i6'925 PREFACE. The leading genius of the People's College at Chautauqua Lake, with a view of providing for his course a text-book, asked for the publication of the following laws and principles of speech. The author, not seeing sufficient reason for withholding what had been of much practical benefit to himself, consented. The subject-matter herein contained is an out- growth from occasional instructions given while occupying the chair of Sacred Rhetoric. The author is quite sure, in his treatment of the subject, that he is indebted, directly or indi- rectly, to every one who has ever written upon language. This expression of indebtedness is also a confession of both obligation and grati- tude to the earnest and faithful pioneers and predecessors in the field of speech-lore. The frequent reference to the Bible as author- ity and as a source of illustrations may possibly 6 PREFACE, be criticised ; but further reflection will, perhaps^ produce a conviction in the minds of all, that the course herein adopted, while in line with spe- cific professional duties, is also the very best method even when venturing before a larger public. The lofty and inspiring conceptions of the Bible, the linguistic purity of the Common Version, together with its universal distribution, rendering it of easy access to every English student wherever he may chance to be, com- bine, it must be confessed, in making the Bible a more apt and convenient book for rhetorical reference than is any other. With these explanations and statements, we give this treatise to the public. For its imper- fections we offer no excuse, and consequently expect no toleration. But upon the discovery of errors, under a more careful revision they will be faithfully corrected. CONTENTS, tr. kPTER PAOB I. — History of Speech 9 II. — Theories of the Origin of Speech 29 III. — Laws of Speech 36 IV. — Diction and Idiom 63 V. — Syntax 78 VI. — Grammatical and Rhetorical Rules 98 VII. — Style 124 VIII. — Figures 147 IX. — Poetic Speech 160 X. — Prose Speech 177 XI. — Poetic-Prose Speech . . . . 184 Supplemental Notes 209 THE ART OF SPEECH. CHAPTER I. History of Speech. Among our earliest observations we find people talking with one another. The phenomenon is looked upon, at first, as merely a commonplace event ; but later, the attention of the observer is ar- rested. A person having a thought, and wishing to awaken a corresponding thought in the mind of some one else, is seen to do so by emitting, at stated intervals, a portion of his breath, modified by certain movements of the vocal organs. These movements are known to start corresponding un- dulations in the atmosphere, which, reaching the hearing organs of the listener, are supposed to ex- cite in them vibrations corresponding identically with the original vibrations in the vocal organs of the speaker ; then, through the agency of instinct, invention, memory, and the laws of association, the two persons have the same thought. Thus, this act of speech, which seemed at first so very simple, becomes upon reflection almost the wonder of won- 10 THE ART OF SPEECH, ders, bringing an astonishment which, with increas- ing surprise, returns to thoughtful minds at every fresh observation.* A second matter of attention, far less surprising but perhaps equally suggestive, is the fact that artic- ulate speech in the form of conversation or commu- nication, is a universal and an exclusive character- istic of humanity. No tribe, however sunken or brutish, is destitute of it ; yet by means of it no order of brutes, however marvellous their instincts or complete their surroundings, is able, strictly speak- ing, to converse. When, therefore. Homer and Hesiod characterize man as the " articulate animal," they state what modern investigation is not disposed to question.^ A third general observation relates to the number of different historic and existing tongues, and to the fact that different families of the human race are characterized by such differences in speech that in most instances one cannot be understood by another. The number of these distinct tongues now employed is variously estimated from eight to nine hundred, while those which have been spoken, but are now extinct, are supposed to be numbered by many more hundreds, perhaps by many thousands. Still, all languages, existing and extinct, are thought to have only three or four hundred distinct vocal sounds. These statements respecting the phenomena of ♦ The notes in this treatise are indicated by the small Arabic numerals ^» 2,8, 5jc., and constitute the Supplement See p. 209- HISTORY OF SPEECH, \\ human speech naturally excite inquiries as to its origin and history. There is no record of the scientific study of speech- lore earlier than that of Protagoras, who went little further than to distinguish the moods of the verb. Plato called attention to the distinction between nouns and verbs. Aristotle discussed the conjunction and the article ; and the Stoics laid the foundations for modern scientific grammar. From 150 b. c. onward the difTerent countries of Europe made grammar a study in all schools of learning. Lord Bacon hinted that there might be a grammar that would group the data of several languages, and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz introduced the world to the modern science of language. The labors of such men as Hal- hed, Sir W. Jones, Colebrooke, M. de Chezy, Schle- gel, Franz Bopp, Grimm, Professor Wilson, Larsen, Beufey, Weber, Kuhn, Aufrecht, Steinthal, Eichhofl', Breal, Renan, Chavee, Max Muller, and our own eminent linguist. Professor Whitney, have in a measure realized the hint of Bacon, and have built a noble superstructure upon the foundation of Leib- nitz. Availing ourselves of the researches and discov- eries of these distinguished linguists, we briefly out line the subject of the chapter before us. We commence with one of the many branches of the tree of speech, the English, which seems nevertheless in a fair way of shadowing, as an in- ternational language, all other branches in its rapid and extended growth. 12 THE ART OF SPEECH. Only brief examination is necessary to disclose the fact that our English speech of to-day possesses elements taken from every important tongue on the globe. This fact is a clue to much historic lore respecting which the limits of our discussion permit us only to hint.^ Passing back historically, we find that the sixteenth century is one of the later decisive epochs in English speech. Under the influence of Dr. Johnson, more, perhaps, than that of any other man, aided, however, by many literary persons, including not a few edu- cated ladies who could speak and write the Latin and Greek tongues with great facility, it became so much the fashion of the day to naturalize Latin and Greek words, that before the following century thousands of such foreign words were in daily use. Thus and then our English tongue became both Gothic and classic, uniting the modern and ancient civilizations, and giving it, as is claimed, grace, ease, and amplitude, which would not otherwise have been secured. Taking other historic steps, modern English speech will be found dating about 1550 A. D.^ Thence to 1350 the speech was Old English."* The period preceding is full of interest. The fact of chief importance, however, is that the Nor- mans, originally coming from Scandinavia, then conquering and settling in northern France and adopting the language of the subjugated people, crossed over the English Channel. In 1066 they con- quered the Anglo-Saxons and introduced into Eng- HISTORT OF SPEECH. 13 land the Norman-French speech which they had adopted Li Normandy, the name these Scandinavians had given to the vanquished French provinces. Through this roundabout way came much of the Latin now found in the English tongue. The im- mediate outcome of these invasions and conquests was the speech denominated Semi-Saxon, dating 1350 to 1150/ Another historic step carries us to the Anglo-Saxon period, 650 to 1150 A. D. During this time there were at least six different immigrations into England from the Teutonic regions of Europe. These emi- grants were chiefly from the so-called Angle stock, but from the Saxon confederation ; hence, as is gen- erally held, they were called Anglo-Saxons. Thence descended the English race of Great Britain. From the mingling of those Teutonic dialects on British soil sprung the old Anglo-Saxon speech. For three centuries, except during the twenty-six years of Danish, and the nine years of Norman domination, the Anglo-Saxons ruled England. It is not surpris- ing therefore that nearly five-eighths of modern English speech is Anglo-Saxon.^ It is also important to note that at the time this Teutonic speech entered England it was also the prevailing language of Iceland, the north of Ireland, Norway, Sweden, the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, and Germany. We thus trace English speech, with its extended relationships, to Germany.^ Having thus entered on this historic trail, we find 14 THE ART OF SPEECH, no little difficulty in limiting the research, for Teu- tonic speech invites inquiry respecting its earlier historic connections. In complying with the invi- tation, we are introduced to an ancient civilized peo- ple who dwelt somewhere in the vast plateau of Iran, extending from the Indus to the Euphrates and from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf. This peo- ple, to whom has been given the name Aryans, used a language which has imbedded in it much interest- ing and suggestive history. Migrations of portions of this ancient and enterprising people, at different times and in different directions, spread their speech far and near. Certain Aryan families went southward into India, others northward through Armenia ; others over- spread the beautiful peninsulas of Greece, Italy, and Spain, while others penetrated the forests of Central Germany, and still others, who were yet more ven- turesome, took possession of Gaul and the British Isles.^ This widely dispersed people, in consequence of the lapse of time and a multitude of changes in- cident to varieties of climate, habits of thought, and modes of life, introduced modifications into their original mother-speech, resulting in a well-defined family of languages. In India the speech became Sanskrit^ in Armenia and Persia it became the Zend^ in Russia the Slavonic^ in Germany the Teutonic^ in Greece the Hellenic^ in Iiuly the Italic^ and in some parts of the British Isles and in the west of France the Keltic, This group of languages, apparently differing HISTORY OF SPEECH. 15 much from one another, yet retaining such funda- mental resemblances as render their primitive identity unquestionable, has been designated by various terms, such as the Indo^ Germanic^ a term, however, which savors too much of national prepossession; l^he Indo-European^ a far more appropriate desig- nation tlian the former ; the Japhetic^ those using this primitive speech being supposed to be descend- ants from Japhet ; and the Aryan^ the historic name applied to the people originally speaking this mother- tongue. It thus appears that the Teutonic, from which has come so largely our English speech, is traced back through a period of not less than three or four thou- sand years, from Britain through Germany to its Asiatic home in the regions already designated. Of these family connections written history and tradition afford strong, if not absolutely conclusive evidence, whilst the proof derived from critical lin- guistic study is regarded by all scholarly minds as indisputable.^ This remarkable group of lan- guages is found spoken by nearly all modern civil- ized nations.^^ But upon extending the research and while seek- ing the origin of this Aryan family of languages, history and tradition shade off into a darkness that is almost total. It is an aggravating fact that the begin- nings of the so-termed primitive languages are not only shrouded in obscurity, but the languages them- selves seem as perfect when historic light dawns upon them as at any later period. Hence, in taking 16 THE ART OF SPEECH, such additional steps as are required by this chapter, we are compelled to feel our way as amid gloom. The leading thought relates to the hypothesis that there are historic or linguistic connections between the Aryan and other great families of language. In the southwestern portions of Asia and in some of the adjacent parts of Africa is found a distinctly marked group of languages, whose characteristics are such as manifestly separate them from the Aryan family. This group has been called the Syro^ Arabian family, but as this term does not include the Hebrew, the designation is felt to be too re- stricted ; hence the word now usually employed is Semitic, This name has been adopted because this speech is supposed to have originated in the family of Shem. It appears to have been native in Pal- estine, Phoenicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Arabia. In very early times, how^ever, it spread from Arabia over Ethiopia, throughout the Phoenician colonies, over many of the Mediterranean islands, and the whole of the Carthaginian coast. The three chief descendants are the Arabic, the Syriac, and the Hebrew. The peculiarities of this speech, the simplicity of its structure, the comparative absence of com- pounds in the noun and verb, the restriction to two genders and to two tense forms, its word-stems con- sisting almost exclusively of three consonants, its numerous gutturals, with the three primary vowel sounds, clearly separate it far from the Aryan. Such is the Semitic tongue.-^^ HISTORY OF SPEECH. 17 The requirements of the discussion will be met by making a single additional grouping of certain tongues which cannot be classed with either the Aryan or Semitic families. Canon Farrar sug- gests the term Sporadic as the most appropriate, since it can include all languages not belonging to either the Aryan or Semitic families. Professor Whitney prefers Agglutinative; while others have employed the word Allophylian^ i. e., *' spoken by other different tribes of the human family." This group of tongues is found, first and last, to have ranged from Norway almost to Behrings Straits ; it has occupied the larger part of Central Asia, and established footholds in southern Asia and in southern Europe ; it is the speech of China, of Farther India, of the numberless islands scattered over the Pacific and Indian oceans, of the territories about and below the African equator, and of the native Americans from the Arctic to the Antarctic seas. The mind of the linguist is well-nigh bev^ildereci in trying to bring anything like a distinct classifica- tion out of the speech of these multitudes of scat- tered races and tribes. At first glance they present, seemingly, " a vast seething mass of imperfectly known jargon." Still, it is admitted that there are shades of similarity as to general structure 'and as to certain connections and affiliations, though often remote, that fairly allow of a general grouping, which may become more definite and satisfactory as linguistic knowledge increases. It is possible 18 THE ART OF SPEECH. also that further investigation may succeed in tracing some of these scattered tongues back to the Aryan or to the Semitic stocks, or back to the roots of some primitive tongue not yet designated. At the present state of our knowledge it is hardly safe to do more than to group the Allophylian tongues into three classes, whose names suggest their marked peculi- arities, namely, the Monosyllabic, the Agglutinating, and the Incorporating.^ We are thus led to the question of a supposed ancient alliance of these different families of speech. It must be confessed at the outset that unless ex- isting differences can be explained, in part at least, then such remote affiliation is extremely questiona ble. The study of speech-lore shows, however, that marked changes have taken place in all languages. *' Transmutation of species in the kingdom of speech is no hypothesis, but a patent fact," and is the most recent postulate of linguistic science. The facts with regard to the tongues of uncivilized peoples — those, for instance, of the Melanesian, the African, and the native American — are, that books of instruction prepared by missionaries have become, in three or four generations, not only antiquated, but almost unintelligible. Even civilized peoples have not been able to fortify national speech against change • and corruption. The dead languages furnish strik- ing evidence. The ancient speech of Egypt, for illustration, commenced its changes among the illit- erate masses. The priests, for sacred purposes, and the cultivated because it was aristocratic and fash- HISTORY OF SPEECH, 19 ionable, mutually clung to the earlier speech, while the masses, with their less conservative instincts and strong revolutionary impulses, drifted from it ; the speech of the priesthood and the educated was forced to yield, and after a time was no longer heard in street or senate. The same essentially is true of the Zend, the Sanskrit, and the classical Greek. In the time of Cicero the tongues which are now the vehi- cles of the world's highest culture were called bar- barian. The rapidity with which linguistic changes among the civilized have taken place is surprising. At the time of Rome's grandest achievements, national songs, supposed to be about five hundred years old, were not intelligible even to those w^ho were accus- tomed to sing them. The English of the eleventh would fail to answer the demands of the nineteenth century. There have been such changes, even within a hundred years, in the English vocabulary, that a person of a century ago, could he return, would be obliged to ask the meaning of many a word in every- day use.^^ Except for the anchorage found in our standard literature, especially in the Bible and Shaks- peare, and in the newspaper, in railway and tele- graphic communications, and in our centralized form of government, there w^ould grow up, after a time, in the widely separated sections of our country, dia- lects difficult to be understood, if, indeed, they could be understood at all, by the people of other sec- tions. The Babel of tongues brought yearly to our 20 THE ART OF SPEECH, Bhores might end in confusion of speech like that of Melanesia or Africa.^* Following this line of thought a step further, the discovery will be made that many of the changes in speech take place in consequence of various easily defined causes. For instance, differences of climate and of natural scenery, in a word, differences in the various objects of perception, whatever they are, result in differences of speech, especially as to the words used. Words arise to meet the wants of the time ; they disappear when no longer needed. Es- trays and catch-words often come without announce- ment, answer their purpose, and then go without a farewell.^^ Therefore, whenever a part of a great family migrates to new places, it may be safely stated that the original vocabulary wmU be modified in nearly exact proportion to the change of scenes and circumstances. The migrating part of the family would both drop certain words for which they had no further use, and coin new ones to meet the emer- gencies of the changed surroundings. Suppose, for illustration, that Dr. Franklin and his crew are now castaways upon some island in the North Pole Sea ; that they are left w^ithout a litera- ture, and are to have in the future no means of com- municating with the outer w^orld. It would be mevitable that marked and radical changes in the vocabulary of their descendants two hundred years hence would result. More than this : a change in the objects of perception produces a change in hu- HISTORY OF SPEECH. 21 man emotions ; these affect character. The geo* graphical identity of the wheat-growing and the civilized belts round the world is suggestive. But a radical change of character always results in radical word-changes. '' Thy speech bewrayeth thee," can be said of «very man. If, therefore, a part of a migrating family should become more civilized in Its new home, and the other part should become more sav- age than their ancestors, the differences between them would begin immediately to be seen in the words spoken. " Words,'* as the Chinese proverb expresses the idea, " are the sounds of the heart." As hearts differ, so must the sounds from them differ. '' One must not," writes William von Humboldt, '* consider a language as a product dead and formed but once : it is an animate being and ever creative. Human thought elaborates itself with the progress of intelligence ; and of this thought language is a mani- festation. An idiom cannot, therefore, remain sta- tionary. It walks, it develops, it grows up, it fortifies itself, it becomes old, and it reaches decrepitude." It would result, therefore, that there would be words in use among each class of those emigrants that could not be understood by the ones w4io remained in the fatherland ; nor, after a time, could the civilized and the savage emigrants, though born in the same household, understand one another. Causes still more simple, such, for instance, as result from the use of synon3^mous terms, are suffi- c'ent to produce radical w^ord changes. Borrowing 22 THE ART OF SPEECH, an illustration, we find that " for horse we have also the almost equivalent names steed ^ ^^g't courser^ racer^ and further, for the different kinds and condi- tions of the same animal, the names stallion^ mare^ geldings Jilly^ colt^ pony^ and others, — and in the breaking up of the language into dialects, one of these synonymous appellations is liable to become the prevailing one in one dialect, another in another, to the neglect and loss of all but the one selected." Differences between tongues of the same general family likewise arise from different methods of in- creasing their vocabularies. The German enlarges his list of words by developing from hereditary re- sources ; the Englishman inclines to neglect the immense undeveloped resources of his tongue, and receives accretions without stint from all others.^^ Different methods of inflection, too, work marvel- lous changes in speech forms. The Chinese tongue has no inflections proper, the English few, the Scy- thian and South African many. The Finnish has fifteen cases for the noun, and the Hungarian twenty. If, therefore, languages sprung from the same primi- tive source, a verbal root common to all the families^ owing to modifications of inflection, would seem, after a few generations, foreign to all save one oi two families. But the act of speaking different words brings into play and develops different muscles of the vocal or- gans. This, after a generation or two, would greatly modify the general method of pronouncing all words HISTORY OF SPEECH. 23 belonging to that tongue which for any reason had changed its vocabulary. Furthermore, the vocal organs are said to be so delicate as to be affected by climate. It is a com- mon remark that the mellifluous sounds of the Ital- ian are like everything surrounding him, while the harsh and passionate blasts of rage and sarcasm of the northern hordes are Hke the roar and whistle of December winds. Hence the more primitive Greek tongue, transplanted to the enervating cli- mate of Asia Minor, became the soft Ionian. We may thus account in part for the difference heard in the deep gutturals of the Arab, the hissing and lisp- ing sounds of the Englishman, the nasality of the Frenchman and Portuguese, and the pure tones of the Italian. Each nationality, after a few generations, finds that it has no vocal muscles at command with which to pronounce the marked characteristics of the speech of others. This inability comes simply from the vocal fixedness of life-long habits. The form and sound of words are modified in process of time by a still simpler consideration, namely, the manner of accenting them. The Ger- man distributes his accent, the Frenchman throws it upon final syllables, while the English tendency is to accent some leading syllable. A given word, under this influence of accent, will in time sufler such changes that only a linguist can recognize and restore it. But pronunciation in turn modifies the spelling of words. The silent letters retained in written 24 THE AR2' OF SPEECH, languages are relics indicating former modes of pro- nunciation. The redaction of a language to writing works still further modifications. In view of these facts, we may safely conclude that diversity as to surroundings, changes of charac- ter, and the lapse of time, are sufficient to account for some of the most marked and radical differences observable in human speech. This conclusion gives us full liberty to adopt, upon scientific grounds, the working hypothesis that from one primitive stock all existing and historic tongues have had their origin. There is no possible question that all tongues be- longing to the Aryan family are from one source. Tradition, history, and linguistic structure have placed the fact beyond controversy.^^ The same can be said of the mutual relations existing be- tween the different tongues belonging to the Semitic family. Its principal branches, the Hebrew, the Syriac, and the Arabic, are as closely linked as are the German, Dutch, and Swedish, of the Aryan family. Extending the grouping so as to cover both the Ar3an and Semitic families, the evidence is confessed to be absolutely conclusive neither for nor against their ancient alliance. Still, Hebrew tradition and a multitude of concuirent probabilities point to nearly the same original home for each. That the Aryan race sprang from Bactriana, and the Semitic from the contiguous parts of Armenia, are facts HISTORY OF SPEECH. 25 which more than hint the probability of a common hearthstone for both. Nor should we overlook certain structural corre- spondences existing between these two families. The change of meaning in a given word by a change of vov/els, weaving the consonants unchanged, is a special characteristic of the Semitic family ; but this usage is likewise found in the Aryan family. The consonantal root g'-t-l (Arabic), becomes gatala^ he killed ; gutila^ he was killed ; gatl^ murder ; gitl^ murderer, &c. Thus, likewise, the consonantal root s-n-g^ in our tongue, becomes sing^ sang^ song^ sung^ &c. Moreover, these languages are inflectional. They each have prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. The Se- mitic verb has the same three numbers — singu- lar, dual, and plural, and the same persons — first, second, and third, as are found in the Aryan. In view of these resemblances, notwithstanding the marked differences, we are safe in saying that, all things considered, there are '' grounds," as Professor Whitney cautiously puts the case, '' for suspecting an ultimate relationship between the Semitic and Aryan families." The Allophylian group, owing to its extreme va- riations, most obstinately defies subjection to the hypothesis of a common origin. But, on the other hand, its distinctive characteristics can the most easily be accounted for. These tongues are for the greater part uncivilized ; they are therefore, as al- ready noted, subject to the most rapid and marked 26 THE ART OF SPEECH. changes.^® There are strong evidences, nevertheless, that they have an honorable ancestry. It is the judgment of such linguists as Du Ponceau, Charle- voix, Appleyard, Threlkeld, Caldwell, and Dr. James, that many of the Allophylian family of lan- guages have such richness of expression, and are so perfect and artistic in structure, that they could not possibly have been wrought into their present condi- tion by the people now speaking them. Scholars conclude, therefore, that these peoples must have sprung from an ancestry who, in character and cul- ture, are not now correctly represented by their de- scendants : it has been, strictly speaking, a descent. The possible longer separation of the Allophylian family from their primitive home, the varieties of country and climate in which they have lived, and the consequent modifications of character, together with many trivial causes whose resultants in process of time are often vast, also certain possible and prov- idential interferences, are claimed to be grounds suf- ficient to account for the diflferences existing in human speech. It is possible, therefore, had the members of the Aryan family passed through the same vicissitudes as those of the Allophylian, that there might have been as total an effacement of sat- isfactory proofs of a common origin. The impression ought not to be left, however, that the evidence of a universal affiliation of speech is exclusively hypothetical. Nearly all modern lin- guists support the statement of the great Humboldt, that, " however insulated certain languages may at HISTORY OF SPEECH, 27 first appear, however singular their caprices and their idioms, all have an analogy among them, and their numerous relations will be more perceived in pro- portion as the philosophical history of nations and the study of languages shall be brought to perfec- tion." Leading naturalists the world over now incline to the opinion that all differences among existing hu- man races have resulted from variations from some common original type. But this physiological affin- ity points to a primitive philological unity. " The further we go back into the night of the past," says a scholar profoundly versed in these studies, " the greater is the probability that the limits of the race and speech approximately coincide, and that mixture of either is accom.panied by that of the other." Evidence, likewise, is constantly increasing that all the different families of speech have a monosyllabic ancestry. Professor Whitney finds ample data to Justify the statement that " the Indo-European lan- guage, with all its fulness and inflective supple- ness, is descended from an original monosyllabic tongue." ^^ Again, in common with the Aryan and Semitic families, all the members of the AUophylian group have three classes of roots — exclamatory, verbal, and substantive. So, likewise, the agglutinating struc- ture, by which unaltered roots and words are placed side by side to form words of new meaning, especially characteristic of the agglutinating languages of the 28 THE ART OF SPEECH. Allophylian family, is nevertheless a feature common to all other tongues.^ The fact that words from tongues seemingly the most widely separated can be easily incorporated into one another, suggests at once the idea of past affiliation ; as, likewise, does the additional fact that certain roots bearing striking resemblances to one another are found running through tongues the most dissimilar.-^ Such, then, are the leading facts upon which rests the evidence that all tongues, though having wan- dered so far from the common source as to lose much of the positive proof desired, had, nevertheless, a primitive identity. Note ^TP. TBET?. NOTK XXri. (Page 28.) \^ \ THE SUPPOSED PRIMITIVE LINGUISTIC TREE. THEORIES, 29 CHAPTER II. Theories of the Origin of Speech. From the facts of history, from existing phenom- ena, and reasonable conjecture, have risen several divergent theories as to the origin of speech. Each theory, as might be expected, is tinged with the sys- tem of philosophy held by the person propounding it. The materialistic evolutionist of extreme views assorts that a race of articulate men, being developed from races of inarticulate creatures, built up from brute-sounds, such as the neigh of a horse or the bark of a dog, existing human speech. This supposition, however, meets with the serious objection that it lacks the support of well-established facts. No dog or horse has ever been known to develop into a man. It is still further opposed by the suggestive fact that primitive tongues clearly show a descent^ but in no case a radical ascent. It furthermore antagonizes Scripture history, which, while it stands uncontra- dicted by other history, must be admitted as evi- dence. A second theory is, that a race of articulate beings, who were created at one time but In different locali- ties, developed in those different localities, either from Interjectional or onomatopoetic roots, the dif- ferent historic and existing tonsfues. This view 30 THE ART OF SPEECH, would be held by Professor Agassiz and his school. Upon the ground of physical science, it has some weight, but is in conflict with an increasingly large number of facts which point to the strict unity of the human race. Like the first theory, this is opposed to sacred history. The third view is, that a race of fallen beings de- scended from a representative head ; that the federal head, being from the start a perfect type of created hu- manity, was in some way endowed with every qualifi- cation essential to life ; that he had at command either a perfect speech, or else readily developed it as oc- casion required ; that his descendants adopted this speech, which subsequently, by some strange mod- ification of the vocal organs, was violently disturbed. This view is not opposed either by physical or linguistic science ; and it has the support of sacred history. Respecting the way through which the original perfect man or men came into possession of, or de- veloped speech, the following theories have been presented ; The first, a wide-spread view, termed the super- natural, contends that human language is God-given. This was the reigning belief throughout Grecian antiquity, also among the Jews and early Christians. The fundamental idea held by the philosophers was that there is an ordained connection between words and objects, so that man, under divine guidance, in the infancy of the race, without hesitation hit upon correct symbols.^^ THEORIES. 31 The second hypothesis regards speech as a '• con- ventional institution/' therefore, a human invention. Tiie more specific processes of this invention are matters now in controversy. A quite popular hypothesis, called the onomato- poetic, is, that the earliest names of objects and ac- tions were produced by imitation, as the child calls the cow the moo^ and the dog the bow-wow. This view, in various modified forms, is advocated by a large number of eminent linguists. It is contro- verted, however, by Professor Max Miiller, who characterizes it as the bow-wow theory. Another hypothesis, termed the interjectional, maintains that primitive speech consisted of the natural sounds which are uttered in moments of excitement, such as oh I ah I f shawl This is char- acterized by Professor Mtiller as the pooh-pooh theory. Such scholars as Professors Heyse and Mtiller advocate what may be denominated the responsive theory. They claim that in the infancy of the race men could not originate speech nor determine be- forehand its structure, but would produce it as a bell produces sound when struck. '' There is a law which runs through nearly the whole of nature," says Mtiller, as quoted by Whitney, " that every- thing which is struck rings. Each substance has its peculiar ring. ... It was the same with man, the most highly organized of / Uure's works." "Man possessed an instinctive faculty for giving articulate expression to the rational conceptions of his mind. 32 THE ART OF SPEECH. But this creative faculty, which gave to each con- ception, as it thrilled for the first time through the brain, a phonetic expression, became extinct v^hen its object was fulfilled." By the advocates of the onomatopoetic and interjectional theories this hy- pothesis of Mtiller is denominated, in turn, the ding-dong theory. It will appear, upon a moment's reflection, that there are reasons for adopting either of these views sufficient to forbid the foregoing verbal carica- tures. For instance : that language is a divine gift has been held by too many intelligent men, upon evidence far too weighty, to be thrust aside as a religious whim. The Providence that has adjusted its provisions to the needs of man, furnishing soil, fuel, oil, and the various minerals and vegetables, to meet his physical wants, and religion to meet the spiritual demands of his nature, may reasonably be expected to provide, at the outset, suitable means of communication for intelligent beings. Likewise, that speech is in part invented or in- creased through sound-imitation, ought not to be questioned. The watch, to children of different nationalities, is the tick-tick. Thus also the natural interjection ah\ or achl gives the root (^yo'i (Greek), aka (Sanskrit), acan (Anglo-Saxon), and our achc^ from which come anxious., anguish., and ago7zy!^^ That speech is still further developed, or modified, through other suggestive resemblances, or associa- tions, is abundantly established. Such proper names as Flying-Cloud, Sitting-Bull, &c., are said to be THEORIES. 83 suggested by some object seen by the mother at the birth of the child. Several tribes on the coast of New Guinea give names to their children in imitation of the first sound the child utters.^ That there are intimate and wonderful connections between thcught and speech is another indisputable fact. Mtiller is somewhat extreme, claiming that the connection is '' absolutely vital and necessary." Schlegel likewise regai:4%rtefi§tiftgg^^' as given to man by superior catfrtnitnicatian PbVt cds^siders the mind of man so to have been organized a^- necessa- rily to produce, on his;ifir&t^p^iqyi^|ice, ^is well-^ ordered and beautiful ""sti'ucture, and thereby sup- poses its oneness and indivisibility." ; Dr. Bleek, Schleicher, and SteiatJial hold substantially the same opinion. " Thought and speech," says Vinet, " are inseparable." '' Thought is an interior speech, and in the ancient languages the same word, log'os^ sig- nified the two things." Professor Whitney argues, however, that this con- nection is not, strictly speaking, necessary, but nat- ural. That the word- making propensity is natural there can be no question. It is, doubtless, as natural for man to make words when needed, as for the horse to neigh or the dog to bark. Man, probably, con- structs words into sentences as instinctively as the bee builds its comb or the beaver its dam. But thus to admit that language-making is natural, is not to deny that it is necessary. That it is both was the view maintained by Pythagoras, who attributed 84 THE ART OF SPEECH. speech to " the instincts of nature sharpened by the spur of necessity." Now, casting the eye for a moment over the entire field, bringing together all the data gleaned from the foregoing historic review, also from the different and conflicting opinions cited, and from certain other correlated and established matters not yet introduced into this discussion, we reach, as among the more probable, the following inferences : — Human speech is both God-given and from human invention. The first man of the race was created with a com- plete physical organism and with powers of speech sufficiently perfect to answer all the requirements originally laid upon him. This primitive speech sprang from an internal impulse, but was voli- tional. The connection between speech and thought was therefore natural, and in a ^ense necessary. This original tongue, with which the first man was endowed, was bequeathed to his descendants, and was the only speech known on earth until within a few thousand years. Time enough has elapsed since the dawn of history to account for the differences found in Aryan speech, but not enough to account for the differences existing be- tween the Aryan and either the Semitic or the Allo- phylian tongues. It follows, therefore, that resort must be had to a wholesale rejection, or reconstruc- tion, of the generally received chronology, or else there must be found some direct agency which, in comparatively recent times, has wrought sudden and radical changes in human speech. In the only THEORIES, 85 history extant upon this subject is the record of an event which answers all the conditions demanded by the facts in the case. It took place within a few thousand years, it was sudden and violent, shattering liuman speech through a modification of the vocal organs. The record, under strict translation, reads thus (Gen. xi. 1-9) : " And the whole land was of one lip, and one stock of words. And it came to pass, as they jour- neyed eastward, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar ; and they dwelt there. And they said to one another. Go to, let us make brick and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone, and as- phalt had they for mortar. "And they said. Go to, let us build us a city, and a tower whose top may be in the sky, and let us make us a name ; lest we be scattered abroad on the face of the whole land. And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower which the sons of man had builded. And the Lord said, Behold, the peo- ple is one, and they have all one lip, and this they have begun to do ; and now nothing will be restrained from them which they have imagined to do. Go to, let us go down, and there confound their lip, that they may not understand one another's lip. '' And the Lord scattered them abroad thence upon the face of all the land ; and they left off to build the city. Therefore was the name of it called Babel, because the Lord had there confounded the lip of all the land ; and thence had the Lord scattered them abroad upon the face of all the land." THE ART OF SPEECH. CHAPTER III. Laws of Speech. Speech, under a superficial review, seems erratic and lawless. Usage appears to be the only law ; but usage is extremely fluctuating. If, however, speech is a divine gift, or a natural and necessary provision made for the human race, — and that it is one or the other there can be no question, — then it ought to be subject to the same laws as apply to other divine gifts, or to other natural and necessary provisions made for the race; in a word, speech ought to be governed by the same laws essentially as are found in force throughout the various domains of matter and mind. Upon the strength of such strong antecedent probabilities we may formulate a linguistic code of laws. /. Law of Symbolization, This law rests upon the principle that language is a symbol of thought ; that words and sentences, as symbols, are originally chosen, not arbitrarily, but from some real or supposed connection or re- semblance which they bear to the objects named. The important part played by this law in the forma- LAWS OF SPEECH. 87 rion of English speech, aheady hinted, may be still further seen in the use of such imitative words as splashy bang"^ ivhiz^ roar^ hiss^ and tick-tick. Dr. Wilson enumerates the following words di- rectly derived from so-termed " imitative dog-lan- guage " : bark.^ ^^^5 howl., S7zap,, snarly whine^ and whimper. Names given by children (see p. 32), also the ap- plication of original imitative words to objects which have, or are supposed to have, some resemblance to those objects, as when the barnyard fowl is called the •' cock-a-doodle-doo^^ from which come the cock of a gun., to cock 07ze's eye or head., cocked hat., cock- ade., coquette^ are illustrations of the working of this law of Symbolization. The formation of new words from existing roots, such as side-saddle., butter-cup., break-fast., hearth- stone^ blood-money., foot-sore., and toil-worn., dis- closes this symbolizing propensity. The same is true also of the metaphorical nature of language. " The etymologist," says Emerson, •' finds the deadest word to have been once a bril- liant picture." Examine the following words : appli- cation., understand., off-hand., news,, blackguard, -plagiarize., sarcastic, stigmatize., astonish., incul- cate., respectable., scruple., sincere., calarnity., cemc- tery.^ This law finds still further illustration in the ten- dency of language to symbolize the past. Language is fossil history. This is true of the general history of the race. Linguistic science is fast supplying ^S THE ART OF SPEECH, missing historic links. The words employed in re* mote antiquity are telling us more of the character and condition of the people than Herodotus ever dreamed. The Indo-European family, through its word-his- tory, is found in its earliest stages to have had its domestic circle ; the words wife^ mother^ food^ cooked^ and table-spread^ quietly lift the clouds from the past. Such expressions as to yew one^ to catch a Tar- tar^ laco7tic^ heathen^ Celt^ sterlings dunce^ Essex. Middlesex^ &c., also disclose in a striking manner national characteristics and surroundings. The fol- lowing words, relating to ancient social polity : paper ^ library^ diadem^ robe^ toilet^ candidate^ Jinance^ pecuniary^ salary^ curfew^ housewife^ sig7zing the name ; also the following, which relate to early science : electricity^ furlongs calculus^ consider^ disastrous ; likewise the following, which bear upon religious history : hermetic^ volcano^ martial^ jovial^ vocation^ devotio7i^ plague^ zounds^ Monday^ Tues- day^ Wednesday^ &c., are packed with historic im- port.2^ The surnames of our English ancestry constitute a sort of family coat of arms. Individual history, even, is wrapped up in speech ; it betrays the hearth- stone at which the man lived or played.^^ Not only are words selected, but sentences aie often framed in obedience to the different require- ments of this law. Thus, " The spray was hissing hot," is symbolic of the sound represented. The true LA WS OF SPEECH, 39 poet, possessed of musical sensibility, and having at command the utmost resources of speech, is the best able to render faithful obedience to this law of sym- bolization.^ The words invented and the sentences framed by the common people clearly show that they too live and speak under the reign of this law. '' What is that?" was asked of a bare-footed rustic girl car- rying a pail of water with a board over it. *' That," she replied, pointing to the board, " that is a stiller." It follows that if this law were supreme, the best naming would be where, at first thought, the object and the verbal symbol representing it, the most closely resemble or suggest one another. The practical importance of this law ought not to be overlooked by the English-speaking student. Obedience to it, while inventing or forming words and while constructing sentences, will always be re- garded as a rare and desirable accomplishment. II. law of Develop??ient, Close observation shows that there are forces which control all healthy organic growths and all men- tal and spiritual developments The term evolution is now generally employed, in both physics and metaphysics, and in social and political life, to desig- late these potent and developing agencies. It should be torne in mind that this word, evolu- tion, according to the theist represents forces and processes under Supernatural direction ; but accord- ing to the atheist, those which are under natural di- to THE ART OF SPEECH. rection or selection. As would be expected, speech also is subjected to the reign of this law. Etymo- logically, speech is an evolution from verbal sounds. Fundamentally, speech is evolution from thought, through inspiration, instinct, or invention. One of the most pronounced statements in the metaphysics of rhetoric is, that as soon as an idea comes distinctly be- fore the mental vision, the mother-tongue contributes for it an appropriate verbal expression. Knowledge, even in its most daring advances, is found to be never more than a step in advance of language. Out of the genius of the human mind and tongue, either through composition, derivation, or inflection, new words spring into being to answer the emergencies of times and circumstances. Hence follows the linguistic maxim, that in language popular need is in- exorable and popular ingenuity is inexhaustible. The historic account that Adam saw, then named the animals brought to him, is, therefore, a strictly correct philosophical representation.^ Since, therefore, every tongue has existmg sym- bols or latent capacities to perfectly represent all clearly-defined mental conceptions, and since the law of development has such strong and universal claims, it follows that changes in the structure of language, and additions to its vocabulary, should be made chiefly by development rather than by accretion. A limited number of immigrants may be beneficial to na- tions and to languages ; but too many are harmful. It is fortunate, therefore, that the English tongue, owing to certain natural properties, easily allows the LAWS OF SPEECH. 41 enforcement of the law of development. In its word- resources, for instance, it has wealth of materials not yet tested. The writings of King Alfred, the early Saxon chronicles, the works of Chaucer, of John Mandeville, William Caxton, and Edmund Spenser, reveal a vast amount of unused native word-lore. The power and facility with which English speech can make new words by compounding existing ones, also allow the operation of the law of development. See note xxx. The same is true as to the ease with which one part of speech is converted into another. Nouns, with scarcely an effort, become verbs : '' when the first sin volcanoes ; " " to voice a sentiment ; " " please spoon my coffee ; *' " to hound one ; " '' when the birds do nest ; " '''* shingle the head ; " " man a ship ; " ^^arm a fortress ; " " bridle the passions ; " *' to bottom the ship," &c. Nouns, also, are easily converted into participles : larking^ gadding., snaking., &c. ; and participles into nouns : " the barking of dogs," " the bleating of sheep," &c. Again, the English, aside from its irregularities, is one of the simplest tongues ; but simplicity in ele- ments and structure is a quality from which develop- ment is natural and easy. It is true consequently that he who, though illiter- ate, can speak the English tongue, is able to coin freely and correctly idiomatic words and phrases. Granting all that may be said in praise of " the sonorous music and magnificence " that have been 42 THE ART OF SPEECH. added to the English tongue from Latin sources, still the overdoing must be rigorously guarded against. To take on much additional foreign mat- ter is unwise and unsafe. The aliens of speecli henceforth should come late and without too hearty welcome, and go early without regret. It may in this connection be stated as a linguistic maxim, that when the generative energy of a tongue is allowed to remain dormant, while in modifying its structure or enlarging its vocabulary resort is had to foreign tongues, then decay begins. The practical suggestion deducible from the fore going considerations is, that restoration and retention of native words and idiomatic constructions, united with future restriction of immigration, are demanded for the preservation of the English tongue. Such words as ultimo^ insia^zter^ proximo^ ani- mus^ cultus^ onus., magnu7n opus^ status., curricu- lum^ ultimatufn., maxifnum., fninimutn.^ &c., should be given, therefore, a wide berth by every one who respects and loves his mother-speech. Borrowed fineries, seen in such words as distingue., blase., a marveille., beau monde.^ coup d^ceil^^ demi- monde., haut ton., coiffee a ravir^ debutante., &c., betray a taste extremely affected and sickly. It is linguistic barbarism to present an English-speaking people, at a public dinner, with a bill of fare from which one is forced to read Huitres au naturel for oysters. Casseroles a la Pompadour for soup, and Poisson de meriox codfish, and Fromage for cheese. " The English language," as has been well re- LAWS OF SPEECH, 43 marked, " is too good and too venerable to be traded off for the jargon of the French." Let the Rip Van Winkles of our tongue speak ; they will tell us much of great value of which these foreigners give no intimation. ///. Law of Definiteness. Physical science reports that in the development of the material universe homogeneousness has given place to heterogeneousness. Social science reports the necessity of division of labor. In the revelations of theological science the manifest Divine Unity of the Old Testament becomes the equally manifest Trinity of the New. These facts are sufficient to justify the claim that there is an evident law in the universe which in general may be stated thus : During the processes of development and improvement there is increasing definiteness, but during decay increasing indefi- niteness. In rhetorical science the law is, that in proportion to mental enlightenment and mastery of speech, there is increasing definiteness of expression. The pi'actical suggestion to the English-speaking public is, that the excellences of our tongue must be preserved by obedience to the law of Development. Speech must be so ordered that an expression of ideas shall give the person addressed the least possible conscious mental effort in order to understand. This law, therefore, when something which can be de- finitely expressed is meant, forbids the use of such omnibus terms as " thing," "good," and the like. 44 THE ART OF SPEECH, It also forbids tne displacement of familiar words when the only reason is false delicacy. Com2>are enceinte^ accouchement^ and delicate situation^ with the English of Is. xl. ii ; Matt. xxiv. 19. Be cour- teous, modest, and precise in the use of all such terms ; be not over-modest. It likewise forbids such displacement when the only reason is a kind of deference towards existing crimes and immoralities. As when assisted (Ital- ian) is used for murdered ; love-child (French), for bastard ; sample-room (American), for groggery or rum-hole ; kleptomania^ for stealing. Be pure in speech ; but be honest. This law requires the speaker carefully to distin- guish between words which are sometimes used synonymously. As culture advances, languages tend to make all synonyms merely approximate. Atten- tion is called to the following verbs, which by all scholars should be distinguished from one another : admire ?ind like ; allude todindmention ; christen ^nd baptize ; carry and brings donate and give ; felici- tate and co7zgraiulate ; feel and desire ; grow and become ; inter and bury ; learn and teach ; love and like ; observe and say ; partake of and eat ; present and introduce ; purpose and propose ; reiiiit and send\ reckon^ gjiess^ calculate^ and think; retire 2iXid go to bed\ settle and pay ; sit and set ; trans- fire and take place ; turning and pouring ; wit- ness and see. Especial attention is called to the helping verbs. (See p. 98.) Note also the following nouns : absurdity and LAWS OF SPEECH, 45 nonsense ; animal and brute ; artist and artisan ; conversion^ regeneration^ consecration^ sanctijica- tion^ and perfection ; tf^^^ and pulpit ; female and woman ; /i^^^ 2ind faith ; invention and discovery ; interference and intervention ; railroad station and depot ; relation^ connection^ and kinsman ; ^//^ and pew ; a spell and season ; T^^r^^ and stanza ; -rc^Z/i: and /icz^. Distinguish also between the following adjectives : contemptible and poor \ delicious and delightful \ deranged and insane ; the /;2 to^ into^ on^ and e*;? the tree ; of and off. The law of definiteness commands, furthermore, the use of specific rather than general language. The specific terms of the English tongue are An- glo-Saxon ; the general terms are foreign. Such it6 THE ART OF SPEECH. words as step^ v;alk^ run^ leap^ and ^y are Anglo- Saxon ; while the general term, motion^ covering all these, is Latin. Such words as cat^ dog., horse^ vian^ are Anglo-Saxon ; animal^ the general term, is Latin. Wagon, cart.^ and the like, are Anglo-Saxon ; vehi- cle is Latin. The impression produced by specific terms is far more vivid and lasting. The importance of this law justifies the further remark, that ability to obey it depends upon defi- niteness in thinking. Obscurity in speech is usually the outcome of obscurity in thought. It also depends upon having an easy command of words. This attainment is reached through an extensive course of reading, by making translations from one language into another, and by a constant reference to the dictionary. Daniel Webster, during a part of his life, was a patient student of the dic- tionary, learning three words daily, then seeking an early opportunity to use them. There should, in addition, be habitual attention to the words employed. IV, Law of Economy, Avoid loss and waste, is a command heard through* out the realms of matter and mind. Physical na- ture is extremely economic ; by her direction frag- ments are to be gathered up that nothing be lost. She often greatly changes the objects upon whicli she lays her hand ; she converts and reconverts, but annihilates nothing. Hence is inferred a law desig- nated by the word economy. It is not supreme, LAWS OF SPEECH. 47 being often subject to other laws which, under cer- tain circumstances, are considered of greater im- portance. In the realms of speech this law is com- mon to the tongues of all civilized nations, and har- monizes with the principle that language is a servant. used not merely for its own sake, but for worthy purposes in expressing or conveying thoughts and emotions. It therefore requires the speaker to give with definiteness and elegance the largest number of ideas with the fewest and shortest words possible. The presence and working of this law are seen in the fact that, as civilization advances, shorter and fewer words are employed. It is an indisputable fact that, as soon as a nation or tribe takes its first step from barbarism towards civilization, the law of economy is in operation and continues thus as long as there is any visible progress.^^ This tendency is seen still further in the word- changes which take place in all those tongues that have been reduced to writing. " Letters," says Home Tooke, " like soldiers, are apt to desert and drop off in a long march." Compare with one another the following versions of Matt. vii. 27 : " And rayn came down, floodis camen, and wyndis blewen, and thei hurliden in to that hous, and it felle down, and the falling down thereof w-^s grete." IVycl/fe. " And abundance of rain descended, and the fluddes came, and the wyndes blewe and beet ujoon that house, and it fell, and great was the fall." — jynciale. 48 THE ART OF SPEECH. "And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell : and great was the fall of it." — Cominon English version. This same tendency is seen in the omission of syl- lables, as well as letters : almosine became almosie^ then almose^ then almes^ now alms. Straw^ rose^ gold^ silver^ and h7'ick formerly had the termination en. ^2^ was formerly buffle ; ifv^^^gifan ; month was mooneth ; stern was austeren. Modern English often reduces polysyllabic words taken from other languages to monosyllables. Preach from fredicare^ and vend from venumdare (Latin) ; blame from blasphemein (Greek) ; throng from thringan^ and blast from blaesan (Anglo-Saxon), are familiar illustrations. The omission of parts of compound words like- wise discloses the influence of this law. Aid has been reduced from aide-de-camp ; doff from to do off\ don from to do on; hand-work from hand ge weorc; lovely from love like^ and such from so like. Indeed, English speech has reduced nearly half its vocabulary to a monosyllabic form. This law has all the more weight because these economic processes in no way diminish the clear- ness and power of our mother-tongue. The mono- syllables of our language are filled with definite and mighty thoughts. They instinctively leap to the lips in the expression of earnestness and passion. The following are illustrations of the strength af mono- syllabic speech : LAWS OF SPEECH, 49 *' That is a step On which I must fall down, or else o'erleap, For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires, Let no light see my black and deep desire. The eye winks at my hand. Yet, let that be Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see.'* Macbeth^ Act i., Sc. \\. ** Then Apollyon straddled quite over the whole breadth of the way. and said, I am void of fear in this matter; prepare thyself to die ; for I swear by my infernal Den that thou shalt go no further: here will I spill thy soul." Pilgrim'' s Progress. See also Matt. xiii. 3-10.^ It is a carefully studied thought of Professor Whit- ney, that " if English were strictly reduced to its words of one syllable, it would still contain an abundant repertory ©f developed parts of speech expressing every variety of idea, and illustrating a rich phonetic system." Advanced culture, while constructing sentences, still further shows its respect for this law by drop- ping all unnecessary words. The rustic English Westmorelaader, to the question, '' How far is it?" replies, '^ Why like it garl}^ nigh like to four miles hke." The conjugation of the southern slave dia- lect is, " I was done gone, you was done gone, he v/as done gone." '' Whereby I went to London, whereby I was robbed, whereby I found the man that robbed me," is the sailor's speech as quoted by De Qiiincey. The excessive and indefinite use of which ^ and which^ and the like, betrays either a lack of taste or of literary culture in the speaker.^ 4* 5 50 THE ART OF SPEECH. Even words in former good use are now dropped in obedience to this law. Own^ in the phrase " my own self," "your own self," "his own self," is no longer used except for special emphasis. The phrases, " Help us (to) feel ; " " They are (both) alike ; " " Shut the door (to) ; " " To (be) let ; " " Please (to) bear in mind," no longer use the par- ticles parenthesized. The expressions, "John hzs hat," " the king his throne," in use two hundred years ago, and sanctioned even by Addison, are now looked upon as " monstrous syntax." The adjective, called the enemy of the noun, is often used by the inexperienced writer when it would be omitted by the thorough scholar. Compare, in this respect, the artificial and superficial writer with some noted men of letters. True culture seeks the greatest ends by the smallest means ; as the gods are said to hang the greatest weights upon the smallest wires. The correctness of the following quotation from Professor Shedd will not be questioned : *' The old and finished speaker always uses fewer and choicer words than the joung orator. The language of Webster during the last half of his public life was more se- lect and precise than it was previously. He emploj'ed fewer words to convey the same amount of meaning, by growing more nice, and careful in the rejection of those vague words which come thick and thronging when the mind is roused. Hence, the language he did use is full of meaning; as one said, 'every word weighs a pound/ " The verbal expression required for certain condi- tions and emotions of the soul will always add strength LA WS OF SPEECH. 51 \o the tenacious hold this law has upon human speech. Tender emotions, like those, for instance, breathed by Dickens in his account of the " Death of Little Nell," and oratorio passion as thundered in the Phi- lippics of Demosthenes, instinctively economize. Wit, wisdom, and all forms of passion, seek reduc- tion in verbal expression. '' He is a monstrous vil- lain " is moderate in comparison with '' Monstrous villain ! " or " Villain ! " Whenever an illustration can be reduced to a metaphor, or a simile to a single word, there is marvellous gain of might. The foregoing remarks lay the foundation for the following practical rules : There should be constant effort by diminishing the quantity to improve the quality of speech. Were this law obeyed irrespective of all others, every word retained w^ould be weighty and indispensable. Since redundant words especially weaken an ex- pression, they should be cut out without mercy. With this law it is as with the file and whetstone ; taking something from the knife, they leave it with keener edge. '' Still further eliminate," is therefore safe and wise counsel to the inexperienced writer at almost every stage of his literary composition and construction. The eliminated material, nevertheless, should be carefully preserved ; it may have strength and fitness for some other composition. These rules should be obeyed especially for two reasons. First, no rhetorical exercise is more improving. Says Professor Shepard : " It is hard to cast away 62 THE ART OF SPEECH. what has cost you so many torturing throes of the brain. But more than half the writer's success con- sists in the unpitying and bloody use of the knife/' Second, the speaker or writer is under moral ob- ligation to economize time — his own and that of the hearer or reader. V. Law of Selection, There is in the universe a wide-spread rumor that the fit ultimately prevails over the unfit. Every grand type of being and every noble impulse of mind is at war with the unfit. It is a warfare to improve, if improvement be possible ; if not, then to destroy. The law inferred from the data belong- ing to this class of facts is termed Selection. It differs from the law of Economy in this, that it not only reduces a given quantity, but reduces it with wise discrimination. A law of such general application must have a place and a power in the domains of speech. In general it requires the stronger or better of two words or expressions to displace the weaker or poorer, that the fitter may thereby survive. Ha- merton expresses the thought thus : " In writing, the art of selection consists in giving the utmost effect to expression in the fewest words," This law has full sway in the more forcible figures of rhetoric, and consequently in all the figures of oratory. It is well-nigh preeminent in the grammatical and rhetorical arts of criticism. Its practical opera- LAJVS OF SPEECH. 53 rion calls into special exercise what may be termed rhetorical sagacity, that faculty which has the ability to discover the non-essentials of a subject, and the courage to separate and lay them aside. The inspiration of the prophet, the genius of the poet, and the linguistic instincts of the common peo- ple, often evoke expressions upon which improvement is impossible. Men may try until dooms-day, they cannot better the New Testament statement of the golden rule. The selection has been accomplished. So faithfully, too, has the great English poet obeyed this, and the law of Economy, that, as Cole- ridge remarks, " You might as well think of pushing a brick out of a wall with your forefinger, as attempt to remove a word out of any of the finished passages of Shakspeare." It is a rhetorical maxim that the rigJit word is the " mdestructible vesture of a thought." FT. Law of Suggestion. The physical universe, while found to hint much, fully explains little. In providence the same method holds, as also to some extent in Scriptural Revela- tion. The governing principle involved is termed the law of Suggestion. In the realms of speech this law is found greatly to aid Economy and Selection. Conciseness and force in speech are found to seek especially the aid of suggestiveness. The practical workings of this .aw, since it requires hints rather than dictations, are delightful to the hearer, and beneficial, particu- 64 THE ART OF SPEECH, larly as a mental discipline, to the speaker. This la\^ fixes attention tipon the undertone in speech. It is constantly saying, Write something between the lines.^ VII, Law of Analogous Usage, The discovery of correlations and correspondences between objects belonging not only to a given class or genus, but to such as are different and widely separated, is one of the triumphs of modern scien- tific research. In fact, reasoning from one class to another has never before rested upon as firm a scien- tific basis. Hence is inferred the law denominated x\nalogous Usage. The first task of the student un- der this law is to discover and classify the corre- spondences belonging to such objects as are brought to his attention ; the second is to seek to introduce these correspondences into the products of his indus- try and invention. The phases of this law in the domains of speech to which attention is directed, are somewhat re- stricted, being based upon the maxim that any lan- guage can do and ougJit to do what it is in the habit of doing. The tendencies to conform to this maxim are seen, for instance, in the change of irregular into regular forms of inflection and speech. Sncli changes take place with all tongues in about the Bame ratio as culture advances. English speech furnishes abundant illustration. Every new edition of our dictionaries reduces the number of irregularities. Only recently, learnt^ dreamt^ leapt ^ dropt were in the ascendant ; but LAWS OF SPEECH. 55 now the past tense and participle of these words are regularly formed by the termination ed. Be- tween the following verbs there is at present a strug- gle for domination, but there can be no question as to the issue : bended and bent ; bereaved and bereft ; blessed and blest ; burned and burnt ; girded and girt ; kneeled and knelt. This law, obeyed by children, by illiterate though hitelligent people, and by foreigners who are learn- ing English, may soon allow the child to say, un- corrected, " I rided with my uncle," and " I runned down hill." Changes in the noun, likewise, are nearly as marked as in the verb. The plural of hoof not long since was hooves^ now it is hoofs ; that of turfw2iS turves^ now turfs ; that of wharf is still wharves in America, but wharfs in England. Formerly the following words had their plural in e7z (early Sax- on) : eye^ pi. eyne ; cow^ pi. ki7ze ; shoe^ pi. shoon ; hose^ pi. hosen ; house^ pi. housenP There is at present a struggle between the regulai and irregular terminations of the following words. out the law of analogy must ultimately prevail : Eng. pL Latin pi. Eng. pi. Latin pi. Datum s a Memorandum s a Effluvium s a Panacea S se Formula s ae Radius es ii Fulcrum s a Stigma s ata Herbarium s a Stratum s a Hydra s 26 Vertebra s ae Gambus es i Vertex es ices Mausoleum s a Vortex es ices Medium s a 60 THE ART OF SPEECH. The same tendency to reach regularity is seen in adjectives while forming the degrees of compari- son. Old^ elder ^ eldest have yielded to old^ older ^ oldest ; late^ latter^ last^ to late.^ later .^ latest ; near^ nlg'h^ next^ to near, nearer^ nearest ; bad^ good^ though irregular in many of the most finished lan- guages, will ultimately adopt the regular formations. Adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are also feeling the force of this law. Scarcely and exceed- ingly have already driven scarce and exceeding ivoni respectable society ; likewise backwards and for- wards will soon be dismissed, or give place to back- war dly 2iwdifo7'wardly ; concerning, notwithstand- ing^ according to^ for the sake of are much less used than a half century ago ; w^iile if so be that., in as much as, and //* however nevertheless^ being abnormal in English speech, have almost entirely disappeared. The normal working of the law of Analogous Usage warrants the practical rule that English-speak- ing people should convert as rapidly as possible the irregularities of their tongue into forms which are regular. It may be suggested also that words introduced into English from other tongues, shall, in botl) structure and pronunciation, doff their foreign and don the English dress. Such was the rule with the more cu"\ivated Greeks and Romans when in- troducing foreign words into their tongues. Even proper names, when much used in English speech, should be Anglicized and pronounced as if they were LAWS OF SPEECH, 57 English born. Attention to these requirements will not injure our mother-tongue ; nay, every such im- provement will hasten the day when English, owing to the wealth of its literature, its economy, its range of expression, and its past conquests, will become the international speech of the world. Does this savor of national predisposition? But M. Alphonse de Condolle, a distinguished Swiss philologist, and Pro • fessor Grimm, a leading linguist ofthe Royal Academy of Berlin, have both thus predicted. VIII. Law of Variation and Contrast, The physical universe, within certain limits, abounds in deviations from original types, and in differences between contiguous objects. The human mind is so constituted as to applaud when seeing these deviations and differences. Monotony tires in proportion to intellectual development. There is to be inferred, therefore, in matter and mind, a law which may be denominated that of Variation and Contrast. An examination of standard literature will show that speech is also subjected to this law. Shakspeare courted the comic as well as the tragic muse ; in the midst of the highest tragedy he gives us the lowest comedy. He puts the crazed King Lear and the Fool out in the same terrible storm. In Hamlet he gives us the unhappy prince and the witty grave-diggers, in jocular repartee, even amidst the solemnities of burial. The great Teacher places side by side the Good 58 THE ART OF SPEECH, Samaritan and the selfish priest, and contrasts I he rich man and Lazarus. The various figures of antithesis likewise rest upon this law. They will be discussed elsewhere. IX. Law of Unity and Harmony, Were the last-mentioned law unrestricted, there would result wide-spread disorder and confusion. It is therefore wisely checked by another law, which is also universal. Its existence is inferred thus : No two clouds are alike, but the sky filled with clouds is an harmonious unit. Land and water scapes are interspersed in the same picture, yet they blend. The Trinity is three and one. This unity among variety, unity either of sequence or of membership, and this blending of contrasts, point to what is known as the law of Harmony. In the realm of speech this law has always occupied a prominent place. It requires agreement between the terms used, the sentiments expressed, and the time, place, and occasion of their expression. Its agreement with other laws is very marked. Witli the law of symbolization it may demand harsh words when the idea would thus be better expressed. Hiss, whistle, crash, are not euphonic words, but correctly used are preflerable to any others. What so perfectly describes a falling tree as, '' Then rus- tling, crackling, crashing, thundering down." It demands likewise that the rhetorical style shall adapt itself to the sentiments expressed. Emotions of pleasure require elegant and beautiful expression ; LAWS OF SPEECH, 59 illustrated in the neatness of Addison, in the grace of Charles Lamb, and in the ornateness of Everett. Emotions of grandeur and sublimity demand cor- responding expressions. See Milton's ''Paradise Regained" (Satan in the Wilderness), beginning^ '^ 'Tis true I am that spirit.'* Also the Book of Job, especially in chapters xxxviii., xxxix., xl., xli., is a marked illustration of obedience to the law of Har- mony. This law is violated whenever an educated person descends to the use of slang, cant, or puns. Some of the following words of this class are inelegances, some are vulgarities, and all are ill becoming any gen- tleman : absquatulate^ all-Jired^ bamboozle^ blow him uf^ bobbing rounds bet you^ you bet^ blazes^ b'hoys^ crack up^ carryings on^ ca?i't co?ne it^ done brow7i^ dufTibfounded^ do tell^ I'm thar^ Jerusa- lem I kinder good^ knocking about ^ knocked into a cocked hat^ let her slide^ let her rip^face the music^ go the whole hog^ Bohemian^ git up and git out^ go back on^ goodness gracious^ hopping mad^ hard up^ hold on ^ hard row to hoe^ haiTg of the school- house^ on a pinch^ put her through^ played out^ poor as yob's turkey^ rip out^ run it into the ground^ rumbu77iptious^ settle his hash^ laine his bacon^ sucked in^ slop over^ I'll come i?z^ short meter ^ try it 071 if you dare^ thousa7zd of brick ^ whapping^ trans77iogrify^ worth a red. Gross and profane speech in presence of this law cannot be too severely condemned. Indeed there is no law known which does not set its face against 60 THE ART OF SPEECH, such language. A distinguished writer says : '' 1 resolved, when I was a child, never to use a word which I could not pronounce before my mother with- out offending her.*' This is loyalty in the realm of speech. X» Law of Authority, The opinions and practice of worthy persons are constantly appealed to as authority. In courts of law, for instance, the judgments of experts are received as evidence. In the domains of speech, the usage of a writer of commanding genius, likewise the sanction of the literary world at a given period, are held to be authoritative. The following rules are indorsed by nearly all writers upon this subject: *^ Use is the law of language." — Horace, ** The eldest of the present, and the newest of the past language is best." — Ben Jonson. *' Words must be reputable, national, and present." — Dr. Campbell, *' In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; Alike fantastic, if too new or old ; Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." — PoJ>e, From a more extended generalization is derived a stricter philosophical rule, that a word or phrase is authoritative w^hen it springs from a native germ and is in general use ; it is entitled to restoration and general use when H springs from a native germ and can be understood by the common people. LAWS OF SPEECH, 01 XT. Law of Beauty. Emotions of pleasure are excited by two causes, the intrinsic fitness of things, and the natural or ac- cidental association of things. A discussion of fitness in speech, as related to association, belongs to the metaphysics of rhetoric ; attention, in this discus- sion, is therefore confined to what is termed intrinsic or euphonic fitness. The following are noticeable examples of euphonic beauty : *' And neither the angels in heaven above, Nor the demons down under the sea, Can ever dissever my soul from the soul Of the beautiful Annabel Lee." *'In these deep solitudes and awful cells, Where heavenly pensive contemplation dwells, And ever-musing melancholy reigns." — Pope, On the other hand, such lines as — *' 'Twas thou that soothedst the rough, rugg'dbed of pain." Bo'Myer, and *^ His sinuous path, by blazes, wound Among trunks grouped in myriads round," are manifest violations of euphonic beauty. The general principle is soon discovered that an expression which pleases the ear is beautiful ; but it pleases the ear because easily and gracefully pro- nounced. " The seat of euphony," says Professor Whitney, " is in the mouth, not in the ear." That which per- plexes is not regarded as beautiful ; to speak with difficulty, is to hear with difficulty ; but difficulty is perplexing, hence not beautiful. 6 62 THE ART OF SPEECH. There are three suggestions, therefore, as to ren dering language euphonically beautiful. First, by dropping its harsh words. But only within certain limits can this be done to advantage without breaking other laws which are of greater importance than this of Beauty. The Italian tongue so abounds with smooth and liquid sounds that va- riety and force are well-nigh impossible. Second, by softening its harsh words. During the development of language there is constant tendency to secure ease of pronunciation, and consequentl} greater pleasure in hearing. This may be seen in the euphonic changes of nearly all languages which have grammatical rules. Says Lord Kames : '' That the English tongue, originally harsh, is at present much softened by the dropping in pronunciation of many redundant con- sonants, is undoubtedly true ; that it is not capable of being further mellowed without suffering in its force and energy, will scarce be thought by any one who possesses an ear." Still, as this law is far from supreme, euphonic changes can be made safely only within certain limits. Third, by mastering the pronunciation of difficult words before using them in public. A given word, on the lips of one speaker who can master it, is beau- tiful ; on those of another, ugly. The German tongue is pleasant to the German ear, and the Arabic to the Arab ; to an Italian they are intolerable. The reason in part is an imagined difficulty in their pronunciation. While a musical ear and a disciplined mind arc LAWS OF S PEE CI/. 63 of chief importance, the following practical rules for those not thus gifted may be of service : First. A succession of similar sounds is pronounced and heard with difficulty. Such, for example, as, '^ I can candidly say ; " '• I confess the debility of my inability." Dean Alford is guilty of the following "inelegant stuttering:" "The rules of emphasis come in, in ^V^terruption of your supposed general law of position." Second. Certain combinations of sounds are pro- nounced and heard with ease ; for instance, syllables combining two distinct sounds. The combination oi is pleasanter than o or e \ le than / or e. Also words composed of a succession of open and close syllables, as alternative ; likewise words composed of long and short syllables, as altitude and rapidly, with which compare the difficult words, fruiterer and farriery ; again, words having an alternation of vowels and consonants : compare the difficult sounds in quenched, whilst, placedst, with the hquid and vowel sounds in ?72errily, remedy, and bridal \ and, in fine, all words in which liquids and vowels abound are pleasing to the ear. Third. Long words are more easily pronounced than several short, easy ones that are connected ; but short w^ords are the more forcible. Fourth. Certain arrangements as to accent and pauses aid in pronunciation, and give pleasure in hearing. Cicero remarks that " The stops and divi- sions of periods w^ere first introduced for recovering the breath and opening the lungs ; and yet in their 6-1 THE ART OF SPEECH. own nature they are so musical, that, though one's lungs were inexhaustible, )^et we should not wish for continuity of style without any stops, such a sympa- thy exists between what is agreeable to our ears and what is not only possible, but easy for our lungs." Words having the accent alternate upon successive syllables are pleasing ; note the difficulty in curso- rily^ arbitrarily^ and pere7?iptoriness. Fifth. Sentences are pleasing, if arranged to se- cure ease and force at the end. Hence a sentence should have an accent at the end ; to close with such a word as peremptorily^ or w^ith a monosyllable, unless it can take the accent, is a violation of euphonic beauty. Sixth. It is likewise easier to speak a long sentence after having spoken several short ones. This law furnishes the following rules as to the length of sentences : They should not be shorter than the ear expects, nor longer than the speaker's breath and strength will allow. No writers have excelled Cicero and Massillon in the choice of words and in the construction of sentences suited to public speech. AVZ Law of Auto77iatic Move7ne7it, The processes of nature are carried on with such ease and regularity that, to many persons, they appear necessitated and mechanical. Likewise mental op- erations, while for the most part known to be voli- tional, often become so habitual that they seem put forth without thought or effort. The playing of the musician, the knitting of the housewife, the marching LAWS OF SPEECH, 65 of the soldier, continued after he has fallen asleep, and other equally striking instances, suggest that man in his movements and make-up is to some ex- tent automatic. A multitude of facts which can be readily grouped under this principle justify the state- ment, therefore, that tie human organism when in perfect training can do, without conscious eflbrt, what it is in the habit of doing. As would be expected, this law, in the province of speech, holds a prominent place. Talking in some instances seems as involuntary as drawing the breath. Men, without intention or purpose, talk to themselves ; in their sleep they talk. So, too, the street hawker, the excited Irish woman, and steve- dores on wharf and boat, without ability to recall what is said, and without any apparent volition, like a machine, talk and talk on hour after hour. But human nature is essentially the same in the schools as on the street. So far as speech can be regarded as an invention, it will be found spontaneous rather than studied. Word-making is rarely premeditated ; it is usually an intuitive and instantaneous evolution. Connected with this law of automatic movement are discovered some of the most fundamental and sug- gestive principles in the entire field of linguistic science. For if the English-speaking student will, first of all, cultivate lofty and pure emotions, then train his vocal organs to ready and strict obedience, and his pen to a free and ready movement, and next acquaint himself with pure idiomatic English, and master an ample vocabulary, then his rhetorical in- 6* 66 THE ART OF SPEECH. stincts and intuitions will render the task of correct and lofty speech so easy and graceful as to seem freed from conscious effort. XIII. Law of Needful Practice, In every branch of industry it is found that con tinued practice is the price of perfect attainment. *' There is no such security for good behavior," says the maxim, " as active service." Or, as the Saxon states it, " One can do well that only which he is in the habit of doing." Correct habits, therefore, — not rules, — are the proper preventives for all sorts of defects. Von Bijlow, the eminent pianist, has remarked that if he quits his piano for three days, the public notices a difference in his playing; if for two days, his friends notice a difference ; if for one day, he himself notices a difference. The practical application of this law of needful Practice to language leads to the statement that if one would master the arts of oral speech and of lit- erary construction he must keep speaking and writ- ing. There is no other path equally loyal, or equally royal. The speaker must see that his ordinary con- versation, which should be free and frequent, shall feel the influence of a continued effort to be correct and chaste. Cicero was wont highly to commend the writer who perseveres in the rigorous task of composing an essay daily. LAWS OF SPEECH. 67 XIV. The Psychological Law. Confined to rhetorical science and art, this law announces the principle that, if the speaker or writer would have perfect command of language, he must have perfect ideas. '' To write well," says the maxim, ''one must think well." But to think well implies living well. The surest condition, there- fore, of clear, vital, and grand thinking, also of clear, vital, and grand speaking and writing, in both prose and poetry, is a clear, vital, and grand life. XV. Golden Rule of Speech. This rule, in brief, is that, first of all, the speaker must utter the truth. Any deviation is to be consid- ered fundamentally defective and rhetorically vicious. But more : the truth must be uttered with the pure and lofty purposes of doing good and of persuading the hearer to accept and obey the truth presented. In pure eloquence will these virtues invariably be found. 68 THE ART OF SPEECH. CHAPTER IV. Diction and Idiom. The discussion of these topics, when subjected to the laws above enumerated, is rendered compara- tively easy. I. Dictioji. In the science of speech, diction re- lates to the selection and use of words. Correct diction has been decided to be the use of such words as are reputable — those employed by speakers and writers of high national repute ; and f resent — those neither obsolete nor freshly coined. The linguistic instincts of poets and of the masses will, however, often break from these restrictions, being fully justified in inventing a needed word or in restoring one that is obsolete. The subject of diction includes a discussion of Barbarisms — the use of foreign words ; Archaisms «— the use of the older words of a language ; Obso- letisms — the use of w^ords not employed in stand- ard prose literature or in ordinary conversation ; and Solecisms^ — an improper use of words. The more important and practical suggestions for the English student are the following : First, the laws of development, analogous usage, DICTION AND IDIOM, 69 and harmony, require, in the formation of compound words, that their different parts shall be taken from the same tongue. For instance, the negative prefix un is English ; ifi^ with which it corresponds, is Latin. The following words, in conformity with this rule, have recently been changed, the un giving place to in : unactive^ unadmissible^ uiiapplicable^ tinattentive^ uncorruptible^ and uncredible. The Latin in corresponds with the Greek and French en. In the case of Greek compounds, there is no question as to correct usage. But whether a given word is taken directly from the Latin, or indi- rectly through the French, presents a difficulty. Hence, either in or en may be compounded with circle^ close^ quire^ tomb. The tendency, how- ever, is increasing in favor of in. The student may give suffixes which can be correctly used with the following words : unit,, same,, fure^ credible^ shoot,, and walk. Several laws of language demand still further that English-speaking people shall use such words as are characteristic of their mother-tongue. The native features of English speech, the Anglo-Saxon, are natural to English people. " English words," says Hare, " sound best from English lips." The child of such parentage is far more likely to say, " I wish," than to say '' I desire ; " ''I think," rather than '' I reflect;" ''1 play," not "I amuse myself;" "the apple is sweet," not " delicious," '' sour," not '' acid." It follows, furthermore, that scholars should heartily 70 THE ART OF SPEECH, sanction all efforts to have English words, especially those of Saxon origin, displace their foreign compet- itors. In this connection it is a fact worthy of note that while the stock of words in late dictionaries is made up very largely of foreign elements, thinking and writing is mostly done in Anglo-Saxon. The aver- age American knows far more foreign than Anglo- Saxon words, but uses far less. Even the most dis- tinguished writers are using a far larger proportion of Anglo-Saxon words than were employed by the best v/riters of the last century. It is estimated that one fifth fewer foreign w^ords are used now than in the middle of the last century. During the sixteenth century, Greek and Latin sentences were freely in- terspersed in all speeches and sermons ; but such displays would be regarded at present as ostentatious and vulgar.^^ The objection will be raised, doubtless, that the vocabulary of English is far too limited to meet the demands laid upon it by the rapid increase of knowl- edge. In reply it may be said that, in the held of gen- eral literature, the childhood and home speech of the English tongue is ample. The nativeness of much of the standard English literature establishes the fact, that if all which the English tongue has received from foreign sources, including Greek, Latin, and Norman elements, were dropped out, the popular and efTective '' folk-lore," the language of purpose, affection, and passion, and DICTION AND IDIOM, 71 the language of the more popular eloquence and poetry, would remain well-nigh intact.^ The Scotch love Burns, the Americans love Whit- tier, and the English-speaking world loves Longfel- low as they love no others. Sumner is admired for his learning, Everett for his picturesque and flowing sentences, but Lincoln's speech at Gettysburg is felt to be one of the choicest specimens of eloquence ever spoken upon the American continent. But these cherished pieces of poetry and prose are among the purest, both as to their idiomatic structure and diction. Goethe is authority for the saying that " He who is acquainted with no foreign tongue knows nothing of his own." This is not true. Among the most distinguished representatives of the mother-tongues of different nations are men who were not general linguists. Demosthenes was a master of words ; he was, however, no master of foreign tongues, but built his style on Thucydides, who was remarkably pure in diction and idiom. Izaak Walton and Hugh Miller were not linguists, but they were acquainted with, nay, were masters of English speech. Dr. Richard Farmer, in his " Essay on the Learning of Shakspeare," shows that the great poet's knowledge of the ancient classics was derived, not from origi- nals, but from translations, of which he copied even the blunders. It has been thought by not a few that it is well for the Ensflish tonorue that while the ladies of the realm were reading Greek, Shakspeare's father was unable to write his own name. 72 THE ART OF SPEECH. Another suggestive fact is, that, while Webster's Dictionary contains one hundred and fourteen thou- sand words, most writers do not employ over five thousand. Milton's vocabulary was limited to eight thousand words. These facts suggest that many of the foreignisms of our tongue could be safely and easily dispensed with. The strongest plea in favor of Latin and Greek words has been based upon their necessity for pro- fessional and scientific purposes. But those classical tongues are no longer the exclusive repositories of knowledge. Science is yearly more and more pop- ularized, and therefore its terminology among Eng- lish-speaking people is more and more Anglicized. The American mechanic studies science, but is not a linguist. The great republic of letters, in view of the general prevalence of scientific investigation and discussion, will demand that the sciences, with all their terms, shall be put into the vernacular of the common people ; the language of the schools will suffer the fate of the Coptic Zend and classical Greek. This advance can be already reported, that emi- nent scientists, the world over, are substituting the language of the common people in place of the tech- nical terms of the schools and the sciences. Indeed, from the start it might have been as well, upon lin- guistic grounds, for the sick man to have taken water instead of aqua^ and to have been told that his re- tina is inflamed.^ instead of being startled with the announcement that he has the amfhiblestroidites \ DICTION AND IDIOM. 73 night-blindness is easier to bear than nyctalopia. Were Americans as loyal as Germans, they would say mineral oil instead of petroleum^ vjater^stitff instead of hydrogen^ sour-stuff instead of oxygen. 5iar-k?zozuledge instead of astronomy^ earth-knowU edge instead of geology ; old-life instead of paleo* zoic^ middle-life instead of viesozoic^ and new- life instead of cenozoic. We are coming to hear among the great scientists of the day the words sun^ stuf^ star-stuf^ and life-stuff. The presidents of German universities address their graduating classes in the German tongue ; American presidents in the Latin — why? Plutarch, in summing up the accomplishments of Cicero, says : " He made it his business to compose and translate philosophical dialogues, and to render the Greek terms of logic and natural philosophy in the Roman language. For it is said that he first, or principally at least, gave Latin terms for these Greek words : phantasia (imagination), syncatathesis (as- sent), epoche (doubt), catalepsis (comprehension), atomos (atom), ameres (indivisible), kenon (void), and many other such terms in science ; contriving, either by metaphorical expression or strict transla- tion, to make them intelligible and familiar to the- Romans." ^ Were it true that the English vocabulary is pov- erty-stricken, it would be the duty of the English- speaking public, in obedience to the laws of lan- guage, not to import, but to restore certain native 'vords which have become obsolete through the 74 THE ART OF SPEECH, usurpation of foreigners. All recognize forbear^ forbid,^ forgive,^ J'o7'lorn^ forsake^ fo7'sooth^ and the like, as established English words of primitive origin. The following words, once in use, are equally deserving restoration : for-judged (unjustly judged), for-pined (wasted away), for-watched (weary with watching), yb/'-w^// (exhausted with weeping), for-worn (tired out), for-do (to undo), and for-dwined (dwindled away). Geology has restored out-crop ; out-Jlank has been retained in military science, and out-boufzd 2inA out-fit in navigation ; outing and inning have been revived through the ball game. If occasion calls for the use of the old words out- go (in opposition to income)^ out-power (to excel in power), out-rive (to tear apart), out-take (to except), and out-wear (to wear out), why not freely welcome them ? In the poet Spenser's day the words dapper^ scathe,, askance^ embellish^ forestall,, and fain,, now authorized, were condemned as obsolete. In the seventeenth century the following words, which had been used by Chaucer and his contemporaries, were also classed as obsolete : anthem,, carve,, blithe,, bland,, sphere,, transcend,, thrill,^ dovetail,, ledge^ tissue,, plumage^ resource,^ tapestry,, and villany ; they are now regarded as indispensable. Every linguistic law bearing upon this subject is positive in requiring the restoration of native words when they can as well take the place of those which are foreign. There is neither law nor reajon DICTION AND IDIOM, 75 that does not allow the followhig words to have at least equal rank with their foreign competitors : out'Come (result), out-do (excel), out-ed (expelled), out'break (eruption), out-cast (degraded), out-Jiow (efflux), out'la?zder (foreigner), out-lay (expendi- ture), out-line (delineation), out-ness (externality or objectivity), already restored by Sir William Hamilton ; inness (internality or subjectivity), out-word (extrinsic), out-wrest (extort), wan-hope (despair), wan-trust (jealousy), again-rising (res- urrection), and again-bit e of inwit (remorse of con- science). '' There is an angel in that piece of marble," said Michael Angelo ; and there was. There is in the English tongue untold wealth of diction ; let loyal artists bring it out. II. Idiom. It is the peculiar mould in which the sentences of a given tongue naturally shape them- selves. It differs from dialect in being less local and temporary, and in being far more fundamental. Every distinctly marked tongue is found to have an idiom peculiar to itself. Idiom involves, therefore, the science and art of phrasing sentences in harmony with the genius of a given tongue. Cicero and Qiiintilian asserted that purity of idiom is to be found chiefly among women and chil- dren. It is also remarked by De Quincey," that the pure idiom of our mother-tongue survives only amongst our women and children ; not, heaven knows, amongst our women who write books." '* Would you desire at this day," he continues, " to 76 THE ART OF SPEECH, read our noble language in its native beauty, pictu- resque form, idiomatic propriety, racy in its phrase- ology, delicate yet sinewy in its composition, — steal the mail-bags and break open all the letters in female handwriting." Hence, such a construction of sentences as is com- mon among unlettered but intelligent people, and such as is sanctioned in England and America by scholarly usage, must be regarded as standard Eng- lish idiom. So many tongues, bringing with them peculiar modes of expression, have met and mingled in the English that it seems excessive in idioms. They have, nevertheless, been adopted and established. " Try to alter the smallest rule of English," says Max Mtiller, " and you will find it is physically impos- sible." The attempt to adjust the words of an idiom to grammatical rules would be an attempt to rob our tongue of some of its choicest elements of life and strength. But further idiomatic immigration may be w^isely guarded against. In literature, the poems of Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton, Byron, and Lowell, and the prose writings of Bunyan, De Foe, Benjamin Frank- lin, Charles Lamb, and Henry Newman, are ranked among the most idiomatic of standard English lit- erature. Several of the laws of language call for the res- toration of certain idiomatic phrasings which have fallen into practical disuse. For illustration : " Did vou ring?" (indefinite) should give place to "Did DICTION AND IDIOM, 77 you bell?" (definite); and "It blows'' (indefinite) to ''It winds'* (definite). A scholarly effort to purify English idiom will meet with general approval ; for the popular mind is shy of alien words and idioms, but the native and half-forgotten ones will always receive hearty wel- come.'*^ It need not be a matter of surprise, therefore, that Dryden and Pope, who modelled their verse after Continental poetry, are less popular than many other English and American poets of no greater ability. Chaucer pleaded for the speech of his fathers ; Spen- ser was a disciple of Chaucer ; Milton was a diligent student of both Chaucer and Spenser ; Cowper, Longfellow, and Whittier, likewise clinging to the purity of English diction and idiom, are the poets most highly cherished. 78 THE ART OF SPEECH. CHAPTER V. Syntax. When both diction and idiom are faultless, the rhetorical perfection of speech is well-nigh, though not absolutely, assured. The arrangement of each sentence, and of the entire literary production, call for a discussion of additional topics. The first re lates to the construction of sentences, termed Syntax. It treats of the choice and arrangement of words into sentences according to established usage. By way of preliminary remark, it should be borne in mind that every sentence has its subject-nomina tive and its predicate-verb ; it may also have its ob- ject. The subject-nominative may have about it a cluster of modifiers, as also may the predicate-verb and the object. A part of a sentence not containing a proposition, is a phrase. A part of a sentence containing a prop- osition is a clause. A combination of two or more sentences is a paragraph. Grammatically, sentences are of three kinds : simple^ those having one nom- inative-subject and one predicate-verb, as, " Life is short ; " complex^ those having one nominative-sub- ject, one predicate-verb, and one or more dependent or modifying clauses, as, *' Life is short at the long est ; " compound^ those havino: two or more nomina- SYNTAX, 79 tive-subjects and predicate-verbs, as, " Life, which IS short, should be well employed." The syntax of a sentence is therefore faultless when it has these two principal factors — the nominative-subject and the predicate-verb, with their respective modifiers — cor- rectly grouped about them. It follows that the English sentence is so simple that he who knows not one rule of grammar, if he has keen sense and knowledge of facts, may surpass the graduate of our best colleges in pure, simple, strong, and correct utterance. " In speaking or writing English," says Herbert Spencer, " we have only to choose right words, and put them in right places." This subtle quality in the construction of the Eng- lish language, of which as yet grammars have scarcely taken note, has been well stated by Richard Grant White : " Each word is charged with a mean- ing which gives it a tendency toward some of those in the sentence, and particularly to one, and which repels it from the others ; and he who subtly divines and dexterously uses this attraction, filling his words with a living but latent light and heat, which makes them leap to each other and cling together while they transmit his freely-flowing thought, is a master of the English language, although he may be igno- rant and uninstructed in its use."^^ This topic of Syntax is subdivided into . /. Principles of Choice. The general considerations belonging to this sub- copic have been discussed under Diction and Idiom, 80 THE ART OF SPEECH. II. Principles of Arrangement, While correct usage allows such wide latitude in the logical and rhetorical construction of English sentences as greatly diminishes the rules of vSyntax, still there are a few general directions as to the order of words in sentences which may be of service. The law of Symbolization requires that : i. The verbal sign and the thought signified should, as to their position, exactly correspond. Lord Karnes states the rule thus : " If conformity between words and their meaning be agreeable, it must of course be agreeable to find the same order or arrangement in both." 2. The order of nature should govern the order of expression. In the nature of things, perplexity, for illustration, is the result of ob- scurit}' ; hence, " The book is obscure and per- plexing,'* is preferable to "perplexing and obscure.'* 3. The order of thought should govern the order of expression. Hence, both the direct and indirect forms of speech are correct in English idiom. The direct order requires, first the subject, then the verb, lastly the object; but if the object impresses the mind the more powerfully, then it may precede. " Water give me ; " the opening sentence of Paradise Lost; King Lear, Act in. Scene 11., beginning, " Such bursts of horrid thunder," etc. ; Gen. xlvii. 9 ; Matt. xxi. 9; Mark ix. 4; Acts iii. 6; i Sam. xxv. 25; Nehemiah xiii. 26; Zech. i. 5, are illustrations of this rule. The law of Development requires : S TNT AX. 81 1 . That transitions shall be from generals to partic- ulars. '* Sad and weary (general) was the march to Valley Forge (particular). Hungry and cold (gen- eral) are the poor fellows (particular) who had been so long keeping the field.'* — Irving', Upon this principle qualifiers usually precede the expressions qualified — the adjective preceding the noun, and adverb the verb. A white (general) house (particular). See Ps. xliii. 1,2; 2 Cor. vi. 4. But in short or simple sentences, the law of Variation allows the adjective to follow the noun, and the ad- verb the verb. 2. Periodic sentences — those whose sense is suspended until the period is reached — should be preferred. The following is an example of an un- periodic sentence : *'We came to our journey's end, at last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather." It is rendered periodic thus : **At last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather, we came to our jour- ney's end.'* 3. Climax should be sought. See " Figures of Oratory," Vol. II. The law of Definiteness suggests the following rules : 1. The nominative-subject, the predicate-verb, and the object should each have closely grouped about it .ts respective modifiers. 2. The principal^ or, as Blair calls them, the 6* 82 THE ART OF SPEECH, capital^ words in a sentence should be " so placed as to stand clear and disentangled from any other words that would clog them." 3. Dependent clauses should be kept distinct from one another. In the following sentence, from Thoreau, one is at first at a loss to know with what word the italicized that is connected : *' We could see . . . that the river made an abrupt turn southward around the northwest end of the cliff on which we stood, or a little above us, so that we had cut off a bend, and that there was an important fall in it a short distance below us." 4. A parenthetical expression should, as Blair remarks, " never hang loose in the middle of a pe- riod." Wilkie Collins thus violates this rule : " Miss Meadowcroft searched the newspapers for tidings of the living John Jago in the ^privacy of her oiV7i roo7n." The law of Economy requires that there should be in the sentence words enough, no more no less, than are necessary clearly to express the meaning intended. The law of Selection, working wuth other laws, suggests the following rules : 1. When each of two words or idioms is in good use, the least equivocal should be preferred. 2. If equally authorized and equally perspicuous, the law of Analogy should be followed. 3. If equally authorized, perspicuous, and anal- ogous, the laws of Economy, Beauty, and Authority, in the order here given, should be followed. The law of Variation and Contrast demands that SYNTAX, 83 A given literary production shall be made up of a variety of sentences as great as the other laws allow. The law of Unity and Harmony furnishes the foundation for the following rules, quoted in the main fro m Bla ir^s Rh etoric : 1. In the course of the same sentence, do not shift the scene. 2. Avoid crowding into one sentence heteroge- neous ideas. 3. Avoid excess of parenthetical clauses. 4. Do not add members after a full and perfect close. The difference between grouping a miscellany and unifying a composition is thus suggested by De Quincey : ** Every man, as he walks through the streets, may con- trive to jot down an independent thought, a short-hand memorandum of a great truth. . . . Standing on one leg, you may accomplish this. The labor of composition be- gins when you have to put your separate threads of thought into a loom ; to weave them into a continuous whole; to connect, to introduce them ; to blow them out or expand them ; to carry them to a close." The law of Beauty allows occasional poetic or balanced sentences. Dr. Johnson's well-known par- allel between Dryden and Pope ends as follows : "If the flights of Drjden, therefore, are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. If of Dryden's fire the blaze is brighter, of Pope's the heat is more regular and con- stant. Dryden often surpasses expectation, and Pope never falls below it. Dryden is read with frequent astonishmeni\ and Pope with perpetual delight." 84 THE ART OF SPEECH. Although an occasional balanced sentence in prose is pleasing and emphatic, its continuous recurrence, resulting in poetic rhythm, is condemned. " A true poet," says Coleridge, " will never confound verse and prose ; w^hereas it is almost characteristic of in- difierent prose writers that they are constantly slip- ping into scraps of metre.'' The great poets, especially Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton, in the purity of their prose are among the most faultless writers. They quickly detect the rhythm and destroy it, as De Qiiincey says, " by knocking out a word here and there.'' We may conclude the discussion as to arrange- ment with the rule that, first of all, clearness in verbal expression is to be sought, then economy and emphasis, lastly harmony and euphony. ///. Length of Sentences, There is general agreement that long sentences are more majestic, short ones more emphatic ; continu- ous long sentences fatigue, continuous short ones distract the mind. Reed, in his English Litera- ture^ speaks of the construction of long sentences of an earlier date, which express a continuous and well sustained flow of thought and feeling, as a lost art. Coleridge condemns the general lack of continuity in the sentences of modern literature. " In your modern books," he says, "for the most part, the ^ences in a page have the same connection with SYNTAX. 85 each other that marbles have in a bag — they touch without adhering." ^ English literature, however, since the days of Cole- ridge, shows a return to the sentences of commenda- ble length. Rules governing the length of sentences must, from the nature of the case, be few and general. The following will be found based upon the laws of speech already enumerated : 1. In proportion to the diversity and distinctness of items, especially when addressed to undisciplined minds, should sentences be short. The reason for this is thus stated by Herbert Spencer : " The longer the time that elapses between the mention of any qualifying member and the member qualified, the longer must the mind be exerted in carrying forward the qualifying member ready for use." 2. When the parts of a sentence constitute a nat- ural unity and are firmly knit together by connec- tives or correlatives, especially when there is evolu- tion of thought, one phrase explaining and generating another, thereby resulting in a climax, then long sentences are not only justifiable, but for certain purposes demanded. The paragraph, — '*Zenobia assumed the government after the murder ot her husband. She avenged his death. She soon made herself formidable to all the nations within her reach. She was queen of Palmyra. She was one of the most remark- able women Asia ever produced," has been thus corrected : '* Zenobia, the queen of Palmjra, and one of the most 8 86 THE ART OF SPEECH, remarkable women Asia ever produced, assumed the gov- ernment after the murder of her husband, avenged hia death, and soon made herself formidable to all the nations within her reach." 3. The rules of elocution — they are not su- prenie — require that sentences, in spoken address, should be of such length as can be easily pronounced in a single breath. The rule is based upon the principle that what is easy for the breath is graceful to the ear. 4. Long sentences seem to fit best the conclusion, and those which are shorter the introduction, of a literary production. 5. The due mixture of long and short sentences in each paragraph harmonizes best with the laws of speech. 6. Long sentences would better be used to state a formal proposition, followed by short ones to explain or enforce it. 7. Inexperienced writers would better err upon the side of too short, rather than of too long sentences. IV, Beginning and Ending of Sentences, As to the beginning and ending of sentences there seem to be scarcely any rules in English speech. The only one generally agreed upon covers the close of a sentence, and is this : Avoid concluding a sen- tence with an insignificant word. But with the great- est freedom English idiom allows a sentence to close with a particle, especially when used emphatically or antithetically, or when intimately related to somf 1 S TNT AX. 87 important word in the sentence. Lord Bacon says : ^' Houses are built to live in, and not look on ; '* also, *' Revenge is a kind of wild justice, which the more man's nature runs to, the more ought the law to weed it out." Donne, one of the great English di- vines, says, " Hath God a name to swear by? Hath God a name to curse by? Hath God a name to blaspheme by?" Dr. Arnold says, ''Knowledge must be worked for, studied for, and more than all it must be prayed for." V, Supplemental Aids used in the Construction of Sentences. The meaning of a sentence in spoken address is brought out not only by the choice and arrangement of words, but also by the arts of elocution. These are discussed in Vol. II. In written speech the construction of a sentence, and even some peculiarity of thought or some pe- culiar use of words, are indicated to the eye in three ways : I. By the use of Capital Letters. Formerly every noun, in both writing and printing, begun with a cap- ital letter ; but at present only the following words : (i) The first word of every entire sentence ; as, The words of the prophet came unto 77ie^ saying. (2) The first word of every independent expres- Bion ; as. The words of the prophet. Hence the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or other piece of writing, and the first word after a period, also after a note of interrogation, or an exclamation, 68 THE ART OF SPEECH. when the sentence before and the one after the note are independent ofeach other, should begin with a capital. (3) The first word of every dependent part of a sentence, if very prominent ; as, — Verbs are divided into, Regular, which are formed, &c. ; and Irregular, which are not formed, &c. Be it enacted, 'i'hat, &c. Hence, the first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon ; as, — Always remember this ancient maxim : **Know thyself." When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form, but follows a comma, the first word should not begin w^ith a capital ; as, — Solomon observes, that *^ pride goes before destruction." (4) Proper names, and adjectives derived from proper names ; as, America, American. When the parts of a proper name have become consolidated, only one capital should be used ; as, Northampton ; Southbridge ; Newcastle. When the parts remain separate, each should begin w^ith a capital ; as, South Berwick ; New York ; and New Haven. (5) Titles of honor, office, respect, and distinc- tion ; as, his Excellency, the President. Hence all appellations of the Deity should begin w^ith a capital. (6) Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books ; as, Euclid's Elements of Geom- etry ; Goldsmith's Deserted Village. (7) The first word of every line in poetry. (8) The letters J »nd O, when used as words. (9) Any common SYNTAX, 89 noun used to denote an object personified, or an ob- ject if specially emphatic ; as, — Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles. In the Creed the same distinction is properly observetl. 3. By the use of Italics. They are used : (i) When special emphasis is intended ; as, — This tenuity was the only hard word that I heard him use during this interview. A greater emphasis is indicated by the use of Small Capitals ; as, — I will rear my structure of better materials than painted cards ; in a word, I will write history. (3) When a word is used in a peculiar sense. (3) When an invented word is introduced. (4) When words are borrowed from foreign languages : The res dura et regni novitas is the great apology of Cromwell. In the Bible, the words in Italics are those sup- plied by the translators to explain the sense of the original. (5) Generally, when writing the names of ships, newspapers, periodicals, &c. ; as, — A full report of his speech will be found in to-day's Tri* bune, (6) Sometimes in writing parenthetical words and phrases ; as, — The chairman {at the highest fitcJi of his voice) shouted, •* Order!" (7) When, for purposes of illustration, examples are introduced. 90 THE ART OF SPEECH. 3. By the use of Punctuation Marks. The funda- mental principle on which the rules of punctuation are based, is, that parts closely connected in sense do not require separation ; but parts in which there is any interruption or modification of the sense, should be indicated by appropriate points. The chief points of punctuation are : (i) Period [.]. This sign, except in direct ques- tions and exclamations, is used : a) When a sentence, with respect to the construction and the sense in- tended, is complete ; as, God made all t/ihtg's, b) After all abbreviations ; as, A. D. ; m. a. c) After headings and sub-headings, d^ Between sentences which are connected by even conjunctions ; as, — Our position is, that happiness does not consist in great- ness. And this position we make out by showing, that even what are supposed to be the peculiar advantages of great- ness, the pleasures of ambition and superiority, are in reality common to all conditions. But whether the pur- suits of ambition are ever wise, is a different question. (2) Sign of Interrogation [.?]. It is used in place of the period if the sentence asks a question. It is also used in the midst of a sentence ; as, — If we value, then, as who does not value.? our renown among mankind ; if we exult, as who can help exulting? in the privileges which the providence of God has conferred on the British nation; &c. (3) Sign of Exclamation and Admiration [ !]. It is used in place of the period if the sentence expresses an emotion of surprise or admiration. It is some* times used even in the midst of a sentence ; as, — When, lo ! a sudden blast the vessel blew. SrNTAX. 91 (4) Comma [,]. This sign is used in general to distinguish serial sense, completed sense, broken sense, or remote sense, and to clear up ambiguous sense. It is employed, therefore : a) Before the verb in a simple long sentence, when the nominative case is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts ; as, — A steady and undivided attention to one object, is a sure mark of superior genius. Cicero, l/ie eloqtientCicero^ suffered an ignominious death. h) Before the relative, when the clause immedi- ately after it is used as explanatory of the antecedent clause ; as, — He, vjho disregards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned. But when the relative is so closely connected with its antecedent that it cannot be transposed, the comma is not used ; as, — I have carefully perused the booh ivhich you lent me. c) Before that^ used as a conjunction ; as, — Be virtuous, thai you may be happy. d) Before every three figures, counted from the right, when there are more than three, except in dates ; as, — The amount of stock issued by the several States, from 1 8 20-1825, was somewhat over $12,000,000. e) Between the simple members of a compound sentence, except when the members are closely con- nected ; as, — Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, ana wise men use them. 92 THE ART OF SPEECH. Close connection renders the comma unneces- sary ; as, — Revelation tells us how we may obtain happiness. jf) Between two words of the same part of speech, whether nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or ad- verbs, when the conjunction is not expressed ; as^ — He is a plain, honest man. But when the conjunction is used, the comma is not inserted ; as, — He is a plain and honest man. g-) To indicate the place when a verb is under- stood ; as, — Reading makes a full man ; conference, a ready man ; and writing, an exact man. h) To separate three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, whether used with or without the conjunction ; as, — Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts. /) To separate words connected in pairs ; as, — Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war. j) To separate from the rest of the sentence words used in direct address ; as, — My son, hear the counsels of thy father. k) To separate simple members of a long sentence connected by comparatives and phrases placed in opposition or contrast ; as, — Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, y&t not dull; Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full. S TNT AX. 93 But if the sentence is short, the comma is omit- ted ; as, — How much better is wisdom than gold ! /) To separate adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at the beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence ; as, — With gratitude 1 remember his goodness to me. I re- member, with gratitude, his goodness to me. Hence the words, nay^ so^ hence^ again^ jft^st^ secondly^ formerly^ now^ lastly^ in fact^ therefore^ zu/ierefore^ however^ besides^ indeed^ and all other words and phrases of the same kind, when emphatic or considered of importance, should be separated from the context by a comma. Such expressions as the following do not require the comma : There is surely 2. pleasure in acting kindly; Idleness cer- tainly is the mother of all vices ; He was at last convinced of his error. w) To separate the two parts of a sentence, which have their natural order inverted ; as, — To God, nothing is impossible. The natural order is, — Nothing is impossible to God. n) After a short expression used in the m.anner of a quotation ; as, — Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves. o) After a single name in apposition, accompanied with an adjunct ; as, — Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was the great Plato of the Christian faith. 94 THE ART OF SPEECH, But without an adjunct, the comma is not used ; as, — The apostle Peter, (5) Semicolon [ ;]. This sign is used : a) To separate parts of a sentence when one or more of its parts need to be still further separated by a comma ; as, — He became master of the province of Ulster, and wa.« solemnly crowned King of Ireland ; but found himself amid his successes obliged to entreat the assistance of King Robert with fresh supplies ; for the impetuous Edward, who never spared his own person, was equally reckless of expos- ing his followers. F) In place of a colon or period when a connective word is used ; as, — He dismissed his army to the great increase of the gen- eral confusion ; and finally, terrified by the recollection of his father's fate, he resolved to withdraw himself from the kingdom. It is employed by some writers even without a con- nective ; as, — It is a question of pure curiosity ; it never can be decided ; and as its decision is perfectly indifferent and immaterial to any practical purpose, so, it might have been expected that the discussion should be conducted without virulence or abuse. c) Formerly, in place of the colon, before short o** informal quotations, addresses and specifications, or enumerations, though this usage is now nearly ob- solete ; as, — Just before the dawn, Kamber AH Beg galloped up, ex- claiming; ** The enemy are upon us; rouse up." SYNTAX, 95 d) In place of the comma, when the sentence is long enough to demand a well-marked separation ; as, — Charles had no idea of sanctioning these bills and thus Rckno\Yledging the legitimacy of the war which had brought him to this extremity; but he knew that the Scottish com- missioners had strongly opposed them. (6) Colon [:]. This sign is not much used at present, except : a) To separate the terms of a pro- portion ; as, A : B : : C : D. h) Before examples following the expressions, as follows ; the following examples ; in these words ^ &c. ; as, — Perform the following exercises : He used these words : Mr. President : I am now prepared to answer the gentleman. (7) Marks of Quotation [" "]. These signs, placed before and after words, phrases, or sen- tences, indicate that the language is borrowed from another. Single quotation points [' '] mark a quotation within a quotation. If, however, a quo- tation is made from still a third source, the double marks are again put in use ; as, — **This friend of humanity says, *When I consider their lives, I seem to see the ** golden age " beginning again.* " Titles of books or of periodicals, and names of vessels, usually require marks of quotation, unless they are italicized ; as, — ** Waverley" was reviewed in ** The Edinburgh.'* *'The Constitution " is a famous ship of war. (8) Crotchets or Brackets [ ]. They are used to enclose a sign, word, or phrase interpolated for the 96 THE ART OF SPEECH, purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying an omission; as, — It is said, " The wisest men [and, it might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty." (9) Sign of Parenthesis [( )]. It is used to en- close some necessary remark in the body of another sentence ; commas are now commonly used instead of parentheses. (10) Hyphen [-]. This sign is used: a) At the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at die beginning of the next line, b) To connect com- pound words ; as, — He wears a hroad-hrijnmed^ lovj-croivfied hat. (11) Dash [ — ]. The dash, either alone or com- bined with other signs, is used : a) Where the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or suspended; as, — This world, 'tis true, was made for Csesar — but for Titus too. b) When a sentence terminates abruptly; as, — ** I looked and prayed like thee — but now " — He hung his head. c) To set off a parenthesis, especially when em- phatic, or when there are other points within it ; as, — He was dressed — and, indeed, so were they nearly all — in coarse homespun. d) Before echoes, or where that is or namely is understood ; as, — All the rest was mere flourish — mere palaver. The brook had nothing to do beyond what T have STNTAX. 97 ectacle-m2i\iQY \ not, A ^^rx/^/^-complaint, a spectacles^ maker. (2) The comparative degree compares two ob- jects ; as, — The Tvtser of the two. The superlative degree compares more than two: as, — The wisest of ten men. Many writers, how^ever, do not subject themselves to this rule, but employ the comparative degree whenever a comparison, without regard to number, is actually instituted. Yet such usage must be re- garded as faulty. (3) Double comparatives and superlatives are not in reputable usage ; as, — This is the unki?idcstcwt of all; not, The most unkindest cut of all. The same principle forbids giving superlative forms to adjectives which already have a superlative meaning ; as, — Most perfect, most unbounded, most extreme, most un- precedented, too universal, very priceless, most hopeless, most merciless, most complete, most unparalleled, very in cessant, so inseparable. (4) While these grammatical improprieties are inexcusable in ordinary prose, still, in poetry and in flights of impassioned oratory which represent states of feeling too intense to be satisfied with ordinary expressions, they are allowed. liULES. 117 (5) Adjectives having the same meaning as the i50un qualified (tautology), when used for purposes of emphasis, or in order to call attention to a char- acteristic quality, may be employed. Gen. i. 21 ; Rev. iv. 7. (6) A plural adjective must not limit a singular noun ; as, — This sort of people ; not, Those sort. (7) Less refers to quantity, fe-wer to number; hence, — No man ever had less friends, should be, fezver, (8) The use of then as an adjective is objection- able ; as, — The then ministry, should be, The ministry of thai time. (9) In the same sentence similarity of form is de- sirable, hiterrogative and excla?natory sentences, should be, Interrogatory and exclamatory ; Firsts secondly^ thirds should be. Firsts second., third., or, Firstly^ secondly .^ thirdly. The adjective should be placed next its substan- tive ; as, A new pair of shoes, has one meaning ; A pair of new shoes., another. 3. Articles. (i) The article is not used before a title or name employed merely as a word ; as, — He is called captain; not, the captain. (2) The article is not used before the second noun, when the same object is compared in two different capacities ; as, — He is a better teacher than poet; not, than a poet 118 THE ART OF SPEECH, (3) A is not used before the sound of a vowel, nor an before the sound of a consonant; as, — A71 apple ; not, a apple. (4) If the second member of a compound sen- tence requires a different article from the first, it should not be omitted ; as, — ■ A house and a7i orchard. (5) If, in a compound sentence, formed with the adverb both and the conjunction a7id^ an article fol- lows the adverb, then that article must be repeated after the conjunction ; as, — Perform the office both of a preacher and a pastor. (6) Standard authority places the article before the first adjective only,^ when the noun is put in the plural at the end of the series ; as, — The first, second, and third regiments. The omission of the article may leave the ap- plication of the adjectives doubtful, and therefore sometimes endangers the perspicuity of the sentence. Hence the next rule. (7) Dignity, perspicuity, and emphasis, can be gamed by the repetition of the article. Matt, xxviii. 19. (8) A repetition of the article takes the singular number ; as, — The first and the second verse; or, the first and secord verses. F! Connecting Words. I. Prepositions. (i) Reputable authority has established the awk- ward use oithan as a preposition before whom ; as, — Which when Beelzebub perceived, than -whom. RULES, 119 (2) The preposition for should not be used before the infinitive employed to express motive or pur- fose; as, — He went to see ; not, for to see. (3) The preposition should be repeated after a disjunctive conjunction if the action in the two verbs is of different kinds ; as, — To speak or to write ; not, To speak or write. (4) As to exactness in the use of prepositions, see Law of Dejiniteness,, p. 45. 2. Conjunctions. (i) As and than may be used with the subject or the object, as the sense requires ; as, — I esteem you more tJian or as much as they [do] ; and, I esteem you more than or as much as [I do] them, are both right. There is need, therefore, of guard- ing against ambiguity ; as, — He can eat more than I, has one meaning ; He can eat more than me, another. Correct usage is found in Eccles. ii. 25 ; Matt. X. 37. (2) Or responds to either^ nor to neither. Gen. xxxi. 24. (3) The introductory for ; as, — For his opponents to lay in ambush, is nearly obsolete. (4) The infinitive sign to should give place to and in such case as the following: Please, dear reader, to try and not think me so. — Z>eaft Alford. Try not to think me so, i? better. 120 THE ART OF SPEECH. (5) Most writers are too free in the use of and^ especially at the beginning of sentences. The Eng- lish version, with too constant uniformity, has trans- lated Vav by and^ when then would often be pref- erable. See Gen. i. (6) In a series of coordinate terms, unless great emphasis is required, the conjunction should be in- serted between the last two only ; as, — Peter, James, and John; not, Peter, Vr, e^er^ lov'd^ for over^ ever^ loved, (3) Apocope, the cutting off of a letter or syllable from the e7zd of a word ; as, th\ tJio\ for the^ though. (4) Prosthesis, the prefixing of a letter or sylla- ble to a word ; as, (3:dovvn, enchain^ for dow7Zy chain. (5) Paragoge, the suffixi^tg of a letter or syllable to a word ; as, without^;^, bound^;^, for without^ bound. (6) Synaeresis, the contracting of two syllables into one ; as, thouWt^ His^ for thou art^ it is. (7) Diaeresis, the separating of two vowels which otherwise might form a diphthong ; as, coordinate., zoology. (8) Tmesis, the separating of a compound word by inserting a word between its parts ; as, to us zvard^ for, toward us ; on which side soever we turn, for, on whichsoever side we turn. In brief, therefore, figures of etymology consist either in a defect^ an excess^ or a cha7tge iu some of the elements of a word. FIGURES, 149 2. Figures of Syntax, or deviations from the or- dinary construction of a sentence. They are classi- fied thus : (i) Ellipsis, the omission, for rhetorical effect, of a word, phrase, or clause, which is necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sen- tence ; as, — He seemed as [he would seem] if [he were] deranged. There are some who write, [and who] talk, [and who1 think so much about vice and [about] virtue, that thev have no time to practise either the one or the other. For further illustration, see Law of Economy^ p. 46. (2) Pleonasm, the use, for rhetorical effect, of more words than are necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence ; as, — Verily^ verily^ I say unto you, all j^e inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth. (3) Enallage, the change of one word or of one part of speech for another ; as, — They fall successive\\y\^ and successive\\y'\ rise. We^ Alexander, Emperor of Russia. Here the plural number is used for the singular. (4) Hyperbaton, the transposition of words ; as, — While its song rolls the woods along, 3. Figures of Rhetoric. Under this head are usually grouped Figures of Poetry, such as 7netaphor^ shjzile^ comparison^ alle- gory^ parable^ fable ; also Figures of Poetic Prose, such as metonyfny^ trope^ personiji cation,, aposiro' p/ie^ hyperbole^ oxymoron, irony^ nzimeration^ ah 150 THE ART OF SPEECH. lusio7i^ indicatio7i^ supposition^ parody^ soliloquy^ and dialogue ; together with Figures of Oratory, such as visio?ty prediciioii^ a?zthesis^ specification if details^ rhetorical repetition^ climax^ and inter- rogation. In this treatise these different figures are distributed to the chapters under which they legiti- mately fall. //. Rules goveriiing the Use of Figurative Speech, The three fundamental principles underlying this class of rules are : Firsts Figurative speech is used in order the more effectually to persuade. Second^ It is used for purposes of elucidation ; and, Thirds after persuasion and elucidation are sought, then for purposes of elegance. The specific rules may be grouped negatively and positively thus : I. Negative Rules. (i) Figurative speech is not to be used for its own sake, nor merely to increase the elegance of. rhetorical composition. *' Every figure, however beautiful," says Qtiintilian, '' unless it tend to gain the cause, is superfluous.'* Figures may therefore be used to give lustre to thoughts, but not to give lustre to language. There are writers who have an ear foi brilliancy of sentences, as others have an ear for measures or numbers. Such persons are to guard their speech, lest brilliancy merely dazzle and music end in jingle : the picture and the music are to be used as the ostrich uses his wings — for guidance, FIGURES. 151 not for show. If the student is guilty of using a figure for its own sake, or merely for embellishment, let him three times put his pen through it. (2) Excess in the use of figurative speech is to be avoided. Profusion is in danger of defeating the legitimate design of figurative representation ; it smothers where the intention is to illuminate. Ex- cess, likewise, results in nausea. A rose, or even a rosebud, on every shrub and branch, makes one tire of roses and sigh for even a plain leaf or a stark and gnarled branch. Excess takes two forms : a) The carrying of a given figure too far. To crowd a comparison, for instance, with minute cir- cumstances, leads to obscurity and weakness. Arthur Helps gives the following description of the city of Mexico : ** Like some rare woman of choicest parentage, the de- scendant of two royal houses far apart, who joins the soft, subtle, graceful beauty of the south to the fair, blue-eyed, blushing beauty of the north, and sits enthroned in the heart of all beholders, so sat Mexico upon the waters, with a diadem of gleaming towers, a fairy expanse of flow- ery meadows on her breast, a circle of mountains as her zone, and, not unwomanlike, rejoicing in the reflection of her beautiful self from the innumerable mirrors which were framed by her streets, her courts, her palaces, and her temples.' Where is the city of Mexico ? The fair eyes and arms have captured both it and us. b) The crowding of too many distinct illustrations upon a given idea. The following is taken from a Fourth of July oration : 152 THE ART OF SPEECH, ** The marble- hearted marauder might seize the throne of civil authority, and hurl into thraldom the votaries of national liberty. Crash after crash would be heard in quick succession, as the strong pillars of the republic give way, and despotism would shout in hellish triumph among the crumbling ruins. Anarchy would wave her bloody sceptre over the devoted land, and the bloodhounds of civil war would lap the gore of our most worthy citizens. The shrieks of women and the screams of children would be drowned amid the clash of swords and the cannon's peal ; and Liberty, mantling her face from the horrid scene, would slumber in inevitable and eternal oblivion, or spread her golden-tinted pinions and wing her flight to some far- distant land, never again to revisit our peaceful shores." The marble-hearted marauders, the falling of the pillars of liberty, the bloody sceptres, the blood- hounds, and the flight to other climes, cast the pic- ture into oblivion. Such passages are properly termed " the copiousness of bombast." Excess is especially objectionable when the thought illustrated is either unimportant or well understood. Excess, it must also be remembered, should be guarded against in proportion to the earnestness of the address. Elaboration of figures tends to re- tard movement and to destroy enthusiasm. Hence, in flights of oratory, illustrations which are charac- terized by rapidity, freshness, and surprise, are of peculiarly striking merit and charm. Therefore, often touch the picture and leave it, trusting that the aroused mental faculties of the auditors will com- plete it. Guard against excess by adhering to the metaphysical law of spontaneity and to the rhetorical laws of rigid aptness and strict propriety. FIGURES, 153 (3) Mixed, and to a certain extent complex, fig- urative speech is to be avoided. If the mixed is ever allowable, the case must be extraordinary, as, in a few rare instances, art employs for symbols winged lions and centaurs. Mixed figures usually defeat the chief object of figurative expression ; they con- fuse rather than enlighten. The following Irish address will be regarded as mixed and disorderly : ** Gentlemen, the apple of discord has been thrown into our midst; and if it be not nipped in the bud, it will burst into a conflagration which will deluge the world." Addison's rule is, to test figures by reducing them to complete mental pictures. 2. Positive Laws. (i) Spontaneity is the most available safeguard against a false, and is the surer path to a correct, use of figurative speech, Theremin, in his Elo- quence a Virtue^ thus happily expresses this thought : ** The so-called rhetorical figures must not be taken to denote mere ornaments coldly and artificially contrived to set off the discourse, but lively movements in thought and language, prompted hy the imagination under the guidance of rhetorical affection." (2) The picture, In proportion to its vividness, should reflect an harmonious light chiefly upon the leading idea of the discourse. There is one central light in every perfect sentence or discourse ; all illus- trations must add to its intensity. George Whitefield once compared the case of a f 154 THE ART OF SPEECH, sinner, while groping in sin, to that of a blind man led by a little dog fastened to him by a string. The string broke at last, and the man, left to grope his way alone, came to the verge of a precipice ; he put out his staff, it fell over the edge. He, suppos- ing it had fallen on level ground, and stooping to pick it up, fell down the steep. This illustration was presented with such effect that Chesterfield, who was in the congregation, springing from his seat, exclaimed, " Good God, he is gone ! *' Whether such powerful impressions would better be made depends largely upon the question of their compliance with the law before us. If the impres- sion is not in strict harmony with the main idea of the discourse, then a mistake is made, and such illustrations will appear, upon reflection, to be ex- crescences."*^ (3) The terms of all word pictures should be in strict harmony with the ideas illustrated, not differ- ing in kind, and neither falling below nor rising above them. A clergyman, preaching a funeral sermon while the corpse lay before him, exclaimed, '' Here, brethren, we have before us a living 'witness and a standing monument of the frailty of human hopes ! " A theological student is guilty of the fol- lowing ; " As the diamonds in the hilt of the assasst7is ctagger light up the passage for the blade, so the divine tllumtna- Uojis oflove, radiating from the Spirit of Jehovah, brighten the pathway of the soul in its onward march to glory." In these two instances there is want of harmony in kind. FIGURES. 155 Aristotle is in error while thus describing govern- ments : ** Every form of government, by being relaxed or strained too much, destroys itself. Thus a democracy, not only when relaxed, but even when overstrained, grows weaker, and so will at last be changed into an oligarchy. Just as hookedness or flatness of the nose not only approaches the mean in proportion as it relaxes from the excess, but also when it becomes excessively hooked or flat, disposes the nostrils in such a way as no longer to resemble the nasal organ." This figure is not only obscure, but falls far beneath the dignity of the subject. The following illustrates the use of figures which are above the dignity of the thought presented : "As the winged lightnings leap from the heavens when the thunderbolts are loosed — so does a little boy run when a big dog is after him." An apparent and allowable exception to this rule occurs when rhetorical art is resorted to for the pur- pose of elevating or degrading a given object. Sev- eral agreeable illustrations, by the law of association will change the aspect of an object otherwise disa- greeable. Milton often succeeds admirably in this kind of embellishment. The opposite, that of rhetorically degrading an object by the use of debasing illustrations, requires great care in the choice of terms. The nauseous and extremely ugly will react and attach themselves permanently, perhaps, to the speaker. See Henry IV., Part II., Act i. Sc. iii. (4) The terms employed should be well knowa 156 THE ART OF SPEECH. To attempt the illustration of a thought in popular address by references to arts, sciences, books, places, historic events, and the like, which are but imperfectly known, is a grave rhetorical fault. Macaulay is sometimes open to criticism under this rule. He speaks of " fountains more wonderful than the waters of Paiezade," of " conveyances more rapid than the hippogriff of Ruggiero," of* arms more formidable than the lance of Astolpho," of " remedies more efficacious than the balsam of Frerabras." In harmony with this principle, the use of familiar and home-like terms is recommended. Mr. Beecher is almost without a peer in this respect. The follow- ing, in which a supposed thoroughly equipped and conceited theological student is set forth, is sugges- tive : ** Did you ever see a dandy fisherman ? He has the cor- rect suit on, his pole is a beauty from Conroy's, his line is of the best gut, his book is full of artificial flies, — plenty of artificial flies, — his fish-basket hangs behind him ; and he is a fisherman. May be. Let us go to the stream. Standing with a knowing air, he throws his fly; but the fish do not rise at it; and he throws again, and again they do not rise. And all the while, a barefooted, coatless boy on the other side of the brook is catching fish as fast as he can pull them in. He has just a rough hook on a bit of string, and a worm for bait, but he gets the fishy It should be borne in mind that, in proper tion to the familiarity of the terms employed, and pictures presented, there must be accuracy ; the fisherman or blacksmith may smile at the preache 's or the lecturer's ignorance. FIGURES. 157 (5) The terms employed, other things equal, should represent the species rather than the genus. The intensity of the picture and the consequent in- terest in it are thereby increased. ^' The more gen- eral the terms are, the picture is the fainter ; the more special they are, the brighter." — Campbell, Everything sounds well^ is general and forceless. Nature is vocal^ is more specific. Nature is vocal with the song of birds^ is still more specific. In the morning hour was heard the screech of the peacock^ the whistle of the plover,, the cooing of doves^ and the twitter of the barn-swallow^ is by far the most vivid and forcible, because the most specific. In Exodus xv. 10, the words fall and fnetal,^ if substituted for sank and lead^ w^ould be faint and tame. See Micah vii. 19 ; Mai. iii. 3 ; Matt. V. 13, 14; ix. 30; Luke xii. 27, 28. In this last passage, the substitution o'i flowers for lilies^ develop for grow,, they have no employment^ for toil not and spin not,, and King for Solomon,^ would render insipid one of the most pleasing pictures and illustrations in the New Testament. This same principle requires the use of a famous name in place of some characteristic quality. He is a Solomon,, or a Croesus^ ox a Judas,, or an Ar- nold,, is more forcible than the corresponding terms, wise man^ rich fnan,, or a traitor. '' A Daniel come to judgment ! " '' Some village Hampden,'* and Mark viii. 33, are familiar illustrations. Again, the principle here involved requires that a part, other things equal, would better be used than U 158 THE ART OF SPEECH, the whole; as hands when used for men; sazl^ foi ship; roofs^ for houses; the bar^ the bottle^ the fen^ and the swords in place of the literal expres- sions for which these terms are employed. (6) The terms employed, other things equal, would better represent objects animate than inani- mate. Offspring of the brain^ is better for the purposes of poetic representation than product of the brain; thirsty ground^ than dry ground; mother earthy than earth; learned age ^ than age of learning ; fool^ than folly; and foe^ than hos- tility. See Gen. v. 22 ; Num. xxxiii. 55 ; Prov. XXV. 2 ; Jer. xiii. 23 ; Matt, xxiii. 14, translating oikias^ families ; Acts ix. 5. The same principle requires the use of terms de- noting objects in motion or movable rather than those which are immovable ; as, — ** Man! Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." (7) If the resemblance between the figure and the object is too strong, it may appear ludicrous ; if too faint, the mind is fatigued while attempting to trace the analogies. (8) Resemblances are to be instituted between objects of a different kind, and contrasts between those of the same kind. See Figures of Analogy and ^ Antithesis^ Vol. II. (9) Figures appropriate in one place, or upon a given occasion, are often objectionable elsewhere. That which may be becoming on the street, or upon the platform, may ill become the pulpit. FIGURES. 159 (lo) Some kinds of discourse allow of a free use of figures ; other kinds call for a sparing use. The first thirty-one chapters of Deuteronomy, made up of historical and explanatory discourses, have but few illustrations ; chapter xxxii., entitled " Song of Moses," has a figure in nearly every verse. The prophetical books, and those of David and Solomon, are packed with figures. (ii) Whenever the speaker discovers that the figure employed is either too bold, or is dispropor- tionate or misplaced, it can be greatly softened and the error can be partly corrected, by saying, so to speak^ or, as it were; though the necessity requir- ing such qualification should not often occur. We may conclude, therefore, — inasmuch as all people delight in poetical representation, and as one's taste and culture are so quickly betrayed by the way he uses figurative language, and as it is so easy to be " grotesque in the effort to be striking and graphic, and to pass over the line from what is simply refined and elegant in illustration to that which is far-fetched and finical," — that the student cannot overestimate the importance of mastering the laws and rules governing the use if figurative speech. 160 THE ART OF SPEECH. CHAPTER IX. Poetic Speech. In harmony with the principle ah'eady announced, certain classes of ideas naturally shape themselves into what is termed poetic speech. The early bal- lads of almost every countr}^, the Iliad ^ Inferno ^ Paradise Lost^ and some of the dramas of Shaks- peare, are in their nature poetic rather than frosaic. The ideas involved are essentially elevated, impas- sioned, and imaginative. " Poetry," says Hazlitt, " is the language of the imagination." But still further, the forms in which poetic thoughts naturally shape themselves are peculiar. There is demanded, for instance, a rhythm, an enlarged vo- cabulary, also license in both the use of words and the construction of sentences. In a word, poetry is the science and art of putting the productions of the imagination into figurative and measured or bal- anced speech.**^ The following divisions will aid in mastering this topic. /. The Relative Importance of Poetic Representation. This mode is more pleasing to the average mind, und may be more effective than any other.^ The presented picture produces instantly a definite e^ POETIC SPEECH. 161 feet ; whereas both time and conscious mental effort on the part of the hearei are more likely to be re- quiied to produce the same effect by other modes of representation. The language of poetry is also pleasing and effec- tive because directed to the senses ; metaphorical language, the most common, is chiefly directed to the sight, the keenest of all senses ; hence the vivid- ness and effectiveness of such language. The boy studies a text-book on geography, and hates every- thing connected with the sea and land. He listens some evening to a picture-story presented by a re- turned sailor, and that night runs away to sea. The same effect may be produced by a picture hanging on the wall. A son abandoned his home for the sea ; a friend was called to comfort the mother, but said, "Your son had not run away had not that beautiful picture of sea-life been your parlor decora- tion. Remove it, lest the other boys also go to sea." It has been said that if heaven is to operate upon us, it must be picturable by us. Whenever, therefore, the aim is to make a thought especially brilliant or distinct, or to produce an im- pression long to be remembered, there is resort in- stinctively to the use of poetic representation. A forcible figure flashes truth upon the heart with the conviction of a resistless argument. The mental faculties of the speaker or writer during the picture- producing moments are aroused ; poetry is said to be " the highest eloquence of passion ;" hence, from mental sympathy the corresponding faculties of the 11* 162 THE ART OF SPEECH. liearer will likewise be aroused. This is one of the conquests of eloquence. The picture produced at the cost of mental animation or transport, when presented to others, will tend to reproduce what it originally cost, namely, animation or transport. Hence, men who sleep through other parts of the sermon or address, are wide awake when the meta- phor appears. For the reasons involved in these statements, like- wise because the picture-producing faculties are the earliest developed and the busiest with the mass of people, also because everything in popular speech is originally metaphoric, seen especially in the for- mation of words, and from the sanction derived from the use of figurative language in the Scriptures, there can be no question as to the relative importance of the poetic mode of representation. //. Classification of Poetic Speech; Rhetorical Form* Keeping in mind the essential characteristic of poetic representation, namely, that it abounds in imaginative scenes, and that, either by reason of the stimulation of the faculties, or by reason of the balance between the figurative and the literal ob- jects, or upon the ground of both these reasons, it takes naturally and easily to rhythm and measure, we are prepared to classify the different types of poetic representation. I. Parallelism. This is of high antiquity, and prevailed among the Hebrews. An idea is ex« POETIC SPEECH. 163 pressed, and then is balanced by its repetition in modified form ; as in Psalm xix. i ; xxiv. 3. 2. Alliteration. The balance of alliteration, as seen in early Teutonic poetry, consists in giving similar initial sounds to emphatic words or syllables, two of which were generally in one line, and one in the line which followed. At present alliteration applies, without regard to order, to the recurrence of initial letters. *' The /loughman homeward /lods his weary way." *'The winds in wonder wist." See The Vision coiicerning Piers the Plowman, Also, Matt. xi. 28. 3. Accented Metres. The measure is indicated in this instance by the regular recurrence of ac- cented syllables ; as, — Ah me', how quick' the days' are flit'ting. Accented metres are subdivided, according to the measure w^hich predominates, into the following : (i) The Iambic, consisting of a short and a long syllable, and taking consequently the accent on the ^ccond^ fourth^ sixths &c. syllable; as, — The cur' | few tolls' | the knell' | of' part' | ing day " (2) Trochaic, consisting of a long and a short syllable, and taking consequently the accent on the first.^ thirds Jifth^ &c. syllable ; as, — Night' and | morn'ing | were at | meet'ing | o'ver | Wa'ter | loo. 164 THE ART OF SPEECH, (3) Anapaestic, consisting of two short syllables and one long one, taking consequently the accent on every third syllable ; as, — May I go' I vern my pas' | sions with ab' | solute sway . (4) Dactylic, consisting of one long syllable and two short ones, having consequently an accented syllable followed by two w^hich are unaccented ; as, — Hail' to the | Chief who in | tri'umph ad | van'ces! Hon'or'd and | bless'd' be the | ev'er-green | fine ! (5) Mixed. The foregoing principal accented measures, by their intermixture with one another, and by the admission of secondary measures, are capable of numerous variations ; as, — From peak | to peak' | the rat'- | tling crags' | among',''^^ Leafs^ the \ live^ thun-' \ der! not' | from one' | lone cloud'. ///. Classification of Poetic Speech ; Subject- Matter. I. Epic Poems. They narrate national or mytho- logical events of great importance, and celebrate, usually, the actions of distinguished men or heroes. The Iliad^ yEneid^ JerMsalein Delivered^ and Paradise Lost are of this class. Under epic poetry fall : (i) Metrical Romances, which recount stories of heroism and love ; such are some of the poems of Scott and Byron. (2) Bal- POETIC SPEECH. 165 lads, which differ only in their brevity from the Romance. They abound in the early literature of Spain, England, and Scotland. (3) Tales, such as Longfellow's Evangeline and Tennyson's Princess. 2. Lyric Poems. They express, briefly, the indi- vidual emotions of the poet. Anacreon, Pindar, Sappho, and Horace are noted ancient lyric poets. Colli ns's Ode to the Passions^ and Alexander* s Feast^ by Dryden, are examples in English poetry. Lyric poems are subdivided into: (i) Songs, sec- ular and religious ; such as America.^ God Save the ^ueen^ and The Ninety and Nine, (2) Odes, which are similar to songs, except that they are not designed for singing. Wordsworth's Ode to Im- mortality is an example. (3) Elegies, or odes of lamentation, such as Gray's Elegy, (4) Sonnets, being brief poems usually completed in fourteen lines. The sonnets of Petrarch, Tasso, Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton, and Wordsworth, are the best known. 3. Dramatic Poems. They are such representa- tions of human life as are adapted to the stage ; they are divided into, (i) Tragedies, termed "the strug- gles of individuals against destiny," and (2) Come- dies, which may be termed representations of the ludicrous phases of human existence. Shakspeare's plays are dramatic poems, including both tragedy and comed3\ 4. Didactic Poems. They are designed to incul- cate the truths of science or morals. Lucretius's Nature of Things and Pope's Essay on Man are of this class. 166 THE ART OF SPEECH. 5. Pastoral Poems. They have for their subjects nature, agricultural pursuits, or rural life. The Idyls of Theocritus and the Eclogues and Bucolics of Virgil belong to this class. 6. Satirical Poems. They are designed to expose the vices and follies of society and individuals. The Satires of Juvenal and Horace, and of Dryden, Pope, and Byron, are well-known examples. 7. Epigrams. They are brief poems of a witty or humorous character. 8. Epitaphs are usually short poems, in praise of the virtues of the departed.^^ IV. Classification of Figures belonging to Poetic Speech, It should not be inferred that the following figures are the exclusive possession of poetic speech ; they will be found abounding in many kinds of prose. But they are termed figures of poetic speech because they more easily fulfil the conditions of poetry than do other kinds of figures. They are word-pictures so painted as to fall easily under some form of ac- cented metre. They are classified as follow b . I. Metaphor. It is an imaginative picture, whose qualities or features are supposed to be well known, and the sudden transference of that picture to something whose qualities or features are supposed not to be well known, the direct purpose being to light up those qualities and features. Hence Lord Kames says : " A metaphor is an act of the imaginat'on figuring one thing to be another.' POETIC SPEECH, 167 Cicero says, *' it is a kind of borrowing." The qualities which render speakers popular and dis- tinguished lead to a frequent use of the metaphor. Demosthenes rarely employed the simile, but often the metaphor. It is admitted that the metaphor is natural to the highest flights of oratory, which are usually poetic. Longinus, in his treatise on the sublime, says : " The proper time for metaphor is when the passions are so swelled as to hurry on like a torrent.*' The student may explain why the following figures are metaphors : ** Man}' a preacher is the undertaker of the subject he undertakes." Father Taylor, in a sermon before the sailors, after picturing a ship driving on to the lee shore, suddenly exclaimed : ** But what do I see yonder? Through the mist I see it. That flash of lightning has shown it to me — a life-boat I a Hfe-boat! — Christ is that life-boat." Jeremy Taylor, at the funeral of an accomplished and pious lady, said : ** Her heart was a passion-flower, bearing within it the crown of thorns and the cross of Christ." ** Athens, the eye of Greece." — Milton. ** Language is the amber in which a thousand precious thoughts have been safely imbedded and preserved." — Trench » ** Stvle is the gossamer on which the seeds of truth flof.t through the world." — Bancroft, '* Ink is the Black Sea on which thought rides at anchor.' *' God is not a democrat — he is a King." — Morris, 168 THE ART OF SPEECH, Examine the following passages : Gen. x. ; xlix, 9, 21, 23; Job iv. 19; xxi. 9; xxxi. 24; Ps. xvii. S; Matt V. 13, 14; xvi. 18, 19; xxiii. 33; Luke xiii. 32; xxii. 19; John viii. 12; x. 9; xv. 1,5; Acts xiii. 10; 2 Cor. v. i ; i Tim. vi. 19; 2 Tim. iv. 7 ; Heb. xii. 29 ; i John iv. 8. Let the student add to this list such as occur to him. Explain w^hy analogies and epithets are meta- phorical. 2. Simile. It is in several respects a metaphor, toned dov^n by a sign of comparison. The existing object, the imaginary object, and the consequent balance between the two, together with the actual or potential rhythm, bring this figure as well as the metaphor into the field of poetic representation. There is this difference, however, between the met- aphor and the simile : The metaphor makes one thing re^oresent another ; the simile compares one thing with another. The simile is, therefore, a brief episode, the literal object and the imaginary one being kept distinct. The metaphor and simile are easily convertible the one into the other. To the following Scriptural illustrations others may be added: Job v. 26; vi. 15; vii. 9; viii. 11-15; ix. 25 ; Ps. i. 3, 4 ; xc. 4, 5, 9 ; cxxxiii. 1-3 ; Jer. xxxi. 12; Isa. i. 18; Iv. 10, 11; Ixvi. 12; Matt. xi. 16; xxiv. 27 ; John viii. 55. 3. Comparison. It is essentially a simile, though usually more extended ; the two members are not so neatly and perfectly balanced as in the simile. The distinction between the simile and comparison POETIC SPEECH. 169 is not, however, merely mechanical, but rests upon the fundamental principle that the simile involves either an analogy, as, " Time is like an auctioneer," or a comparison of similarity, as, " He is like his father ; " while the comparison strictly refers to equality, superiority, or inferiority. The student may classify the following figures : They (the Myrmidons) rushed to battle like thirsty wolves to a spring. — Homer, The smallest children are nearest to God, as the smallest planets are nearest the sun. — yean Paul Richter, For a woman to love some men, is like casting a flowei into a sepulchre. — Haivihorne. The holy (evening) time, as quiet as a nun, Breathless with adoration. — Wordsvjorth. God puts our prayers, like rose-leaves, between the leaves of his book of remembrance, and when the volume is opened at last, there shall be a precious fragrance spring- ing from them. — Sturgeon. The tidings of President Lincoln's death travelled around the world like the shadow of an eclipse. — Emerson, *' You can no more compose a true sermon while you are copying another man's style, than you can swim while a drowning man is grasping your limbs." Go and teach all nations. Consult neither the course of rivers nor the direction of mountain ranges. Go straight on; go as the thunder goes of Him who sends you, as the creative word went which carried life into chaos; as the eagles go, and the angels. — Lacordaire. See also, Matt. vii. 24-27 ; Ezek. xv. 1-8. The following remarks as to the use of metaphors, limiles, and comparisons, are fundamental : 15 170 THE ART OF SPEECH. (i) In calm conversation, and in the plainei p.TvDse descriptions, similes and comparisons are usually out of place ; their illumination is not needed, they are too ornamental for the occasion, and the person employing them seems tainted with affectation. But in very animated conversation these figures are allowed. (2) Metaphor, especially, and simile when very brief and vivid, belong to the more impassioned address ; comparison to that which is calmer. (3) Inasmuch as a powerful orator is sup- posed to be dignified and self-poised even amid his outbursts of passion or grief, he is allowed to show his self-control by violating the foregoing principle. 4. Allegory. It is essentially an extended meta- phor, but differs from it in several respects, especially in this, that the author requires each hearer or reader to make for himself the application or transference of the imagined picture to the literal object. Dr. Carson thus distinguishes between the alle- gory and metaphor : (i) Allegory presents to immediate view the secondary object only; metaphor always presents the principal also. (2) Metaphor always imagines one thing to be another; allegory never. (3) Everything asserted in the allegory applies to the secondary object; everything asserted in the metaphor applies to the principal. (4) In the metaphor there is but one meaning; in the allegory there are two, \ literal and a figurative. (5) Allegory is a veil ; metaphoi is a perspective glass. The Greeks, according to Cicero, called the con currence of several metaphors an a.'legory. Bengel I POETIC SPEECH. 171 thinks that when a speaker carries a single illustra- tion through an entire discourse, or even division, he thereby allegorizes ; as, for example, John vi. 32-58, (though here is given the explanation.) Like hieroglyphic paintings, an allegory presents one picture, but is designed to suggest another. An allegory, being a continued allusion (literally, a '' speaking another thing,") has its imaginary and its literal objects, and consequently its conversion into metaphor or comparison is both possible and simple. A Christian is a pilgrim, is the whole of Bunyan's allegory reduced to a metaphor. A Christian is like a pilgrim, is the allegory and met- aphor reduced to a simile. The suggestiveness of the allegory and the pleas- ure felt while making the discovery and application intended by the author, give to this species of rep- resentation its peculiar charm. The merit of an allegory, other things equal, is in proportion to the strength of the analogies. Some of the more per- fect specimens in the English lanrjuage are : House of Fa7ne^ Chaucer; Faerie ^ueene^ Spenser; PiU grim's Progress^ John Bunyan ; The Disco7itented Pendulum ; New Tear^ Richter ; Celestial Rail- road., Hawthorne ; ^ueene Mab., Shakspeare ; ///// of Science.^ Dr. Johnson ; Vision of Mirza., Addi- son. Ps. xviii. ; xxx. 8-12; Is. v. 5-8, are some- times classed among allegories. 5. Parable. It is essentially a short allegory, with moral intent ; it consequently has all the ele- ^Tfients of poetic representation. It may be based 172 THE ART OF SPEECH. in part upon historic or existing facts, or be puiely imaginary. The design is to teach some moral truth ; sometimes the specific design is- announced, some- times easily inferred, sometimes exceedingly obscure. A lengthy parable requires the didactic style of com- position and delivery. Short parables may appear in the more animated forms of discourse, in which also a series of brief parables may be effectually employed to throw a vivid light upon a given divi- sion or thought of the discourse. See the six para- bles in Luke xv. and xvi., and the eight in Matt. xiii. Tholuck, in one of his sermons, while illustrating the woe of being too late to enter heaven, employs, in rapid succession, three parables : one in which a father is represented as a moment too late to save his child from a burning building ; another where a son reaches home just too late to receive a dying father's forgiveness ; and the third where pardon comes a moment after execution. This accumulation of parabolic illustrations was a favorite method with Burke. It should be borne in mind, however, that in impassioned eloquence no formality is allowed while introducing parables. If the parable is found to be too cold and formal for the address for which it was intended, it may easily be converted into some of the preceding specimens of representation. Our Lord frequently introduced his parables by the sign of comparison. They may also be condensed into proverbs. Cardinal Wiseman, from the prov- erb in Luke iv. 23, unfolds the involved parable. The maxims in the Book of Proverbs rcre recom- POETIC SPEECH. 173 mended to the student as germs from which to con- struct useful parables. Parables are employed with great advantage in presenting unwelcome truths. See Matt. xxi. 45 ; Luke XX. 19. The following examples are illustrative of the practical use that can be made of parables : Certain Hindoos said to a missionary, after he had preached a forcible sermon on the malignity of Satan, '^ Satan ought to be punished and men let go free." The missionary replied, '^ Some men with rifles were standing on the banks of the Ganges as a vessel with women and children on board was passing down the river. A malignant stranger came up to the men and persuaded them to fire on the vessel. They consented, eagerly seized their rifles, and killed several of the women and children. The government put the stranger to death and the men too." Spurgeon once introduced the following admira ble parable into a funeral sermon : ** A certain nobleman had a spacious garden which he left to the care of a faithful servant, whose delight it was ,0 trail the creepers along the trellis, to water the seeds in time of drought, to support the stalks of the tender plants, and to do every work which could render the garden a par- adise of flowers. One morning the servant rose with joy, expecting to tend his beloved flowers, and hoping to find his favorites increased in beauty. To his surprise, he found one of his choicest beauties rent from the stem. Full of grief and anger, he hurried to his fellow-servants and demanded who had robbed him of his treasure. They 174 THE ART OF SPEECH. had not done it, and he did not charge them with it; but he found no solace for his grief till one of them remarked, * My lord was walking in the garden this morning, and I saw him pluck the flower ar.d carrj^ it away.* Then, truly, the gardener found he had no cause for his trouble. He felt that it was well his master had been pleased to take his own; and he went away smiling at his loss, because his lord had taken delight in the flowers." See Judges ix. 7-21 ; 2 Sam. xii. 1-6. See Trench on The Parables, The frequency with which the Master used this dexterous and weighty kind of speech will justify its more common appearance in modern popular and pulpit address. 6. Fable. It is essentially the same as the para- ble. The name of Jesus, however, is so associated with parables, and that of -^sop with fables, that the distinction between the two figures has come to seem very broad. Comparing the world's fables with the Christian parables, it will appear that often in the fable, but rarely in the parable, are the attri- butes of humanity given to brutes ; in the fable, rail- lery is frequently indulged in, but not in the parable ; thus, also, prudential rather than religious truths are exemplified in the fable. yEsop is the master of fables. Demosthenes sometimes employed them, (see '' Fable of Sheep, Dogs, and Wolf,'* in Plu- iarcJis Lives., article on Demosthenes.) In the calmer forms of sacred eloquence, especially in an address to children, the fable can be profitably in- troduced. POETIC SPEECH, 175 V, Art of acquiring Skill i?i the Use of Poetic Speech, To the principles found under Laws XIL, XIIL, and XIV., pp. 64-67, and the directions given under (ultivation of Style^ p. 143, there need be added out two rules for acquiring skill in poetic represen- tation. 1. Cultivate figure-making habitudes. This is done by asking the spiritual import of every physi- cal object seen (Rom. i. 19, 20) ; also by forming the habit of constantly metaphorlzlng. Knock at the door of anything met which interests, and ask. Who lives here? The process is to look, then close the eyes, then look within. Emerson, Spurgeon, and many others, carry blank booU^ in which they note on the spot anything of a character to furnish an illustration. In this figure-making drill, carry out all the mi- nutest details of the picture ; though this is rarely to be done before an audience, except in certain parts of the picture. 2. Store the mind with information. To produce a mental picture from natural objects, one must have an acquaintance with such objects. Objects of sight are the most fruitful. An increase of such information is like enlarging one's vocabulary. Strict scientific analysis of natural objects may also be of service. To one who understands the chem- ical properties of h'ght, the announcement, '* I am 176 THE ART OF SPEECH, the Light of the world" (John viii. 12) presents a picture both evangeHzing and grand.^^ '' Science," says Macaulay, '' is admirably fitted to give majestic contributions to poetic representa- tions." Modern scientific works are extremely sug- gestive, such as those of Darwin and Huxley, Dawson and the Duke of Argyll. PROSE SPEECH. \r CFIAPTER X. Prose Speech. Prose Speech is used in ordinary conversation, sad forms the basis of all didactic and oratoric ad- dress. It is treated under the following topics : /. Classijicatio7t in Prose Speech; Rhetorical For7n, I. Narration. It is the representation of a suc- cession of events observed in the order of their oc- currence. It deals with facts, and includes more departments of literature than any other class of rhetorical composition. Rarely is a speech of any great length heard, in which narration is wanting. Note the constant recurrence of narration in the speeches and orations of Demosthenes, Cicero, Burke, Pitt, Webster, and Everett. When the orator would move to tears, he neither employs syllogisms nor challenges admiration through ora- t )ry, but simply narrates a pathetic anecdote. Sucli leal or parabolic narrations as the Prodigal Son or Good Samaritan, elicit both tears and resolves to go and do better, as no demonstration or argumen- tation could do. The following diiections may be of service: 12* 178 THE ART OF SPEECH. (i) Narration should be unfolded in order of time (2) It should be such as to bring objects vividly before the mind of the one addressed. (3) The rule of art is to place the principal objects in the strongest light possible. (4) Important matters should be brought out in fulness of detail. Hence the rule to select the important and then carefully specify t4ie details immediately involved. (5) Un- important matters should be unnoticed, or be merely touched upon. (6) The development of the narra- tive throughout should be such in spoken address as not to interfere with oratorical effectiveness. Eor examples under these rules, see Demosthenes 071 the Crown^ (beginning, " What commotion there v^as in the city") ; Everett's Hist, Oratzo?is ; the various New Testament narrations, such as those of the Young Ruler, Woman of Samaria, and Sy- rophoenician Woman. See also King" Lear^ Act iii. Sc. II., Lear's second speech ; and in Sc. vi., Lear's eighth speech ; Hamlet^ Act i. Sc. i. ; i Sam. ii. 19 ; 2 Sam. xii. 34 ; xiv. 7, 14 ; Zech. viii. 5 ; Matt, xxiv. 17, 18 ; XXV. 35~44 ; Luke xi. 5-8 ; xiv. 18-20, 31 ; xvi. 24; xvii. 34-36 ; Acts v. 35-39 ; vii. ; xiii. 13, etc. ; xxvi.^^ That narration is classified under Prose Speech does not exclude its use in poetry. See all popular ballad poetry. 2. Description. It is the representation of events or things observed at a given point of time. It is sometimes defined as a " shortened narration." De- scription is used for the purpose of generating or PROSE SPEECH, 179 intensifying belief or emotion by definitely placing before the mind persons, places, or things. The description is poetic if the subject is imaginary; it is biographic if some character is delineated ; it is historic or narrative, so far as past events are de- scribed. Description is more difficult than narra- tion, inasmuch as closer and more philosophic ob- servation is required. Often, in the same composition, narration and description are combined. The fol- lowing rules are to be observed : (i) The absurdities of an over-heated imagination are to be guarded against. A preacher recently spoke of the sad procession attending the funeral of Abel. (2) Description, like narration, must be minute as to essentials, but brief, rapid, or silent as to non-essentials. (3) Description must be so man- aged as to contribute to oratorical effect ; hence the rule : In proportion to minuteness of essentials vv^ill be the intensity, and consequently the effectiveness, of the description. For examples illustrating these rules, see Curran's Speeches ; Saurin's Sermons ; Sterne's Sentifnental jfourney (the description of a captive) ; Victor Hugo's Ninety-Three (the meeting of Robespierre, Danton, and Murat) ; Joseph's interview's with his brethren ; description of natural objects in the Book of Job ; and John's descriptions of Heaven. 3. Exposition. Its aim is to give information through a statement and discussion of facts and principles. Essays, epistles, editorial articles, in a word, the discussion of theories and principles, be- ISO THE ART OF SPEECH. long to this kind of composition. Under exposition are classed : (i) The statement of existing facts and opinions. These are presented usually for the pur- pose of imparting information ; hence, the unadorned speech and didactic style are appropriate ; the style changes, however, when the end in view is ora- toric effect. (2) Definition. '^Definition," says Cicero, ''is a short and concise specification of whatever properly belongs to the thing which we define." Locke says it " is nothing but making another understand by words what the term defined stands for." Definition requires attention to the following directions : a) There should be no forced effort at novelty or profundity. h) There are certain subjects so subtile that their exclusion from the popular address is demanded upon the ground that they can be neither intelli- gently defined nor critically analyzed, c) Definition should not be negative when it can be affirmative. d) It should not contain the term which is defined, otherwise there would be repetition, not definition. e) Nor should it contain terms which are no bet- ter understood than the term defined.^ y) Exact definition should be adequate, i. e., re- count fully the attributes of what is defined. g) In popular address, definition may take the cratoric form, and be given with as much feeling as the case will admit. K) The Bible logically defines very little. PROSE SPEECH, 181 t) The better forms of definition for popular speech are the poetic and descriptive. A metaphor, for instance, is a poetic definition. (See examples under Metaphor,) For examples of descriptiv^e definitions, see Paul's description of " Charity," I Cor. xiii. ; of "Faith," in Hebrews xi. ; and our Lord's definition of " Duty to our Neighbor," Luke X. 30-37. (3) Analysis. It is a process of dissection, the effort being to find the mother-idea by removing everything contingent and accidental. The rules to be observed are essentially the same as those relating to definition. 4. Maxims or Proverbs. They are said to be " the wit of one, the wisdom of many." They are also called the philosophy of the common people. They have probably been produced spontaneously ; a prevailing thought, suddenly crystallizing upon somebody's tongue, becomes a proverb with a verbal and vital embodiment so perfect that no improve- ment seems possible. Tribes which have no written literature, either poetry or prose, are often rich in maxims or proverbs, Maxims should conform to the following rules : (i) They should be manifest conclusions or in- ductions from a large number of facts belonging to a given class. (2) They should contain a truth which is both valuable and practical. (3) They should be expressed in such terms as are in common use among common people. (4) And in such terms that they will strike and cleave to the memory. 16 182 THE ART OF SPEECH. Hence alliteration and antithesis well befit this class of composition. Vox populi^ vox Dei ; Man proposes^ God disposes ; Penny wise^ pound fool- ish^ are illustrative. See also many of the proverbs of Solomon ; likewise certain passages in Job. The other recognized varieties of prose composi- tion, such as letters^ diaries.^ news, editorials, re- views, essays, treatises, travels, jiction, history, and speeches, call for no specific statement or direc- tion. //. The Importance of Purity and Correctness in Ordinary Speech, The integrity of the English language in America is threatened by the influx of foreigners, by the care- less and inflated style of newspaper reporters, and by various other forms of sensational literature. Every educated person should, therefore, place him- self as a breakwater. He should seek to give purity of tone to the speech of the community in which he lives. Inaccuracies and inelegances are contagious. The pulpit especially should be pure and correct. The speech heard from the pulpit is quickly re- peated by the pew. " Like priest, like people." Thus the purities and proprieties of pulpit speech will be found healthfully infusing themselves into the expressions of the boy at his play, of the black- smith at his forge, and of the farmer at his plough. It is likewise admitted that the relations existing between thought and speech, also between morals and speech, are so intimate that any impurity or im PROSE SPEECH. 183 propriety in the one quickly taints the other. The public speaker, therefore, who resolutely expunges, in the family, on the street, at the political meet- ing, on the platform and in the pulpit, every ex- pression which savors of impurity, inaccuracy, or slang, and who seeks constantly the language of a cultivated gentleman, is, upon these grounds, a public benefactor. 184 THE ART OF SPEECH, CHAPTER XI. Poetic-Prose Speech. An attempt at classification in any department of knowledge finds varieties which belong partly under one recognized species and partly under another. For illustration : Rhetoric has its province, so has Mental Science ; but there are many topics which are found upon the border-land between the two. Thus, likewise, classification in the Art of Speech discovers many varieties which fall partly under Poetic, and partly under Prose representation, and lead to a new grouping, which is properly termed Prose- Poetry^ or Poetic- Prose Speech, The sub-topics belonging to this chapter are : /. Distinction between Poetic-Prose and the I^orms of Speech already discussed. We have seen that pure poetic speech is largely metaphorical. The illustration previously em- ployed, Pilgrin^s Progress,, has sufficiently estab- lishecl this principle. That is, as Bunyan originally published his work, it was correctly termed an allegory. The Christian is a pilgrim^ is that alle- gory reduced to a metaphor. The Christian is like a pilgrim,^ is a metaphor converted to a simile. POETIC-PROSE SPEECH. 185 But the phrase, The pilgrim Christian^ belongs to neither of the pure poetic forms of speech ; nor is it ordinary prose. It answers in part, and only in part, the conditions of these two great families of speech. It is, for instance, poetic in conception. Should the word filgrim be followed by a pause, an image will be presented to the mind, at least, of any one who can define the word, or who has seen a pil- grim. When the sentence is completed, then the qualities of that imagined pilgrim are transferred to the Christian. Thus far the speech fulfils two con- ditions of pure poetry, namely, picture-making and metaphorizing. But the construction of the sentence IS not poetic ; there is no tendency to measure or rhythm. Further examination of the illustration before us discloses other distinctions which may be stated thus : Both poetic and prose speech use terms in their or- dinary sense ; but poetic-prose often uses terms in other than their ordinary sense. In the sentence, The Christian is a pilgrim^ there is nothing but plain statement, involving only the ordinary use of words. The pilgrijn Christian involves a special use of the word pilgri?n. It is made either a compound noun with Christian^ or is converted from a noun to an adjective or adjective-noun. Again, pure poetic speech seeks to discover or institute resemblances ; but poetic-prose speech may, and often does, utterly disregard resemblances. In general such speech as abounds with imagina- tive but unmetred expressions is properly classed 186 THE ART OF SPEECH, under poetic-prose composition. Mitchells Astro* no??iical Lectures ?ind Everett's Historical Orations are representative. //. Class ijicat ion of Figures belonging to Poetic" Prose SpeecJi, I. The use of one noun for another, called Me^ tonymy. Between seventy and eighty varieties of this figure, including their contraries, have already been discovered and specified. A few of the more important are the following : (i) The name of the cause used for that of the effect; as, "Have you YQ^id Longfellow?'^ See also Luke xvi. 27-3 1. Detect the figure, and ex- plain why, probably, our Lord employed it. (2) The name of the effect used for that of the cause. Thus the scientist says, ^''Nature produces all changes in the physical universe ; " he means, of course, the Cause^ or the Author of nature. See also Gen. xxxi. 53 ; 2 Kings iv. 40 ; Rev. i. 12. (3) The name of a place used for the name of the inhabitant ; as, " The songs of HeavenV See like- wise. Matt. X. 11-14; Rev. iii. 10. (4) The name of that which contains, used for what is contained ; as, " The kettle boils ; ** " He smokes his fipe; " '' Your purse or your life." See also Luke xx. 11, 20. (5) The voice used for the speaker. vSee John i. 23 ; Rev. i. 12. (6) The name of the instrument used for the one who employs it ; as, '' In this day bayonets think ; " POETIC-PROSE SPEECH, 187 '* The fen is the grand civilizer ; " " In war the bullet^ in peace the ballot rules ; " and Isa. xiii. i8. (7) The name of a symbol used for what is sym- boHzed ; as, "As the cross advances, the crescent retires." See also i Kings xii. 10-14. (8) The name of one served used for the service rendered. See Phil. i. 21. (9) The name of a tempter or a leader used for the one tempted or led. See Matt. xvi. 19, 23 ; xviii. 18. (10) The name of one class of loved objects ap- plied to another class of loved objects. See Mark iii. 31-35. This is a favorite figure with both De- mosthenes and Paul. (11) The name of the whole put for a part, and the reverse. The importance and frequent use of this variety of metonymy has secured for it the technical name synecdoche, ''A maid of seventeen summers was carried to the tomb ; " " The snows of seventy winters whitened his head ; '* Mark xvi 15; Acts xxiv. 5; Rom. i. 8 ; 2 Peter iii. 6 (.?) (whole for a part) ; Gen. i. 5, 8 ; iii. 19 ; Matt. viii. 8 ; Acts xxvii. 37 (part for the whole), are illustra- tions of this figure. (12) The name of experiences ascribed to God, which properly belong to man, called Anthropofa- thy. It is a figure usually brought into use when Deity is alluded to in ordinary discourse, in prayer, or in the Scriptures. See 2 Chron. xvi. 9 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 9 (comp. Ps. xviii. 8) ; Job x. 8 ; xi. 8 ; xiii. 26 ; Ps. viii. 3 ; civ. 3 ; Ixxxix. 13 ; Hab. iii. 5 ; Rev. xx. 2, 188 THE ART OF SPEECH. 2. The use of an adjective in other than its ordi« nary sense, properly termed Trope.^ When an adjective is turned from an object to which it naturally belongs, and is applied to another object whose special relations and connections allow such change and application, there results this dis- tinctive type of poetic-prose speech. Of the manv varieties enumerated we specify the following : (i) An adjective describing some person or thing affected, applied to the person or thing producing the effect ; and the reverse; as, ''^Blushing' honors ;" " Giddy brink ; " "A bold discovery ; " '' A daring wound ; " ''^ Merry bells." (2) An adjective belonging to a subject, applied to some part or parts of that subject; as, ^^ Longing arms ; " '' Willing feet ; " " An i7npatient hand.*' (3) An adjective belonging to an agent, applied to the instrument used by that agent; as, ^^ Coward swords ; " " The cannon's deadly rattle." " I have seen a fan so very angry that it would have been dangerous for the absent lover to have come within the wind of it." — Addison, (4) An adjective belonging to one object, applied to another object, the two having some associated or apparent relation ; as, " Fond roof; " "Drooping chair; "''Fearless ship;" " Ripe October;" ''The genial sunshine ; " " The starry Galileo ; " " Breezy summit ; " " Melancholy darkness." 3. Such a use of the verb as converts an object mto a subject. " The smell of the rose is sweet," is pure and correct prose. " The rose smells sweet," POETIC- ROSE SPEECH, 189 when regarded as pure prose, is condemned ; but when viewed as poetic-prose, is as defensible as either nietoiiymy or trope, " The sun looks pleas- ant," '^ The apple tastes sweet," regarded as poetic- prose, are not, therefore, inaccuracies in English speech. 4. Such a framing and application of sentences as bring before the mind an image not involved in an exact and direct prose statement. The following varieties illustrate this mode of speech : (i) Such a use of language as attributes person- ality to abstract qualities and to things inanimate, and as attributes human intelligence to animal life, technically termed Perso7iiJication. It is in every tongue one of the earliest and most common forms of expression. Certain characteristics of English speech, especially its genders, make personification peculiarly easy and graceful. Its frequency is based upon the psychological principle that the human soul longs for society, and under certain conditions will convert all sorts of objects into companions or personalities. When the passions are aroused, per- sonified speech is instinctively resorted to. The child kicking the stone which trips him, and the man cursing the hammer with which his finger is bruised, in that moment of passion attach to these objects personality and even responsibility. Thus, likewise, when the gentler passions and emotions are excited, the personification of an object of inter- est or love naturally follows. Personification admits of three degrrees of inten- 190 THE ART OF SPEECH, sity : a) When abstract qualities and inanimate ob- iects are represented as having life ; as, — " Then Ire came in, with strut and strife; His hand was aye upon his knife." Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins, — Dunbar, Sir Walter Raleigh calls flowers the " pretty daughters of the Earth and Sun." Peel speaks of the lightning as " faire spouse of thunder." Tennyson represents haste as " the half-sister of delay ; " and ^schylus speaks of a certain dangerous harbor as '' the step-mother of ships." '' Cruel disease," " Winged winds," '' Pitiless storm," and " Thirsty ground," are expressions belonging to this type of personification. Hence, objects of affection, such as pets, and objects of gentle qualities, are femi- nized; " The ship," " The moon," and articles of personal property, being designated by the pronoun she. On the other hand, objects of an imposing character, and those of real or supposed hostility, are masculinized, h) When abstract qualities and inanimate objects are represented as acting ; as, — ** But look! the moon, in russet mantle clad, Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastward hill." ". . . • As when old Ocean roars, And heaves huge surges to the trembling shonis." ** France goes to war for an idea." c) When abstract qualities and inanimate objects are represented as having human intelligence ; as, — ** The Pyramids, doting with age, have forgotten the names of their founders." — Fuller, POETIC-PROSE SPEECH. 191 **The sword of Gaul trembles at his side, and longs to glitter in his hand." — Osstan. ** Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles.'* Milton, For other examples of personification, see Alcestis,^ Act II. Sc. I. ; Richard IL Act iii. Sc. ii. ; Julius Ccesar^ Act iii. Sc. iv. ; Gen. iv. lo ; Job v. i6 ; Xc 17; xiv. 7; xviii. 15, 16; xviii. 13, 14; xxvii. 21 , xxviii. 14-22 ; xxxi. 38 ; Ps. cvii. 42 ; Jer. xlvii. 6 ; Ez. xxxvi. i-io ; Mich. vi. 1,2; Hab. iii. 10 ; Zech. xiii. 7 ; Matt. v. 3 ; vi. 3 ; Heb. xii. 24 ; Rev. vi. 8. Reasoning from the philosophical basis of this mode of speech, it is evident that the propriety of introducing it into rhetorical composition depends upon the excitement of the passions or emotions. Hence, likewise, for the correct use of this figure, the mind of the hearer or reader needs by previous steps to receive a kind of preparation. Therefore, not in the introduction, but as a rule only when the speech is well under way, can personification be safely employed. It may be remarked further that the perfection of this figure depends upon the worthiness of the ob- ject personified, and upon the healthy activity of the imaginative faculties; failure by reason of defective imagination or taste, converts an attempted person- ification into burlesque. It will prove a profitable task for the student to add to the foregoing examples such personifications as he meets with, and such as he can recall or invent. (3) A use of language involving direct address to 192 THE ART OF SPEECH. an absent or dead person who is imagined to be present, or to an inanimate object which is first per- sonified ; these forms of speech are technically termed Apostrophe, The same general principles govern the use of both this figure and that of per- sonification. Burns's Mary in Heaven^ CampbelFs Pleasures of Hope ^ beginning, '' Roll on ye stars ; " Ossian's Address to the Sun^ " O thou that rulest," &c., are excellent examples. See also "'-AlPs well that ends well^' Act iii. Sc. iv. The figure like- wise abounds in Milton's Lycidas^ and in Tenny- son's In Memoriam, See also Gen. xlix. iS ; Neh. vi. 9; Job xvi. 18; xvii. 14; Prov. vii. 4; Matt, xxiii. 37. (3) Vision. It is the representation of past or absent scenes as if actually taking place in the speaker's presence. See Vol. II., Figures of Or- atory, (4) Prediction. It is the act of describing or foretelling events which are yet in the future. See Vol. II., Figures of Oratory, (5) Such a use of language as presents an object magnified or diminished beyond the literal truth, technically termed Hyperbole, This figure springs from enthusiasm, and when correctly employed is a truthful statement of one's feelings, though strictly speaking a false verbal representation of the exact facts in the case. It may be almost consid- ered a fourth degree of comparison ; thus, positive^ comparative,^ superlative,, and hyperbolic. If the earnestness and enthusiasm are manifest, this POETIC-PROSE SPEECH, 193 mode of speech, being the instinctive expression of excited feelings, will not produce a false impres- sion. The hyperbole upon the lips of a calm person, while perfectly calm, is falsehood. Hence, the minds of both speaker and hearer must be fully prepared before using this figure. It would be a mistake also to apply hyperbole to objects which are familiar or ordinary. Those persons most familiar with and who the most highly respect nature, rarely hyperbolize her. In their judgment she needs and allows no exaggeration. Most people are more suc- cessful with the magnifying than with the diminish- ing hyperbole. The chief difficulty in the use of this figure is to know at what point to stop so that it shall not seem strained. Rhetorical taste, a sound judgment, and correct moral intention are brought into requisition. The perfection of hyperbole re- quires also choice words, and as few as the possi- bilities of correct expression allow. Note the nat- uralness of this figure in such current expressions as the following : " There is no end to this talk ; " 'Til be there in less than no tim.e;" "Your most obedient servant ; " " She will cry her eyes out." See Henry VL Part I. Act i. Sc. i. ; and Hood's Letters to Children, Hood speaks of a night so fearful that a Christian farmer would not have left out his scare-crow ; and of a man so benevolent that he would hold an umbrella over a duck during A shower of rain. See Charles Lamb's Extracts from the Elizabethan Dramatists* 13* 17 194 THE ART OF SPEECH. ** Here once the embattied farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world." Emerson. **If a 3'oung merchant fails, men sa/, he is ruined,''* See also Gen. xiii. i6 ; Deut, i. 28; ix. i; Num. xiii. 33 ; Ezek. 11. 9 ; Job xx. 6, 7 ; xxxli. 4-6 ; Matt, iii. 3, 9 ; xix. 24 ; xxiii. 24 ; Luke xix. 40, 44 ; John iv. 21, 29 ; xxi. 25 ; Gal. iv. 14, 15. (6) A usage which unites words having contrary significations, for the purpose of gaining greater vividness of impression ; " it is the saying of that which appears foolish, but yet is wise," technically termed Oxymoron, Horace speaks of" a strenuous idleness;" Benjonson, of " the liquid marble " of poetry. Robertson, 4th series, p. 163, speaks of a '' most terrible success." Tennyson says : ** A deedful life ; a silent voice." The child says, " I love both father and mother best." George Macdonald says, ''Jesus is more man than any man." Bush says, " The French have shown themselves the greatest architects of ruin that have hitherto existed in the world." " Do you believe in ghosts?" asked a lady of Coleridge. "No, ma- dame," he replied, " I have seen too many." Rich- ard Watson, in a sermon entitled " Man Magnified by Divine Regard," thus employs this figure : " Those who deny immortality, make the volume close at the preface." Mrs. Barbauld, speaking of moon- light, says : " How deep its silence, yet how loud the praise! " ** O i/lustrious disgrace I O victorious defeat.*' — Burke POETIC-PROSE SPEECH. 195 **The borrower runs in his own debt." — Emerson. ** To trace out the shores of that shoreless sea (the Di- fine Mind) ; to measure its measureless extent, and to fathom its fathomless depths, will be the noble and joyous work of eternal ages." — Dr, Hitchcock. See likewise Is. Ixv. 20; Matt. vi. 23; xvi. 25; Mark viii. 35 ; i Cor. i. 23-25, 27, 28 ; xv. 9 ; 2 Cor. vi. 8-10; xii. 10, 11 ; Rev. xi. 24. The narrow critic v^ill condemn such expres- sions ; but the keen and philosophic mind will ap- preciate their power and charm. " It is in Reason's ear," as Addison says, *' that these things speak.'' (7) Such a use of language as seems to convey an idea contrary to the real intention, w^hose design, however, is not to deceive, but to heighten the rhe- torical effect, technically termed Irony, It is dis- guised satire, sometimes called "dry-mock," as when a dwarf is nicknamed Atlas., or an ugly woman is called Venus., or a foolish fellow is introduced as a Solon, While using this figure, the speaker or writer should manifest decided coolness. Irony should rarely be introduced into popular address, and never, unless the majority of good and sensible people are fully prepared to indorse the sentiment advanced. There are a few noted preachers who are highly successful in the use of this figure, but they are careful as to the selection of the subjects ironized^ and frame their sentences with taste and even ele- gance. See Demosthenes On the Crown., begin- nmg, " Manifest it is, forsooth," &c. Gibbons' Rise and Pall is full of irony. See LowelFs Fable for 196 THE ART OF SPEECH. Critics. Lord Erskine, when told of one who died worth two hundred thousand pounds, replied, '' What a handsome sum to begin the next world with ! " *' What has the gray-haired prisoner done? Has murder stained his hands with gore? Not so. His crime 's a fouler one — God made the old man poor." — Whittier. *' Brutus is an honorable man." Shakspeare's Marc Antony. See I Kings xviii. 27; xxii. 13; Job v. i ; xii. 2; xxii. 4; xxiv. 1-4; xxxviii. 21, 23 ; Eccl. xi. 9; Is. 1.2; Mark vii. 9; xiv. 41; Luke xviii. 11; xxii. 36, 38^ 49-51 ; John x. 31, 32 ; xviii. 10. (8) Antithesis. This figure introduces a compar- ison of different things, and gains its power and charm through the effect of contrast. See Vol. IL, Figures of Oratory. (9) Such a use of numerical terms as deepens or renders more graphic the thought expressed, usually termed Numeration. The effect sought is rhetor- ical, not arithmetical. " Like a thousand of brick," says the man on the street. " Ninety-nine cent store," is rhetorically an attractive advertisement. " Silent was he for twice four days." — Virgil. '' Americans want everything done in about twenty minutes." *' The thousand and one nights ; " ''A twelvemonth and a day;" "Threescore years and ten ;" " He was half a thousand miles from home," — at once disclose a force and beauty not contained in the shorter numerical formulas. The Scriptures abound with this figure ; hence. POETIC-PROSE SPEECH. 197 in their interpretation careful inquiry should be made to ascertain whether the design of the sacred writer in using numerals is to make a literal or a mathemati- cal statement, or one for rhetorical effect. See Gen. xlvi. 15, 18, 22, 26, 27; Prov. ix. i ; xxx. 21, 29; Song of Solomon, v. 4; Matt. i. 17; xviii. 12, 21, 22 ; xix. 28, 29. This figure appears with special prominence in the Book of Revelation. " The seven angels," " seven trumpets," " seven vials," '' four living creatures," '• four-and-twenty elders," *' the one hundred and forty and four thousand," " twelve gates," attended by " twelve angels," rest- ing upon '' twelve foundations," and '' twelve man- ner of precious stones," are representative. See also Rev. xiii. 18. " By such images," says Bush- nell, " and under such exact notations of arithmetic, does this man of vision put us in the way of con- ceiving the glorious and exact society God is recon- structing out of fallen powers." (10) Accumulation. It is such a specification of particulars belonging to a subject as greatly to magnify its importance. See Vol. II., Figures of Oratory, (11) Repetition. This figure has two general forms, the rhetorical and the oratorical. The latter form will be treated under Eloquence and Oratory^ Vol. II. Rhetorical repetition takes several distinct forms : a) The simple repetition of a v/ord or phrase under the same grammatical form and in the same rhetorical sense ; as, — *' None but the brave, None but the brave, None but the brave deserves the fair." — Dry den. 198 THE ART OF SPEECH, The same is found in Matt. v. 3-1 1 ; Gal. i. 8, 9; Luke xiii. 1,5; Ezek. xxxii. 17-32; and Rev. viii. 7-12. h) Repetition of a word under a different form, or a word or phrase repeated in a different sense, termed Ploce ; as, — *' Drops the light drip of the suspended oar." — Byron, ** I dreamed a dream." — Pope, See also Is. ii. 11-17; Matt. vii. i, 2. See Patrick Henry's famous speech beginning, " We have pe- titioned ; we have remonstrated ; we have suppli- cated," &c. c) The immediate repetition of the same word or phrase, termed Ge?nination ; as, — ** The cross ! the cross ! ** ** Few, few shall part where many meet,''' — Campbell. See also 2 Sam. xviii. 33 ; xix. 4. d) The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, termed Anapho7'a ; as in the Merchant of Venice^ Act v. Sc. i., lines 1-22. See also Burke's speech against Warren Hastings, where " I impeach Warren Hastings" is six times repeated. See likewise Ps. xxix. 3-5 ; i Cor. i. 20. e) The repetition of a word at the end of succes- sive clauses or sentences. This is a favorite figure with Demosthenes, and is termed Epistrophei as, ** The glorious company of the apostles praise thee ; the goodly fellowship of the saints praise thee," &c. Book of Common Prayer* ** The borrower is timid; our laws are timid; the culti- vated classes are timid." — Emerson, f) The same word or phrase is placed both at POETIC-PROSE SPEECH. 199 the beginning and at the end of a clause or sentence, termed Antistrophe, ** Fare thee well ! and if forever, Still forever, fare thee well." — Byron, G rattan often used this figure with great effect. g) The same word or phrase ending one clause or sentence and beginning the next, is another type of repetition, termed Anadiplosis. ** Lycidas is dead — dead ere his prime." — Milton. See also Grattan's speech on The Riot Act, begin- ning, '' When you can enact that on account of his religion no Catholic shall sit in Parliament," &c. Likewise Is. Ixv. i8. /i) Repetition in an inverted order, termed Epan- odos^ as in Is. v. 20. {) The repetition of several words or phrases of similar signification, termed Symploce; as, — *^I am astonished, I am shocked." — Chatham. See also Book of Common Prayer.^ beginning, " The Scripture moveth us in sundry places," &c. To these types may be added, Repetition for the sake of Emphasis, the Echo, together with Intensi- fied Negation, and Intensified Affirmation. (12) Climax. In this figure there is an ascending series of thoughts or statements which increase in importance to the last. See Vol. II., Figures of Oratory. (13) Such a use of words as suggests, without formal statement, a familiar truth or incident, tech- nically termed Allusion, It is often successfully 200 THE ART OF SPEECH. employed when, through notable historic examples, one would ennoble ordinary objects and thoughts. Allusion is used also when delicacy requires that a given thought snould not be directly or fully stated. It is a popular mode of speech, inasmuch as it hints to the mind Instead of dictating to it ; it is sugges- tive rather than declarative, depending upon the law of mental association, and when properly employed is very successful in awaking flagging attention and fixing the point at issue. In the use of this figure the following directions .should be observed: Allusion should not be em- ployed unless the larger proportion of those ad- dressed are fiimlllar with the incident intimated. Allusion, especially in the pulpit, should not be such as to oflend true Christian taste and refinement. The rhetorical management should be such as to make the focal points of the incident intensely visible and vivid. The fact that there is scarcely a popular speaker of any class who does not frequently employ this figure, suggests the statement that unless the orator enlivens his discourses by frequent allusions to familiar in- cidents in sacred and secular history, he is ignorant of one of the most successful rhetorical elements of popular speech. This figure sometimes involves a comparison ; as, " Like rigid Cincinnatus, nobly poor." It may also involve a metaphor ; as, — ** He was the Achilles of the war." POETIC-PROSE SPEECH. 201 The allusion is sometimes historic or biographic ; as, — ** Like Alexander, he wept because he had no more worlds to conquer." **I see my own vices in the distant persons of Solomon, Alcibiades, and Catiline." — Emerson, ** In the smoke-stack of every steamer which brings the merchandise of Britain to our ports, we see a calumet of peace which her war-chiefs dare not extinguish." Robert C, Winthrop. Or the allusion may be what is termed '^ literary ; " as, — ** He has fallen into the sere and yeHow leaf." **The anathema maranatha of every fawning dean." Macaulay* The Bible is the richest source of allusions. The student may add to the following. Dr. Sherlock thus addresses those who, though benefited by Chris- tianity, still scoff at it : ** Ought the withered hand which Christ has restored and made whole^to be lifted against him.?" ** He who has really caught the mantle of the prophet, is the last man to imitate his walk." '*That man is like Herod, coarsely insolent in his impiety; sometimes, like Judas, betraying the Saviour with a kiss." ** Fling but a stone, the giant dies." ** In the parable of the man who fell among thieves, one man looked that way, another passed by; but one man came where he tvas. The trouble is, we don't go where people are. We stay where we are, and talk to them. If a man, highly educated and high-minded, talks from his fourth-story window to men in the street, they don't hear much. You have got to go where people are When Christ healed the blind man, he * touched him.' " 202 THE ART OF SPEECH, (14) Such a use of language as allows the sen- tence to be suddenly arrested before completion, termed Indication, The psychological effect is the same as in case of the last-mentioned figure. The rule to be observed is, that the interruption should not be made until the hearer can fully divine the intention of the speaker, and thus be able to com- plete the sentence. Indication can be made doubly emphatic and impressive if accompanied by an appropriate gesture. ** His soul has gone either to heaven or to — " *' He was alive; and lived to make me bless him; but he is — " ^' On this side stand the sheep ; on that, the — " *' Ye winds whom I — But it is better to calm the billows.*' — VirgiL Also see Luke xiii. 9; xv. 21; xix. 42 ; John vi. 15, 26. (15) That usage which introduces an imaginary case to illustrate a real one, or the 'treatment of a real case as if it were an imaginary one, technically termed Supposition. In all new sciences Supposi- tion plays an important part. It is usually based upon partial data, affording often a relief and rest to the mind in its investigations. Thus also in ordi- nary conversation there is frequently heard the phrase, " Now suppose a case.*' The Christian religion is positive, consequently the pulpit orator deals chiefly, not with conjecture, but with assertion and proof. Still, if even the preacher can pass through a year without the introduction POETIC-PROSE SPEECH, 203 of a supposition into his sermon, it is probable there will be much stupidity in his preaching. In all other forms of eloquence and oratory, Supposi- tion is regarded as indispensable. For excellent illustrations of this figure, see Let- ters of yunius ; Serfnons of Dr. Payson ; Matt, xxii. 42 ; Luke x. 36 ; xiii. 2 ; i Cor. x. 12 ; 2 Cor. xi. 5 ; I Peter v. 12. (16) Such a use of language as represents an object or subject in an odd and unexpected light, properly termed Incongruentia,^ The poetic bal- ance of this figure consists in the contrast between what is expected and what is really presented. Under this head fall : a) Ridicule. It is a kind of speech that seeks to apply to some object or person a sudden and derisive incongruity ; as, — ** The king of France, with twice ten thousand men, Marched up the hill — and then marched down again." It is sometimes unintended, and is then termed ha- tJios. Said a preacher recently, — ** The arm of the Lord is as fixed as fate, as sure as eternity, and as strong as the rock of Gibraltar.'' A preacher of high official standing in the church recently reached the following incongruous and un- expected conclusion : *' I have travelled in the West, and in the South and North; I have slept under damask curtains, and in the wigwam of the red man ; I h we been intimately acquainted with men and things; have studied the nature and effects of remedial agents; and the result of my experience and observation is, that pennyroyal tea is the best thing for the colic." 204 THE ART OF SPEECH, Upon the monument of a beloved missionary is inscribed this epitaph : **He was shot by his attendant. Well done, good and faithful servant." h) Wit. It is a quick association of seemingly; incongruous ideas ; as, " The general is a great taker of snuff as well as of towns." " I understand," said one of his deacons to Rob- ert Hall, " that you are going to marry Miss M." " I marry Miss M. ! " replied the quick-witted preacher ; " I would as soon marry Beelzebub's eldest daughter, and go home and live with the old folks ! " When the wit is unintended, it is termed a BulL c) Humor. It is essentially wit prolonged, with, perhaps, this difference, that '^ Wit makes you laugh at one ; humor, ivith one." d) Parody. It is such a perversion of the words of a well-known author as gives to them a ludicrous meaning. Aristophanes through parody made his fiercest attacks upon Socrates and Euripides. See also Can- ning's Knife- Grinder ; Rejected Addresses^ by James and Horace Smith ; and Punch's Prize Novelists^ Thackeray. What Parody is in literature. Caricature is in picture-making. Nast gives the secret of the latter art by saying that it merely consists in magnify- ing prominent characteristics. e) Pun. It is a witty play upon either the sound or the sense of a word ; as, — POETIC-PROSE SPEECH, 205 ** Half Hebrew, half English, the slopseller Moses Cries ' clo'es' all the week, but on Saturday closes." Simpson. y) Innuendo. It is a figure which shrewdly insinuates or implies, instead of directly assert- ing, its meaning. United with irony, it becomes a sneer, (17) That usage in speech which allows a speaker or writer to carry on an address with himself, called Soliloquy, It is peculiarly effective in meditative discourse. See introduction of Hugh Latimer's dis- course before King Henry VIII. ; and Ps. vi. 6, 11 ; xiv. I ; cxvi. 7, 12, 13 ; Job xxxix. 25. (18) Similar to the last figure is that usage which allows the speaker or writer to introduce conversa- tion between himself and another person, or a thing personified, or between two other persons, or two other things personified, the speaker himself taking, or not taking part, as the case may require, called Dialogue, In an outburst of feeling this figure is often highly effective. It has been employed by every great orator, sacred and secular. See Demosthenes On the Crown; Speeches^ by Lord Brougham; An- selm's Cur Deus Hoino (translated in Bib, Sac.^ Oct., 1854, and Jan., 1855) ; The yarrings of Heaven Reconciled by the Blood of Christ ; Fish's Pulpit Eloq, Vol. II. p. 454. This figure is found also in Is. xl. 6 ; Ixiii. 1-6 ; Luke xi. 16-21 ; xii. 20 ; xiii. 25-27; xviii. 11-13. (19) Interrogation. This figure is not used foi 18 206 THE ART OF SPEECH, asking questions in the ordinary sense of question asking, but to interrupt and intensify the ordinary flow of a narration or an address. See Vol. II., Figures of Oratory, III, The Art of acquiring Skill in the Use of Poetic-Prose Speech. In general the same directions are to be followed as are given under Poetic Speech^ p. i6o. In ad- dition it will be found necessary, in order to gain mastery in the use of word and sentence-figures, to cultivate keen discrimination in the use and application of words. The words employed must be carefully weighed. The discovery of the. re- lations between things material and things spir- itual should also be constantly attempted. Hence, refinement of taste and profound reflection will be found essential to the highest success in the use of Poetic-Prose speech. Indeed, the imagina- tion of the poet, the skill of the rhetorician and lin- guist,. and the wisdom of the philosopher are called into requisition. The faculties thus involved must consequently be under patient and constant cultiva- tion. There ought also to be an appeal to the masters of poetic-prose speech. Familiarity with the standard poets is therefore recommended. The scientist is studied for facts, the poet for the methods governing his composition and construction. An acquaintance with Qinntilian will stimulate the figure-producing faculties. No work in polite literature is adorned POETIC-PROSE SPEECH. 207 with more, or with more appropriate, metaphors than his treatise upon Rhetoric. The waitings of Thomas Fuller, Ruskin's Modern Painters^ Car- lyle's French Revolution.^ the works of Swedenborg when shorn of their extravagances, those of Shaks- peare, and lastly, though first in order of impor- tance, the Bible, upon the grounds of rhetorical art. should be the text-book of constant reference.^^ Every thoughtful reader, upon even this limited survey, must be convinced that, though the different principles and figures of poetry and prose are in daily use among even common people, still, to mas- ter English speech, either as an art or a science, requires more time than is usually allowed in our American system of education. " It makes us blush," writes De Qiiincey, '' that even grammar is so little of a perfect attainment amongst us, that, with two or three exceptions (one being Shakspere, whom some affect to consider as belonging to a semi-barbarous age), we have never seen the writer, through a circuit of prodigious read- ing, who has not sometimes violated the accidence or the syntax of English gramm.ar." Says Professor Marsh : ** A distinguished British soldier of the last century said ne had known but three of his countrymen who spoke their native language with uniform grammatical accuracy; and the observation of most persons widely acquainted with English and American society confirms the general truth implied in this declaration."^^ 208 THE ART OF SPEECH, It has been claimed, and perhaps upon reason* able grounds, that three fourths who speak English have no distinct idea of three fourths the words em- ployed. Nearly every graduate from college appears to better advantage in almost every other department than in English speech. This should be corrected. Writers and speakers can become so familiar with the arts of speech, with its laws, rules, and figures, that they will know how and when to apply or em- ploy them. While it may be true that all who as pire to rhetorical excellence cannot become graceful in pure poetic speech, as this requires special gifts, still, persons of only average intelligence, whether engaged in scholarly pursuits or at manual labor, if they will systematically devote a fair proportion of their leisure moments to the study of English speech, can learn to wield intelligently, and with greater or less elegance and perfection, all the arts belonging to prose and to poetic-prose composition.^ SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES. Note * (Page lo.) For forcible statements of the marvellousne s of the speech organs, see Whitney's Language and the Study of Language^ pp. 88, 89, and Farrar's Language and Lan- guages, p. 272. Note I. (Page 10.) **The people who do not talk, always turn out to be talkers. The last time it was publicly stated that the Ve- dahs of Ceylon have no language, Max MUller had the matter investigated. It turned out, as it has always done in other cases, that there was plenty of language, and very good language. * Many of the words are mere corruptions of Sanskrit.*" — Chips, vol. iv. p. 342. Note II. (Page 12.) We are indebted to the native American for the name? of some of our states and towns, and for the names of many a lake, river, and mountain. From this same abo- riginal source came the words barbecue, canoe, choc{o)late, moccasin, squaw, pappoose, potato, qua hog, sachem, succo- tash, tammany, tautog, tobacco, tomahaivk, Tankee, and wigwam. From the Dutch the English tongue has taken sloop, yacht, and schconer. Corral, alligator, cargo, embargo, Bterra, stampede, ranch, cigar, lasso, and mustang came 14* 210 THE ART OF SPEECH. from Spanish. Maize and hurricane came from the West India tongue; c<75/5 and c;/ovi://Vy, temperance^ 'sobriety^ tnd magnanimity^ as modern words. In 1589 Puttenham called the following modem inventions : function, numerous^ penetrate^ indignity, savage^ scien- ti/ic^ dimension, idiom^ compendious^ Prolix, figurative^ impressive^ metri- cal, inveigU, In 1601, Philemond Holland gave the same character to the following : acrimony, austere^ bulk^ consolidate, debility, dose^ aperient, opiate, propitious, symptom. Bacon did not know encyclopedia^ but used circle learning. Shakspeare, in Twelfth Night, alluded to element as new; and Wotton spoke of characters as a recent acquisition. Fulke, in the beginning 3f the seventeenth century, objected to rational, tunic, scandal^ neophyte, des- picable, destruction, homicide. Thomas Fuller stated that plunder was im- ported from Germany, where it originated during the Thirty- Years' War. Malignant, cavalier, Roundhead^ and selfish arose during the Parliamentary War. Pathos arose a little later; as did also mob. In 1658 the following were objected to in Heylln's Observations on L'Estrange's History of Clutrles II.i adoption, abstruse, amphibious, articulate-t adventitious^ complicated, compen- sate, concede^ caress, destination, horizontal, oblique, ocular, radiant* Drag- onnade and refugee came into use during the age of Louis XIV. In 1670 Dryden objected to good graces-^ repartee, embarrass, grimace, chagrin. Suicide was condemned at about the same time. In Skinner's Etymologicon, 1688, cajole and sentiment were called new. Johnson was blamed for usin^ resuscitation, narcotic, fatuity, germination. Sans-culotte, guillotine, and terrorism arose during the French Revolution ; and hosts of new words have been coming into the language ever since." Note XIV. (Page 20.) ** I^anguages," says Mr. Crawford, ** in the savage state, are great in number ; in improved society, few. The state of languages on the American continent affords a convincing illustration of this fact; and it is not less satisfactorily ex- plained in that of the Indian islands. . The negro races who inhabit the mountains of the Malayan peninsula, in the lowest and most abject state of social existence, though numerically few, are divided into a great many distinct tribes, speaking as many different languages. Among the rude nnd scattered population of the island of Timor it if NOTES. 219 believed tliat not less than forty languages are spoken. In Inde and Flores, we have also a multiplicity of languages; and among the cannibal population of Borneo it is not improbable that many hundreds are spoken." Note XV. (Page 20.) Professor Whitney, in Lecture V., La7iguage and the Study of La7iguage, fully illustrates these thoughts. Note XVL (Page 22.) The English tongue is not the only borrower; the literary Persian has made heavy drafts from the Arabic, while the literary Turkish and Hindostanhave freely bor- rowed from both Arabic and Persian. Note XVII. (Page 24.) (See Note IX. Page 15.) The student will find it a pleasant and profitable recrea- tion to trace given roots through the diflferent members of the Aryan family. Examine, for instance, the words for oyster : "Greek SarpEov, Latin osirea^ Scandinavian ost'^a, French kuUre^ Irish ^isridh^ Welsh oesiren, Russian ustersu, Armenian osdri, and so on, — all de- rived probably from the same root as the Latin ost and descriptive of the bony shell of the mollusc, and all totally different from the Sanskrit pushtika. The only inference from this fact is that the Western Aryans became familiar with the Caspian Sea, and therefore with oysters, long before their eastern breth- ren, who, not meeting with them till they reached the shores of the Indian Ocean, hit upon another name for them, derived from an entirely different root.'* See Farrar's Language and Languages^ pp. 328, 329, and Pictet's Origin of Indo-Europcans, I. 440-445. Trace also the following roots ; I and ga^ denoting simple motion ; ak^ swift motion ; sta. standing ; aj, and tad, sitting ; Xi, lying ; pad, walking ; vas, staying ; iak, following ; vart^ tuming ; frrr/J, creeping ; pat^ flying ; ////, flowing ; ad^ eating ; /a, drinking ; «ff, blowing : vid, seeing ; ki-u, hearing ; vak, speaking ; dha^ putting ; dd^ 220 THE ART OF SPEECH, giving ; labh, taking ; garhh^ holding ; dik, pointing out ; bJiar^ bearing ; Jcir^ making; tan^ stretching; skid and dal^ dividing; bandh^ binding; star^ strewing; par^ filling; viar^ rubbing; Ma, shininsj; hh% growing. Note XVIII. (Page 26.) (See Note XIV. p. 20.) The discussion of this thought bj Farrar is forcibly sug- gestive. ** If all the nations who speak these Allophylian and Sporadic languages were swept away to-morrow from the face of the earth — vast as would be the numerical lacuna which they would leave among the 1,000,000,000 of living men — they would, with the exception of the Chinese, leave scarcely a trace behind them in the religion, the history, the literature, or the civilization of mankind. It is true that there have been epochs when men of these races burst from their uncivilized confines, and under leaders like Attila, and Timour, and Zenghis Khan, flooded the civilized world with their deluges of barbarism; but as a rule even their deeds of destruction have had but little permanence, and have left but a transitory impression. And even in historic periods, not a few of these Sporadic peoples have utterly passed away. The Carib has disappeared from the West Indian islands ; the Tasmanians from Van Die- men's Land ; the Guanches from the Canaries ; Maories are dying out from New Zealand ; many tribes of the Americans, Australians, and other savages perish as surely before the advance of civilization as does the line of snow, on which a shadow has lain, when the sunlight reaches it. There may be some- thing melancholy in the thought; but, ultimately considered, the disappear- ance of a race is merely the decease of an individual." Note XIX. (Page 27.) The instincts of English speech are constantly seeking a return to the primitive monosyllabic character. See p. 48. The more conservative tongues, notably the Chi- nese, Transgangetic, and Thibetan languages of the Spo- radic or Allophylian family, have never doffed their mono- syllabic structure. Note XX. (Page 27.) Thus the Chinese say room-silver for treasury. The Turk says, seV'tsc/i'der-il-jne-meky for t/iey could not be brought to love ofie another. The Hungarian says, var-at- NOTES. 221 andot'ta-tok^ for you will have been waited for. The English tongue says, father-in-law ^ railway-statio7iy &.c. Note XXL (Page 28.) The following words extend their roots into the tongues of the great families of speech : 1. Eng. : three. 2. Sans. : tri. 3. Zend. : thri. 4. Celt. : Erse, tri; Welsh, tri. 5. Ital. : Lat. tres^ tria ; Fr. trois ; It. tres ; Sp. tre. 6. Heln. : Gr. rpeis, rpia. 7. Teut. : Goth, thri; Ger. drei; Sw. ^r^ / Dan. tre ; Sax. //^r^^, /Ar/. 8. Slav. : Rus. /rz"/ Let tri.' 9. Arab.: ^/z«/M. 1. Eng. : seven. 2. Sans. : saptan. 3. Zend. : haptan ; Per. /z^/. 4. Celt.; Welsh, j^zV/z. 5. Ital.: Lat. septem ; It. sette ; Sp. «W^/ Fr. jop€(a, fiapo^ (a thing borne, a burden), ^apvc. 7. Teut: Goth, bairan; Ger. Juhren ; Du. beiiren ; Sw. bcera; Dan. hcere ; Sax. bceran. 8. Slav. : Rus. 3^r«. 9. Heb. parah, or <5«r«. 222 THE ART OF SPEECH. Note XXIII. (Page 30.) The following quotations show the opinion of some who have given this subject thought : Lessing says that **God is too good to have withheld from his poor children, per- haps for centuries, a gift like speech." M. de Bonald asks, ** How can we suppose that a Good Being could create a social animal without remembering that he ought also, from the first moment of his existence, to inspire him with the knowledge necessary to his individual, social, physical and moral life." *' Any one," says Steinthal, ** who thinks of man without language, thinks of him as one of the brutes." Note XXIV. (Page 33.) Farrar (p. 378) illustrates at length this feature of speech : *' Even numerals, abstract as they may seem, are derived from imitations and metaphor. Myriad is from the root mur in tnunnur^ implying the rush of water-drops. The Sanskrit for loo crores of lacs of rupees is jaladJii^ or ocean, and for ten billions \s padnia^ a lotus, or sanku, an anthilL Take such a word as * mystery,* beyond which in its highest meanings language cannot go; yet what is it etymologically but an extension of the syllables mu, mum, an onomatopoeia from the closing of the lips ? What is * mother ' bui. «i length- ening of the first crooning of childish labials? What is * heaven ' but the space heaved over us ; or * hell ' but a hole beneath our feet ? " Note XXV. (Page 33.) See Law of Development, page 39. Note XXVI. .Page 37.) Trench, on the Study of Words, gives an interesting ac- count of several of these words. The fuller dictionaries will also be of service in discovering the primitive meaning of words. Note XXVIl. (Page 38.) Likewise study Trench and the fuller dictionaries on the list of words here given. NOTES. 223 Note XXVIII. (Page 38.) ** Words are the sounds of the heart," says the Chinese proverb. *• There is a relation to be observed between words and the mouth which pronounces them," says La Bruydre. ** Words," said Drjden, ** are but pictures of our thoughts." And the wise Confucius has said that '* Words are the voice of the heart." ** Thy speech betrayeth thee," can be said of every man as well as of Peter. How sharply defined is the Master's announcement, ** Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh." Note XXIX. (Page 39.) No English poet surpasses Milton in these admirable symbolizations where the sound of the word signifies the thing meant, technically termed Onomatopoeia, ** On a sudden open fly, With impetuous recoil and jarring sound. The infernal doors, and on their hinges grate Harsh thunder." " Arms on armor clashing bray'd Horrible discord, and the madding wheels Of brazen chariots rag'd ; dire was the noise Of conflict ; overhead the dismal hiss Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew.'* Paradise Lost. Note XXX. (Page 40.) Professor Whitney illustrates the development of word? from existing roots thus : ** PonOt in Latin, signifies *put,* or 'place, 'but we might well spend an hour in tracing out all \hc store of ideas which it has been made in our lan- piage the means of designating. Some of Its uses we have inherited fi"oin the Latin ; others were struck out during the later period of the French ; yet Others have grown up on English soil ; and we are even now far from having 224 THE ART OF SPEECH, exhausted its capabilities of expression. From the uncompounded root come Pose^ 2i poser, position, with its many applications, post, wiih its still more various and special uses, posture, positive, and so forth. Then, as combined with prefixes, for the most part significant merely of place and direction, it g^ives us an apposite remark, apposition of nouns ; component parts, composure of mind, a great composer, compositions and declamations, a composing-s^icV, compost-heaps, compound interest, to compound a felony ; a deponent verb, the deponent saith, a deposed king, depositions from water, a school-book depository, removal of the deposits, a r2a\w2i.y depot ; an exponent of democratic principles, to expose a fraud, exposed to attack, clear exposition of a hard text, a lawn with a southern exposure ; an iinposittg figure, imposts and customs, miserable impostor, consecrated by imposition of hands ; to impound stray cattle ; an imposing-stone ; all his disposable forces, disposed to sleep, an amiable dispo. sition, the prima donna is indisposed, troops disposed in three lines, God dis- poses ; sl worthy opponent, the house opposite, member of the opposition ; di- vine interposition ; he proposed to her, fifth proposition^ first book ; propounded for admission ; locked in sweet repose, to repose confidence; what do yow pur. pose? he did it on purpose ; an effect supposes a cause; at least I suppose so; a supposititious heir; and so on. Here is but a selection from among the mul- titude of expressions for heterogeneous conceptions which have grown out ol the sign for the simple idea of 'putting' or 'placing; ' but though a striking, they are not an exceptional instance of the manner in which linguistic usage deals with all the material of language." All persons are familiar with the tendency of speech to forai new words by compounding existing ones. Take, for illustration, a class of words now foiTning : it-ought-to-be-taken- notice of, not-to-bc-lost-sight of; a class already formed, but retaining the hyphen : railroad- fence, ink-bottle, steamboat- whistle, ginger-bread, house-top, mother-tongue, dco7'-plate ; still others where the hyphen has disappeared : Godlike, forehead^ fortnight, breakfast, household, witchcraft, shepherd, wheel- wright, deathbed. Sometimes the members of the compound suffer very great modificaLion. Loved is compounded of love and did ; the did being contracted to d, or being represented by it. Lovely is compounded of love and like ; the like being represented by /. The word such is thought to be compounded of so and like ; what is the union and contraction of the two words who and like. See Note XIII. for a list of new words developed from English speech. NOTES, 225 Note XXXL (Page 47.) Certain Isorth American tongues admirably illustrate lliis feature of language. "la a Ricaree vocabulary extending to fifty names of common objects, which in English are nearly all expressed by single syllables, there is not one monosyllabic word ; and in the nearly allied vocabulary of the Pawnees, the names for these same common objects are monosyllabic in but two instances. Things so familiar to these hunting tribes as dog and bow, are, in the Pawnee language, asJuxkish and teeragish ; the Aancf and the gyes are respectively tk- sheeree and keereekoo ; for dny the term is shakooroveesJtairety and for devil it is tsaJieekshkakoorawah ; while the numerals are composed of from two sylla- bles up to five, and in Ricaree up to seven. That the great length of these familiar words implies a low degree of development, and that in the formation of higher languages out of lower there is a progressive integration, which re- duces the polysyllables to dissyllables and monosyllables, is an inference con- firmed by the history of our own language.'' — Herbert Spencer's First Prin- ciples^ p. 319- Note XXXII. (Page 49.) The tendency to shorten words may also be seen in the following list: Middle^ from mid-deal ; o'clock^ from of the clock ; suz, as in the expression *' O dear me suz," is from says I ; "ju ashing- tub and cooking-stove have become the less euphonious If «5>^-/;/^ and cook-stove; aid is from aid-de- camp; alas, {rom O (jne) lasso; caby ix ova cabriolet ; not^ from naught ; or, from other ; woman, from ivife-man. The first book printed in America was the Bay Psalm- Book, (1640.) In it we find, mee, for me; goe, for go; doe, for do ; hce, for he ; grasse, for grass ; and oyle, for oil. The same tendency is seen in other tongues, xai tyw be- comes, in New Testament Greek, xayw; and xai Bxsivog be- comes xaxEtvog. Proper names sometimes undergo almost disrespectful contractions : J^nintus Horatius Flaccus becomes Horace; Publius Virgilius Maro is simplified to Virgil; Rev* Henry Ward Beecher is reduced to Beecher, 526 THE ART OF SPEECH. Note XXXIII. (Page 49.) The colloquialisms used by Dickens and the local poems of Bret Harte abound with illustrations of this character. The excessive use of and and zvhich^ by the illiterate, is especially noticeable. And iv /itch is likewivse often errone ously used for it. Says Coleridge (^T/ie Friend., Essay IV.) : ** A close reasoner and a good writer in general may be known by his per- tinent use of connectives." *' Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man, though perhaps shrewd and able in his particular calling ; whether he be describing or relating. We im- mediately perceive that his memory alone is called into action ; and that the objects and events recur in the narration in the same order, and with the same accompaniments, however accidental or impertinent, as they had first occurred to the narrator. The necessity of taking breath, the efiforts of recollection, and the abrupt rectrfication of its failures, produce all his pauses ; and with exception of the ^andthen,^ the ^ and tJiere," and the still less significant * a«^w/r>^ — "The Bagman's Story " 90 George Eliot, Middlemarch^ Chapter 1 80 ESSAYS AND EXPOSITORY WRITINGS. Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Book I., Chapters IV. V. VI. . . 89 Junius, Z.^//^r///., to Sir William Draper 75 De Quincey, Apparition on the Bracken^ and Savannah La Mar 82 yi^izdiMXdiy, Preface to tJie Lays of Ancient Rome 76 Emerson, Essay on Circles 80 Henry Rogers, Review of Sydney Smithes Lectures on Moral Philosophy 71 Hamerton, /«/^//^fr/«a/Z^ — * 'To a Solitary Student'* • . . . 7> HISTORY. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter LIV. • 6S Hallam, Constitutional History, Chapter VII 70 AWson, History of Europe — Introduction • • 68 Froude, //'/j/'^?;y ^Z'«^/««^, Chapter I. (one half) 77 Freeman, History of the Norfftan Conguestf Ch:ipter 1 77 Motley, History of the Dutch Republic, Chripier 1 75 Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe^ Chapter 1 67 ORATORY. Chatham, on the "Address to the Throne" 7a Burke, on the "Nabob of Arcot's Debts'' 74 Grattan, on *• Irish Right" 73 Erskine, on Paine's Age of Reason 73 20 230 THE ART OF SPEECH. Brougham, against the Durham Clergy 7f Bishop Butler, Sermon on the Ignorance of Man 80 Rev. F. W. Robertson, Sermon on the * Doubt of Thomas'* . . 8a WORKS ON RHETORIC. Blair, RJieioric — Introduction 69 Campbell, ** *' 69 Whately, ** " 69 NEWSPAPERS. London Times', on the "Eastern Question" » . 7a London Telegraphy " '* 70 Pall Mall Gazette, ** •* 80 New York Herald^ ** *' Presidential Election," 67 New York Tribune^ '* " 7c New York Stm^ *' " 73 From the above a new table may be deduced, showing the relative pro portion of Anglo-Saxon words in different departments of literature : 1. The English Bible 93 2. The Prayer Book 87 3. Poetry 88 4. Prose Fiction 87 5. Essays, 78 6. Oratory 76 7. History 7a 8. Newspapers 72 9. Works on Rhetoric 69 Note XXXIX. (Page 73.) Quaint old Verstegan gives excellent advice as to puritv of speech. He says : " For my own part, I think them deceived that think our speech bettered by the abundance of our dayly borrowed words, for ihey beeing of another nature and not originally belonging to our language do not, neither can they in our toung leave their natural and true deryvations : and therefore as wel may we fetch words from the Ethiopians or East or West Indians, and thrust them into our language and baystinge all by the name of English, as those which wee dayly take from the Latin, or languages thereon depending: hence it cometh (as by after experience is found) that some Englishmen dis- coursing together, others being present and of our own nation and that nat NOTES. 231 arally speak the English tongue, are not able to understand what the others say, notwithstanding they call it English what they speak.'* Chaucer thus speaks in the same vein : *' Let clerkes enditen in Latin, for they have the propertie of science, and the knowing of that facultie ; and lette Frenchmen in their French also en- diten their quaint termes for it is kindly to their mouths ; and let us show our phantasies in such wordes as we learnden of our Dame's tongue." And when he wrote for the teaching of his little son, he used English, "because," he said, "curious enditjing and harde sentences are full hevy at once for such a childe to lerne;" and bid the boy think of it as the "King's Eng- lish." Note XL. (Page 77.) Further hints as to this topic may be found under Chap- ters VI. and VII., and on p. 46. Note XLI. (Page 79.) It is estimated that the Greek has nearly twenty thou- sand different terminations for the regular and irregular conjugations, which must be learned in order thoroughly to master Greek speech. While the English verb in its regular form has but four inflections (love, loves, loved, and loving), and in its irregular form but five; j-et, by the use of helping-verbs, English speech has a power which the ancients, with all their inflections, could not attain. It is now admitted by the ablest grammarians that the so-called conjugations of English grammar are more prop- urly the simple formation of sentences. Sir Philip Sidney, in his Defence of Pocsie^ thus replies to the charge that " the English wanteth grammar" : "Nay, truly, it hath that praise that it wants not grammar; for grammar it might have, but needs it not, being so easy in itselfe, and so void of those cumbersome differences of cases, genders, moods, and tenses, which I think was a piece of the tower of Baby'Dn's curse, that a man should be put to schools to leame his mother-tongue. But for the uttering sweetly and properly the conceit of the minde, which is the ende of speech, that it hath equally with any other tongue in the wond." 232 THE ART OF SPEECH. Note XLII. (Page 85.) Jeremy Tajlor is among the best models of long sen- tences which are both clear and logical. Note XLIII. (Page 87.) The following quotation from Swift's letter to the Lord High Treasurer, containing a proposal for ** correcting, improving, and ascertaining the English tongue," is an illustration of a long sentence which would better be broken into short ones : "To this succeeded that licentiousness which entered with the Restoration, and from infecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt our language, which last was not like to be much improved by those who at that time made up the court of King Charles the Second ; either such who had followed him in his banishment, or who had been altogether conversant in the dialect of those fa- natic times, or young men who had been educated in the same company, so that the court (which used to be the standard of propriety and correctness of speech), was then (and I think hath ever since continued) the worst school in England for that accomplishment, and so will remain till better care can be taken in the education of our young nobility, that they may set out into the world with some foundation of literature, in order to qualify them for patterns of politeness." Note XLIV. (Page 130.) A copy of this work was placed in the hands of Douglas Jerrold when recovering from sickness. *' Line after line, page after page, he read," says the account, **but no con- secutive idea could he get from the mystic production. Mrs. Jerrold was out, and he had no one to whom to ap- peal. The thought struck him that he had lost his reason during his illness, and that he was so imbecile he did not know it. A perspiration burst from his brow, and he sat silent and thoughtful. As soon as his wife returned, he thrust the mysterious volume into her hands, crying out, * Read this, my dear! * After several attempts to make any sense out of the first page or so, she gave back the book, saying, * Bother the gibberish ! I don't understand a word of it.' * Thank Heaven ! ' cried Jerrold, * then I am not an idiot.*" NOTES, 233 Note XLV. (Page 131.) ** The main secret of Macaulay's success laj in this, that to extraordinary fluency and facility he united patient, mi- nute, and persistent diligence. He well knew, as Chaucer knew before him, that — ** * There is na workeman That can bothe worken wel and haslilie. This must be done at leisure parfaiilie.' If his method of composition ever comes into fashion, books probably will be better, and undoubtedly will be shorter. As soon as he had got into his head all the infor- mation relating to any particular episode in his * History* (such, for instance, as Argyll's expedition to Scotland, or the attainder of Sir John Fenwick, or the calling in of the clipped coinage), he would sit down and write off the whole story at a headlong pace, sketching in the outlines under the genial and audacious impulse of a first conception, and securing in black and white each idea and epithet and turn of phrase, as it flowed straight from his busy brain to his rapid fingers. . . . *' As soon as Macaulay had finished his rough draft, he began to fill it in at the rate of six sides of foolscap every morning, written in so large a hand, and with such a mul- titude of erasures, that the whole six pages were, on an average, compressed into two pages of print. This por- tion he called his * task; ' and he was never quite easy un- less he completed it daily. More he seldom sought to ac- complish ; for he had learned by long experience that this was as much as he could do at his best; and except when at his best he never would work at all. . . . '* Macaulay never allowed a sentence to pass muster until it was as good as he could make it. He thought little of recasting a chapter in order to obtain a more lucid arrange- ment, and nothing whatever of reconstructing a paragraph for the sake of one happy stroke or apt illustration. What- ever the worth of his labor, at any rate it was a labor of love." G. Otto Trevelyan : Life atid Letters of Lord Macauiay^ vol. ii. p. igS- 234 THE ART OF SPEECH. The importance of this subject justifies the following quotation from Macaulay's journal (Feb. 8, 1S49), after the publication of his first two volumes : " I have now made up my mind to change my plan about my History. I will first set myself to know the whole subject ; to jjet, by peadlnjr and trav- elling, a full acquaintance with William's reign. I reckon that it v/ill take me eighteen months to do this. I must visit Holland, Belgium, Scotland, Ire- land, France. The Dutch archives and French archives must be ransacked. I will see whether anything is to be got from other diplomatic collections. I must see Londonderry, the Boyue, Aughrim, Limerick, Kinsale, Namur again, Lauden, Steiukirk. I must turn over hundreds, thousands, of pam- phlets. Lambeth, the Bodleian, and the other Oxford libraries, the Devon- shire Papers, the British Museum, must be explored and notes made ; and then I shall go to work. When the materials are ready, and the history mapped out in my mind, I ought easily to write, on an average, two of my pages daily. In two years from the time I begin writing, I shall have more than finished my second part. Then I reckon a year for polishing, retouching, and printing. This brings me to the autumn of 1853. I like this scheme much. I began to-day with Avaux's despatches from Ireland, abstracted al- most a whole thick volume, and compared his narrative rith James's. There is m.uch to be said as to these events.'* Note XL VI. (Page 138.) In vciodo-Yn Ji7ie IV n't i fig, "a hair-dresser becomes a tort' sorial artist \ an apple-stand, a bureau of Pomona ; an old carpenter, a gentleman long identified -with the building interest, A man does not breakfast, but he discusses (or partakes of) the morning repast ; he does not sit down at table, but he repairs to the festive board ; he does not go home, but he, proceeds to his residence ; he does not go to bed, but he retires to his downy couch; he no longer waltzes, but he participates in round dances ; he is not thanked, but he is the recipient of grateful achno-wledfr* ments, A house is rot building, but is /;/ process of ercc' Hon. A ship is not launched, but it glides into its native element. ^^ Why should one say, ** He proceeded to the sanctuary,'* w'Tien ** He went to church " is all that is meant? Why say, •* I regret exceedingly that the multiplicity of my previou* NOTES. 235 engagements and other varied duties will necessarily' and unhappily deter me from accepting your very polite and very kind invitation," when all that is meant is, *' Thank you, I should be glad to go, but cannot." Why is the ex- pression, '* Assemblies congregated to witness," better than ** The people came to see "? Why stop to say, ** Call in requisition the services of your family physician," when *^ Send for your doctor" will answer every purpose? Men of culture say, ** houses were burned; " the sensa- tional reporter writes, ** edifices were consumed by the "aging elements." A miss in a horse-car, with school- books in her lap, was heard to say that she liked George Eliot's style, especially when *' l/e " asks in the second chap- ter of Middlemarck, *' Has anyone ever pinched into its >ilulous smallness the cobweb of prematrimonial acquaint- anceship.?" The following advice, given by "William Cullen Bryant to a young man who offered him an article for ih.Q Evening Post, is worthy of being pondered by every young person who aims at successful authorship : ** I observe that you have used several French expressions in your article. I think, if you will Study the English language, you will find it capable of ex- pressing all the ideas that you may have. I have always found it so ; and in all that I have written I do not recall an instance, when I was tempted to use a foreign word, but that on searching I found a better one in my own lan- guage. *' Be simple, unaffected; be honest In your spealung and >^Titing. Never use a long word when a short one will do. Do not call a spade a well-known oblong instrument of manual industry ; let a house be a house, not a residence ; a place a place, not a locality, and so of the rest. Where a short word will do, you always lose by using a-.long one. You lose in clearness, you lose in honest expression of your meaning ; and in the estimation of all men who are competent to judge, you lose in reputation for ability. "The only true way to shine, even in this false world, is to be modest and unassuming. Falsehood may be a very thick crust, but in the course of time truth will find a place to break through. Elegance of language may not be it the power of all of us, but simplicity and straightforwardness are. "Write much as you would speak ; speak as you think. If with your in- ferior, speak no coarser than usual ; if with your superior, speak no finer. No one ever was a gainer by singularity of words or of pronunciation. TIm truly wi^e man will so speak that no one will observe how he speaks.'* 236 THE ART OF SPEECH, Note XLVII. (Page 141.) Sajs Sidney Smith : ** After you have written an article, take jour pen and strike out half the words, and jou will De surprised to see how much stronger it is." Note XL VIII. (Page 154.) Father Taylor's illustrations are in some instances too forcible and vivid for the thought illustrated. Compare Nettleton's famous illustration of Gamblers in a Burning House. Some years ago a preacher in Newburyport, Mass., while describing the perils of an impenitent sinner in the voy- age of life, compared him to a vessel under a gale, drifting rapidly towards the adjacent breakers of Newburyport. At the climax of the elaborate figure, the preacher shouted, ** How, how shall the poor mariner be saved?" An old veteran of the sea, absorbed with the vivid and skilful pres- entation of the preacher, sprang to his feet and screamed, "Let him put his ?iel-um hard down, and bear away for Squarml" The impenitent sinner was no longer thought of. Note XLIX. (Page 160.) The additional charm given to poetry by rhythm is thus very beautifully stated by James Montgomery: '* How much the power of poetry depends upon the nice inflection? of rhythm alone, may be proved by taking the finest passages of Milton or Shaks- penre, and merely putting them into prose, with the least possible variation of ihe words themselves. The attempt would be like gathering up dewdrops, which appear jewels and pearls on the grnss, but run into water in the hands : the essence and the element? remain, but the grace, the sparkle, and the foiiii tre gone." NOTES. 287 Note L. (Page i6o.) Upon this ground Plutarch unwisely objects to figura- tive expressions. *'The most of those," he says, *' who are delighted with figures are childish and common.'* Sir Philip Sidney says that the ** whisperings and disputa- tions of the common people taste of a poetic vein." ** Nothing," says M. de Bretville, ** is so easy and so nat- ural as a figure. It has often given me pleasure to listen to peasants using in their talk figures so varied, so ani- mated, and so free from vulgarity, that our artificial rhet- oricians were quite outdone; and when I have heard this rhetoric of nature, I have been ashamed of myself for hav- ing made eloquence a study so long and to so little pur- pose." Du Marsais thus likewise remarks : ** I am con- vinced that more figures are made in a single day at the market than in many day's sessions of the Academy." Not only is the figure-making propensity natural, but when the speaker, literate or illiterate, is thoroughly aroused, his tendencj^ is to enunciate his imaginations in *' sing-song" (measured song). Hence the finished orator, who wishes to conform to the rule not to speak prose in measured sentences, is often obliged to throw in words or expressions merely to break the measure; he thus destroys one of the elements considered essential to poetry. Note LI. (Page i66.) The following additional definitions belong to this topic : 1. A Verse is a poetical line consisting of a certain num- ber of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged accord- ing to the rules of poetry. 2. A Couplet^ or Distich^ consists of two lines or verses taken together. A Triplet consists of three lines rhyming together. 3. A Stanza^ often incorrectly called a verse* is a combi- 238 THE ART OF SPEECH. nation of several lines, varying in number, and constitut- ing a regular division of a poem or song. 4. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines. The principles of rhyme are so well stated by Dr. Hart (^Composition a fid Rhetoric), who fol- lows Guest {Eftglish Rhyth^ns)^ that we quote : '"'^ Rhyme at the end of a Word is the only kind of correspondence in sound generally recognized as rhyme. This likewise admits of three varieties. (i) Where the correspondence in sound is limited to the consonants follow- ing the final vowel ; as, comprehe«<^, reprimaw^. This is not now recognized as legitimate rhyme, though said to have once been common. (2) Where the correspondence in sound includes the final vowel, the conso- nant sound after it, and the consonant sound before it. Bonaparte the rogue The council did ^gxorogue* This is called the rich rhyme, and is said to be in favor among some races, though distasteful to the English ear. (3) Where the correspondence in sound includes the final vowel and the consonant sound after it ; as, zkiouti with<77//. This last is our common rhyme, and is the only one considered as legitimate in modem English verse. Conditions of Single Rhyme. — When it is intended in English to make a single syllable rhyme to another in the manner most acceptable to the ear, the following conditions are necessary : (i) The rhyming syllable should be an accented one. This rule is violated in such an example as the following : The fire oft-times he Vxn^letn^ His hand therewith he s\r\ge-eth. (2) The vowel of the rhyming syllable, together with the consonant or con- lonants following the vowel, should be of precisely the same sound, in thd two syllables. Thus, breath diOQS not rhyme Xo heath. The consonant sounds are al'ke but the vowel sounds are not. So also U 12. u — |w u— |u v-»— |u w H'j, alternately Dactytic and AnafxEstrc, 11 -ww|-wu|-ww|-<^ (Dactjiic) 11. V- [wv..-|wv.;-|uw-| CAnapaestic.) 11. ♦ww|-ww|-uv^|-w (Dactylic.) 11. w-|ww-|ww-|ww-| (Anapaestic.'i IG* 21 242 THE ART OF SPEECH. \Vs a?id 10'5, Dactylic. 11. |— vj o|— sj o|— w u|-v/ 10. |— wwj— Ou|— wuf — 11. |->.w|-v.«|-wv.|-0 10. |-w ^|-vJ uj-o u|- 10'^ and 11'5, or 5'5 and 6'^, Anapcestt'c. 5. w — I w w I — 5. w - I w u I - 5. u - I ^ w 1 - 5. w - I u u I - 6.