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(S|aii .G!npijrig[|t lo -eiielf-L-fiiOXS" 7-7^; ^ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ^^f ^ II 33 = %^;1 ^ >») > :> ^^ : ^'3 > > > . >>^ > :> > ^ - ">o^^ :> ^ > : > :» 3 > ^ ^ ^ ► ^ J>>r»:>^ :> ) ) ^ >>:>:?> :>^ >^>>: -> \^^>^^»^ > :> z ) > » ^:) :>:>:> > :> ^ ^ >:^> 33 .^>> >. v^ '^^^:>> 5::> z>y j: ) 3 >■ ) ->3 3 > > J 3 3 >. > _J^3 s> 3, 3 ^ ^ ^ 7:3iPt> 2> > 3 •^ -.«^^ » > ■ ^gT) 3>> > 3 °^^^ » "> :> ':> za^ > ^ '^^>l» 3 3 > ' ' "J » ^ ■: ^li^> » > ::> >> ^ "^ >^^fc3l>3 3 ^ V'^"^ ^ )> 7>yi>:>: > J /' ""^^ ) )> ::^i>-3.:: > 3 ; ^^ ) ■^ 3H) >^ 3 3 3 > " jS^ )Z> 2^>^)-^3 ^ -"^ "j^ :) r^ J^3K) y^ 3 :> ^ D^ ") L^ ZZR) 3^-^ -^ 3 > OO -^ 3^ DP - > ^ ) 3^3 _ 3C> ;^^i» 5> 3 3 > : >> ^^ ~^^"> ^ ) ~^ ^ J) : jTjK^^^^H 38B^~]^ 503 > 3 >^ "Jtlt^ ^JK> '^> ^ > 3 » Si^ 3R»">> 3 3 3 33 I!B^_Z^ >33 > > » ^|^"]^y >:>;> 3> 3 33 ^35^ 3>^ 'O 3 3> 3 33 "^^J^Z^ t>z> 3 D ► 3^ ZZStt^'Z^ ' -33 > 1> 33 2UB^3»- --33 ZS> zy 33 vl3H^3>' -^^3 33 3 33 B^ »»MiisW ^ \) ► 33 ZlJttif^y^ ;,)3 :» i: ► 3^ '3UB^73> 33 :» ij ► 3> 3l3BI^ > - 3 33 3> 33 'L^m^ 3^- '^3 ^ >:^ )3^ 3> ^^'IBi^^^/ ' :> ^^ >3 -> ^"^ 3^ ^Z3E>53 3 >3j^ % 'Z>-) ^ ^:>3 3 jo^y >-':3 33 ^j-:^ 3 y 33 ^ ^ : 3^> 3 >33> ■ -y^-o yz>zyz_ 3^ 3 ^3^ i> 33 :> :> Z^ y 3^333 o z>Z> ^ :> Z^ > ■■ ^ ~" 3- :> 33 3 3 :3^ > J ■ 3 >^ > o 3.z> 3 :> "^:a^ > - '>.;»^>3 ^r> ^3- ^> ^^ 3 3>i'> 33 3> > :je> - o 333,^ >3 33 30 > 3 333 333 3 3 >3 ^^^ ^>3> o3J> 3 3 :X> > >> >3 ^3^ =>33 ^3 3 ~3> » 3^ ^1^333 3^-3 ^^ ^^^33^33 3 33 O :> -^3 > 33 ~3>3 333 3 ^ ^ gfimeF o! gedago^V By Daniel Putnam. Tie IMkaii Mil Motak Oiclal Organ cf the State Depaitment of Public InstractiOQ, The State Teachers* Association, The Michigan Schoolmasters* Club, City Superintendents' Association, The County Examiners' Association, A PAPER FOB EVERY GMOE OF SCHOOL WORK. i^/^ /-v i-As\aE p. r^I;:s, fall of good thlxiiX^ for Teachers of O \.J L/ *-'i^*'i'>' grafi 6. ct j:i V j»R varied read)' q j/ ? S uicre cf It for the money ttx&n arjy other educnlional ;o- :■>::- Hetriily ladv '"fid he pupils, but in the acquired power of perceiving and in the acquired habit of accurate and rapid observation. Final result. — The final result is that the child comes to observe almost or quite unconsciously; he sees and hears with- out effort, and thus acquires a vast amount of useful and interesting knowledge with no expenditure of time or labor, and with positive and constantly increasing pleasure. This is the development and training of the perceptive powers ; the opening of the gate-ways of the soul ; the bringing of the mind and of the material of knowledge face to face, which constitutes, as previously stated, real teaching. This is Mr. Page's " waking up the mind." Some questions on observation.— How many young people, even teachers, who have lived all their lives in the country, surrounded with trees, fruits, and flowers, can draw or describe the forms of the leaves of the different kinds of trees ? can tell the names of the common flowers by the roadside? or how many petals the apple or pear blossom has? or what the uses of the corn tassels are? or how new varieties of potatoes are produced? Examples of concrete lessons. — Concrete teaching may be extended with great profit and interest far beyond the use of 68 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. simple objects in giving the first lessons in numbers. Older children are fond of concrete examples in arithmetic. A class may be set to measuring the floor of the school-room and to determining the number of square feet in it; the same may be done in respect to the sides and ceiling of the room. The number of cubic feet contained in the room may be calculated, and the number of cubic feet for each scholar. Thes3 and similar problems have an interest for pupils which mere abstract questions do not possess. More examples. — At different seasons of the year questions relating to familiar matters may b9 suggested. For example, pupils a little advanced in arithmetic may be asked to deter- mine the number of stalks of wheat on an acre of ground, being instructed to count the stalks on a tew square feet in different parts of the field so as to ascertain the average number on one square foot. In the same way the number of hills of corn on an acre may be calculated, or the number of forest trees on a certain number of acres. Such examples may be multiplied almost indefinitely in a farming district. In a lumber region a different class of examples would naturally be devised, and in a mining section still a different sort, and SD on, the particular examples being varied according to conditions and surroundings, Spelling Lessons.— Lessons in spelling may frequently be made from objects, by taking the name of an object, the names of the parts, words denoting the uses of the object, and other words suggested by the object or associated with it. Such lessons may be made lessons in language as well as in spelling. A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 69 Second part of these laws. — The second part of these laws refers to the work of the secondary stage of learning and teaching. However, it must always be kept in mind that the transition of the ahild from one period to the next is very gradual. Consequently the method of teaching must be changed very gradually. Little by little the object and objec- tive methods must give place to methods which address the conceptive or representative powers more directly. Pupils are now prepared to use books; and the order of progress is (1) words, (2) ideas, and (3) expression, while in the first period the order was (1) objects, (2) ideas, and (3) words. The order in reading. — The order is illustrated by the les- sons in reading after children begin the use of the second reader. The printed words, as the pupils look upon the page, cause the production in the mind of images, pictures, ideas, representations of the objects, acts, persons, and so forth, of which the words are signs or symbols. These mental ideas, images, and pictures are expressed or described in the vocal reading by the tones, inflections, and emphasis employed by the readers. The character of the reading will show whether the representations in the mind are correct and distinct. A hook camiot he used with advantage until such representations can he readily and accurately formed. Order in language lessons. — This order is also observed in language lessons when the teacher reads or relates some story and requires the members of a class to reproduce the sub- stance of it in writing. In this case the spoken words cause the formation of the mental representations which are then expressed by written words. 70 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. Different modes of expression.— The expression is not always by words. It may be by acts or by signs of various kinds. For example, the teacher says to a child, ''Please bring me your reading book;" the child does as requested. The act is an expression of the ideas produced in the mind by the teacher's words, and could not have been performed correctly if the representations had not been correctly formed. In arithmetic. — An example in arithmetic is read; a pupil goes to the blackboard and places upon it a number of figures and other characters. This work is an expression of the ideas caused by the reading, and the work will indicate what sort of ideas were formed. Representation begins early.— This process of mental repre- sentation begins at a very early period of the child's develop- ment, and the poiver to form correct and clear ideas, when words or other signs are used, should be cultivated as carefully and diligently as the perceptive powers when objects are employed. It is possible to use the object and objective methods of instruction too long. The child in that case becomes accus- tomed to depend too much upon perception for his mental notions. The power to form mental pictures from words is not called into activity, and consequently is not developed. The result is that memory, conception, and imagination are retarded in their growth, and sometimes permanent injury is inflicted upon the mind. II. The Second Law. a. The young child proceeds in its learning, fqr the most part, inductively; that is, from individuals to classes, and II. a. The teacher of young children should proceed, for the most part, inductively; that is from individuals to A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 71 from particular cases and ex- amples to general truths and principles. b. In later periods the learner proceeds, in many cases, deductively; that is, from classes to individuals, and from general truths and principles to particular cases and examples. classes, and from particular cases and examples to general truths and principles. b. The teacher of advanced classes should, in many cases, proceed deductively; that is, from classes to individuals, and from general truths and principles to particular cases and examples. For the purpose of emphasizing certain points of special importance a third law is added, although it is virtually in- cluded in the second, and will be discussed in connection with that law. III. Third Law. a. The child naturally see ks to learn facts, events, pro- cesses, examples and so on, before he is interested in study- ing causes, reasons, conse- quences, rules, definitions and principles ; and he learns language before the laws of language, that is, before gram- mar. b. After the thinking and reasoning powers have become considerably developed, the student naturally seeks to commence the stud 7 of many subjects with statements of rules, definitions, principles, III. a. The teacher should pre- sent facts, events, processes, examples, and so on, to chil- dren bsfore requiring them to study causes, reasons, conse- quences, rules, definitions, and principles; and should teach languages before the laws of language, that is, before grammar. b. In giving instruction to advanced scholars the teacher may often begin with state- ments of rules, definitions, principles, and hypotheses, and then proceed to investigate, explain, and illustrate the 72 A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. and hypotheses, and then goes on to investigate and discover the application of these, tie also commences the study of new languages by applying', as far as possible, the laws and principles of languages already learned, that is, with gram- mar. various applications of these, and the inferences and deduc- tions from them. He should also commence instruction in new languages by applying, as far as possible, the laws and principles of languages which the student knows, that is, with grammar. Applications of the second and third laws. — The applica- tions of the second and third laws to methods of teaching particular subjects will be readily understood by almost any- one, and they will not, therefore, require very extended illus- trations. The young child, at jBrst, knows only individuals, and can have no conception of classes. It is true he uses gen- eral terms, such as boy, man, dog, horse, but he employs these, for considerable time, only as names of individuals. Very gradually, but probably somewhat earlier than we have been accustomed to suppose, the child begins to form con- fused notions of classes of things, such as are indicated by common nouns, like fruit, flower, animal and tree. He then commences to make generalizations, often very crude, and sometimes amusing, First ideas of classes of objects. — The child's earliest ideas of classes of objects are probably obtained by a process of elimination; that is by putting aside or out of view, one by one, characteristics which belong to single individuals, and by retaining and combining the characteristics which are discovered to be common to a large number of individuals. If this be true, it indicates the method which the teacher should adopt in the school. For example, suppose a child A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 73 sees an apple for the first time, and that this particular apple is red. The word apple now means to the child only this one red apple. Suppose to-morrow a yellow apple is brought to the child, and afterwards a green apple, and then others of variegated colors. Gradually the notion of any particular color is eliminated from the idea expressed by the general term apple. By a similar process the notion of any particular size, or of any specific taste will be removed, and only a few character- istics will remain included in the idea or general notion of an apple. Induction. — Induction is the process by which we reach general truths, laws, and rules by examining a considerable number of individual things, cases, or examples. The mind naturally follows this method, and the teacher should adopt it in leading children to discover and formulate rules in arithmetic, grammar, and other common studies. A rule in arithmetic is usually nothing more than a concise description of a process; in grammar a rule is usually merely a brief statement of a general truth in respect to the arrangement or form of words. Examples of induction.— The process by which a child reaches a general truth may be easily illustrated by reference to some of the things with which children are supposed to be well acquainted. Ask a child how many petals an apple blossom has; he will examine a few blossoms, plucked from half a dozen different trees, and answer without hesitation five. Inquire how many seed cells the apple has, and he will arrive at his con- clusion by the same method. In all such cases children reason correctly, although the process is probably almost 74 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. unconscious. In the school they will frequently need to be guarded against the danger of drawing conclusions too hastily and from an examination of an insufficient number of individuals. In arithmetic— In elementary work in arithmetic the teacher should require a pupil to " do" a considerable number of similar problems, to examine with great care the process in each case, and then to formulate a rule for all problems of the same kind. Essentially the same method should be employed in more advanced classes in mathematics, and m all other studies, until the most important general truths and rules have been mastered. Processes before reasons.— Children, from the very nature of their minds, will learn to do many things in certain branches of study, and will find great pleasure in doing them, long before they can fully and clearly understand the reasons for the processes which they employ. They can discover a rule, and can work by the rule, while unable to comprehend the principle upon which the rule depends. At this stage of their development and progress, it is unwise to attempt to teach them to repeat in a parrot-like way explanations and principles which have no meaning to them. Require reasons so far and only so far as they are capable of giving them understandingly. Deduction.— When general principles have baen learned by induction, and definitions and rules have been mast^ed, the method of teaching, in many cases, will naturally be changed. The principle, the definition, or the rule, becomes the starting point. The method is now deductive. Deduction A PRIMEK OF PEDAGOGY. 75 is the process of applying general principles, definitions, and rules, to particular cases and individual examples. Illustrations. — For illustration, as soon as a pupil has thoroughly learned the rules of addition, subtraction, multi- plication,, and division, he has only to apply these to the solution of any new problem which is given to him. The inductive processes are no longer necessary. The same is true in the study of language, and indeed in all studies. The deductive method is especially employed in all branches where the work is largely classification, as in botany and zoology. The characteristics of great families or classes are first learned, and these characteristics are then used in deter- mining what individual plants, flowers, or animals are, and where they belong in the vegetable or animal kingdom. Both methods employed constantly. — While elementary methods are mostly inductive, and advanced methods are largely deductive, yet both induction and deduction are con- stantly used in every grade of a school and in almost every class and study. Frequently both are employed in the same lesson, induction being first used to reach some general law or rule, and then deduction in applying this law or rule to special cases and examples. Language before grammar. — The third special law re- quires language to be taught before gram.mar. Under one of the general laws some suggestions were made for teaching language lessons. A few suggestion will be added here in respect to the very earliest instruction in language to the youngest children. Next to the training of the senses the most important work of the primary teacher is the training of her 76 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. pupils to use language correctly and readily. Children learn their first lessons in language by imitation. They repeat what they hear. Forms of speech, acquired before entering school, cling to them through all after life. If these forms are correct the teacher's task is comparatively easy; if they are bad her work is much more difficult. Suggestions. — (1) First of all, the teacher's language should he good, grammatically correct, and worthy of imita- tion. This is of vital importance. The teacher's conversa- tions with the children, her remarks to classes and to the school are so many continuous lessons in language; they are more effective than all other lessons. (2) Next to this in importance is the correction of any bad habits of speech which the childrenmay have already acquired. This should be done in such a way as not to wound their sen- sibilities, or to give the impression that the teacher takes pleasure in criticising them. (3) In recitations and in all formal school exercises be sure that a child has clear and distinct ideas before he tries to ex- press them. The expression of an idea or thought can never, unless by some mere chance, be clearer or more distinct than the idea or thought as represented in the mind. Confusion of language necessarily follows confusion of thought. An ob- ject seen indistinctly can be described only vaguely. A child should not be allowed to describe an object of perception until he has observed it so fully and carefully that he knows exactly what he wishes and intends to say. The same re- quirement should be made when questions are put which call for the mental act of representation. This requirement will interfere a little at first with the liveliness of a recitation or A PKIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. 77 other exercise, but in the end progress will be more rapid . Imperfect representation and its causes — During the early- period of the representative stage of a child's school life there is great danger of confusion of ideas in his mind, and of con- sequent incorrectness in the use of words. A story is told, or a narrative is read, and the pupil is required to reproduce the story or the narrative in his own language. Failure in the repro- duction may result from the fact that the language used in telling the story is not understood by the child. In this case the pupil can form no mental pictures, because the words suggest nothing. Consequently he has nothing to reproduce. Failure to reproduce may have another cause. The pupil may understand the language employed and may form correct ideas, but his vocabulary, aside from the words used by the teacher in telling the story, may be so limited that he is unable to express these ideas correctly in other words of his own selection. (4) Consequently at this stage of school life a teacher should take great care that right words be taught to children as they are needed by them. Every new object or idea calls for a new word. The word will be easily remembered if it is taught in connection with that of which it is the sign ; the natural order is " things and words^ Words to be taught. — The words taught to young children should be short, plain, every-day words, readily understood and easy of utterance. Train scholars to use just enough words to express their ideas clearly and fully, but no more than are needed to do this. In this matter the teacher should afford an example worthy of imitation. Do not fall into the habit of " talking much and saying little." 78 A PRIMEE OF PEDAGOGY. Technical terms.— The general rule as to the selection of short, simple, every-day words for the use of children, should not be pressed to an unreasonable extreme. It is not neces- sary, nor is it desirable, to avoid the use of all technical terms in early instruction. Such terms should not be employed unnecessarily, or too freely, but there is no sufficient reason for excluding them entirely. Oral and all early teaching should prepare pupils to use text-books. Some previous knowledge of language of books will help the pupil greatly when he commences to use them. (5) Finally, give young children much practice in the use of correct forms of expression. The end to be reached.— The end desired is the formation of a habit of employing good language. Habit is formed only by long continued practice. Sentences properly arranged must be spoken over and over again, must be written repeat- edly, until the sounds and forms become so familiar that the tongue utters them and the fingers write them almost auto- matically. Training in this matter should begin in the lowest classes and should be continued systematically through all the primary grades. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER V. 1. Each period of development has its own peculiar forms of mental activity. 2. Subordinate or special laws of mind and of teaching. 3. First special law of mind and corresponding law of teaching. 4. Some maxims applicable to the early period of school life. 5. One leading purpose at this time. A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 79 6. What object teaching is, and what objective teaching is. 7. Use of object lessons. 8. Bad object lessons. 9. How children should be taught to observe. 10. Effect of good object teaching. 11. Some questions as to observing. 12. Examples of concrete lessons in arithmetic. 13. Concrete spelling lessons. 14. To what stage of learning the second part of the first law applies. 15. Order of progress in each stage. 16. Illustration from work in reading. 17. Order in language lessons. 18. Different modes of expression. 19. When representation commences. 20. Second special law of mind, and of teaching. 21. Third special law of mind, and of teaching. 22. Applications of these laws. 23. How a child probably forms his earliest ideas of classes of objects. 24. Induction defined and examples. 25. Induction in arithmetic. 26. Processes before reasons, etc. 27. Deduction defined and illustrated. 28. Both methods constantly employed. 29. Language before grammar. Importance of training in language. 30. Suggestions for elementary training in language. 31. Causes of imperfect representation on the part of young children, and of imperfect reproduction. 32. Kind of words to be taught. Technical terms. 80 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIVE APPLICATIONS OF LAWS OF MIND. Previous applications of laws. — In previous chapters applications of some laws of mind to the teaching of several elementary studies were indicated as fully as space would permit. These examples were designed /toj suggest how teachers may make applications of these laws for themselves. It is better for teachers to do this than to imitate and follow altogether models given by others. No one can become em- inently successful in teaching unless she does something more than merely strive to imitate another teacher. Every per- son has, or should have, some individuality. The highest success will be obtained by first mastering principles and laws and then applying these according to one's own individual peculiarities, habits of thought, and modes of action. One never acquires freedom of movement or a graceful gait by trying to walk exactly in the footsteps of another, however easy and graceful the movement and gait of that other may be . Seek to improve and make the most of yourself, but do not mate an effort to become somebody else, Succiss is not in that direction. Other applications. — For the benefit of inexperienced teachers a few additional applications ot laws of mind and teaching are given here, simply to indicate ihe general char- acter of such applications, and some things which must be considered in making them. First thing. — First of all, before commencing to teach any subject, determine exactly what you propose to do, the end A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 81 which you expect to reach, and fix in your own mind clearly and in regular order the successive steps by which that end is to be reached. Unless this is done you will work at random, wasting your own time and also that of your pupils. In determining what is to be done, or what should be attempted, the age and degree of development and intelligence of scholars must be taken into account. The maxim, " from the known to the unknown " should be kept in mind, because the present knowledge of the child must be the starting point in the effort to lead him to acquire that which is now the unknown. Second thing.— Having done this, next state to yourself distinctly the laws of mind and of teaching which are to guide you in the luork, and are to determine the particular methods to be employed. The general laws will always be applicable, and are to be kept in mind in all cases. Some whole is to be presented, although it may be only a small part of some greater whole. The processes of thinking, by which knowledge is rendered clear and definite, must be regarded and provided for ; and the laws of association must be constantly employed so as to render retention and reproduction sure and easy. Special laws to be determined. — What needs to be deter- mined therefore is, what special or subordinate laws of mind and of teaching apply to the matter in hand. In order to determine this, it is necessary to consider the age and degree of intelligence of pupils; whether they are in the primary or in a more advanced stage of development ; whether they have or have not some knowledge of subject to be presented. An illustration. — For an illustration let us apply these sug- gestions to the teaching of 82 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. The end or purpose. — Suppose the pupils to belong to a district school or to some of the intermediate grades of a larger school. What is the end or object to be attained? Let us agree that the purpose is this : To enable the scholars to obtain a good degree of what may be called practical knowl- edge of our local, state, and national governments. It is not the intention to teach, except incidentally and to a very lim- ited extent, theories of government, or the principles upon which the various forms of government are founded. The laws. — What laws of mind and of teaching will guide us in the work? and when shall we commence? The most im- portant of the laws are these : In teaching young pupils, be- gin with the concrete ; begin with particular and specific cases ; begin with the known, that is, ivith that which is near at hand; begin with that tvhich ivill most naturally create interest and secure attention ; proceed, as far as loossible, in- ductively. If these laws are regarded it will be easy to decide where and how to commence. In district schools. — Suppose one is teaching in a district school, and that a school meeting has just been held, or is to be held soon, in which officers of the district are elected and other business is transacted. In this case begin instruction with the school district. We have here a concrete, specific example, near at hand, and adapted, if properly presented, to excite interest and secure attention Incidentally the nature of democratic government, a government in which all the people take part, can be shown ; and also the nature of repre- sentative government, since the school board act for and in behalf of the people, and thus represent them. Instruction is A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 83 supposed to be oral. Do not hasten ; take points one by- one ; state questions clearly, and allow pupils to find out things for themselves, as far as possible, by inquiring of their parents and other persons. In this way the organization of the district, its officers, the time and mode of their election, their duties as individuals and as a board can be taught so that the knowledge will be of practical value to the pupils and will be easily retained. In village or city. — If one is teaching in a village or in a city it will be natural to commence with the organization and government of the village or city, following the method indicated for the study of the district. The township, county, etc.— The transition from the dis- trict to the township can be readily made by inquiring about the boundaries of the district, and by whom these boundaries are fixed. These inquiries bring us to the township board of school inspectors and to the township organization. The oflicers of the township and their duties may be studied in the manner suggested for the study of the district. Additional interest will be excited if the township is studied near the time of the election of officers. From the township the passage will be easy to the county, and then to the state, and finally to the United States. If the government of the state is studied near the time of a state election it will be easy to give information in relation to the caucus, to the county and state conventions, and the business and management of these meetings. Law making, etc. — It will be an excellent time to study the Legislature when that body is in session. The whole 84 A PEIMEK OF PEDAGOGY. process of law making can then be illustrated by reference to the proceedings of the Legislature. The progress of some bill, in which pupils may be interested, can be traced from its first introduction to its final passage, every step being carefully in- dicated from day to day. United States gcovernment. — The approach of a Presiden- tial election affords a most favorable opportunity for studying the government of the United States, since the election of members of Congress takes place at the same time. The election of United State Senators should be studied, if possible, in connection with a meeting of the State Legislature when the election of a senator takes place. This method makes the instruction as nearly concrete as it can be made unless pupils are able to be present at district, township, and other similar meetings. Method with advanced classes.— With classes of advanced pupils it will sometimes be wise to employ a different method, based upon such laws as these: commence with the largest possible whole, and go from the whole to its parts ; begin with the abstract, with general principles, with definitions ; with advanced pupils employ deduction. In this case, present first a general outline and then study its various parts, going into details as fully as circumstances permit. Begin with a definition of government with all necessary illustrations ; next define the various kinds of government, such as civil, military, monarchical, republican, representive, national, state, school, family. Then, taking the government of the United States, proceed to study one by one the different departments. From the national come to the state government, following the same general plan ; finally proceed to the county and the A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 85 township. Where text-books are used this method will usually b8 employed. It will, however, be profitable to use the concrete method, to some extent, even in the most advanced grades. HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. It may be of advantage to suggest briefly what some of the laws of mind and of teaching indicate as to instruction in the subject of Unitea States History to pupils in district schools, and in the lower grades of larger schools. The work is neces- sarily elementary in its character, and methods adapted to ad- vanced classes are not appropriate here. Introductory out- lines and synopses are out of place. The whole of children, at this period, is a single event or a short series of closely re- lated events ; the adventures of one man or of a single body of men. In the end, by a natural process of induction and arrange- ment, many events may be grouped together and the relation of these events to each other may be discovered. Object to be attained.— The object may be stated thus: To enable pupils to gain and retain a knowledge of the most im - portant events in the history of the country. This will neces- sarily include a knowledge of the leading men who have acted in those events; a knowledge of discoveries and inven- tions in the arts and sciences ; of improvements in means of travel and transportation, and of the general progress of the country in all directions. It will not include the details of all the early voyages of discovery, nor all the incidents of the French and Indian wars, nor all the marches and counter- marches of armies in any of our wars. The unimportant and unessential must be omitted. 86 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. Laws applicable. — Most of the laws named as applicable in teaching civil government will apply equally well in teaching the history. The concrete will b3 of a different sort, and more emphasis must be put upon the law that young children seek to learn facts, events, processes, and so on, before they care to study causes, reasons, relations, and consequences. First lessons in history.— The first lessons in history should be taught in connection with the elementary study of local geography. When a place is studied, anecdotes of men and events connected with the place should b3 related, in a brief, animated and interesting way, by the teacher or by some pupil. Topics of various kinds may be assigned beforehand to individual members of a class, and references rhay be given to books in which matter can be found. Progress in geography may seem to be Jess rapid, but real progress in knowlege will be much more rapid, and that which is learned will be re- tained by the natural law of association, that is, by the law of contiguity; places, events, and persons being all linked together in the mind. Men and events connected with many places are so numerous that selections must be made according to cir- cumstances, or according to the taste of the teacher. The story of Wolfe and Montcalm may be associated with Quebec ; of John Smith and Pocahontas with the James river ; of De- Soto with the lower Mississippi ; of Pero Marquette with the Great Lakes ; of the Conspiracy of Pontiac with Detroit. The only difficulty will be in making wise selections from the abundance of material. More formal lessons.— The next and more formal lessons in history for children should consist, very largely, of anec- dotes, of short stories of events and places, and of brief A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 87 biographies of distinguished men. These must not be taken at random, but in some regular and chronological order, so they may finally be connected into a continuous series. This order need not necessarily be stated to the pupils, at the outset, but should be very clear in the teacher's mind. The method of working with a class must be adapted to circum- stances. If books are abundant, the members of a class may be required to read for themselves and to relate, either orally or in writing, the substance of what they have read. The teacher will then indicate the important portions of the stories which are to be fastened in the memory. If books are scarce, the teacher will read or relate the story, or appoint some good reader among the pupils to read, while the other members of the class listen and aferwards write out as much of the matter as they can recall, being guided by the teacher so that they will reproduce the essential parts. If a text-book is used, this work can be carried along in connection with lessons assigned from the book. This leads to a remark which may be next akin to educational treason : ivith a live and thoroughly prepared teacher the more different good text-books in the history class the better for the class. The lessons, of course, are assigned topically, and each pupil learns and states what his book contains upon a topic. In this way the whole class can have the substance of what all the books contain. When any topic has been fully studied the teacher should make a summary of the important points which pupils can copy in note books. At the end of the term of study these note books will furnish the connected substance of the history and will serve as means for review. Advanced teaching. — As in teaching civil government so in 8b A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. teaching history the laws of mind indicate that the class may commence by learning a general outline. This outline serves in the history the purpose which the outline map serves in geography. This method is so familiar that it is unnecessary to discribe it further. These examples are sufficient to illustrate the applications which teachers may make for themselves of both the general and special laws of mind and teaching. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VI. , 1. Previous applications of laws of mind. 2. How the highest success will be attained by a teacher. 3. First thing to be determined before commencing any subject. 4. Second thing to be distinctly stated. 5. What as to general laws. 6. What as to special law?. 7. The illustration of civil government. 8. The end or purpose in this case. 9. The guiding laws or principles. 10. How begin and proceed in a district school. 11. How begin in a village or city. 12. How interest may be increased. 13. When law-making may be best studied. 14. When the government of the United States may be best studied. 15. Method with advanced classes. 16. Laws applied to teaching U. S. History. 17. Object to be attained with elementary classes. 18. Law specially applicable. 19. First lessons in history. 20. More formal lessons. A PRI^klER OF PEDAGOGY. 89 21. Method of working in a class. 22. As to text-books. 23. Method with advanced classes. 24. Use of these illuatrations. CHAPTER VII. MORAL DEVELOPMENT, INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING. The moral nature. — For our purpose it will be suflficiently definite to consider the moral nature as that in man which concerns itself about questions of right and ivrong It makes such inquiries as these: Ought a child to obey his parents ? ought parents to care for, to protect, to educate their children ? ought scholars to be obedient to the rules of a school ? ought a teacher to labor earnestly for the highest good of his pupils ? ought a man to be honest in business ? is it ever right to lie, to cheat, to take advantage of another's ignorance in a trade ? These and many other similar questions men are constantly asking themselves. Children begin to ask such questions at a very early period in their lives. Idea of right. — The fact that such inquiries are made by all sorts of people in all parts of the world, seems to prove that human beings everywhere have an idea that there is such a thing as right and such a thing as wrong. This idea is probably intuitive in the soul ; that is, it springs up sponta- neously in the mind as soon as a child is old enough to think with some degree of clearness, to act with reference to some end, to observe the conduct of others, and to understand, in some measure, the consequences of his own conduct and of 90 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. the conduct of those about him. The child's earliest notions of right and wrong are, without doubt, very crude and ill-de- fined. Gradually, if properly instructed and trained, he comes to have more definite ideas, and begins to feel that he ought to do one thing in preference to another, and that he may properly be blamed for one sort of conduct and praised for a different sort. In other words he begins 1 3 comprehend the fact that there is some rule or law concerning behavior, and that his conduct should conform to this law. Moral law. — At this stage of development the child has a dim and confused notion of what we call moral law ; which, for our present purpose, may be defined as a collection of prin- ciples and rules for the regulation of the conduct of human beings in all the various relations of life. The most import- ant and essential of these principles are very nearly, if not quite, axioms or self evident truths. Men everywhere admit them to be true, even though they disregard them in their manner of living. First principle. — One of these principles may be stated thus : Oive to every man his due, or render to every man his right. This requires us to give to every human being that which belongs to him ; honor to whom honor is due ; obedi- ence to whom obedience is due ; respect to whom respect is due ; courtesy, kindness, protection, good- will, love, to whom these are due. This law touches all the ordinary relations in the family, in the school, in society, in business, in the state. It is broad enough to regulate to a large extent the conduct of children, of parents, of scholars, of teachers, and of men and women in all social, business and other relations. This law asks only justice; it is the basis of human society. Without A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 91 some tolerable regard for it men could not associate together. Nobody will object to teachmg this principle in the public schools, or in any other place. Second principle. — Another of these laws may be em- bodied in this language : " Do unto others as you would have them do unto you " in like conditions and circumstances. In other words, put yourself in another's place and consider how you would wish to be treated in that place. This rule carries one far beyond the requirements of simple justice. It bids us do good to all men as far as we are able ; to forgive those who have wronged us ; to have compassion on the suffering ; to pity the weak and erring ; to help those who need help even though they have no claims upon us ; in a word, to do all in our power to make others better and to render them happier. Law of beneficence. — This is the law of beneficence and good-will, applied once by a Samaritan to an unfortunate individual belonging to a race which despised and hated him. Fully recognized, it forbids us to render evil for evil ; to return a harsh word for one which we have received ; "to give " a bad man or boy " as good as he has sent," or " pay him back in his own coin." This does not forbid the using of proper measures in self defence, nor the infliction of proper chas- tisement upon any overbearing " bully " who recognizes no authority unless it is backed by brute force, and respects only «vhat he fears. How much embraced. — These two principles embrace the whole moral law so far as it applies to human relations. They teach justice, benevolence, mercy, and forgiveness. Obedience to them would make the family, the school, society 92 A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. generally, and the state what they should be ; would render men honest, truthful, upright, honorable, and manly in the highest sense of that word. Purpose of moral instruction and training. — The purpose of moral instruction and training is to lead children to act constantly and uniformly in harmony with these laws. They will thus be made obedient to rightful authority in the home, in the school, and in the state. They will be taught truthful- ness in word and in deed, honesty in business and in pleasure purity in heart and in life, integrity in both private and public affairs. The natural tendency of such instruction and train- ing must be to send out from the schools good men and women, and to secure for the state good and reliable citizens. What the child must have. — In order to secure the proposed end the child must have (1) the necessary knowledge; that is he must be taught what he ought to do and how he ought to con- duct himself ; (3) he must have a right disposition ; that is, in some way, there must be produced in his mind the desire to do what he ought to do and to conduct himself in the right way. In connection with the production of this knowledge and this disposition in the child (3) he needs to acquire, by con- tinued practice, a permanent habit of right doing, so that good conduct shall become easy because it has become habitual. Practically the knowledge, the disposition, and the habit will be secured for the child at the same time and by the same process of instruction and training. How give instruction. — The necessary instruction as to right conduct can be given very easily by any teacher who thoroughly understands the principles of justice, beneficence, and mercy, and who earnestly desires to impress these upon A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 93 the minds of his pupils. It must be remembered, in dealing with young children, that they are not yet able to comprehend abstract principles or abstract teaching. It would serve no good purpose to begin by telling them that they ought to be just and to act justly ; or that they should be beneficent and act beneficently : or that they should be merciful, and should deal mercifully with their associates. Such instruction may be appropriate in the high school, but not in the lower grades. The teaching here must be concrete. Justice and beneficence must be embodied and taught by means of living examples. Mercy and forgiveness must be presented in actual every-day life where they can be seen. First means. — Consequently, (1) ^rsif and most important of all, the teacher must teach the principles of right conduct by example, by his own daily living before his pupils. He must be a concrete illustration of justice and mercy, of benefi- cence and forgiveness. He must himself be just in word and deed in all his relations with school officers, with parents, and with scholar ;«. He will teach beneficence most effectively by his own beneficent acts and his own kind words. He will teach purity best by being pure in heart, pure in life and pure in language. He will teach honor by being honorable in all his dealings, and patience and forbearance by being patient and forbearing under circumstances naturally adapted to irritate and provoke. Unconscious tuition. — This is unconscious tuition, which has been so beautifully described and illustrated by Dr. Hunt- ington in an address which every teacher should read at least once a year. No other teaching can take the place of this, and no person is " qualified," in the best and highest sense of 94 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. the word, for a place in the schoolroom, whose character and life do not teach the principles of justice and righteousness. Neither intellectual power nor brilliant scholarship can atone for bad moral principles and bad moral conduct and habits. Second means.— (2) Next to the teacher's own character, the best means of impressing moral lessons upon children are examples found in the conduct of associates and of others with whom pupils are personally acquainted. This is also concrete teaching. Such examples must be selected and employed with great care and skill, and in such a way as not to give offense or to excite ill-will. It will, when this can be done, be better to use an example ivhich can be held up as worthy of imitation rather than one worthy of censure and blame. This is preferable for many reasons which will readily occur to any teacher, but there is a psychological reason which is often overlooked. States of mind repeat themselves. A feel- ing excited in the child's mind today can be excited more easily to-morrow, and still more easily the third time. Every repetition increases the tendency of the mind to indulge the feeling until, by and by, it becomes habitual. It is, conse- quently, better for the child's character to excite feelings of kindness and good -will rather than those of unkindness and ill-will. It may be urged that it will be a good thing to culti- vate in a child the feeling of indignation against injustice and all wrong-doing. This is true after the child has reached a certain stage of development ; but it should be remembered that feeling in the young child is always directed towards the actor rather than the act, towards individuals rather than classes. Third means.— (3) Further opportunities for giving moral A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 95 instruction can be found in connection with examples and illustrations aiforded by some of the selections in school readers, by anecdotes and other articles in newspapers and periodicals, and by many of the lessons in history. With advanced pupils.— (4) To advanced students more definite and formal statements of moral principles should be made, with applications of these to the conduct of every- day life. Care must be taken that such statements are pre- sented at proper times and under favorable conditions, and not in the form of regular lessens or lectures at appointed hours. The most difficult work. — The most difficult part of the teacher's work is to create or cause to he produced in the child's mind a disposition to do right, when he has learned what the right is, and to render this disposition permanent so that finally good conduct will become habitual. This is the end towards which effort should be directed. Upon what disposition depends. — The disposition depends upon the feelings which control the action of the will. Behind every determination of the will is some desire. The child is disposed to do what he wishes or desires to do. The problem, therefore, is to produce the right desire ; or if, as is often the case, there are opposing and conflicting desires, to give pre- dominance to the better ones. Anything which produces or tends to produce desire, and thus to move the will, may be called a motive. The practical questions for a teacher are, what motives shall I use, and how shall I use them to the best advantage? Only brief consideration can be given to these questions here, but every teacher should study them thoroughly. 96 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. Desire and good,— Desire has been defined as the^craving of the mind for some real or supposed good. The term good is used to denote anything which will give gratification, pleasure, enjoyment, or satisfaction of some kind. Tne good of one person may not be the good of another ; the good of the child will not be the good of the man. The good to he presented, that is, the motive, must be adapted to the age of the person, to his degree of development and culture, and to circumstances. The good held up before a young child must be something near at hand, something which appeals to the senses, and to the simple emotions and affections, something which he can comprehend and appreciate. The far-oflf has little power to influence childhood. High and low motives. — The motive in each case may be considered low*or high according to the character of the pleasure and satisfaction which the object presented is adapted to afford. The pleasure may be of the body or of the soul, may be immediate or prospective, may be temporary or last- ing in its nature, may relate entirely to one's self or may con- cern others. The effort should he, in all cases, to employ the highest possible motive ; that is, the motive which will excite the best, noblest, and purest desires. As early as possible motives should be employed which will lead the child to have regard for others rather than for himself. Classes of motives.— Motives may be divided, for con- venience, into a few classes ; and in each class they may be arranged in an ascending series adapted to the progressive stages and steps of mental and moral development. Lowest class.— (1) The first and lowest motive which in- fluences the child is probably the pleasure arising from the A PBIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 97 gratification of the natural appetites. The parent makes more or less use of this motive, but it can have little place in school. In more advanced periods of life this motive is rein- forced by the pleasure derived from the gratification of the passions and artificial appetites. This motive keeps man on a level with the brutes. Approval, etc. — (2) The satisfaction resulting from being approved, praised, esteemed, and commended is a powerful motive in childhood, and indeed during the whole life. The child values the approval of parents, teachers, associates, etc. When more developed, he values most of all the approval of his own conscience and of the Divine Being. Activity, etc.— (3) The pleasure and satisfaction derived from the proper exercise of one's own powers constitute a very strong motive in every period of life. Appropriate exercise of body gives positive pleasure to the child. Mental exercise affords still higher satisfaction. Probably the highest enjoy- ment of which man is susceptible comes from the right exercise of his highest and noblest powers. Possession, etc.— (4) The satisfaction resulting from pos- session is also a powerful motive, operating sometimes in the direction of good, sometimes in the direction of evil. This general motive embraces a great number of particular cases, such as the possession of knowledge, of property, of power, of rank, of esteem, and many others. Prizes and rewards appeal to this principle. Select motives. — From these various classes such motives should be selected in the school as are adapted to the different pupils. Always select the highest one which can be made effective. Lowest motive.— The lowest motive to which the teacher can appeal is the desire for present personal bodily gratifica- tion and pleasures. Corporal punishment appeals to this motive by exciting fear of pain. Highest motive. — The highest motive is the desire to do 7 98 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. right because it is right. This is duty in the best sense of the word. This involves the desire for the approval of one's own conscience and the approval of God. Character. — The final result of moral development, instruc- tion, and training in the school should be the production of the highest type of character in the pupils, character being the sum of the dispositions which have been created in the mind, and of the habits which manifest themselves in conduct. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VII. 1. The moral nature defined. 2. What questions are asked. 3. Idea of right and wrong universal. 4. A child's early ideas of right and wrong. 5. What moral law is. 6. The two general principles stated. 7. What the principle of justice includes. 8. What the principle of beneficence includes. 9. The purpose of moral instruction and training. 10. The things which the child must have. 11. How instruction may be given. 13. Why abstract principles should not be taught to young children. 13. The means which can be used in moral teaching. 14. What the teacher should be. 15. Unconscious tuition. 16. What sort of examples should be used and why. 17. What may be done for advanced students. 18. The most difiicult part of the work. 19. Upon what disposition depends. 20. What a motive is. 21. Desire and good defined. 22. High and low motives. 23. Rule for the selection of motives. 24. First class of motives ; second class ; third class ; fourth class. 25. The lowest motive ; the highest motive. 26. What the final result of moral development, instruction, and training should be. 27. Character defined. A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 99 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 1. State the three questions which present themselves to one preparing for any work. 2. Why do we value a machine or a road ? 3. What is the real work of a teacher ? 4. What should the education of a child include ? 5. What does development produce ? 6. What does training produce ? 7. What should instruction produce? 8. Give Tate's definition of education. 9. What is Milton's definition ? 10. Give the substance of Addisoa's statement. 11. What does Plato say of doing ? 13. Name the different varieties of education. 13. What must one know in order to educate a child ? 14. State the illustration of the trainer of horses. 15. Describe the nervous system and the different kinds^f nerves. 16. State the kind of knowledge which each one of the senses gives us. 17. What is the mind ? 18. What is consciousness ? 19. State and illustrate the relation of consciousness and the senses. 20. Where does the process of education begin ? 21. What is perception as an act ? what as a power ? 22. What is a percept ? give illustrations. 23. Explain how we get the ideas of space and time. 24. What is intuition ? 25. Name and define the group of perceptive powers. 26. Give examples and illustrations of the process of representation. 27. Give examples of representation in the school. 28. What are concepts ? how do they differ from percepts ? 29. What is real representation ? 30. What is ideal representation ? give illustrations. 31. Illustrate the use and work of imagination in the school. 32. Define memory. 33. State and illustrate how the memory recalls. 34. What are laws of association ? 35. Name the primBry laws. 36. Name the secondary laws. 37. Name and define the group of conceptive or representa- tive powers'. 38. What is thinking as here defined ? 100 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 39. Define analysis, abstraction, and generalization. 40. What is general conception ? what is a general concept ? 41. What is the judgment ? what is a proposition ? 42. Give an example of a reasoning process. 43. Name and define the thinking powers. 44. Give a synopsis of the knowing powers. 45. What are bodily feelings ? appetites ? 46. Name the three classes of mental feelings and define them. 47. What is hope? 48. Why is a knowledge of the feelings important to a teacher ? 49. What is the will ? give an illustration of an act of the will. 50. What is the order of the mental processes ? 51. How can the teacher move or influence the will of a child ? 52. What is a moral being ? 53. Describe the moral nature ; intuition ; perception ; judgment ; conscience. 54. Why should conscience be always obeyed ? 55. Name some of the moral feelings. 56. What are motives ? 57. How can we increase or diminish the power of motives ? 58. Are we free in our choosing ? 59. Give the illustrations of development. 60. Explain the use of the term law. 61. Give the first law of development. 62. State the order in which the powers are developed. 63. What is the first inference from the first law ? 64. Give the characteristics of each of the three periods of school life. 65. To what powers of mind must teaching be directed in each of these periods ? 66. State the second inference from the first law. 67. State what the characteristics of each of the three classes of schools should be. 68. State the third inference from the first law. 69. Give the second law of development. 70. What is the teacher's business under this law ? 71. State the inference from the second law. 72. What is the third law of development ? 73. Give the first inference from the third law. 74. What is the second relation of knowledge to education ? 75. What is teaching ? and what is the teacher's work ? A PEIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 101 76. Who is the best teacher ? 77. What is method ? what are methods of teaching ? 78. What determines methods of teaching ? 79. Give the illustration of the scientist. 80. What does the real teacher do according to thi& illustration ? 81. What is meant by general forms of mental activity? what by special forms ? 82. What are general laws of mind ? 83. State the iirst general law of mind, and the correspond- ing law of teaching ? 84. State the second law of mind, and the corresponding law of teaching. 85. How do the senses present knowledge ? give illustrations. 86. Give illustrations of the analytic process of the mind. 87. How is the child learning till he enters school ? 88. What does Hamilton say of the work of elaboration? 89. What is the substance of the caution? 90. What methods of teaching elementary reading are^ mentioned ? which are synthetic and which analytic? 91. Explain the maxim, " Proceed from the known to the unknown." 93. What is the known to the child when beginning to learn to read? What is the unknown? 93. What is the work of the first step in teachiog children to read? 94. Explain the second step. 95. What is the work of the third step? 96. Explain the method of teaching language lessons accord- ing to these laws. 97. Give the third law of mind, and the corresponding law of teaching. 98. What work this third law covers. 99. Upon what does the power of memory depend? 100. Upon what does the depth of the impression depend? 101. What illustration shows the effect of intense attention? what of repetition ? 102. What are the suggestions in relation to attention? 103. What is the second matter considered in the training of the memory? 104. How can the different parts of a topic be best associated in the mind ? 105. Give the illustration in respect to committing to mem- ory a number of names. 106. What laws of association are used in teaching arithme- tic? 102 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 107. What laws in teaching to read ? 108. What laws in teaching geography ? 109. What laws in teaching history ? 110. Upon what does all valuable training of the memory depend ? 111. State the fourth general law of mind, and the corres- ponding law of teaching. 113. Why can no definite rules be given as to the length of lessons ? 113. What things must be taken into account in assigning essons? 114. What is the prime condition of fruitful study ? 115. What should be the aim of the student in his work What the aim of the teacher ? 116. What is said in relation to sleep ? 117. What is the most important consideration in physical exercise ? 118. What should be done in primary schools in respect to physical exercise ? What in advanced grades ? 119. Why should different kinds of studies alternate with one another ? 120. What activities of mind are employed in studying mathematics ? 131. What activities in studying the sciences ? what in geo- graphy and history ? what in reading and language ? 133. What alternations of studies are suggested in a pro- gram ? 133. What is meant by subordinate or special laws of mind ? by special laws of teaching ? 134 State the first special law of mind, and the correspond- ing law of teaching. 125. Name some "maxims " covered by this law. 136. What is one leading purpose of the teacher in this early period of school life ? 137. How does the child learn at this time ? 128. State the distinction between object teaching and objective teaching. 129. For what are object lessons valuable ? 130. What are bad object lessons ? 131. What are the characteristics of good observing ? 132. What is it to develop and train the perceptive powers ? 133. State some of the questions concerning the habit of observing. 134. Give examples of concrete questions in arithmetic. 135. Give examples of concrete spelling lessons. A PKIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 103 136. Why should methods of teaching be changed only gradually ? 137. What is the order of a child's progress in the first stage ? what is the order in the second stage ? 138. Illustrate the order in the second stage by reference to a reading lesson. 139. State the order in a language lesson. 140. Illustrate expression by other means than by words. 141. What evil results from using the object and objective method of teaching too long ? 142. State the second special law of mind, and second special law of teaching. 143. State the third special law of mind, and of teaching. 144. How does the young child probably obtain his earliest ideas of classes of objects ? Give an illustration. 145. Define induction. Give examples. 146. Give examples of induction in teaching arithmetic. 147. Why may young children be allowed to "do " things for which they can not give reasons ? 148. Define deduction. Give examples. 149. Are there purely inductive and purely deductive methods of teaching ? 150. Next to training the senses, what is the most important work of the primary teacher ? 151. State the suggestions in relation to teaching language to young children. 152. What kind of words should be taught to young children? 153. May technical terms be taught? 154. How only can a teacher become eminently successful ? 155. What is the effect of imitation ? 156. What should a teacher determine first before beginning any subject? 157. What next should be determined ? 158. How far do general laws apply ? 159. What is the purpose stated in teaching civil govern- ment to young pupils ? 160. What laws are given ? 161. Where begin and how proceed in a district school ? 162. Where begin in a village or city ? 163. At what time may the township government be best studied. 164. At what time the state government ? 165. At what time the U. S. government ? 166. Why best at these times ? 167. State the method of teaching civil government in advanced classes. 104 A PRIMER OF PEDAGOGY. 168. Why should we not begin to teach history to children by using outlines ? 169. State the object in teaching U. S. History to young children. 170. What laws of mind are applicable ? 171. What law is especially applicable ? 172. How should the first lessons in history b3 taught ? 173. Give illustrations. What are the advantages of this method ? 174. What are the more formal lessons ? 175. What advantage in having a variety of text- books ? 176. How may advanced classes be taught ? 177. What is the purpose in giving these applications of mental laws and laws of teaching? 178. What is the moral nature ? 179. What questions does it ask ? 180. What is the origin of the idea of right ? 181. What is moral law ? 182. State the principle of justice. 183. Give some applications of this law. 184. What is the principle of beneficence ? 185. Give some applications of this law. 186. State the purpose of moral instruction and training. 187. What knowledge must the child have? 188. What disposition? What must he acquire by practice ? 189. State the different means by which instruction may ba given. 190. What is unconscious tuition ? 191. Why should examples worthy to be imitated be chosen rather than those worthy to be avoided ? 192. How may advanced students be instructed? 198. What is the most difficult part of this work ^ 194. Upon what does disposition depend ? 195. What is desire ? What is good ? 196. What is a motive ? 197. What are high and what low motives? 198. What rule for the selection of motives ? 199. The first class of motives. 200. The second, third, and fourth classes. 201. The lowest motive to which the teacher can appeal. 202. The highest motive to which appeal can be made. 203. What should be the final result of moral development, instruction and training? 204. What is character ? INDKX Page Abstraction and analysis 20 Affections, the 23 Alternation of studies 61 Arithmetic, laws of association in teaching •... 53, 54 Association, laws of 19, 52 in teaching 54-57 Attention 53, 54 Character 98 Child, the 11 development of 30 Choice, freedom of 27 Civil government, suggestions as to teaching 82, 83 Classes of things, the child's first ideas of.. 72 Conception, simple 18 power of 20 general... 21 Concepts, simple- 17 general 21 Concrete, lessons 67, 68 Conscience 26 Consciousness . 14 Deduction 74 illustrations of 75 Desires... 23, 96 Development 6 what it produces 7 laws of 31-38 moral 89 Disposition, on what depends 95 Education, what it includes 6 definitions of 7, 8 divisions of. 9 beginnings of 14 106 IKDEX. PAGE Feelings, bodily 23 mental 23 classes of 23 moral 27 Generalization 21 Good, the 96 Government, suggestions as to teaching civil 82, 84 History, suggestions as to teaching U. S 85-87 Ideas, first of classes... 72 Imagination 18 Induction 73, 74 Instruction 6, 7 moral 92^95 Intuition 15 moral 26 Judgment, the 21 a 21 moral __ 26 Knowledge, relation of , to education 36, 37 Known, from, to unknown 47 Language, suggestions as to lessons in._ 50, 51 before grammar.. 75 suggestions as to teaching 76 Law, moral 90 principles of moral 90, 91 Laws of mind, general 43, 44 teaching 44, 52, 58 special. 63, 64, 70, 71 suggested applications 80, 82 Lessons, as to lergth of 58 assignment of 59 concrete 67 Legislature, when best studied 83 Memory. 18 cultivation of .. _ 52 Mental activities, general and special forms of 43 Methods, divisions of - 34 defined... 40 how determined - 41, 43 Mind, what it is - 14 laws of 43-58 Moral, being and nature 25 nature 89 intuition, perception, judgment 26 law 90 i:n'dex. 107 PAGE. Moral instruction and training 92 Motives, high and low, classes of _ 96, 97 Nerves, the 13 peculiar property of 12 Object, teaching and lessons 65 Objective teaching 65 Observation, by children „ „ 66 questions as to _ 67 Perception _ 15 moral 26 powers of 16 Percept, what _ _ 15 Physical exercises 60 Principles, of morals 90, 91 Processes before reasons _ 74 Progress, order of, in the two stages 69 Questions, to a person preparing for any work 5 Reading, teaching of elementary. ' 47-49 laws of association employed 56 Reasoning ^ 21 Representation 16, 17 real- 17 ideal . _ 18 powers of 20 begins early . _ 70 Rest and relaxation _ 59 Right, idea of 89 Schools, classes of 33 Sensation 14 Senses, the 12 kind of knowledge given by each sense 13 form in which ihey present knowledge 45 Sleep 60 Space and time 15 Studies, alternation of 61 Teacher, work of 5,6 the best- 38 Teaching, not an end 5 what it is_ 37 general laws of. _ 44-58 special laws of -- 63-72 Technical terms, as to teaching 78 Thinking- 20 forms of— 21 powers of .«. 22 108 IXDEX. PAGE Time and space 15 Training, what it is 6 what it produces 7 Will, the, analysis of an act of 24 factor in the moral nature 37 Words, kind of, to be taught to children 77 technical 78 MONTHLY REPORT CARDS- BETTER THAN PRIZES. These cards aw 4x5 iiiclies ia siae, of good cardboaed, contain col- timna for lour months, and averages. 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