^f^^ o LESSOISrS ON OBJECTS, 0¥f GRADUATED SERIES; DESIGNED P^OR €kxM\x Mismx t(jf u^ts of B'k mis imttuw fmu : CONTAINING, ALSO, IIFORMATIOi\ 0^ COMMON OBJECTS. ^' ■ ■ ' ■ <<' ARRANGED By E. a. SHELDOE", supt. public schools, oswego, n. t., author of elementary instbuction, EKADINO BOOK AND CHAETS, ETC., ETC. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY CHARLES SCRIBNER 1863. per side^ hroimi and dull on the under surface^ and that it is opaque ; by our hands, or by the sense of feeling, we find that it is tliin., tough^ flexible, and smooth ; by the nose, or by tlie sense of smell, we find that it is odorous. "When we put it into the fire it frizzles up, and gives off" a disagreeable odor : it is fit for shoes, because it is lasting, thin, light, flexible, and waterpn^oof:'* LESSON VII. LOAF SUGAK. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — soluble, fusible, brittle. Qualities of Loaf Sugar. It is soluble. It is white, fusible.* sparkling, brittle. solid, hard. opaque, sweet. Use. — ^To sweeten our food. * The difference between fusibility and solubility may be rendered ob- vious to the children, by dissolving one piece of sugar in water, and hold- ing another over the candle. It is better that such simple experiments should be performed in their presence, than that a mere description of the operation should be given. A PIECE OF GUM AEABIC. 57 LESSON VIII. A PIECE OF GUM ARABIC. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — semi-transparenty adhesive. Qualities of Gum Arabic, It is hard. It is soluble in water. bright. adhesive when melted, yellow. solid. semi-transjDarent. Use. — ^To unite light and thin substances. lesso:n^ IX. SPONGE. Ideas to be developed by this lesson— ^orow5, absorbent. Qualities of Sponge. It is porous. It is elastic, absorbent.* dull, soft. flexible, tough. light brown, opaque, Use. — For washing. * The quality of absorbing will be made obvious to the class by show- ing that the sponge sucks up any liquid. It possesses this quality in con- sequence of its being full of pores. The use to which an object is applied, often leads to the observation of the quality upon which the use is de- pendent. 3* 68 SECOND STET. — LESSON X. LESSON X. WOOL. Qualities of Wool It is soft. It is tough. absorbent. durable. white. opaque. flexible. dry. elastic. light. Ifses. — For making cloth, flannels, blankets, carpets, stockings, &c. LESSON XL WATEK. Ideaa^to be developed by this lesson — colorless^ rC' flective^ inodorous^ cleansing. Qualities of Water. It is liquid. It is inodorous, reflective. • transparent, glassy. cleansing, colorless. Uses. — To cleanse ; to fertilize ; to drink ; for cooking -purposes. LESSON XII. A PIECE OF WAX, This substance is here introduced, because it possesses many of the qualities already noticed. CAIIPHOE • Qualities of Wax. It is solid. It is sticky. opaque. yellowish, duU. hard. tough. odorous. fusible. smooth. 59 Use. — ^To make candles and tapers. LESSON XIII. CAMPHOK. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — aromatic, stimu- lating^ iiiflammahle^ soluble i7i spirits. Qualities of Camphor. It is aromatic. It is soluble in spirits, stimulating. hard, white. solid, semi-transparent. very inflammable, bright. light. Uses. — ^For medicine ; to prevent the taking of disease ; to preserve cabinets from small insects. LESSOISr XIY. BEEAD. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — edible, ichole- some, nutritious, moist. Qualities of Bread. It is porous. It is opaque, absorbent. solid. 60 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XV. Qualities of Bread. It is wholesome. The crumb is moist, nutritious. The crust is hard, edible. "brittle. The crumb is yellowish white. brown, soft, when new. Use, — ^To nourish. LESSON XV. SEALING WAX. Idea to be developed by this lesson— impressible. Qualities of Sealing Wax. It is hard. It is smooth, brif^ht. colored.-' brittle. inflammable, fusible. odorous, opaque. When fused it is soft, soluble in spirits. impressible, lioht. adhesive, solid. Use. — ^To seal letters. LESSON XVI. WHALEBONE. Idea to be developed by this lesson—fbrous. Qualities of Whalebone. It is elastic. It is fibrous, durable, opaque, .hard. , stiff. Uses. — ^As a stiffener ; for whips, &c. * The color will be determined by the specimen presented. GINGER. 61 LESSON XVII. GINGER. Ideas to be developed by tbis lesson— pungentj medici- nal^ jagged. Qualities of Ginger, It is puDgent. It is tough, dull. opaque, hard. wholesome, dry. medicinal, fibrous. jagged, aromatic. light brown. Uses. — ^To flavor food ; for medicine. LESSON XVIII. BLOTTING PAPER. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — -pinkish^ pliable^ artificial. Qualities of Slotting Paper. It is absorbent. It is pliable, porous. dull, soft. inflammable, thin. easily torn, pinkish. ' artificial. Use. — ^To suck up superfluous ink. LESSON XIX. A PIECE OF WILLOW. Qualities of Willow. It is hard. It is fibrous, inflammable. dull. 62 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XX. Qualities of Willoio. It is opaque. It is flexible, solid. \yhite. elastic. odorous. LESSON XX. MILK. Idea to be developed — greasy. Qualities of Milk, It is white. is greasy, liquid. nutritious, opaque. sweet, wholesome. Uses, — ^To make cheese, butter, puddings ; to drink ; food for young animals. LESSON XXL KICE. Qualities of Hice. It is white. It is solid. hard. porous, opaque. absorbent, smooth. wholesome, stiff. * nutritious, briffht. Use, — ^To nourish. LESSON XXIL SALT. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — grariuhuB^ sapid, saline^ preservative. A HORN. Qualities of Salt. It is white. It is hard. spar"kling. opaque. granulous. soluble. sapid, or has a taste. fusible. salt, or saline. preservative. 63 Uses, — ^To flavor food ; to preserve from putrefaction ; to manure land. LESSON XXD A HORN. Qualities of a Horn, It is hard. It is tapering, dull. opaque, uneven. stiff, hollow. yellowish brown, odorous when burnt. fibrous. Uses. — ^To make combs, glue, lanterns; handles to knives and forks. LESSON XXIV. IVOEY. Qualities of Ivory. It is hard. It is opaque, white. solid, smooth. durable, bright. 64 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XXV. LESSON XXV. A PIECE OF THE BAKK OP THE OAK TREE. Idea to be developed by this lesson — astrmgent. Qualities of JBarTc. It is brown. It is stiff, rough on the outside. solid, smooth on the inside. durable, opaque. fibrous, dry. dull, inflammable. astringent.* Uses. — ^To guard the tree from injury ; for tanning LESSON XXVL AN UNCUT LEAD PENCIL. From this object the children may become acquainted with the cylinder ; for they will not fail to observe that the ends are flat, and that the other face is curved. Idea to be developed by this lesson — cylindrical. Parts. Qualities, The surface. It is hard. faces. odorous. ends. long. * The children may be made to understand the quality of astringency, by drawing their attention to the contracting effect produced in the mouth by eating a choke cherry or piece of alum. A WAX CANDLE. 65 Parts, Qualities. The lead. It is solid, wood, opaque. inflammable, dry. brown. One face is curved. The ends are flat. circular. The form is cylindrical. The lead is gray, brittle, friable, bright. Uses. — For writing, drawing, &c. Let the children point out on what occasion a pencil is preferable to a pen, and vice versa. In this lesson, and others, the conceptive faculty may be exercised, by requiring the children to recall to their minds some object in which they had observed before the quality of inflammability ; also that of friability. LESSON XXVIL A WAX CANDLE. This object recalls the idea of the cylinder^ obtained in a previous lesson, and presents the peculiar ^ar^s of the candle itself Parts. Qualities. The wick. It is cylinder. wax. hard. 66 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XXVIII. Parts. Qualities. The surface. It is opaque. faces. yellowish white, ends. The wax is sticky. edges. fusible. top. The wick is inflammable. bottom. tough. middle. white. fibrous. flexible. Use. — ^To give light. The children should be asked, What must be done be- fore the candle gives light ? What becomes of the wick? What of the wax ? LESSON XXVIII. A PEN. A pen presents many different parts ; the qualities of some of these are opposite to the qualities of others. Ideas to be developed by ' this lesson — angular, grooved. spo7igy. Parts. Qualities. The quill. The quill is transparent. shaft. cylindrical. feather. hollow. lamina?. bright. pith. hard. nib. elastic. split. yellowish. shoulders. horny. A PEN. Parts. Qualities. The surface. The shaft is opaque. faces. angular. skin. solid. groove. white. inside. stiff. outside. hard. grooved The pith is white. spongy. porous. elastic. soft. 67 68 THIBD STEP. — LESSON I. THIED STEP. INTKODUCTORY EEMAEKS FOR THE DIEECTION OF THE TEA(5nEK. In tMs series the children may be led to the observation of qualities which cannot be discerned merely by the senses. Thus by showing them at the same time wool and woollen cloth, and questioning them as to the difference of the two, they will readily conceive the ideas of natural and artificial. In this manner they may be led to remark the distinction between foreign and 7iative/ exotic and i7idi' genous / animal^ vegetable^ mineral^ c5c. At this Step the conceptive powers should be more de- cidedly called into exercise ; the way for this is prej^ared by the clearness and vividness of the ideas obtained through the careful cultivation of perception. LESSON I. CHALK. What is this? Apiece of chalk. Where do we get chalk ? Out of the earth. What are those places called out of which chalk is taken ? Chalk pits. God has placed CHALl?- 69 a ffreat deal of chalk in the earth in some countries, so that it rises up and forms low, rounded hills. Where have you ever seen a hill ? Chalk, you say, comes out of the earthy dug from chalk pits. Paper, you remember, is 7nade by man — leather is prepared by man, but chalk is neither made nor prepared by man ; and it is therefore said to be a natural substance. Why is chalk said to be natural? Because it is neither made nor prepared by man. Why do you think that this is chalk? It is white. Yes, chalk is white., but milk is white also ; how then do you know chalk from milk? Milk is liquid. Yes, the chalk does not flow or form itself into drops ; it is in a solid lump. Chalk is solido Why do we call it solid? Because it does not form drops, but is found in a lump. Now look at this lump of sugar ; this, like the chalk, is white and solid ; how do we know it from the chalk ? It is sparkling. Yes, and the chalk is dull. Now you have seen that the chalk is white., solid., and dull. Look at it again. We cannot see through it. What then can you say of it ? It is opaque. Thus by the sense of sight you dis- cover that chalk is white., solid, dull, and opaque. Now feel the chalk. It feels very dry. Rub it. It crumbles. Into what condition does it crumble? That of a powder. Chalk is dry and crumbling. What hap- pens when I draw the chalk across the slate ? Some of the chalk remains on the slate, and leaves a mark. That is because the chalk is crumbling. What quality of chalk makes it useful to us ? That of its beinsc crumbling^. Who gave it this most useful quality ? God. Yes ; God, who made the chalk, made it of a crumbling nature. 70 THIRD STEP.— LESSON 11. And now tell me another sense by which we find out a quality, in addition to those of sight and touch ? The sense of smell. Well, smell of the chalk. It has no smell ; it is inodorous. How do you find out that sugar is sweet ? By tasting it. But as chalk is not meant to be eaten, you need not taste it, though you may put it to your tongue, and tell me what you observe. It sticks to the tongue. Yes; repeat together: " Chalk sticks to the iongueP Where have you seen chalk used? To write on the black board. Now all of you repeat everything you have learned about chalk. " Chalk is dug out of chalk pits. There is so much chalk in the earth in some countries, that it forms hills. Chalk is a natural substance, of great use to man. When we look at chalk we find that it is white, solid, dull, and opaque y' by feeling it w^c find that it is dry and sticks to the tongue / it is cfrmnhling, and therefore useful for loriting with; it is inodorous / and it is used for writing on the black board." LESSON II. COAL. I hold in my hand a piece of a natural substance, and I wish you to tell me what it is ? But first tell me what I mean by a natural substance ? That which is not made by man. The natural substance which I hold in my hand was dug out of the earth ; it is black, and very useful to man ; guess what it is. Yes, it is a piece of coal. Why did you COAL. ^1 think it to be coal ? Because you said that it was black, and that it came out of the earth, and was useful to man. What quality of coal is it which makes it so useful to man? Its being so inflamonahle. How is it that this quality of coal makes it so useful ? Because we can cook our food, and warm our rooms with it. Yes ; how sad it would have been last winter, if there had not been coals for fires. Who made coals inflammable ? God. How very good is our Heavenly Father in giving to different things differing qualities, that they may be of varied use to man ! He has caused some to be liquid, that we may drink them / some to be wholesome, that we may be nourished by them ; some to be crumbling, that" we may icrite with them ; and some to be inflammable, that we may be luarmed by them. ISTow examine this piece of coal. It is very bright, and it is opaque. Repeat together : " Coal is very bright^ and it is opaqiieP Feel it. It is hard, solid, and brittle. Re- peat together: "Coal \s>hard^ solid^ brittle.^'' Sometimes, teacher, there are little bright yellow patches in tlie coal. Yes, those are little bits of iron ; and we sometimes find pieces of slate in the coal, and then we say it is not good, it will not hum well. What use do we make of coal ? We cook our food and warm our rooms with it. What other use is made of coal ? Gas is made from it. What is the use of gas? To light the streets. What other use is made of coal ? It is used in producing steam. What does steam come from ? From boiling water. What makes the water boil so as to be- come steam ? The fire. And what makes the best fire ? Coal. If we cannot get coal, what could we use instead of 72 . THIED STEP. — LESSON HI. it ? Wood. And what must we do to get wood ? We must cut down our trees. Now repeat together your les- son upon coal : " Coal is a natural substance dug out of the earth y it is very useful to maji^ because it is very inflarri' radble. It is blacky bright^ brittle^ hard^ and opaque. It is useful for cooMng our food and loarming our rooms / for making gas, and producing steam, and also for many other purposes." LESSON in. A MATCH. Do you know what this is ? Yes, teacher, it is a match. Are matches found ready made ? No. How do we get them ? They are made by some person. Tell me then what the different parts of a match are. The sulphur and the wood. And where is the sulphur put ? At the end of the match. How many ends has the match ? Two. Do you observe any other parts ? The sides. Then the parts of a match are, the wood^ the sulphur, the e7idst the sides. And now tell me what is sulphur? Where does it come from ? It comes out of the earth. Who can tell me what we call things which are dug out of the earth, but which do not grow out of it ? Stones. No ; we do not call everything dug out of the earth stone ; I think some of you will recollect a very useful thing, which, though it is dug out of the earth, we do not call a stone ; what is it ? Yes, coal. But you would not call coal a stone, would' you, or sulphur ? No ; but everything that is dug out of the earth may be called a mineral. What then is a min- eral ? And now tell me what sulphur is. It is a mineral. A MATCH. 73 Why is sulphur said to be a mineral ? ]N"ame any other minerals you know. Now look carefully at the sulphur, and tell me some- thing about it. It is yellow. Yes ; all of you repeat to- gether : " Sulphur is yellow?'* See, I put some of it to a lighted candle. It is on fire. What do you say those things are that readily take fire ? They are inflammable. SuljDhur is inflcwiindble. Did you notice anything more in the sulphur when it took fire ? The flame was very blue. Repeat : " Sulphur burns with a blue jlame?'' I think you can find out something more by my having set the sulphur on fire. It gives off a very unpleasant smell. What are those things called that give out a smell ? Sulphur is odor- ous. By what did you find out that sulphur was odorous ? By the nose. What use did you make of your noses then? We smelled with them. By what did you find out that sul- phur was yellow ? By the eye. What use did you make of your eyes then ? We saw with them. There is some- thing more that the fire does to the sulphur ; what is it ? The fire melts it. Repeat : " Sulphur melts when heated." What is the quality that makes sulphur useful to us ? Its being inflammable. Of what is the greater part of this match made ? Of wood. You have told me that sulphur is a mineral, be- cause it is found in the earth ; now what is wood ? It is a vegetable. Yes ; all repeat together : " Wood is vegetable.'*'' What is it taken from ? A tree. What kind of wood is this ? It is pine. Yes ; and here is a picture of the pine tree. Now examine this piece of wood, and tell me something 4 74 THIRD STEP. LESSON III. about it. It is hard ; it is dry ; it is opaque ; in color it is yellowish white. Repeat these qualities of wood all to- gethei* : " Pine wood is hard, dry, opaque, dull ; the color is yellowish white." IS^ow I will put a bit of it to the flame of this candle. It has taken lire : it is inflammable. What difierence did you observe between the sulphur and wood when put into the flame ? The sulphur took fire sooner, and burned with a blue flame. Yes ; and it also melted into drops; but what does wood become w^hen it has been burned ? It becomes ashes. ISTow think a little and try to find out why both sulphur and wood are required in order to make a good match ? The sulphur is used in a match because it takes fire so quickly. And what of the wood ? How long did the sulphur burn ? It burned but a very short time. It would not burn long enough to enable any one to light a candle or fire from it ; but the wood burns a much longer .time ; so we have the sulphur because it takes fire quickly, and sets fire to the wood ; and the w^ood, be- cause it burns much longer, and enables us to light a fire or candle without hurry. Kow you shall repeat all you have said about the match. *' A match is made of wood and sulphur. The sulphur is placed at one end j it is a miner cd substance, and comes out of the earth / it is yelloio ; it is very inflammable, burning with a blue flame ; it also melts in fire, and is very odorous. Wood is a vegetable substaaice, and comes from a tree called a pine tree. The wood is inflammable, but it does not burn away so fast as the sulphur / it burns to ashes / its color is yellowish lohite y it is hard^ dry^ dull, and opaque,'''' A ROSE LEAF. ^5 LESSON IV. A KOSE LEAF. What is this ? It is a leaf. Where are leaves found ? On plants and trees. What leaves do cows and horses eat ? Those of the grass. What leaves do we sometimes eat ? Cabbage leaves and spinach, &c. Do you know a word by which you can at once speak of trees, and grass, and cab- bages ? What is one of the largest vegetables you have ever seen ? An elm tree. Tell me the name of a smaller one. Wheat. Tell me of one we often eat. Lettuce. What are all these called ? Vegetables. Where do vege- tables come from ? They grow out of the ground. If I had a piece of land without any vegetables growing ujDon it, what must I do to raise some ? You must sow some seed in it. Where must I put the seed ? In the earth. If I were to sow some grass seed, what would follow ? Some grass would spring up. And what would it be at first ? Very small. If it were healthy, would it continue so small ? No. What would it do ? It would grow. If I were to put an acorn in the ground, what would happen ? A little root would burst out of it and go down into the ground, and a little green shoot would come up and put out some little leaves. Yes, and at first it would be very small ; but it would grow^ so that in many years it would become a great oaJc. But would the same occur if I buried a piece of flint or coal in the earth ? No. These do not grow out of the earth as vegetables do. Kow you know the difference between a mineral ?md a VG THIRD STEP. LESSON IV. vegetable. Look at tins leaf, and tell me its different parts. By what part do I hold it ? The stalk. What does the stalk bear ? The leaf. The stalk that bears a leaf is called the leaf stalk ; what is this ? A leaf stalk. Find out some ' of the parts of the leaf. The edge. Here are two leaves, one from a rose tree, the other from the plant on which the lily grows ; what difference do you observe in the edges of them ? The rose leaf has little points, which the Uly leaf has not. Yes ; the points are called teeth, because they are hke the sharp pointed teeth of some animals ; and an edge, that has such points, is said to be toothed. What is this edge ? It is toothed. Why is it said to be toothed ? Be- cause it has points like the teeth of some animals. Find out some other parts of this leaf. There is a line down the middle of it. Yes ; that line is called the mid- rib. See whether the midrib is the same on both sides of the leaf. It sinks in on one side and stands out on the other. Which of you can tell me what they call the hol- low line made by the plough in a ploughed field ? A fur- row. And what do they call the raised part on each side of it? A rid2:e. What is the midrib like on this side of the leaf? A furroio. And on this side it is like a ridge. Now you see there are two sides or surfaces to the leaf; by what names would you distinguish them ? When the loaf is on the tree, which side is uppermost? This, therefore, is called the u^yper side ; and what w^ould you call the other ? The under side. Look carefully at the leaf again. There are other lines upon it. Where do these lines spring from ? From the midrib. And where do they end ? In the edge. These lines are called the veins ; in A KOSE LEAF. ' V7 I what are they like the midrib ? They sink in like furrows on the upper side of the leaf, and rise up like ridges on the under surface of it. Do you see any other part. The end. The point or end is oi:)posite to the stalk. Now tell me some of the qualities of the leaf; what can you say of it ? It is green ; it is rather bright. Look again, and see if both sides are bright. No ; the under side is dull. Here arc several leaves ; what difference do you observe in their upper and under surfaces? The ui')per surface is the brighter. Feel of the rose leaf. It is thin ; it is soft. Anything more ? It bends easily. What do you say of a thing which bends easily? It is pliable. What can you then say of this leaf? It is pliable. What more do you notice when you feel of it ? It is light and smooth. What is its shape ? It is round. (The teacher draws a correct circle on the black board.) What, is it like this in shape ? No, not quite I Avill draw the shape of an Qg^ ; which is it more like ? It is more like the shape of the o^g. We call the shape of an Qgg oval ; what would you say is the shape of this leaf? It is oval. Now you must let me hear you all together repeat the heads of this lesson on the rose leaf. " A rose leaf is a veg- etahle substance j it grows on a leaf stalJc / it has a toothed edge ; it has a midrib^ which is like a farrow on the ?/p^;er side^ and like a ridge on the under side / it has also many veins^ which are like furrows on the upper side, and like ridges on the under side. Its color is green ; its shape is oval. To the touch it is thifi, soft, smooth ; it is 2^l^(^l^l(^ / the upper side is rather bright, and. the under side is duU.''^ 78 THIRD STEP.— LESSON V. LESSON V. HONEY COMB. What is this ? A piece of honey comb. Where does it come from ? A bee hive. Who placed it in the hive ? The bees made it there. Can you tell me how the bees made it ? No, I am sure you cannot. They have no hands, nor tools, yet see how beautifully it is made ; not one of you could form such a piece of comb. Where did the bees learn how to make the comb ? Yes ; God taught them, and enabled them to do it well. He has taught all animals to do whatever is necessary to their comfort. Now look at the honey comb, and tell me what you see. It is full of holes. The holes are called cells. What parts do you see in the cells ? What do we call that part of this room in which the windows are, and where the door is ? The sides. Well, see what the cells have ? They have sides. Count how many sides each cell has. Yes ; each cell has six sides. Look- again at the room, and tell me what you call those parts of it in which the sides meet each other. The corners. And what has each cell ? It has corners. How many corners has each cell ? — count them. Six. Re- peat ; '^ Each cell has six corners.'^'' When you look into the cell, what part of it do you see? The bottom, or floor of it. And what is the other end called ? The top. What is there round the top ? An edge. Now try to find out some qualities of the honey comb; you may take it in your fingers. It is very light and sticky. Now look at it. It is dull. It is yellow. Hold it up HONEY COMB. 79 to the light. Is it transparent, or is it quite opaque? What do you observe? We see the light through it. When you see light through a substance it is said to be translucent. Why is this honey comb said to be translu- cent ? Because we can see the light through it. Now look at it as I press it in my fingers. I have crushed it ; it is hrittle. Now I put it into the flame of a candle ; it melts. When does it melt ? When it is heated. It is fusible. What use does the bee make of the cells ? It stores up honey in them. And where does the bee get the honey ? From flowers. Yes; in summer the bee collects honey, which it stores up in some of the cells ; but it also uses others of the cells for another purpose ; the young bees are kept in them, and these are fed and watched by the old bees till they get their wings, and then they fly, and begin to work themselves. And what do we make of the honey comb ? We melt it down into wax. And what use do we make of the wax? We make candles of wax. Yes; and we rub furniture with it, to make it bright. I should think that some of you have seen wax used for other purposes be- side these. Yes, teacher, my mother uses it. What does she use wax for ? She rubs her thread with it to make it firm and strong. Now repeat all you know about the honey comb. " Honey comb is made by hees^ who put into it the honey they get from. Jlozmrs. It is formed of a number of little cells, each of which has six sides, and six corners, a bottom, or floor, and a to2:) with an edge. Wax is very lir/ht, thin, and sticky y its color is light yelloio / it is dull / it is translucent y it is hrittle, and melts luhen heated. We 80 THIliD STEl'. LESSOX M. use it to make candles and to polish furniture; it is used to strengthen threads LESSON VI. A BUTTERFLY. What is this ? It is a butterfly. What is a butterfly ? An insect. What is an insect ? It is neither a vegetable nor a mineral ; it is an animal, ISTow examine the butterfly, and tell me its different parts. It has wings. How many wings has a butterfly? Four. What difference do you observe in these four wings ? Two of them are large and two are small. What can it do with its wings ? It can fly. Where are the wings placed ? Two on each side of the body. In what position are the wings when the insect is flying ? Are they in the direction of the walls of the room, or of the ceihng ? They are in the direction of the ceil- ing.^* In what other direction does the butterfly some- times place its wings ? It sometimes puts them upright, so that they touch each other ; but when it flies they are always spread open. If you had a piece of thin paper, which you wished to float on the air, would you roll it up, or spread it out ? I should spread it out. Yes ; then the air would support it. What does the butterfly do that is like this ? f It opens its wings and spreads them out. * If the children have learned the diflcreuce between the horizontal and vertical position, they may here apply their knowledge. \ The youngest children should be led to the observation of facts. The reasoning upon them, and drawing conclusions from them, is the work of a later period. A BUTTEEFLY. 81 What more do you observe in the butterfly's wings? They are beautifully marked. See, I rub the wings with my finger. What do you perceive ? The color comes off. There is a kind of down upon the wings which is easily rubbed off. Repeat together : " The butterfly has four loings^ two of them are large and two small. They are placed on either side of the body. When it flies the wings are spread out; when at rest, they are often upright. They are covered with beautifully colored down^ which is very easily rubbed off.'''' l^ow what other part do you observe in the butterfly ? The legs. How many legs has a butterfly ? It has six legs. Where are they placed ? Underneath the body. What can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can walk. Does it use them much in walking? ISTo, What do you generally see a butterfly doing ? Flying about. And when it is not flying, what is it doing? It is standing. What does it stand upon ? Its legs. When we ourselves walk or move along we bend our legs ; what do we call that part where the leg bends? We call it a joint. And what can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can bend them. What then must it have upon its legs? Joints. Repeat together what you know of the butterfly's legs : "The butterfly has six legs placed under its body ; the legs have joints ; it uses its legs chiefly to stand upon.'''' Now find out another part of the butterfly. Its body. What sort of a body has it ? It is long and small. You may call it slender. Where is the body placed? Be- tween the wings. What more do you observe in it ? It is covered with hairs. Repeat together : " The body of the 4* 82 THIRD STEP. LESSON VI. butterfly is slender and covered with hairs ; it is placed between its imigsP What other part do you see ? The head. And what has the butterfly upon its head ? It has horns. How many ? Two. What sort of horns are they ? They are long. And what more ? Fine. What do you observe as to the ends of these ? They are thick. The horns of the butterfly always end in thick knobs. What more do you see on the head ? Eyes. Ho^v many ? Tvro. What is the use of the eyes ? They are to see with. Look again at the head ; there are some things that stick out. These are called feelers ; most insects have four feelers. Look, here is something which I draw out from between the feelers. What is it like ? It is like a rolled up hair. This is the butterfly's mouth, and it is called a trunk. Which of you can tell me Vv^hat butterflies feed upon ? Honey. And where do they find honey? In flowers. Yes ; generally at the bottom of the flowers. Could they get at it if they had mouths like yours and mine ? No. What then is the particular use of such a mouth as this to a butterfly ? To get at the honey at the bottom of the flowers. Yes, the butterfly darts its trunk into the flowers, and as it is hollow, it can suck up the sweet honey through it. What pleasure you will now have in observing a but- terfly, and in thinking that God has given it just such a mouth as an insect which feeds on honey needs, while ours is the best for us ! Now repeat together the names of the parts of the butterfly's head : " The butterfly has two eyes on its head^ and two horns^ which are lo7ig^ each ending in a Jcnoh, It has four feelers ; between two of which is • A BUTTEKFLY 83 placed its mouthy which is a long curled-up irwik ; it darts this trunk into floioers to get at the honey?'' The children's remarks upon the color and marks of the butterfly must be determined by the particular species of that brought before them. The teacher should lead them to admire its beauty, and to observe the happy life it seems to lead, and then draw attention to the sin of teasing a little creature which God has formed to be happy, and of injur- ing that ^vhich God has made so beautiful. ISTo opportu- nity should be lost of endeavoring to counteract that pro- pensity to cruelty which is so common in children ; this evil disposition springs generally from a love of showing power; they should therefore be encouraged to exercise any power God may have bestowed, in increasing the hap- piness of all His creatures. They should .be early trained to feel that they are accountable for every faculty they possess, even for their power over the most insignificant insect. In what kind of weather do butterflies come out ? In fine sunshiny weather. How do they employ themselves ? In flying about and gathering honey. Would it be right in us to imitate the butterfly ? l^o ; because God has given us all work to do, and tells us in His Word to be as industrious as the ant. The life of the butterfly is short, it . needs but to provide for the present day ; but we should labor while v/e have youth and strength, that we may not be a burden to others when we become old. ISTow repeat together all that we have said of the but- terfly. " The butterfly is an insect : it has four wings, two of which are large and two are small ; when it flies these 84 THIRD STEP. LESSON VII. are spread out ; they are covered with beautiful down, which is easily nibbed off: between the wings is the body, which is long and slender, and covered with soft hairs ; under its body are six legs, w^hich hi\.\Q joints ; it does not use its legs much in walking, but chiefly in standing : upon the head there are two long horns, with knobs at the end ; two eyes; four feelers ; between two of the feelers is placed the mouth, which is a long, hollow trunk, curled up when not in use ; it darts this trunk into flowers, to get at the honey, upon which it feeds." LESSON VII. EECAPITULATION. Here are the four objects upon which you have had les- sons this week. What are they ? A match, a leaf, a piece of honey comb, and a butterfly. Which of these is made by man ? The match. What things must the person have who would make a match ? Sulphur and wood. What kind of a substance is sulphur ? It is a mineral substance. And what is wood ? It is a vegetable substance. Upon what other vegetable substance have you had a lesson ? A leaf. Are the leaf and the wood whole vegetables ? N'o ; they are but parts of vegetables. The butterfly is a whole animal. Tell me the name of another animal. A dog. I will write the names of these two animals on the board — butterfly, dog. !N"ow, tell me the names of two whole veg- etables, that I may write them down also. A rose tree, wheat. InTow of two minerals. Sulphur and flint. We have now two animals, two vegetables, and two minerals. RECAPITULATION. 85 Now tell me what can the butterfly do ? It can fly.* What can the dog do ? It can run. Can the dog fly, or the butterfly run ? No. But can you not find out some- thing that we can say is done by both of them, when the one flies and the other runs ? They both move. In what manner does the butterfly move ? It flies from flower to flower. Whom does the butterfly please in thus flying from flower to flower ? Itself. The butterfly flies about when- ever it pleases. And when the dog runs about or lies down to sleep, whom is he j)leasing? Himself. Then the dog- moves about whenever Aejs^^easesy what then can you say that both these animals do ? They move about as they please. But now think a' little about these vegetables, and tell me how in this respect they difier from the animals. The vegetables cannot move about. Did yon never see a tree move ? Yes ; when the wind blows. In what then is its mo vino; different from the moving;; of an animal ? The ani- mal moves about when and where it likes, but the tree does not move from j)lace to place ; its branches move when the wind blows them. But think what vegetables do. If I wished to have a crop of wheat in my field, what must I do ? Sow some seed. Yes ; I must put the little seed into the ground ; and what then ? It will spring up. And what will it become at last ? Wheat. Yes ; a plant of wheat with a stem^ and leaves^ and a head. But what must have happened to the vegetable when, from being a little seed, * Of course it is impossible to anticipate the exact answers of children, but the points here dwelt upon are those to which the teacher should direct observation by questions. 86 THIRD STEP. — LESSON VIII. it has become a large plant ? It must have grown. What then do vegetables do ? They grow. Yes ; vegetables grow. Do anunals also grow? Yes. Tell me hov^ you know that animals grow. We had a little kitten, which is now a great cat. What can you say of animals? That they grow, and move about where they please. What can you say of vegetables ? That they grow. But now think about minerals ; supposing I put this piece of flint into the ground, as I might a seed ; if I came in a fortnight, might I expect to see any part of it above the earth ? No. Why not ? If I had put in a seed I should expect to see a .little shoot coming up. Yes ; be- cause the vegetable grows, but the mineral does not grow. Well, then, you have found out that animals gi'ow^ and move about as they please ; vegetables grow ; minerals neither grow nor move from place to place. LESSON VIII. SKETCH OF A LE3S0X ON THE MASSACEE OF THE CHILDEEN OF BETHLEHEM. Intended for Children of 7iine or ten years of age. I. Picture examined. — Get the children to examine the picture, telling what they see ; as, a man, a woman, a child. The man looks strong and fierce, holds a knife or dagger in one hand, a child in the other by one of its legs. The in- fant seems frightened ; its mouth is open ; it is crying. The woman is kneeling at the feet of the man, stretching out her arms toward the child ; she looks frightened and im- MASSACRE OF THE CHILDREN OF BETHLEHEM. 87 ploring. What does this mean ? What does it appear the man is about to do with the infant ? Why is the woman so imploring ? Thus introduced, endeavor to make the children picture to themselves the distressing scene recorded in Matthew ii, 16-18 ; how wretched the poor mothers must have been to see their helpless infants torn from them, and murdered be- fore their eyes, by brutal men sent for that purpose— and probably in every house a murder ; expressed in the lan- guage of Jeremiah, " lamentation, and weeping, and great mourning." n. Narrative told.—Beve read or detail to the children the circumstances that led to this general massacre of poor unoffending babes; questioning them, to ascertain that they are following the teacher. The wise men's visit— they apply to Herod for information as to the birthplace of the King of Israel, who hears them with astonishment — ^he consults the scribes, who point out Bethlehem as the place of Messiah's birth— he is moved with jealousy, fearing that his throne will be taken from him— under a mask of hypocrisy he di- rects the wise men to find out the new-born Prince, and requests them to return to him with tidings, that he may go and worship Him also — an angel tells them to return to their own country another way — Herod's disappointment — he orders the slaughter of all the children of a certain age, both in Bethlehem and the neighborhood, that among them the Saviour might fall — with fearful exactness his commands were carried out — an example of which we see in the picture before us. JTT. God^s Providence, — ^Lead the children to consider 88 THIRD STEP. LESSON VIII. how God overruled Herod's wicked design, and preserved the infant Jesus. What did Herod think he had done ? Defeated the indications of the star, and accompUshed his own will in opposition to that of the Almighty. But had he done so ? Remark that whatever crafty, cruel devices were in his heart, the counsel of the Lord must stand. This event formed another accomplishment of the words of the prophet Jeremiah (xxxi, 15-17). Thus, also, the date of Christ's birth was publicly marked, and all others who could have pretended to be the Messiah, as having been born at Bethlehem about the same time, were cut off. Lead the children next to see that Joseph knew neither the danger the Child was in, nor, if he had known it, was he aware of any way to escape ; but an angel appears and tells him of both. '^ Take the young Child by night, and flee into Egypt." Thus the infant Jesus was rescued. How vain is it for man to contend against the Almighty ! IV. Practical application. — ^Direct the children, by questions, to observe the main ideas in the preceding parts of the lesson, and to make a threefold application : 1st, "What the cruelty of Herod suggests. 2d, What the work- ings of God's providence. 3d, The preservation of the in- fant Jesus. 1st. From the cruelty of Herod we learn to what lengths wicked men will go when they give way to evil passions, and how guarded we should be against envy and jealousy. 2d. From the working of God's overruling providence, we see how He can thwart and baffle the wicked designs of men, and make their wrath to praise Him. But can the A t^UlLL 89 Messiah, Who is to be the consolation of Israel, be intro- duced with all this lamentation? Yes; 1st, for so it was foretold ; and 2d, if wq look further, we shall find that the weeping in Kamah was but a forerunner to the greatest joy; for it follows: "Thy work shall be rewarded, and there is hope in thy end ; " " Unto them a child was born," sufficient to repair their losses. 3d. From the preservation of the Saviour, we learn the security of God's people, which may be also seen in the case of David, who said : " I will not be afraid of ten thousands of people that have set themselves against me round about." LESSON^ IX, A OUILL. This subject is taken as it brings up many terms ] viously developed. Parts. ( Qualities. The quill. It is long. shaft. stiff. ends. useful. feather. natural. laminae. animal substance inside. The barrel is transparent. outside. hard. groove. elastic. surface. bright. faces. yellowish. pith. cylindrical. skin. hollow, light. The shaft is feathered. 90 THIllD STEP. ^LESSON X. Qualities. The shaft is white, stiff, hard, opaque, solid. ai:gular. grooved. Children may be led to remark the difference which fire produces on animal and vegetable substances, both as to appearance and smell. The teacher now requires the class to give an explana- tion in their own words of the terms they have used. L-ESSON X. A PENNY. Idea to be developed in L this lesson — metallic. Parts. Qualities. The surface. It is round. faces. flat. edges. mineral. milling. metallic. impression. ^ opaque. image. bright. superscription. reddish white. date. fusible. hard. artificial.* heavy. durable, uneven. * The class should be led to remark that, though the workmanship is artificial, the substance is natural. MUSTAED SEED. 91 LESSON XI. MUSTARD SEED. Ideas to be developed by tbis lesson — indigenous^ pul- verahle, spherical. Qualities, It is pungent, yellow, hard. pulverable. indigenous, spherical, stimulating. It is dull, opaque, .dry. natural, vegetable, solid. LESSON XII. AN APPLE. Idea to be developed — membranaceous. Qualities, It is spherical. V ^ odorous, •colored. ■' opaque. ^ natural. ^ vegetable, ■^juicy. V hard. V solid. - pleasant. The eye ia^dry. '^ brown. V shrivelled. A The seeds are brown on the outside when ripe, white in the in- side, hard. The core is membranace^ ous. stiff, yellow, hard. semi-transpa- rent. 92 THIKD STEP. — LESSON XIII. LESSON XIII. GLASS OF A WATCH. The ideas to be develoj^ed by this lesson — concave and convex. Parts.* Qualities, It is artificial, transparent, brittle, bright, thin, hard, clear, curved. The upper face is convex. The under face concave. The edge circular. IJses. — ^To preserve the hands of the watch from being injured, and to keep the works from dust. LESSON XIV. BEOWN SUGAR. The idea to be developed by this lesson — native. Qualities. It is brown. It is useful. granulous. vegetable substance, sweet. artificial, soluble. native, fusible. sticky, opaque. moist. * The children should be ?sked whether there are any parts to this ob- ject peculiar to it ; and when, as in the watch glass, there are not, the naming of the parts had better be omitted. AN ACORN. 93 Use. — ^To sweeten our food. Obtained from the sugar cane, which is cultivated in the East and West Indies, and some of the Southern States. LESSOl^ XV. AN ACOEN. Ideas to be developed — oval^ scaly. Parts. Qualities. The cup. It is vegetable. berry. natural. nut. hard. point of the nut. green. scar. opaque. scales. The nut is ovaL surface. bright. edges. solid. The cup is dull. The inside is concave. smooth. The outside is rough. brownish. scaly. The edge is circular. LESSON^ XVI. A PIECE OF HONEY COMB. Ideas to be developed — compressible') hexagonal^ reg- ular. Parts. Qualities. The cells. It is natural. divisions. animal production. 94 THIRD STEP. LESSON XVII. Parts. Qualities, The edges. It is light. base of cells. fusible. corners. sticky. surface. dull. faces. semi-transparent, yellowish, thin. _ compressible, brittle. The cells are hexagonal, regular, hollow. LESSON XVII. BEFINED SUGAR. The ideas to be developed by this le^mw—^crystalUr amorphous^ refined. Parts. Qualities. The surface. It is white. edges. sweet. middle. sj)arkling. crystals. crystalline. grains. solid. pores. fusible. soluble. shapeless or amorphous, hard. refined. nutritious. crumbling. opaque. artificial. vegetable substance. brittle. A COEK. 95 Brought from the East and West Indies or the Southern States in its raw state. Refined by sugar bakers, and sold by grocers in loaves of a conical form. LESSOI!^ XVIII. A COEK. Parts, Qualities, The ends. It is light. surface. compressible. faces. elastic. edges. opaque. dry. light brown. - solid. - porous. - smootho cylindrical.- duU. inflammable, vegetable. - The form is artificial. The substance is natural. Uses. — ^To stop bottles, to buoy people up in the water. Children to determine what qualities fit it for its use. LESSON XIX. GLUE. Idea to be developed — tenacious. Qualities. It is translucent. When melted, it is tough. mahogany brown. adhesive. 96 THIRD STEP. LESSON XX. Qualities. It is hard. When melted, it is sticky, solid. elastic, animal substance. tenacious, artificial. LESSON XX. PACKTHREAD. Ideas to be developed — tioisted^ slender. Qualities. It is dry. It is durable. dull. light brown. tAvistcd. vegetable substance. flexible. inflammable. tough. soft. opaque. slender. fibrous. solid. artificial. rough. LESSOI^ XXI. HONEY. Qualities. It is sweet. It is a vegetable substance. fluid. natural. thick. nourishincr. CD liquid. healing. yellow. opaque. sticky. LESSON XXII BUri'ER CUP. Parts, Qualities. The petals. It is vegetable. margins or edges. concave. A LADY BIRD. 97 Parts. Qualities. The cnj). It is natural, leaflets of cup. odorous, stamens. The petals are yellow, pistils. glossy in the inside, stalk. dull on the outside, place of insertion. circular, inside. pointed at the place of outside. insertion, surface. striped. opaque. pliable. The leaflets are greenish. thin. membranaceous. semi-transparent. pointed. The stalk is green. * grooved. angular. stiif. fibrous. LESSON XXIII. A LADY DIED. Ideas to be developed — hemispherical, fictgil^'i jointed. Parts. Qualities, The head. It is animal, eyes. natural, feelers or palpi. hemispherical, horns, or antennae. The wing cases are red. wings. spotted, wing cases, or elytra, bright, thorax. hard. 5 98 THIED STEP. ^LESSON XXIV. Parts. Qualities, The legs. The wing cases are brittle, body. opaque, back. stiff, spots. The outside is convex, surface. The inside is concave, claws. One margin straight. The other curved. The wings are membranaceous, pliable, thin. transparent, fragile. The body is oval. black. The legs are jointed, short, black. LESSON XXIV. AN OYSTEE. Ideas to be developed- —marine., pearly., irregular. Parts. Qualities. The valves. It is animal. ^ hinge. opaque.- ontside. marine. inside. natural.- margin. The valves are circular. impressions. hard. moUusk. stiff. scales or laminae. pulverable. The outside is rough. scaly or laminated. A FIR CONE. 99 Qualities, The outside is irregular. dull. dingy brown. uneven. The inside is pearly. bright. smooth. slightly concave. The mollusk is soft. edible. nutritious. cold. smooth. slippery. lesso:n' xxy. A riK CONE. Ideas to be developed — co7iicaI, tiled or imhricated^ keeled. Parts. Qualities, The scales. It is broTni. seeds. opaque, top. hard, place of insertion. vegetable, fibres. natural, surface. conical, staljj^ tiled or imbricated. inflammable, odorous. The scales are stiff, dull. The outside is light brown. 100 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON XXVI. Qualities. * The outside is pointed at the top. rough. irregularly conicaL The inside of scales is chestnut color. shaded, keeled. LESSON XXVI. EUK. Ideas to be developed — tubular, inanimate. Parts. Qualities. The skin. It is an animal substance, hair. It is hairy, surface. inanimate, points of hair. The hairs are flexible. slender, soft, tubular, straight. The hairs are pointed. The skin is stiff. The color and other peculiarities to be decided by the specimen presented. LESSON XXYII. A LAUREL LEAF. Parts. Qualities. The upper face. It is oval. under face. smooth. edge or margin. pointed. point or termination. vegetable, A NEEDLE. Parts, Qualities. The veins. It is I odorous. midrib. opaque. base. bitter. stalk. stiff, long. 101 The rib is straight. raised, or keeled on the under side, grooved on the upper side. The veins are curved. The margin is curved. slightly toothed. The upper face is bright. The under face is dull. LESSON xxvm. A NEEDLE. Parts. The eye. shank, point. ^ Qualities. It is a mineral.^ metallic, artificial. opaque.- bright. tapering. - pointed. - slender. - useful. - gray or steel color. hard. brittle.- solid. steel.- 102 THIED STEP. — ^LESSON XXIX. Made of steel, which is a preparation of iron, having been subjected to great extremes of heat and cold. LESSON XXIX. A PLANT AND A STONE. To develop the ideas of organs^ orgmiized^ and inor- ganized. To give the class an idea of organized and inorganized, a plant and a stone may be shown ; and questions given, such as the following : Teacher, — If I put thes-e two into the earth, and visit them in a month, what great difference might I expect to perceive in them ? Children. — ^The plant will have grown ; the stone will have remained of the same size. Teacher. — How did the plant increase ? Children. — It absorbed moisture. Teacher. — By what means ? Children. — Through its roots and pores. Teacher. — ^Did this nourish only the roots ? Children, — No. Teacher. — You are right ; the sap was produced which circulated through the plant by means of vessels. Now those parts of vegetables and animals which do something are called organs ? What do animals hear with ? What do they smell with ? What do they see with ? What do they taste with ? What then may you call the ears, noses, eyes, and mouths of animals ? Children. — Or2:ans. A BELL, 103 Teacher. — l^ame some other organs of animals. CMldren, — Hands, feet, heart, and veins. Teacher. — Kame some of the organs of vegetables. Children.— ^\0q\% stems, leaves, and pores. Teacher. — A body possessing organs is called organized. Name some organized bodies. * Children. — A tree, an insect. Teacher. — Bodies that do not possess any organs are called hiorganized. Name some inorganized bodies or substances. Children. — ^A stone, water, sugar, lead, and salt. The teacher names miscellaneous substances, and the children decide whether they are organized or inorganized. She then calls upon the children to name all the organized bodies they can think of, which are written on the board in one column. Another column may be made in the same way of inor- ganized substances. Qualities of Stone. It is hard. It is cold, inorganized. opaque, mineral. solid, natural. irregular in form, or amor- phous. LESSON XXX. A BELL. Ideas to be developed in this lesson — sonorous and the peculiar parts. Parts. Qualities. The barrel. It is metallic. 104 THIKD bl\EP. LESSON XXXI. Parts. Qualities, The ears, cannon. 1 It is artificial. handle, I hard. according j elastic. to the sort. J sonorous. clapper. cold. rim. . hollow. surface. concave. inside. heavy. outside. rim circular. clapper spherical. Difierent kinds of bells. House bells ^ pulled by wires passing from one part of a house to another part v/here they are rung. Church bells, suspended at the upper part of the building, pulled by ropes; — when there are several bells of difierent tones, they form a peal or chime ; — when one is rung slowly, it is said to be tolled. Hand bells, swung by the hand — some used in houses, some by milkmen, &c. Cow bells, hung on the neck of a cow. Uses of Bells. — To give notice of difierent things — in the house, of difierent people arriving, servants wanted — in a church, the time of divine service is marked, deaths and funerals announced by tolling, marriages and happy events by a peak The cow bell is used to tell where the cow is. Horse bells to give warning to people on the street of the approach of a sleigh. LESSON^ XXXI. A WHEEL. Ideas to be developed in this lesson — circular, diverge ing, and the peculiar parts. A WHEEL. 105 Parts, Qualities, The nave. The rim is circular.* box. divided, spokes. wooden, arm of the axletree. thick, linchj^in. The tire is circular, rim composed of felloes. entire, tire or band. iron, rivets. thin, centre. The spokes are straight, circumference. equal in length. wooden. diverging from the nave. The relative position and proportion of the different parts should form a part of the exercise. The nave is in the centre ; the spokes diverge from the nave to the rim, and are all of equal length, if not, the rim would not form a perfect circle ; the tire is outside the rim, and forms, of course, a larger circle than the rim which it encloses ; the arm of the axle fits into the box ; the felloes are parts of a circle, and are joined together, forming the rim.f The children should also be led, as an additional exer- cise, to see the use and adaptation of the different parts. The box to receive the arm of the axletree upon which the * The children will probably say, round. They should be led to see that this is a very indefinite term, which they apply to a ball as well as to a shilling ; their observation should be directed by questions to the per- ception of how a sphere and a circle differ, and the term circular, given and applied to the wheel before them, and to absent objects of a similar shape. f These parts are mentioned in 1 Kings, vii. 33. 6* 106 TUIED STEP. — LESSON XXXII. wheels turn — the spokes to keep the rim in its circular form and to unite the nave and the rim — the tire to keep all the parts in their place, and to give strength ; the tire is put on when the iron is expanded by great heat, and being suddenly cooled, it contracts, and this binds the whole firmly together. The linchpin passes through the arm of the axle- tree, and keeps it fixed m the box. The use of wheels is, by their rotary motion, to impel carriages of different kinds; the children might name the various vehicles in which they are used ; they might also be led to see that no other form than that of a circle would answer for a wheel. LEsso:Nr XXXII. An exercise which gives a pleasing variety to lessons on objects, and which calls out thought and conception — con- sists in the teacher, instead of presenting an object for ex- amination, giving the children a description of one, and requiring them from the qualities attributed to it to dis- cover what it is. Some judgment is necessary in giving such a lesson, that the children may be led to correct their hasty conclusions, and to see that it is not one quality which decides what a material is, but the combination of several. An example is given, to help the teacher in carrying out the idea. Teacher. — I will tell you the qualities of something I am thinking about, and you must try and find out what it is. It is white and natural. Children,— WiSk ? Teacher. — Ko ; it is solid. FIEE. 107 Childre?i.^Ch£L\k ? Teacher, — No ; it is vegetable and odorous. Children, — ^A white lily ? Teacher. — ^No ; for it is friable and highly inflammable. Now repeat the qualities I have mentioned and think what substance possesses them all. White, natural, solid, vegC' table substance, odorous, and highly inflammable. Children will not fail to find out that it must be cam- phor, having in the third Step had a lesson on this object. It will be obvious that the qualities first mentioned are common to many substances, without sufiiciently distin- guishing any one. The children's conception is therefore engaged m callmg up in their minds a variety of objects familiar to tbem. The art of the teacher is to keep at first in the background distinguishing qualities, so as more thoroughly to stimulate the conception, and in the end to lead the children to see more clearly the peculiar and dis- tinguishing qualities of the substance. LESSON XXXIII. FIEE. Ideas to be developed — consumi7ig^ purifying,, ascend- ing. Qualities. It is bright. It is purifying. reddish yellow. hot. sf)reading. The flames are pointed, consuming. ascending, drying. JIoio produced and fed. — ^Fire can be produced by fric- tion ; rubbmg two pieces of wood or stone briskly togcth- 108 THIED STEP. ^LESSON XXXIU. cr ; the collision of flint and steel occasions sparks that will set fire to any inflammable material ; but lucifer matches, which are tipped with a very combustible substance, are now generally used to produce fire. The fuel that feeds fire is either coal, wood, or j)eat. Effects of fire. — Some substances, as coal, wood, one time they are coming in ; at another going out. ^eacAer.— This is called the ebb and flow of the tide. What is the movement of a river ? Children. — It flows. Teacher. — What eventually becomes of its waters ? Children. — ^They are lost in some ocean or sea. T'eac/ier.— What is that which with us is always flowing on? Childreyi. — Our life. Teacher. — ^To what does it conduct us ? Children. — ^To eternity. Teacher.— Oi what, then, is a river a fit emblem or representation ? Children. — Of life. 126 FOURTH STEr. LESSON IX. Teacher. — Find some passages in the Bible where ^ river is used as an emblem of life. Teacher. — You find the particles of water run about ; will the particles of wood do the same ? Children. — N"o. TeacAe^v— -Why will not the particles of wood flow about ? Children. — Because they stick close together. Teacher. — This is called cohering. When one substance is joined to another it is said to adhere (or stick to) ; when the particles of the same substance stick together, they are said to cohere. The particles of a liquid cohere very slightly, and are therefore easily separated. The particles of a solid cohere closely. LESSON IX. OIL. Qualities of Oil. It is fluid. It is light, yellowish. thick, semi-transparent. inflammable, soft. oleaginous, liquid. Some oils are vegetable, penetrating. Some are animal, emolhent. When bad, it is rancid, greasy. odorous. The vegetable oil is expressed from olives, and is im- ported chiefly from Italy and the south of France. It is also obtained from nuts and some other fruits, and from seeds. BEEK. 127 The animal oil is procured from the blubber or flit of the whale and seal. Birds are furnished Vvdth little bags containing oil ; with this they plume their feathers, and it causes rain and moist- ure to trickle ofl'. Without this provision, the feathers of water fowl would imbibe so much moisture, that they would become too heavy to float on the water. LESSON X. BEER. It is liquid, fluid. Qualities of Beer. It is artificial, odorous. orange color. wholesome. fermented. semi-transparent, slightly intoxicating, strengthening. Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water, boiled to- gether. Hops are the blossoms of a creeping plant, culti- vated in many portions of this country ; the place where they grow is called a ho2y yard. The tub in which the malt is first steeped is called a tnaslimg tub / that which holds the beer when made, a vat ; when wanted for con- sumption, or sale, it is put into barrels. Malt is made of barley, by the following process. A quantity of barley is soaked in water for two or three days ; tlie water being afterward drained off, the grain heats spontaneously, swells, bursts, becomes sweet, and ferments. Vegetables, during decomposition, undergo several degrees of fermentation ; the first (that above described) is called 128 rOUETH STEP. LESSON XI. the saccharine fermentation^ from the sweetness it pro- duces ; sacchar-2 per, silver, and gold require a strong red or white heat ; cast iron melts at a bright white heat ; pure wrought iron is one of the least fusible, and requires the greatest degree of heat that can be obtained from a smith's forge to melt it. Volatilitij.—SQ\Qr2l of the metals ar« volatile, rising in vapor when heated. Mercury slowly evaporates at all tem- peratures above the natural heat of the human body, and boils away rapidly below redness ; zinc also is volatile at a high red heat ; the other common metals are fixed in the fire. Compounds of the Metals.— TnQ metals «an be united not only with each other, but with several of the non- metalHc elements, as sulphur, cai-bon, &c. When the metals are melted together, the compounds are called ALLOYS. These possess the characters of metals, and are of great use in the arts. The most important alloys are- brass, formed of copper and zinc ; pewter, of tin, copper, .&e..; German silver, of nickel, copper, and zinc; solder. 138 FOURTH STEP. — METALS. of tin, lead, &g. When mercury is present, the name amalgam is given to the compound ; the most important amalgam is one of tin, used for silvering looking glasses. It is one of the most remarkable properties of alloys that they generally melt more readily than either of the metals of which they are formed. The use of solder by plumb- ers and workers in tin, zinc, &c., mainly depends upon its being more easily melted than the metals which it is em- ployed to unite. The compounds of the metals with the non-metallic substances are very important. When the metals unite with the oxygen of the air, compounds are formed termed rusts or oxides. Some metals have little disposition to unite with oxygen— that is, to rust ; hence they remain untarnished : as gold, silver, and mercury. Others, as zinc and lead, form a thin layer of rust on the surface, which protects the metal beneath from further change. Others, as iron, rust or oxidize only in damp air. Many of the metals unite with sulphur, forming, as before observed, compounds called sulphurets, or sulphates. The common ores of lead and copper are sulphurets of those metals. Silver, although it does not rust in pure air, unites quickly with any sulphur that may be present, either from the escape of coal gas or from any decaying animal substances, and becomes tarnished by the formation of a thin layer of black sulphuret of silver. General Conversation on the 3Ietals. REMARK. In giving the following lessons, it is desirable to pre- GOLD. 139 sent the specimens to the class in their several natural and artificial states. The teaclier should be particularly care- ful to direct the attention of the children to those qualities in the metal under consideration, upon which its uses de- pend, leading them to trace the adaptation of qualities to certain uses. LESSON XV. GOLD. Qualities of Gold. It is a perfect metal. It is pliable, malleable.* 1. compact, ductile. 2. yellow, tenacious. 3. solid, heavy. 4. opaque, indestructible. briUiant. * A solid piece of gold and some leaf gold should be presented to the class, and the extreme lightness and thinness of the leaf may be felt. Teacher. — How was the gold made so thin ? Children. — It was beaten out. Teacher. — With what, do you think? Children. — With a hammer. Teacher. — All things that can be thus extended by beating are called malleable. Could glass be thus beaten out ? Could chalk ? Camphor ? What qualities prevent them from being malleable ? Children. — Glass is brittle. Chalk is crumbling. Teacher. — What qualities in gold do you think render it malleable ? Children. — Its being tenacious. Teacher. — What other quality in gold depends upon its being tena- cious ? Children. — It is ductile. Teacher. — ^Ductile means capable of being drawn out. 140 FOURTH STEP. METALS. It is fusible. It is reflective, incombustible, except " sonorous. by electricity. Not affected by any acid soft, compared Avith but aqua regia.* other metals. It is considered a perfect metal, because it does not lose any of its weight when fused, nor suffer any change. Most metals become oxydated.f When the children understand fully the different cjuali- ties, the teacher may mention to them the facts that 23rove the extraordinary degree in which the peculiar qualities exist in the metal. 1. Malleable. A grain of gold, the size of a pin's head, may be beaten out to cover a space of fifty square inches. 2. Ductile. A grain of gold can be drawn out to cover a wire of 352 feet in length ; a guinea can be drawn out to reach nine miles and a half. 3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch in diameter will support 500 pounds without breaking. 4. Heavy. It is nineteen times heavier than water of the same bulk. Uses of Gold. When alloyed J with copper, gold is used as coin, and * Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid and nitric add. f Substances are oxydated when they are combined with a certain portion of oxygen. \ The combinations of metals with each other are called, in chemis- ti'y, alloys ; but this term is commonly employed to designate those sub- stances that lessen the value of any with which they are united. GOLD. 141 for ornamental purposes ; for the latter it is fitted by its brilliancy and beauty, and also because it is not liable to tarnish. The gold used in coinage, called standard gold, consists of a combination of about twenty-two parts of gold, and two of copper. Gold thread is made by covering silk or silver with gold beaten very thin. Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a sub- stance with gold ; this is effected by applying it in a state of leaf, or liquid gold, to a surface covered by a cement. Quicksilver unites with gold, communicating to it a portion of its own fluidity ; it has from this circumstance been used in gilding buttons — an effect which is produced very rapidly by the following process: The metals are mixed together, and the buttons immersed in the com- pound. They are then exposed to a great heat, by which the quicksilver is evaporated, and the gold is left upon the buttons. The purple color used in painting porcelain is obtained from gold. Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth block of mar- ble fitted into a wooden frame, about two feet square ; on three sides there is a high ledge, and the front has a flap of leather attached to it, which the workman uses as an apron to preserve the fragments that fall off. There are three kinds of animal membrane used in the oj^eration. For interlaying with the gold at first, the smoothest and closest vellum is procured; and when the gold becomes thin, this is exchanged for much finer skin, made of the 142 FOURTH STEP. ^ilETALS. entrails of oxen prepared for this purpose, and hence called goldheateTs* skin : the whole is covered with i^archment, to prevent the hammer from injuring it. After the gold has been reduced to a sufficient degree of thinness, it is put between paper which has been well smoothed and rubbed with red bole, in order to prevent it adhering to the gold. Geographical and Geological Situation of Gold. Gold is found principally in hot climates, eitlijer native or as an ore. A metal is called native when it occurs in nature pure, and an ore when mixed with other substances. Gold is found in mines, in Brazil, Peru, Mexico, and Califor- nia. Part of the western coast of Africa is called the Gold Coast, from the gold dust brought down by the natives to trade with. A great quantity of gold is obtained in the form of fine sand, from American and African rivers ; and in small quantities from the Danube, the Rhine, and the Khone. It is supposed to be carried down by the moun- tain torrents. The wandering tribes of gypsies employ themselves in washing it from tlie beds of European rivers. The Himalaya mountains in Asia are rich in gold. It some- times occurs in the veins which run through mxountains, and sometimes in rounded masses in soils that are evi- dently the ruins of rocks. The mines which formerly yielded the largest quantities of gold were those of Peru and Lima ; the principal in Europe are those of Hungary and Saltzburg. There have been discovered large quantities of gold in California and in Australia, which lias caused a comparative abundance of this metal. The mode of ex- SILVER. 143 trading gold from the ore is by reducing the whole to a fine powder, and mixing it with quicksilver. The latter unites with every particle of gold, but, being incapable of forming a combination with any but metallic substances, it separates the gold from the earth with which it is inter- mixed. The quicksilver, which has absorbed the gold, is then evaporated by means of heat, leaving the pure metal in the vessel. LESSON XVI. SILVEE. Qualities of Silver. It is malleable. 1. It is white, ductile. 2. solid, tenacious. 3. compact, heavy. 4. natural, indestructible. brilliant, fusible. reflective, soft. sweetly sonorous, flexible. not afiected by com- a perfect metal. mon acids, opaque. 1. Malleable. Silver can be reduced to a degree of thinness nearly equal to that of which gold is capable. 2. Ductile. It can also be drawn out into the finest wire. 3. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thick- ness will support 377 pounds without breaking. 4. Heavy. It is about eleven times heavier than water. % 144 FOUllTII STE1\ METALS. Uses of Silver. Silver is used for coin, and is then combined with cop- per, to render it harder and better adapted to receive a line and sharp impression on being cast. It does not lose its white color by its mixture with copper. The same alloy is employed for ornamental purposes. Silver is much used as a casing to copper utensils, to render them more pleasing to the sight, and also to pre- vent the formation of the poison extracted by acids from copper. The most permanent plating is effected by tak- ing two thin plates of silver and copper, the former in the proportion of one to twelve of the latter ; a little pow- dered borax is placed between the two metals to promote their fusion ; and then, after being exposed to a white heat, they will be found firmly united. The substance is passed between rollers till the whole is of the proper thick- ness for the intended manufacture. Silver dissolved in aquafortis (nitric acid) yields crys- tals, which, being afterward melted in crucibles, form w^hat is called lunar caustic. This preparation is of considerable value in surgical operations, being employed to burn away diseased flesh, and also for consuming warts, wens, and other excrescences of the skin. Indelible or permanent ink, used for marking linen, is made by dissolving nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) in water, and adding gum. The yellow color employed in painting porcelain is obtained from silver. Geographical and Geological Situation of Silver. Silver is found, both native and as an ore, in mines and QUICKSILVEB. 145 veins. South America is the country richest in silver mines. It is also found in Saxony, Bohemia, Norway, Hungary, and England; but the mines of Mexico and Peru furnish annually ten times more than all those of Europe together. So poisonous are the exhalations from the mines of Peru, that many thousands of Indians have perished in them, and the cattle that graze on the outside are affected by their malignant vapors. This metal is also found in several localities in our own country, the most important of which are the Washoe region (on the bor- ders of California and Nevada Territory), Lake Superior, Arizona, North Carolina, and from the gold of California and Colorado. The ores of silver are very numerous, and various methods are employed in different countries to separate this metal from its ore. In Mexico and Peru the mineral is pounded, roasted, washed, and then mixed with mercury in vessels filled with water, a mill being employed for the purpose of more perfectly agitating the liquid. This causes the silver to unite with the mercury, and then, being submitted to heat, the latter is evaporated. The pure metal is afterward melted and cast into ingots or bars of 80 or 90 lbs. each. LESSON XVII. QUICKSILVER, OR MERCURY. Qualities of QuicJcdlver^ or Mercury. It is heavy. 1. It is cold. 3. fluid. 2. divisible. 4. 7 146 FOURTH STEP. METALS. It is volatile when heated. It is dilatable by heat, white. medicinal brilliant. 5. natural, opaque. mineral, least tenacious of all bodies. 1. Weight. Nearly fourteen times heavier than water. It is the heaviest known fluid. ^ 2. Fluid. It always retains its fluidity in our temper- ature ; but near the poles it congeals, and then is malle- able, ductile, and tenacious. • 3. Cold. It is the coldest of all fluids, and the hottest when boiling. 4. It is capable of division, by the slightest efibrt, into an indefinite number of particles, which are of a spherical shape. 5. The peculiar brilliancy of metals has given rise to the term metallic lustre. Uses of Quicksilver. Quicksilver penetrates and softens other metals, losing its own fluidity, and forming a kind of paste called amal- gam. This afiinity or attraction that it has for other metals makes it exceedingly useful in separating them from substances with which they are found combined; they are drawn from their ores and nnite Avitli the mer- cury, and the latter being volatilized, the pure metal re» mains. Quicksilver is easily aflected by the atmosphere, and is on this account used in thermometers and barome- ters. The Thermometer is an instrument constructed in the following manner : A tube of glass, terminating in £?, QUICKSILVER. 147 hollow ball wbicli contains mercury, is plunged into boiling "water, wbicli causes tbe mercury to expand and rise to a certain beigbt. At tbis jDoint, wbicb is called boiling beat, tbe tube is broken off and bermetically sealed ; * tbe freez- ing point is tben ascertained and marked, and tbe interven- ing space graduated. Tbe tbermometer, by marking tbe expansion and contraction of tbe quicksilver, indicates tbe increase and decrease of beat and cold in tbe atmos- phere. To form tbe barometer, a glass tube, open at one end, and filled with quicksilver, is plunged with its open end downward into a bowl contaming some of tbe same fluid. Part of tbe mercury in tbe tube flows into tbe vessel, leav- ing a space to which tbe air cannot gain access. A vacuum being thus formed, the atmosphere acts upon the mercury in tbe bowl ; when heavy, causing it to rise in the tube, and when light (the pressure being decreased), allowing it to descend. Tbe barometer, by thus showing the weight of tbe air, indicates tbe probability of wet or dry weather. For when tbe atmosphere is light, it no longer supports tbe vapor and clouds which float in it, and they conse- quently descend toward tbe earth ; but when tbe air is more dense, they are borne up, and we have fine weather. The elevation of mountains is also ascertained by means of the barometer ; for asit is known that the rarity of the * In order to seal anything hermetically, the neck of a glass tube is heated till on the point of melting, and then with a pair of hot pincers it is closely twisted together, by which means the air is excluded. Her- metically is derived from Hermes^ the deity of ancient mythology who was thought to preside over the arts and sciences, particularly chemistry. 148 FOURTH STEP. METALS. atmosphere increases in proportion to the ascent, the height is easily calculated. Quicksilver is also used for coating mirrors. The pro- cess is effected in the following manner ; a sheet of tin foil the size of the plate of glass is placed evenly on a smooth block of stone ; over this is poured some quicksilver, which is carefully spread upon it with a feather or rubber of linen. Tin, in amalgamating with mercury, quickly forms an oxide of a black appearance ; this being removed, more of the fluid is poured upon it. The glass is then held horizontal- ly, and carefully spread over the amalgam, sweeping before it the superfluous mercury, and any more oxide that may have formed. Weights are then placed upon the glass, and after having remained several days, the mixture ad- heres firmly and forms the mirror. Vermilion, used in coloring sealing wax, and the medi- cine called calomel, are preparations of this metal. Geographical and Geological Situation of Quicksilver. Quicksilver is found in the native state, as globules, in the cavities of mines ; but it is most frequently combined with sulphur, forming the mineral called Cinnabar, which is of a red color. It is found in considerable quantities in some parts of California; the mines yielding 2,000,000 lbs. avoirdupois annually. The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, are said to yield annually 100 tons ; those of Spain still more ; but the mines of Peru are the richest. The mines of Idria were accidentally discovered about three hundred years since. That part of the country was LEAD. 149 then much inhabited by coopers ; one of the men, when re- tiring from work in the evening placed a new tub under a dropping spring to try if it would hold water, and when he came in the morning he found it so heavy that he could scarcely move it. On examination he perceived a shining, ponderous fluid at the bottom, which proved to be quick- silver. When this circumstance was made known, a com- pany was formed to discover and work the mines from whence the mercury had issued. In some parts of the mine it flows in small springs, so that in six hours as much as thirty-six pounds have \men collected ; in other parts it is found difl'used in small globules. lesso:n' XVIII. LEAD. Qualities of Lead. It is heavy. 1. It is solid. fusible. 2. sometimes amorphous. bright when first sometimes crystallized, melted or cut. opaque. malleable. mineral. ductile. liable to tarnish. 4. very soft. 3. ^ inelastic. pliable. natural. livid, bluish gray. It makes a gray streak on easily calcined, that is. paper. reduced by heat to a boils and evaporates at crumbling substance. great heat. 1. Heavy. It is eleven times heavier than water ; ra- ther heavier than silver. 150 FOUETH STEP. METALS. 2. It melts at a much lower temperature than the other metals. 3. It is the softest of all metals. 4. Lead is not much altered by being exjDosed either to air or water, though the brightness of its surface is soon lost. Probably a thin stratum of oxide is formed on the surface, which defends the rest of the metal from corrosion. Uses of Lead. The calx * of lead is the basis of many colors, which are obtained from it by different degrees of heat. Red lead and white lead, so much used in paints, are the calces of lead. They are soluble in oil, are very poisonous, and occasion the ill health to which painters are subject. The oxide of lead also enters into the composition of white glass, rendering it clearer ; it is also used in the glazing of common earthenware vessels. Any acid tVill extract a poison from lead, and therefore the use of it should be avoided in culinary operations. It is employed in glazing pottery. It is also used for gutters and pipes of houses, and for cisterns and reservoirs of water, because it does not rust, and is very durable. The great softness of lead, and the ease with which it is fused, are the properties which have brought it so much * Calx is the dross formed on the surface of lead when fused. This name is applied by chemists to those substances winch have been I'c- duced by burning to a friable state. The operation by which this effect is produced is called calcination. It is more general now to term metallic bodies when calcined, oxides. LEAD. 151 into use. The persons who work it are called plumhers.^ The solder they use as a cement is an alloy of lead and tin, in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. Great quantities of lead are consumed in making shot. The metal for this purpose is alloyed with arsenic, to ren- der it more hard and brittle, and capable of assuming a perfectly spherical shape. Shot are formed by dropping the melted alloy into water from a considerable height, through an iron or copper frame, perforated with round holes, w^hich are larger or smaller according to the required size of the shot. Mixed with antimony, lead is used for printing types ; and with tin and copper, it forms pewter. Geological and Geographical Situation of Lead. The largest and perhaps most important lead mines in the world are found in England and Wales. It is sup- posed, from relics and inscriptions found in these mines, that they were w^orked by the Romans when in possession of Great Britain. The principal mines in the United States are found in Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. It has been found in several of the Atlantic States, but the mines, proving unprofitable, have mostly been abandoned. Lead is plentiful in Scotland, Ireland, Spain, France, and Germany. It is very doubtful whether it is ever found native ; it occurs frequently combined with sulphur, when it is called galena, * Plumb-er, from the Latin plumb-ww, lead. 152 FOURTH STEP. METALS. "When the ore is brought out of the mines it is sorted and washed, to free it from dirt and rubbish ; it is then spread out, and the best pieces separated. After the ore, by picking and washing, has been sufficiently cleansed from extraneous matter, it is roasted * in a kind of kiln, to free it from the sulphur usually combined with it. The next process is to mix it with a quantity of coke, and submit it to the smeltijiff fiivnace. In this there are tap holes, which, when the lead is melted, are opened, to allow it to run in a fluid state into an iron vessel. The dross which floats on its surface is skimmed off, and the metal is taken out by ladles, and jooured into cast-iron moulds with round ends. It is then called 2^i(/ lead, and is fit for use. LESSOIST XIX. COPPER. Qualities of Copper. It is heavy. 1. It is mineral. tenacious. 2. sometimes crystallized, very sonorous. 3. sometimes amorphous, fusible. 4. brilliant, elastic. 5. reflective, capable of extreme divis- sapid. ibility. 6. nauseous to the taste. * Boasting is the process by which the volatile parts of an ore are evaporated. Smeltmg is that by which the pure metal is separated from the earthy particles combined with it in the ore. This is done by throw- ing the whole into a furnace, and mixing with it substances that will combine with the earthy parts ; the metal, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom, and runs out by the proper opening in its pure metallic state. 1 COPPER. 153 Qualities of Copper. It is malleable. It is hard. ductile. unpleasantly odorous, compact. solid. opaque. medicinal, orange-brown color. easily corroded. 1. Heavy. Copper is eight times heavier than water. 2. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thickness will support two hundred and ninety-nine pounds and a half without breaking. 3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all metals. 4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less so than gold or silver. 5. It is the most elastic metal, next to iron. 6. A grain dissolved in ammonia will give a perceptible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water. The Uses of Copper, The uses of copper are numerous and important. "When rolled into sheets between iron cylinders, it is used to cover the roofs of houses, especially arsenals and manu- factories, where there is liability to fire. The bottoms of ships are coppered in order to make them sail faster, and to prevent shell fish from perforating the w^ood. Copper is much used for cooking utensils, but great care is necessary, for should any acid or even water be allowed to stand some time in the vessels, a poison is extracted ; but while boiling this evil does not arise. It is customary, in order to pre- vent any danger, to line copper vessels with tin. Copper is used in the manufactories of gunpowder, because it does 154 FOUETII STEP. METALS. not, like iron, give out sparks by collision. Having no effect upon the magnetic needle, coj)per is found to be the best material for the boxes and supports of this delicate instrument. Plates of copper are sometimes engraved with a sharp instrument called a hurin ^ sometimes they are corroded with aquafortis ; * in the latter case, the cop- per is covered with wax, on which the design is sketched with a pointed instrument, the aquafortis reaches the cop- per just in those places where the wax has been removed by the sketching, and eats into it. Verdigris is a rust of copper, usually made from that metal by corroding it with vinegar. There is a large manufactory at Montpelier, in France, where verdigris is prepared in the following man- ner : Copper plates and the refuse of grapes are placed alternately one upon another ; the latter speedily corrode the surface of the metal. The verdigris thus formed is scraped off as it collects on the copper ; it is afterward dried, and packed in casks or bags. It is chiefly employed in dying, and is a most virulent poison. The alloys of cop- per are numerous and valuable. Brass is the most impor- tant ; it is compounded of zinc and copper, in the propor- tion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. This is a very beautiful and useful substance ; it does not rust so easily as copper ; it is more ductile than either that metal or iron, and is therefore used in the construction of jjiusical and mathematical instruments, and in clockwork. Sieves and blinds are woven of brass wire of extreme fineness. Brass is used both for purposes of ornament and use,^ Copper alloyed with tin forms bronze ; it is remarkable, * Aquafortis (strong water) is nitric acid diluted with water. COPPEK. 155 that when these two metals are melted together, the com- pound so produced is heavier than the weight of the two metals taken separately. Bronze is very useful from its being extremely hard, durable, and sonorous ; it is made into cannon balls, statues, &c. The metal of which cannon are made is also an alloy of copper with tin. Bell metal consists of three -pavis copper and one tin. Copper is the principal ingredient in German silver and Chinese gongs ; and in small proportion it is used to give hardness to silver coin and plate. Geographical and Geological Situation of Copper. Copper is found in Sweden, Saxony, Great Britain, America, and Australia. The copper region of Lake Supe- rior contains almost the only mines of this metal that are profitably worked in the United States. The worn tools found in immense numbers in some of these mines, prove that they have been worked at^a remote period by an un- known people. It was one of the metals earliest known ; the Bible mentions w^orkers in brass before the Flood. It is found in great variety of forms; sometimes in masses of pure metal, but more frequently combined with other substances, particularly sulphur. The copper mines of Anglesea are very productive ; they are situated on the top of a mountain, and form an enormous cavity more than 500 yards long, 100 broad, and 100 deep. The ore is ob- tained from the mine, either by pickaxes or by blasting the rock with gunpow^der. It is then broken with a hammer into small pieces, an operation which chiefly employs women and children. After this, it is piled on a kiln, to the upper 156 rOUKTH STEP. METALS. part of which flues are attached, that communicate with sulphur chambers. The kiln is covered, and the fires light- ed in dififerent parts, that the ore may undergo the process of roasting. The whole mass gradually kindles, and the sulphur which is combined with the ore, being expelled in fumes by the heat, is conveyed through the flues to the sulphur chamber. This process occupies from three to ten months, according to the size of the kilns. When the operation is complete, or the ore is freed from the sulphur, it is submitted to the smelting houses, where, by the in- tense heat it undergoes, the pure metal is forced off in a fluid state, LESSON XX. IKON. Qualities of Iron. It is elastic. 1. It is fusible. ductile. 2. livid gray color. heavy. 3. solid. tenacious. 4, susceptible of a high hard. 5. polish. malleable. cold. liable to rust. sometimes amorphous. sonorous. sometimes crystallized. mineral. 1. In the state of steel, it is the most elastic of all metals. 2. Iron is more ductile than gold ; it may be drawn into a wire as fine as human hair. 3. It is the lightest of the common metals, except tin ; between seven and eight times heavier than water. IKON. 157 4. The most tenacious of the metals. A wire about one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 500 pounds without breaking. « 5. Its hardness exceeds that of most other metals, and this is increased by its being converted into steel. Uses of Iron, Iron is the most useful of all metals, and man very early became acquainted with its value. Moses speaks of fur- naces of iron, and of the ores from which it was extracted. By means of this metal the earth has been cultivated, houses and cities built, and without it few arts could be practised. Iron is very abundant in nature, but it is always found mixed with some other substance. It is then called iron ore. Sometimes it is combined with clay, at other times with lime, or with flint. In order to separate the iron from its ore, intense heat is required ; either pure clay, hme, or silex, remain stubborn in the hottest fires, but when mixed in proper proportions, the one assists in the fusion of the other ; therefore there is always thrown into the fur- nace with the iron ore some earth that will combine with that in the iron ore. The intense heat of the furnace is kept up by means of a continual supply of air, rushing into it from immense bellows, worked by machinery. The lime, clay, or flint, unite and form a kind of slag, which floats on the surface. At the same time the carbon, or pure charcoal of the fuel, aided by the limestone, melts the iron, which, being heavier than the other substances, falls to the bottom of the furnace, and remains there till the workmen let it out by a hole made at the bottom of 158 FOUKTII STEP. METALS. the furnace, and plugged with sand. When the workman judges that there is a sufficient quantity of the iron fused, he displaces the plug with an iron rq^, and the melted iron runs out like a stream of liquid fire, and is conveyed into furrows made in sand, where it cools ; the pieces formed in the principal furrows are called sows, those in the smaller furrows branching from them, pigs. In this state it takes the name of cast iron^ and from the process it has under- gone, it is become extremely hard, and having lost its tena- city, it resists the hammer and the file, and is very brittle ; it is of a dark gray or blackish color. It is used for the backs of chimneys, grates, boilers, pipes, railroads, common cannon balls, &c. Cast iron contains a large proportion of carbon, and is probably saturated with it. It is converted into steel by taking away a portion of its carbon. It is converted into wrought iron by removing the carbon, and as far as possi- ble other impurities, as sulphur, phosphorus, &c. The value of wrought iron for machinery, and tools of all descriptions, is very great. Steel is also much employed for ornamental purposes, on account of the elegant polish it is capable of taking. Plumbago, or black lead, which is employed in the man- ufacture of pencils, is an ore of iron, containing nine j^arts of carbon to one of the metal. The bronze color used in porcelain painting is an oxide of iron. Meteoric stones, which have been the subject of so much conjecture, and which are sometimes believed to be ejected from volcanoes in the moon, are native iron. Iron is very valuable from the magnetic properties it IRON. 159 may acquire. By these it enables the mariner to steer across the ocean, the traveller to direct his course with safety in the pathless desert, and the miner to guide his researches after subterraneous treasures. The loadstone, or natural magnet, is an oxide of iron ; it communicates its power to bars of iron or steel when placed in contact with them. The artificial magnet is now always used, as it possesses and retains all the properties of the loadstone. The qualities which render it useful, are, its attraction for ii'on, and its polarity, or the power by which it points to the poles when freely suspended. One end invariably turns to the north, and the other to the south, except when it approaches the poles ; there the directive power ceases al- together, which circumstance constitutes one of the great difficulties in nflvigating the Arctic Sea. Geographical Situation of Iron. Iron is the most universally diffused of the metals. It is found in every country, in greater or less quantities. It is very rarely met with in a native state, but generally as an oxide, or in combination with sulphuric or carbonic acid. LESSOK XXI. TIN-. Qualities of Tin. It is heavy. 1. It is very little elastic, soft. 2. pUable. malleable. 3. easily calcmed. 160 FOUKTH STEP. METALS. Qualities of Tin. It is ductile. It is natural. fusible. mineral. ' white. reflective. opaque. sonorous, makes a solid. crackling noise. brilliant. dilatable by heat. 1. It is seven times heavier than water ; yet the light- est of the ductile metals. 2. It is softer than silver, but harder than lead. 3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the one thousandth part of an inch in thickness. Uses of Tin. Tin is chiefly employed in the manufacture of culinary utensils ; they are not, however, made of solid tin, but of what is called tin plate, which is thus prepared : Thin iron plates are first well cleansed, by washing them in water and sand ; they are then dipped into melted tin, and afterward steeped in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. This pro- cess causes the tin not only to cover the surface of the iron plate, but to penetrate it, so that the whole mass becomes of a whitish color. Pins are made of brass wire, tinned. When the pin is formed, a vessel is filled with strata or layers of tin plates between the brass pins ; the vessel is then filled with water and some tartaric acid, by means of which the tin is dissolved ; after five or six hours' boiling, the pins are found uniformly tinned. It is the zinc of the brass which has an affinity for the tin, and forms the union which takes place. The pins are afterward polished ; they TIN. 161 are thrown into a tub containing a quantity of bran, which is set in motion by the turning of a shaft in the centre ; the friction which the pins thus undergo renders them per- fectly bright. The uses of tin for domestic purposes are very various, particularly when laid over other metals, as in stirrups, buckles, &c. The oxide of tin is used in dyeing. Tin foil is used for coating Leyden jars, for enclosing small packages of tobacco and spices, and for covering the tops of champagne bottles, &c., to exclude the air. Large sheets are used for silvering looking glasses. Tin forms alloys with several other metals. These com- pounds have been mentioned before ; as bell metal, pewter, bronze. Tin leaves, amalgamated with mercury, are used for silvering and plating other metals. Geographical Situation of Tin. England, Germany, Chili, and Mexico, produce the largest quantities of this metal. The tin mines of Cornwall were well known to the ancients ; and the Phcenicians are said to have traded with the Britons for it long before the birth of our Saviour. Native tin is never found, and its ore is of less common occurrence than that of iron. It occurs as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper; chiefly in veins running through granite and other rocks. When it is taken from the mine, it is broken into small pieces, and streams of water are passed over itj to free it from the earthy particles with which it is intermixed ; it is then roasted and smelted, when the metal is poured out into quadrangular moulds of stone, and receives the name of block tin. 162 FOURTH STEP. — METALS. LESSON XXII. COMPAKISON OF METALS. Gold, a perfect metal, is the most precious. most compact, heaviest. Its weight is between nineteen and twenty times that of water. Silver, a perfect metal, is next in value to gold, and more useful ; its weight between ten and eleven times that of water. Quicksilver is fluid. easily volatilized, immalleable. Its weight is between thirteen and fourteen times that of water. Copper is the most sonorous. most elastic, except iron. Its weight is between eight and nine times that of water. Iron is the most elastic. most tenacious, most useful. most ductile. Its weight is between seven and eight times that of water. . Lead is the softest. most easily fused. ON METALS IN GENERAL. 163 Its weight is between eleven and twelve times that of water. Tin, next to lead, is the softest of the metals ; it dilates most by heat ; it is the lightest, its weight being only seven times that of water. LESSOj^ XXIII. ON METALS IN GENERAL. Metals are simple elementary bodies, distinguished by being heavier than all other substances ; by possessing a peculiar lustre, which is called the nietalllG lustre y by re- flecting light and heat ; by their being opaque, fusible, mal- leable, tenacious, ductile, and generally elastic. Upon this last quality seems to depend their fitness for exciting sound, or sonorousness. Metals are capable of uniting with each other in a state of fusion ; this union is called an alloy. It is remarkable that by these combinations metals undergo a considerable change in their properties, and ac- quire new ones not belonging to either of them when not united. Thus the weight of the alloy, or the two metals in combination, is sometimes very different from the weight of both the metals taken separately ; an alloy of silver with copper or tin, or one of silver or gold with lead, is heavier than the same quantities of those metals uncombined. Their ductility and malleability are changed and generally impaired, the alloy becoming brittle. This is very remark- ably the case with gold and lead when united, the latter of which, even in the trivial proportion of half a grain to an ounce of gold, renders the mass quite destitute of tenacity. 164 FOURTH STEP. — METALS. The hardness of metals is varied by combination. Gold being united with a small quantity of copper, and silver, with a minute proportion of the same metal, acquire such an increase of hardness, that these additions are always made to gold and silver which are exposed to wear. By a small addition of gold, iron is said to gain so much hard- ness as to be even superior to steel for the fabrication of cutting instruments. Change of color is a common effect of the union of metals with each other. Arsenic, for example, which re- sembles steel, and copper, which has a red color, afford by their union a compound Avhich has nearly the whiteness of silver. In order to ascertain how far the children have retained the knowledge acquired in these lessons, the following ques- tions may be given to them to answer in writing : QUESTIONS ON THE METALS. GOLD. 1. What are the chief qualities of gold? 2. "What is its weight ? 3. Give a proof of its ductility. 4. tenacity. 6. malleability. 6. Upon what other quality does its malleability de- pend ? 7. What qualities are directly opposed to malleability ? 8. What is an alloy ? , 9. Why is gold alloyed for the purpose of coinage? SILVJEB. 165 10. What metal is used as its alloy ? and in what pro- portion ? 11. How are buttons gilded? 12. Describe the manner of forming leaf gold, 13. In what state is gold found ? 14. What is an ore ? 15. What is meant by a native metal? 16. In what countries is gold found? 17. What people employ themselves in separating it from the sands of the European rivers ? SILVER. 1. What are the chief proportions of silver? 2. What is its weight ? 3. What degree of tenacity does it possess ? 4. What are the chief uses of silver ? 5. Upon what qualities do the uses of silver depend? 6. Describe' the operation of plating. 7. What is lunar caustic ? and what are its uses ? 8. Give the geographical location of silver. 9. Why are gold and silver called perfect metals ? QUICKSILVER. 1. What are the uses and properties of quicksilver ? 2. What is its weight ? 3. In what respect is it remarkable as a liquid ? 4. What effect does heat produce upon it ? 6. Under what circumstances does a change in its qual- ities take place ? and what is the change ? 6. What is an amalgam? 166 FOURTH STEP.- — METALS. 7. Mention the uses of quicksilver. 8. What are the properties that fit it for a barometer ? 9. What for a thermometer ? 10. How is a barometer made ? and what is its use ? 11. How is a thermometer made ? and what is its use ? 12. What color is obtained from quicksilver ? 13. Where is quicksilver found ? 14. What circumstance led to the discovery of the mines of Idria ? LEAD. 1. What are the remarkable qualities of lead? 2. What is its weight? 3. What are the diflerent effects which heat produces on lead ? 4. What are the chief uses of lead ? 5. Why is it used for reservoirs of water ? 6. How are shot made ? 7. What is the use of the oxides of lead ? 8. What are its alloys ? 9. In what state is lead found ? 10. What is- lead called when found united with sulphur? 11. Where is lead most abundant ? 12. Describe the process of roasting and smelting. COPPEE. 1. What are the chief qualities of coj^per ? 2. What is its weight and what its degree of tenacity ? 3. How is it proved to be capable of extreme divisi- bility? 4. What are the uses of copper ? IRON. 167 5. What is verdigris ? and how is it made ? 6. What is the danger incurred by employing copper in kitchen utensils ? 7. What are the alloys of coi^per ? 8. In what respect is brass preferable to copper ? 9. Where is copper found ? and in what state ? 10. Describe the copper mines in Anglesea, and the manner of extracting the metal from the ore. IKON. 1. What are the chief qualities of iron? 2. What quahty does it possess in a higher degree than any other metal ? 3. What is its weight and tenacity ? 4. What are the different states in which iron is used ? 5. How is cast iron prepared ? 6. What are its qualities and uses ? 7. How is wrought iron prepared ? 8. What are its qualities and uses ? 9. How is steel prepared ? 10. What are its qualities and uses? 11. What is meant by the temper of steel ? 12. What is plumbago? and what quality makes it useful ? 13. What is the geographical situation of iron? and with what is it found combined ? TIN. 1. What are the qualities of tin ? 2. What are the uses of tin ? 168 FOURTH STEP. NATURAI. HISTORY. 3. How is it prepared for use ? 4. How are pins tinned ? 5. What is block tin ? 6. Where is tin found ? LESSON XXIV. A BEE. For Children from ten to twelve years old. DESCEIPTION OF A BEE. I. Examination of the Bee. — ^The children should be directed to examine a bee very minutely, and the following description, as far as it can, should be drawn from them ; and what they cannot observe, they should be told. The bee possesses a horny covering, which is harder than the internal parts, thus serving as an external skele- ton. The body is divided into three distinct parts — head, thorax, and body. The jaws are four in number — two up- per ones, and two under ones ; the under ones are length- ened, and form, as it were, a sheath to the tongue. The tongue is very long and slender, and admirably adapted for clearing the honey out of the dee2) nectaries of flowers, and also for curling up inside the mouth. Their attention should then be directed to the fact, that there is a mem- branous bag folded under the tongue. They, should be told that this bag is capable of being greatly distended, and is used for receiving the honey before it is swallowed and consigned to the honey bag. The bee has four wings — r two upper ones and two under — the latter are much more delicate than the former. It has six legs ; on the broad A BEE. 169 surfaces of the hind legs are two small cavities, which have a covering or lid of hairs. The children should be told that these are used for containing the bee bread, with which it feeds the young, and which it obtains and pre- pares at the same time it is gathering honey, and that when the honey also is safely deposited in its appropriate place, the bee, quite loaded, flies home. The children's attention should then be directed to the eye ; but before speaking of it they should be shown a piece of glass, of the shape of a double convex lens, be told its name, and that in the front part of our eye there is a very small capsule, or bag, filled with a transparent fluid, which is of the same shape — that in passing through this the rays of light meet in a point, or focus, which causes the reflections to be clear and dis- tinct. When the children thoroughly understand this, they should be told that the eye of the bee is always im- movably fixed, which they might consider a great defect, but that full compensation is made in the numerous lenses with which it is filled, each, they will see, acting as a single eye, consequently the bee would not require to move its eye. The children should then be told that the bee was not always in the same form in w^hich they see it, but that it had undergone three changes ; that on its first appear- ance from the egg it was soniething like an earth worm, and was called the larva ; in the second change it is called a chrysalis, wdien it is quite torj)id ; and in the third it is the perfect insect or bee. From knowledge previously acquired, the children will be able by this examination of the bee to state that it is a true iiisect, and also to give the three proofs ; 1st. It con- 170 FOUKTH STEP. NATUEiVL HISTORY. sists of hbad, thorax, and body, while some insects (im^ properly so called), such as the spider and scorpion, consist only of head and body, the thorax being united with the head. 2d. It has six legs — whereas the so-called insects have never less than eight — such are the spider and scor- pion. 3d. The spider and scorpion, and all the so-called insects, never undergo tlie changes for which the bee and all true insects are remarkable. After having thus dwelt upon the particular group to which the bee belongs, the children should be desired to name the great class in which it is included, and also to give the reasons why so placed ; viz., the bee belongs to the class " Articulata," ibecause, 1st. It possesses what may be considered an external skeleton in its horny covering ; 2d. Its body is divided into sGveral segments, or parts, which are joined or articulated together. 11. Habits of the Bee. — They are social insects, each individual working for the good of all ; they are remark- able for their great industry and carefulness, and for the instinct they possess, as seen in the construction of their habitations — a subject which should be taken up in a separate lesson. LESSON" XXV. HONEY COMB. For Children from eight to ticelve years old. CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS, ETC. I. Examination of the ^Comh. — Several pieces of honey comb should be presented to the children. On examining HONEY COMB. l7l the combs the children will discover that they are chiefly made of wax, but not exclusively, being smeared over with a gummy substance. They should be told that this is called " propolis," and is obtained from the bark and buds of some trees, and serves to strengthen the combs. II. Examiyiatlon of Cells. — Classes of Bees. — The cells should then be examined as to their size; the children will soon see that there are three varieties in their size. They should then be told that there are three distinctions among the bees : — 1st. There is the queen bee^ who is the most important personage, and the mother of all; who, with the royal larvee, occupies the largest cells, termed "royal chambers." 2d. The male bees, who are a little smaller in size ; the next sized cells contain larvae that will produce these. 3d. There are the workers, or the female bees, which are the smallest kind ; eggs that will produce these are deposited in the smallest cells. III. Uses of Cells. — The children should then be led by questioning to tell the three uses of cells. By refer- ring to what had just been dwelt upon, they see that the first use was, to contain eggs. By asking what was done with all the honey that was gathered, they will give the use, to serve as storehouses for honey. By questioning them as to what else the bee gathers from flowers, besides honey, and what was done with it, they will see that the cells also serve as receptacles for bee bread. IV. Description of the Construction of Combs and Cells. — ^After all this is quite clear to the children, the man- ner in which the combs and cells are constructed should be described to them, stopping at intervals In order to ques- 1*72 FOURTH STEP. NATURAL HISTORY. tion them, that all may follow ; thus, The wax makes its api^earance in the form of eight scales upon the bee pre- vious to the making of a comb. A bee ascends to the top of the hive, and attaches itself by the hind legs to the roof; another follows, and by its hind legs fastens itself to the first bee ; a third follows the second, and so on, till a long string is formed, the last bee of which also fastens itself to the roof, so that a kind of festoon is produced ; this festoon is filled up by many more bees : several such fes- toons are made in each hive. In this state the bees remain quite still, until the scales appear. A bee then separates itself from the rest, and by its hind legs removes one of the scales, which is carried to the mouth by the fore legs, where it is masticated and mixed with a frothy liquid, by which it becomes whiter and firmer ; it is then attached to the roof of the hive : the remaininsr scales are treated in precisely the same manner; and then the bee retires, making way for another bee. Thus they continue to work until the whole block is formed. Before proceeding to the construction of the cells, the children should be well questioned on the preceding ; as. How does the wax ap- pear ? — In what way do the bees arrange themselves be- fore commencing the combs ? — How is the festoon com- menced ? — What is the next movement of the bees ? — What process does the wax undergo before being attached to the hive, and what are the benefits ? &c., &g. The manner of constructing the cells should then be described, as follows : — ^As soon as sufficient of the comb has been made to admit of the work of excavation, a bee commences making a cell ; and as the comb increases in COVEKIJ^G OF BIKDS. 173 size, the number of cells multiplies rapidly, more bees being able to join in the work. V. Lessons of Instruction. — The children should next be assisted to draw lessons of instruction from what has been noticed respecting the bee. First, They afford ug a striking example of industry and carefulness — They do not lose one hour of the sum- mer's sunshine, but are always busy gathering honey, and storing it up for the winter's use, when they cannot leave their hives — From this we should learn never to idle away our time in youth, but embrace every opjDortunity of lay- ing by stores of instruction, for our comfort in old age, when we are not capable of so doing. Secondly, The examination of this wonderful little in- sect should also enlarge our ideas respecting the infinite wisdom and goodness of God, who giveth one of his smallest creatures such powers as are not only necessary to its own well-being, but can also contribute to the com- fort of man ; showing that the very smallest, as well as the largest of God's works, demands our highest admiration. LESSOI^T XXYI. SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE COVERING OF BIRDS, AND ITS ADAPTATION TO THEIR WANTS. For Children under twelve years of age. In order that the children should determine what is necessary in the covering of birds, refer to their habits^ motion, and the element in which they move ; and from a IH FOUETH STEP. — ^LESSON XXVI. consideration of these, lead them to deduce the necessity for great warmth ; by comparison of the blood of birds with that of other animals, speak of the rapid changes of temperatm'c to which they are exposed in passing from one country to another — in ascending and descending in the atmosphere. (Instance Vultures.) The vulture descends from the hmit of perpetual snov/ to tropical plains in a few moments. Also, call attention to their long and sustained fliglrt — the energy they possess in consequence of their quick circulation, which is the cause of the w^armth of their bodies — and how their covering prevents it from escaping. Great strength combined with lightness. The children led to see why the feathers should be strong, by reference to the organs of flight. Why light and also smooth, by reference to the element through which the bird moves. II. JExamination of the structure of a feather. — Chil- dren name and describe the parts of a feather : — the quill or barrel — the shaft — vane, or beard — the qualities of the quill mentioned : Lightness. — Result of form — a hollow cylinder much stronger than if the same quantity were m.ade into a solid cylinder. Should be illustrated to the children by compar- ing the weight borne by a hollow cylinder made of a piece of paper, with the weight borne by the same piece of paper made into a solid cylinder. Strength. — Composed of two sets of fibres, one acting longitudinally, the other circularly — effect of this — ^^cut a quill as w^ien a pen is made, and show the children that the latter set are scraped off, the former separated by the slit. COVEEING OF BIEDS. • 175 The shaft examined and described. Lead the children to see how the form ada^Dts it to the shape of the body — speak of the manner of flight, and show the necessity of the groove and curve beneath, in striking the air ; and of the great strength above, necessary to resist the stroke. Vane^ or heard. — Examined — of what composed — shape of the barbs, and their position with respect to the shaft — their an-angement with respect to each other — why the flat sides are turned toward each other, and edges upward and downward — a large unruffled quill presented, and the chil- dren shown that the barbs are firmly held together — when pulled asunder, they again unite on being smoothed — how is this ? Mention with what each barb is provided — posi- tion, ofiice, and use of barblets — call attention of children to the beauty of this complicated arrangement, by suppos- ing the beard formed of a single piece, or the barbs glued together — the consequence in either case? — an injury once sustained could never be repaired by the bird — how the bird restores any feathers unfitted for flight through the violence of a storm, by contact with prey, or other accident. (What has been said here refers chiefly to the feathers of the wing and tail.) Children led to see how admirably the structure and arrangement of the body feathers are adapted to secure the warmth required for the bird. The feathers of the body compared with those of the wings, and the class led to observe how each part of the former is modified to suit a" diflerent purpose. Refer to the swan, to show the provisions made when great warmth 1V6 FOUKTU STEP. ^LESSON XXVII. is required. Direct attention to what are called warm sub- stances — they are non-conductors, and prevent the escape of heat — how feathers efiectually accomplish this for the bird. Arrangement of feathers in wings and tail — wind can scarcely ruffle them. Refer to the goodness and wisdom of God in the beau- tiful adaptation of structure to wants, and call for a suita- ble text. LESSOX XXVII. SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE ADAPTATION OF FEATHEES TO THE HABITS AND WANTS OF BIEDS. For Children under ticelve years of Age. I. The Owl. — Habits and food. — Call the children's attention to the habits and food of the owl. 1. Habits. — Nocturnal, passing the day in obscurity, but on approach of evening coming forth in search of prey. 2. Food. — Mice, and other small animals, which are naturally very timid, and likely to be disturbed by the least noise, therefore only to be approached with great caution. 3. Ada2^tatioo% of plumage. — ^Refer to the noise usually made by birds in flying — how prevented in case of the owl ? Plumage of owl examined, and the children led to see that the feathers are soft, loose, downy, yielding to every breath of air. "Wings provided with quill feathers, deficient in strength and elasticity. Children led to deduce the necessity for HABITS AND WANTS OF BIRDS. 177 this, by reference to the nature of the animals on which they prey. Extent of wings compared with the body. Children led to see the provision made to prevent tardiness of flicrht. o The edge of the outer feather of the owl compared with that of a pigeon, or any other bird, for the purpose of showing how admirably they are modified to secure noiseless flight. II. The Kingfisher. — Direct attention to its locality and food. 1. Locality. — Inhabits the margins of lakes and rivers. 2. Food. — Preys on small fish. The manner of obtain- ing food described, and the children led to see the kind of plumage necessary to resist the action of water during its sudden plunges. 3. The kingfisher's 'plumage examined — adaptation of bright hues and metallic lustre shown. 4. Hahits of owl compared with those of kingfisher, to show the necessity of a different kind of covering. What would be the consequence had the kingfisher feathers like the owl? III. The Duck. — Children called upon to say all they know of the habits and food, where seen, &c. Refer to the habits and food of duck — to the chillinsr and softening effects of water — and then lead the children to see the necessity for such covering as will resist these effects. Compare the different effects of rain on the feathers of a duck, and on those of a hen. The reason of this difference may be illustrated by ref- 8* 178 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON XXVIII. erence to the various ways in which oil is used where resistance to the influence of water is desired. Examine the plumage of a duck : use of thick, downy under-coat — to prevent the escape of heat from the body ; smooth, pol- ished outer feathers — to keep out wet. Habits of duck and kingfisher contrasted, to show the necessity of difierent modification of feathers. IV. The Ostrich. — Refer to the country where it is found — its food and habits — show that flight is not neces- sary — refer to the heat of the country inhabited by the os- trich — the kind of protection needed; and lead the children to see how the plumage is fitted to afibrd this. LESSON XXVIII. SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE BEAKS OF BIRDS. For Children from eight to ten years of age. I. Commence . by questioning the children as to the organ by which birds obtain their food ; how it differs from our mouth, and how it is a substitute for teeth ; and draw from them all they may have observed as to the habits of birds, supj^lying information where necessary, and leading them to see that some birds, as the swallow, sj^cnd their time chiefly on the wing, darting with short and rapid flights in every direction ; and some, as the dnck, sj^end the greater part of their time in swimming ; others, as the heron, are seen standing generally in the soft mud in the neighborhood of pools and lakes ; some, as the hen, may be seen constantly scratching up the ground ; and others again, as the owl, stealthily flitting about at night. ON THE BEAKS OF BIRDS. 179 Question as to how all these are employed, and lead them to see that the difference of habits arises from the different kinds of food that they require, and the different elements in which they seek for it. II. Present the beaks of the several birds above men- tioned-— Children examine them, and trace their adaptation to the wants of the bird. 1st. That of the Swallow. — Thin — soft — very wide at the base, and coming quickly to a point. Why soft ? — In- ferred from the nature of its food, insects captured while on the wing. The necessity for the great width of the beak in proportion to the size of the bird, may also be inferred from the difficulty of securing these insects in the air. 2d. The Ditch'' s. — Broad, flat, and spoon-shaped, having a fringe at the edge of each mandible. Use of the fringe — Serves as a strainer. The . reason of this shaped beak will be seen by reference to its food — small fish and insects. To the manner of obtaining them — dipping its head under water and straining the mud through the serrated edges of its beak, and retaining what is necessary. 3d. The Snipe'' s. — Long and slender, serrated like the duck's. By reference to the food and habits, lead the children to see how this long and slender beak is fitted for entering the soft mud, and how admirably the serrated edge is suited for retaining the insects contained in the mud. 4th. The Hen'^s. — Hard, strong, straight and blunt. By considering the habits of the hen, lead the children to see the necessity for hardness and strength, from the frequency with which it comes in contact with clay, stones, and other 180 FOUKTH STEP. LESSON XXIX. hard substances, also the hardness of the food; — the Mrd could not well pick up any grains without a hard instru- ment. Refer to the force with which it pecks, and show the necessity for bluntness — If sharp, would soon be worn away, and enter the ground by the force of the blow. 5th. The OioVs. — Sharp, strong, and curved. The ne- cessity for these qualities again inferred from the nature of its food, — birds and other small animals ; it requires the sharpness and strength it possesses to destroy its prey and tear it asunder. Before concluding the lesson, require the children to state how the beak of each bird mentioned is. suited to its food, and then draw from them the conclusion, that the beaks of all birds are suited to their habits and wants, showing the goodness of God in thus providing them with what is best for them. lesso:n^ XXIX. SKETCHES OF A LESSON ON THE MOLE. — TO BE GIVEN TO CHILDREN OF TEN YEARS OF AGE. 'No. I. — Intended simply for the Teacher's own use. I. Aiiimcd described. — ^The body in form cylindrical — Compact, and strong in the fore part. The siiout elon- gated, terminating in bone rather than gristle. The eyes small, and s-unk in the fur. I^o external ears^ but a simj^le opening cencealed under the covering. The sM?i tough, and covered by an extremely close, fine, short fur — ^having no determined direction, but, like the nap of velvet, pre- senting a smooth surface, incapable of being ruffled. The ON THE MOLE. 181 limbs short — The fro7it pair thick, strong, and muscular, ending in broad hands^ spade-like in shape, obliquely in- cHned so as to make the inner edges the lowest part — The extremities of these organs, five fingers, scarcely distinct, but furnished with hard, flat nails — The huid limbs small, and the feet comparatively feeble. II. Habits described. — The mole subsists chiefly on worms, and the larvae of insects found in the greatest abundance under the surface of the earth, w^here the mole has its habitation beneath those miniature hills so frequently found in rich meadows, and cultivated fields. Its nest is of a conical form, carefully lined with vegetable fibre, and makes a most comfortable nursery for its young, which are reared with extreme care and tenderness. Leading to the • nest are always several subterraneous galleries, furnishing roads of egress and ingress. III. Adaptation of the Organization of the Animal to its Habits. — Structure, and habits of the mole carefully recapitulated. From the peculiar construction of the front limbs, infer that they are essentially necessary in administering to the wants of the animal. Means the little creature has of ex- cavating the passages in which its food is to be found. Has no other, and oieeds no other than those spade-like instruments the nails, the extremities of which loosen the soil, and render it capable of being collected in the hands ; from whence it is thrown to the sides, and a little behind the animal. The nails, aided by the pointed long snout, admirably adapted for working its way in the earth, and detecting worms, grubs, &c. — directed to these by the 182 FOUKTH STEP. — LESSON XXX acute senses of smelling and hearing. Little power of vision required ; little given. God makes nothing which has not some distinct end to answer. The goodness of the Creator manifest in withholding an external ear and a fully developed eye ; — if given, sources not of pleasure but of pain, on account of their liability to injury from the mould in which the animal is constantly employed. Covering exactly suited to an animal destined to lead a subterraneous life. Thick, short, and incapable of being displaced, it does not impede the animal in its progress — Does not retain the wet and mud. Weil might the Psalm- ist exclaim, " O Lord, how manifold are Thy works, in wisdom hast Thou made them all. LESSOI^ XXX. N'o. U. — The Method of gimng the Lesson on the 3Iole is here Detailed at length, to shoio not only lohat is Taught, hut how it is Taught. • L Structure described. — A specimen of the mole being presented to the children, get them carefully to observe and describe \is principal organs, directing their attention by means of questions, comparisons, &c. Ask if they know any form which the body nearly re- sembles? — What things havingthe form of a cylinder are said to be ? — What then may be said of the body of the mole ? — " The body of the mole is cylindrical " — This should be simultaneously, repeated and written by the teacher on the black board. Next, let the children compare i\iQfur of the mole with » ON THE MOLE. 183 that of some animal in which the hairs are scattered and stiff. Call npon them to state the difference, and if unac- quainted with the term that expresses the quality of the mole's covering, tell them that, " w^hen things are made to lie closely together, and so as to occupy a smaller space than they otherwise would, they are said to be compact, or compactly arranged " — ^Let this be repeated more than once if necessary. Inquire whether they know any manufactured article used in dress to which the covering of the mole bears a resemblance. The obvious qualities of the fur, such as short, thick, fine, will be quickly seen ; but probably not one child will discover that, like the nap of velvet, it has no fixed direction, and is incapable of being ruffled, until told to stroke the animal from the head to the tail, and from the tail to the head, and a cat in the same way — Then to state what they observe. The children should describe the fur, and the teacher add to the account on the board, " and covered by a fine, short, compact fur, which has no particular direction, and cannot be ruffled." Next ask. What animal has a head something like the mole? — When they had a lesson on the pig, v>^hat did they say of its snout ? — How it terminated ? — Let them feel the extremity of that organ in the mole, and then de- scribe the head. " The head of the mole is small, tapering into an elongated snout, which ends in bone rather than gristle." — This should be repeated simultaneously, and writ- ten on the board. Other parts of the head named and described by the children — The eyes very small, and sunk in the fur. Should 184 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXX. , the children assert that the mole has no ears, tell them that it has no external ears that can be seen, but that it possesses the sense of hearing to a considerable degree. Question — With what do they hear ? — Touch their ears — Do they think they would hear were that flap removed ? — Not so well, certainly, but they would be far from deaf; for they have an internal ear, and the mole has this also ; the entrance to which they may discover if they look care- fully. Add to the notes on the board, "The eyes are small, nearly hidden by the fur; there is no outer ear, but a simj^le opening, concealed under the covering." Inquire if there is anything remarkable about the limbs ? They are very short ; the fro?it 2^ctir are strong and mus- cular, terminating in broad hands. Do the hands remind them of any tool used by gardeners, ditchers, &c. ? Yes, they are spade-like ; when they compare the fingers of the mole with their own, what difference do they observe ? what have they at the ends of their fingers ? what has the mole ? Desire them to describe the front limbs, and say what shall be written on the board. " The front limbs of the mole are strong, muscular, and terminate in large, broad, spade-like hands, ending in five fingers, scarcely divided, and furnished with hard, flat nails." By causing the children to compare the position of the hands of the mole with that of their own, lead them to observe the oblique, downward, and outward direction of the former. Desire them to feel that portion of the body to which the limbs are attached, and contrast it with the fore parts of a rabbit, that they may perceive not only that the arms are strong, but that that part of the frame which supports them OiS^ THE MOLE. 185 is SO also. Question as to the difference observable between the front and hind limbs. The latter are small and slender, lying close to the body, the feet are furnished with claws, yet are feeble compared to the spade-like hands. II. Habits described. — Inform the children that the mole cannot endure more than six hours' fast without great exhaustion. That it subsists on worms and the urubs of insects, found in the greatest abundance under the surface of the earth. If the pupils are not acquainted with the interior of mole hills, represent to them on the board the galleries and miniature hills made by the excavations of the little miner. Speak of the lining of the nests of birds. Tell them that the nest of the mole is lined with vegetable fibre, and made a most comfortable nursery for its young, v/hich are reared with extreme care and tenderness. That leading to the dormitory of the mole there are always several sub- terranean passages, dug out by the creature as means of going in and coming out. That he is an expert swimmer ; appears to enjoy the water; and requires to drink fre- quently ; and that there is usually a colony of these Httle miners in possession of one common passage to the nearest stream or ditch. III. Adaptation of the organs to the habits atid locality show7i. — Let the chilclren, with the assistance of the notes on the board, and the occasional use of the ellipsis, recapit- ulate the description of the organization and habits of the mole. Ask them to what the first part of the lesson re- lated, and to what the second. Question them as to what connection there is between the organs, and the habits and 186 FOUKTII STEP. LESSON XXX. locality of animals. Require examples of animals having their organs exactly adapted to their mode of life. Ques- tion : What organ fits the monkey for its life amid trees ? What part of the bat is adapted for flight ? What ena- bles the hedgehog to burrow in the earth ? What organ do they observe varies most to meet the v/ants of animals ? Draw from them the general rule, that " God, who formed animals, not only fixed the bounds of their habitation, and gave them their peculiar propensities, but also caused that the one should be fitted to the other." This is to be re- peated. Question : Did they observe anything peculiar in the construction of the limbs of the molq ? What then do they expect to find ? That they are essentially necessary in administering to its wants. Where is its food found ? What means has it of getting at worms below the surface of the earth ? Have they ever seen men making sewers ? What implements had they? The mole has similar work to do. What has it corresponding to a spade or shovel ? Desire the children to imitate with their own hands the position of the hands of the mole, and say if they were to throw anything from them, holding their hands in this po- sition, in what direction with respect to their bodies it would go ? What would be the consequence if the mole could only use its feet in throwing soil hehind it ? Are th6 feet of animals ever used in any other operation ? Think of the monkey, the cat, the parrot. But the mole does not convey its food to its mouth by means of its hands. What other organ could it use ? What senses in the mole would they expect to find very acute ? Does it need much light in its underground work ? What sense would not as- ON THE MOLE. 187 sist it in discovering its prey ? What have they observed when animals have not required a sense or organ ? Re- mark : They see that God makes nothing that has not some distinct end to answer, some work to perform. Question: Do they see any reason why an external ear was not given to the mole ? If it had one, what must happen ? What must be the result of the dirt and dust entering into the ears and eyes ? Hence if bestowed they would be sources not of pleasure but of pain. What shall we say of the Creator of this little miner ? He is indeed kind as well as wise. "His tender mercies are over all His works." Question : If they were to thrust a hand into some newly dug earth, how would it feel ? What kind of covering then would be the best for one living under ground ? How is the fur of the mole adapted to keep in the heat of the body ? What other advantage arises from its fineness and thickness ? In what direction does a cat like to be stroked ? What would be done by pressing the hand the reverse way ? When told that sometimes moles pass each other in their very narrow galleries, or in their passage to a reservoir of water, and that not unfrequently a single mole can only just move with ease along a newly- excavated road, the children will readily see the suitability of a covering incapable of being ruffled, and of a body compact and cylindrical. What do they observe in all its organ.3 ? What said David respecting God's works ? Let us also say, " Lord, how manifold are thy works ; in wis- dom has.t Thou made them all." The lesson to be recapitulated, and condensed into a simple summary containing the principal ideas. To be 188 FOUKTll STEP. I.KSSON XXXI. written at home from memoiy, and brought the following morning.* LESSON XXXI. Two Sketches of Lessons on Fur. SKETCH I. I. WJiat it is, and hoio fitted for the clothing of ani- mals. — Pictures, or stuffed si^ecimens, such as can be pro- cured, brought before the children, that they may be led to determine what fur is, and observe its great variety and beauty, owing to the difference in the color, length, and thickness of the hairs. Use to the animal. State to the children the changes which it undergoes at different sea- sons of the year ; in winter becoming thick, close, and abim- dant, and in some the color changing to white ; in summer partly shed, and much more loose and open. The reason for these changes — the modifications observable in the fur of animals inhabiting different climates — the adaptation to the reipirements of the animals, manifesting the wisdom and goodness of God. II. Qualities. — Soft — formed of hairs, therefore said to be hairy — the difference between the skin and the fur — the one soft and flexible, the other stiff and somewhat harsh — in what way it is fitted for the wants of the animals of which it forms the covering — why we say it is warm ? Lead them to observe that it is neither hot nor cold to the * It is the design of this lesson that either the mole itself, or a stuffed specimen, should be presented to the class. If a picture is used, the form of the lesson must be changed somewhat to correspond. FUR. 189 toucb, but that as it does not allow the warmth of tho body to pass away, we say it is warm^ and so of other objects. III. Uses to man. — Made into muffs, capes, cloaks, caps, &c. The qualities which fit it for such uses — warmth, soft- ness, and flexibility. SKETCH II. I. Far producing countries. — ^These pointed out on the map, as Hudson Bay Company's territory ; Russian Amer- ica ; Siberia, the most important — the wild, dreary, and desolate character of these countries — the animals inhabit- ing them alone rendering them of any commercial import- ance — refer especially to the Hudson Bay Company's terri- tory ; the extent and character of their possessions ; the time and manner of establishment ; the factories and their situations. (All this described to the children.) II. Hunting season and hunters. — Hunting season — - why at a particular time ? Question here as to the changes necessary in clotning on the approach of winter ; and lead the children to see, that as this is the season when animals require most warmth, so it is the season when fur is the thickest; kence the time when it is most valuable, and hence also the hunting season. Speak of hunters, and the preparation for .hunting — qualities of a good hunter — cau- tious in disturbing, dexterous, and fertile in invention, bold and courageous in attacking and securing — why are these qualities essential to a good hunter ? III. Contrast Furs of Arctic and Tropical Regions, — Contrast the fur of animals found in northern latitudes with 190 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXI. those met with in the tropics and warmer regions : in the first it is rich, fine, close, silky, and warm ; in the second, although beautiful in appearance, yet thin and scattered, neither adapted for warmth, comfort, nor general use — contrast northern and tropical climates, to lead the children to see the necessity for this difference of covering — show that the difference in fur of northern and tropical climates, arises from the same cause as that which marks a difference in the fur of the same animals at different seasons — a beau- tiful evidence of design in the seal — inhabiting the arctic regions, great warmth necessary — under the skin of the common seal a thick layer of fat ; in the fur seal no such layer found, but the animal is covered with a rich, curly, silky down, among which is scattered long coarse hair — the uses' to which this fur is applied — the preparation it un- dergoes, and beauty of its -appearance. lY. Uses to nian^ and qualities lohich render it useful. Enumeration of uses to which fur is applied, and the chil- dren led to observe the qualities which render it so exten- sively useful. (The children are supposed to have been previously made acquainted with fur.) V. Processes which Fur undergoes to fit it for use. 1. The state in which the skins are received by the furrier. 2. Cleansing— use of saw-dust — effect — state of skin — difference between the skin of arctic and tropical animals — manner in which it is softened and made thinner — prepara- tions for making it up into the articles required — laid in the saw-dust — why ? — effect — advantages taken of the pli- ability of the skin in this state. THE PIG. 191 3. Dyeing — how the appearance of the darker furs is obtained in this operation — difference between the dyeino- of the fur seal and beaver, and that of other ar>imals — the simplicity of the first operation — tedium of the second, and skill necessary for the performance. LESSON^ XXXII. THE PIG. I. Get the children to name the parts of the pig, and give a description of each — as its head, small and tapering — its ears, large and flat, hanging down on each side of its head like two flaps — ^its eyes, small, round, and sleepy-look- ing — the snout, which connects the nostrils and the mouth, is large and armed with strong teeth, and terminates in a hard, gristly substance^the neck, short and thick — the body, cylindrical, and covered with long coarse hairs called bristles — the legs, short and thin — the feet, cloven — the skin, coarse and thick. II. The habits of the pig spoken of— as that it eats all kinds of vegetable and animal substances, even in a putrid state; also, bran and meal, and, indeed, anything that comes in its way — its habits dirty and disgusting — it is fond of rolling itself about in the mud — why? — ^to get rid of the vermin with which it is infested — and sj)ends all its time in eating and sleeping — it never attacks other animals but in self-defence — it seems to know when a storm is ap^ proaching, for it runs toward its sty screaming violently, and gathers all the straw into a heap to hide itself-— the pig is subject to a disease from its gluttonous habits — it lives 192 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXXII. for 18 or 20 years, and is found in almost every country of the world. III. Question the children as to the adaptation of its parts to its habits, &c., by comparing the one with the other, the children making the conclusions — the large ears, which flap about on a hot day and prevent the flies from getting into them and teasing the animal — does not require very strong sight — its small eyes are sufficient for the cir- cumstances in which God has placed it — also the long flexible snout, terminating in a ring of gristle, fitting it for grubbing in the mud for its food, and rooting up vegeta- bles ; were it furnished instead of this with a soft, fleshy mouth, the animal would not be able to do this without pain and inconvenience — the large, strong teeth, which help it in mastication — it is covered with stiff bristles ; were it covered with hair or fur, it could not roll about in the mud without collecting much dirt on its body — also, that its hard, thick skin makes it almost insensible to the blows it so often receives — ask who made the pig, and lead the children to see and admire the wisdom and goodness of God, in making all its parts so beautifully adaj^ted to their various uses. As the children are describing the parts, write the name and description of each on the board, that they may be aided when they consider the ada]3tation of the parts to the wants of the animal. The children should state this afterward on their slates. ON SOLUBILITY. 193 OlSr SOLUBILITY. lesso:n^ xxxm. EEMAEKS. Lessons on objects may be followed by instruction on q^ lities with which the children are familiar. The foUo^^png lesson will explain what is here recommended : LESSON OX SOLUBILITY. The teacher develops the ideas for which she afterward gives terms, by means of simple experiments. First she fills half full with water three glass tubes ; she then adds to one a pinch of Epsom salts, to another a few grains of sugar, to the third some j^owdered marble, and shakes each for a few moments. Teacher. — I wish you to describe the changes which have taken place in the mixtures. Pupils. — 1st. The salts and the sugar have disappeared. 2d. Melted in the water. 3d. Dissolved in the water. The marble remains the same. Teacher. — ^Right ; the salt and sugar have dissolved in the water ; the marble is not dissolved. Do you know what those substances are termed that dissolve m water ? Pupils. — Soluble. Teacher. — "What are those termed which do not dis- solve ? Pupils. — Insoluble. 194 FOUETH STEP. LESSON XXXIII. Teacher. — Tell me the names of several soluble bodies ? Pupils. — Sugar, Epsom salts, gum, salt. Teacher. — Tell me some that are insoluble. PupiU. — Marble, stone, wood, tin, slate. Teacher. — What has become of the sugar that dis- solved ? Is it destroyed ? Pupils. — No ; it is in the water ? Teacher. — How do you know that it is in the water ? Pupils. — We can taste sugar when it is dissolved in our tea, or in water. Teacher. — Would it be useful to give a particular name to a liquid that has dissolved any substance, in order to distinguish it from another that has not any substance dis- solved in it ? Pupils. — Yes. Teacher. — Such liquids are called solutions^ what, therefore, is formed by the experiments made ? Pupils. — A solution of Epsom salts in water, and an- other of sugar in water. Teacher. — Is there a solution of marble formed ? Piqnls. — 1^0 ; for the marble would not dissolve. Teacher. — ^Does the water, or the sugar, or both to- gether, form the solution ? * Pupils. — Both together. Teacher. — A liquid used to dissolve a solid is termed a sohent. What can we say of water ? Piqnls. — It is a solvent of Epsom salts, sugar, &c. Teacher takes two equal portions of Epsom salts and places each in a tube, with equal quantities o£^ water. One is left undisturbed, while the other is heated in the flame ON SOLUBILITY. 195 of a s|)irit lamp. The puj^ils are required to state what result they observe. Pupils. — The water that has been made hot has dis- solved the salts very quickly, and also in greater quantity. (The experiment should be made with the sugar also.) ^6)5cAer.— What would you say of the effects of hot liquids on soluble bodies? Pupils. — Hot liquids dissolve substances more quickly and in greater quantities than cold ones. Teacher. — This is generally, but not invariably, true. There are some bodies upon which cold and hot water has the same effect. Common salt is an example. Teacher makes another experiment ; placing two equal quantities of sugar in water, allowing one to remain undis- turbed, and shaking or stirring the other. Pupils to tell the result observed. Pupils. — The sugar in the shaken tube dissolves first. Teacher. — Try and explain why this is so. Pupils. — ^When the tube is shaken, every part of the solid is affected by the solvent which dissolves it ; but when the sugar lies at the bottom, the water at the top does not help to dissolve it. Teacher then places a large lump of "sugar in a spoon, and puts it into a tumbler of water, holding it near the top ; and then, placing the tumbler between the pupils and the light, requires them to say what they observe. Pupils. — Little wavy lines fall from the spoon. Teacher. — Can you tell what causes this? Consider what is happening to the sugar. Pupils. — ^It is dissolving. 196 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXIII. Teacher. — What, then, is being formed ? Pupils. — A solution of sugar. Teacher. — What becomes of the solution, as it is formed ? Pupils. — ^It is that which we see falling through the water. Teacher. — Right ; but why does the solution sink in the water ? Pupils. — It must be because it is heavier than water. Teacher. — It is so ; every solution formed by a solid in water is heavier than water. Knowing this, can you tell me why men swim more easily in the sea than in fresh wa- ter, and even more easily still in the Dead Sea ? Pupils. — Sea water is a solution of salt, and being heavier than fresh water, a man would not so easily sink in it. Teacher next places a quantity of common salt in a tube, and pours over it about twice its weight in water, shaking it for some time — then asks what has happened. Pupils. — ^Part of the salt is dissolved, and part is left — the water does not dissolve it all. Teacher. — You are correct ; water will not dissolve more than one-third of its weight of salt ; and when it re- fuses to dissolve more, it is said to be saturated. What kind of a solution is then formed ? Pupils. — A saturated solution. Teacher. — Water, as we have seen, will dissolve more of some bodies, as Epsom salts, when it is heated. If we were to heat a cold solution of Ej^som salts, what do you think would happen ? ON SOLUBILITY. 197 Pupils. — It would then dissolve more salts, showing that it would not be saturated by the same quantity of salt as it was when cold. Teacher puts some powdered sealing wax into two tubes, and pours into one cold water, into the other spirits, and then shaking them, asks the pupils to say what differ- ence they observed in the two. Pupils. — The sealing wax has dissolved in the spirits, and not in the water. Teacher. — Is sealing wax a soluble or insoluble body ? Pupils. — It is both ; soluble in spirits, insoluble in water. Teacher. — What kind of liquid is a solvent to sealing wax, and other resinous bodies ? Pupils. — Spirits. Teacher repeats the last experiment, substituting gum for sealing wax. Pupils. — ^The gum, contrary to the sealing wax, dis- solves in the water, but not in the spirit ; it is also soluble and insoluble. Teacher. — It is so ; but when no particular solvent is named, it is always understood to be water ; hence, in or- dinary language, gum is said to be soluble ; sealing wax insoluble; the solvent, water, being understood. India rubber is an example of a solid, insoluble in all ordinary liquids, but soluble in coal tar, naphtha; the solution thus obtained is used for making waterproof (Macintosh) cloth- ing, by employing it to cement together two thin layers of cloth. The pupils then should be required to mention all the 198 FOUETH STEP. LESSON XXXIII. new terms they have learnt, or any like them ; as soluble, insoluble, solve, solvent, solution, dissolve, dissolving, solu- bility, insolubility, saturated. Teacher. — -Do you observe a resemblance in these words ? Pupils, — Yes ; they all, except saturated, have solve or solu in them. Teacher. — ^The meaning of that root, as it is called (for it is like the root of a plant, the part from which the other parts spring), is to loose ; it comes from a Latin word solvo^ to loose — the v being changed into u ; the word sol- uble then means, being able to be loosed, or to have parti- cles separated by the action of a liquid. What would in- soluble mean ? Pupils. — la stands for not, therefore it means not soluble. Teacher. — I wish you now to sum xx^ the various parts of the lesson, so as to connect the whole together. Bodies that are capable of dissolving ure called soluble/ those not capable of doing so, insoluble. When we speak of a body possessing solubiliti/^ we say it will dissolve. A liquid that dissolves a solid is termed a solvent; and a solu- tion is a solid dissolved in a liquid. When the solution will hold no more of the substance dissolved in it, we say it is saturated. Teacher. — These terms are sometimes used metaphori- cally — that is, apj)lied to what is of a different nature ; try and remember some examples. Pupils. — ^To solve a question. Teacher. — Which means, to take it to pieces or un- ON THE SENSES. 199 loose it. What similar use of any of tliese terms do you recollect ? Pupils. — Dissolution of partnership. Teacher. — ^What does this mean ? Puinls. — ^That it is unloosened; the partners are no longer united together. Teacher. — And what do we mean when we call death a dissolution? Pupils.— Ti\sX the body crumbles to pieces; its parts are all loosened or separated. ON THE SENSES. LESSON^ XXXIV. The children haying been already exercised in determin- ing by which of the senses they discover the presence of any quality, may be led to consider more fully the senses themselves. The first two lessons are drawn out for the use of the teacher ; the substance only of the others is given. Teacher.— ^o you understand how you gained the knowledge of various qualities ? Children. — By our senses. TeacAer.— How do you know when a thing is red or blue? Children. — By sight. Teacher. — How, if you were blind, could you form a correct idea of color? What other means is there of gaining this knowledge ? Children. — None. 200 FOURTH STEP. JL^ESSON XXXIV. Teacher. — ^True; and to ascertain this point, a blind man was once questioned as to what notion he had of scar- let ; he said he thought that it must be like the sound of a trumpet. It is obvious that he had no correct idea of a quality discoverable by the sight, and he could only com- pare it wuth one that he had acquired through the medium of another sense. Can you tell me the reason why j^ersons born deaf cannot speak ? Children. — They cannot imitate sounds, because they never heard any. Teacher. — Since, then, deaf persons have no correct ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color, how do w^e ac- quire our ideas of sound and color ? Children. — By the means of the senses of seeing and hearing. Teacher. — How, then, do we suppose our minds become stored with ideas ? Children. — By the exercise of our senses.* Teacher. — Yes ; and if you had once had the idea of a dog formed in your mind, by seeing such an animal, when a dog is mentioned you can recall the idea, and fancy one immediately, as if it were present ; your mind will also perform the same operation when a quality is spoken of, which you have previously seen in some object. Again, if you see a dog unlike any you have observed before, you compare it with the species with which you are acquainted, and mark the difference between them. If I say that I * It is probable that children would not at once arrive at this conclu- sion. The teacher must, in that case, lead them to it by easy questions. li ON THE SENSES. 201 have some green paper, cannot you immediately conceive the color of which I speak ? Children. — Yes. Teacher. — ^Did you, then, exercise your sight ? Children. — o^o. Teacher. — How, then, could you have the idea of green ? Children. — We remembered it. Teacher. — By what means did you first obtain the idea ? . Children!. — By seeing something green. Teacher. — ^What power of the mind do you exercise in recalling an idea ? Children. — Our memory. LESSON XXXV. FEELING OR TOUCH. Teacher. — ^What part of your body is the organ of touch ? Children. — ^It seems all over our body. Teacher. — ^Tell me some parts that do not possess the sense of feeling. Children. — Our hair, nails, and teeth. Teacher. — ^And in other animals, what parts are found destitute of sensation ? Children. — ^The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers, wool, hair, &c. Teacher. — ^What other word do we use to express the presence of sensation? Children. — Sensibility. 9* 202 FOlTETH STEP. — LESSON XXXV. Teacher. — ^What word would you use to express the absence of sensation ? What syllable prefixed to a word gives it a negative naeaning ? Children. — In. Teacher. — ^Well, what word will express the absence of sensation ? Children. — Insensibility. Teacher. — The parts then that you have named are insensible, and, with the exception of these, the sense of feeling exists everywhere throughout the body ; but what part of it is particularly adapted, by its form, to become the organ of the sense ? Children. — ^The hand. Teacher. — ^Tell me what qualities we can discover in objects by this sense ? Children. — That they are hard, soft, rough, smooth, long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square, cylindrical, conical, heavy, light, fluid, liquid, dry, wet, hot, cold, &c. Teacher. — By what general term would you express such qualities as round, square, conical, &c. ? Children. — By shape. Teacher. — By what general term would you express such qualities as large, small, &c. ? Children. — By size. Teacher. — By what general term would you express such qualities as rough, smooth, &c. ? Children. — By Jciiid of surface. Teacher. — By what general term would you express such qualities as hard, soft, fluid, tenacious, &c.? Children. — By kind of substatice. ON THE SENSES. 203 Teacher. — By what general term would you express such qualities as heavy, light, &c. ? Children. — By weight Teacher. — Now arrange the qualities which you dis- cover by your feeling under five general heads, i. 6., shape^ size, kind of surface, hind of substance, weight. The children having performed this exercise, the teach- er may mention the following facts. Teacher. — ^The quickness and accuracy of the sense of feeling is, we. find, much increased by exercise, as is exem- plified in blind persons, the defect of whose sight is fre- quently compensated, in a great measure, by an exquisite sensitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to possess this sense in a remarkable degree. They have been observed, even after loss of sight, and with their ears and nostrils stopped, to fly through intricate windings and passages, without striking against the walls, and also to avoid lines and cords placed in their way. The expanded membrane that serves them for wings is probably the seat of this deli- cate sense of feeling, which so admirably fits them for their nocturnal and dark abodes. The palpi, or feelers of in- sects, possess the same quality very acutely, and this en- ables them to explore the surface of bodies in search of food, and warns them also of the approach of danger. The class should be required, at the conclusion of the lesson, to draw up some account of this sense, mentioning where it resides, what qualities faU within its cognizance, and to recapitulate any incidental information received during the lesson. 204 rOUKTH STEP. LESSON XXXVI. LESSON XXXVI. SIGHT. The eyes are the organs of sight, and are beautifully adapted for the office they have to perform. They are so constructed as to allow us to see thmgs near, or at a dis- tance ; to confine ourselves to the inspection of one ob- ject, or to take in at once a large sphere of vision. The part of the eye which admits the light may be expanded or contracted, according as the rays are more or less pow- erful. This fact is remarkably exemplified in the eyes of the cat and of the owl. Indeed nothing afibrds a more striking proof of the kind providence of God than the beautiful adaptation of the eyes of animals to their peculiar modes of life ; those of moles, fishes, and birds, are remark- able illustrations of this fact.* Of all the senses, that of sight is in most frequent and continual exercise. It fills the mind with the greatest va- riety of ideas, which it gathers not only from the objects of nature and of art, but from the writings of the wise and good of all ages. The qualities we discover by this sense are : transpa- rent, semi-transj)arent, translucent, opaque, glimmering, bright, dark, sparkling, dull ; and the various modifications of color, size, and shape. Many may be ascertained either by touch or sight ; as those of size, form, kind of surface, and substance. * The teacher should here fully explain to the class the circumstances referred to, and give other similar instances. ON THE SENSES. 205 LESSON XXXYII. HEAKING. The ears are the organs of this sense. In many ani- mals the ear has externally the form of a trumpet, and is well adapted for gathering sound and bringing it to a focus ; in man it contains many convolutions and channels, which receive the vibrations of air in every direction, and convey them to the part called the drum, which is the actual seat of this sense. The formation of the ears of animals is beautifully ac- commodated to their peculiar habits of life. In beasts of prey the trumpet part is inclined forward, easily to catch the sound of those they are pursuing. But animals whose chief means of protection is flight, have these organs turned backward, that they may be readily apprised of the approach of their enemies. The ears are the medium through which all sensations of sound reach the mind ; without them, we should be de- prived of the advantages of verbal instruction, the pleas- ures of conversation, and the charms of music. The motion of the parts of a body, or the collision of one body against another, occasions a vibration in the air, which is similar to the effect produced on water when a stone is thrown into it. Circle succeeds circle, till the power of motion is exhausted ; and just as any light sub- stance within the influence of these undulations is agitated by them, so, when our ear is within reach of these vibra- tions of air, the sensation of sound is produced.* The * This account may appear, at first sight, above the comprehension of 206 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXVIII. chirping note of the cricket is occasioned simply by the constant friction of a little memhrane against its wings. When two bodies are rubbed or struck together, we may in most cases be able to determine, by the sounds emitted, the nature of the substances brought into contact. Very different sounds are occasioned by the collision of metals from that which wood gives out ; and the sound produced from hollow bodies is very unlike that resulting from solid ones. There are various kinds of sounds ; as shrill, deep, grating, harsh, loud, soft, harmonious, sweet. Animals produce different sounds. The cat mews, the dog barks, the lion roars, the ass brays, the cow lows, the horse neighs, the rook caws, the goose cackles, the cock crows, the fly buzzes, the bee hums. Man speaks, laughs, cries, shouts, groans, whistles, sings. LESSON xxxym. SMELL. The nose is the organ of this sense; its cavities are lined with a thin membrane supplied with nerves connect- ed with a principal one, which is essential to the perception of smell. By means of this sense we derive all our ideas of odor. Though not so important to man as the other senses, yet it adds much to his pleasure ; and to many animals it is essential, directing them in search of their food. The children ; a class, however, which had gone through the preceding exer- cises, was found fully capable of understanding it. ON THE SENSES. 207 scent of dogs is peculiarly fine, and on this account they are employed in the chase. Odor is produced by exceedingly small particles called effluvia, which escape from odorous bodies; these diffuse themselves in the atmosphere, and whenever they reach the olfactory nerves they occasion the sensation of smell. Heat promotes the escape of these particles, which are of a volatile nature ; hence, when the sun shines brightly, the flowers are more fragrant. LESSON^ XXXIX. TASTE. The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin within the mouth is finer and more delicate than that of the rest of the body, it is supplied with a great number of blood ves- sels, and covered with innumerable papillce. Sapid bodies, however, before they excite the sensation of taste, require to be moistened by the saliva. In graminivorous animals the papillae are defended from the action of the stiff bristles of grass and corn by a strong skin, which being perforated, allows the dissolved juice to reach the seat of taste. The principal qualities discoverable by the taste are bitter, sweet, acid, pungent, acrid, luscious. There are many others, which derive their names from the substances in which they exist : as salt, spicy, &c. Many animals have some one of the senses in great perfection, but in none are they all found in the same de- gree as in man. FIFTH STEP. INTRODUCTOKY K E M A R K S . The following lessons may be advantageously used as a first exercise in composition. The object should be present- ed to the children, and they should continue, as before, to make their own observations upon it. Questions should then be addressed to them, calculated to elicit their knowledge of its natural history, manufacture, or compo.- sition : and further particulars should afterward be com- municated by the teacher, to render their information more complete. After having rearranged and repeated the mat- ter so obtained, the teacher should examine the class, and require a written account. Children from ten to fourteen years of age may derive great improvement from this exer- cise in composition. It will stimulate their attention, fur- nish a test of their having well understood the lesson, and lead them to arrange and express their ideas with clearness and facility. Artificial substances should be exhibited, both in their raw and manufactured state. Thus, in the lesson on flax, the plant itself, the fibres when separated from the stem, the thread when spun, and the various articles into GLASS. 209 which it is manufactured, may be brought before the class, and likewise pictures of the machinery employed in the manufacture. Many of the lessons in this Step will contain too much matter to be presented at one time to the pu2)ils, and must therefore be divided. The information given is exclusively for the use of the teacher, as reference in the preparation of lessons. Many of the lessons have been taken, with some modi- fications, from " Information on Common Objects." Much aid has also been derived in their preparation from the "IN'ew American Cyclopaedia," and, in a few instances, passages have been literally incorporated. This is a work which teachers would do well to consult where accessible. The following sketches, three on glass, and three on silk, are given as specimens of the way succeeding lessons may be treated. LESSON^ I. I. Different Icinds of Glass compared, — Bring together several pieces of different kinds of glass, and ask the chil- dren to name each — as, crown glass, plate glass, sheet glass, flint glass, bottle glass. These pieces should be examined by the children, that they may point out the difference. They should name the various uses to which they have seen glass applied, and the particular use of each kind ; as, for windows, mirrors, drinking glasses, decanters, orna- ments, bottles, watch glasses, &c. Qualities of Glass. — ^The class should be called on to name the qualities in glass which render it useful ; as trans- 210 FIFTH STEP. LESSON I. parency, hardness, durability, not being affected by weather or acids, &c. Glass contrasted icith substances used in former times. Other substances possessing the same qualities, but in a less degree, should be shown the class, named, and a con- trast drawn, for the purpose of proving the superiority of glass over these substances. Thus, horn has not the same degree of transparency ; parchment is not so durable ; •mica does not admit the light so freely; and none of the three have the same bright, cheerful, beautiful appear- ance that glass has. II. Various substances used in the manufacture,— ^\iQ. various substances used in the manufacture of glass should then be produced and named — as, sand, an alkali (as j^earl- ash), nitre, oxide of lead, oxide of manganese, oxide of ar- senic, lime, &c.; and the children should be led to see that each ingredient imparts a particular quality to glass. Pearlash, which is much used in flint glass, imparts much clearness. Oxide of lead is used to cause it to vitrify at a much lower temperature than it otherwise would ; to in- crease the density, and to impart tenacity. III. Origin and history of the manufacture, — Informa- tion should be given to the children with respect to the progress of the manufacture, and of its supposed origin. They should be told of the glass beads and imitations of precious gems found in Egypt with mummies more than 3,000 years old, and of hieroglyphics that must be as old as the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt ; the relics found in the ruins of Nineveh, and . other facts which seem to point to the ancient inhabitants of that country as the first 1l GLASS. 211 manufacturers of glass ; the many fine specimens of glass in urns and vases wbicli arc seen even at the present clay, and which show to what an extent the manufacture was carried. Tliey should be told of the introduction of glass making into Europe — first into Italy, finally into England ; from thence into the United States by deserters from the British army in the time of the Revolution ; but that glass was used very much in England long before- the art of making it was known to the English ; for even as far back as the time of the Druids, we find glass beads and amulets worn, wdiich w^ere procured in barter with Syrians, who came to Great Britain for tin. Recapitulation, — After receiving this information, which should be thoroughly worked into the children's minds as the teacher proceeds, they should reproduce the matter on their slates. lesso:n^ il I. Glass house and tools used, — In this lesson the chil- dren should (after recapitulating the last lesson) give a de- scription of any glass house which they may have seen, and also of the different tools used by those who work in glass. If they have not seen one, a small model or picture may be shown, representing the different parts. They should de- scribe the conical shaped building — the furnace in the cen- tre, with the working holes at the sides — the pots, which are made of the finest clay — their position and number — tools used by the glass blower, as iron tube, shears, punt- ing rod, tongs, &c. They should then be asked as to how the men on the premises are generally employed ; some in 212 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON II. glass blowing ; others in attending to the furnace, carrying coals, and others watching the pots, &g. II. Processes gone through in the manufacture of Glass. The children, having noticed how the workmen were em- ployed, will be prepared to learn the different processes gone through in the manufacture of glass. As a difference exists in the making of each kind, the children may be led to speak of window glass only, as they are better acquaint- ed with that than with the others, and more frequently see how that particular kind is used. They should first be told that window glass is that which is generally used for win- dow panes ; and should say what qualities window glass re- quires that are not of so much importance in other kinds ; as hardness, transparency, and durability ; and they should then be led to see that in order to give the glass these qualities, a slight difference must be made both in the quality and quantity of the ingredients used. The children should be told that such substances as lead, or metallic ox- ides, make glass soft and plastic ; and they will at once see that very little of these must be used in making window glass, in which greater hardness is requisite. They should be told of the different processes gone through — first, the preparation of the sand by water, for the purpose of re- moving any impurities — next, the making of frit, and what frit is — the process of melting it down after having kept it for some time. The metal in a liquid state should be spoken of^the time allowed to pass before skimming the metal. The children should be told that broken glass is very useful at this stage of the manufacture. The glass thus used is known by the name of cullet, and is thrown in GLASS. 213 with the boiling metal. They should be told next of the workman — the tube which he uses — his mode of forming the mass of metal — first, to a pear shape — then, to a flat surface. A description should be given of the process of annealing — what is its object — why it is necessary — what qualities it will impart to the glass. This lesson should be reproduced in writing. LESSOR III. I. On Stained Glass. — Several pieces of glass of differ- ent colors should be brought before the children. They should examine and describe them, and ascertain whether the colors are merely external, or whether they are such as cannot be removed without destroying the glass. They should be asked where they had seen glass of different 'colors ? — If they had seen figures represented on glass by means of colors — and where ? They should be led to name the kind of buildings in which colored glass is generally seen; such as churches, or ecclesiastical edifices of any kind ; particularly in those where the object is to make an imposing appearance. Many churches and cathedrals have very fine windows of stained glass. n. The teacher under this head will describe the pro- cess of glass staining, dwelling on the following points : — The pattern, or drawing of the figures to be represented, which is first made. The mode of placing this behind the glass for the purpose of painting the pattern, the mate- rials being prepared beforehand. A description should be given of the muffle, or iron box, in which the glass is 214 riFTU STEP. LESSON IV. burned. The care necessary on the joart of the glass stain- ers should be noticed. The fusing of the glass and its ab- sorj^tion of coloring — the time allowed in the furnace — the removal of the loose particles of paint. The class should be told that the color is produced by fusing gold, silver, and copper with the glass ; and that gold is used in pro- ducing rose color and ruby; copper in producing blue, green, and lemon ; and silver and lead in producing yellow and orange ; they will easily see what colors in glass bring the most money, which are most expensive. LESSON lY. SKETCHES OP A SEKIES OP LESSONS ON SILK AND ITS MANUFACTURE. For an Advanced Class of Children. INTRODTJOTION AND NATURAL niSTOPwY OF THE SILK WOEM. I. Object examined. — A piece of silk is given to the children, w^hich they carefully examine, and are then called upon to describe its appearance,' as, smooth, soft, glossy — next, they discover and name the qualities upon which its use and beauty depend, viz. : its strength, which is great, considering the fineness of the fibres of which it is com- posed — its lightness — lustre — capability of taking the finest dyes — ^it resists fire better than cotton fabrics do — is beau- tifully soft to the touch, and extremely pliable, so that it can be arranged in folds. [Note. — Specimens of the insect m all its stages should be shown to the children, and constantly referred to in the course of the lesson.] SILK. 215 II. Description of the Silk Worm. — ^Insect and its habits described. Show the children that the silk worm is erroneously termed a worm. Why ? It is really a kind of caterj^illar, and passes through all the changes which in- sects undergo. Changes which the insect undergoes. — Many of the children have, perhaps, tried to rear a silk worm, and will therefore know that it is hatched from an Qg^^ in size like a mustard seed; and is, w^hen first hatched, small, and of a dark color ; in a few days it becomes gray, then tinged with the color of its food ; it attains its full size in about eight weeks, and it has during this period changed its skin four or five times. Children to determine why this is necessary — its continually increasing size. The insect re- mains in a quiet state before doing this ; refrains from eat- ing ; then bursts the old skin near the head, and works its way out. Length, when full grown, from two and a half to three inches. What does it then do ? Begins to spin. Tell the children that it selects a corner in which to spin, then moves its head from side to -side, and fixes the thread at difierent points, so as completely to enclose itself — con- tinues to spin for about five days — during this time it has become much shorter — changes its skin, and takes the form of a chrysalis, enclosed in a dark brown case, and is in a torpid state — remains in this state two or three weeks — then changes into the moth or perfect insect. The children will, perhaps, wonder how the moth can escape from the cocoon in which it is so completely enclosed. Tell them that the little creature does this by softening a portion of 216 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON IV. the cocoon with a fluid which it has the power of forming. It is now, as they will see from the specimen, a moth of a pale cream color, covered with fine down, and furnished with small, comb-like feelers. After a short time it lays its eggs, firmly cementing them to the substance on which they are deposited ; and the object of its existence being thus accomplished, it shortly dies. Children should draw a comparison between the animal in its different stages, as to appearance, organs, and habits. III. Food. — On what does the silk worm feed ? The leaves of the mulberry tree. Children will know, that as this tree is not an evergreen, the leaves can only be pro- cured at certain seasons of the year. Has this anything to do with the hatching of the eggs ? Yes ; they must only be hatched in those seasons when the leaves can be obtained ? Means used to 2^^event the eggs from hatcJwig at a wrong seaso7i. — Sometimes the eggs are sent from one country to another. How are they prevented from hatch- ing on the journey ? They are first carefully dried ; placed in glass vials, closely sealed, to exclude the air and moist- ure, and then immersed in earthen pots filled with cold water, which is constantly changed. Why ? To keep it cool. Why should so much pains be taken to exclude the air from the egg^ and to prevent their becoming warm ? Because the eggs of the silk worm, like those of the chicken, and other animals with which the children are acquainted, are hatched by heat. Manner of hatching the eggs. — ^The children might then be told the different means used to hatch the eggs. SILK. 217 That in some countries the loeasants fold them in small paper packets, and keep them in their bosoms until the ,warmth j)J'epares them for hatching ; in others, that the warmth of the sun is employed ; but that the plan most generally adopted is to hatch them by placing them in rooms artificially heated. IV. Countries of -the Silk Worm, — ^A warm climate is necessary to the well-being of the silk worm. Children name and point out on the map some warm countries, as France, Italy, India, China, &c. They might then be told that the silk worm is reared in nearly all the southern coun- tries in Europe : to a very great extent in India and China. That it was originally a native of China, from whence arti- cles manufactured of silk were exported in early ages to different parts of Asia and Europe ; and that the raw mate- rial furnished employment to manufacturers in Persia, Tyre, and other countries. That in the United States many ef- forts have been made to introduce its manufacture, but with very limited success. How introduced into Europe. — The silk worm was in- troduced into Europe a. d. 552, by two Persian monks, who were missionaries, and had travelled as far as China, where they viewed with great curiosity the dress of the Chinese, and carefully watched the manufacture. On leav- ing China they went to Constantinople, and entrusted the Emperor Justinian with their secret ; he encouraged them by promising them a reward if they succeeded in intro- ducing the manufacture into Europe. They returned to China, with much difficulty obtained a quantity of eggs, cunningly concealed them in a hollow cane, brought them 10 218 FIPTU STEP. — LESSON V. to Constantinople, hatched them, tended the insects with great cafe, and instructed the Romans in the art of manu- facturing silk. Tlie children will thus see that the silk manufacture in Europe had a very small beginning — a caneful of eggs being the means of establishing the manu- facture, and of furnishing the Europeans with a luxury, for which large sums had hitherto been exacted from them by their Oriental neighbors. This and the following lessons should bo reproduced by the children in writing. LESSO]^ V. BEIEF DESCEIPTION OP THE SILK MANUFACTURE. I. Different 2'>T0cesses in the onanKfacture. — How is the silk obtained from the cocoon ? What is the first process in the manufacture ? The destruction of the chrysalis. How is this accomplished ? By placing it in a heated oven. What is next done ? The rough, outer floss, which is comparatively useless, is removed, and the co- coons are thrown into a vessel of hot v/ater placed over a fire. Why ? To loosen the thread. The whole is now stirred with a little broom, which catches the loose ends of the threads. Several of these threads taken together are wound upon a reel. Why take several together ? Be- cause the fibres are so fine that one taken alone would not be strong enough, it would quickly break. The silk wound ofi" is next tied up into hanks ready for the manufacturer, and is known by the name of " raw silk.^^ i SILK. 219 [Note.— It is desirable that drawings or models of the machines used in the different stages of the manufacture should be placed before the children, and constantly referred to by the teacher while describing the various processes. Except with the most advanced pupils the remainder of this and the next sketch may be omitted.] 11. Various ojyerations tv/iich the raw silk undergoes. Briefly describe the various processes which the raw silk passes through, as winding, sjjinning, twisting, cleaning, weaving, and dyeing ; all of which, except the last, are known under the general term " sii/c throioijig:'' Windiiig. — In this operation each hank of silk is ex- tended upon a six-sided reel {swift). A number of swifts are arranged side by side, upon an axis, on either side of a frame. Above the swifts are the bobbins, similarly ar- ranged, one bobbin for each swift. The bobbins connect- ed with the swifts by the ends of the hanks of silk are now set in motion, causing the swifts to turn round and wind the silk. The machine requires constant attention. Why? For the purpose of joining the ends broken in winding, putting on the hanks, and exchanging the bob- bins. Spinning. — The silk is now sorted according to its qualities and fineness. The next process is that of spinning or twisting each thread, which is done in a mill, where it acquires that form called " singles.'" How is this effected ? The long thread of silk is unwound from the bobbins on to a long roller, and in its passage from one to the other becomes twisted. How can this be ? The bobbins are fixed upright, and the roller is placed horizontally above them ; this circumstance alone is sufiicient to twist the silk 220 FIFTH STEP. LESSON V. wliile passing from one to the other. Two or more of these singles. are now twisted slightly together in the man- ner above described ; the next operation is to spin these combined threads into a firm, thick thread, which is per- formed in the same manner as the former spinning. Cleaning. — One process only remains before the silk is fit for the weaver, viz., the cleaning. How is this per- formed ? The silk is boiled for four hours in a large quantity of water, into w^hich a good deal of soap has been thrown. Why does the silk require cleaning ? Because it still retains the gum, with which the insect covers it, which if not removed, renders the silk harsh to the touch, and unfit to receive the dye. By cleaning, however, the silk becomes soft and glossy. It is now sent to the loom, where it is woven into various fabrics. In a long piece of woven silk the long threads are called the " toarp^'* and the cross threads the ''^ weft^'' or "idjoo/*." These words, and any others neio to the children which may occur in the lesson, should be written upon the board, and the heads of the lesson also, as it greatly assists the children in after- ward reproducing it on their own slates. Before conclud- ing the subject of weaving^ the teacher might show the children the great care and patience necessary on the part of the weaver, in consequence of the fineness of his work ; a piece of silk 20 inches in width, often requiring 8,000 threads, all of which must be arranged with the greatest regularity. Dyeing. — Can the children think of any process which the silk has yet to undergo before it is fit for sale ? Of what color is it now ? Did the cleaning alter the color ? SILK. 221 No ; it is still of a bright yellow color. But white silk is sometimes wanted — how is this obtained ? The silk must be " hleaclied^'' made white, and then it is fit also for the dyer, who, by means of his colors, can make the silk of any shade he pleases. LESSON VI. SKETCH III. — BKIEF DESCRIPTIOX OF THE VAKIOUS FABRICS COMPOSED OF SILK. [XoTE. — The required specimens should be procured, and shown to the children.] I. Articles made of SilJc named. — Children furnish the list. Velvet — silks, plain and brocaded — Persian — damask — ribbon — satin — sarsnet, and crape. The value of silk inferred from the number of articles manufactured from it, and the great difference in their texture. II. Description of the Fabrics. — Velvet — One of the most beautiful productions of the silk loom now manufac- tured. In addition to the warp and woof, a soft shag or pile is produced by inserting short pieces of silk thread, doubled, under the woof; these stand up in so large a number and so compactly as to conceal the interlacings of the warp and woof. The children will see, from examining a piece of velvet, that it is this silky pile which imparts to velvet its softness and beauty. Brocade. — Brocaded silks are those adorned with flow- ers or other figures of silk. Gauze. — A material in which the smallest quantity of silk is employed for a given size of woven fabric. How can 222 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON VI. this be done ? If the gauze \yere woven in the usual way, the threads being so fine, it would be very weak. How is this prevented ? The threads are made to cross and over- loop each other, (something like the threads of a net,) and thus the material acquires the requisite strength. The children to discover this intert\vining of the threads by carefully examining a piece of gauze. Bomhazine^ Poplin^ and Lustre, — Examined, and found to be substances composed of a mixture of silk and worst- ed, the two latter containing much more silk than the former. Satin. — A twilled silk, owing its peculiar lustre to the number of threads of warp passed over by the woof before it passes under one of them. When taken out of the loom, it presents a slight degree of roughness or flossiness. Hoav is this removed ? The children can all tell how their aprons look after they have been washed and dried. Are they fit to wear ? No ; they look rough. How do they feel ? Very stiff and uncomfortable. How can tliis roughness be removed? They must be ironed to make them smooth. Then how do they think satin can be made so nice and smooth ? Just in the same manner, it is passed between heated iron rollers, which smooth down the surface, and give to it that beautiful lustre peculiar to satin. EEMAEKS. 223 THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. EEMAEKS. The nature of tlie objects which we derive from the vegetable kingdom, and their utility to man, depend so much on the structure and living action of the plants, that some introductory account of the latter seems de- sirable. The most important parts of a plant are: the root, stem, branches, leaves, buds, flowers, fruit, and seeds. The root is that part of a plant which grows undei ground ; it serves the purpose of fixing the plant firmly and of absorbing moisture for its support ; it is usually more or less fibrous, and the absorption of moisture takes jDlace almost entirely at the very extremities or points of the fibres. In some plants the root often serves as a storehouse of nourishment for their growth during the following year. This is the case in those plants which, like the carrot and parsnip, instead of flowering in the first year of their growth, produce and store up nourishment for the second year, w^hen they bring forth flowers and seeds. Plants growing in this manner are termed biennials, and the nu- triment stored up during the first year in their large fleshy roots is often used for food by men and animals. The stem or trunk of a tree consists of three distinct parts; in the centre is a light, soft, cellular substance, termed the pith ; which in some plants, as the elder, is suf- ficiently large to be readily examined ; its use appears to be 224 FIFTH STEP. — VEGETABLE KINGDOM. to convey the sap upward to tlie leaves when the plant is very young, and before other channels are formed for its ascent ; as the plant increases in age, the pith becomes dry, is apparently of no further use, and may b'^- removed with- out injury to the life of the tree. The pith is surrounded by the wood, which consists of tough, strong fibres, firmly united together, so as to form a solid substance ; these fibres are arranged side by side, running in the direction of the stem or trunk : they cause what is termed the grain of the wood, and are cut across when a piece of wood is cut against the grain^ and torn from each other when it is split loitli the grain. Every summer a fresh quantity of wood is formed round that previously existing ; each season's growth is therefore of necessity a hollow cylinder, inclosing the wood previously formed, and the appearance it exhibits when the tree is cut across is, of course, circular, the whole mass of wood being formed of a series of such circles, each the result of one year's growth ; it follows that by counting them we may ascertain the age of the tree ; the first year's wood is next the pith, that formed the second year is outside that of the first year, and so on ; a fresh circle being deposited each year external to those pre- viously formed. If a single circle is examined, it will be found that the vessels are larger and more open in that part which is nearest the centre of the tree ; this arises from the fact that this is formed in the spring, when growth is more rapid, and the leaves require a larger quantity of sap ; in some woods, the great difierence between the inner and KEMAKKS. 225 outer part of eacli circle, renders the rings very distinct, as in oak, ash, and elm ; in others, as beech and mahog- any, the texture is much more uniform ; in the wood of the fir tribe, the i^ores are filled with resinous matter, ren- dering the circles very evident. The oldest wood in a tree is toward the centre of the trunk ; this is termed the heart wood ; the youngest and softest is at the outside, and is called the sa]3 wood, be- cause it is through it that the sap rises to supply the leaves ; the sap wood is gradually converted into lieart wood as it grows older, the pores and interstices being filled up and darkened in color by the thickened juices, which descend from the leaves through the back, and reach the older circles by means of a series of passages passing inward from the bark to the pith. These medul- lary passages or rays (termed by carpenters the silver grain, from their giving a glistening appearance to the wood when it is cut parallel to them) are large and readily observed in oak or beech, while in fir wood they are small, numerous, and not easily distinguished. For purposes re- quiring strength and durability only the heart wood is employed ; timber trees should be felled at mature age, when the heart wood is well formed, and before any decay has commenced ; the best season for felling is winter, when the sap is present in very small quantities ; after having been felled, they should be seasoned by an expo- sure to dry air for at least two years, otherwise the wood will warp and split when used ; well-seasoned timber em- ployed in dry situations is extremely durable ; if wholly sunk in water, the durability is much lessened, and, when 10* 226 FIFTH STEP. ^VEGETABLE KINGDOM. exjDosed to alternate moisture and drought, all timber de- cays rapidly. In its power of resisting pressure, timber may be re^ garded as incompressible in the direction of its fibres ; but pressed at right angles to the grain, the softer kinds, such as fir, shrink considerably ; in, resisting a force pulling in oi3posite directions, timber possesses enormous strength; bars of oak or fir one inch square being capable of suj^port- ing upward of five tons ; in bearing a cross strain, the dif- ferent kinds vary considerably, some, as fir, <&c., being much weakened by the tendency of the annual circles to separate from each other. ^ The uses of the wood to the tree are to give firmness and strength to the stem, and to serve as a channel for the ascent of the sap to the leaves and flowers. Around the wood is the bark. This also is formed in circles, but they are so pressed together by the growth of the wood beneath that they cannot readily be counted. The bark varies much in character in difierent trees, being sometimes fibrous, as in the bass tree, so much employed by gardeners and nurserymen ; leathery, as in the bark of the birch, of which boxes and canoes are made; or corky, as in the cork tree of Spain and Portugal. In the trees of tropical climates the arrangement of the woody matter in the stems is very dissimilar to that occurring in the trees of temperate countries ; there is, as it were, a mixture of pith and woody fibres together, and no trace of circles can be observed. Such trees are easily recognized by their appearance, as they are almost inva- riably destitute of branches, bearing merely a tuft of large EEMAKKS. 227 leaves on the top of the trunk. Of this kind of growth the various palm trees are well known examples. Leaves are the flat, green, expanded bodies grov/ing on the branches. Each leaf consists of a framework of veins, which is sometimes netted, as in most of the ordinary leaves of this country, and sometimes perfectly parallel, as in our grasses and grains, and in 'all the trees of the palm tribe ; between the veins is the pulp, having numerous air cavities passmg through it in every direction ; the whole is covered with a skin, extending over both surfaces of the leaf, that on the under surface being pierced with innumerable breathing pores. The action of the different parts in the living vegetable may be thus briefly described. The roots, by their ex- treme points, absorb from" the soil water containing cer- tain mineral and other substances ; this rises through the sap wood, and is conveyed by the branches into the leaves; there it is exposed freely to the action of the sun and air. and a large portion of the water escapes by evaporation the remainder is, by the influence of the air entering through the breathing pores, converted into the nourish- ment required for the support of the plant and for the formation of its peculiar products and secretions. Such portion of the sap as is not required for the growth of the flowers and fruit descends by the bark, and, passing inward by the medullary rays, is stored up in the heart wood, or, as in the case of biennials during their first year's growth, descends to the fleshy root, there to be stored up as nutriment for use during the next season, as in the case of the carrot and parsnip. 228 FIFTH STEP. — VEGETABLE KINGDOM. When any peculiar substance . of a medicinal or other marked character is produced by a plant, it is obvious that we may, in many cases, be so guided by a knowledge of these facts, as to obtain it in the greatest quantity. Thus, when the sap is first absorbed by the roots, it is thin and watery, not possessing any decided properties. The same remark applies to it as it exists in the sap wood, but in its altered state in the leaves it possesses marked and decided properties ; hence leaves are frequently employed for me- dicinal or other purposes, as in the case of tea, and of the sweet herbs used in cookery ; as the altered sap descends by the bark, that part becomes charged with the peculiar substances wi:iich the plant has the power of forming ; and thus bark is very frequently employed in the arts, and also in medicine. Oak and other barks used in tanning, and cinnamon employed as a spice, may be taken as ex- amples. Should the wood itself be required for the sake of any substances contained in it, the heart wood filled with the altered sap is much more valuable than the sap w^ood.. The root, also, as in the case of jalap, rhubarb, chicory, &c,, &c., is often charged with the peculiar principles of the plant producing it. The flowers consist of several parts, each distinct in its structure and use ; the outer part, usually green in color, which encloses all the others in the flower bud, is termed the calyx or flower cup ; it usually consists of several leaf- like parts more or less united at the edges; these are termed sepals. The more highly-colored and ornamental part of the COEK. 229 • flower is termed the corolla ; this also consists of several leaf-like parts, which are termed petals. The corolla sm-rounds the stamens, which are small bodies, exceedingly variable in number, consisting of an elongated stalk or filament crowned by an enlarged head or anther. The seed vessel, containing, as its name implies, the young seeds, and protecting them until they have arrived at maturity, is the most important part of the flower ; it is variously situated, being in some, as the apple and cu- cumber, below the flower, and in others, as the cherry, within it. Seeds of various plants — as grains, pulse, spices, &c. — are largely made use of by man for food and other pur- poses ; as they contain, stored up in small space, a quantity of very nutritious matter for the support of the young plant during the, first stages of growth, before it has formed roots and leaves, so as to obtain its own nourish- ment from the earth and air. OBJECTS DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Barh and Stems. LESSOR VII. • CORK. Natural History . — Cork is the bark of a small ever- green oak which grows abundantly in Spain, Portugal, the south of France, and north of Africa. When the tree is from fifteen to twenty years' old, a circular cut is made 230 FIFTH STEP. LESSON VII. around the trunk immediately below the branches, and an- other at the surface of the ground ; several perpendicular incisions are then made from one to the other, and the cork removed by inserting a blunt instrument underneath it, care being taken not to injure the inner bark, which would cause the death of the tree. The operation is per- formed in July or August, and is repeated every eight or ten years during the whole life of the tree, usually about 150 years. The cork, when removed, is slightly charred or scorched; this improves it by closing the pores, and en- ables it more easily to be flattened by pressure, at the same time giving it the dark color and burnt odor by which it is distincjuished. Uses. — The qualities that render cork so valuable are : its lightness, its being compressible, elastic, and impervious to liquids ; its lightness renders it valuable in constructing lifeboats, cork jackets, floats for fishing nets, and other j^ur- poses ; its being compressible, elastic, and impervious, ren- ders it fitted for closing the mouths of bottles, as, when firmly forced in, its elasticity causes it to press so closely against all parts of the mouth as to prevent the contents from escaping, or the air from gaining access. Cork is also occasionally used in thin layers to form the inner soles of shoes and boots ; it is cut into the required shape f©r the various purposes *for which it is used by means of broad knives, which require constant sharpening. Bungs for casks are so cut that their flat sides correspond to the two sides of the cork, while bottle corks are cut in the oj)posite direction ; the latter are consequently much CANES. 231 less porous in the direction of their length, and afford a more secure fastening. LESSON yni. CANES. Natural ITlstori/.—Cmes, or rattans, are the long, slender stems of a species of palm which grows wild in the forests of the East Indies, the Malay peninsula, and the ad- jacent islands ; the plants are remarkable for the extraor- dinary length of their stems, which occasionally reach several hundred feet ; they are abundantly furnished with hooked prickles, by means of which they are supported on the tops of the highest trees. The stems are cut by the natives, and stripped of their leaves, which surround them like a sheath, by being pulled through a notch cut in a tree ; they are then dried in the sun, and tied up in bundles for exportation. Uses.— Canes consist chiefly of tough woody fibres, with a number of open tubes to allow the ascent of the sap with sufficient rapidity to supply the great evaporation that takes place from the leaves ; on the outside they are covered with a transparent flinty coating of extreme hard- ness ; canes split readily in the direction of their length, and are used for forming the open lattice work of the seats of chairs, and similar purposes, for which they are well adapted by the toughness and strength of the fibres, and the hardness of the external covering. Those are es- teemed the best which are pale in color, very long, thin, and sufficiently flexible to bend without cracking the glazing. 232 FIFTH STEP. LESSON IX. ' In addition to these uses, the plant yields an edible fruit, and when cut across, a flow of wholesome, refreshing sap takes place from the end of the stem ; the young shoots also furnish, when cooked, a pleasant and delicate article of food. Within the last few years, canes have been much more largely imported than formerly, and they are now em- ployed for coarse basket work which is exposed to great violence ; for this their great strength renders them valu- able. The large baskets used by grocers, bakers, and other trades, for heavy goods, arc now also frequently made of unsplit canes. LESSON IX. CIIAECOAL. Preparation. — The term coal, or cole, was originally applied to wood or any substance used for fuel ; hence half burned or charred wood received its name of charcoal. Charcoal is prepared by setting fire to a heap of small wood, almost entirely covered with a layer of earth, and when the whole is ignited closing the openings by which air has been allowed to enter, the fire is thus put out and the wood remains in a charred state. The best charcoal is made from hard wood. Properties. — ^Wood charcoal is a light black porous solid ; showing distinctly the annual rings and structure of the wood from which it was formed ; it is brittle and easily reduced to a coarse powder, the small particles of which it is composed being exceedingly hard. It is perfectly un- CHARCOAL. 233 changeable in air, insoluble in water or in the strongest acids, and also infusible in the fire. Heated to redness in the air, it burns away without smoke, producing an in- visible but fatally poisonous gas termed carbonic acid. It is so bad a conductor of heat, that a piece may be held in the fingers within a quarter of an inch of the red hot part. Uses. — Charcoal is remarkably distinguished by its power of absorbing gases to the extent of many times its bulk ; hence it is frequently employed to remove any un« pleasant odors arising from putrefying animal substances, which it does by absorbing them. The chief use of char- coal is as fuel ; it is much more largely employed for this purpose in cities than in the country ; it is also extensively used in the manufacture of gunpowder, that prepared from the black alder being usually selected. Its power of ab- sorbing odor leads to its use in correcting the smell of tainted meat ; and it is sometimes spread upon over-croAvd- ed churchyards with the same view. Powdered peat char- coal is also used in. some European countries to absorb the smell of offensive manures previous to their being spread upon the soil ; and water is frequently purified by filtering through a layer of powdered charcoal. It is also used for polishing hard substances, for making crayons, and in med- icine. Animal charcoal, which is prepared by heating bones to redness in close iron vessels, is largely used in the sugar refineries, as when syrup made from raw or brown sugar is filtered through a layer of it, the coloring matter is absorbed by the ch^rcaal, and the syrup becomes color- less. {See Sugar.) 234 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON IX. GRAIN^ AND PULSE. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Description. — The plants yielding grain are annuals ; the whole plant, including the root, dying when the seed is ripe; their stems, which are termed straw or culm, are hollow, and divided into lengths by partitions across the interior, corresponding with knots or swellings on the out- side ; this structure is evidently intended to strengthen the hollow stalk ; this stem is covered externally with a sili- ceous or flinty varnish, which gives a peculiar harshness to the straw. The leaves arise from the knots, alternately on opposite sides of the stem ; each leaf has a broad, flat stalk, which is rolled around the stem, so as to form a sheath, split up on one side ; the blades of the leaves are long, and tapering to a point ; their veins run straight, and parallel with each other, from the base to the point, not branching out and reuniting, as is common with most leaves ; the last leaf of the stalk forms a sheath, which is securely and closely rolled around the young heads or ears of grain. The blossoms of the grain plants are formed of small scales, which are at first green, but become yellow when ripe ; they enclose a one-seeded fruit termed a grain ; the blossoms are usually arranged in close heads, termed ears or spikes ; grains and grasses belong to the same tribe of plants, difibring only in respect to size ; the seeds of all grasses might be used for food if they were large enough to answer the purpose, as no grass plant, except the com- mon darnel, is unwholesome when in a healthy state. The BAKLEY AND MALT. 235 grains contain a very large proportion of starch (see /Starch), a considerable quantity of a very strengthening food known as gluten, a variable amount of oil or fat, and small quantities of sugar, gum, fibre, and other substances. The native country of the common grains is miknown ; with the exception of barley, which is indigenous in Sicily and the interior of Asia, they are not found anywhere in a wild state ; but are probably grasses which have been in- creased in size and value by cultivation ; when allowed to grow wild, they soon degenerate and cease to bear seed sufficiently large to be available for the food of man. LESSON" X. BARLEY AND MALT. Cultivation. — Barley, next to wheat, is one of the most important grains cultivated in this country. Like most of the grains, its native country is unknown, and, if allowed to grow W'ild, it rapidly degenerates. Two distinct kinds are cultivated — winter barley and spring barley. Barley is a very hardy grain, capable of resisting both heat and drought, and may therefore be more profitably grown upon poorer soils than wheat ; it comes quickly to maturity, and ripens perfectly in short northern summers, which are not long enough to admit the ripening of wheat ; it is the latest sown and the earliest reaped of all our sum- mer grains ; in warm countries two harvests of barley are reaped each year — one from the winter, the second from the spring sowm. This fact explains the passage in Exodus 236 FIFTH STEP. LESSON X. ix, 31, where the plague of hail is mentioned : — " The flax and the barley were smitten, for the barley was in the ear ; " " but the wheat and the rye were not smitten, for they were not grown up." This plague happened in March ; the liist crop of barley was, therefore, nearly ripe, having been sown the previous autumn. In this country barley is usually sown from the middle of April to the middle of May, although the time varies somewhat in different localities, and is sown broadcast by hand, or with the drilling machine. It thrives best in dry seasons ; if there is much rain it becomes sickly, and in very wet seasons each grain will sprout in the ear, and the whole is rendered worthless. Winter barley, as its name implies, remains in the ground during that season, and is usually sown in October. The quantity of barley produced on an acre of land is, on an average, from twenty-five to thirty-five bushels. Each grain of barley ends in a long awn or beard, which is broken off in threshing ;* the shape of a grain is doubly conical, being pointed at the ends, and there is a groove on one side ; from its tolerably uniform length, it has given its name to one of our divisions of the inch, namely, one-third, it being reckoned that three barley corns placed end to end make one inch in length. Uses. — ^The great use of barley is to make malt for brewing beer and distilling spirits. The malting of barley is performed by steeping it in water until it has become soft and swollen ; it is then taken out and allowed to drain, and remain in heaps for about forty hours, during which time each grain begins to grow or germinate, sending out BYE. 237 a small root, as it would if planted in moist earth ; to check this growth, the barley is spread out to dry on floors, and afterward heated in a kiln ; the color of the malt varies with the heat at which it is dried ; the darker kinds are used for brewing porter, and the lighter for ale. After having been kiln dried, the root is broken off by stirring the malt with spades, and, when separated by sifting, forms the substance known as malt dust or malt culm, which is used for sheep feeding, and sometimes as manure. During malting, barley undergoes the changes that happen to all seeds during germination ; the starch matter is converted into sugar, which is capable of being dissolved in the juices of the growing plant and nourishing it; hence the taste of malt is sweet, and it is the sugar which, dis- solved by boiling water, changes during fermentation into the spirituous part of the beer. Barley does not form a palatable bread when ground into flour, as it is coarse, dry, and apt to become sour. It is sometimes used for food, especially by invalids, in the form of pearl barley ; this is formed by grinding off the outer husks in mills adapted for that purpose. It is used as food for poultry, and, when ground into meal, for fattening pigs, turkeys, and other animals. Barley straw is of considerable value as fodder for cattle and horses. LESSON XL EYE. Cultivation. — ^Rye is a grain capable of growing on lighter and poorer soils, and in colder latitudes than the 238 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XI. other varieties of grain. It is, therefore, the j^revailing grain in a portion of Siberia, the North American Russian possessions, the northern part of the New England States, and the north of Europe. It requires less care in the pre- paration of the ground, and a less amount of manure than is given to either wheat or barley ; but the value of the produce is proportionably small. Rye is usually sown in the autumn after a crop of wheat, although the nature of the previous croj) is not of great importance. It is sup- posed to be a native of the desert countries round the Caspian Sea. Uses, — Rye is cultivated for several distinct purposes. The rij^e grain, ground into meal, is largely used by the poorer class of people in Russia, and other parts of the Continent, for making a coarse, heavy kind of bread, which is very dark in color, and iirjpalatable. In Holland the rii^e grain is fermented, and a distilled spirit obtained from the liquid. Rye straw forms the best material for thatching, and is much used for making straw plait for hats and bonnets. In this country, rye is not largely used for food, and but a limited amount of it is raised. It is only on the poorer and more barren soils that it is cultivated for the sake of the grain ; but in some situations near poultry yards a belt of it is sown around fields of other grains, to protect them from fowls, as they do not relish rye as food. One circumstance that ren- ders rye less desirable as food for man, is the occa- sional occurrence of a disease in the grain, rendering it extremely unwholesome ; in this affection, the 2:rains en- OATS. ^^^ larae very oonslderaWy, and become some^Yllat like the curved spur of a cock; hence the name spurred rye, or er- got of rye. From this diseased grain a very useful medi- cine (secale cornutum) is extracted. LESSON xn. OATS. Cultivation.-1\^^ native country of oats is not known ^ith any degree of certainty. The plant flourishes m colder climates and seasons than any other gram, and is therefore largely cultivated in high mountainous countries as Scotland, Norway, and Sweden. In appearance it dif- . fers strikingly from the other grains, the flowers being ar- rancred in loose bunches, so that each hangs with the open par^of the husk toward the earth, an arrangement which prevents the access of wet to the grain. Several varieties are known in this country, such as the white, red, black, &c. ■ Oats are usually sown in April or May, bemg scattered broadcast by hand, at the rate of from four to six bushe s an- acre, and the average produce is from thirty to fifty bushels. , XTses -O^i^ form an exceedingly wholesome and, at the same time, very nutritious article of food; wlien kiln dried and ground into coarse meal, they form the food ot a very large proportion of the people of Scotland and the north of England, being used both in the form of oaten cakes and porridge. , , ,. „,„ When the seeds are deprived of the husks they are 240 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XIII. called oat grits, and form a very palatable and nutritious food for the sick. Except in this form, it is but little used for food in the United States. The great consumption of oats, however, is as food for horses ; for this purpose they are emjoloyed both whole and ground ; they are also used for feeding geese, ducks, and other poultry, &c. The ripe straw of the oat is regarded as more nutri- tious than any other, and is preferred as fodder for cat- tle ; and the chaff or husk of the grain is often used for stuffing mattresses among the Scotch peasantry, as it is soft, elastic, and inexpensive. LESSON XIII. EICE. Cultivation. — The native country of rice is undoubted- ly Asia, in the warmer parts of which it is even now found growing wild, and the seeds collected for food ; from Asia it has been carried by man, and spread over the warmer and more marshy parts of Europe, America, and Africa ; its introduction into America has taken place within ^he last one hundred and fifty years. The great peculiarity in the cultivation of rice is the quantity of moisture it requires. In this country, for ex- ample, it is sown in the spring, in rows or trenches eighteen inches apart, and the ground is flooded with water for sev- eral days ; when the plants are four inches high, the flood- ing is repeated, and continued for a fortnight ; and again a third time, shortly before the grain ripens, the fields are KICE. 241 inundated, and remain so until tlie rice is ripe. From tlie swampy state of the soil in rice-growing districts, the cul- tivation of rice is a most imhealthy occupation, and in this ,country it is left almost entirely to the care of negro slaves. On the grain becoming ripe, the water is drained off, and the reaping performed with a sickle, the laborej sinking deeply in the soft ground in which the plant grow. Rice is cultivated in very much the same manner in Italy, Lombardy, and Spain, and to^an immense extent in India, China, and Ceylon. In all countries the best rice fields are the low swampy grounds through which the large rivers run ; in other situations the waters of the small streams are collected in reservoirs, and used for irri- gating the grounds. In fertility rice much exceeds our common grains ; in India two crops a year, of thirty to sixty bushels each, are the ordinary produce of an acre. In Lombardy, three bushels of seed are sown to an acre, and the usual return is fifty bushels. It is often shipped in the state of rough rice, that is, with the hulls on, as it is thus more easily protected from damage in transportation. Its preparation is completed in mills made for this purpose, both in this country md in Europe. Rice, although not spoken of by name in the Holy Scriptures, must have been well known to the sacred histo- rians ; it is probable that its cultivation is alluded to m Eccles. xi, 1, and Isaiah xxxii, 20. Uses.— Rice forms the chief food of a greater number 11 1^ ■f*, n 242 FITTH STEP. — LESSON XIV. of persons than any other substance ; the people of India, Chhia, and part of America, live chiefly upon it ; with a mixture of spices termed curry, it forms almost the entire food of whole races of men in India ; and it is estimated that it sujDports upward of one hundred millions of people. As a diet it is light, wholesome, and readily digested ; ut, from consisting almost entirely of starch, it is not so nutritious as the other grains; it is used with more advan- tage as a partial article of food than alone ; in the latter case the quantity necessarily eaten is very large. In India a species of strong spirit termed arrack is dis- tilled from fermented rice, and the straw is also used for making plait for bonnets. Large quantities of rice are used in England in the manufacture of starch. LESSON" XIV. INDIAN COKN OR MAIZE. Cultivatio7i, dbc. — ^The native place of maize is undoubt- edly America, where it was found growing both wild and cultivated by the Spanish discoverers of the New World. In appearance the Indian corn differs much from other grains; the stalk is strong, jointed, and reedy, growing from^even to ten feet in height, and covered with broad alternate leaves ; the top of the stem bears a bunch of barren flowers, termed the tassel; and lower down are the ears, generally about three in number, each enclosed in a sheath formed of several thin leaves ; the ears consist of a pithy, cylindrical stem, called the cob, on which are closely arranged the rows of seeds ; from each seed j^roceeds a INDIAN COKN OR MAIZE. 243 long silky filament, -which issues from the sheath at the top of the ear ; after a time both the tassel of barren flowers, which forms a fertilizing powder necessary for the protec- tion of the grain, and the silken filaments which receive it as it falls, dry up and drop oflT. The color of Indian corn varies from a rich golden yel- low, or even white, to a deep red chocolate color. • The cultivation of maize is very simplp. The grains are planted in rows about three feet apart, care being taken that the season is so far advanced that the young plants shall not be destroyed by the frost. The return varies greatly, according to the quantity of manure used, and the nature of the ground, but it is always very great, in some instances even several hundred fold. Uses, — ^Indian corn forms the staple article of food in many parts of the United States, and among all classes of persons in Mexico ; in Africa, where it has been intro- duced and is largely cultivated, it is said to be as much used as rice. In those warm countries where it grows to perfection, it is the most profitable grain that can be cultivated, its produce being so much greater than that of any other grain ; it forms, in consequence, a cheap, and, at the same time, exceedingly wholesome article of diet. It contains a larger proportion of fat or oil than any other grain, and is, therefore, possessed of remarkable fattening properties. From consisting in great part of starch, Indian corn flour is not well adaj^ted for making bread, unless mixed with wheat flour ; it is most frequently used in the form of thick porridge, puddings, and cakes. 244 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XV. Corn is used extensively in the United States in the manufacture of starch. The largest manufactories are at Oswego, IST. Y., and Glen Cove, Long Island. At the for- mer place more than 200,000 bushels of corn are made into starch annually, which is used both in cooking and by the laundftss LESSOISr XV. WHEAT. Cultivation^ €S)C. — ^The native country of wheat is not known with any degree of certainty ; it has in fact been so changed by cultivation that it is unknown in its natural state ; in Europe, where it has been long cultivated, many varieties exist, the most important being the spring or summer, and the winter or lammas w^heat. Spring wheat, so termed from its being sown at that season, has a more slender head than the winter kind; it is also awned or bearded ; the grain itself is smaller, and the whole plant more delicate and less productive ; it is, therefore, less cultivated. Winter wheat is a vigorous and hardy plant. The ear is destitute of any awn or beard. Two distinct kinds of it exist, which are distinguished by the names red and white wheat. The latter is more delicate in its growth, and is better suited to lighter lands than the red. It is preferred for producing fine flour, and consequently sells at higher rates. The red wheat, on the contrary, is hardy, and bet- ter adapted to the cold, strong clay soils. Winter wheat is sown in the autumn, usually in September or October, WHEAT. 245 the young plants standing during the winter, and ripening their seeds the following autumn. The sowing is either broadcast by hand, or performed with the drill or sowing machine ; the latter causes a much more advantageous arrangement of th^ seed in furrows. Wheat tillers freely ; that is, each seed produces several stalks, the usual number being about five or six. , The produce of wheat is, on the average, about twenty- six bushels an acre ; but in districts wdiere manure is abun- dant and agriculture carried to a high state of perfection, much larger quantities are obtained ; forty bushels to the acre are not unfrequent. From the United States and Canada large quantities of flour are annually exported to Europe. Wheat is subject to a disease called smut, which may be described as a sort of black mildew, affecting the ripen- ii% grain. A few diseased grains will contaminate a large quantity of seed, and the plants produced from such seed will be affected ; fortunately this disease may be almost en- tirely destroyed, even w^hen largely present in seed wheat, by steeping it in various solutions, as, for example, strong brine, or, what is still more eflectual, a solution of sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol ; or a weak solution of arsenic. Uses. — Wheat furnishes, when ground, one of the most nutritious and valuable of all kinds of flour ; in temperate countries, where the poverty of the inhabitants does not preclude its use, it forms the chief article of food. From the tough character of the dough (obtained by mixing wheat flour wdth water) it forms a more spongy, and, therefore, lighter kind of bread than any other flour. 246 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XVI. ^ LESSOISr XVI. PULSE. The term pulse is applied to the seeds of plants resem- bling more or le^is in their structure the common pea; they are characterized by highly developed and ornamental flowers, the corolla consisting of petals which are irregular in form, and which, in some species, as the sweet pea, so much resemble a butterfly, that they have been termed butterfly-shaj)ed, or papilionaceous, a term which is applied to the flowers of the whole group. The ripened seed vessel is also very peculiar in these plants. It consists of two halves, or valves, usually convex externally and concave internally; these separate when ripe, and disclose a row of seeds attached to each valve.- Such seed vessels are popularly termed pods, and are known to botanists as legumes ; hence the plants bearing them are frequently termed leguminous plants. In this country peas and beans form the most frequently used leguminous seeds. It should be remembered that all leguminous seeds are not wholesome ; those of the Laburnum tree, for example, often give rise to serious illness when eaten by children, lesso:n' xyii. BEANS. Natural History. — Beans are the produce of a plant which originally came from the East, but which is now ex- tensively cultivated in all the temperate parts of the world. n BEA^^^S. 247 The j)lant is an annual, from two to four feet in height ; the leaves are divided into leaflets ; and the flowers, which wM are of that kind termed butterfly-shaped, are white, with a black spot on the centre of each wing, and exceedingly^^^ fragrant; each flower is succeeded by. a broad thick pod, smooth externally and woolly internally, containing several seeds. Beans require a heavy clay soil, and are planted in hills or sown in drills, either with a hoe or with a ^jpiilling ma- chine. The crops are ready to be gathered in the autum^^ The formation and growth of a bean may be v^l^^y exam-€> ined if it is soaked in water for a few hours. It will be found to consist of a thick outer skin or covering, inclosing two parts, joined together by a small curved, doubly point- ed portion ; the two halves are the seed lobes, or leaves ; these contain the nourishment for the young plant, and, rising above the surface of the ground, form its first leaves ; the connecting parts consist of the young ^em and roo^ ; the uses of the diflerent parts may be readily ascertained by moistening a few beans and examining them from day to day. Z/hes. — Beans constitute a very hearty food, ^nd the better sort are much used for the table. They are exten- sively used for rations in the army, and as ship stores. » In England they are employed as food for hard-working horses, for which purpose they are usually crushed and mixed with cut hay, straw, byan, oats, or other food ; they * are also used m fattening pigs, but are regarded as making the flesh hard and tough; bean meal is also sometimes mixed with the flour of new wheat for making bread. 4 248 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XVIII. LEssoN^ xvm. PEAS. Natural History. — The plant yielding the common p^a a native of the south of Europe, but it is now cultivated in all temperate climates. It is a climber, with compound divided leaves, the main stalks of which proceed beyond the last i^aifcof leaflets, and form the spirally twisted ten- ^mls, by means of which the plant clings for support to ♦other obje^te. Few circumstances show more evidently the deeicrn and wisdom of the Creator than the numberless instances of compensation. Animals, for instance, denied the possession of some one sense, are compensated for it by the great perfection of another, which answers their wants more perfectly; or, as in the present case, a plant 'destitute of the power to raise its leaves and flowers from the ground, and expose them to the genial influences of the sun and air, is compensated for its weakness by a contri- vance which enables it to borrow the needful support from other plants. Thelftowers of the pea consist of five dissimilar petals, forming that kind of flower termed butterfly-shaped, or •papilionaceous, which is only found in the plants of the pea tribe. Each flower is followed by a pod, which divides when ripe" into two parts, both of which bear a row of seeds, or peas. Each pea consists of an outer skin, inclos- mg two hfilf globular seed lobes, connected together as in the bean, the description of which may be referred to as applicable to the various parts of the pea. Cultivation has FOREIGN CUEEANTS. 249 produced many varieties of this vegetable ; some are re- markable for ripening earlier than others ; some for their peculiar form, size, or color. The common field pea re- quires a rich, strong soil, but the garden varieties succeed better 6n dry, light lands. Uses. — The garden pea is highly valued for the table, when gathered in its green state, and when ripe, dried, and separated from the skins, w^e obtain from them the well known split peas, and pea flour, so much used for making puddings and soup. In this form they furnish an exceed- ingly nutritious and wholesome, but, to some persons, not always an easily digested article of food. The common pea is largely used in feeding pigs ; it is grown as an agricultural crop, being sown either broadcast or in drills ; in either case, it spreads over the ground, and for the purpose of support a few beans are sometimes sown with it. The dry haulm or straw of the pea is ver.y valuable as food for horses and cattle. bruits and Seeds, LESSOI^ XIX. FOEEIGN CUEEANTS. The foreign, or dried currants, are a species of small raisins or grapes, which chiefly grow in the Grecian Islands. They were formerly very abundant in the Isthmus of Co- rinth, and were called from thence Corinthians ; this term has been corrupted into currants, probably from their re- semblance to the English fruit of that name. These little 11* 260 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XX. grapes have no stones, and are of a reddish black color ; they are extremely delicious when fresh gathered. The harvest commences in August, and as soon as the grapes are gathered they are spread to dry on a floor, prepared for the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. This floor is formed with a gentle rising in the middle, that the rain, in case any should fall, may flow off and not injure the fruit. When sufiiciently dry, the currants are cleaned, and laid up in magazines, where they are so closely pressed to- gether that, when a supply is needed, it is dug out with an iron instrument. They are packed in large casks for exj^ortation, and trodden down by the natives. LESSON" XX. THE COCOANUT. ^.^ The tree which produces this fruit is a kind of palm, which is found in Brazil, Ceylon, and throughout the East Indies ; its trunk resembles a stately column, crowned at the summit with narrow leaves, fourteen or fifteen feet in length, and only three in breadth ; amidst these, hangs the fruit. The external rind of the cocoanut is thm, brown, smooth, and approaches a triangular form. This covering en- closes an extremely fibrous substance, of considerable thick- ness, which immediately surrounds the nut ; the latter has a thick .and hard shell, with three holes at the base, each closed by a black membrane. The kernel, which is about an inch in thickness, lines the shell and encloses a sweet, refreshing liquid- The cocoanut tree affords the Indians EAISINS. 251 food, clothing, and means of shelter. Before the kernel comes to maturity, it is soft and pulpy, may be scraped out with a spoon, and supphes the natives with an agreeable and nutritious food ; when pressed in a mill, it yields an oil. By making incisions in the flower-buds at the top of the tree, the sap flows out, and is esteemed an agreeable and cooling drink ; it is sold in the bazaars under the name of toddy. If allowed to stand a few hours it ferments, be- comes extremely intoxicating, and is called palm wine. By soaking the fibrous trunk in water it is made soft, and can be manufactured into sail cloth, or twisted into cordage of any description, Avhich surpasses in durability that formed of hemp. The woody shells are very hard, and susceptible of a high polish ; they are used for cups, ladles, and other domestic utensils. The trunk of the tree furnishes either beams or rafters for habitations, or is made into boats. The leaves i3latted together form an excellent thatch ; they are also used for umbrellas, mats, and various other useful articles. LESSON XXL EAISINS. Natural History. — Raisins, or dried grapes, are the produce of the vine — a plant which, although now cultiva- ted in all the warm parts of the globe, was originally a na- tive of the south of Asia, from whence it has been carried into Europe, Africa, and America. The early cultivation of this plant is mentioned in Genesis ix, 20 ; and the large size of the fruit produced in the genial climate of Palestine is as remarkable now as in the time of Moses. m 252 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXII. In this country the fruit of the vine does not arrive at a sufficient degree of perfection to make wine, without the addition of sugar ; nor is the warmth of the sun powerful enough to dry raisins ; we are, therefore, dependent upon other countries for our supply. In Valencia, from whence our great supply is obtained, the raisins are prepared by dipping the bunches of grapes into a hot lye made of wood ashes, oil, and lime ; they are then exposed on frames of basket-work for fourteen or fif- teen days, to be dried by the heat of the sun. Muscatel raisins are dried on the vines without being dipped; hence the diiferent appearance and flavor. The effect of the lye is to soften the skin of the fruit, rendering it less tough, but it somewhat injures the flavor. Valencia raisins are employed in pastry, the Muscatels for eating uncooked. Sultana raisins are a smaller variety from Smyrna, without seeds. A peculiar mildew has attacked almost all the varieties of the grapevine during the last few ears ; the quantity of raisins has been lessened, and the :ice correspondingly increased. LESSON' XXII. FIGS. ifd^iiral History, — Figs are produced on a small tree, originally a native of the southwest of Asia, but now culti- ed extensively in all the countries of the south of Eu- e ; in height it seldom reaches above twenty feet, and bears large, deeply-lobed leaves, very rough on the upper FIGS. 253 surface, and downy beneath ; it is not furnished with any visible flowers, the fruit arising from the stem in the form of small pear-shaped buds, which are pierced at the larger end with a small hole ; these buds enlarge in size* until they become ripe, still retaining their original shape. Each one contains a cavity, lined with numerous small, scale-like bodies ; these are the flowers enclosed within the fruit. The structure cannot be seen in the dried fig, the cavity having been closed np by pressure, and the internal flowers ripened into the seeds. In its unripe state, the fig- abounds with a bitter milky juice— this, as it ripens, be- comes changed into sugar. One of the most remarkable circumstances connected with the fig is the fact of its bearing two, or even three, crops of fruit during the year ; this peculiarity, and the extreme value of it as an article of food, are alluded to frequently in the Old Testament, — "I found Israel like grapes in the wilderness ; I saw your fathers as the first- ripe in the fig tree at her first time." — (Hosea ix, 10). The first crop is formed on the old wood, and is ripe in May and June ; the second grows on wood of the same year, and is ripe in September; and in very warm cli- mates, as Greece and Egypt, a third crop is produced, which ripens after the leaves are shed, thus supj)lying the inhabitants with fresh fruit during the greater part of the year. Those intended for exportation are not gathered until perfectly ripe ; they are dried on frames, which are placed in the sun by day, and under cover at night ; in very wet seasons they are partially dried by stoves ; when quite dry. 254 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXIII. they are packed in boxes and baskets for exportation. Most of the figs used in this country and Great Britain are imported from Turkey. Uses. — Figs are a very nutritious and valuable article of diet ; in many j)arts of the East they form, with a small portion of bread, the chief food of the inhabitants, and when abundant are even given in small quantities to an- imals, as corn is in this country. The sycamore of Scrip- ture is a larger species of fig, the fruit of which is also occasionally eaten. Vegetable Secretions. LESSOI^ XXIII. CAMPHOE. N'atural History and Preparation. — Camphor exists in small quantities in many plants, but is chiefly obtained from a sj)ecies of laurel tree, a native of China and Japan, which is now cultivated in most of the warm parts of the world ; the great supply is obtained from the Island of Formosa, and carried in Chinese junks to Canton, whence foreign markets are supplied. Camphor is obtained by heating in a still the leaves, branches, and wood of the tree cut up into small j^iecea; being volatile, it rises in vapor ; this is collected in a solid form in a cold part of the apparatus. The camphor of com- merce is in a dirty, granular state, and is purified by a second distillation. The art of refining it was long monop- lized by the Venetians, and afterward by the Dutch. It is now, however, practised in the United States. CAMPHOR. 255 Properties, — Camphor is a solid, semi-transparent sub- stance, so tough that it cannot be powdered without the addition of a few drops of spirit or oil; it possesses a strong aromatic and very peculiar odor ; it is very sparing- ly soluble in water, to which, however, it imparts its pecu- liar odor and bitter taste ; in spirit it dissolves readily, the camphor separating in the solid form when the solution is poured into water. Camphor is also soluble in oil. In large doses it acts as a poison, producing convulsions, stu- por, and death. It melts at a moderate heat, and at the same time pass- es off rapidly in vapor ; if brought into actual contact with a flame, it takes fire readily, burning with a large flame and much smoke. Uses. — ^The strong odor of camphor is obnoxious to insects and moths ; it is, therefore, emj)loyed to protect cabinets of natural history and clothes ; when taken as a medicine, its first effect is that of a stimulant, but its action afterward becomes depressing ; its strong odor has given rise to the idea that it is capable of preventing infection, and it is frequently carried about the body with this view ; it has not, however, the slightest power of destroying in- fection, and, from its depressing effects, its action is deci- dedly injurious. Dissolved in spirit, it forms a valuable application to unbroken chilblains, and also to burns or scalds when the skin is not destroyed. 256 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XXIV. LESSON XXIV. GUM AEABIC. Natural History. — Gum arable is the produce of seve- ral kinds of acacia trees, natives of the sandy deserts of Africa and the East Indies. In the hottest seasons of the year the gum oozes out from the bark in a thick mucilage, which hardens on expo- sure to the air, in a similar manner to the gum produced by the plum and cherry trees of this climate, but to a much greater extent. When pure, gum arable is transparent and colorless, but the commoner kinds are generally yellow. It has a glassy lustre, is perfectly inodorous, and has an insipid taste. It dissolves readily in water, forming a thick adhe- sive solution, which becomes sour after having been made some time. Uses. — Gum in the form of mucilaoce is much used as a cement for small articles, as for fastening labels to glass, &c. ; it is also employed extensively in the arts, for stiffen- ing crapes and other fabrics, and in the manufacture of ink. Paper which has been gummed on one side, and allowed to become dry, is readily attached to any object by moisten- ing with the tongue or otherwise ; in this manner gum is largely employed for postage stamps and envelopes, a por- tion of sugar being usually mixed with it, to enable the cement to be more rapidly softened by the moisture em- ployed. The gum usually employed for this and other coarse purposes is termed British gum, or Dextrine, being INDIAN RUBBEE. 257 made by baking starch in a moderate heat imtil it assumes a pale brown color, and becomes soluble in cold water. LESSON^ XXV. INDIAN RUBBER, OR CAOUTCHOUC. Natural History. — Indian rubber is produced by seve- ral trees, natives of the warmer parts of South America and the East Indies ; it is obtained, during the rainy sea- son, by making deep incisions in the bark, when a thick, creamy juice, of a yellowish white color, flows out, capable of bein^ mixed with water ; this remains imchanged if kept in closely corked bottles, but dries slowly on exposure to the air. In South America the natives spread the juice, as it is obtained from the tree, on moulds of clay, applying one layer as soon as that previously put on is dry ; the drying is hastened by placing the moulds over a wood fire, the smoke of which colors the Indian rubber. These moulds are sometimes in the form of a shoe, and sometimes of a bottle. When a sufficient number of coats have been applied, so as to produce the desired thickness, the clay moulds are broken and the pieces withdrawn, leaving the Indian rub- ber in the form of the mould ; from the East Indies it is usually imported in the form of balls or irregular pieces. Properties, — Indian rubber is a soft, pliable, and highly elastic substance, tough, and difficult to be cut ; its elas- ticity varies, being much lessened by cold and increased by a moderate heat; when suddenly stretched it becomes 258 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XXV. warm — an experiment readily tried by extending a thin thong suddenly between the lij^s ; if stretched, and placed in cold water for some time, it loses its contrac- tile power, which, however, it regains immediately on being warmed. Indian rubber is insoluble in cold or hot water, but is softened by long boiling, and becomes somewhat adhesive ; it is also insoluble in spirits or weak acids, but dissolves readily, with the aid of heat, in pure ether, spirits of tur- pentine, and coal naphtha, remaining unchanged when the liquids evaporate ; it is partly dissolved by oil, becoming clammy and glutinous. Freshly cut, clean surfaces of Indian rubber, readily adhere, if pressed together, or they may be united by using that which has been dissolved in naphtha or turpentine ; heated to a degree rather higher than boiling water, it melts, but it is altered in its properties, and does not be- come solid on cooling ; if brought into contact with a flame, it immediately takes fire, burning with a white flame, and giving out a dense smoke and a very peculiar odor. In Guiana, where the trees abound, it is frequently used for torches. Preparation. — Indian rubber is formed into blocks by being placed in an iron cylinder, lined with spikes, through which passes an iron shaft, also armed with spikes, and made to turn round rapidly ; by this operation the Indian rubber is torn into small pieces, which, when firmly pressed together, unite into a uniform solid block, capable of being cut up into thin sheets or threads ; this is accomplished by means of wet knives, moved by machinery ; threads of INDIAN KUBBEK. 259 such a degree of fineness are produced, that 5,000 yards weigh only one pound. Uses. — The elasticity, flexibility, and impervious nature of this substance render it of great use in the arts ; the natives of the countries where it is produced make water- proof articles by spreading the fresh juice on cloth and other substances ; in this country it is so used by being dissolved in naphtha or turpentine, and then spread upon cloth, or apphed between two thin fabrics, which are pressed together by rollers. The dissolved Indian rubber is also used as a cement in binding books, and for other purposes. When dissolved with shellac it forms a valuable ce- ment, termed marine glue, used in ship-building. Advantage is taken of the property of Indian rubber of becoming inelastic when cold, in weaving elastic bandages, &c. The threads employed for this purpose are stretched to seven or eight times their original length, and wound on rollers ; they are then kept extended in the cold for two or three weeks, by which time they entirely lose their elas- ticity; in this state they are woven readily, and when passed over a hot roller the Indian rubber resumes its elasticity ; these fabrics are employed for many purposes, as, glove bands, brace ends, surgical bandages, &c., &c. The use of Indian rubber in removing black lead pen- cil marks from paper is well known ; its name is derived from its being so employed. It is also used, either alone or in combination, in the manufacture of boots, shoes, travelling bags, life preservers, &g. Vulcanized Indian rubber is usually prepared by adding 260 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXVI. a small quantity of sulphur to the rubber as it is prepared in the mill ; when the article required is finished, it is heat- ed ; the sulphur and heat efiect a very important change ; the Indian rubber becomes much more elastic than before, and possesses the great advantage of not being stiifened by cold, nor softened by the heat of boiling water; it loses also its adhesiveness to so great a degree that it cannot be made to unite, and the waste pieces are comparatively valueless. The red vulcanized Indian rubber is pre23ared in a similar manner, a compound of sulphur and antimony being employed. The permanently flexible and elastic character of vulcanized Indian rubber has led to its ex- tensive use for gas tubes, elastic bands, springs, toys, &c., &c., &c. By the addition of magnesia to vulcanized rub- ber it acquires that degree of hardness which adapts it to the manufacture of knife handles, combs, canes, buttons, fancy boxes, and many other articles. LESSON^ XXVI. GUTIA PEECHA. Natural History and Preparation. — Gutta percha is the product of a tall tree, a native of tlie Malayan Penin- sula, and the adjacent islands, which, when wounded, ex- udes a milky juice, hardening on exposure to the air. It was formerly procured by the natives in a most wasteful mo(le, by cutting down the trees and collecting the thick- ened sap from between the bark and the wood ; but tap- ping has lately been introduced. This sap, as it hardens, is kneaded into shapeless masses ; these, when imported into GUTTA PEKCHA. 261 this country, are prepared for use by being cut into shreds, cleaned by washing, and caused to unite by warmth and pressure. Each tree yields from twenty to thirty pounds. Properties, — In its prepared state, gutta percha is a tough, strong, flexible substance, somewhat resembling leather ; it is lighter than water, of a brown color, taste- less, and having a peculiar odor ; it is quite insoluble in water" spirit, and weak acids, but is dissolved by ether, spirits of turpentine, and coal naphtha. It is softened by a degree of warmth much less than that of boiling water, but greater than that of the human body ; it then becomes a plastic mass, capable of being readily moulded into any required shape ; it is inflammable, burning with a white flame and much smoke; it is quite impervious to water, even in thin layers, and is not a conductor of heat or electricity. Uses. — ^The uses to which this substance has been ap- plied depend chiefly on its toughness, insolubility, and the ease with which it may be made to assume any form. By pressure in moulds it is made into trays, cups, bottles, pic- ture frames, inkstands, &c., &c. ; flattened between rollers, it forms bands, traces, shoe soles, thin waterproof sheeting, &c. ; and it is also formed into pipes for conveying water, which, from their toughness, resist great i3ressure ; and for speaking tubes, for which purpose it is peculiarly adapted, as it possesses in this form an extraordinary power of con- ducting sound. From its extreme strength it is also well fitted for forming substances submitted to rough usage ; it possesses, however, the ^disadvantage of being readily 262 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XXVII. altered in shape by a degree of heat less than that of boil- ing water. One of its most useful applications depends upon its be- ing a non-conductor of electricity ; hence it is employed to cover the wires of the submarine electric telegraph. LESSON XXVII. OILS. Fixed or greasy oils are abundantly formed by various vegetables, and are of extreme value to man, as food, for lighting, soap and candle making, and many other pur- poses. Oils are seldom, if ever, stored up in the leaves or bark, but are usually found in the seed-vessel or seeds; in the latter, oils answer the twofold purpose of nourish- ing the young plant during its early growth, and of affording a supply of food to man and animals. The quantity of oil in various seeds is very great. The kernel of the hazel nut contains 60 per cent. ; walnut 50 ; almond, 46 ; poppy seed, 50 ; raj^e, 39 ; hemp, 25 ; flax, 22. Many of these seeds when dry, as the almond, take fire and burn readily when placed in the flame of a candle. The most commonly used vegetable oils are olive, lin- seed, palm, and castor oils. Olive Oil. Natural History. — The olive is a small evergreen tree, common in the south of Europe, Barbary, and the Levant ; it has lance-shaped grayish-green leaves, and white flowers ; the latter are followed by a fruit tlie size and shape of a damson, of a purple color, with a nau- OILS. 263 seous, bitter, oily flesh, wliicli encloses a sliarp-pointed stone. The oil is obtained from the fruit by crushing it un- der rollers into a paste, which is then enclosed in bags and subjected to the action of a screw press. That which flows first is regarded as the best ; after that has been removed, hot water is added to the mass, and an additional quantity obtained. Properties and Uses. — Olive oil is an insipid, inodorous, pale, yellow, oily liquid, not liable to turn rancid, and very inflammable ; at a temperature several degrees above the freezing point of water it becomes solid. In the south of Europe and Syria, of which countries the olive is a native, the oil has been in use from the ear- liest periods of which we have any record, both for food (1 Kings, xvii, 12) and burning in lamps (Exod. xxvii, 20) ; at the present time it may be regarded as the cream and butter of Spain and Italy, and so much is it valued, that the tree is chosen as the emblem of peace and plenty. In our own country olive oil is used in the preparation of food, though to a much more limited extent than in Europe ; the common kinds are largely employed in the woollen manufacture, and some kinds of soap. Linseed Oil. Natural History. — The description of the plant yielding flax and linseed will be found under the head of Textile Fabrics ; the seeds, when separated, are crushed and pressed in mills, when they yield nearly ^one fourth of- their weight of oil; this, of all vegetable oils, is one of the cheapest and most useful. It possesses the property of drying when exposed in thin layers to the 264 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXVH. action of the air ; hence its use in the preparation of paint and varnish, for which purpose the employment of a fatty, non-drying oil, as that of the olive, would not an- swer. It is also employed in large quantities for making putty, and for various purposes in the arts ; it is not un- wholesome, but it has a nauseous and unpleasant taste, which renders it unfit for the food of man. The crushed mass that remains after the extraction of the oil is termed oilcake, and is much used for fattening cattle. The skins of the seeds contain a large quantity of mucilaginous or gummy matter; this is dissolved when boiling water is poured upon the seeds, and forms the solution termed linseed tea; ground into powder the seeds furnish linseed meal, a substance used medicinally for poultices, &c. The manufacture of this oil has become a very impor- tant branch of industry in this country ; the seed for this purpose being largely imported from the British East Indies. I*alm OIL— This substance, which is in a solid form in temperate climates, is obtained from the fruit of a species of palm, found upon the w^estern coast of Africa, in the West Indies, and some parts of South America. It is ex- ported mostly to England, where it is bleached and manu- factured into candles and fine soaps. Castor Oil. — Is expressed from the seeds of the castor oil plant, and is chiefly used medicinally. It is also much used for burning in France, Italy, and some other countries. Volatile oils are very distuict in their character from OILS. 265 those that are fixed and greasy. They are usually found in tlie flowers, but also m the other parts of certain vege- tables. By boiling the substances containing them with water, the oil is volatilized, and, passing over with the steam, may be collected and preserved for use. By this process of distillation, most of the volatile oils are col- lected ; some, however, as the volatile oil of lemon peel, are obtained by pressure. Many volatile oils are used as flavoring ingredients, as the oil of lemon ; or as perfumes, as those of bergamot, lavender, rosemary, ones being much larger than the others, and longer than the body. Each hind leg consists of three distinct l^arts — the thigh, the shank, and the foot ; these legs are not used in walking, but are only employed in leaping. When the animal wishes to leap, it draws the feet of the hind legs close to that part of the thigh that joins the body, the joint uniting the thigh and shank being bent to a very sharp angle, high above the back of the insect; the various joints of the leg are then suddenly and pow- erfully straightened, and the foot forcibly striking the ground, the animal is propelled high into the air. The wings of the perfect insect are thin and membra- nous ; when at rest they e not observed, as they are folded up in a fan-like form under narrow wing-cases. The chirping noise made by the insect is caused by the rubbing of the thighs of the hind legs against the horny wing covers. The appetite of these insects is vora- cious ; they feed entirely on vegetable substances. The eggs of the female are deposited in the ground, and the young hatched from them resemble the old ones in appearance ; but they are not furnished with either wings or wing-covers, consequently they are unable to fly 288 FIFTH STEP. SHELLS. * or chirp. After some time these parts grow, and the young one is changed into the perfect insect. SHELLS. General Observations on Shells, The substances known as shells are the natural cover- ings of certain animals, which are distinguished by the absence of any internal framework or skeleton ; by having cold and colorless blood; by their senses baing usually but slightly developed ; and by their being soft, fleshy, and cold to the touch ; animals of this kind are termed molluscous, from two Latin words signifying soft flesh ; some of them, as the common slug, are destitute of any shelly covering. The number of distinct shells which have been de- scribed is upward of fifteen thousand. Shells consist chiefly of chalk or carbonate of lime, which is cemented into a mass by animal matter ; the in- ner surface of each is lined by a part of the skin of the animal, which has the power of secreting or forming the substance of the shell ; and, as the animal grows, is con- stantly enlarging it, by adding new sheU at the edges, or around the mouth of the opening ; this skin has also the power of repairing any injury that may have occurred, by forming new shell at the injured part. Shells are interesting to us, not only on account of their beauty and durability, but also from the evident in- stances of design they afibrd, and from the creative wisdom displayed in their formation ; those which are exposed to SHELLS. 289 the dashing of the waves on the shore, or to the torrents of rapid rivers, are often of almost impenetrable hardness, as in the periwinkle ; others, like the common snail, not exposed to violence, are thin and light, so that they may- be readily borne by the inhabitant ; every shell offer strik- ing proofs of design and fitness in its adaptation to the ani- mal's station and habits. Shells, and their inhabitants, are of direct use to man in numerous instances ; the animals in many cases furnish very nutritious articles of food. Shells are often burned for the sake of the lime they yield ; others are employed in an unburned state as valuable manure ; and some kinds are used as a substitute for gravel in garden and park walks. To the natives of savage countries they are espe- cially valuable ; the sharp edges of broken pieces being used as substitutes for knives, and for forming arrow and spear heads ; they are also formed into fish hooks, and used as vessels for holding liquids. Over a large extent of Africa a small shell, the money cowry, j^asses instead of money, being taken in exchange for goods and labor in the same manner as coins are in civilized countries ; the value, however, of each shell is very small, a string of forty being not worth more than from one cent to four cents. About 1,000 tons of money cowries are annually imported into England from India, being employed by English traders in the purchase of goods from the natives on the west coast of Africa. In China, a thin, semi-transparent shell is used as a sub- stitute for glass in glazing windows in the junks, and for lanterns. 290 riFTn STEP. — SHELLS. Vast numbers of several distinct species of foreign shells are used in the manufacture of cameos for brooches and other ornaments. These are formed from univalve shells, which consist of several layers of diiferent colors. The engraver cuts away the outer layers, so producing the pattern or design required. Cameos are chiefly made in Paris, where upward of 100,000 shells are used annually. A large proportion of the cameos made in France are sent to England, and are mounted as brooches at Birmingham, and then exported to America and the colonies. In 185G there were imported into England unmounted cameos of the declared value of 6,683Z. Shells, for the convenience of arrangement, are ar- ranged into three groups — those formed of one piece, or valve, are termed univalves, as the snail, whelk, &c. ; those formed of two valves, united by a hinge, are termed bi- valves, as the oyster, mussel, &c. ; and those formed of several pieces are termed multivalves ; the latter, however, are not so abundant as the first two divisions. Univalve Shells. — A univalve shell is usually formed of several hollow whorls, which are coiled round so as to form the sj^ire, the largest and last formed being termed the bod)/ ivhorl / the entrance into the shell is termed the mouthy its two sides the li2)S / where the spire ends is termed the 2^oi7it, or top of the shell ; its opposite extrem- ity the base; many shells, as that of the whelk, liave a 'projection at the bottom of the mouth ; this is called a beaJc ; it frequently contains a canal, into which the trunk of the living animal is received. When an animal inhabit- ing a univalve shell is full grown, the body whoid and SNAIL. 291 • mouth are often mnch altered in form, and frequently so much enlarged as entirely to overspread and conceal the spire and other parts, — this happens in the cowries, the spotted and striped varieties of which are frequently seen ornamenting our sitting rooms. The animals inhabiting: univalve shells are much more complicated in their formation than those of the bivalves ; they have a distinct head, which is generally furnished with organs termed feelers ; they also possess the sense of sight, and are furnished with a broad fleshy foot on which they crawl. LESSON^ XL. SNAIL. Natural History. — Snails, of which many distinct kinds are found in this and other countries, are univalves, of a conical form, with a large swelling body whorl, a smooth surface destitute of spires or projections, and a roundish mouth without a beak ; the shell is thin and light ; at the same time it is possessed of considerable strength ; the animals are furnished with four feelers, the two upper are the longer, and carry at their ends two eyes, which appear like dark s^jots ; the means by which these feelers are pro- truded and drawn in at the will of the animal are particu- larly interesting; each feeler may be compared to the finger of a glove, the inside of which has a string sewn to the tip ; the effect of pulling the string woul used to form fishing lines, violin bows, &c. The shorter hair is usually curly ; it is generally sold in commerce twisted into cords, which are afterward picked open, and the hair used for stuffing mattresses, chairs, sofas, &c. To fit it for this purpose it is baked IVOET. 311 with a gentle heat, by which its elasticity is much in- creased. The short hair of the mane is also used for stuffing horse collars, and other inferior work. Much of the hair used in manufactures is imported from South America. lesso:n^ lii. IVOKT. Natural History. — Ivory is the hard, bony substance forming the tusks of several animals, as the elephant, hip- popotamus, walrus, and spermaceti whale. The chief and best supply of elephant ivory comes from Africa. Large quantities are obtained also from immense collections of bones and tusks of extinct species of mammoths and ele- phants, which are found in the banks of the northern riv- ers of Siberia. Some of these tusks were ten feet long, and weighed 186 lbs. each. The tusks found in Africa occasionally weigh from fifty to seventy pounds, but do not average quite twenty pounds each. At the low esti- mate of 30?. per cwt , the total value of the ivory imported into England, is nearly 300,000?. yearly, and above 20,000 elephants are annually slaughtered to yield this supply. Elephant ivory is a white, translucent substance, mainly composed of the sa e materials as bone, possessing a very fine, close texture, in which may be observed a diamond- shaped network, caused by curved lines interlacing each other with great regularity and beauty, and giving rise to a pattern resembling the engine turning of a watch, ex- tremely hard, yet slightly compressible by great force, and 812 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LIU. elastic. Cut into thin layers it has a greater degree of transi^arency than paper of the same thickness. Uses to Man. — The serai-transparency and whiteness of ivory, together with its fine, even surface, render it the best known substance for the groundwork of small delicate paintings, such as miniatures ; it is also employed by the turner for various articles, as well on account of its beauty and hardness, as from its being less liable to crack than bone. The keys of pianofortes, knife handles, chess men, surgical and mathematical instruments, and toys are made from it. The ancients esteemed it highly as a material for sculpture, and it is still used by the carver for small figures and ornamental devices. LESSON LIII. LEATHER. Manufacture and Uses. — Leather is a substance uni- versally used among civilized, and very generally among barbarous nations ; it is made from the skins of animals, which are tanned or prepared with some substance having the power of converting the perishable skin, that decays readily when wet or moist, into a lasting and comparatively imperishable leather. Several tanning substances are em- ployed, according to the kind of leather required ; that for the soles and upper leathers of shoes, for harness, and sira- lar purposes, is tanned with the aid of oak bark. The hides or skins, either fresh, as received from the butcher, or salted, as they are brought from abroad, are first scraped to remove any pieces of flesh or fat that may remain at- LEATHER. 313 tached to the inside, and are then soaked in a mixture of lime and water, by which means the hair is loosened, and can be readily scraped off. Thus cleansed from the hair and flesh, they are again soaked for some days in an acid liquid, made by putting barley or rye flour into water and letting it remain till it becomes sour, or by adding a small quantity of oil of vitriol ; this acid solution has the effect of opening the pores of the skin, so that the tan can after- ward penetrate more readily. The hide is then placed in the tan-pit with oak bark and water ; first in a weak, and afterward in a strong solution. The process of manufactu- ring skin into leather is a very slow one ; to make strong and well-tanned leather the hides should remain in the pits from six to twelve, or even eighteen months ; if taken out too soon, the middle of the skin is not well tanned. The hides when removed are dried, and finally passed between rollers, to give them a smooth surface and render them firm. By these processes the skin is mftch altered in its prop- erties ; when taken from the animal it is soft and moist, and, when dry, brittle, and liable to crack ; it is also very perishable, and putrefies rapidly if kept wet ; these qualities render untanned skins of little use. Leather, on the con- trary, is flexible and soft, whether wet or dry ; it is also, if properly prepared, waterproof and lasting; at the same time it is light, and sufiiciently strong to withstand much wear when made into shoes, harness, &c. There is a mode of tanning by steam, called the " hot process," by which the leather is produced more rapidly and cheaply, but it is of very inferior quality. 14 ^ 314 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LIII. The leather required for the upper parts, of boots and shoes is prepared by the currier, who, by paring and rub- bing, renders it thinner, more flexible, softer, and capable of taking a jDolish ; at the same time he blackens it with lampblack, and oil or tallow. The skins used for upper leathers are calf, and the thinner skins of cows and horses ; while the thicker skins, and those of oxen, &c., are used for the soles. These skins are imported mostly from South America and Calcutta. The numerous kinds of leather, required for difierent purposes, are made by slight variations in the process. Morocco leather, for example, is prepared from goat skins, which are mainly imported from Switzerland and Mexico. The flesh and hair are scraped off* as before de- scribed ; each skin is then sewed up in the form of a bag, which is filled with water and a vegetable substance termed sumach ; this substance, like the oak bark, is astringent, and has the eflect of tanning these skins in a few hours ; they are then dyed, aifd rubbed with a grooved ball, in order to give them the ribbed aj)pearance which distin- guishes morocco leather ; imitation, or inferior morocco, is manufactured from sheep skins. Morocco leather is soft and very flexible, Avhile its grooved appearance renders it ornamental. It is frequently used for covering books and chairs, lining carriages, &c. A very strong leather is made from seal skins, and is used for the tops of riding and hunting boots. In Loui- siana the manufacture of leather from alligator skins was commenced some years since, and more recently a new source of leather has been found in the skin of the white LEATHER. 315 whale, wliicli is found in the rivers emptying into Hudson's Bay. The leather which, from its softness and power of stretching, is usually selected for gloves and ladies' shoes, though called kid, is mainly prepared from the skins of lambs. It is tanned with alum, and, to render it as soft and yielding as possible, eggs and flour are used during the process. Wash, or chamois leather, is j)repared by cleansing the skins with lime ; they are then dried ; afterward, they are beaten with heavy hammers, while kept wet with oil ; again hung up to dry, and again beaten with the addition of fresh oil ; this operation is many times repeated ; lastly, the surplus oil is removed by soaking the skin in water containing pearlash ; it is ultimately dried, and it is then fit for use. Being very soft, wash leather is much employed for polishing metal articles ; and from its warmth and softness, it is made into under waistcoats, &c. ; it 'does not resist the wet, and is, therefore, unfit for outer clothing. Sheep skins are split by a machine so as to form a cheap kind of leather termed skiver, which is largely used for iDocketbooks, hat linings, common bookbinding, and similar purposes. At the present time the skins of the larger animals are split ; the outer side being employed as a substitute for morocco leather, and the inner for inferior purposes. 316 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LIV. LESSON Liy. SOAP. Mcmi(facture. — All the various hard soaps are prepared from different kinds of fat or oil, and the alkali, soda. It is necessary, however, that the common soda should be rendered much more caustic than it is in its usual state ; this is done by boiling it with fresh burnt lime, which, act- ing chemically on the soda, greatly increases its caustic powers. The soda thus prepared and dissolved in water forms what is termed the lye or ley of the soap boiler. White hard soap is manufactured in the following man- ner : — Into an iron vessel, heated by steam, a large quan- tity of fatty material is placed ; into this a quantity of the ley is poured. The mixture is boiled for some time, and frequently stirred, during which time the tallow unites with the soda of the ley, and forms a viscid liquid ; a strong so- lution of salt is then added, which causes the immediate separation of the water and the ley ; this is pumped away, and a stronger ley being added, the operations are repeat- ed until the w^hole of the grease is converted into soap. It is now submitted to another process called " fitting," which consists in boiling it in weak ley or water until the impurities settle to the bottom. The contents of the boiler are then left to cool and settle for two or three days. In order to harden the soap it is removed from the boiler and poured into large pans ; when cold it becomes a solid mass, which is cut up by wires into bars. SOAP. 317 When scented and cast in small cakes, it is sold as "Windsor soap. Yellow soap is made in the same way, with the addition of a portion of resin, which gives the peculiar smell and bitter taste by which it is distinguished, but it adds to its solubility, and to its power of forming a lather in water. Fancy or toilet soaps are prej^ared from a great variety of materials, as palm, olive, castor, and spermaceti oils, mutton tallow, and lard. The well known Castile soap is made with olive oil and soda, while the Windsor soap re- quires mutton tallow. Soaps are colored by mixing mineral paints into the melted mass, as vermilion for pink, ochres for the brown, &c. In marbling fancy soaps, the paint is mixed with olive oil or soap, and a small portion, taken up on a palette knife, is moved about in the melted mass. All the various soaps are soluble in water, forming semi-transparent solutions ; when moist or dissolved, soap has a peculiar feeling, distinguished by the term soapy. The great use of soap depends upon its solubility, and upon its power of rendering grease and dirt soluble in water, without exerting any corrosive action ; a w^eak so- lution of caustic alkali would act more powerfully in cleansing, but at the same time it would, like the wash- ing powders in general use, destroy or materially injure the linen and other fabrics with which it might be brought in contact. Soap is sometimes found as a natural product. In Cal- ifornia a small shrub grows abundantly which is generally 318 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LV. used for soap, and is even preferred to the artificial variety. Tlie bulbous root of this plant is dug up, stripped of its husks, and rubbed upon the clothes in the water. Several other plants have been found in various parts of the world which serve the same purpose. LESSOIsT LV. SPONGE. Natural History. — Sponges are animal substances, which are found in marine and fresh w^aters in various parts of the world. The two principal varieties met with in commerce are known as Turkey and West Indian, the former coming from the Mediterranean, the latter, which is much coarser, from the Bahamas Banks and coast of Florida. The inhabitants of the Greek Islands, from whence the best sponges are obtained, are trained to dive for sponge from their childhood ; — to quicken their de- scent they use a large heavy stone, which is attached to the boat by a rope ; they seldom remain under vv'ater so Ions: as two minutes at one time. Some of the coarser kinds of sponge are obtained by dredging the bottom of the ocean. Sponge is a very light, soft, compressible, highly elastic material ; on examination with a microscope it is found to consist almost entirely of horny elastic fibres, which are so arranged as to form an infinite number of small tubes that open on the outer surface of the sponge, and communicate internally with larger tubes formed in the same manner. During the life of the animal these tubes are lined with TORTOISE SHELL. 319 a soft gelatinous flesh. The animal has the power of caus- ing strong currents of water to flow out of the larger aper- tures, its j)lace being supplied by what passes in through the smaller pores ; this action is always going on, and while the water is so passing, the requisite food is with- drawn for the support of the animal. When removed from the water this soft flesh drains away, the elastic fibrous framework or sponge remaining. In some varie- ties the fibres of the sponge are flinty in their texture ; such are, of course, useless in an economical point of view. Uses. — The use of sponge as a material for washing, • Harder than flint. •< . . . . Emery. 10. 5 ^ . . . Diamond. The diamond is the only mineral of the highest degree of hardness, and is therefore used for cutting glass, ^here the iron rod is attached in the centre ; a lump is there formed called the hulVs eye ; the glass is then annealed, and each disc divided into two j^arts for the convenience of carriao'e. The dark green glass used for wine bottles is made without lead, and of the coarsest materials ; common river sand and soap-boilers' waste, consisting of lime and a small proportion of alkali, being usually employed. Plate glass is a very pure glass, capable of flowing freely when melted, without streaks or air bubbles. The materials forming it are the whitest sand, soda, small por- tions of lime and the minerals manganese and cobalt, to- gether with broken plate glass, the waste of previous operations. The glass, when perfectly fused, is poured 16 362 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVII. upon an iron table of the size required, and the thickness is regulated by the height to which the sides of the table are raised. Immediately after it is poured out, the melted glass is flattened by having a metal roller passed over the upper surface ; it is then annealed for several days ; after this it is ground perfectly smooth by rubbing tAvo plates together with finely powdered flint and water between them ; each plate is again ground with emery powder, and finally joolished by a polishing powder, applied with a woollen rubber. The process of the manufacture of glass beads is inter- esting from its great simplicity. Tubes of glass of the required color are made by blowing cylinders, which are drawn out while still plastic to the required length. These tubes are cut up into very short pieces on the upright edge of a fixed chisel. They are then stirred over a furnace in a mixture of fine sand and wood ashes, heated to such a degree that the fragments of glass are softened, and lose their angular and sharp-edged form. Colored glasses are produced by the addition of small quantities of various mineral ingredients to the melted mass. A small quantity of soot gives a yellow color ; pre- parations of copper a red tint ; blue is produced by co- balt ; manganese gives an amethyst; green is produced by iron, as in the common bottle glass ; tin produces an opaque white, and gold an exquisitely beautiful ruby tint. Properties, — The peculiar properties of glass in a melt- ed state have been already alluded to. When solid, it is strikingly distinguished by its beautiful transparency, hard- ness, and freedom from porosity ; its lustre, which is so CxLASS.. 363 characteristic that it is termed vitreous ; its being insoluble and incorrodible by all substances in ordinary use, even the strongest acids; it is brittle when in thick masses, but when in very thin threads it possesses an extraordinary degree of elasticity, which, unlike that of any other sub- stance, does not seem impaired by repeated bending. Uses. — ^The uses of glass in domestic economy are well known. Its employment for making vessels to hold liquids depends greatly on its transparency and polish, the former allowing the contents to be seen, and the latter enabling it to be readily cleaned after use. Its employment as a ma- terial for glazing windows depends on its transparency and insolubility, w^hich enable it to admit the light and warmth of the sun, while it excludes the wind and rain. Glass is frequently ground upon revolving wheels of sandstone, or pohshing slate, into small circular pieces, with one or both sides concave or convex ; in these forms it alters the direction of the rays of light which pass through it, either bringing them to one point or focus, or dispersing them. These glasses are termed lenses, and are em^^loyed in making optical instrumeitts — as microscopes, telescopes, &c., and also for spectacles. It is our familiarity with glass that alone renders us usually so insensible to the great value and exceeding beauty of this extraordinary substance. 364 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXVIII. LESSON LXXVIII. MICA. Occurrence and Properties. — Mica is a mineral that possesses the property of being readily spht into exceed- ingly thin hiyers, which are transparent, possess a pearly metaUic lustre, and are flexible and elastic. The glisten- ing appearance of granite, and some other minerals, is due to the presence of small scales of this substance. It occurs in large masses in many parts of the world, especially in Siberia, Sweden, and Norway. It is also found in New Hampshire, and some of the other States, and Canada, in sufiicient quantities to be quarried for economical purposes. Uses. — The transparency and flexibility of this sub- stance have led to its employment as a substitute for glass, particularly under circumstances where it is exposed to violence ; hence it has been used in. Russia for vessels of w^ar, in which glass windows were apt to be broken by the concussion caused by firing the guns. As it is not altered by cxjjosure to a very'high temperature, it is not unfrequently used to form transparent doors to stoves and lanterns, and it is now largely employed to form covers over gaslights, to protect the flame from draughts of air, as well as to prevent the smoke rising to and soiling the ceiling. GEANITE. 365 LESSON" LXXIX. GKANITE. Granite is a compound rock, formed by an aggregation of grains of quartz, felspar, and mica. The proportions in wliich tiiese component parts occur vary much ; but felspar is the predominating, and mica the least considerable, of these ingredients. The grains are also of different magni- tudes ; when they are large, the granite is of a very coarse texture ; but sometimes they are so small, as almost to give the appearance of a uniform mass. These circum- stances occasion a great 'variety in the character of granite. When hornblend occurs in the place of mica, the rock is called syenite, from Syene, in Ui^per Egypt, where it was first known and quarried. Some felspar is liable to decom- position, and when this is the prevailing substance in the rocks, they yield to the effects of the weather, and become more or less of a rounded form ; but when the granite is hard and close-grained, which is more usually the case, they rise in bold prominent peaks, giving grandeur and boldness to the scenery. Granite is found in most coun- tries where there are mountains of any considerable eleva- tion. It forms the flanks of a considerable portion of the Andes, and it may be traced along the eastern spurs of the Appalachian range through the Southern States. It is finely developed through South Carolina and Georgia. The Stone mountain of the latter State is a naked mass of granite, rising four or five hundred feet above the sur- rounding country, and is so steep that it can be ascended 366 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXX. only at one point. All New England abounds in granite, but the most famous quarries are along the coast of Maine, and at Quincy, Mass. ; from the latter place it is exported for building purposes to the principal cities on the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and in the West Indies. Granite is valuable on account of its great hardness and durability ; it is used for building, paving, submarine works, mill stones, troughs, and steps. INFLAMMABLE MINERALS. LESSON LXXX. SULPHUE. Occurrence. — Sulphur occurs native in the neighbor- hood of all active volcanoes, from which it is discharged in vapor, and condenses in considerable quantities in the gravel and ashes of the interior of the craters. At Pouz- zales, near Naples, the mixture of sulphur and gravel is dug up and distilled to extract the sulphur. The gravel is then returned to its original place, and in the course of years becomes so far charged with sulphur as to serve the same purpose again. It is also found more abundantly in beds, as in Sicily, from whence almost all the native sul- phur of commerce is obtained. Sulphur, when combined with metals, forms minerals, which are termed sulphurets ; these occur in most parts of the world ; some of them — as the sulphurets of lead, SULPHUK. 367 coi^per, and zinc — are valuable ores, the sulphur itself be- ing burnt away and lost during the preparation of the metals. One sulphur et — that of iron — also termed iron pyrites, is useless as an iron ore, but of great value as a source of sulphur, containing rather more than half its weight. When this sulphurct is heated in the open air, the sul- phur burns away with a blue flame ; but if it is heated in close vessels, half the sulphur it contains is driven off in vapor. This is collected in a solid or liquid state in a cold part of the apparatus ; the residue of the mineral is con- verted, by mere exposure to the air, into green vitriol, a preparation of iron largely used in dyeing black and in makin-o; ink. The usual form in which sulphur is prepared is in cylin- drical sticks, known as roll sulphur, or roll brimstone. These are formed by casting it in hollow wooden moulds, so made as to divide into two parts longitudinally. Properties. — Sulphur is a mineral of a bright yellow color, nearly twice as heavy as water, in which it is quite insoluble ; tasteless, and without smell when cold, but odorous when rubbed or warmed : it is brittle, and a very bad conductor of heat, so that, if a roll is grasped in the warm hand, the outer part only becomes heated, and, in- creasing in size, is forced away from the inner portion, and the mass breaks. Heated to a degree somewhat above that of boiling water (232 degrees Fahrenheitt) sulphur melts, forming an orange-colored limpid fluid ; if the heat is increased, its color becomes a deep red, and it thickens to such an ex- 368 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXX. tent that tbe vessel may be quickly inverted Tvithout its being spilled; if in tins state it is poured into water, it forms an elastic soft solid, which, after a time, becomes brittle. Heated to a still higher degree, it becomes some- what more fluid ; and if in a close vessel, it boils away in vapor, which, by a greater or less degree of cold, may be condensed into a solid or liquid state. Heated in the air, it takes fire, burning with a blue flame, and producing a very irritating, poisonous gas or vapor. Sulphur has a great disposition to unite with metals ; this may be shown by carrying a piece in the pocket with silver coins, when the formation of a black sulphuret of silver rapidly takes place. The same result occurs if an egg is eaten with a silver spoon, as sulphur is contained in the yolk. Uses. — ^The uses of sulphur in the arts are of the high- est importance. The manufacture of soda from salt, dye- ing and bleaching, the making of leather, gunpowder, and congreve matches, are but a few of those manufactures- which mainly depend on sulphur, or its compounds, for existence. The ready inflammability of sulphur leads to its use in the making of lucifer matches, which are first dipped in melted sulphur before the compound of i)hosphorus is added, as the latter, from its rapid burning, would be un- able to set fire to the match if unassisted by the brimstone. The same property leads to its employment in gunpowder, • • • • to which it imparts the power of igniting wuth the slightest spark. The poisonous fumes which arise from its burning are largely employed in bleaching silk in the raw state, isinglass, walnuts, straw plait, and bonnets ; it is also occa- PLUMBAGO. 369 sionally used in destroying rats and vermin when they have accumulated in ships and other close places. Its fusibility leads to its employment in taking casts from medals, coins, and similar objects, for which purpose it is used in its most liquid state. Flowers of sulphur, which are formed when the vapors arising during its distillation are allowed to condense in a solid form, are much used as a domestic medicine, and enter also into the preparation of vermilion and other chemical substances. Oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid, an exceedingly corro- sive, poisonous liquid, is made by burning sulphur in furnaces constructed for the purpose, the combustion being assisted by the presence of other substances. Some idea of the use of this acid in the arts and manufactures may be gained from the fact that 300,000 tons are annually made in England, the value, at the lowest computation, amount- ing to several hundred thousand pounds. It is the most extensively used in the arts of all the acids, and is an important branch of manufacture in chem- ical works in Philadelphia, I^ewark, K. J., Roxbury, Mass., and other parts of the country. LESSOiSr LXXXI. PLUMBAGO. Occurrence and Properties. — Plumbago, which is also termed graphite, and black lead, occurs in many parts of the world ; large quantities are found in Ceylon, the East Indies, and several localities in the United States ; particu- 16* 370 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXI. larly at Stnrbriclge, Mass., Brandon, Vt., Fishkill, and Ticonderoga, N. Y. In England the most celebrated mine was at Borrowdale, in Cumberland, as much as 100,000?. having been realized from it in a year ; but the mine is now closed. Plumbago is of a dark leaden color, having a dull metallic appearance. To the touch it is very smooth ; and when j^laced between rubbing surfaces, enables them to glide easily over one another. It adheres to substances on which it is rubbed, staining them of a dark color, and imparting its own peculiar appearance. It is perfectly insoluble m water, and is quite infusible in the fire ; but heated strongly, and exposed to a current of air, it slowly consumes. Uses. — The purer varieties of plumbago are entirely used in the manufacture of black lead pencils, being cut up by fine saws into thin slips, which are glued into grooves cut in cedar wood. A method has also been devised of purifying the more gritty varieties, and condensing the powder into blocks, from which slices are cut that are as good as the best original specimens. The leads for pencils intended for the finest work, before being placed in the wood, are heated, and then immersed in hot wax or suet. From the dearness of the finest plumbago, compositions of clay, with black lead and other substances, are substituted in the cheaper pencils. The harder jDcncils have only half as much graphite powder as clay ; softer ones have equal parts of each. The hardest pencils, however, are made of an alloy of metallic lead, antimony, and mercury. Common pencils are made of graphite powder, mixed with melted sulphur, and run COAL. 371 into moulds. Gum. arable and resin are sometimes used as ingredients. A large quantity of black lead is employed in polishing cast iron work, particularly stoves and ranges, giving to them a uniform color, and concealing any rust they may have on the surface. Finely powdered, it is frequently used instead of grease to prevent the friction between rubbing surfaces ; hence it is not unfrequently applied to wooden screws, &c., &c. It is also a valuable material for crucibles and portable fur- naces. It is sometimes adulterated with lampblack. LESSON^ LXXXIL COAL. Coal is of two kinds, anthracite and bituminous ; the former being the most condensed and the richest in car- bon. Coal may be considered as a mineral, both from its subterraneous situation and the qualities which it possess- es ; many circumstances, however, justify the now preva- lent opinion that it is of vegetable origin : the following are, perhaps, the most convincing. Carbon, which is the chief constituent of all vegetable matter, particularly wood, composes three-fourths of this substance. Coal is also found in the various stages of mineralization. Sometimes it possesses a completely fibrous texture and ligneous appearance, even the knots of wood being discernible, while the same bed produces specimens of perfect mineral coal. Some remarkable instances of this have been found in the coal mines of Pennsylvania ; the roots of trees 372 -FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXII. were imbedded in fire clay, and forming the substance of them (which generally underlies the coal measures), while the trunks passed into the anthracite beds, and almost im- perceptibly from these into the bituminous coal. In some instances the bark only was converted into coal, while the woody texture of the interior was still plainly to be seen. In Ireland a standing forest has been discovered at the depth of one hundred feet below the soil. To this we may add the inflammabiUty of this substance ; the numer- ous vegetable remains and impressions that accompany it ; and that it has never been discovered above the line to which vegetation reaches. These vegetable remains gen- erally belong to extinct species, and differ so much from any living species that they cannot always be referred even to the class to which they belong. Coal is of a black color, bright, and frequently irrides- cent ; the structure is slaty ; it occurs always amorphous ; it is Yerj combustible, a quality which few minerals pos- sess. The places from whence it is taken are called coal 9nmes ; they abound in different portions of the world; especially in the United States, England, and Belgium, and have contributed much to the wealth of these coun- tries. Both the persons employed in the mines, and the vessels which transport the coals, are called colliers ; the place where the trade is carried on, a colliery. The access to coal mines is generally through a narrow, perpendicular tunnel called a shafts up which the workmen and coals are drawn by machinery. The mines at Whitehaven, England, are some of the most extraordinary in the world. The principal entrance is by an opening at the bottom of a hill, COAL. 373 through a long sloping passage which is hewn in the rock, and leads to the lowest vein or bed of coal ; the descent is chiefly through spacious galleries intersecting each other, formed by the excavation of the coal, large pillars of which are left to support the ponderous roof These mines are very deep, and are extended under the bed of the sea, even to where the depth of the water is sufficiently great to ad- mit ships of burden. In these mines there are three strata of coal, which lie considerably apart from one another, and are made to communicate by pits. Miners are frequently impeded in their progress by veins of hard rock called dyJces^ and the coal is seldom found in a direct line on the other side of them ; to ascertain its precise situation is often a work of considerable labor and expense. Coal is generally situated at the foot of mountains, and in hollows, which vary much in extent ; it rarely lies much above the level of the sea. Several dangers attend the labor of miners ; the great- est is that arising from fire damp^ which is occasioned by the hydrogen gas or inflammable air produced in the mine, and which, when mixed with atmospheric air, explodes with great violence if brought into contact with any lighted substance. To avoid this danger, safety lamps are used, which were invented by Sir Humphrey Davy. They are of a very simple construction, consisting of wire gauze so closely interwoven, that gas of sufficient quantity to cause ignition cannot enter them. Another danger arises from the formation of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, which, being heavier than the common air, occupies the lower part of the mines, and occasions death by suffiDcation. 374 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXIII. Coal is used to raise the temperature of rooms ; to cook food; to supply the fuel for railway locomotives, ocean steamers, manufactories (particularly where steam is re- quired), and in the working of metals. Bituminous coal furnishes us with the gas so much used, which is the sub- stance called hydrogen, and exists in coal in union with carbon ; it is easily driven away or volatilized by heating the coal in a close place, and when caught and preserved, it forms the gas now used to light our streets and build- ings ; when this has been extracted from the coal, the residue is called coJce^ which is employed where intense heat is requisite. Coal tar is also produced in the evolution of gas, and was for a long time considered useless. It is now used to protect iron work exposed to the weather, and by distilla- tion it yields paraffine, which is made into candles, and also the coal oil which we use in lamps. SALINE MINERALS. LESSON LXXXIIL SALT. Salt is a mineral substance, beautifully white, sparkling, and crystalline ; it is soluble, fusible, granulous, and of a peculiar flavor called salme. It is a most beneficent pro- vision of nature that salt — the only mineral substance re- quired as an article of food by man and the higher orders of the animal kingdom — is almost everywhere accessible. There are several varieties of this useful mineral, which SALT. 375 are distinguished by tlie different situations in whicli they are found. The principal are sea salt, called also bay salt, which is produced from the ocean ; the best comes from Portugal ; salt drawn from brine springs ; and rock salt^ which is dug out of the earth. Amongst the most exten- sive salt mines hitherto discovered are those at Wieliczka, a picturesque little town situated on the sides of a gentle valley, about eight miles from Cracow, formerly the chief city of Poland. The traveller who visits these subterra- neous deposits of salt, being furnished with a guide and two lamp bearers, is let down a shaft of about 150 feet by a rope. At the depth of 90 feet he arrives at the rock of j)ure salt, which is of a dingy soot color, here and there glistening by the light of the lamps. The swing is now abandoned, and the ear is assailed by the busy sound of spades, mattocks, and wheelbarrows, in every direction. This is the first floor of a large cavern, containing in dif- ferent parts a stable for twenty horses, quantities of salt, some in bare masses, some in casks ready to be hoisted to the surface, stores of implements for the miners, &c. This excavation is about 100 feet long and 80 broad (besides the stable), and about 20 feet high. From hence a long gallery, 12 feet high by 8 broad, leads toward the interior of the mine, where lateral avenues branch off in various directions, each named after some Austrian prince or prin- cess, and resembling more in appearance the avenues of a subterraneous palace than the passages of a mine. A flight of steps conducts down another hundred feet to the second floor ; in this descent the bed of salt is inter- rupted by a narrow stratum of pure clay ; sometimes by a 376 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXIII. mixture of salt and the same earth ; these strata are, in places, very curiously curved, as though a rolling wave had been arrested in its course, and preserved in its original form. The miners are here found at work, some hewing I)illars of salt from the rock, some cutting them into mass- es for home consumption, and some stowing the masses in barrels for exportation. The cavern on this floor is rather smaller than the first ; it consists of one spacious hall, and has no pillar to support the roof. Proceeding on his subterranean journey, the traveller arrives at a wooden platform, from whence he looks down upon an abyss, which the simple lights of the conductors fail to illuminate, though the, spars of the mineral reflect- ing the rays of light produce a novel and beautiful eflect.- When princes or other great personages visit the mines, a chandelier of crystal salt, hanging in the centre, is fur- nished v/ith 150 lights, which display a stupendous cavern, having the appearance of a castle in ruins ; at the bottom are some rovrs of seats, rising hke the benches of a theatre ; opposite to these is an orchestra : here, on such occasions, a small band plays a few airs of slow and simple music, which has a most singular efi*ect, and harmonizes well with the surrounding scene. Long galleries and flights of steps, all spacious enough to allow free course to the fresh air, lead deej)er and deeper in the saline rock ; the scene now and then is varied by a cavern full of workmen, and some along the galleries, wheeling their little carts full of salt, each with its lamp in front. On the fourth floor there is a little subterraneous lake, about 80 feet long and 40 broad, over which illustrious personages are ferried on rafts of SALT. 311 fir logs, lighted by numerous flambeaux. Here terminates the bed of greoi saU, the most common sort, and easiest to be cut. The next to it is called S2nca salt, which is harder and more close grained, and next succeeds a white and finer-grained variety. This part of the mine is 700 feet below the surface of the earth ; 300 feet beneath this lies the finest crystal salt, which is reached by long flights of steps and inclined planes. The cavern in which it is found is sufliciently spacious for a regiment of soldiers to perform their manoeuvres in it. This is the deepest part of the mine : the air is quite pure, rather cooler than that of the open day, but much warmer than it is about half- way down. The return is through a different series of corridors and caverns. On the third floor is a simple tomb of salt, with the name of the late Emperor of Austria inscribed with letters of wood neatly gilt. On the second floor is a large saloon with all the implements of mining, and the mode of letting them down with men and horses exhibited in transparency. On the first is a chapel present- ing an altar, statue of the Virgin, crucifix, and figures of Casimir I and his wife, all cut out of the solid salt ; before the chapel is a small pulpit in the Gothic style. To visit the whole of this extraordinary and extensive mine, with all its galleries and caverns, no less a distance than 300 miles must be traversed. The salt used in the United States is chiefly obtained from salt brine springs. The principal springs are at Syra- cuse, ]Sr. Y., in Western Virginia, and Pennsylvania, in Michigan, and the States bordering on the Ohio river. The most productive springs are about Onondaga Lake, at Syra- 378 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXXIII. cuse. To obtain this, wells are bored or sunk in the low lands about the lake, to various depths, from 200 to 300 feet, and from these salt water is pumped up into reser- voirs, from which the evaporating works are supplied. It is allowed to remain in these reservoirs until some of its impurities, particularly the oxide of iron, are deposited. To hasten this they put in a little alum, or clay, or heat the brine. About one eighth of the whole salt product is separated by solar evaporation, and seven eighths by boil- ing. The great reservoirs for the former process cover an area of 100 acres. They are divided into tanks of about 16 by 18 feet each, and 6 inches deep. These are provided with covers, or movable sheds, which are removed in pleasant weather. About fifty bushels of coarse salt, such as is used for packing and curing provisions, may be made annually in one of these tanks. Seventy pounds is called a bushel of solar salt. Of the boiled salt, fifty-six pounds or five of these bushels make a barrel. The boiling is conducted in large iron kettles, contain- ing about one hundred gallons, and set in "blocks" of brickwork, close together, either in a single line, or in two parallel rows, the whole length of the block. A double block may contain eighty kettles, and may make from 20,000 to 25,000 bushels a year. To make forty-five bushels of salt requires a cord of hard wood or a ton of coal. There are here 312 blocks, containing 16,434 kettles, and capable of making 12,480,000 bushels of salt yearly. Just before the salt begins to crystallize, the sulphate of lime separates, and is caught in a pan at the bottom of the kettle. It is further purified and made perfectly white, SODA. C79 when it is scooped into a basket, drained back into the kettle, and put into bins, where it is allowed to drain for two weeks. It is then barrelled for sale. The cost of man- ufacture is about one dollar per barrel. The conservative properties of salt render it invaluable lor household purposes, and for preserving meat during voyages; and its stimulating properties give a relish to food and help digestion. When fused, it is used in glaz- ing pottery ; it improves the whiteness and clearness of glass, and gives hardness to soap ; it is used by the dyer in fixing colors ; also, sometimes as a manure. It was employed in all the Jewish ceremonies, beino- emblematical of purity and incorruptibility. Our blessed Lord calls his disciples the salt of the earth ; thereby si^-ni- fying to them that having, by divine grace, their own hearts purified, they are to exercise by precept and exam- ple a purifying influence on the hearts of others. LESSON LXXXIV. SODA. Ma7iitfacfiire.— Until within the last few years, soda was obtained from a substance termed kelp, formed of the ashes of burned seaweeds. In Scotland alone, twenty-five thousand tons of kelp were annually produced. At the present time soda is prepared by fusing the native peroxide of tin with caustic soda in an iron crucible. JPi^operties. — Soda, in its ordinary state, is in the form of large crystals, more or less perfect. These are transpa- rent and colorless, containing more than half their weight 380 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXIV. of water. Exposed to a dry air, the water flies off, leav- ing the soda as an opaque, white powder. If the crystals are heated, the soda dissolves in the water they contain, and the whole becomes liquid ; on increasing the heat, the water evaporates, and at last the dry soda remains only as a white powder, without any trace of a crystalline form. Soda is very soluble in water, its taste is alkaline and unpleasant. It has considerable cleansing properties, as it renders grease and dirt soluble in hot water, and so en- ables them to be removed by washing. This power may be much increased by adding quicklime to soda, when the latter is rendered caustic. This mixture has been some- times employed for washing clothes, but it is far too corro- sive to be used with safety, destroying the texture of the linen, &c. Uses. — The employment of soda in domestic economy depends on its cleansing properties. It is used to, assist the action of soap in washing clothes, paint, wood, &c. In the chemical arts, such as making glass, soap, &c., it is of the very highest importance ; it also forms, in combination with other substances, many valuable medicines. PORCELAIN. 381 MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. LESSON" LXXXV. PORCELAIN. Clay and flint are the chief ingredients of porcelain. The first gives the plasticity and tenacity requisite for the moulding it into a shape ; the latter renders it hard, and allows of a slisrht desfree of vitrification. The followingr is the usual process carried on in the English manufacto- ries of china. Flints are first calcined, then mixed in cer- tain proportions with Cornish granite,* and ground to a very fine powder; water is poured upon this mixture, and it is twice strained through silken sieves. It is then boiled till it is of the consistency of cream, and the watery j)articles being evaporated, it becomes a tough paste. A portion of this substance is then placed upon a turning wheel, and moulded by the hand with a precision and ra- j)idity which practice only can give. Vessels of a circular shape are formed in this manner, as bowls, plates, cups, and saucers ; utensils of other forms are made in moulds of gypsum, the pores of which absorbing the moisture of the clay, the vessels are contracted in size, and in consequence may be easily loosened from the mould. Each vessel thus formed is placed in a separate clay case. The furnace is filled with these, and then bricked closely up, and tliey are subjected to a red heat for sixty hours. The temperature * It is to the large proportion of felspar in a state of decomposition that Cornish granite owes the preference which is given to it. 382 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXVI. is then gradually lowered, and the porcelain is withdrawn ; in this state it is called biscuit^ and is Avhite, dull, and po- rous. This process greatly diminishes the size of the ves- sels; and it fits them to receive the blue color, called cobalt,* which has the appearance of a dirty gray till glazed. The glazing consists of lead and glass, ground to an impalpable powder, mixed in water with some other ingredients, Tvhich are kept secret. The biscuit is merely dip2)ed into the glazing, and is then baked again for forty hours. It is now ready to receive other colors, and the gilding which the pattern may require. It is baked a third time for ten hours or more. Lastly, the gilding is bur- nished with bloodstone or agate, and the china is ready for the loareroom. The colors are changed by baking, appear- ing very different when first laid on than when they have been subjected. to heat. Comparatively little of this ware is manufactured- in the United States. LESSOls^ LXXXVI. NEEDLES. Manufacture. — The material from which needles are made is soft steel wire of the requisite degree of fineness. This is obtained by the manufacturer in large coils, each containing sufficient wire to form several thousand needles. These coils are first cut up into pieces of the length re- quired to make two needles, usually about three inches, large shears being used capable of cutting a coil of one hundred wires. * Cobalt is an oxide of the metal of that name. NEEDLES. 383 Five or six thousand of these lengths are made into a bundle, ke^^t together by a ring of steel at each end ; they are then heated to redness in a furnace, and after- ward laid upon a flat iron plate, and rubbed backward and forward with a steel bar, until each wire is perfectly straight. The next stage is to grind a point at each end of the wire. This is done by the aid of a grindstone about eigh- teen inches in diameter and four inches thick ; they are made to revolve so rapidly that they are liable to fly into pieces, and are therefore partially enclosed in iron plates to avoid injury to the grinder, should such an accident occur. The grinder takes from fifty to sixty wires between the thumb and forefinger of his right hand ; and as lie presses them against the stone, he causes all the wires to roll round, and thus each is ground to a point. So expert do the grinders become by practice, that they point a handful of these wires, usually about sixty, in half a minute, or about seven thousand in an hour. During the grinding every wire gives out a stream of sparks, and these to- gether form a bright glare of light. Pointing these wires is the most unhealthy part of the manufacture ; the fine dust is carried into the lungs of the workmen, and destroys them in a fcAV years, very few living beyond the age of forty. Wet grindstones cannot be used, as the points of the needles would be rapidly rusted. The wires thus pointed at each end are stamped by a heavy hammer, raised by a lever moved by the workman's foot. The under surface of this hammer is so formed, 384 . FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXXVl. that when it foils on the wire midway between the two ends, it stamps on one side the gutters or grooves in which the eye is afterward made; and the anvil on which the wire rests when the hammer strikes it forms the two grooves on the opposite side. This stamping also makes a slight depression or pit on each, side at the spot in- tended for the eye. The wires are then passed to a hoy, who takes a num- ber of them in his left hand, while with his right he works a press moving two hard steel points or piercers. These come down upon the w^ire as it is placed beneath them, and pierce the eyes for the two needles. Each wire novf resembles two rough, unpolished needles, uni- ted together by their heads ; and as it would require much trouble to divide them separately into two needles, a num- ber are threaded upon two very thin wires, and are sepa- rated by filing and bending. Any needles which may have been bent in the several processes are straightened by rolling under a steel bar, and are hardened by heating in a furnace and suddenly cooled in cold water or oil. After hardening they are tempered by being slightly heated, and, if any are bent during hard- ening, they are straightened by being hammered on anvils with small hammers ; finally, the whole are jDolished by laying twenty or thirty thousand side by side upon a piece of thick canvas, smearing them with oil and emery, rolling up the canvas, and rubbing them under a press for several hours or even days. Drill'ed-eyed needles undergo another operation — a fine drill is made to revolve rapidly in the eye of each, NAILS. 385 to take off the rough edge and prevent their cutting the thread when used; finally,. the pohits are finished on a revolving hone and polished on a wheel covered with leather, and enclosed in a paper for sale. Simple as the construction of a needle may appear, the steel which forms it has to pass through the hands of one hundred and twenty workmen from the time it leaves the iron mine until its manufacture is completed. The manufacture of needles is now carried on to a great extent in many villages in England, but principally at Redditch, about fourteen miles from Birmingham, and from this obscure place a large portion of Europe, the British Colonies, and the United States are supplied. LESSON LXXXYII. NAILS. Manufacture and Varieties. — Three distinct kinds of nails, adapted to various uses, are manufactured in this country. It is stated that of these kinds there are three hundred different varieties, each variety being formed, on an average, of ten sizes. The three kinds are, wrought nails, cast nails, and cut or punched nails. Wrought nails are made of sheet iron, which is cut by machinery into rods of various thicknesses, according to the size of the nails required. The persons who convert these rods into nails are called nailers, and men, women, and even children follow the pursuit, each person usually making one form of nail only, and by so doing acquiring 17 386 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXYII. a remarkable degree of skill and rapidity in its pro- duction. The first process in making these nails is to heat in a forge one end of the nail rod to redness ; it is then ham- mered to a point, and the required length cut off with a chisel. If the nails are large, the rod is immediately re- turned to the forge, but if of moderate size, two nails are made at one heating. During the time the rod is being reheated, the nailer forms the heads of those cut oif, by hammering them, w^hile still red hot, into the hole of a steel instrument used for the purpose, called a bore, this hole being the shape of the head. The nailers become so expert by long. practice, that one man has been known to make seventeen thousand nails in a week without assistance. To do this would require more than half a million blows of the hammer. The usual number made by each nailer is about six thousand weekly. The different sorts of nails are named either from the use to which they are applied, or from their shape : as shingle, floor, ship carpenters', horseshoe, rose heads, dia- monds, sprigs, brads, and spikes. Sprigs are a small, sharp, taper nail, without heads, used by shoemakers. Brads are nails with the head on one side, and are used for nailuig floors and ceilings. Very large nails are called S2:)ikes. Rose nails have a broad, spreading, circular head, and are made of various degrees of strength, and for various uses. Horseshoe nails are thin and flat on the sides. They are made of the very purest and toughest iron, and, after KNIVES. 387 having been used, the old h'on-is in considerable demand for making gun barrels. Tacks are a useful flat-headed nail, adapted for nailin^ down carpets, &g. They are usually small, and are fre- quently tinned over by boiling them in a solution of tin and sal ammoniac, to prevent their rusting. Cast nails are adapted only for coarse purposes, as for garden walls, nailing up lathing for plasterers, &c. They are rough, and have the disadvantage of being much more brittle than wrought nails. Cut nails are usually punched out of sheet iron, the most common form being the sparables, or sparrow bills — so called from tiieir resemblance to the beak of that bird — and brads, which have a slight projecting head on one side. The employment of nails in connecting various sub- stances, and the uses of the several parts, as the point, the shank, and the head, are too obvious to require description, LESSOR LXXXVIII. KNIVES. Manufacture, — Knives, or cutting instruments of va- rious kinds, have been used by men, from the earliest ages, for the purposes of war, and for slaughtering animals, cut- ting food and other substances. In ancient times, as at the present day among some barbarous nations, shells, sharp- edged flints, and other hard stones Avere employed; at a later period cutting as well as warlike instruments were formed of brass or bronze, but at the present time, in all 388 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXVIII. civilized nations, tliey are formed exclusively of steel or iron. Clasp knives — so called from the blade shutting into the handle — consist of four distinct parts, viz., the blade, the spring, the iron sides, and the scales, or ornamental outsides. Penknife blades, which ought to be made froni the best cast steel, are forged, with a small hammer, from the end of a steel rod heated to redness, and are cut off with suffi- cient metal attached to form the joint ; the blade is then held in a pair of tongs, and heated a second time, when the part forming the joint is finished ; the notch called the nail hole, used in opening the blade, is also made by striking with a chisel of the required shape ; the maker's name is at the same time impressed by punching. The blades are then hardened by heating them to redness and dipping the cutting part in water, and they are afterward tempered, to prevent their being too brittle. The spring and iron sides of the knife are forged by hand. The scales, as they are termed, whether formed of ivory, bone, wood, or mother- of-pearl, are fitted to the sides, and drilled with holes for the rivets ; these are put in and tightened by hammering, after the various parts are exactly fitted to each other by filing. The sides and back of the handle are afterward scraped, and polished on a revolving wheel covered with leather; lastly, the blade is ground and polished ready for use. SCISSORS. 389 LESSON" LXXXIX. • SCISSORS. Manufacture. — Scissors are forged from bar steel, heat- ed to redness, each blade being cut off with sufficient metal to form the shank and bow ; for the latter a small hole is punched ; this hole is afterward stretched to the required size by hammering it on a conical anvil ; the shank and bow are then filed into a more perfect shape, and the hole bored for the rivet; the blade is next ground, and the handles filed smooth and burnished v^^ith oil and emery; after this, the blades are screwed or riveted together, and fitted, so as to work pleasantly over one another. The screw or rivet is then removed, and the two blades, bound closely together with fine iron wire to prevent their warp- ing, are heated to redness, hardened by sudden cooling, and tempered. After this the wire is removed, the blades are again ground and adjusted, so as to bring the edges to a perfect state ; they are then polished by emery and oil, ground for the third time, put together, and the edges whetted, when they are ready for use, although some of the more costly kinds undergo the additional process of burnishing, by rubbing with polished steel tools, which is done by women. Uses. — The use of scissors does not require any de- tailed description ; it may be noticed, however, that the edges of the blades are not sharply ground like those of knives, and that in cutting they crush or bruise more than that instrument. This does not interfere with their use 390 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XC. in cutting thin articles, as paper or cloth, but it prevents their being usefully employed in dividing thicker sub- stances. LESSOR XC. STEEL PENS. Manufacture. — Steel pens, which are chiefly manufac- tured at Birmingham, England, are made from the best steel, which is first rolled into narrow strips of the required width and thickness ; these are then cleaned by the action of some dilute acid, and cut by means of a punch worked by a screw press, into flat blank pieces of the requisite size ; the hole in the centre is then made, and the maker's name stamped on each pen ; after which, the blank is curved into a nib, or a cylinder if a barrel pen is required. Up to this stage the steel has been worked in a soft state ; the pens are now hardened by being heated and cooled suddenly by immersion in oil ; afterward they are tempered to the required degree of elasticity, polished by being placed with fine sand or some other polishing material in a revolving cask, and the nib ground to a fine point on a grindstone, or emery wheel; after this, the slit is cut by a chisel worked by a screw press, and the pens made ready for sale by being colored and varnished. The manufacture is chiefly carried on by women, men being employed only to repair the tools. It is estimated that 1,000,000,000 pens are manufactured at Birmingham annually. The principal demand for steel pens in the United States, and many countries of Europe is supplied from this source. zmc. 391 lesso:n" xci. ZINC. Occurrence. — Zinc is not found in a native state. The ores from which it is extracted are of two kinds. In one, which is termed blende^ or, by the miners, Hack jacJc^ it is combined with sulphur. This ore occurs in tolerable abun- dance distributed amongst other ores, particularly those of lead, in Cornwall, Derbyshire, and in the north of England. The other, which is the mineral known as calamine^ is by far the more valuable ore ; it is found in the Mendip Hills, and also in Flintshire, Derbyshire, &c., England. Preparatio7i. — Zinc is obtained from its ores by first heating them to redness in an open furnace. This opera- tion drives off the sulphur from the blende, and some gases from the calamine. The roasted ore is then mixed with coke or charcoal, and put into large earthen pots re- sembling oil jars in form ; these are placed in a circular furnace, and from the bottom of each pot a large iron tube passes through the floor of the furnace into a vessel of cold water. AVhen the jars are heated to redness, the metal is reduced to the metallic state, and, being volatile, flies off in vapor, which, passing by the iron tube into the water, is condensed into a solid form. The metal so ob- tained is remelted, when the impurities are skimmed from the surface, and it is then cast into bars for use. Properties. — Zinc is a bluish-white metal, possessing a high lustre when polished, and tarnishing slowly on the surface when exposed to the air. The thin coat of rust 392 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XCI. SO formed appears to protect the metal beneath from any further change. Zinc is about seven times heavier than water. As obtained by casting, it is brittle, and on being broken shov/s a crystalline fracture, but heated to a degree somewhat above that of boiling water, it becomes mallea- ble, and may be rolled into sheets, which retain their mal- leability when cold ; the sheet zinc so obtained is flexible, and possesses some degree of elasticity. Heated to a high degree, but still short of the point at which it melts, zinc becomes brittle, and may be powdered. It melts below a red heat, requiring a higher temper- ature 'than tin or lead ; at a bright red heat, in a covered vessel, it boils rapidly, passing away in vapor ; but if the air is admitted, by uncovering the vessel, it takes fire and burns .with a splendid greenish flame. Zinc possesses a very considerable degree of hardness, considerably greater than that of any of the common metals except copper and iron. IfsQs. — Zinc being only superficially acted on by air and water, and being much lighter than lead, has to a great extent, superseded that metal for such purposes as gutters, rain-water pipes, &c. Its lightness and cheapness has also led to its employment as a covering for roofs, and it is much employed in making baths, cans, and other ntensils for holding water. It is not usually employed in lining cisterns, as it is apt to impart an unpleasant flavor to the water. Its hardness enables it to be used for making saws for dividing blocks of salt ; and as it does not rust, it is pre- BRASS. 393 ferable to iron for that purpose. It is also used instead of lithographic stone in producing prints, which are termed zincographs. Its lustre has led to its employment instead of brass for name plates on doors, &c. The slow action of air and moisture on zinc has also led to its employment as a covering to sheet iron, for protect- ing the latter from the action of the weather. The iron so protected is known as galvanized iron. It is made by a similar process to that used in making tinned plate, the iron goods being first cleaned by an acid, and dij^ped in a bath of the melted metal. Sheet zinc, perforated with holes, admitting the passage of light and air, is used largely in the place of wire gauze for window blinds, meat safes, and other purposes. Preparations of zinc are now largely used in house painting, as substitutes for white lead ; and, although they do not make as opaque a paint as that substance, they possess the advantages of being cheaper, uninjurious to the workmen, and are less liable to become discolored. A very large quantity of zinc is annually consumed in* the galvanic batteries required in working the electric telegraph. The only alloy into the composition of which zinc enters largely is brass. (See Brass.) LESSON XCII. BEASS. Composition. — Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, various proportions of the metals being employed in order 394 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XCIII. to obtain different degrees of hardness and color in the resulting compound. The best jiroportions for common brass are about two joarts of copper to one part of zinc. Formerly brass was made by heating copj)er with calamine (the ore of zinc) and charcoal, but it is now formed by meltino; tosrether the two metals ; it is then cast into plates, w^hich are either broken up for recasting into any desired form, or rolled into sheets. Properties. — Common brass is very malleable, and duc- tile when cold. It is melted more easily than copper, and readily cast into any required form. It admits of a very high polish, and does not tarnish or rust on exposure to the air, and although sufficiently soft to yield without diffi- culty to the files and other tools of the workmen, is durable in wear. Uses. — From its malleability, ready fusibility, and duc- tility, brass is so easily worked that it is employed to an immense extent in the manufacture of machinery, wheels for clocks and watches, and for articles of domestic use, as candlesticks, pins, buttons, door handles, &c. LESSON XCIII. PINS. Manufacture. — ^The making of pins is, from their ex- tensive use, a very important article of manufacture. Two manufactories in Connecticut, located at Birmingham and "Waterbury, produce about eight tons of j^ins a week. They make their own brass and wire, for which they re- quire a ton of copper daily ; this they obtain exclusively PINS. 395 from Lake Superior. In England, for home use and ex- portation, upward of fifteen millions are made daily. The old method of manufacture furnishes a remarkable instance of the division of labor, fourteen persons being engaged on each pin, without including those who formed the wire from which it was made. This method of making pins may be briefly described as follows : — Brass wire of the required size was cleaned by soaking it in water, rendered acid by oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid ; it was then straightened and cut into short lengths, each being sufiicient for four or six pins ; these pieces were pointed at each end by grinding on two small broad wheels, the first used being made of steel, and cut like a file ; the second a fine grit stone ; the grinder would take from fifty to eighty pin wires in his hands, and, spreading them out flatly, apply them first to the revolving file, and afterward to the stone to pohsh them, rolling the wires during the whole time between his hands, so as to bring them to rounded points at the ends ; from the wires thus pointed one pin's length was cut off at each end; they were then pointed again, and two more pins' lengths cut off, and finally they were pointed and divided in the centre ; the stems of the pins were thus complete, and the next step was to form the head ; this was effected by wind- ing, in a lathe, some soft small brass wire in a close spiral, around a piece of steel wire, the same size as the pins ; this steel wire having been withdrawn, the coils were cut up into short pieces of two or two and a half turns each, when they are ready to fix on the stems ; this was done by the worker, usually a boy or girl, who would take up sevei'al 396 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XCTII. of the headless pins, and plunge them into the heads, which are contained either in a bowl or in his apron ; the wires in this way would each catch a head, or sometimes more than one ; the superfluous ones, if any, were pulled off, and the pins placed one at a time, points downward, in a small steel die, and a heavy iron bar, raised by a treadle moved by the foot, was allowed to fall on each, striking the top of the pin, and thus moulding or fastening on the head ; the pin w\as then removed from the die and another operated upon ; quick workers could head fifteen hundred pins an hour, and from twelve to fifteen thousand a day. The pins were cleaned by boiling them in an acid liquor, such as sour beer or wine lees, and were tinned bv boilins: in a solution of tin; after this, they were polished by being shaken in bags partly filled with bran, which was afterward separated by winnowing, leaving the pins dry, clean, and ready for papering. The paper in Avhich pins were stuck for sale was folded by a crimi^ing iron, and the folds were placed between the jaws of an iron vice, across which grooves are fixed as a guide ; the paperer passed a horn comb into a heap of pins in her lap, catching up a number by the heads ; these were thrust through the folds of the paper, one in each groove. The improvements introduced into the manufacture by American inventors have entirely changed its character and led to a more rapid production of pins, and at a much less cost of labor. The machinery for sticking pins saves much time and labor. The only attention the machine requires is to supply it with paper and pins. Solid-headed pins are made of a single piece of wire, PEWTER. 397 the heads being pressed by the aid of machinery. The pins so made are more elegant, and the heads cannot come off; but they bend easily, as this mode of manufacture necessitates the use of a softer wire than for the common kinds. LESSON XCIV. PEWTER. Composition. — Pewter is an alloy, the composition of which varies according to the purposes for which it is re- quired. Its base is always tin, to which is added, for the inferior kinds, about one quarter of its weight of lead ; this latter metal, however, is not used in making the best pew- ter, wiiich consists of tin with very small proportions of antimony and copper. Properties. — Pewter is soft, flexible, but inelastic ; ca- pable of being bent to a considerable extent, and again straightened, without cracking. It is of a whitish color, with a very considerable degree of brilliancy, and, al- though it becomes dull, it does not readily tarnish when exposed to air or moisture. It is very fusible, and may be readily cast in any desired form. Uses. — Formerly pew^ter was in almost universal use for plates and dishes, but it has gradually been displaced by the great cheapness of pottery ware. It is still em- ployed for beer and other measures which are exposed to violence, as it is not liable to crack, and if pressed out of shajDC, can be restored by beating on a mould. Its softness also allows the engraving of names and addresses without much labor, and, therefore, cheaply. 398 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XCIV. Britannia metal may be regarded as a harder and supe- rior kind of pewter, containing a larger proportion of anti- mony. The best consists of ninety parts of tin, ten of .antimony, and one and a half of copper. Like pewter, it is readily cast into moulds or rolled into sheets ; it is suffi- ciently soft to be stamped with cast iron, or even hard brass dies ; it is also capable of being turned in a lathe, and fluted or moulded by pressure ; hence it is extensively employed in making spoons, teapots, pitchers, and other domestic articles. The superior kinds are often plated with silver, by the electro process. YOCABULAEY. AROMATIC, derived from the Greek dpw/ta, aroma : spice having a pun- gent spicy smell. ADHESIVE, derived from the Latin ad-hger-ere, to stick to : composed of particles which not only unite together, but attach themselves to other substances, causing them to stick together ; — thus the particles of gum have a strong mutual cohesion ; it also easily attaches itself to paper and other substances, causing them to hold together. AFFINITY, derived from the Latin affin-w, related : the tendency which some bodies have to unite with others. ABSORBENT, derived from the Latin absorb-er^", to suck up : sucking up liquids. An absorbent substance must be also porous, for if there were no pores, the liquid could not enter the substance. AGGREGATION, derived from the Latin aggreg-are, to collect together in one flock. A collection of things brought together in one. ARGILLACEOUS, derived from the Latin argilla, clay : partaking of the nature of clay, or consisting principally of clay. ALLOY, an inferior metal mixed with one more precious ; or the com- pound of two metals. ASTRINGENT, derived from the Latin ad-string-er^, to bind to : binding, contracting. AMORPHOUS, derived from the Greek a (a) not, and fiopcpT] (morphe) a form : without any regular form. ACIDULATED, derived from the Latin acid-ulus, slightly acid : made slightly acid. ACRID, from the Latin acri-5, sharp : hot, or sharp to the taste. ANNEAL, to heat glass after it is blown, that it may not break. 400 VOCABULARY. AMALGAM, the combination of mercury with any other metallic sub- stance. AQUAFORTIS, signifies literally strong water, but is applied to a weak nitric acid. ALKALI, a substance which, uniting with acids, neutralizes their acidity : it derives its name from a plant called kali, from the ashes of which al- kaline substances are procured. ATMOSPHERE, derived from the Greek arixos (atmos) vapor, and aT, to place : a part forming with others a compound body. CYLINDER, derived from the Greek Kv\ivd(a (kylindo), I roll: a solid bounded by one curved surface and two flat ends. CYLINDRICAL, having the form of a cylinder. DUCTILE, derived from the Latm dnc-tilis, capable of being drawn out in length. DECOMPOSITION, the separation of the particles of a compound body. DILATABLE, derived from the Latin dilat-are, to extend : capable of be- ing expanded. » DENSE, close, thick : the opposite to rare. DILUTED, derived from the Latin diln-ere, to wash : having been made thinner or weaker. ECONOMICAL, derived from the Greek oiKovoixia (oikonomia), household management : relating to the management of a family. ELEMENT, a substance not compounded, having but one constituent part. EMOLLIENT, derived from the Latin moll-is, soft : having the power to soften. EXPORTED, derived from the Latin ex, out, and port-arc, to carry : to carry out of the country. EXOTIC, derived from the Greek i^a (exo), without : not produced in our country : particularly applied to plants. EVAPORATE, derived from the Latin e, out from, and vapor, vapor : to pass off in a vapor. EXCRESCENCE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and cresc-ere, to grow : something growing out of another body, not useful to it, and contrary to the common order of production. EXHALE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and hal-are, to breathe: to send out vapors or fumes. ELASTIC, having the power, when bent or stretched, of returning to its original position. EFFERVESCENT, derived from the Latin effervesc-ere, to boil up : bub- bling up with internal commotion. EDIBLE, derived from the Latin ed-ere, to eat : fit for food, eatable. FRAGRANT, having a sweet scent. 402 VOCABULARY. FLUID, derived from the Latin flu-ere, to flow : having parts easily sepa- rable, and flowing about. FUSIBLE, melting in fire. FRIABLE, easily crumbling. FOLIATED, derived from the Latin foW-iun, a leaf: composed of leaves, or lamina3. FRACTURE, derived from the Latin fract-ws, broken: the appearance of a mineral when broken. FRAGILE, derived from the Latin frang-ere, to break : easily broken or injured. FLEXIBLE, derived from the Latin flex-tis, bent : easily bent. FRICTION, derived from the Latin fric-are, to rub: the act of rubbing two bodies together. FARIXACEOUS, derived from the Latin farina, flour : mealy, of the na- ture of flour. FILTRATION", derived from the Latin filtr-?(?«, a colander: the process of passing a liquid through the interstices of another body. FERMENTATION", derived from the Latin ferment-«???, leaven : internal commotion in the particles of a body: plants undergo fermentation when they decompose. GLUTINOUS, derived from the Latin gluten, glue : tenacious, viscid. GLOBULE, derived from the Latin ^loh-ulus, a small globe : small globe or sphere. GRAMINIVOROUS, derived from the Latin gramen, grass, and Yov-are^ to eat : feeding on grass. GRANULOUS, derived from the Latin granul-t«?i, a little grain : separat- ing into small particles, or grains, as sand. GENERIC, derived from the Latin gener-a, kinds : relating to a genus, oi kind of things. GRADUATED, derived from the Latin gradu-s, a step : marked by a reg- ular increase of degrees. HORIZON, derived from the Greek opiCwv (horizon), bounding : the line that bounds our view. HORIZONTAL, in the same direction as the horizon. Hermetically sealed, so scaled as entirely to exclude the air. HYDROGEN, derived from the Greek vScup (hydor) water, and yewaeiu (gcn-7iaein) to produce : the lightest gas : with a certain portion of oxy- gen it forms water. (RIDESCENT, derived from the Latin irid-escere^ to become like a rain^. • bow : shininc; with the colors of the rainbow. • VOCABULARY. 403 IMPALPABLE, derived from the Latin in, not, and palp-aj-e, to feel : not to be perceived by touch. IMBRICATED, derived from imbric-arc, to cover with tiles : arranged in the manner of the tiles of the house. IMPORTED, derived from the Latin in, into, and port-a?'e, to carry : car- ried into a country. IMPRESSIBLE, derived from the Latin in, and press-ws, pressed : easily receiving and retaining an impression. INDIGENOUS, derived from the Latin indig-e«a, native : the natural pro- duction of the country. This term is applied to vegetables, as native is to animals. INSIPID, derived from in, not, and sap-ere, to savor : having but little flavor. INCOMBUSTIBLE, derived from in, not, and combust-z«s, burned: noc to be consumed by fire. INTERSTICE, derived from the Latin inter, between, and stit-i«/2, placed : small space between the different parts of the body. IMPREGNATED, filled with any quality or thing. INCISION, derived from the Latin incis-z<5, cut in : a cut or wound made by a sharp instrument. IMPERVIOUS, derived from the Latin in, not, per, through, and via, a way : presenting no passage. A substance is impervious to a liquid when it presents no poi-e or passage by which it can enter. IGNITED, derived from the Latin igni-.s, fire : having been kindled or set on fire. INFUSION, derived from in, into, and fusus, poured : a liquid in which something has been steeped to draw out its properties. LIQUID properly signifies that which has been melted : anything which we drink, or which forms into drops. Air is a fluid. Water is both fluid and liquid ; when we speak of it as a stream or current, it is properly called a fluid, but when we speak of it as passing from a congealed to a dissolved state, it should properly be called a liquid. LAMINA, a thin plate, LAMINATED, formed of thin plates or laminae. LATERAL, derived from the Latin latera, sides ; at the side. LIGNEOUS, derived from the Latin lign-«m, wood : made of wood, or having a woody structure. LUBRICOUS, derived from the Latin lubric-r<5, slippery: slippery, smooth. LAYER, that which is spread over a substance. MAGNIFYING, derived from the Latin magn-ws, great, and fi-cr/, to be made : making things appear larger than they actually are. 404 VOCABULAEY. • MALLEABLE, derived from the Latin malle-M5, a hammer: capable, when beaten, of great extension without the particles being sep- arated. MALEFACTOR, derived from the Latin male, badly, and factor, doer : a criminal, an evil doer. MATURITY, derived from the Latin matur-z^s, ripe : ripe, or having ar- rived at its most perfect state. MARINE, derived from the Latin mare, the sea : belonging to the sea. MEAGRE, dry and harsh to the touch : a term applied to earthy minerals, as chalk. METALLIC, composed of a metal, or of the nature of a metal. NATIVE, derived from the Latin nat-i^s, born : growing naturally in a country. When applied to a metal, it means that it is not mixed with any other substance. NUTRITIOUS, derived from the Latin nutr-aVe, to nourish: containing much nourishment. NEUTRALISE, derived from the Latin, neut-e?*, neither : to destroy the distinguishing qualities of anything. The compound of an alkali and an acid has not the qualities of either, both being neutralised by their action upon each other. NITROGEN, a gas : united in certain proportions with ox3'gen, it forms atmospheric air. NITRIC ACID, nitrogen, united with a certain proportion of oxygen. NITRATE, nitric acid united with another substance. OXYGEN, derived from the Greek o^vs (oxys), acid, and yeuuaen^ (gen- naein\ to produce : a gas ; united in certain proportion with oxygen, it forms the air; with hydrogen, water. OXIDE, that which is united with oxygen. ODOROUS, derived from the Latin odor, a smell : having a smell. OVAL, derived from the Latin ov-m??i, an egg : having the form of an e^^. OLEAGINOUS, derived frota the Latin ole-?.«n, oil : oily. ORE ; a metal is termed an ore when united v/ith another mineral sub- stance. OPAQUE, derived from the Latin opfic-ws, dark : dark, not admitting any light to pass through. PONDEROUS, derived from the Latin pond-r«s, a weight: heavy. PORTABLE, derived from the Latin port-are, to carry : easy to carry. POLARITY, the property of turning towards the poles. PLIABLE, derived from the French pli-er, to fold : easily folded into plaits. A young twig is flexible, linen is pliable. VOCABULARY. 406 PULYERABLE, derived from the Latin pulv-is, dust : capable of being reduced to a powder or dust. PERFORATED, derived from the Latin perfor-are, to bore throu"-h : pierced with lioles. PLASTIC, derived from the Greek irKaacreiu (plas3-cj?<), to form : capable of being moulded into any form. PETRIFACTION", derived from the Latin petra, a stone, and fac-erc, to make : turned into stone. PARALLEL, derived from the Greek irapa (para), by the side of, and a\\r}\wv (allelon), each other ; running in the same direction with an- other thing, and always keeping at the same distance from it. PERFECT, when applied to a metal,. signifies that it does not lose any of its weight by fusion. POROUS, derived from the Greek Tropoy (poros), a passage : full of small pores or holes. All bodies are more or less porous, but the quality is only attributed to those in which it is obvious. PUNGENT, derived from the Latin pung-e/v, to prick: warm to the taste. PROCESS, derived fi'om the Latin process-ws, a going forward: a regular course by which anything is done. PERPENDICULAR, derived from the Latin perpendicul-?«n, a plumb line : in the same direction as a plumb line, hanging freely. PENDULOUS, derived from the Latin pend-ere, to hang : hanging sus- pended. QUADRANGULAR, derived from the Latin quatuor, four, and angul-w», an angle : a form having four angles. REFLECTIVE, reflecting, or giving back an image : this quality depends upon brightness. RESERVOIR, derived from the Latin reserv-arc, to keep : a place where anything is kept in store. RARITY, thinness as applied to fluids : the opposite to dense. ROASTING, with respect to minerals, the process by which their volatile parts are evaporated. RHOMB, derived from the Greek ^o/n$os (rhombos), a rhomb : a surface bounded by four equal straight lines; its opposite angles are equal, but not right angles. RHOMBOHEDRON, derived from the Greek po/x^os (rhombos), a rhomb, and iSpa (hedra), a base : a solid bounded by six rhombs, any one of which may be its base. STRATUM, derived from the Latin strat-wm, laid : a bed or layer. SUPPLE, easily bent in any direction. 406 VOCABULARY. SMELTING, the process by which the pure metal is separated from the earthy particles with which it is combined in the ore. SILICIOUS, derived from the Latin sil-e.r, flint: consisting principally of silex or flint. SECRETION, derived from the Latin secret-?