Book._^±_ 
 GcpiglitN? . 
 
 ccmncHT DEPOsm 
 
The 
 Farmer's Handbook 
 
 A CONVENIENT REFERENCE BOOK 
 For All Persons Interested In 
 
 General Farming, Fruit Culture, Truck Farm- 
 ing, Market Gardening, Livestock 
 Production, Bee Keeping, 
 Dairying, Etc. 
 
 International Correspondence Schools 
 
 SCRANTON.PA. 
 
 1st Edition, 6th Thousand, 1st Impression 
 
 scranton.pa. 
 International Textbook Company 
 
.16 
 
 Copyright, 1912, by 
 
 International Textbook Company 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 24070 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This handbook is intended as a book of reference 
 for general farmers, fruit growers, truck farmers, 
 market gardeners, hvestock raisers, dairymen, and 
 in fact all persons interested in the principles and 
 best modern practices of agriculture. Students 
 and teachers of agriculture in colleges and public 
 schools will find it of great value to them in their 
 work, and suburbanites and city and town dwellers 
 who have gardens or raise livestock will receive 
 much help from a study of its pages. While not a 
 treatise covering the entire subject of agriculture; 
 it presents facts, data, and information in language 
 that is clear, concise, and easily-understood, and 
 with the matter arranged in a manner that makes 
 the work especially valuable for ready reference. 
 
 Among the subjects treated are: Soil improve- 
 ment, general farm crops, fruit and vegetable cul- 
 ture, dairying, bee keeping, farm implements and 
 machinery, as well as a section on farm livestock; 
 this last includes descriptions of the approved types 
 and breeds of livestock and the best method for 
 the feeding and caring of animals in both health and 
 disease. Although the treatment of some of the 
 
subjects is necessarily brief, the information given 
 is of the same high order as that contained in the 
 Instruction Papers of the Agricultural Courses of 
 the International Correspondence Schools and is in 
 strict accord with the latest agricultural methods. 
 
 This handbook was prepared under the super- 
 vision of H. O. Sampson, Principal of our School of 
 Agriculture, assisted by the following Agricultural 
 Editors, all members of our staff of textbook writers: 
 J. E. McClintock, S. W. Shoemaker, W. W. Otto. 
 H. J. Stevens, and E. D. Stivers. 
 
 International Correspondence Schools. 
 
 November 1, 1912. 
 
NDEX 
 
 A 
 
 Abscesses, 278. 
 Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 208. 
 Abortion in farm livestock, 
 
 278. 
 Acetic acid as medicine for 
 
 livestock, 274. 
 Acid-forming bacteria in milk, 
 
 :ns. 
 
 phosphates as fertilizer, 34. 
 Aconite as medicine for live- 
 stock. Tincture of, 274. 
 Actinomycosis, 278. 
 Administration of medicines 
 
 to farm livestock, 273. 
 Aeration, Soil, 47. 
 Air in soil, 7. 
 Alfalfa as green manure, 29. 
 
 as hay and pasture crop, 77. 
 Aloes as medicine for live- 
 stock, 274. 
 Alsike clover as hay and pas- 
 ture crop, 75. 
 American merino sheep, 219. 
 saddle horses, 181. 
 trotter horses, 183. 
 Ammonia, Sulphate of, 31. 
 water, as medicine for live- 
 stock, 274. 
 Ammoniacal copper carbonate 
 
 as a fungicide, 91. 
 Analyses, Misleading method 
 
 of stating fertilizer, 37. 
 Anesthetics, 272. 
 Anodynes. 272. 
 Anthrax, 278. 
 
 Symptomatic, 279. 
 Antimony as medicine for 
 livestock, Butter of, 275. 
 Antispadmodics, 272. 
 Apothecaries' fluid measure 
 table, 381. 
 weight table, 380. 
 
 Apples, Pruning of, 100. 
 Spraying of. 101. 
 Varieties of, 93. 
 
 Arab horses, 178. 
 
 Arithmetical tables, 378. 
 
 Arnica as medicine for live- 
 stock. Tincture of, 274. 
 
 Arrangement of home gar- 
 den. 166. 
 
 Arsenate of lead as an insecti- 
 cide, 89. 
 
 Arsenic as medicine for live- 
 stock, Fowler's solution 
 of. 274. 
 
 Arsenite of lime as an insecti- 
 cide, 90. 
 
 Artichokes, Jerusalem, 84. 
 
 Ash in feeds, 239. 
 
 Ashes for fertilizer, Wood, 
 35. 
 
 Asparagus, 174. 
 
 Astringents, 272. 
 
 Avoirdupois weight table, 
 380. 
 
 Avrshire cattle, 201. 
 
 Azoturia, 279. 
 
 Babcock milk test. The. 321. 
 Bacon-type swine, 231. 
 Bacteria in milk, 315. 
 
 in milk. Acid-forming, 318. 
 
 in milk. Pathogenic, 319. 
 
 in soil, 11. 
 Balanced rations, 243. 
 Barley, 58. 
 
 Treatment of smut on, 59. 
 Barrenness in farm livestock, 
 
 279. 
 Barrow, Score card for bacon- 
 type. 289. 
 
 Score card for fat-type. 300. 
 Basic slag for fertilizer. 35. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Beam plows, 339. 
 Bean and pea thrashers, 352. 
 Beans, 175. 
 
 Bee keeping as an industry, 
 331. 
 keeping, Locations for, 333. 
 keeping. Objects of, 331. 
 keeping. Profits in, 335. 
 keeping. Time required in, 
 
 336. 
 stings. Treatment for, 337. 
 Beef animal. List of parts of, 
 205. 
 cattle. Breeds of, 205. 
 -cattle class, 214. 
 type. Description of, 205. 
 Bees, Drone, 339. 
 
 Parthenogenesis in, 339. 
 Queen, 337. 
 Races of honey, 337. 
 Worker, 338. 
 Beet lifters, 352. 
 Beets, 168. 
 
 Sugar, 83. 
 Belgian horses, 188. 
 Belladonna as medicine for 
 livestock. Fluid extract 
 of, 274. 
 Berkshire swine, 232. 
 Bermuda grass as hay and 
 
 pasture crop, 70. 
 Bichloride of mercury as 
 medicine for livestock, 
 276. 
 Black quarter, 279. 
 Blackberries, Pruning of, 146. 
 Spraying of, 147. 
 Varieties of, 146. 
 Blackleg, 279. 
 Blisters, 273. 
 Bloat, 284. 
 
 Blood as fertilizer. Dried, 31. 
 Blue grass as hay and pas- 
 ture crop, Canada, 68. 
 grass as hay and pasture 
 
 crop, Kentucky, 67. 
 grass as hay and pasture 
 
 crop, Texas, 71. 
 vitriol as medicine for live- 
 stock, 274. 
 Boars, Rations for herd, 260. 
 Boiled milk, 317. 
 
 Bone black as fertilizer, 34. 
 as fertilizer. Dissolved, 34. 
 as fertiUzer, Raw, 33. 
 as fertiUzer, Steamed, 34. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture as a fungi- 
 cide, 91. 
 
 Boric acid as medicine for 
 livestock, 275. 
 
 Broadcasting seeders, 344. 
 
 Brome grass as hay and pas- 
 ture crop. Smooth, 68. 
 
 Brown Swiss cattle, 203. 
 
 Buckwheat, 59. 
 
 Bunchers, Clover, 348. 
 
 Butcher-stock class of cattle, 
 214. 
 
 Cabbage, 169. 
 Calcium in soil, 10. 
 Calomel as medicine for live- 
 stock, 275. 
 Calves, Veal, 216. 
 Camphor as medicine for live- 
 stock. Spirits of, 277. 
 Canada blue grass as hay and 
 pasture crop, 68. 
 field peas as green manure, 
 27. 
 Canadian milk standards, 
 
 329. 
 Canners and cutters, 215. 
 Capillary water in soil, 6. 
 Carbohydrates in feeds, 240. 
 Carbolic acid as medicine for 
 
 livestock, 275. 
 Care of farm implements and 
 
 machinery, 354. 
 Carriage-horse class, 193. 
 Carrots, 83, 170. 
 Castor oil as medicine for 
 livestock, 275. 
 pomace as fertilizer, 33. 
 Cattle, Aberdeen-Angus, 208. 
 Ayrshire. 201. 
 Breeds of beef, 205. 
 Breeds of dairy, 197. 
 Breeds for dual-purpose, 
 
 211. 
 Brown Swiss, 203. 
 class. Beef, 214. 
 class. Butcher-stock, 214. 
 
INDEX 
 
 vii 
 
 Cattle, Devon, 211. 
 
 Dutch belted, 202. 
 
 French Canadian, 203. 
 
 Galloway, 209. 
 
 Guernsey, 198. 
 
 Hereford, 208. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian, 200. 
 
 Jersey, 198. 
 
 manure, 22, 25. 
 
 Market classes and grades 
 of, 212, 213 
 
 Polled Durham, 207. 
 
 Rations for dairy, 257. 
 
 Rations for fattening, 259. 
 
 Red polled, 212. 
 
 Shorthorn, 206. 
 
 Simmethal, 203. 
 
 Sussex, 210. 
 
 Score card for dairy, 294. 
 
 Score card for beef, 295. 
 Cauliflower, 170. 
 Celery, 170. 
 Cerebrospinal meningitis, 
 
 280. 
 Charbon, 278. 
 Chemical changes in soil, 8. 
 Cherries, pruning of, 135. 
 
 Spraying of, 135, 
 
 Varieties of. 131. 
 Cheshire swine, 236. 
 Chester white swine, 234. 
 Cheviot sheep, 225. 
 Chinch bug on wheat, 55. 
 Choking in farm livestock, 
 
 280. 
 Cholera, Hog, 283. 
 Chunk-horse class, 192. 
 Classification of feeds, 
 
 241. 
 Cleanliness in handling milk, 
 
 316. 
 Cleveland bay horses, 186. 
 Climate for truck farming, 
 
 161. 
 Clover as hay and pasture 
 crop, Alsike, 75. 
 
 as hay and pasture crop, 
 Crimson, 76 . 
 
 as hay and pasture crop. 
 Mammoth red, 74. 
 
 as hay and pasture crop. 
 Red. 74. 
 
 Clover as hay and pasture 
 crop. White, 76. 
 bunchers, 348. 
 huUers, 353. 
 Clovers as green manure, 27. 
 Clydesdale horses, 187. 
 Coal tar dips, 276. 
 Colic in farm livestock, 280. 
 Commercial fertilizer, 30. 
 Composition of feeds, 238. 
 
 of milk, 313. 
 Constipation in farm live- 
 stock, 281. 
 CooUng of milk, 316. 
 Copper sulphate as medicine 
 
 for livestock, 274. 
 Copperas as medicine for 
 
 livestock, 275. 
 Corn as hay and pasture 
 crop, Kafir, 73. 
 binders, 350. 
 Enemies and diseases of, 
 
 66. 
 grown for silage in dif- 
 ferent zones of the U. 
 S., Table of varieties 
 of, 63. 
 huskers and shredders, 
 
 351. 
 in U. S., Date of first, 
 general, and last plant- 
 ing and harvesting, 64. 
 pickers, 350. 
 planters, 345. 
 Sweet, 175. 
 Varieties of, 60. 
 zones in the United States, 
 61. 
 Corrosive sublimate as med- 
 icine for livestock, 276. 
 Cotswold sheep, 227. 
 Cotton planters, 345. 
 Cottonseed meal as ferti- 
 lizer, 33. 
 Cough in farm livestock, 281. 
 Cow, List of parts of, 197. 
 Cowpeas as green manure, 
 28. 
 as hay and pasture crop, 
 78. 
 Crimson clover as hay and 
 pasture crop, 76. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Crops for home garden, 165. 
 from seeding, Table of 
 time required for matur- 
 ity of different vege- 
 table, 366. 
 Half-hardy vegetable, 174. 
 Hardy vegetable, 168. 
 Harvesting of home garden, 
 
 167. 
 Hay and pasture, 66. 
 Planting of home garden, 
 
 167. 
 Root, 82. 
 Soiling, 85. 
 
 Tender vegetable, 176. 
 Truck-farm, 16.3. 
 Cubic measure table, 379. 
 Cucumbers, 176. 
 Cultivators, 342. 
 Culture, Fruit, 89. 
 Currants, Pruning of, 150. 
 
 Varieties of, 149. 
 Cutters and canners, 215. 
 type. Description of, 197. 
 
 Dairying, 313. 
 Delaine merino sheep, 220. 
 Dentrification by tillage, Les- 
 sening of, 48. 
 Devon cattle, 211. 
 Dewberries, Pruning of, 147. 
 Spraying of, 147. 
 Varieties of, 146. 
 Diagnosis of diseases of farm 
 
 livestock, 270. 
 Dips, Coal tar, 276. 
 Diseases of farm livestock, 
 264. 
 of farm livestock. Diagno- 
 sis of, 270. 
 of farm livestock, N o n - 
 
 transmissible, 267. 
 of farm livestock. Trans- 
 missible, 265. 
 Disk plows. 340. 
 Distances, Table of, 382. 
 Distillate oils as insecticide, 
 
 91. 
 Ditches, Construction of 
 drainage, 15. 
 for drainage. Open, 15. 
 
 Ditches, Locating of drain- 
 age, 15, 
 Dorset sheep, 224. 
 Dosage of medicines for farm 
 
 livestock, 273. 
 Draft-horse class, 190. 
 Drags, Soil, 342. 
 Drainage, Beneficial effects 
 of soil, 13. 
 
 Cost of soil, 15. 
 
 laterals, 17. 
 
 mains, 17. 
 
 Open ditches for, 15. 
 
 Soil, 13. 
 
 submains, 17. 
 Dried blood as fertilizer, 31. 
 Drill, Grain, 345. 
 Drone bees, 339. 
 Dry measure table, 381. 
 Dual-purpose type of cattle, 
 
 Description of, 211. 
 Duroc-Jersey swine, 234. 
 Dutch belted cattle, 202. 
 
 E 
 
 Eczema, 281. 
 
 Epsom salts, as medicine for 
 Uvestock, 276. 
 
 Equipment for market gar- 
 dening, 156. 
 for truck farming, 162. 
 
 Equivalents, How to find fer- 
 tiUzer, 39. 
 Table of data for comput- 
 ing fertilizer, 40. 
 
 Essex swine, 237. 
 
 Ewes, Rations for, 262. 
 
 Farcy, 281. 
 
 Farm implements and ma- 
 chinerv, Care of, 354. 
 
 Uvestock, 178. 
 Fat in feeds, 240. 
 Feed, Fodder as, 242. 
 
 Hay as. 241. 
 
 on value of manure. Influ- 
 ence of, 23. 
 
 Root crops as, 243. 
 
 Silage as, 242. 
 
 Soiling crops as, 242. 
 
 Straw as, 242. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Feedstuffs, Table of dry mat- 
 ter and nutrients in 
 American, 249. 
 Feeders and stockers, 215. 
 Feeding, livestock, 238. 
 
 standards, 243. 
 
 standards, Wolfif-Lehmann, 
 245. 
 Feeds. Ash in, 239. 
 
 Carbohydrates in, 249. 
 
 Classification of, 241. 
 
 Composition of, 238. 
 
 Fat in, 240. 
 
 Protein in, 239. 
 
 Water in, 239. 
 Fertilizer analysis, mislead- 
 ing methods of stating, 
 37. 
 
 equivalents,' How to find, 
 39. 
 
 equivalents, Table of data 
 for computing, 40. 
 
 Fish, 32. 
 
 laws. State, 36. 
 Fertilizers, Commercial, 30. 
 
 Facts about, 39. 
 
 Vegetable potash, 36. 
 Field peas as hay and pasture 
 
 crops, 81 
 Fish fertilizer, 32. 
 Fodder as feed, 242. 
 Foot and mouth disease, 281. 
 
 rot, 281. 
 Foul in foot, 282. 
 Founder, 282. 
 French Canadian cattle, 203. 
 
 coach horses, 185. 
 Fruit culture, 89. 
 Fungicides, 91. 
 Furrow drains, 16. 
 
 Galloway cattle, 209. 
 Galls, 282. 
 Gang plows, 340. 
 Garbage tankage, 32. 
 Garden, Arrangement of 
 home, 166. 
 
 Crops for home, 165. 
 
 Glass for home, 165. 
 
 produce. Markets for mar- 
 ket, 159. 
 
 Garden, Site for home, 
 164. 
 Size for home, 164. 
 Soil for home, 164. 
 Soil improvement for 
 
 home, 165. 
 Tillage for home, 166. 
 Tools for home, 167. 
 Gardening, Equipment for 
 market, 156. 
 Site for market, 155. 
 Garget, 282. 
 
 Gasoline as medicine for live- 
 stock, 276. 
 Gentian root, as medicine for 
 
 livestock, 276. 
 German coach horses, 185. 
 Gestation table for farm live- 
 stock, 301. 
 Gidd, 282. 
 Glanders, 283. 
 
 Gooseberries, Pruning of, 
 153. 
 Spraying of, 154. 
 Varieties of, 152. 
 Grade in underdrains. Ob- 
 taining uniform, 21. 
 Grain binders, 349. 
 drills, 345. 
 harvester and thrasher, 
 
 350. 
 headers, 350. 
 Grapes, pruning of, 122. 
 Spraying of, 124. 
 Training of, 122. 
 Varieties of, 117. 
 Grasses as hay and pasture 
 
 crop, 66. 
 Grease, 283. 
 heels, 283. 
 Green manure, 27. 
 
 manure, Alfalfa as, 29. 
 manure, Canada field peas 
 
 as, 27. 
 manure, Clovers as, 27. 
 manure, Cowpeas as, 28. 
 manure. Soybeans as, 28. 
 manure, Supplying of, 29. 
 manure. Vetch as, 28. 
 manure, Weeds as, 27. 
 manuring. Effects of, 29. 
 Guernsey cattle, 198. 
 
INDEX 
 
 H 
 
 Hackney horses, 184. 
 Hair and wool waste, as fer- 
 tilizer, 32. 
 Hampshire sheep, 223. 
 
 swine, 238. 
 Hand as a unit of measure- 
 ment, 178. 
 Harrowing, 51. 
 Harrows. 340. 
 
 Harvesting of corn, Table of 
 f]rst, general, and last 
 planting and, 64. 
 
 of home garden crops, 167. 
 Hay and pasture crops, 66. 
 
 as feed, 241. 
 
 loaders, 349. 
 
 rakes, 348. 
 
 stackers, 348. 
 
 tedders, 349. 
 Heaves, 283. 
 Hellebore as an insecticide, 
 
 90. 
 Hereford cattle, 208. 
 Hessian fly. Combating of, 55. 
 Hog cholera, 283. 
 
 List of parts of, 230. 
 
 manure. Care of, 25. 
 Hogs, Rations for bacon, 260. 
 
 Rations for fattening. 250. 
 Holstein-Friesian cattle. 200. 
 Honey bees. Races of, 337. 
 Hoof and horn meal, 32. 
 Hoose. 284. 
 
 Horn and hoof meal. 32. 
 Horse class. Carriage-, 193. 
 
 class. Chunk-, 192. 
 
 class. Draft, 190. 
 
 class. Road. 194. 
 
 class, Saddle,- 195. 
 
 class. Wagon-, 192. 
 
 List of parts of, 179. 
 
 manure, 21. 
 
 manure. Care of, 25. 
 Horses, American saddle, 181. 
 
 American trotter, 183. 
 
 Arab, 178. 
 
 Belgian, 188. 
 
 Breeds of, 178. 
 
 Cleveland bay, 186. 
 
 Clydesdale, 187. 
 
 French coach, 185. 
 
 Horses, German coach, 185. 
 Hackney, 184. 
 Market classes of, 189. 
 Morgan, 182. 
 Orloff trotter, 184. 
 Percheron, 186. 
 Rations for draft, 255. 
 Rations for driving, 255. 
 Rations for saddle, 256. 
 Score card for heavy mar- 
 ket, 289. 
 Score card for light mar- 
 ket, 292. 
 Shire, 188. 
 Suffolk, 189. 
 Table of market classes of, 
 
 191. « 
 Thoroughbred, 180. 
 Yorkshire coach, 186. 
 Hoven, 284. 
 Humus in soil, 10. 
 Hydrometer readings. Table 
 of comparison of Baum6 
 and specific gravity, 
 366. 
 Hydrostatic water in soil. 6. 
 Hygroscopic water in soil, 6. 
 
 Implements and machinery. 
 Care of farm, 354. 
 and machinery. Farm, 339. 
 
 Improvement, Soil, 13. 
 
 Indigestion, in farm live- 
 stock, 285. 
 
 Inorganic ingredients of 
 soil, 1. 
 
 Insecticides for fruit plants, 
 89. 
 
 Intestinal worms, 285. 
 
 Iodine, as medicine for live- 
 stock. Tincture of, 276. 
 
 Italian rye grass as hay and 
 pasture crop, 70. 
 
 Jamaica ginger, as medicine 
 for livestock, 276. 
 
 Jerusalem artichokes, 84. 
 
 Jersey cattle, 198. 
 
 Johnson grass as hay and 
 pasture crop, 70. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Kafir com as hay and pasture 
 crop, 73. 
 
 Kainite as fertilizer, 35. 
 
 Kentucky blue grass as hay 
 and pasture crop, 67 
 
 Kerosene as medicine for live- 
 stock, 276. 
 
 Kerosene emulsion as an in- 
 secticide, 91. 
 
 Kohlrabi, 83. 
 
 Lambs, Rations for, 263. 
 Lard-type swine, 231. 
 Large Yorkshire swine, 237. 
 Laterals, Distance between 
 
 drainage, 18. 
 Laudanum as a medicine 
 
 for livestock, 277. 
 Leather meal as fertilizer, 
 
 33. 
 Legal weights per bushel. 
 
 Table of, 368-377. 
 Legumes as hay and pasture 
 
 crops, 73. 
 Leicester sheep, 226. 
 Lettuce, 171. 
 
 Lice in farm livestock, 28.5. 
 Lime, Methods of determining 
 if soils need, 42. 
 on soils. Effect of, 41. 
 sulphur as a fungicide, 92. 
 sulphur as an insecticide, 
 
 90. 
 to soil. Application of, 44. 
 to soil. When to apply, 46. 
 water as medicine for live- 
 stock, 277. 
 Liming of soils, 41. 
 Lincoln sheep, 226. 
 Linear measiire table, 378. 
 Linseed meal as fertilizer, 33. 
 oil as r-^dicine for live- 
 stock, Riw, 277. 
 Liquid measure table, 381. 
 List of market classes of 
 sheep, 229. 
 of parts of beef animal, 205. 
 of parts of dairy animal, 
 
 197. 
 of parts of hog, 230. 
 
 List of parts of horse, 179. 
 
 of parts of sheep, 217. 
 Listers, Com, 346. 
 Livestock, Administration 
 of medicines to farm, 
 273. 
 Diagnosis of diseases of 
 
 farm, 270. 
 Diseases of farm, 265. 
 Dosage of medicines for 
 
 farm, 273. 
 Farm, 178. 
 feeding, 238. 
 Gestation table for farm, 
 
 301. 
 Medicines for farm, 272. 
 Non-transmis.ible diseases 
 
 of farm, 266. 
 Sanitation of farm, 267. 
 Transmissible diseases of 
 . farm, 265. 
 Location for bee-keeping, 333. 
 Location for truck farm, 160. 
 Lockjaw, 288. 
 
 London purple as an insect- 
 icide. 90. 
 Long ton weight table, 380. 
 Lump jaw, 278. 
 
 M 
 
 Machinery and implements, 
 
 Farm, 339. 
 Machines and implements. 
 
 Care of farm, 354. 
 Maggots in farm livestock, 
 
 285. 
 Mammoth red clover as hay 
 
 and pasture crop, 74. 
 Mange, 285. 
 Mangel wurzels, 82. 
 Manure, Alfalfa as green, 29. 
 Canada field peas as green, 
 
 27. 
 Care of cattle, 25. 
 Care of hog, 25. 
 Care of horse, 25. 
 Care of poultry, 26. 
 Care of sheep 26. 
 Cattle, 22. 
 Clovers as green, 27. 
 Cowpeas as green, 28. 
 Green. 27. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Manure, Horse, 21. 
 
 Influence of feed on value 
 
 of, 23. 
 Poultrv, 23. 
 Sheep,' 23. 
 
 Soybeans as green, 28. 
 Spreaders, 353. 
 Stable, 21. 
 Swine, 23. 
 Vetch as green, 28. 
 Mares, Rations for, 256. 
 Market classes of cattle, 212, 
 213. 
 classes of horses, 189. 
 classes of sheep, 228. 
 garden produce. Markets 
 
 for, 159. 
 gardening. Equipment for, 
 
 156. 
 gardening, Site for, 155. 
 Markets for market - garden 
 
 produce, 159. 
 Meadow fescue as hay and 
 pasture crop, 69. 
 foxtail as hay and pasture 
 crop, 67. 
 Meal as fertilizer, Hoof and 
 horn, 32. 
 as fertilizer. Leather,, 33. 
 as fertilizer. Linseed, 33. 
 Measures of extension, 378. 
 
 of volume, 383. 
 Medicine to farm livestock. 
 Administration of, 273. 
 for farm livestock, 272. 
 for farm livestock. Dosage 
 of, 273. 
 Meningitis, Cerebrospinal, 
 
 280. 
 Mercury as medicine for 
 livestock. Bichloride of, 
 276. 
 Metric equivalents, 381. 
 Milk, Acid-forming bacteria 
 in. 318. 
 Bacteria in, 315. 
 Boiled, 317. 
 Cleanliness in handling, 
 
 316. 
 constituents, 313. 
 Cooling of, 316. 
 fever, 286. 
 
 Milk, Odors in, 320. 
 Pasteurized, 317. 
 Pathogenic bacteria in, 
 
 319. 
 regulations. City, 327. 
 standard, Canadian, 329. 
 standards, State, 327. 
 standards. United States, 
 
 325. 
 vStoring of, 316. 
 test, The Babcock, 321. 
 Testing of, .321. 
 Use of preservatives in, 
 
 317. 
 Weighing of, 321. 
 Milkers and springers, 217. 
 Millets as hay and pasture 
 
 crop, 71. 
 Minerals in soil, 8. 
 Miscible oil as an insecticide, 
 
 90. 
 Misleading methods of stat- 
 ing fertilizer analyses, 
 37. 
 Morgan horses, 182. 
 Mowers, 317. 
 Mule-foot swine, 235. 
 Muriate of potash as fertili- 
 zer, 35. 
 Mutton sheep, 218. 
 
 N 
 
 Navel ill, 286. 
 
 Nitrate of soda as fertilizer, 
 
 30. 
 Nitrogen in soil, 9. 
 Non-transmissible diseases of 
 
 farm livestock, 267. 
 Nutritive ratio, 244. 
 
 O 
 
 Oat grass as hay and pasture 
 crop. Tall, 69. 
 
 smut, Treatment of, 58. 
 Oats, 56. 
 
 Varieties of, 57. 
 Objects of bee keeping. 331. 
 Odors in milk. 320. 
 Onions, 172. 
 
 Orchard grass as hay and 
 pasture crop, 68, 69. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Organic ingredients of soil, 1. 
 Orloflf trotter horses, 184. 
 Oxford down sheep, 223. 
 
 Paris green as an insecticide, 
 
 89. 
 Parsnips, 84, 173. 
 Parthenogenesis in bees, 339. 
 Pasteurized milk, 317. 
 Pasture crops. Hay and, 66. 
 Pathogenic bacteria in milk, 
 
 319. 
 Peaches, Pruning of, 107. 
 Spraying of, 109. 
 Varieties of, 103. 
 Pears, Pruning of, 115. 
 Spraying of, 115. 
 Varieties of, 110. 
 Peas, 172. 
 
 Percheron horses, 186. 
 Perennial rye grass as hay 
 
 and pasture crop, 70. 
 Phosphates as fertilizer. Acid, 
 34. 
 as fertilizer. Rock, 34. 
 Phosphorus in soil, 9. 
 Pigs, Rations for, 259. 
 Plant food in soil, 9. 
 Planters, Corn, 345. 
 Cotton, 345. 
 Potato, 346. 
 Seedling, 347. 
 Planting and harvesting of 
 corn, Table of first, 
 general, and last, 64. 
 and harvesting of wheat. 
 Table of first, general, 
 and last, 54. 
 of home garden crops, 167. 
 Plants required to set an acre 
 of ground at given dis- 
 tance. Table of number 
 of, 363. 
 Plowing, 49. 
 Plows, Beam, 339. 
 Disk, 340. 
 Gang, 340. 
 Subsoil, 340. 
 Sulky, 340. 
 Walking, 339. 
 Plums, pruning of, 130 
 
 Plums, Spraying of, 131. 
 
 Varieties of, 126. 
 Poland-China swine, 233. 
 Polled Durham cattle. 207. 
 Potash as fertilizer. Muriate 
 of, 35. 
 
 as fertilizer. Sulphate of, 
 36. 
 
 as fertilizer. Vegetable, 36. 
 
 as medicine for live-stock. 
 Nitrate of, 277. 
 Potassium in soil, 10. 
 
 sulphide as a fungicide, 
 92. 
 Potato diggers, 351. 
 
 planters, 346. 
 Potatoes, 81, 176. 
 
 Enemies and diseases of, 
 83 
 
 Varieties of, 82. 
 Poultry manure, 23. 
 
 manure, Care of, 26. 
 Preservatives in milk. Use 
 
 of, 317. 
 Profits in bee keeping, 335. 
 Protein in feeds, 239. 
 Pruning of apples, 100. 
 
 of blackberries, 146. 
 
 of cherries, 135. 
 
 of currants, 150. 
 
 of dewberries, 147. 
 
 of gooseberries, 153. 
 
 of grapes, 122. 
 
 of peaches, 107. 
 
 of pears, 115. 
 
 of plums, 130. 
 
 of quinces, 138. 
 
 of ra.spberries, 145. 
 Pumace as fertilizer. Castor, 
 33. 
 
 Quack grass as hay and pas- 
 ture crop, 71. 
 Quarter crack, 286. 
 Queen bees, 337. 
 Quinces, Pruning of, 138. 
 Spraying of, 138. 
 Varieties of, 136. 
 Quinine as a medicine for 
 livestock, 277. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Rabies. 287. 
 
 Races of honey bees, 337. 
 
 Rachitis, 287. 
 
 Radishes, 173, 
 
 Rambouillet sheep, 221. 
 
 Raspberries, Pruning of, 145. 
 
 Spraying of, 147. 
 
 Varieties of, 143. 
 Ratio, Nutritive, 244. 
 Ration for draft horses, 255. 
 
 for stallion, 257. 
 Rations, Balanced, 243, 
 
 for bacon hogs, 260. 
 
 for brood sows, 261. 
 
 for dairy cattle, 257. 
 
 for driving horses, 256. 
 
 for ewes, 262. 
 
 for fattening cattle, 259. 
 
 for fattening hogs, 260. 
 
 for herd boars, 260. 
 
 for lambs, 263. 
 
 for mares, 256. 
 
 for pigs, 259. 
 
 for saddle horses, 256. 
 Raw bone as fertilizer, 33. 
 Reaper, Self -rake, 350. 
 Red clover as hay and pas- 
 ture crop, 74. 
 
 polled cattle, 212. 
 
 top as hay and pasture 
 crop, 67. 
 Rheumatism, 287. 
 Rhubarb, 16S. 
 Rickets, 287. 
 Ringworm, 287. 
 Road-horse class, 194. 
 Rock phosphates as fertil- 
 izer, 34. 
 Rollers, 341. 
 Rolling, 50. 
 Root crops, 82. 
 
 crops as feed, 2-:'3. 
 Rutabagas, 83. 
 Rye, 59. 
 
 grass, as hay and pasture 
 crop, 70. 
 S 
 Saddle-horse class, 195. 
 Saltpeter as medicine for 
 livestock, 277. 
 
 Sand crack, 286. 
 
 Sanitation for farm livestock, 
 
 267. 
 Scab, Sheep, 285. 
 Scabies in sheep, 286. 
 Score card for bacon-type 
 barrows, 289. 
 card for dairy cattle, 294. 
 card for fat-type barrows, 
 
 300. 
 card for heavy market 
 
 horses, 289. 
 card for light market 
 
 horses, 292. 
 card for market beef cat- 
 tle, 295. 
 card for mutton sheep, 296. 
 card for wool sheep, 298. 
 Scours, 288. 
 Scratches, 283. 
 
 Seed mixtures for meadows, 
 362. 
 mixtures for pastures, 362. 
 required per acre. Table 
 of quantity of, 359. 
 Seeders, Broadcasting, 344. 
 Seedling planters, 347. 
 Seeds to germinate. Table of 
 average time required 
 for garden, 366. 
 Self -boiled lime -sulphur as a 
 fungicide, 92. 
 rake reaper, 350. 
 Sheep, American merino, 219. 
 Breeds of, 217. 
 Cheviot, 225. 
 Cotswold, 227. 
 Delaine merino, 220. 
 Dorset, 224. 
 Hampshire, 223. 
 Leicester, 226. 
 Lincoln, 226. 
 List of parts of, 217. 
 manure, 23. 
 manure. Care of, 26. 
 Market classes of, 228. 
 Mutton, 218. 
 Oxford down, 223. 
 Rambouillet, 221. 
 Score carB for mutton, 
 
 296. 
 Score card for wool, 298. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Sheep, Shropshire, 222. 
 
 Southdown, 221. 
 
 Suffolk, 225. 
 
 Wool, 218. 
 Shire horses, 188. 
 Shorthorn cattle, 206. 
 Shropshire sheep, 222. 
 Silage as feed, 242. 
 Simmenthal cattle, 203. 
 Site for home garden, 164. 
 
 for market gardening, 155. 
 Size of home garden, 164. 
 Slag as fertilizer. Basic, 35. 
 Small Yorkshire swine, 236. 
 Smooth brome grass as hay 
 
 and pasture crop, 68. 
 Smut on barley, Treatment 
 of, 59. 
 
 on wheat. Treatment of 
 loose, 53. 
 
 on wheat. Treatment of 
 stinking, 53. 
 
 Treatment of oat, 58. 
 Soda as fertilizer, Nitrate of, 
 
 30. 
 Soil aeration, 47. 
 
 Air in, 7. 
 
 Bacteria in, 11. 
 
 by tillage. Mellowing of, 
 48. 
 
 by tillage, Pulverization 
 of, 46. 
 
 Chemical changes in, 8. 
 
 Classes of water in, 6. 
 
 Color of, 5. 
 
 drainage, 13. 
 
 Effect of sunshine on 
 plowed, 47. 
 
 for home garden, 164. 
 
 improvement, 13. 
 
 improvement for home gar- 
 den, 165. 
 
 by tillage. Increase of water- 
 holding capacity of, 47. 
 
 Inorganic ingredients of, 1. 
 
 Minerals in, 8. 
 
 Movement of water in, 6. 
 
 Need of water in, 5. 
 
 Organic ingredients of, 2. 
 
 particles, Size of, 1. 
 
 Plant food in, 9. 
 
 Properties of, 1. 
 
 Soil temperature, 7. 
 
 Types of, 2. 
 
 Weight of, 4. 
 
 When to apply lime to, 46. 
 Soiling crops, 85. 
 
 crops as feed, 242. 
 
 systems, Tables of, 86-88. 
 Soils, Application of lime to, 
 44. 
 
 for truck farming, 161. 
 
 Liming of, 41. 
 Sorghum as hay and pasture 
 
 crop, 71. 
 Southdown sheep, 221. 
 Sows, Rations for brood, 261. 
 Soybeans as green manure, 
 28. 
 
 as hay and pasture crop, 79. 
 Spinach, 173. 
 Sprayers, 353. 
 Spraying of apples, 101. 
 
 of blackberries, 147. 
 
 of cherries, 135. 
 
 of dewberries, 147. 
 
 of gooseberries, 154. 
 
 of grapes, 124. 
 
 of peaches, 109. 
 
 of pears, 115. 
 
 of plums, 131. 
 
 of quinces, 138. 
 
 of raspberries, 147. 
 
 of strawberries, 142. 
 Sprays for fruit plants, 89. 
 Springers and milkers, 217. 
 Square measure table, 379. 
 Squashes, 176. 
 Stable manure, 21. 
 Stallions, Rations for, 257. 
 Standards, Feeding. 243. 
 State fertilizer laws, 36. 
 
 .Tiilk standards, 327. 
 Steamed bone as fertilizer, 34. 
 SteriHty in farm livestock, 279. 
 Stockers and feeders, 215. 
 Stomach worms, 285. 
 Storing of milk, 316. 
 Straw as feed, 242. 
 Strawberries, Spraying of, 
 142. 
 
 Varieties of, 139. 
 Street sweepings, as fertilizer, 
 33. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Subsoil, 1. 
 
 plows, 340. 
 Suffolk horses, 189. 
 
 sheep, 225. 
 Sugar beets, 83. 
 Sulky plows, 340. 
 Sulphate of ammonia, 31. 
 
 of iron as medicine for live- 
 stock, 275. 
 
 of potash as fertilizer, 36. 
 Sulphur as medicine for live- 
 stock, 277. 
 
 dust as a fungicide, 92. 
 Sxinshine on plowed soil. Ef- 
 fect of, 47. 
 Sunstroke in farm livestock, 
 
 288. 
 Superphosphate for fertilizer, 
 
 34. 
 Surveyor's square measure 
 
 table, 379. 
 Sussex cattle, 210. 
 Sweet com, 175. 
 Swine, Bacon-type, 231. 
 
 Berkshire, 232. 
 
 Cheshire, 236. 
 
 Chester White, 234. 
 
 Duroc-Jersey, 234. 
 
 Essex, 237. 
 
 fever, 288. 
 
 Hampshire, 238. 
 
 Lard type, 231. 
 
 Large Yorkshire, 237. 
 
 manure, 23. 
 
 Mule-foot, 235. 
 
 Poland-China, 233. 
 
 Small Yorkshire, 236. 
 
 Tam worth, 237. 
 
 Victoria, 236. 
 Symptomatic anthrax, 279. 
 
 Table, Apothecaries' fluid 
 measure, 381. 
 
 Apothecaries' weight, 
 380 
 
 Avoirdupois weight, 
 380. 
 
 Cubic measure, 379. 
 
 Dry measure, 381. 
 
 for farm livestock. Gesta- 
 tion, 301. 
 
 Table, Linear measure, 378. 
 
 Liquid measure, 381. 
 
 Long ton weight, 380. 
 
 of average time required 
 for garden seeds to ger- 
 minate, 366. 
 
 of capacity of circular silos 
 and quantity of silage 
 to be fed to lower sur- 
 face two inches daily, 367. 
 
 of comparison of Baum6 
 and specific gravity hy- 
 drometer readings, 366. 
 
 of data for computing fer- 
 tilizer equivalents, 40. 
 
 of distances, 382. 
 
 of dry matter and nutrients 
 in American feed stuflfs, 
 249. 
 
 of first, general, and last 
 planting and harvest- 
 ing of corn, 64. 
 
 of first, general, and last 
 planting and harvest- 
 ing of wheat, 54. 
 
 of legal weights per bushel, 
 368-377. 
 
 of market classes of horses, 
 191. 
 
 of New England complete 
 soiling system for 20 
 cows, 86. 
 
 of New Jersey complete 
 soiling system for 20 
 cows, 88. 
 
 of number of plants re- 
 quired to set an acre of 
 ground at given distance, 
 363. 
 
 of partial soiling system 
 for 20 cows, 85. 
 
 of quantity of seed required 
 per acre, 359. 
 
 of time required for matu- 
 rity of different vegetable 
 crops from seeding, 366. 
 
 of varieties of corn grown 
 for silage in different 
 zones of the U. S., 63. 
 
 of Wisconsin complete soil- 
 ing system for 20 cows, 
 87. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Table, Square measure, 379. 
 burveyor's square meas- 
 ure, 379. 
 Troy weight, 380. 
 Tall oat grass as hay and pas- 
 ture crop, 69. 
 Tam worth swine, 237. 
 Tankage, 31. 
 
 Garbage, 32. 
 Temperature, Soil, 7. 
 Teosinte as a hay and pas- 
 ture crop, 73. 
 Testing of milk, 321. 
 Tetanus, 288. 
 
 Texas blue grass as hay and 
 pasture crop, 71. 
 fever, 288. 
 Thoroughbred horses, 180. 
 Thrashers, Bean and pea, 352. 
 Thrashing machines, Grain, 
 
 352. 
 Thrush, 289. 
 Tile to use for underdrains, 
 
 Size of, 17. 
 Tillage, Benefits of, 46. 
 of home garden, 166. 
 Pulverization of soil by, 46. 
 Time required in bee keep- 
 ing, 336. 
 Timothy as hay and pasture 
 
 crop, 66. 
 Tobacco, 84. 
 
 extracts and decoctions as 
 insecticides, 91. 
 Tomatoes, 177. 
 Tools for home garden, 167. 
 Training of grapes, 122. 
 Transmissible diseases of 
 
 farm livestock, 265. 
 Troy weight table, 380. 
 Truck-farm crops, 153. 
 farm, Climate for, 161. 
 farm, Location for, 160. 
 farming. Equipment for, 
 
 162. 
 farming, Labor for, 161. 
 farming, Soils for, 161. 
 Tuberculosis of farm live- 
 stock, 289. 
 Turnips, 83, 174. 
 Turpentine as medicine for 
 Hvestock, 277. 
 
 U 
 
 Underdrains, 17. 
 
 arrangement of, 17. 
 
 Depth of, 19. 
 
 Excavating for, 20. 
 
 Laying tile for, 20. 
 
 Obtaining a uniform grade 
 in, 21. 
 
 Size of tiles to use for, 17. 
 United States milk standards, 
 325. 
 
 V 
 Varieties of apples, 93. 
 
 of blackberries, 146. 
 
 of cherries, 131. 
 
 of corn, 60. 
 
 of currants, 149. 
 
 of dewberries, 146. 
 
 of gooseberries, 152. 
 
 of grapes, 117, 
 
 of oats, 57. 
 
 of peaches, 103, 
 
 of pears, 110. 
 
 of potatoes, 82. 
 
 of plums, 126. 
 
 of quinces, 136. 
 
 of raspberries, 143. 
 
 of strawberries, 139. 
 
 of wheat, 52. 
 Veal calves, 216. 
 Vegetable crops. Half-hardy, 
 174. 
 
 crops. Hardy, 168. 
 
 crops. Tender, 176. 
 
 potash fertilizers, 36. 
 Velvet grass as hay and 
 
 pasture crop, 71. 
 Verminous bronchitis, 284. 
 Vetch as green manure, 28. 
 Vetches as hay and pasture 
 
 crop, 80. 
 Victoria swine, 236. 
 Volume, Measures of, 383. 
 
 W 
 
 Wagon-horse class, 192. 
 
 Walking plows, 339. 
 
 Water-holding capacity of 
 soil. Increase of, by till- 
 age, 47. 
 in feeds, 239. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Water in soil, Capillary, 6. 
 in soil, Classes of, 6. 
 in soil, Hydrostatic, 6. 
 in soil, Hygroscopic, 6 
 in soil. Movement of, 6. 
 in soil, Need of, 5 
 Weeds as green manure, 27 
 by tillage, Destruction of, 
 49. 
 Weeders, 344. 
 Weighing of milk, 321. 
 Wheat, Chinch bug on, 55. 
 Hessian fly on, 55. 
 Table of first, general, and 
 last planting and har- 
 vesting of, 54. 
 Treatment of loose smut 
 
 on, 53. 
 Treatment of stinking smut 
 on, 53. 
 
 Wheat, Varieties of, 52. 
 
 White clover as hay and pas- 
 ture crop, 76. 
 
 Whiskey as medicine for live- 
 stock, 277. 
 
 Windrowers, 348. 
 
 Wolff-Lehmann feeding stand- 
 ards, 245. 
 
 Wool and hair waste, 32. 
 sheep, 218. 
 
 Wood ashes as fertilizer, 35. 
 
 Worker bees, 338. 
 
 Yorkshire coach horses, 186. 
 
 Zones in the United States, 
 Com, 61. 
 
The Farmer's Handbook 
 
 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 
 
 Soil and Subsoil.— 5oi7 is that part of the earth's 
 surface in which plants, by means of their roots, may 
 or do find nourishment and a place in which to grow. 
 To distinguish the different parts of the soil, the terms 
 surface soil and subsoil are employed. Surface soil, as 
 the name implies, is soil at or near the surface of the 
 ground — that portion usually subjected to tillage; 
 subsoil is soil that lies beneath the surface soil. Surface 
 soil is usually darker in color than subsoil, due to the 
 presence of humus. 
 
 Inorganic Soil Ingredients.— The inorganic ingredients, 
 or rock particles, of soil are classified according to size 
 into three divisions known as sand, clay, and silt. 
 Sand is made up of larger soil particles than clay or 
 silt. In nearly all soils a certain amount of sand is 
 present. The quantity in an area of soil influences its 
 character to a marked degree. For example, a soil con- 
 taining relatively few sand particles is harder to work 
 with tillage implements than one containing a larger 
 number of sand particles. 
 
 The smallest particles of soil are known as clay. They 
 are so small that when rubbed between the fingers no 
 gritty feeling is noticeable. A mass of clay particles 
 is usually gray in color. A familiar example of clay 
 is the material used for the making of brick and tile. 
 
 The particles of soil that are finer than the finest sand 
 but larger than those that make up clay are known as 
 silt. Particles of silt are darker in color and less 
 angular in shape than particles of sand. 
 
 1 
 
2 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 
 
 Organic Soil Ingredients.— The animal and vegetable 
 matter of soil forms what is termed humus, which is 
 partly decomposed organic matter. The proportion of 
 humus in soil greatly influences its crop-producing 
 power. Other conditions being favorable, a soil rich 
 in humus is fertile, and one poor in humus is not fertile. 
 Soils rich in humus are, as a rule, dark in color, and 
 those poor in humus are light in color. Humus is re- 
 tentive of water, and for this reason soils rich in this 
 material are usually moist. If an area of soil is treated 
 with a liberal quantity of humus-forming material, 
 stable manure for example, the soil will become more 
 compact, more retentive of moisture, darker in color, 
 and more fertile, all of which are desirable soil qualities. 
 
 Types of Soil.— Soils are designated according to the 
 proportion of rock particles of certain size that they 
 contain; or, if they are nearly deficient in rock particles, 
 according to the proportion of vegetable matter they 
 contain. For example, a soil made up largely of sand 
 is known as a sandy soil; one in which the particles 
 are nearly all silt is a silty soil, and one largely of 
 clay is a clay soil. Soils that are largely organic 
 matter are known as peat soils or as muck soils. The term 
 loam is used to designate soils that are made up of at 
 least three of the four ingredients— sand, silt, clay, 
 and humus. Loams are named in accordance with their 
 predominating-sized mineral particles. For example, a 
 loam largely of sand is a sandy loam; one made up 
 practically of clay is a clay loam; and one rich in silt 
 is a silty loam. 
 
 Sandy soils are easy to work but are poor in plant- 
 food, and are not retentive of water. However, 
 they are what are known as quick soils, that is, they 
 produce crops quickly after seed is planted or young 
 plants are set out. 
 
 Sandy loams and light sandy loams allow water and 
 plant-food to pass through them quickly, but, as a rule, 
 they are lacking in humus and also in fertility. They 
 
PROPERTIES OF SOIL 3 
 
 are, however, easy to work, become warm quickly, and 
 will produce early crops of good quality, provided they 
 are kept supplied with large quantities of organic mat- 
 ter. Still, they are not particularly desirable for 
 cropping on account of the expense necessary to keep 
 them in a desirable state of fertility. 
 
 Regular sandy loams are light in color and contain 
 a comparatively small proportion of humus, but they 
 are easy to work, become warm early in spring, and 
 are quick soils when vegetable matter is added in liberal 
 quantities. They are very acceptable soils for vegetable 
 growing, but on account of the expense of keeping 
 them fertile, they are not profitable for general farming. 
 
 Medium sandy loams are often termed medium loams. 
 Compared with regular sandy loams, medium loams are 
 more compact, darker in color, more retentive of water, 
 and a little more productive, but they do not produce* 
 crops so quickly. They are excellent soils for regular 
 farm crops, such as wheat, corn, etc., but, on account of 
 their lack for quickness, they are not so much desired 
 for vegetable growing as are the regular sandy loams. 
 
 Clay soils are hard to work, sticky when wet, exceed- 
 ingly retentive of water, and slow in producing crops, 
 but they are usually fairly rich in plant-food. They are 
 better adapted to the growing of regular farm crops 
 than to vegetable production. 
 
 Clay loams are generally designated as medium clay 
 loams and heavy clay loams. Medium clay loams are 
 usually dark in color, fairly compact in texture, and 
 retentive of water. They are rather difficult to work, 
 and, in addition, are cool and late, which qualities 
 make them unsuitable for vegetable growing. However, 
 they are acceptable for many of the regular farm crops. 
 
 Heavy clay loams are more compact, more retentive 
 of water, and more tenacious than the medium clay 
 loams. Considering these facts, thej' are not suitable for 
 vegetable growing, but if liberally supplied with humus 
 they are desirable for some forms of general farming. 
 
4 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 
 
 Peat is formed by the partial decay of vegetation under 
 water. It is nearly all vegetable matter, containing, as 
 a rule, not more than 25% of rock particles. If drained 
 of surplus water and the vegetation allowed to rot for 
 a long time, peaty soils can be used for cropping. 
 
 Muck soils differ from peaty soils in the method of 
 formation. They are formed where vegetable matter is 
 under water for a time and is then successively exposed 
 to air and to water. They usually contain a larger 
 percentage of rock particles than is found in peat soils 
 and are usually swampy, but after being drained often 
 become exceedingly productive. Muck soils are excellent 
 for celery and onions, but for general cropping they are 
 not desirable. 
 
 Soils containing a large proportion of stone, varying 
 in diameter from J4 in. to 6 in., are termed gravelly 
 soils. Of these there are several kinds, to which such 
 terms as gravelly sandy soil, gravelly loamy soil, or 
 gravelly clay soil are applied. Gravelly sandy soils 
 contain large quantities of coarse sand and are of little 
 use for crop production. Gravelly loam soils are suitable 
 for general farming, but on account of the presence of 
 gravel, which interferes with the working of land for 
 vegetable crops, they are not particularly suitable for 
 gardening. Gravelly clay soils are made up largely of 
 clay in addition to the gravel. They have about the 
 same characteristics as clay soils, and are more suitable 
 for general farming than for vegetable growing. 
 
 Stony soils are similar to gravelly soils, except that they 
 contain many large stones. They are not well adapted 
 for vegetable growing, largely on account of the diffi- 
 culty of the tillage operations, but for general farming 
 and for tree fruit culture they are often very acceptable. 
 
 Soil Weight.— The weight of soil varies considerably; 
 it is influenced by the size of the particles and by the 
 proportion of humus and of water the soil contains. A 
 soil composed largely of coarse particles is heavier than 
 one made up principally of small particles. This is 
 
PROPERTIES OF SOIL 5 
 
 because in a fine-grained soil there is more combined 
 air space than in a coarse-grained soil, air, of course, 
 being lighter than soil particles. 
 
 The proportion of humus in a soil influences the 
 weight to a marked degree. The humus is lighter than 
 the soil particles; therefore, the larger the proportion 
 of humus, the less is the weight of the soil, and vice 
 versa. Peat or muck soils are about one-half the weight 
 of sandy soils. Surface soils that have been treated 
 liberally with stable manure are, on account of the 
 large proportion of humus they contain, lighter in 
 weight than the same types of soil that have not been 
 treated with manure. 
 
 An increase in the moisture content of a soil increases 
 its weight. Both water and air occupy the spaces 
 around the soil particles; if water is added to soil, it 
 displaces some of the air, which is lighter than water, 
 and the result is an increase in the weight of the given 
 quantity of soil. 
 
 Color of Soil.— The color of soil is influenced by its 
 composition. For example, soil that is made up largely 
 of white sand particles is light in color; soil of yellow 
 clay particles is yellow in color. Humus, also, in- 
 fluences the color of a soil. Since humus is dark in 
 color, if it is present in a soil in large quantities, the 
 soil is likely to be dark in color. The proportion of 
 water in a soil generally has an influence on the color. 
 Most soils are darker in color when wet than when 
 dry, but sandy soils change color but little when 
 they become wet. 
 
 Need of Water in Soil.— Water in soil is absolutely 
 necessary for proper plant growth. In fact, a soil 
 without sufficient water for the needs of plants is a 
 desert. The quantity of water taken up from the soil 
 by plants is exceedingly large. Over 90% of cabbage 
 and lettuce is water; green corn plants are nearly 80% 
 water; clover and potatoes are also about 80% water. 
 As all the water in a plant comes directly from the 
 
(^ PROPERTIES OF SOIL 
 
 soil, it is easy to see that a soil to produce large crops 
 must be liberally supplied with water. 
 
 Classes of Water in Soil.— The water in soil is 
 grouped into three classes known as hydrostatic water, 
 capillary zvafer, and hygroscopic water. Below the sur- 
 face ot the soil, water that maintains a given level 
 is encountered at a distance that depends on the 
 quantity of water in the soil at the place where the obser- 
 vation is made. This standing water is the so-called 
 hydrostatic water. It is known also as drainage water 
 and as ground water. 
 
 Capillary water is that which soaks through the soil 
 in the same manner that oil is carried through a lamp 
 wick. This water passes in any direction — upwards, 
 sideways, or downwards. The soaking of water through 
 soil is caused by what is known as capillary attraction; 
 hence, the season for the term capillary water. 
 
 Hygroscopic water is that absorbed by the soil 
 particles and which can be driven out of the soil only 
 by excessi/e heat. It does not move from place to 
 place in soil like drainage water, and the only way 
 it can be removed is by heating a quantity of soil to a 
 temperature sufficient to drive the moisture away in the 
 form of vapor. 
 
 Movement of Soil Water.— Water in soil moves about 
 from place to place as a result of two forces; one, the 
 attraction of gravity that draws water downwards, and 
 the other, capillary attraction, that causes water to 
 pass in any direction from one part of soil to another. 
 The movement of water downwards is known as perco- 
 lation. Water in percolating through soil carries with 
 it to depths below the reach of plant roots many of the 
 soluble plant-foods with which it comes in contact. The 
 removal of plant-food from soil by the percolation of 
 water is known as leaching, and any soil from which 
 plant-food leaches rapidly is known as leachy soil. 
 
 The movement of water through soil by capillary at- 
 traction is necessary for crop production. Plant roots 
 
PROPERTIES OF SOIL 7 
 
 absorb capillary water and use it for the development of 
 plants. In fact, no plant can thrive unless a plentiful 
 supply of capillary water is available for use by its 
 roots. The size of soil particles influences the rate at 
 which capillary water travels. The coarser the particles, 
 the more rapidly will water travel by capillary attrac- 
 tion, but, in a coarse soil it will travel a shorter 
 distance than in fine-grained soil. 
 
 Air in Soil. — In a soil in which plants grow, air is as 
 needful as water and plant-food. In fact, unless air is 
 present in soil, seeds cannot germinate and there can 
 be no plant growth. When drainage water fills all the 
 spaces of a soil at or within a few inches of the surface 
 of the ground, plants fail to grow simply because there 
 is no air around the roots. The death of plants in a 
 low, wet part of the field often results from a lack of 
 air in the soil. The removal of surplus water by 
 drainage is the remedy for such a condition. 
 
 Air in soil is necessary also for the decay of organic 
 matter in the formation of humus. A grass sod or a 
 quantity of stable manure plowed under and left in a 
 water-filled soil will not decay for years, but, if plowed 
 under and left in a soil where air is present, it will 
 decay in a few months. 
 
 The presence of air in soil is necessary also to make 
 possible chemical changes that liberate otherwise un- 
 available plant-food. If such changes did not occur, 
 the supply of available plant-food might soon become 
 deficient. 
 
 Soil Temperature. — Below a certain temperature seeds 
 will not germinate nor plants make satisfactory growth. 
 As soil is the medium in which seeds germinate and in 
 which the roots of plants are imbedded, the proper 
 degree of soil temperature is necessary for crop pro- 
 duction. Different crops differ as to the best tem- 
 perature for the sprouting of seeds and the growth of 
 the plants, but from 75° to 100° F. is a good average 
 temperature for most seeds. 
 
8 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 
 
 The rapidity of the growth of a crop depends to a 
 large extent on the temperature of the soil. With other 
 conditions the same, crops will mature more quickly in 
 a warm soil than in a cool soil. Soils that warm 
 quickly and easily and retain their heat well, are, as a 
 rule, more suitable for vegetable growing than those 
 having less favorable temperature conditions. But, for 
 grain growing, cooler soils are suitable. 
 
 The lay of the land influences the amount of heat 
 received by an area of soil. The more direct the rays 
 of the sun strike the land's surface, the greater is the 
 amount of heat received by the soil. A warm slope is 
 preferable for vegetables and other early crops on 
 account of the warming effect of the direct rays of the 
 sun. For fruit growing, however, a cool slope is pre- 
 ferred. This is because the fruit buds will be retarded, 
 and thus they may escape injury from late spring 
 frosts that are likely to occur. 
 
 Minerals in Soil. — The most abundant rock material in 
 soil is a hard compound known as silica, or quartz. It 
 is abundant in rocks, and on account of its hardness 
 it resists weathering longer than most other minerals. 
 For this reason it is found so largely in soils. Nearly 
 all sand grains are silica. In addition to silica, soils 
 contain quantities of compounds known as alumina, 
 lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, nu- 
 merous salts, and humus. Alumina and soda are 
 present in relatively large quantities in clay. Lime 
 and magnesia are found more abundantly in soils of 
 limestone origin than in those derived from other 
 sources. The quantities of other compounds in soil 
 vary, but are small in comparison with silica. 
 
 Chemical Changes in Soil.— Chemical changes are go- 
 ing on constantly in soil. Complex compounds are being 
 broken up into simpler ones or into elements, and 
 simple ones are uniting to form those more complex. 
 These changes are brought about largely by the action of 
 oxygen, which produces decay, or what may be termed 
 
ROPERTIES OF SOIL 9 
 
 slow combustion. Acids and alkalies in the soil also 
 cause changes, and water in bringing materials into 
 solution is responsible for many chemical changes. 
 Bacteria, =ome forms of wKich live in the soil, are 
 also responsible for many of the chemical changes that 
 take place therein. The beneficial result of chemical 
 changes is the liberation of plant-food. Much of tho 
 plant-food in soil is not soluble in water and is therefore 
 unavailable for use by the plants, but the constant 
 changes that take place break up these unavailable plant- 
 food compounds and convert the food they contain into a 
 form that can be used by plants. 
 
 Plant-Food in Soil. — The use made by plants of the 
 chemical constituents of soil is for food. Research has 
 shown that out of the eighty or more elements of the 
 universe, only fourteen are taken up from the soil by 
 plants for food, and, further, that the soil is never 
 deficient in any of the plant-foods except four. This 
 being the case, the farmer, gardener, and fertilizer manu- 
 facturer concern themselves only with these four foods, 
 which are the elements nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, 
 and calcium. The last three of these are often spoken of 
 as the mineral plant-food elements, on account of their 
 being minerals. 
 
 Nitrogen is a colorless gas that is abundant in the 
 atmosphere. As a gas, however, plants cannot absorb it. 
 To be available it must be in the form of a compound that 
 is soluble in water. Nitrogen combines to form a variety 
 of compounds, only a few of which are available as plant- 
 food, and these compounds are easily leached from the 
 soil. The terms nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia are the 
 most common compounds containing nitrogen. 
 
 Phosphorous is a solid; it forms the chief ingredient 
 of match tips, and gives off a faint glow in the dark. 
 To be available as a plant-food it must be part of a 
 compound that is soluble in water. The term phosphoric 
 acid is used to designate compounds containing phos- 
 phorous in the form usable by a plant. 
 
10 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 
 
 Potassium is an element similar in appearance and 
 character to phosphorous. It burns easily and united with 
 oxygen it forms a compound called potash. In the form 
 of potash it is added to soil for use as plant-food. 
 
 Calcium is one of the ingredients of lime. It is a 
 yellow, solid element. In soil it is generally in the 
 form of lime or limestone. As a plant-food, lime is not 
 often deficient, but it is often applied to soil to correct 
 an acid condition, to liberate unavailable plant-food, 
 or for other beneficial effects. 
 
 The quantity of plant-food in an area of soil depends 
 somewhat on the size of the particles, on the origin and 
 method of formation, on the proportion of humus therein, 
 and on the manner in which the soil has been cropped. 
 The larger the particles of a soil, the less likely is a 
 large proportion of food to be present. This is because 
 a light soil does not retain plant-food well. This 
 deficiency of plant-food in sandy soils applies more to 
 the nitrogen compounds than to the others, simply be- 
 cause the nitrogen compounds leach away more rapidly. 
 In a clay or a loamy soil there is likely to be more 
 plant-food present, because the soil texture is better 
 fitted to prevent its loss. 
 
 The origin of a soil has more of an influence on the 
 mineral plant-foods than on the nitrogen compounds, 
 simply because the former are minerals and are con- 
 tained in the rocks that have formed the soil. For 
 example, in a soil formed from limestone, there is likely 
 to be a plentiful supply of lime present, or in one 
 formed from rocks rich in potassic or phosphatic com- 
 pounds, there is likely to be plenty of potassium and 
 phosphorous. 
 
 The quantity of humus in a soil is of vast im- 
 portance in regard to the quality of plant-food; humus 
 not only contains plant-food but the decaying of animal 
 and vegetable matter in the soil is instrumental in 
 liberating much of the plant-food that would otherwise 
 be unavailable. 
 
PROPERTIES OF SOIL 11 
 
 By chemical analysis the quantity of plant-food of 
 the different kinds can be told for a given quantity of 
 soil. It would seem, therefore, that a chemical analysis 
 would be of considerable benefit to a farmer. Such is 
 not the case, however, for, although the chemist can tell 
 how much plant-food is in a quantity of soil, he cannot 
 tell about its availability, and it is the availability that 
 the cultivator desires to know. Then, too, it is difficult 
 to secure a sample of soil for analysis that is representa- 
 tive of a field or other given area. Thus, a chemical 
 analysis tells about the quantity of plant-food in the 
 sample analyzed, but it may or may not tell about the 
 quantity of available plant-food of a large area of the soil. 
 
 Bacteria in Soil. — The presence of bacteria in soil is 
 very necessary. In fact, were it not for soil bacteria 
 there could be no crop production. One of the im- 
 portant effects of bacterial action in soil is the decay 
 of organic matter. The result of this decay is the for- 
 mation of humus, and without humus there can be no 
 plant growth. The rate at which bacteria change organic 
 matter into humus depends largely on the condition 
 of the soil and the climate. The climatic condition 
 cannot be influenced by man, but the soil condition can 
 be influenced by the way the soil is farmed. By fol- 
 lowing the proper methods of cultivation, by rotating 
 crops grown on the soil, and by manuring in the right 
 way the organisms can be made more efficient than 
 otherwise, and as a result the soil through the agency of 
 humus becomes richer. 
 
 The bacteria in the soil have much to do with the 
 available nitrogen supply. As stated previously, nitro- 
 gen is one of the plant-foods that may be deficient in 
 soil. A large part of the nitrogen used by plants comes 
 from the organic matter in the soil, in other words, 
 from the humus. Nitrogen in the organic form, as it is 
 called, is in compounds that are very complex, and in 
 this condition it is not available for the plants. Certain 
 forms of bacteria act on these complex compounds and 
 
12 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 
 
 break ihem up into simpler ones. In this process of 
 change at least three forms of bacteria are necessary. 
 Each form has its own special work to do. The first 
 changes the organic matter in a way that what is 
 known as ammonia is formed; the second changes the 
 ammonia into what are known as nitrites; and the 
 third one changes nitrites into nitrates. Nitrates are 
 soluble and are therefore available as plant-food. This 
 whole process of change from the organic to the nitrate, 
 or soluble, form is known as nitrification. This process 
 is indeed of vast importance to agriculture. In fact, 
 were it not for nitrification there would be no plant 
 growth, for there would be practically no available 
 nitrogen, and without nitrogen no plant can grow. 
 
 Bacteria that live on the roots of legumes — clover, 
 alfalfa, peas, beans, etc. — are of much importance in the 
 enrichment of soil. On the roots of legumes that are 
 growing under favorable conditions there are found 
 knots of various sizes that are known as nodules, or 
 tubercules. In these nodules live bacteria that are an 
 aid to the plants. They are not parasites, for although 
 they derive nourishment in the form of sugar and dis- 
 solved salts from the plants, they benefit the plant by 
 supplying nitrogen to it in an available form. These 
 bacteria, unlike higher plants, have the power to use 
 the nitrogen of the air and make it available for use 
 by higher plants. After the plants have been removed 
 the roots and the tubercules decay and as a result some 
 of the nitrogen that has been taken from the air is 
 left for subsequent crops. This is why a crop of clover 
 or other legume acts as an enricher of the soil. 
 
 If none of the bacteria peculiar to the legume that is 
 planted on an area of soil is present in the soil, the 
 legume will make a poor growth and no nodules will 
 form. A few bacteria, however, will serve to inoculate 
 a large area of soil. The bacteria multiply rapidly, and 
 they are carried about by water and on dust particles 
 by the wind. In a region where a given kind of legume, 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 13 
 
 Red clover, for example, is grown abundantly, there are 
 likely to be plenty of Red-clover bacteria in any area 
 of soil to be planted. When a legume new to a region 
 is to be planted, however, bacteria often need to be 
 supplied. The most practical way of accomplishing this 
 is to obtain soil from a field where the kind of legume 
 it is desired to grow has been grown successfully, and 
 scatter it on the field that is to be planted. The bac- 
 teria will in this way be carried to the field, and when 
 the legume plants become of sufficient size the bacteria 
 will gain access to the roots, form nodules, and com- 
 mence to be a benefit to the plants. This process of 
 supplying certain kinds of bacteria to soil is known as 
 soil inoculation. 
 
 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 SOIL DRAINAGE 
 
 Beneficial Effects of Drainage.— The beneficial effects 
 that result from artificial drainage of farm lands are 
 many and varied. The mechanical condition of wet 
 ground is soon corrected when the land is drained, the 
 soil assumes the light color characteristic of dry earth, 
 and the air, the sun, the rain, tillage implements, soil 
 bacteria, and plant-food are effective in a way that is 
 impossible in wet soil. 
 
 One of the principal benefits of drainage is that it 
 lowers the water-table below the zone of plant roots. 
 When the water-table is at or just below the surface 
 of the soil so that roots of plants are submerged, plant 
 life cannot long exist because of want of air. Also, 
 under such a condition, many of the plant-food com- 
 pounds that are dependent on air for their dissolution 
 and consequent availability to plants are rendered of no 
 value to crops. As soon as water-logged soil is drained 
 aeration takes place, with the result that plant roots are 
 enabled to obtain the necessary air and many of the 
 plant-food compounds are rendered available to plants. 
 
14 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 Another important effect of drainage is the warming 
 of the soil. All wet soils are cold, and crops planted 
 on them will not thrive. When the surplus free water 
 is removed from land by drainage the soil invariably 
 becomes warmer. 
 
 A valuable effect of drainage is the mellowing of the 
 soil. When a soil is properly drained, the change in 
 its mechanical condition is most marked. The heavy 
 character of the soil disappears, and the soil becomes 
 light, pliable, and loose. On a well-drained and hence 
 mellow soil, all tillage operations, including plowing, 
 rolling, and harrowing, are carried on more easily than 
 on a wet soil, and the planting and cultivating of crops 
 is therefore accomplished more cheaply. Farm machinery 
 also suffers less from wear and tear when it is used on 
 a light, dry soil than when it is used on a heavy, wet soil. 
 
 An important benefit of soil drainage is the pro- 
 motion of bacterial action. Most kinds of bacteria 
 cannot live in a water-logged soil. Owing to the fact 
 that the supply of available plant-food in soil is largely 
 dependent on the action of bacteria, it will readily be 
 seen that it is highly important to provide conditions 
 that will facilitate their action. 
 
 A saving of plant-food is effected by drainage. If 
 land is not well drained, and the fields, particularly 
 those that are tilled, become surface-washed, much of 
 the soil is carried away and with it the plant-food it 
 contained. 
 
 One of the benefits of drainage is the increase in the 
 quality of crops. Grass, wheat, corn, and many other 
 kinds of crops are, when other conditions are favorable, 
 of better quality if grown in drained soil than if grown 
 in wet soil. 
 
 The reclaiming of waste land is, perhaps, one of the 
 most beneficial results of drainage. Ground that would 
 otherwise be useless is made fit for cultivation by 
 ridding it of free water; in other words, the acreage of 
 available land on a farm is increased by drainage. Wet 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 15 
 
 soil that has never been farmed is, as a rule, rich in 
 plant-food, and when reclaimed makes valuable farm 
 land. 
 
 Cost of Drainage.— Some experts on drainage consider 
 $35 an acre as being the average cost of draining farm 
 land. Others claim that land can be drained for from 
 $12 to $15 an acre. There is, undoubtedly, a wide varia- 
 tion in the cost of drainage. 
 
 OPEN DITCHES 
 
 Where large quantities of surplus water from sur- 
 rounding highlands collect in ravines and overflow 
 lowlands, open ditches should be constructed to carry 
 away this surplus water. Gullies, which become larger 
 at every rain, are likely to be formed when this is not 
 done. These gullies interfere greatly with farm opera- 
 tions and occupy space that might otherwise be profitably 
 cultivated. 
 
 Open ditches are also useful in draining large areas 
 in regions where there is but little fall to the natural 
 waterways. In such regions open ditches are provided 
 to convey the water to natural water courses or to 
 large open ditches that in many districts serve as 
 outlets to drains from several farms. 
 
 Locating of Open Ditches.— In locating an open ditch 
 care must be taken to place it where it will receive the 
 most of the surface water in times when there is much 
 rain or snow. As far as possible, however, open ditches 
 should be placed where they will not be in the way of 
 farm operations, and where they will receive little or 
 no damage from livestock. 
 
 Construction of Open Ditches.— A ditch should have 
 such an amount of fall, or grade, that a slow, steady 
 flow will be maintained throughout its length. There will 
 then be but little danger that the sides and banks of 
 the ditch will be washed away. When a ditch is par- 
 ticularly steep at any point, the speed of the water 
 may be checked by a series of waterfalls. 
 
16 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 The depth and width of a ditch should naturally 
 largely depend on the maximum quantity of water to 
 be carried by it, that is, the water it must carry in 
 times of freshets. The width should be a little greater 
 at the outlet than at the beginning, as the quantity of 
 water carried becomes greater as the outlet is ap- 
 proached. 
 
 Under most conditions the best kind of an open ditch 
 for farm lands is a wide ditch whose bank and sides, 
 and where possible its bottom, are kept grassed con- 
 tinually. Such drains can usually be maintained with 
 less labor, expense, and inconvenience than any other 
 type of open ditch. Open ditches are generally made 
 with sloping sides, the best slope being about 45°. 
 The banks can thus be grassed over so that the roots 
 of the grass protect the soil by holding it in place, and 
 with such a slope the grass can be easily mowed. 
 
 Furrow Drains.— Comparatively level stretches of stiff 
 clay soil are often met with that can be properly drained 
 neither by the ordinary surface ditch nor the under- 
 drain. One of the best methods of removing surplus 
 water from such areas is to plow the fields in narrow 
 lands, or divisions, leaving open, or dead, furrows at 
 the sides of each land. The water will collect in these 
 open furrows and will, if there is an incline to the 
 surface of the field, drain to some outlet. Even if the 
 field is so level that water will not dr^n from the fur- 
 rows, the drainage conditions of the field are better 
 than if no open furrows were made, for the surplus water 
 is removed from around the roots of many of the plants 
 in the field. 
 
 The distance apart and the depth of the furrows will, 
 of course, depend on various conditions. If the field is 
 level or nearly so, the practice is to make the furrows 
 shallow and from 9 to 15 ft. apart; if there is enough 
 inclination to the surface of the field to cause the water 
 in the furrows to pass to an outlet, the furrows are 
 made deep, and from 40 to 50 ft. apart. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMEXT 17 
 
 UNDERDRAINS 
 
 Arrangement of Underdrains.— All the lines of tile, 
 with the silt wells whenever these are employed, that 
 are used in draining surplus water from a field, make 
 up what is known as an uiiderdrainage system. The prin- 
 cipal line or conduit of such a system is called a 
 main; sometimes a main constitutes the entire system. 
 When a large area is to be drained it is generally 
 necessary for an underdrainage system to be made up 
 of many branches. The number and size of these 
 branches naturally depend on the area to be drained 
 and the quantity of water to be removed. 
 
 A submain is a line of tile that has one or more drains 
 branching from it but is itself subsidiary to a main. 
 The lines that extend from either a main or a submain 
 and that have no other lines branching from them are 
 known as laterals. As more water is carried in the main 
 of a drainage system than in the submains or the 
 laterals, the main is generally made of tile of a larger 
 bore than those used in building any of the other lines. 
 More water is carried in submains than in their own 
 laterals, and usually more than is carried in the lat- 
 erals of the main, and so submains are generally made 
 of tile with a larger bore than the tile used in laterals. 
 The laterals should join the main or the submains 
 at oblique angles and the submains should join the mains 
 at like angles. 
 
 Determining Size of Tile to Use.— In determining the 
 size of tile to use in an underdrain, careful study should 
 be made of the quantity of water to be carried, the 
 slope of the land in the area to be drained, and the 
 size of this area. The quantity of water to be carried 
 is naturally a very important consideration. Other 
 things being equal, larger-sized tile should be used in 
 regions where the rainfall is heavy than in those where 
 it is light. It should be borne in mind that drainage 
 has to deal with the extreme rather than the average 
 2 
 
18 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 rainfall. Suppose, for example, that there is often as 
 much as 2 in. of rainfall in 24 hr. in a locality. If a 
 drain is constructed in such a region provision should 
 be made for getting rid of a large quantity of water 
 quickly, as a rainfall of 2 in. gives 54,308 gal. of water 
 to the acre. Of this, say one-fourth, is lost through 
 evaporation and one-fourth is absorbed by the crops; 
 there still remains one-half the water, or 27,154 gal., to 
 be carried off through the drains. Of course this water 
 is carried away slowly, but if the tile in the drains are 
 too small it may remain in the soil long enough to 
 injure the crops. 
 
 The extent of the area to be drained should likewise 
 be considered when the size of tile to use is being 
 determined. The following rules for determining in a 
 general way the acreage that mains will drain will be 
 helpful, but when considering them, the fact that many 
 other conditions enter into the problem should not be 
 overlooked. If the fall is about 3 in. in 100 ft., the 
 rule for finding the acreage that can be drained by a 
 tile of any diameter is to square the diameter and 
 divide by 4. Hence, if a 3-in. tile is used, the area 
 it will drain is 3x3 t4 = 2^ A. If a 4-in. tile is used 
 the area that will be drained is 4x4-r4 = 4 A. If the 
 fall is about 4 in. in 100 ft., the diameter is squared 
 and the result divided by 3 instead of 4. Under this 
 condition, a 3-in. main will carry the water from 3 A., 
 and a 4-in. main from 51/^ A. 
 
 Distance Between Laterals.— Before deciding on the 
 distance from each other at which to lay laterals in 
 an area to be drained, full consideration should be taken 
 of the inclination of the land, the kind of soil, and the 
 quantity of water in the area. When there is a sharp 
 incline, the water is more readily removed than when it 
 has a gradual slope or is level, and consequently the 
 laterals should be placed farther apart in the first case 
 than in the other. The kind of soil and the quantity of 
 water are, naturally, important points. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 19 
 
 Water will reach a drain more quickly in a coarse- 
 grained soil than in a fine-grained soil; therefore, the 
 laterals should be placed farther apart in a sandy soil 
 than in a clay soil. The following are the usual dis- 
 tances at which laterals should be placed apart from 
 each other in various kinds of soil: In stiff clay soils, 
 from 30 to 40 ft.; in loamy soils, from 40 to 50 ft.; in 
 silty soils, from 50 to 60 ft.; in sandy soils, from 75 to 
 100 ft. In addition to considering these general rules, 
 a farmer might do well to ascertain the experience other 
 farmers in the locality may have had with drains on land 
 similar to his. 
 
 Depth of Underdrains— When deciding the depth at 
 which to lay a drain, careful consideration should be 
 made of the climate of the region, the soil of the area 
 to be drained, and the crops that are to be raised. 
 
 As the freezing of the water in drain tile will burst 
 or displace them, they should be laid below the depth 
 at which the ground freezes. In most parts of the 
 United Slates a depth of from 3 to 4 ft. will be below 
 frost, and consequently this is a good average depth 
 for drains on tilled land. 
 
 The kind of soil is an important factor in determining 
 the depth of an underdrain. When a field has a loose 
 gravelly or sandy subsoil 3 or 4 ft. below the surface, 
 care should be taken not to lay the tile so deep as to 
 cause the water-table to be located in the subsoil. As 
 water percolates easily through such subsoils, they 
 would, unless the drain were placed above the subsoil, 
 act as a filter through which the water would be carried 
 out of the reach of plant roots. 
 
 In a field that has a stiff clay subsoil, the drain 
 should also be placed above the subsoil, but for a 
 different reason. Water percolates so slowly through 
 a stiff clay that sufficient surplus water will not be 
 removed to benefit the crops growing on the field. 
 Drains in such a field should be as shallow as climatic 
 conditions will allow. 
 
20 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 Peaty soils or others of like class, which contain con- 
 siderable humus, often settle to a depth of 2 ft. or 
 more after being drained. In such areas the drains 
 should be placed deep enough to allow for the sinking 
 of the soil. 
 
 The natural wetness of a soil should influence the 
 consideration of the depth of a drain. If a soil is wet 
 only in the early spring and the late fall, and the 
 farmer desires to work the land at both these seasons, 
 he will probably be able to get rid of sufficient surplus 
 water by building a drain, say from 3 to 3^'2 ft. in 
 depth. On the other hand, if land is wet in the late 
 spring and the early fall, and but partly dry in the 
 summer, a drain from 3^ to 4J/2 ft. deep may be nec- 
 essary. 
 
 The kinds of crops to be grown in drained land should 
 have considerable influence on deciding the depth of 
 drains. In a tilled field the ground freezes much deeper 
 than in a field protected by a sod, and for this reason 
 drains laid in permanent meadows or pastures may be 
 more shallow than those laid in tilled fields. 
 
 Excavating for Underdrains.— After the ditch for a tile 
 drain has been laid out and the grade has been properly 
 marked on grade stakes, the excavating of the ditch is 
 next in order. As with surface ditches, the work is 
 done with hand tools or by means of a plow. The 
 depth of the ditch at all points should correspond with 
 the figures on the grade stakes, and the earth removed 
 should be thrown near the ditch, as it has to be replaced 
 after the tile are laid. Special care should also be 
 taken to remove all loose dirt from the ditch, as its 
 presence is likely to interfere with the laying of the tile. 
 
 Laying Tile in Underdrains.— Tile are laid end to end 
 on the bottom of the ditch, generally in a single row. 
 A whole tile should be placed at the outlet. When two 
 rows are laid parallel in the same ditch it is a good 
 plan, after two whole tile have been laid at the outlet, 
 to have the joints of one row alternate with the joints 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 21 
 
 of the other by starting the remainder of one row with 
 a whole tile, and the remainder of the other row with 
 a half tile. When this plan is employed each joint is 
 opposite the center of a tile in the other row. The 
 two rows can be laid at the same time. 
 
 The ends of the tile in an underdrain should be 
 placed very close together, as a tight joint tends to 
 prevent the entrance of silt and roots. There is no 
 danger of getting joints so tight that water will not 
 enter them. The tile if properly laid below where 
 frost can reach them are practically indestructible, and 
 hence the only way in which a tile drain is likely to 
 become useless is by being clogged. 
 
 Obtaining a Uniform Grade.— There are many methods 
 in vogue for obtaining a uniform grade in tile drains. 
 A method that is commonly used is to test the grade 
 by means of a spirit level as the tile are laid. If the 
 grade of the line of tile is to be, say, 5 in. in 100 ft., 
 there should be a grade of 2^ in. in 50 ft., 1% in. in 
 25 ft., Vg in. in 12^ ft., or ^^ in. in 2^ ft. For practical 
 purposes, the amount of fall, or grade, in such a case 
 may be regarded as % in. for esch 2 ft. Since a tile is 1 ft. 
 long, the distance from the center of the first tile to the 
 same position on the third tile is 2 ft. Therefore, if the 
 grade is correct, the spirit level when raised % in. at 
 the end toward the outlet should have the horizontal 
 bubble in the center. 
 
 To verify the calculation of the grade after laying 
 twelve or thirteen tile, it is a good plan to place a 
 leveling board or other straightedge on these tile and 
 set the spirit level on top of it, calculating the grade 
 as just explained. 
 
 STABLE MANURE 
 
 Horse Manure.— The dung of the horse, if the animal 
 
 is in normal health, is very dry, owing to the large 
 
 quantity of crude, woody, fiber which is undigested. 
 
 This coarse fiber in horse dung gives it a loose texture, 
 
22 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 which renders it liable to ferment easily. As soon as 
 fermentation occurs, the manure readily loses much of 
 its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Horse dung is 
 uniform in its character, being less variable in quality 
 than any other animal manure. 
 
 Horses that are in the stable at night and at feeding 
 times during the day, drop about two-thirds of their 
 dung in the stable. 
 
 The ordinary work horse of 1,200 lb. will make from 
 50 to 60 lb. of manure a day, one-half of which is urine. 
 At this rate, one horse will make in the neighborhood 
 of 10 T. of manure a year, about 6 T. of which are 
 dropped in the stable. 
 
 The liquid manure of solid-hoofed animals like the 
 horse and mule is very rich in nitrogen and potash. 
 Most of the nitrogen exists in the form of urates. On 
 these compounds the bacteria act so soon after the 
 manure is voided that the smell of hartshorn, or am- 
 monia, is very perceptible in a horse stable. Such a 
 condition always means loss of nitrogen. 
 
 Cattle Manure.— Steers and cows make a large quan- 
 tity of both solid and liquid manure. The average 
 quantity from a mature animal is 70 lb. a day, 30 lb. of 
 which is solid and 40 lb. liquid. No other class of 
 animals surpasses cattle in the quantity of the liquid 
 voided, taking into consideration, of course, the weight 
 of the animals. In estimating the value of the manure 
 from either steers or cows, it is a serious mistake not 
 to take into consideration the liquid manure along with 
 the solid. As a rule, these animals, in summer time, are 
 on a pasture range, and in the winter, if stabled at all, 
 they are in the stable only at night, having the run 
 of a barnyard during the day. By such practice, much 
 of their manure is lost on the pasture, roads, and lanes, 
 or is dropped in the barnyard. Cattle differ from horses 
 and mules in that they will urinate as frequently out 
 of as in the stable. Cattle manure, owing to its watery 
 condition, decomposes much more slowly than does 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 23 
 
 horse manure; it is also less inclined to ferment and 
 fire-fang. 
 
 Sheep Manure. — The dung from sheep tests very high 
 in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, being richer 
 than that of ai y of the other farm animals, except, 
 perhaps, poultry. Sheep dung is highly concentrated and 
 ferments readily, which means a loss of ammonia. It is 
 a quick-acting manure in the soil, soon becoming avail- 
 able as plant-food. 
 
 A fuli grown sheep will produce from 1 to V^ T. of 
 manure a year. Sheep manure is liable to the same 
 losses that attend horse manure, and these losses come 
 about in a similar way. 
 
 Swine Manure.— The size and age of the animal has 
 much to do with the quantity of hog manure that is 
 made by one animal in a year. As nearly as experi- 
 ments can be made to ascertain the facts, a hog makes, 
 both of solid and liquid manure, from 8 to 10 lb. a day. 
 Hogs drink considerable swill and water; consequently, 
 their manure contains a large percentage of liquid. 
 This being the case, it is not inclined to heat as 
 quickly as either horse or sheep voidings. But, owing 
 to the large quantity of water contained, it is in danger of 
 losing some of its value by leaching. Hog manure decom- 
 poses slowly and in this respect it is like that of cattle. 
 
 Poultry Manure. — Poultry manure compares very 
 favorably with that of sheep. It is rich in all the 
 plant-food elements, because the solid and liquid void- 
 ings are made at the same time. As a fertilizer it acts 
 promptly, but as it belongs to the hot manures, fermen- 
 tation starts readily and the ammonia in it is likely to 
 be lost in the air. To prevent this loss, plenty of 
 powdered absorbents, like gypsum, road dust, fine loam, 
 or other similar material, should be applied to the 
 droppings when they are fresh. 
 
 Influence of Feed on Value of Manure.— The real 
 value of manure, both in quantity and quality, depends 
 not only on the inimal producing it, but still more on 
 
24 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 the kind of feed fed to the animal. It has been proved 
 both by experience and by chemical analyses that rich 
 feed makes rich manure. Animals give off in solid and 
 liquid excreta only that which they have eaten. If 
 they eat feed rich in protein, the manure will be rich 
 in nitrogen, because it is in the protein that nitrogen 
 is found; whereas, if their feed is poor in protein, the 
 manure is poor in nitrogen. Then, again, if they eat 
 feed rich in carbohydrates, the manure, being of the 
 same character as the feed, will not be nearly so val- 
 uable as if the animals had been fed protein feed. 
 
 Horses, cattle, and sheep, fed principally on hay and 
 other fodders, make manure rich in potash but poor in 
 phosphoric acid and nitrogen. This condition is due to 
 the fact that most of the potash of plants is found in the 
 leaves and stems. Cottonseed meal stands at the head 
 of the list of all feeds for making rich manure. Linseed 
 meal is another mill feed that makes a manure rich 
 in value. Gluten meal stands next to linseed meal in 
 its manure-making power, although it is a product that 
 is very likely to vary in protein content. Distillers' 
 grains, such as Ajax flakes, are high in protein, hence 
 a manure rich in nitrogen can be expected when they 
 are liberally included in a ration for livestock. Wheat 
 bran is another feed that is excellent for its manurial 
 value. Although worth only about one-third as much 
 as cottonseed meal, or one-half as much as linseed or 
 gluten meal for nitrogen, it contains a large quantity 
 of ash, which makes it valuable as a manure producer, 
 Corn meal is very low in manure-making value, how- 
 ever, a fact that often surprises farmers when they are 
 thus informed. Yet, it is only too true that corn meal 
 has only about one-half the manurial value of wheat 
 bran, one-third that of linseed meal, and one-fourth that 
 of cottonseed meal. There are many other mill feeds, 
 such as wheat middlings, buckwheat middlings, rice 
 feed, etc., that are very useful both for their feed value 
 to animals and for their manure-making value. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 25 
 
 The grasses like timothy, red top, orchard grass, and 
 other similar plants, when fed to livestock, do not 
 yield nearly so rich a manure as the legumes, such as 
 clover, alfalfa, etc. The difference is not due to their 
 digestibility, for grasses, like timothy, are more easily 
 digested by the animal than legumes like clover, but it 
 is due to the difference in nitrogen content inherent in 
 the plant itself. There is also a difference in the 
 manurial value of the varieties of each plant class. 
 Corn fodder, a grass, yields a richer manure than 
 timothy, while alfalfa, a legume, makes richer manure 
 than Red clover. 
 
 Care of Horse Manure,— To save both the liquid and 
 solid manure of horses, the water-tight floor of their 
 stalls should be inclined slightly from the front to a 
 point just behind the animals. At this point the floor 
 should be a flat gutter having just enough of a de- 
 pression to it to keep the liquid from flowing back 
 over the main floor of the stable. The dung, urine, 
 litter, and absorbents can be mixed in the gutter and 
 all loss of liquid prevented. 
 
 Care of Cattle Manure.— If cattle or steers are stalled 
 in a stable, there is no better way devised to save all 
 their manure than to construct a water-tight gutter 
 behind them. To hold a day's voidings, this gutter 
 should be 24 in. wide and 7 in. deep, with the sides 
 perpendicular and the bottom perfectly level. All the 
 litter, absorbents, dung, and urine of the manure should 
 be collected in this gutter, enough of litter and ab- 
 sorbents being used to soak up all the liquid. The 
 manure from a gutter of this size should be removed 
 daily and be spread on the fields as desired. 
 
 Care of Hog Manure.— The solid and liquid manure of 
 hogs requires the same care and precaution against waste 
 as that of other animals. Hogs usually drop most of their 
 voidings in the outside pen. To prevent loss of the liquid 
 manure, the floor of this pen should be water-tight and 
 should slope toward either one side or the other. 
 
26 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 A water-tight gutter of sufficient depth and width to 
 hold the manure for whatever length of time the farmer 
 sees fit to have it there, should be built along the 
 sloping side. Hog manure, being cold, is not likely to 
 heat quickly. If, however, heating occurs, the manure 
 should be removed at once and applied to the soil; 
 otherwise, it will waste. The gutter for hog manure 
 should have a roof over it to protect the manure from 
 the weather. Litter and absorbents are as necessary 
 for use with hog manure as with any other kind. 
 
 Care of Sheep Manure.— Sheep are not stalled but are 
 allowed to run loose in stables, yet their manure needs 
 to be cared for quite as much as that of any other class 
 of livestock. Owing to the dryness of their dung and 
 the small quantity of water voided, there is no need 
 of gutters as for the animals previously named. A tight 
 floor over the whole sheep barn is of importance if the 
 greatest quantity of manure is to be saved. Litter will 
 not take the place of a tight floor, but when used on a 
 floor that will not allow the manure to escape it is a 
 most excellent material to retain all the rich manure of 
 the sheep. As a rule, there is more litter used for sheep 
 than for other animals, the idea being to have the flock 
 tramp a large quantity of it into shreds to be used as 
 fine manure. It is customary to allow manure to remain 
 in the sheep stable and add bedding from time to time, 
 only removing it when a large quantity has accumulated. 
 
 Care of Poultry Manure.— The coarse litters are not so 
 well suited for saving poultry manure as are the pow- 
 dered mineral absorbents. In a poultry house, a tight 
 floor or dropping-board sprinkled with road dust, loam, 
 gypsum, or some other absorbent is very necessary to 
 retain the richness of the poultry manure. Poultry 
 manure should be gathered frequently so that it may not 
 be wasted by being knocked about over the house by the 
 moving fowls. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 27 
 
 GREEN MANURE 
 
 Weeds as Green Manure.— Weeds are often very rich 
 in plant-food, and although it is not recommended to 
 have them grow on farms, they may be made use of by 
 plowing them under for green manure. The best time 
 to put them under the soil is while they are in bloom, 
 as they are thus prevented from going to seed. 
 
 Clovers as Green Manure.— Red clover is one of the 
 plants sometimes used for green manuring. If the whole 
 plant is turned under, it will supply a large quantity of 
 vegetable matter to form humus. However, the tops are 
 so valuable for animal feed that, as a rule, the entire 
 plant is seldom used for green manure. 
 
 Alsike clover is useful as a green manure. One ad- 
 vantage of this variety is that the plants will often 
 grow on ground too wet for Red clover. Besides this, 
 Alsike lasts in the soil longer than does Red clover. 
 
 Crimson clover, like Red clover, has a long tap root 
 and numerous branching roots. It is particularly useful 
 as a catch crop, and if plowed under will make very 
 good green manure. A crop of Crimson clover in a 
 region where it is indigenous is easily grown, and is one 
 that yields a heavier tonnage per acre than any of the 
 other clovers. 
 
 Canada Field Peas as Green Manure.— The Canada field 
 pea, which is grown to a great extent in the northern 
 part of the United States, makes a very good green- 
 manure crop. It is a quick-growing crop, the plants 
 blooming about 7 or 8 weeks after the seed is planted. 
 The physical condition of a soil on which pea 
 vines have been grown is very much improved; so 
 much so, in fact, that it is often surprising to see how 
 the soil crumbles when being plowed. The matting of 
 the pea vines on the surface of the ground may be 
 largely prevented if the crop is grown with a strong- 
 growing, tall-stemmed variety of oats, as the oat plants 
 
28 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 will act as a support for the pea vines. Better results 
 are insured by planting the seed of peas and oats 
 separately, the peas being placed from 2V2 to 3 in. in 
 the soil and the oats L in. The combination planting, 
 or even the peas grown alone, makes an excellent 
 green-manure crop. 
 
 Cowpeas as Green Manure.— Cowpeas grow with heavy 
 foliage and consequently make a large quantity of 
 green manure. However, the mass of foliage is so great 
 at times that, when it is all plowed under, the heat 
 caused by the decaying vegetable matter will make the 
 top layer of soil too dry. When used as green manure, 
 cowpeas should not be plowed under too deeply. For 
 the northern part of the United States, the varieties 
 known as New Era and Whippoorwill are probably the 
 best. They are quick-growing and will generally de- 
 velop sufficiently during the growing season to furnish 
 a large quantity of green manure. 
 
 Soybeans as Green Manure.— The soybean, like the 
 cowpea, makes a large quantity of valuable green 
 manure. It grows very well in the southern part of the 
 United States, and has an advantage over the cowpea 
 in that it is able to stand more drought. The soybean 
 plants, too, grow more upright and with less matting 
 of stems. 
 
 Vetch as Green Manure.— Two kinds of vetch are used 
 for green manuring, namely. Hairy vetch and Common 
 vetch. 
 
 Hairy vetch, although it grows best on a rich, moist 
 soil, will often make satisfactory growth on soils that 
 are somewhat dry and sandy, and for this reason is 
 sometimes called sand vetch. As sand vetch will mat 
 <on the ground, the crop is often sown with some other 
 crop, a cereal like wheat, rye, or oats usually being 
 chosen. 
 
 The Common vetch, or tare, is a legume similar in 
 habits of growth to the field or garden pea. The vetch 
 plant, however, is more slender, and has more tendrils 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 29 
 
 and leaves than the pea plant. Common vetch makes a 
 good catch crop if sown with either rye or wheat, as 
 these crops will hold the vines off the ground. When 
 plowed under, this mixed crop makes excellent green 
 manure. 
 
 Alfalfa as Green Manure.— Alfalfa is seldom used as 
 a green manure, as the tops are of great value as animal 
 feed. It makes excellent green manure, however, when 
 it is desired to use it as such. 
 
 Effects of Green Manuring.— One of the principal 
 benefits of green manuring is that it adds humus to 
 the soil, thus making the soil more porous, more re- 
 tentive of film water, and lighter in weight, the latter 
 being particularly true of heavy soils, like clay. Owing 
 to the fact that soils treated by green manuring are 
 made physically better, they are easier to work with 
 the implements of tillage than soils not so treated. 
 
 Another benefit of green manuring is the addition 
 to the soil of such plant-foods as nitrogen, phosphoric 
 acid, potash, and lime, these fertilizing elements being 
 contained in varying quantities in the crop turned under. 
 
 The decomposing of the vegetable matter of green 
 manure adds much heat to the soil. The quantity of 
 heat liberated when vegetable matter decays is as great 
 as if the same quantity of matter were burned, the only 
 difference being in the time taken to complete the 
 process. In fact, decomposition is really slow burning. 
 This heating caused by the decay of green manure is 
 often of much benefit to the crop that follows. 
 
 Soil depth can be increased by green manuring, pro- 
 vided the vegetable matter is placed somewhat deeper 
 than the usual plow depth. The plowing must not be 
 so deep, however, as to shut off the supply of air from 
 the surface, because air is necessary for the decay of 
 vegetable matter. 
 
 Supplying of Green Manure.— Two or even three 
 green-manure crops may be grown and turned under 
 within a year, provided, of course, that the income crop 
 
30 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 is given up. The advantage of turning under several 
 crops is that much more humus and nitrogen can be 
 added to the soil than when only one crop is used. The 
 work may be begun either in the spring or the fall, as 
 desired. 
 
 The stage of a crop's growth greatly influences its value 
 for green manure. If the plants have mature, woody 
 stems, the vegetable matter will be slow to decay when 
 placed underneath the plow furrow. Besides this, when 
 a layer of dry, woody plant material is placed a few 
 inches below the soil surface, the normal supply of 
 capillary water from the lower soil depths is partly pre- 
 vented from reaching the roots of the plants growing in 
 the soil. Then, too, mature plants during their growth 
 have used large quantities of water, and the soil on 
 which they are grown is therefore likely to be deficient 
 in water. Thus, it is easy to conclude that plants should 
 not be too mature when they are plowed under for 
 green manure. During their blossoming period, plants 
 are in the best condition to be plowed under. At this 
 stage of growth, the stems are soft and succulent, will 
 decay rapidly, and will not cause the surface soil to 
 become dry for the succeeding crop. 
 
 The deeper green manure is placed in the soil, the 
 longer it will take the vegetable matter to decay. This 
 is because air, which is necessary for decay, is present 
 in smaller quantities as the soil depth increases. In 
 wet weather 4 in. and in dry weather 5 in. are good 
 average plow depths for green manuring. 
 
 COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 
 
 Nitrate of Soda. — Chile saltpeter, or nitrate of soda, 
 is a natural product that is mined with common salt in 
 the rainless regions of South America. Before the 
 fertilizer is sent to the farmer, it is purified. It then 
 contains from about 95 to 97% of practically pure nitrate 
 of soda. This purified salt contains from 15j^ to 16% of 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 31 
 
 nitrogen, which means, of course, from iSYi to 16 lb. to 
 the hundredweight. The price of nitrate of soda varies 
 from $50 to $70 a ton, thus making the nitrogen it con- 
 tains cost from 15 to 20c. or more a pound. 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia.— At gasworks where gas is 
 manufactured for light and fuel, a by-product called 
 sulphate of ammonia is formed. This material is sold 
 as a fertilizer. In 100 lb. of the sulphate there are 
 25 lb. of ammonia, which is equal to 20J/2 lb. of actual 
 nitrogen. Since the sulphate, like the nitrate, is readily 
 soluble, it should be applied after the crop is started. 
 Sulphate of ammonia is a good fertilizer to use when 
 growing wheat, corn, rye, oats, grass, or potatoes. 
 
 Dried Blood.— Among the important nitrogenous ani- 
 mal fertilizers is dried blood. This material is rich in 
 nitrogen and decays readily in the soil. At packing 
 houses, the blood from the animals that are killed is 
 carefully saved and dried, and then ground into meal. 
 Two grades of the meal are on the market; one is bright 
 red and the other is somewhat darker and almost black. 
 The red meal contains from 13 to 15% of nitrogen, with 
 little or no phosphoric acid, while the dark, or black, 
 meal has from 6 to 12% of nitrogen and usually a small 
 percentage of phosphoric acid. This lower grade of 
 dried blood is more generally used in the manufacture 
 of fertilizers, chiefly on account of its being cheaper 
 in price. The red meal is extensively used as a stock 
 food. 
 
 Tankage. — A fertilizer known as tankage is put on the 
 market as a by-product of the large slaughter houses. 
 Tankage is composed of the animal parts that cannot 
 be used for other purposes. Two grades of tankage 
 fertilizer, known as concentrated and crushed, are offered 
 for sale. 
 
 Concentrated tankage is made by evaporating some of 
 the animal fluids that are rich in fat. This leaves a 
 fairly uniform product, yielding on analysis from 10 to 
 12% of nitrogen and a small per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
 
32 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 Crushed tankage is made by boiling and steaming the 
 otherwise waste materials, removing the fat, and drying 
 and grinding the residue. It contains on the average 
 from 5 to 10% of nitrogen and from 3 to 12% of phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 Fish Fertilizer. — Fish and tish scrap in various forms 
 are utilized in making commercial fertilizer. At packing 
 houses and fish canneries, all the waste fish products are 
 saved and sold for fertilizer. At fish-oil works, the 
 residue left after removing the oil is the part used as 
 fertilizer. Fertilizer made of such material is more 
 uniform in quality than that from the packing houses 
 and canneries, and contains, as a rule, from 7 to 8% 
 of nitrogen and the same amount of phosphoric acid. 
 
 Garbage Tankage. — The garbage of cities is often 
 utilized for making commercial fertilizer. The value of 
 such fertilizer, on account of the great variety of 
 material of which the tankage is composed, varies 
 widely. As a rule, this kind of fertilizer contains small 
 quantities of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. 
 
 Wool and Hair Waste.— At slaughter houses, the refuse 
 hair and wool is saved and sold as a fertilizer. Its 
 nitrogen content is relatively high, reaching, especially 
 if the refuse is mixed with blood and other forms of 
 animal matter, as high as 12%. However, as wool and 
 hair decay slowly, the fertilizer is classed as a low- 
 grade product. 
 
 The waste wool from both carpet and woolen-goods 
 factories is often used as a top dressing for grass lands. 
 On an average, such waste contains from 1 to 5% of 
 soluble potash and from 4 to 7% of nitrogen. 
 
 Hoof and Horn Meal. — From the waste of hoofs and 
 horns, where these products are manufactured into 
 combs, buttons, etc., fertilizers known as either hoof or 
 horn meal are made. Although these meals contain as 
 high as 12% of nitrogen they are very slow acting and 
 of little use unless very finely ground. Hoof meal has 
 been found by experience to decay more quickly in a 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 33 
 
 soil than horn meal. These slow-acting fertilizers are 
 largely used in the manufacture of mixed fertilizers. 
 
 Street Sweepings. — The sweepings from city streets 
 are composed of manure mixed with dust or mud, chips 
 of wood, scraps of paper, nails, tin cans, bits of glass, 
 etc. The value of street sweepings as fertilizer depends 
 on the proportion of manure contained. 
 
 Leather Meal.— At factories where leather is worked 
 up into shoes, harnesses, etc. there are many waste 
 scraps. As leather contains considerable nitrogen, these 
 scraps are ground into meal and sold as fertilizer. 
 Leather itself decays very slowly; therefore, the meal 
 makes a slow-acting fertilizer. In fact, it is regarded 
 as the slowest acting of all nitrogen fertilizers. 
 
 Cottonseed and Linseed Meals.— The vegetable prod- 
 ucts known as cottonseed and linseed meals are rich in 
 nitrogen. Although they make very good fertilizer, 
 their use for this purpose, on account of price, is nearly 
 always limited to the regions in which cotton or flax 
 is grown. So valuable are they as fertilizer, that whenever 
 the price for which they can be purchased justifies their 
 use, fertilizer men incorporate them in mixed goods. 
 
 Castor Pomace. — The residue left after the oil has 
 been extracted from the castor bean, known as castor 
 pomace, is a vegetable product that is high in nitrogen. 
 The pomace differs from cottonseed and linseed meals 
 in that it is not used for feeding livestock. This makes 
 its use as a fertilizer more general. Castor pomace, 
 when analyzed, shows about 6% of nitrogen. 
 
 Raw Bone.— When bones in their natural condition 
 — that is, without any treatment of steaming, cooking, 
 burning, or the use of acid— are ground into a fine 
 powder, the product is known as raw bone. There is a 
 strong tender cy to adulterate raw bone with such cheap 
 materials as coal ashes, lime, and ground oyster shells. 
 Bone in its raw state shows by analysis from 3 to 5% 
 of nitrogen, from 20 to 25% of phosphoric acid, and from 
 50 to 60% of lime. 
 3 
 
34 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 Steamed Bone. — If bones are steamed or boiled before 
 grinding, the resulting product is known as steamed 
 bone. The object of cooking raw bones is to get rid of 
 the fat and meat particles. The steaming puts the bone 
 into a condition that will permit it to be more easily 
 crumbled. The advantage, then, that steamed bone has 
 over raw bone is not due to a difference in composition, 
 but to the fact that the steamed bone is more readily 
 reduced to a fine powder than is raw bone; the finer 
 the bone, the better it is fitted for use either as a 
 single fertilizer or in mixed goods. 
 
 Bone Black.— Charred, or partly burned, bone, called 
 bone black, is extensively used in the refining of sugar. 
 After being used several times, it is no longer valuable 
 to the sugar manufacturer, and is then sold as fertilizer. 
 This product contains about 30% of phosphoric acid, but 
 like all other charcoal resists decay for a long time. 
 
 Dissolved Bone.— When bones are treated with 
 sulphuric acid, the phosphoric acid contained in them is 
 made available, and the product is called dissolved 
 bone, or acidulated bone. Dissolved bone contains from 
 2 to 3% of nitrogen and from 15 to 17% of total phos- 
 phoric acid, of which from 12 to 14% is available. 
 
 Rock Phosphates.— In North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 Tennessee, Florida, and one or two more states are 
 found rock phosphates deposited in beds, veins, and 
 pockets. As regards consistency, there are two classes 
 of the phosphate rock. One is very hard and the other 
 is comparatively soft. The soft rock is easily crushed, 
 but powerful stone crushers are needed to render the 
 hard rock fine enough for fertilizer. Raw phosphate 
 rock usually contains from 18 to 30% of phosphoric acid, 
 and owing to its variation in quality, it is sold at the 
 crushers for from $1.75 to $4 a ton. 
 
 Acid Phosphate, or Superphosphate.— By treating finely 
 ground rock phosphate with sulphuric acid, the resulting 
 material is commercial acid phosphate, which usually 
 contains about 14% of phosphoric acid. Both dissolved 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 35 
 
 bone and acid phosphate are sometimes known as super- 
 phosphate. 
 
 Basic Slag. — A basic slag formed as a by-product at 
 iron furnaces where steel is manufactured is sold as 
 fertilizer. This slag is known also as Thomas slag and 
 odorless phosphate. To make it of use as a fertilizer, it 
 must be ground very fine, and then in this form it is 
 not soluble in water. The soil acids, however, will in 
 time dissolve the phosphate and make it available as 
 plant-food. The phosphoric acid content of basic slag 
 ranges from 12 to 20%. 
 
 Wood Ashes. — There are two kinds of wood ashes: 
 those from hard-wood trees, such as hickory, oak, beech, 
 walnut, and elm; and those from soft-wood trees, such 
 as pine, cedar, spruce, poplar, etc. The ashes from hard 
 woods are richer in potash than those from soft woods. 
 Besides supplying potash to a soil, wood ashes, because 
 they contain lime, correct acidity. They are good fer- 
 tilizers for soils rich in humus and make a good top 
 dressing for grass; but not more than 300 lb. per acre 
 should be applied at one time. 
 
 Kainite. — The only Stassfurt salt that in its crude 
 condition is imported into the United States is kainite. 
 It is a compound of magnesia, common salt, and potash, 
 about 12 to 13% of the material last named being present. 
 Kainite is used either alone as a fertilizer or in 
 mixtures to form commercial brands. On account of its 
 tendency to absorb water when kept for a long time, it 
 gets lumpy, and when in this condition it is difficult to 
 apply to the soil. One reason for the frequent use of 
 kainite as a fertilizer is that it is cheaper per ton than 
 the higher grades of potash. Kainite sells on the market 
 for from $11 to $16 a ton. 
 
 Muriate of Potash.— From the crude potash salts the 
 muriate of potash is manufactured. It is perhaps the 
 cheapest form of potash, as it contains 50% of actual 
 potash on an average and sells for from $40 to $50 a 
 ton, which, as just explained, brings the cost per pound 
 
36 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 from 4 to 5c. However, it does not seem to be the best, 
 for after continued use the muriate affects the soil in 
 such a way that lime is required to bring it back to 
 fertility. 
 
 Muriate of potash can be used for all legumes and 
 fruit trees, but on account of the chlorine it contains, 
 it should not be used for potatoes, tobacco, sugar beets, 
 onions, or mangels. For these, the sulphate of potash is 
 a better form. 
 
 Sulphate of Potash. — Another fertilizer made by re- 
 fining crude Stassfurt salts, is sulphate of potash. It 
 contains from 48 to as high as 53% of actual potash. It 
 is a very valuable fertilizer, because it can be safely 
 used on any and all crops. Sulphate of potash does not 
 cause the loss of lime in soil as does the muriate, nor 
 does it attract moisture, become lumpy, or pack into 
 the soil. Perhaps the main reason that the sulphate 
 form is not used more as a fertilizer is its cost. The 
 actual potash in the sulphate costs ^c. more per pound 
 than it does in the muriate. 
 
 For clay soils, the sulphate is a better form to use 
 than the muriate. On account of not becoming lumpy, 
 the sulphate of potash mixes very easily with other 
 ingredients in manufacturing commercial fertilizer. 
 
 Vegetable Potash Fertilizers.— Sometimes, ground to- 
 bacco stems are used as a potash fertilizer. On the 
 average, they show by analysis from 7 to 8% of 
 potash, from 2^/2 to 3^ of nitrogen, and from 3 to 5% of 
 lime. 
 
 Another vegetable product useful for commercial fer- 
 tilizer is cottonseed hulls. Both raw hulls and the 
 ashes obtained from burning the hulls are used. The 
 ashes are the quicker acting, and, bulk for bulk, they 
 are richer in potash and phosphoric acid. 
 
 State Fertilizer Laws. — In states where fertilizers are 
 used, there are state laws that require the manufacturer 
 to attach to his goods a prescribed label. The form of 
 this label is fixed by the state; as a rule, it must bear 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 37 
 
 the name and address of the manufacturer, the weight 
 of the package to which it is attached, and the chemical 
 analysis of the fertilizer. In addition, the state fer- 
 tilizer laws provide for the inspection and analysis of 
 all brands offered for sale within the state. Were it 
 not for these laws, the farmer when purchasing mixed 
 or unmixed commercial fertilizer would be almost en- 
 tirely at the mercy of the manufacturer. The reason 
 for this is that no one can tell from the appearance, 
 odor, weight, or handling qualities of a fertilizer 
 whether it contains plant-food in such form and quantity 
 that the fertilizer can profitably be applied to the soil. 
 Chemical analysis is the only way in which the quantity 
 of plant-food in a fertilizer can be determined. 
 
 As a rule, mixed fertilizers are put up in bags, on 
 the outside of which is printed the analysis. In some 
 states the manufacturer is required to purchase from 
 the state printed tags that bear the analysis of the 
 brand to which they are to be attached and the sig- 
 nature of the state chemist or person in charge of 
 fertilizer control. No matter what form of label is used, 
 the analysis must be legible and the fertilizer must 
 conform to the analysis. In most states the state 
 guarantees to the public that each package of fertilizer 
 bearing the approved label contains as much of the 
 fertilizing ingredients as the manufacturers state; if the 
 fertilizer falls short of the guarantee, the manufacturer 
 is liable to arrest and fine. From these statements it 
 will be seen that every farmer who purchases fertilizer 
 should become informed regarding the fertilizer control 
 law in his particular state. 
 
 Misleading Methods of Stating Analyses.— Notwith- 
 standing this effort on the part of the state to protect 
 the public, it is not difficult for fertilizer manufacturers 
 to practice misleading methods of stating the analyses 
 of their products. Some of these dubious practices 
 can scarcely be said to be dishonest, yet they 
 certainly give a wrong impression concerning goods. 
 
38 
 
 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 ANALYSIS, f^ 
 
 NITROGEN 3-3.5 PERCENT^ 
 ^2.AMM0NIA 3.6-4.2 ,. „ 
 ^3. SOLUBLE ] ■ 
 
 ^: PHOSPHORIC 10-12 n »: 
 ^ ACID J :: 
 
 ^4.ACTUAL POTASH 10-12 „ „.-^ 
 
 For example, in the guaranteed analysis printed on a 
 fertilizer bag or tag, the manufacturer often uses two 
 numbers which represent, respectively, the minimum 
 and the maximum percentage of each plant-food ingre- 
 dient. This method of stating an analysis is shown in 
 the accompanying illustra- 
 tion. Although it is not dis- 
 honest, it is, in a way, mis- 
 leading, for unless a person 
 is familiar with the inter- 
 preting of an anlysis, he is 
 likely, on account of seeing 
 many figures, to be misled 
 into thinking that he is 
 getting considerable, more 
 plant-food than is actually 
 present in the fertilizer. 
 
 As required by law, the 
 manufacturer guarantees the 
 smallest quantity of each 
 ingredient shown in the 
 analysis. The second number showing the maximum 
 quantity of each ingredient that might be present, then, 
 really has no meaning to the farmer. Thus, in the 
 analysis shown in the illustration, nitrogen 3 to 3.5% 
 means that there is at least 3% of nitrogen in the bag 
 and that there may be 3.5% present. In the second 
 line of the analysis, the nitrogen is given in terms of 
 ammonia, 3% of nitrogen being equal to 3.6% of am- 
 monia. As shown in the third line, the soluble phos- 
 phoric acid is guaranteed to be 10% with a possibility 
 that 12% may be found. The actual potash, as indicated 
 in the line, is given as 10 to 12%, showing that 10% 
 is there, but that as high as 12% may be present. 
 
 As actual nitrogen, soluble phosphoric acid, and actual 
 potash are the forms that a farmer should consider 
 when buying a fertilizer, he should always bear in mind 
 that the smallest quantities of these forms expressed on 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 39 
 
 the bags show the true commercial value of the fer- 
 tilizer. Therefore, in the analysis just given, the 
 purchase should be made on the basis of 3% of 
 nitrogen, 10% of phosphoric acid, and 10% of potash. 
 If slightly more than these quantities are present, the 
 farmer will be a gainer, but he should not figure on 
 more than th, stated quantities being present. Neither 
 should he be deceived by lengthy analyses that have as 
 their purpose nothing but deception. 
 
 Facts About Fertilizers. — On the market, both mixed 
 and unmixed fertilizers are sold by the ton, with the 
 quantity of plant-food ingredients expressed in per- 
 centages. Thus, if a ton— 2,000 lb.— of fertilizer is said 
 to contain 3% of nitrogen, 10% of phosphoric acid, and 
 10% of potash, the quantities, in pounds, of these in- 
 gredients are: 
 
 Nitrogen 2,000 x .03 = 60 
 
 Phosphoric acid 2,000 x .10 = 200 
 
 Potash 2,000 x .10 = 200 
 
 In stating the percentages of ingredients in a fer- 
 tilizer, that of nitrogen is generally given first, that 
 of phosphoric acid second, and that of potash last. In 
 fact, it is so much a universal custom to use this order 
 that the names of the ingredients are often omitted. 
 Thus, the fertilizer just considered is often spoken of as 
 a S'^o-io fertilizer. A 1-12-8 fertiliser would be one that 
 contained 1% of nitrogen, 12% of phosphoric acid, and 
 8% of potash. 
 
 How to Find Fertilizer Equivalents.— It is often neces- 
 sary for a farmer to find fertilizer equivalents. This 
 is "because manufacturers do not confine their state- 
 ments of analyses to the percentages of nitrogen, phos- 
 phoric acid, and potash actually contained in a fertilizer. 
 The following table will be found helpful in making 
 the calculations necessary to express the quantity of 
 one ingredient in terms of some other ingredient. 
 
 By using this table a complex analysis of a fertilizer 
 is made clear. For example, consider the following 
 
40 
 
 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 analysis: Ammonia, 2%; available phosphoric acid, 8%; 
 insoluble phosphoric acid, 2%; total phosphoric acid, 
 10%; bone phosphate, 21.8%; actual potash, 4%; sulphate 
 of potash, 7.4%. 
 
 DATA FOR COMPUTING FERTILIZER 
 EQUIVALENTS 
 
 To Convert 
 Guarantee of 
 
 Into Terms of 
 
 Multiply by 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 1.215 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 .823 
 
 Sodium nitrate 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 .165 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Sodium nitrate 
 
 6.061 
 
 Bone phosphate 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 .458 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Bone phosphate 
 
 2.183 
 
 Potash 
 
 Sulphate of potash 
 
 1.850 
 
 Sulphate of potash 
 
 Potash 
 
 .541 
 
 Potash 
 
 Muriate of potash 
 
 1.583 
 
 Muriate of potash 
 
 Potash 
 
 .632 
 
 Referring to the table, the percentage of ammonia can 
 be easily converted into terms of nitrogen by multi- 
 plying the quantity of ammonia by .823. Thus, 2% of 
 ammonia is equal to 2 x .823 - 1.65% of nitrogen. The 
 available phosphoric acid given as 8% in the analysis is 
 really the only quantity representing phosphoric acid 
 that should be considered by the farmer. The 2% in- 
 soluble added to the 8% soluble equals 10% total phos- 
 phoric acid, as given. The quantity of bone phosphate, 
 21.8%, is found by multiplying the 10% of total phos- 
 phate acid by 2.183. There is really no reason why the 
 quantity of phosphoric acid in the analysis need be 
 given in terms of bone phosphate. The actual potash 
 given as 4% is, as in the case of the available phos- 
 phoric acid, the only quantity representing potash that it 
 is necessary to give in the analysis. This amount, how- 
 ever, when expressed in terms of sulphate of potash. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 41 
 
 found by multiplying 4 by 1.85, as shown in the table, 
 equals 7.4%. It will readily be seen that the analysis 
 under consideration could be written as follows: 
 Nitrogen, 1.65%; available phosphoric acid, 8%; actual 
 potash, 4%. 
 
 LIMING OF SOILS 
 
 Lime is a soil constituent that is necessary for nor- 
 mal plant growth. This is proved by the fact that 
 plants will not grow properly in soils deficient in lime. 
 An additional proof is that when plants are analyzed, 
 lime is found. But, as a rule, enough lime is present 
 in the soil for the use of crops; if it were not for the 
 fact that lime is needed in soil for other purposes than 
 as a plant-food, it would seldom be necessary to apply 
 it. For this reason, lime is usually considered an indi- 
 rect fertilizer; that is, it indirectly renders soil more 
 fertile. 
 
 The beneficial effects that result from the liming of 
 soil are. of course, dependent on the condition of the 
 soil. Aside from the value of lime as a plant-food, 
 there are three ways in which it may benefit soil, 
 namely: (1) by correcting soil acidity; (2) by making 
 otherwise unavailable plant-food available; (3) by im- 
 proving the mechanical condition. 
 
 Effects of Lime. — Soils that are sour, or acid, produce 
 very poor crops. The acid in soil comes largely from 
 plant roots, where it is needed to dissolve a part of the 
 plant-food. Soils on which crops have been raised for 
 a number of years without the application of lime are 
 very likely to become sour from the surplus of this 
 plant acid that remains in them. The use of com- 
 mercial fertilizers that are acid also tends to make 
 soil acid. The same is true of soils in which free 
 water is allowed to stand for a long time; insufficient 
 drainage is a very common cause of soil acidity. On 
 account of these conditions, many of the farm soils of 
 the United States and other countries are acid; and if 
 
42 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 these soils are to produce good crops, the acidity must 
 be corrected. This can best be done by the application 
 of lime. 
 
 In some soils nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash 
 are often present in such a form that they are unavail- 
 able to plants. This is often the case in soils of a 
 vegetable origin, such as reclaimed swamp soils and 
 heavy black loams containing long, deep roots. When 
 such a condition exists, lime is an effective agent in 
 rendering the plant-food available. In fact, the good 
 effects obtained by applying lime to soil are often due 
 to the action of the lime in releasing plant-food. 
 
 Some soils, particularly those of a heavy clay nature, 
 are vastly improved mechanically by lime. In heavy 
 soils the particles composing them are very fine and 
 have a tendency to pack together, thus causing the soil 
 to retain a large quantity of free water and to become 
 very unfriable. Lime causes the fine soil particles to 
 flocculate, that is, join together in small lumps. This 
 makes the soil more friable, lighter, and easier to work 
 with the implements of tillage. In other words, the 
 structure is greatly improved. 
 
 Methods of Determining Whether Soil Needs Lime. 
 Although it is very profitable to apply lime where it 
 is needed, it is a waste of labor and money to apply 
 it where it is not needed. For this reason, soil should 
 be tested to determine whether it is in need of lime 
 before an application is made. There are three com- 
 mon tests for determining this point; the beet test, the 
 litmus-paper test, and the ammonia test. These tests 
 can easily be made by any one. 
 
 The beet test consists merely of growing a crop of 
 beets in the soil to be tested. Owing to the fact that 
 all kinds of beets grow very poorly in soils deficient in 
 lime, a beet crop is a good indicator of the condition 
 of a soil with respect to this constituent. To make the 
 test the ground may be prepared and the beets planted 
 as follows; 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 43 
 
 Lay off in the field a piece of ground 36 ft. by 90 ft. 
 Next, plow this ground as deeply as the soil will allow 
 without subsoil being brought to the surface; the usual 
 depth of plowing in the locality will be the best for 
 the test. Roll the ground immediately after it is 
 plowed, and then put on, at the rate of 500 to 600 lb. 
 per acre, a good complete fertilizer — one containing 
 available nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash — that is 
 rich in nitrogen. Harrow the ground well after apply- 
 ing the fertilizer. Then divide the piece into three 
 plats of equal size and spread lime as evenly as pos- 
 sible on two of them, using 100 lb. on one plat and 
 50 lb. on the other, which is at the approximate rate of 
 1 T. and 2 T. per acre. 
 
 On the third plat use no lime at all, as this is to be 
 a check plat. The lime used in the test should be very 
 fine and free from lumps, and should be brushed into 
 the soil with a weeder or a light harrow. When applied 
 in this way it does not come in direct contact with 
 the ammonia of the fertilizer. Next, beet seed of a 
 quantity sufficient, if they all grow, to produce a good 
 stand should be drilled into the soil. The beets should 
 be permitted to come to maturity, when the yields of 
 the different plats will show whether or not lime is 
 needed on the soil. 
 
 The litmus-paper test is used to determine whether a 
 soil is acid. If a soil is found to be acid it follows 
 that it is in need of lime. Litmus paper is a paper 
 covered with a preparation called litmus. It has the 
 property of turning red when it comes in contact with 
 an acid and blue when it comes in contact with an 
 alkali. In making soil tests, the blue litmus paper 
 used by chemists should be used, as it is better than 
 the common grade generally sold by druggists. To 
 test a soil, puddle a small quantity with water in a 
 cup and then place a small strip of blue litmus paper 
 in the wet soil. If the paper turns red soon after being 
 placed in contact with the soil, it is a good indication 
 
44 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 that the soil is acid and, consequently, that it needs 
 lime. Before making the test, however, it is a good 
 plan to determine whether the water used for puddling 
 is free from acid. 
 
 The ammonia test is used, like the litmus-paper test, 
 to determine whether soil is acid. To make the am- 
 monia test, half fill a 2-oz. bottle with the soil to be 
 tested and pour boiled rainwater into the bottle until 
 the water is about ^ in. above the soil. Next add a 
 teaspoonful of strong ammonia. If the water in the 
 bottle is turned slightly yellow, it indicates that the 
 soil is slightly acid; if the water is made almost brown 
 in color, it indicates that the soil is decidedly acid. 
 Owing to the fact that the ammonia test is somewhat 
 less convenient of application than the litmus-paper 
 test, it is not so commonly used as the latter. 
 
 Application of Lime to Soils.— Two forms of lime are 
 now used for soil improvement. These are limestone 
 in powdered form and stone lime, or quicklime, made 
 by burning limestone. Both forms can be purchased on 
 the market, or, if limestone exists in a community, the 
 farmer can burn it himself and thus obtain stone lime. 
 Powdered limestone is in condition to be applied to the 
 soil when it is purchased. Stone lime, or quicklime, as 
 it comes from the kilns must be either ground or slaked 
 before it is of use in a soil. By slaking is meant the 
 absorbing of water. This produces a chemical change, 
 making the lime caustic. In this condition the lime is 
 a powder and can easily be applied to the soil. Lime 
 may be slaked either by applying water to it directly 
 or by exposixig it to the air, from which it absorbs the 
 moisture necessary for slaking it. 
 
 There are several ways in which lime can be spread 
 on the soil. It may be applied with a manure spreader, a 
 lime spreader, or a fertilizer distributor, be spread from a 
 wagon or be placed in piles on the ground and distributed 
 by means of shovels. If a manure spreader is used and 
 the wind is blowing, it is practically necessary to use 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 45 
 
 a wooden or a canvas hood over the spreader drum, to 
 prevent the loss of considerable lime. Spreading lime 
 from a wagon by means of shovels is an unsatisfactory 
 method, as the lime, being caustic, will burn the hands 
 and faces of the workmen, and, besides, is likely to 
 injure the harness. If lime is to be distributed from 
 piles on the ground, the size and distance apart of these 
 will, of course, depend on the quantity of lime that is 
 to be used per acre. If it is desired to use 1 T. per 
 acre, 50-lb. heaps 'should be placed 33 ft. apart. Two 
 tons per acre can be distributed by placing 100-lb. 
 heaps 33 ft. apart. 
 
 It is often desired to apply a certain number of bushels 
 per acre. The weight of a bushel of stone lime in 
 most states is 80 lb.; after this quantity is slaked, it 
 will weigh from 150 to 160 lb., according to the quantity 
 of water absorbed. In order to put on a given number 
 of bushels per acre, the following figures showing the 
 quantities and distances apart for the piles will be 
 found useful: For an application of 20 bu. per acre, 
 put ^ bu. heaps 11 steps apart each way, one step to be 
 considered 3 ft.; for 25 bu. per acre, put the heaps 10 steps 
 apart; for 30 bu., 9 steps; for 40 bu., 8 steps; for 50 bu., 
 7 steps; and for 60 bu., 6 steps. 
 
 The quantity of lime to use per acre varies. Heavy 
 soils usually require more lime than light soils, very 
 acid soils require more than only slightly acid soils, 
 and some crops use more lime than others. Then, too, 
 twice as much ground limestone should be used per 
 acre as slaked lime. Lime containing impurities, or 
 air-slaked lime that is not fresh, will not go as far as 
 good water-slaked lime. As a rule, from 1 to 2 T. of 
 water-slaked lime per acre are used and from 2 to 4 T. 
 per acre of ground limestone. An application of 1 T. of 
 slaked lime or 2 T. of limestone should give good results 
 in soils not exceedingly heavy or acid. Supplying the 
 soil with too much lime at one time is injurious, small and 
 frequent applications being better than large ones. 
 
46 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 When to Apply Lime to Soil. — As a top dressing for 
 sod land, lime may be applied either in the spring or 
 in the fall. The latter season is preferable, because 
 the lime will have more time to work down into the 
 soil than if applied in the spring. When sod land that 
 is to be placed to corn is limed in the spring, it is a 
 good plan to plow and roll the land before putting on 
 the lime. After the lime has been applied it should be 
 harrowed well into the soil. Although lime is not as 
 beneficial to corn as it is to some other crops, it is 
 helpful to the crop that follows corn. 
 
 Lime should never be applied just before planting 
 sugar beets or potatoes, as it will decrease the quantity 
 of sugar in the beets and the percentage of starch in 
 the potatoes. Neither should lime be applied at the 
 same time that manure or commercial fertilizer is put 
 on the soil, as it acts chemically with these substances 
 and sets the nitrogen free. This danger may be avoided 
 by applying the lime a few months before using the 
 manure or fertilizer. 
 
 TILLAGE 
 
 BENEFITS OF TILLAGE 
 Pulverization of the Soil.— One of the prime objects 
 of tillage is to break the soil into fine particles. Soil, 
 from lying dormant for months or perhaps years, be- 
 comes packed and hard; it is first turned up by the 
 plow and is then still further broken up by other 
 instruments of tillage until it is divided into very 
 minute particles, in which condition it is suitable for 
 a seed-bed. Much of the plant-food present in a soil is 
 liberated by this pulverization and made available for 
 plants, and the fine soil grains are thoroughly mixed 
 with manure, plant roots, and humus. Many of the 
 living plant roots are shredded, torn, and broken by 
 tillage so that they will not sprout again, but these 
 broken roots are left in a condition to enrich the soil. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 47 
 
 Effects of Sunshine on Plowed Soil.— As soon as the 
 plow or any of the lighter implements of tillage disturb 
 the top layer of soil, the effects of sunshine on it can 
 be noticed. The heat from the sun's rays soon dries 
 out the upturned furrow slices and makes it possible 
 for the air to enter. By this action, the soil begins to 
 weather and change structure. In addition to the facts 
 just mentioned, the soil is also sweetened, that is, 
 made less acid, by the action of the sunshine. Then, 
 too, many insects, and other vermin are destroyed by 
 the excessive heat. There is a danger, however, of 
 exposing the furrow to too much sunsine. For instance, 
 if the furrow slices are left upturned for too long a 
 time before the rolling and harrowing processes take 
 place, the soil will be injured by drying out too much. 
 
 Soil Aeration.— The drying of soil by sunshine makes 
 more space for air to enter among the soil particles. 
 This better aeration, as it is called, is very important 
 for crop production. Without sufficient air in the soil, 
 seeds cannot sprout or plants grow. Besides these uses, 
 were it not for the air in the soil, there would be no 
 decay of vegetable and animal matter. The presence of 
 air also makes possible chemical changes, without which 
 much of the plant-food of the soil would be kept in an 
 unavailable condition. The air, too, is absolutely nec- 
 essary for the use of soil bacteria. The sunshine can 
 do the best work when the soil is prepared to receive 
 the sun's heat. 
 
 Increase of Water-Holding Capacity.— As tillage breaks 
 up the soil into fine particles, it increases the amount 
 of the soil surface exposed to the air. This being the 
 case, the quantity of film water that a soil can hold 
 is increased. The greSt importance of an increase in 
 the film water held in a soil is obvious when it is re- 
 membered that it is from film water that plant roots 
 absorb the moisture for plant growth. 
 
 There is always more or less loss of film water by 
 evaporation from the surface. The damage done to 
 
48 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 crops by such loss of moisture, especially during dry 
 spells, is often considerable. There is a remedy, how- 
 ever, by which the farmer can at least prevent excessive 
 loss of moisture by evaporation. It has been found 
 that if 2 or 3 in. of fine, loose soil is kept on the 
 top of a cultivated field, that the quantity of moisture 
 lost by evaporation is reduced to a minimum. Such a 
 layer of loose soil, or dust mulch, as it is frequently 
 called, can be secured by frequently stirring the surface 
 soil with the implements of tillage. 
 
 Lessening of Denitrification.— A certain kind of bac- 
 teria called denitrifying bacteria exists in soil and causes 
 available nitrogen compounds to become unavailable. 
 The denitrifying bacteria work actively only where air 
 is absent. In well-tilled soil, therefore, which contains 
 plenty of air, denitrification practically ceases. 
 
 These injurious bacteria live in manures and straws 
 as well as in the soil, and if any of this vegetable 
 material containing active denitrifying bacteria is 
 plowed under a soil, and thorough tillage to supply air 
 is not practiced, the bacteria will continue to do their 
 destructive work of changing the available nitrates into 
 unavailable forms of nitrogen. 
 
 Mellowing of Soil.— A well-tilled soil is more mellow 
 and friable than one not well tilled, the mellowness 
 being due to the combined effects of tillage. Other 
 things being equal, a mellow soil is a good crop- 
 producing soil. 
 
 All kinds of soil are more or less dependent on tillage 
 operations to turn their characteristics into use. Rich 
 soil, for example, will not respond with profitable crops 
 without good tillage. Deep soil, too, is made better for 
 crops by careful tillage. A hard soil — that is, one 
 containing little or no plant-food — can be benefited by 
 tillage, but only after plant-food in the shape of manure 
 has been thoroughly mixed with the mineral matter of 
 the soil. A soil that is thin, due to the lack of plant- 
 food and humus, can be made deeper and more mellow. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 4d 
 
 provided plant-food and humus are well worked into it 
 by deep tillage operations. A soil that is thin by 
 reason of the nearness of the water-table can be made 
 deeper and more mellow by first removing the surplus 
 water by drainage and then practicing deep tillage. 
 Heavy soils that do not pulverize easily are benefited 
 by plowing them in the fall, and allowing the upturned 
 furrows to remain exposed to the weather during the 
 winter. 
 
 There are soils, however, that are not benefited by 
 tillage, and these are wet soils. The use of tillage 
 implements on soils of this class will greatly injure 
 their texture and make their surfaces lumpy and hard. 
 
 Destruction of Weeds. — One of the important benefits 
 of tillage is the destruction of weeds. Weeds are ex- 
 pensive boarders; they are greedy eaters, excessive 
 drinkers, and poor payers. They live on precisely the 
 same kind of food that crops do, and, what is more, 
 they take their food in the very same manner. Every 
 weed acts as a pump; its roots bring water to the stalk 
 from whence it is carried to the leaves, and is finally 
 lost to the plant by escaping into the atmosphere. Such 
 a drain of water and also of plant-food is very hard on 
 the crops that are growing on the soil. Tillage comes to 
 the aid of the farmer in the matter of weed destruction, 
 and if the operations are carried on at the right time 
 there need be but little loss of crop caused by weeds 
 growing in the soil. 
 
 TILLAGE OPERATIONS 
 
 Plowing. — Plowing is the first important work neces- 
 sary to prepare a suitable seed-bed for crops. It is the 
 basis for all other mechanical operations connected with 
 tillage. There is no other work done on a field that 
 can be substituted for good plowing. Not one of the 
 other operations of tillage, nor even all the rest com- 
 bined, can make amends for poor plowing, so essential is 
 the turning of the furrow slice to successful crop pro- 
 duction. So important is plowing, that experienced 
 4 
 
50 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 farmers consider that, even in the most favorable season, 
 the best soil and seed amount to but little unless the 
 plowing is well done. 
 
 Although the plowing of a field is done to prepare the 
 seed-bed for the immediate crop, it influences future 
 plowings and crops to a greater extent than is generally 
 supposed. Often one bad plowing so injures a soil that 
 a good seed-bed cannot be prepared until the soil has 
 had several good plowings. Hence, the plowing of a 
 field should always be done in the best manner possible. 
 
 The depth to plow can, to a large extent, be regulated 
 by the natural depth of the surface soil. A good rule to 
 follow in this respect is to plow a little shallower than 
 the soil depth. For instance, if the surface soil is 6 in. 
 in depth, the rule is to plow 5 in. deep; and, if the soil 
 is 5 in. in depth, to plow 4 or 4^ in. deep. But, if the 
 soil is 10 in. deep, plow 7 or 8 in.; if 12 in. deep, 
 plow 9 or 10 in. 
 
 The width of plowing is largely regulated by the 
 depth. It is impossible to plow a wide furrow and at 
 the same time make it of shallow depth. An old rule 
 in plowing is to make the furrow from 2 to 3 in. wider 
 than it is deep. According to this rule, then, if the 
 furrows are 4 in. deep, they should be 6 or 7 in. wide; 
 or if 5 in. deep, they should be 7 or 8 in. wide. More 
 modern practice, however, is to make the furrows as 
 wide as is possible for the power in use to make them 
 and still have the furrow slice well turned. Plowing 
 is the most expensive part of tillage work, and it 
 should be done as cheaply as possible; the wider the 
 furrow, the less the cost of plowing a given area. 
 
 Rolling.— The rolling of ground is often one of the 
 most important of the tillage operations. In cases where 
 it is desired to pack down a seed-bed, to crush clods, 
 and to secure a fine dust mulch on ground, the roller 
 is invaluable. However, no more injurious effect can 
 proceed from the use of any implement of tillage than 
 that from a farm roller used when the soil is too wet. 
 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 51 
 
 Soil in this condition is compressed into cakes that 
 adhere to the roller and are removed with difficulty. 
 
 Dragging. — The drag is used for leveling the uneven 
 edges of the furrows after plowing, and also for com- 
 pacting the ground. The drag is especially useful if 
 the plowed ground has been left very rough. The action 
 of the drag is to grind off and smooth the surface, not 
 to roll it as is done with a roller. For smoothing dry, 
 cloddy fields, the plank drag is much more effective 
 than the roller, as the drag breaks the clods instead of 
 pressing them deeper into the ground as is done when 
 a roller is used. The plank drag is also employed to 
 pulverize fields after they have been harrowed. In 
 this connection it is especially useful if the harrows 
 have failed to pulverize thoroughly the soil on the 
 surface of the field. 
 
 Harrowing.— After a field has been plowed and either 
 rolled or dragged, it must be pulverized to make it light, 
 fluffy, and smooth at the surface. This work is done by 
 harrowing, which is for the purpose of putting the 
 field in a smooth and well-finished condition for seeding. 
 If a field is wet it is in no condition to be harrowed. 
 The disturbing of the soil particles at such a time 
 causes the soil to puddle rather than to crumble. A 
 soil can, however, be too dry for harrowing; this is 
 especially true if there are many clods on the field. 
 Under such adverse conditions it is a saving of labor 
 and a reduction of expense to wait for rain. Ground 
 when frozen is also unfit for harrowing, as it will be 
 chopped into lumps instead of being crumbled. 
 
 The depth of harrowing is determined by the depth 
 of plowing, the condition of the soil, the crop, and the 
 season. The best average depth for harrowing is 3 in.; 
 soil should never be harrowed to the depth it was 
 plowed. If a soil is plowed to a depth of 5 in., for 
 instance, it would not be wise to harrow it to a depth 
 greater than 3H or 4 in., since the harrow teeth would 
 come too close to the turned-under sod. 
 
52 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 Wheat, according to the time of the year it is planted, 
 is known as winter wheat or as spring wheat. The 
 seed of winter wheat is planted in the fall; the seed 
 of spring wheat is planted in the spring. 
 
 Following is a brief description of the chief varieties 
 of wheat: 
 
 Fults wheat is a beardless soft winter wheat. It is 
 extensively grown in the eastern part of the United 
 States and Canada, and is noted for producing large 
 yields. It is probably the most widely grown variety 
 of wheat in the United States. 
 
 Blue Stem wheat is a beardless hard spring wheat. It 
 is extensively grown in Minnesota, where it has been 
 found to give large yields of good quality. 
 
 Mammoth Red wheat is a bearded soft winter wheat. It 
 is grown in the eastern part of the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 Purple Straw wheat is a beardless soft winter wheat. 
 It is grown in the eastern and the southern part of 
 the United States, particularly in the states south and 
 west of North Carolina. 
 
 Fife wheat is a beardless hard spring wheat. It is 
 extensively grown in Minnesota, and, like Blue Stem 
 wheat, has been found to produce large yields of good 
 quality. 
 
 Galgalos wheat is a beardless semihard wheat, grown 
 as a spring wheat in the South, particularly in Oklahoma 
 and New Mexico. 
 
 Kharkov wheat is a bearded hard winter wheat. It is 
 extensively grown in Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. 
 
 Club wheat has a short, compact head, and is the 
 wheat most widely grown in California, Oregon. 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 53 
 
 Washington, and Idaho. The grain is white and exceed- 
 ingly soft. 
 
 Spelt, of which there are both spring and winter vari- 
 eties, is a very ancient form of wheat that has been 
 cultivated for centuries in Europe and Africa. In 
 thrashing most other kinds of wheat all the chaff is 
 removed, but in thrashing spelt a part of it remains on 
 the grain. 
 
 Enuncr is similar to spelt in that the chaff adheres to 
 the grain after thrashing. 
 
 Einkorn is supposed to resemble the original wild 
 form of wheat from which all cultivated forms originated. 
 The head in einkorn is much flattened and is heavily 
 bearded, and the grains are somewhat angular in form. 
 
 Seven-headed wheat is a species that is distinguished 
 from the others by the branched head. It is known 
 also by the names Egyptian, Mummy, Hundredfold, and 
 Alaska. Agriculturally it is unimportant. 
 
 Durum tvheat is a species that has been grown in the 
 United States since 1901. It is well adapted for regions 
 where the summers are hot and the atmosphere is dry, 
 and is practically free from rust. Experience has 
 shown that it is particularly adapted to the Dakotas, 
 although it is now grown rather extensively in many of 
 the other Western states. 
 
 In the table on page 54 is given the date of the first 
 sowing and harvesting, the date of the most general 
 sowing and harvesting, and the date of the latest sowing 
 and harvesting of wheat in several states of the United 
 States. 
 
 Loose smut on wheat is combated by placing the seed 
 wheat in sacks, soaking it for 4 hr. in cold water, and 
 allowing it to stand for 4 hr. or more in the wet sacks; 
 it is then immersed for 5 min. in water having a tem- 
 perature of 133° F., after which it is ready to be dried 
 and sown. 
 
 Stmking smut is combated by: (1) Placing the seed 
 wheat in sacks and immersing it in water at 133° F. for 
 
54 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 
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GENERAL FARM CROPS 55 
 
 10 min. and then cooling it by placing in cold water 
 or by stirring the seed while drying. (2) Placing the 
 seed in a solution of copper sulphate, made by dissolving 
 1 lb. of the sulphate in 10 gal. of water; the seed is 
 immersed in the solution for 10 min. and then drained 
 for 10 min., after which it is spread out and dried. 
 (3) Immersing the seed for 30 min. in a solution made 
 by mixing 1 lb. of formalin with 50 gal. of water. 
 
 One of the best methods of combating the chinch bug, 
 which attacks wheat crops, is to plant some crop, such 
 as millet, as a barrier between the wheat and the corn 
 fields, and when the bugs are in this crop to spray it 
 with kerosene and then plow the plants under. Another 
 type of barrier is made by throwing two furrow slices 
 together and forming a ridge, along the top of which 
 there will be a slight depression; this depression is 
 filled with coal tar, which the bugs are unable to pass. 
 Holes are dug at intervals along the furrow next to the 
 wheat field and the bugs, in passing to and fro in 
 trying to find a way around the barrier, drop into these 
 holes. Kerosene is poured into the holes occasionally, 
 and as a result many of the bugs are killed. 
 
 A practice often adopted by farmers to prevent ravages 
 of the Hessian £y in the wheat crop is to delay the 
 sowing of the wheat until after the flies are killed by 
 early frosts. Another is to avoid the continuous crop- 
 ping of wheat on the same land. Perhaps one of the 
 best methods is to plant a strip of wheat along the 
 edge of the regular wheat field somewhat earlier than 
 the usual time of planting. The flies will then congre- 
 gate in this strip, and as a result the regular field will 
 not be ravaged. The burning of the wheat stubble is 
 also an effective preventive. 
 
56 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 OATS 
 
 The average yield of the oat crop in the United States 
 for several decades past has been a little over 27.5 bu. 
 per acre. The Northern states produce larger crops per 
 acre than do the Southern states. A few states report 
 yields as high as 50 or more bu. per acre. Yields of 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 60 to 70 bu. are considered to be high, although yields of 
 100 bu. per acre have been reported. 
 
 The average yield in the United States would be 
 produced by three plants on each square foot of an 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 57 
 
 acre, provided each plant produced three or four stalks 
 and each stalk produced 40 grains of fair size. An oat 
 crop is said to be well filled when each stalk bears 
 from 30 to 150 grains. 
 
 There are two distinct types of oats: (1) The spreading 
 oats, as shown in Fig. 1, in which the branches bearing 
 the grains spread in all directions from the main stalk, 
 or straw; and (2) the side, or mane, oats, as shown in 
 Fig. 2, on which all the branches bearing the grains 
 hang on one side of the main stem. These two distinct 
 types of oats may be subdivided as to time of planting 
 into spring and winter oats; as to color, into white, 
 black, gray, and red oats, and many variations of these 
 colors; and as to shape of the grain, into short and 
 plump oats, and long and slender oats. 
 
 There are also a few varieties of oats, the hulls of 
 which are so loose that they are separated from the 
 kernels in thrashing. Such varieties are called naked 
 oats. They are, however, poor yielders and are there- 
 fore not extensively grown. 
 
 The winter varieties of oats are those which are sown 
 in the fall. They have been grown almost wholly in 
 the South, but seem to be gaining favor in Northern 
 sections. 
 
 The spring varieties are those which are usually 
 planted in the spring. They are grown almost entirely 
 in the North. For Southern growers, the Red Rust 
 Proof and Virginia Gray varieties are recommended. 
 For planting in Northern United States, the varieties 
 known as American Banner, Improved American, Badger 
 Queen, Wide Awake, Colonel, Lincoln, Swedish Select, 
 and Siberian have met with much success. In Canada, 
 the Siberian variety is considered to be the best yielder. 
 
 Oats thrive best in a cool, moist climate and in a 
 soil that is not especially fertile, but in all instances 
 the soil should be moist. 
 
 Oats are inclined to grow too rank to produce a large 
 quantity of straw and a comparatively small quantity 
 
58 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 of grain, and have a tendency to break over, or lodge, 
 if they are grown on soils in a high state of fertility. 
 
 The most severe damage to the oat crop is caused by 
 oat smut. This disease causes a loss of from 5 to 50% in 
 fields sown with untreated seed. The best way to 
 combat the disease is to treat all seed oats with a 
 fungicide and thus kill the spores of the smut. The 
 treatments that are recommended for the stinking smut 
 on wheat are recommended for oat smut. The formalin 
 treatment, which is most commonly used, is as follows: 
 A solution made up of 1 lb. of formalin to SO gal. of 
 water is sprinkled over the oats at the rate of 1 gal. of 
 solution to 4 bu. of grain. The grain is then mixed 
 thoroughly by shoveling the oats into a conical pile, 
 and is covered with blankets. After being covered for 
 2 hr. the oats must either be sown or be spread out and 
 dried. 
 
 BARLEY 
 
 The barley plant is similar to wheat in its general 
 appearance and its habits of growth; barley grain re- 
 sembles the oat grain, in that it consists of a kernel 
 and a hull, except in the case of a few varieties known 
 as hull-less barleys. 
 
 Two distinct varieties of barley exist, namely, the 
 tzi'o-rowed and six-rozved varieties. There are, however, 
 other so-called varieties, known as four-rowed, hull-less, 
 and beardless. 
 
 Barley may be grown under more varied climatic con- 
 ditions than any other grain crop; also, it requires less 
 water for its production than any other grain crop, 
 though an abundance of water does not materially re- 
 tard its growth. It may be raised in nearly all parts 
 of the United States and in some sections of Canada, 
 and its cultivation is carried on successfully even in 
 Alaska. But the soil, to grow barley successfully, 
 should be well drained and fertile. 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 59 
 
 The only insect that proves injurious to barley is the 
 chinch bug. Smut attacks barley and as a preventative 
 the seed barley should be treated as follows: Place the 
 seed in sacks and soak it in cold water for 4 hr. ; 
 then let it stand in the sacks for 4 hr. After this 
 immerse the sacks with the grain in hot water at a 
 temperature of 130° F. for 5 min. The grain should 
 then be dried in the manner described for wheat. 
 
 RYE 
 
 Rye grows much taller than either wheat or barley, 
 frequently attaining a height of 6 or 7 ft. The heads 
 that bear the grain are longer and more slender than 
 those of wheat, and are covered with beards, as are 
 most of the barleys. Although rye kernels closely 
 resemble those of wheat, they are longer, more slender, 
 and more pointed at the end nearest the stem of the 
 head. 
 
 The annual yield of rye in the United .States is about 
 14 bu. per acre. Yields of 20 to 25 bu. are considered 
 to be fair, and those of 30 to 35 bu. are said to be good. 
 
 Rye is naturally adapted to a cool climate and will 
 thrive in climates that are too cold for wheat. How- 
 ever, it is successfully grown in the warmer sections 
 of the United States. It may be successfully grown in 
 soils that are too poor in fertility to produce average 
 yields of other grain crops. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT 
 
 Buckwheat is classed with grain crops, although it is 
 a member of a family of plants that includes sorrel, 
 smartweed. and bindweed. 
 
 Buckwheat leaves the soil in which it is grown in a 
 peculiarly mellow, crumbly condition, and for this 
 reason, together with the fact that it will grow in almost 
 any kind of soil, it is considered to be a soil improver. 
 
60 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 CORN 
 
 Four general classes of corn are grown on a com- 
 mercial scale. These are pop corn, flint corn, dent 
 corn, and sweet corn. 
 
 There are two general varieties of pop corn— Rice and 
 Pearl. The grains of Rice pop corn are pointed at the 
 top, and the ears are somewhat cone-shaped. The grains 
 of Pearl pop corn are rounded at the top and the ears 
 are cylindrical. 
 
 The kernels of flint corn are hard and smooth. In 
 shape they are nearly round. The width of grains varies 
 in different varieties from 5^ to ^ in. The average 
 depth in all varieties is about ^ in., and the thickness 
 is about T/e in. In color, flint kernels are usually 
 yellow, white, or red, although brown and purple 
 varieties are known. 
 
 The ears of flint corn vary in length from 4 to 18 in., 
 the average length being from 7 to 10 in., and in 
 diameter they vary from VA to 2 in. In most varieties 
 of flint corn there are but eight rows of kernels on a 
 cob, although ten, twelve, and even sixteen rows are 
 found on some varieties. 
 
 Among the leading varieties of flint corn may be 
 mentioned Rhode Island White Flint, King Philip, 
 90-Day Yellow Flint, Pennsylvania Yellow Flint, Long- 
 fellow Flint, and Hall's Golden Nugget. 
 
 The most widely distributed class of corn is dent corn, 
 which gets its name from the fact that the kernels, 
 when matured, are indented at the top. In color, dent 
 kernels are generally yellow or white, although red and 
 mixed yellow and red kernels are sometimes found. 
 
 The ears of dent corn vary in different varieties from 
 5 to 12 in. in length and from V/2 to 25^ in. in diameter. 
 A medium sized ear weighs J/S lb. and a rather large- 
 sized ear weighs ^ lb. The average number of rows of 
 kernels on dent ears is from sixteen to twenty, although 
 as few as eight and as many as forty-eight are some- 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 61 
 
 times found. The size and shape of grains vary with 
 the variety and with the position on the ear. 
 
 Among the important varieties of dent corn are: 
 Boon County White, Clarage, Funk's Yellow Dent, 
 Hickory King, Hildreth, Hogue's Yellow Dent, Johnson 
 County White, Kansas Sunflower, Leaming, Minnesota 
 No. 13, Pride of the North, Reid's Yellow Dent, Silver 
 King, and Silver Mine. 
 
 The corn most widely cultivated for household use is 
 szvcct corn. Part of the starch of sweet corn turns to 
 sugar during the growth of the plant. The corn is, 
 therefore, sweeter to the taste than other kinds of 
 corn. The grains of sweet corn, when matured, are 
 wrinkled at the surface, rather broad, and rounded at 
 the top. In most varieties a typical grain is about 
 1/2 in. long, % in. thick, and about 3/^ in. wide. 
 
 Among the early varieties that are highly recom- 
 mended are Early Golden Bantam, Marblehead, Crosby, 
 Chicago Market, Early Landreth; among the medium 
 varieties, Squantum, Maul's XX, Stabler's Early; and 
 among the late varieties, Ne Plus Ultra, Stowell Ever- 
 green, and Country Gentleman. 
 
 The number of quarts of seed corn used per acre will 
 vary largely with the size of the kernels. When planted 
 three kernels to the hill with the hills 3 ft. 6 in. apart, 
 from 4 to 4>^ qt. is the average quantity required to 
 plant an acre; where four kernels are planted to the 
 hill, the hills being 3 ft. 8 in. apart, about 5 to Syi qt. 
 are required to plant an acre. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows the United States divided into sections 
 or corn zones, and in the table showing the varieties 
 of corn grown for silage is given a list of some of 
 the best-known varieties of corn for silage for each 
 zone. 
 
 The table on pages 64 and 65 gives the date of the 
 earliest planting and harvesting, also the date of the 
 most general and latest planting and harvesting of corn 
 in several states of the United States. 
 
62 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 63 
 
 VARIETIES OF CORN GROWN FOR SILAGE IN 
 DIFFERENT ZONES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Variety 
 
 Length 
 of Ear 
 Inches 
 
 Northern zone: 
 
 Eariy Huron 
 
 Longfellow Flint 
 
 Pride of North 
 
 Silver King 
 
 Central zone: 
 
 Boone County White 
 
 Silver Mine 
 
 McAuley 
 
 Clarage 
 
 Funk's Yellow Dent 
 
 Golden Surprise 
 
 Learning 
 
 Reid's Yellow Dent 
 
 Riley's Favorite 
 
 Hogue's Yellow Dent 
 
 Hildreth 
 
 Southern zone: 
 
 Boone County White 
 
 Cocke Prolific 
 
 Hickory King 
 
 Red Cob Silage 
 
 Mosby Prolific 
 
 Virginia Silage 
 
 Eastern zone: 
 
 Hickory King 
 
 Cocke Prolific 
 
 Clarage 
 
 Learning 
 
 Longfellow Flint 
 
 Sibley's Pride of the North 
 
 Western zone: 
 
 Minnesota King 
 
 Dakota Dent 
 
 Hickory King 
 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 White 
 
 White 
 White 
 White 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 
 White 
 White 
 White 
 White 
 White 
 White 
 
 White 
 White 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 White 
 
 7 to 8 
 10 to 12 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 6 to 8 
 
 9 to 11 
 
 8 to 11 
 10 to 11 
 
 7 to 9 
 
 9 to 11 
 9 to 10 
 9 to 10 
 9 to 11 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 9 to 11 
 10 to 11 
 
 10 to 12 
 8 to 9 
 8 to 9 
 
 10 to 12 
 8 to 9 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 7 to 9 
 7 to 9 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 8 to 10 
 10 to 12 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 8 to 9 
 
64 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
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GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
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66 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 The average yield per acre of corn in the United 
 States is about 25 bu. ; a fair yield is 50 bu. ; 
 a good yield, 75 bu. ; an excellent yield, 100 bu. ; and 
 more than 125 bu. have been raised per acre. If corn 
 is planted in hills 3 ft. 8 in.- apart each way there will 
 be approximately 3,250 hills per acre, and if only one 
 plant, or stalk, in each hill produced one medium-sized 
 ear weighing ^^ lb. the yield per acre would be about 
 23 bu. If two stalks in each hill produced a J^-lb. 
 ear the yield would be 47 bu. However, if three stalks 
 grew in each hill and each stalk produced a large-sized 
 or a %-lb. ear the yield per acre would be more 
 than 100 bu. 
 
 The corn plant is injured by numerous insect pests 
 among 'which are rootworms, root lice, cutworms, white 
 grubs, earworms, stalk borers, chinch bugs, wireworms, 
 and bill bugs. Corn smut appears in masses of black 
 powdery spores on any part of the plant that is above 
 ground, although the parts most likely to be affected 
 are the ears and tassels. 
 
 The best way thus far discovered for ridding corn 
 plants of smut is to gather the masses of spores two 
 or three times during the season and either burn them 
 or place them in boiling water. The heat will kill the 
 spores, and germination will be prevented. 
 
 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 
 
 GRASSES 
 
 Timothy.— Timothy in some localities is called herd's 
 grass, but this name is confusing from the fact that the 
 same name is sometimes used to designate red top. 
 A seed-head of timothy is shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 In value, timothy leads all other hay grasses grown 
 in the United States. It is, however, nearly always 
 sown with Red or Alsike clover, sometimes with both. 
 When sown alone for hay, the quantity is about 15 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 67 
 
 lb., or Ys bu., per acre. If Red clover is included, 
 the quantity of timothy seed is reduced. In this case, 
 from 8 to 12 lb. of timothy is sown and about 8 lb. of 
 clover. 
 
 Timothy is sown at almost any time during the grow- 
 ing season, but if sown alone, the sowing should be 
 done in the fall, as the weather conditions at this time 
 are the most favorable for successful seeding. 
 
 Meadow Foxtail.— The grass known as Meadow fox- 
 tail, a head of which is shown in Fig. 5, is a near 
 relative of timothy and closely resembles it. Meadow 
 foxtail, however, differs from timothy in that its habit 
 of growth is slightly 
 creeping. Meadow fox- 
 tail is not common in 
 the United States. 
 
 Red Top.— Next to tim- 
 othy, red top is doubtless 
 the most important hay 
 grass in North America. 
 The plant is of a creep- 
 ing habit, producing long 
 underground stems. It 
 grows rapidly from seed 
 and quickly forms a 
 dense, smooth sod. These 
 latter characters make it particularly adapted for lawns 
 and pastures, and it is consequently largely used for 
 these purposes. The seed head is open and spreading, 
 as will be seen in Fig. 6. Red top is sometimes mistaken 
 for blue grass on account of the similarity of the heads 
 of the two plants. 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass.— Probably the best-known pas- 
 ture grass of the United States is Kentucky blue grass, 
 also known in some sections as June grass. The first 
 name doubtless had its origin in the fact that the plant 
 grows luxuriantly in the limestone regions of Kentucky; 
 the second name was given on account of the fact that 
 
 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 
 
68 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 the grass is at its best during the month of June. The 
 plant is rather shallow rooted and strongly creeping in 
 habit. When it becomes well established, it forms a 
 fairly dense, even sod. The leaves are crowded near 
 the base of the plant, and are light green in color. The 
 end of the blade of blue grass is closed, giving the end 
 of the leaf the appearance of the keel of a boat. A head 
 of Kentucky blue grass is shown in Fig. 7. 
 
 Canada Blue Grass.— Canada blue grass very closely 
 
 resembles Kentucky blue grass, but the stem of the 
 
 former is more zigzag than that 
 
 of the latter and the seed head 
 
 of the Canada blue grass, which 
 
 ^j, __ is illustrated in Fig. 8, is more 
 
 J^^^w^^^ 1^ flattened and is not so spread- 
 
 ^^^ *^ «^«» ing as in the Kentucky blue 
 
 grass. 
 
 Smooth Brome Grass.— Smooth 
 brome grass is strongly creep- 
 ing in habit and a coarse 
 grower, under favorable condi- 
 tions reaching a height of from 
 4 to 5 ft., and forming a dense 
 sod from 6 to 8 in. thick. The 
 leaves are coarse, being from ^ to >^ in. wide, and often 
 reach a length of 1 ft. The seed head is in the form of 
 a long, spreading panicle, as will be seen from Fig. 9. 
 The seeds are among the largest of those of the cul- 
 tivated grasses, often being ^ in. in length. 
 
 Orchard Grass. — Orchard grass is a common grass in 
 some sections of the United States. The grass probably 
 derives its name from its ability to thrive under the 
 shade of trees, although it does not appear to grow 
 better in the shade than in the open. It is not creeping 
 in habit like blue grass, but has a habit of growth 
 similar to that of timothy. The plant does not form 
 an even sod like many other grasses, but grows in 
 raised clumps, making a very uneven and bunchy sod. 
 
 Fig. 7 
 
 Fig. 8 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 69 
 
 The coarse, light-green leaves are mostly produced near 
 the ground. It will be seen from Fig. 10 that the 
 panicle is somewhat spreading, with the flowers clus- 
 tered in what are known as tufts. 
 
 Meadow Fescue. — Meadow fescue somewhat resembles 
 brome grass when in blossom. Its habit of growth, 
 however, is not at all similar to that of brome grass, 
 as it is not a creeping plant. Meadow fescue can be 
 distinguished from most other grasses by its shiny. 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 9 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Fig. 10 
 
 bright-green leaves. A seed head of Meadow fescue is 
 shown in Fig. 11. 
 
 Tall Oat Grass.— Tall oat grass is related to the com- 
 mon cultivated oat plant. A seed head of tall oat grass 
 is illustrated in Fig. 12. The grass is known also as 
 Meadow oat grass, and in some localities as Evergreen. 
 This last name is used in the southern part of the 
 United States, where this grass remains green through- 
 out the year. Tall oat grass grows to a height of from 
 3 to 5 ft., and forms clumps like orchard grass. 
 
70 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 Bermuda Grass. — In the southern part of the United 
 States, Bermuda grass is a favorite. The plant repro- 
 duces from seed and from creeping 
 stems on or just below the surface 
 of the ground. The main prostrate 
 stem may extend 4 or 5 ft. during 
 the season and send out several 
 lateral branches a foot or two in 
 length. At intervals of an inch or 
 two, the stems take root. A flower- 
 ing stem is shown in Fig. 13. The 
 stems grow from a few inches to 
 2 ft. in height, depending on the 
 soil and the climate. The habit of 
 the grass is to form a dense sod, 
 which bears trampling by cattle. It 
 does not produce seed in the United 
 States except in the extreme South. 
 Italian Rye Grass.— Italian rye 
 grass, a head of which is shown in 
 Fig 11 ^*^" ^'^' ^^^'^^^s ^^ maturity a height 
 of from 2 to 3 ft. It is a short- 
 lived grass, lasting but 1 yr., or, at best, 2 yr. 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass.— Perennial rye grass, often 
 
 known as English rye grass, is said to have been the 
 
 first of the true grasses domesticated for hay and 
 
 I pasture purposes. This grass grows 
 
 I / from 1 to 2 ft. in height, and is 
 
 >t tjjr adapted to both pastures and 
 
 ^^'^<:^/^ "meadows. 
 
 ^"■^^jp^ Johnson Grass.— In the southern 
 
 part of the United States, Johnson 
 grass is grown to some extent for 
 hay and pasture, although it is 
 probably more often looked on as 
 an undesirable weed than as a useful plant. 
 
 Johnson grass often grows from 4 to 7 ft. high and 
 produces seed on a spreading head, as shown in Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 13 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 71 
 
 Velvet Grass. — Velvet grass is a low-growing variety 
 that reaches a height of about 2 ft. It derives its name 
 from the downy character of the leaves and other parts. 
 This character makes it distasteful to horses and cattle. 
 It is said that these animals will nearly starve before 
 acquiring a liking for velvet grass, but when once 
 accustomed to it they thrive remarkably well on it. 
 
 Quack Grass.— Quack grass is usually regarded as a 
 weed wherever it is common. It spreads by underground 
 stems in much the same manner 
 as Johnson grass. In spite of 
 its weedy character, it is often 
 utilized as a hay and pasture 
 
 grass. 
 
 Texas Blue Grass.— 
 
 Texas blue grass is a 
 
 close relative of Ken- 
 tucky blue grass and 
 
 has similar habits. 
 
 It is a grass of south- 
 ern origin and 
 
 adapted to southern 
 
 conditions, although 
 
 it is grown as far 
 
 north as Tennessee. 
 
 It is used for both 
 
 meadows and pas- 
 ture and in some cases it is used successfully for lawns. 
 The Millets.— The millets grown in North America 
 are generally classed in four groups, only two of which 
 are of importance in the United States as hay. These 
 two groups are the foxtail millets and the broom-corn 
 millets, specimens of which are illustrated in Fig. 16. 
 The three important varieties of the foxtail millets are 
 Common millet, shown in (a); German millet, shown in 
 (c) ; and Hungarian grass, shown in (d). 
 
 Sorghum.— Although sorghum is generally used for 
 another purpose, namely, that of producing sirup, it has 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
72 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 Fig. 16 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 73 
 
 great value as a hay crop in many parts of the country. 
 
 Kafir Corn.— Kafir corn is a variety of sorghum, 
 although it does not have the sugar-producing qualities 
 of the latter. It is most commonly grown for the grain, 
 but is sometimes planted for hay in the same manner 
 as sorghum. It is especially adapted to the semiarid 
 sections, as it is able to endure extreme heat and 
 drought. 
 
 Teosinte.— Teosinte is an annual grass that much re- 
 sembles Indian corn in habit of growth; it is of tropical 
 origin, and consequently not adapted to northern con- 
 ditions. It is grown rather extensively in the southern 
 part of the United States. 
 
 LEGUMES 
 
 Nearly all leguminous plants have certain common 
 characteristics. The leaves are arranged around the 
 stem in regular order — not two-rowed as in grasses. 
 The leaf consists of a stalk and leaflets. All legumes 
 have a common form of 
 blossom, examples being 
 sweet peas, garden peas, 
 and beans. The root 
 system of legumes com- 
 prises a large central 
 root, called a tap root, 
 from which numerous 
 branches are sent out at 
 varying distances. The 
 roots of all legumes un- 
 der favorable conditions 
 bear tubercules, or nod- 
 ules, which are caused 
 by certain forms of bac- 
 teria that live in the 
 soil. They have the 
 power of assimilating the 
 free nitrogen of the soil 
 it to the root tubercules. 
 
 Fig. 17 
 
 atmosphere and of transferring 
 
74 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 Red Clover. — Red clover is the most important legu- 
 minous crop in the United States and is especially 
 valuable as feed for milch cows, sheep, and in fact 
 almost all classes of growing animals. It is not so 
 suitable for horses because it is liable to contain too 
 much dust. In purchasing Red-clover seed, care should 
 be taken to secure seed free from such adulterants as 
 Yellow trefoil, dodder. Curled dock. Sheep sorrel, Lamb's 
 quarters, and Green foxtail. 
 
 Experiments have 
 proved that a crop of 
 Red clover yielding 
 4,900 lb. of dry matter 
 per acre will leave in 
 the soil from roots 
 and stubble 44 lb. of 
 nitrogen, 32 lb. of 
 potash, and 13 lb. of 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
 The stem, leaves, 
 and blossoms of a 
 Red clover plant are 
 shown in Fig. 17. 
 
 Perhaps the worst 
 enemy of clover is 
 the dodder plant, 
 which is a tawny yel- 
 low plant that twines 
 about the clover 
 plant, as shown in 
 Fig. 18, and on which 
 it lives. 
 
 Fig. 18 Mammoth Red 
 
 Clover.— Mammoth Red clover, also called Mammoth 
 clover, Perennial Red clover, and Pea vine clover, is a 
 variety of ordinary Red clover, differing from it in a few 
 respects only. It is larger and coarser than Red clover, 
 is a longer-lived plant, and matures 3 or 4 wk. later. 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 75 
 
 Alsike Clover.— Alsike clover, a plant of which is 
 shown in Fig. 19, has not attained the wide reputation 
 that Red clover has, and is seldom a competitor with 
 it where the latter can be grown successfully. But it 
 is especially well adapted to land too wet for Red 
 clover 
 
 Fig. 19 
 
 Alsike clover may be used for the same purpose as 
 Red clover, and matures at about the same time. It is 
 often used in a mixture with Red clover to make certain 
 that there will be at least a partial crop in case the 
 
 latter fails. 
 
76 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 Crimson Clover. — Crimson clover, a plant of which is 
 shown in Fig. 20, diflFers from the other clovers in that 
 it runs its life history in less than a year from seeding. 
 This variety of clover is not likely to be hardy in 
 northern latitudes; hence, it is not planted extensively 
 north of the 40th parallel. It is grown most extensively 
 in the South Atlantic States. 
 
 White Clover.— White clover, also called Dutch clover, 
 is a small plant of creeping habit. It is very common 
 in pastures and lawns. The stems of the plant are 
 prostrate, but at intervals, blossoms and leaves are 
 produced that assume an upright habit of growth, as is 
 well illustrated in Fig. 21. The root system of White 
 clover is much shallower than the root system of other 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 77 
 
 clovers; also, there is not so deep a tap root as is 
 produced by either Red or Alsike clover. 
 
 White clover is less affected by climatic conditions 
 than Red clover and is better adapted to moist, rich 
 soils than to soils that are too dry. For this reason, 
 it makes better growth during wet seasons than during 
 dry seasons. It is one of the best plants for pasture 
 and lawn purposes, for which it is most largely used. 
 
 Fig. 21 
 
 hay 
 im- 
 
 Alfalfa.— Among the leguminous plants used as 
 and pasture crops, alfalfa is probably second in 
 portance. It is a strongly growing branching perennial, 
 which, at full maturity, may have a height of 3 or 4 ft. 
 As shown in Fig. 22, which illustrates an old root that 
 is starting a new growth, alfalfa has a large tap root, 
 which grows directly downwards. Under favorable con- 
 ditions the tap roots often reach a depth of from 12 to 
 
78 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 14 ft,, depending on the character of the soil and the 
 
 depth of the permanent water-table. 
 
 Alfalfa is used as a 
 feed for cattle, 
 horses, sheep, swine, 
 and poultry. It is 
 used as pasture, as 
 hay, as silage, and 
 as a soiling crop. 
 About four-fifths of 
 the alfalfa grown in 
 the United States is 
 made into hay. Some- 
 times the hay is 
 ground into meal and 
 sold as alfalfa meal. 
 Alfalfa is a par- 
 ticularly desirable 
 feed for young stock, 
 because it contains a 
 large percentage of 
 protein, which is es- 
 sential for growth of 
 young animals. It is 
 also a good roughage 
 for beef cattle. It 
 has been determined 
 that 1 acre of alfalfa 
 will produce from 562 
 lb. to 706 lb. of beef 
 annually. 
 
 In the eastern half 
 of the United States 
 it is usually neces- 
 sary, for the success- 
 
 FiG. 22 
 
 ful growing of alfalfa, to inoculate the soil with the 
 proper nodule-forming bacteria. 
 
 Cowpeas.— The cowpea is an annual leguminous plant 
 that is grown extensively in the South and is used 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 79 
 
 largely to take the place of forage crops and of grain 
 as feed for all kinds of farm animals. The feeding 
 value of cowpeas is very high, as they are rich in 
 protein. 
 
 Above . ground there may be considerable variation in 
 this plant, but there are only two general forms. One 
 form is decidedly bushy 
 in habit of growth; the 
 other is of a trailing 
 form. The bushy forms 
 may grow to only 1 ft. or 
 so in height; the trailing 
 forms may extend only 
 a few feet along the 
 ground or they may ex- 
 tend 15 or 20 ft. 
 
 In Fig. 23 is shown a 
 young cowpea plant with 
 two seed pods. 
 
 Soybeans. — The s o y- 
 bean, also known as soja 
 bean, is an erectly grow- 
 ing plant of from 2 to 
 4 ft. in height. As 
 shown in Fig. 24, the 
 leaves are composed of 
 three large leaflets borne 
 at the end of a stem. 
 This stem is often from 
 10 to 12 in. in length. 
 The leaves, stems, and Fig. 23 
 
 pods are covered with stiff, reddish hairs. As with 
 alfalfa and cowpeas, the leaflets are the most valu- 
 able part of the plant when it is used as forage. 
 The seeds are nearly globular, usually more or less 
 compressed, and in color range from whitish to brown 
 and black. In some varieties they are yellowish; in 
 others green. The plant is prolific and will produce as 
 many as 200 pods containing about 450 seeds. Root 
 
80 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 nodules, which are often as large as small peas, are 
 borne in great profusion. The amount of nitrogen 
 added to the soil by a crop of soybeans is large. It 
 is believed that the proper nodule-forming bacteria are 
 often wanting in the soils of the United States, unless 
 provided artificially. 
 Vetches. — The vetches commonly grown in the United 
 
 Fig. 24 
 
 States are of two kinds: the Hairy vetch, also known as 
 the Sand vetch; and the Common vetch. The leaf of 
 these plants is composed of about eight pairs of leaflets 
 arranged in pairs along the sides of the midrib. The 
 stems of the plants trail on the ground unless they are 
 supported by an upright plant. Both kinds of vetches 
 make excellent green-manure crops. 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 81 
 
 Field Peas.— Field peas are an important crop in 
 Canada. Although they are not grown so extensively 
 in the United States, they are doubtless well adapted 
 to various portions of the country. 
 
 Miscellaneous Legumes.— Other leguminous plants that 
 are occasionally grown are: Japan clover, Florida beggar 
 weed, Sweet clover. Yellow trefoil or Black medic. 
 Bur clover, and Velvet bean. 
 
 POTATOES 
 
 The common potato is the enlarged, fleshy, underground 
 stem, known as the tuber, of the potato plant. Although 
 the tubers are widely known as Irish potatoes, the 
 plant is a native of America. Aside from its universal 
 culture in home gardens, the potato constitutes an 
 important field crop, ranking next to rice as a food 
 product for the human race. It is also extensively used 
 for feeding to domestic animals. In those sections of 
 America where potatoes are most largely grown, the 
 small and the badly diseased potatoes, that is, the un- 
 marketable portion of the crop, are used for the manu- 
 facture of starch, and in certain sections of Europe 
 large yields of comparatively small tubers are grown 
 especially for the manufacture of starch and of alcohol. 
 
 The average yield of potatoes in the United States 
 for several decades past has been 83 bu. per acre. It 
 takes about 15 bu. of seed potatoes cut into 1 oz. pieces 
 to plant 1 acre, provided the rows are spaced 3 ft. apart 
 and there is a space of 12 in. between the hills in the 
 rows. If each seed piece grew and produced two 4-oz. 
 potatoes, which are only medium-sized potatoes, 1 acre 
 would yield 121 bu. of marketable potatoes. If each 
 hill should produce eight 4-oz. potatoes, or 2 lb., as 
 every grower should endeavor to have the crop yield, 
 1 acre would yield 484 bu. of marketable potatoes. 
 
 Among the thousands of varieties of potatoes that have 
 been developed the following may be considered as 
 
82 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 standard: Bliss, Triumph, Bovee, Burpee, Extra Early, 
 Crown Jewel, Early Ohio, Early Rose, Early Thorough- 
 bred, Eureka, Norton Beauty, Reliance, Six-Weeks' 
 Market, Beauty of Hebron, Irish Cobbler, Polaris, White 
 Elephant, Burbank, Carman Number 3, Freeman, Green 
 Mountain, Peachblow, Pearl, Rural New Yorker Num- 
 ber 2, Sir Walter Raleigh, State of Maine, Snowflake, 
 and Vermont Gold Coin. In a general way, the varieties 
 are mentioned in the order of their earliness of matiirity. 
 Some varieties, however, mature much earlier in one 
 section of the country than in another. 
 
 The principal diseases of potatoes are early blight, late 
 blight, and scab. The blights destroy the foliage of the 
 plants and thus materially reduce the yield, and the 
 scab attacks the tubers. The blights are prevented by 
 spraying with Bordeaux mixture. There is no standard 
 formula for this mixture; however, a good Bordeaux 
 may be made up of the following: 5 lb. of copper 
 sulphate, 5 lb. of fresh quicklime, and 50 gal. of water. 
 If to this mixture 1 lb. of Paris green or 3 lb. of 
 arsenate of lead are added the mixture will be effective 
 in killing the potato bug, the most common insect pest 
 of the potato. 
 
 The percentage of scabby potatoes in the crop produced 
 can be materially decreased by disinfecting the seed 
 potatoes by soaking them, before cutting, for 2 hr. in 
 a solution consisting of >4 pt. of formalin and 15 gal. of 
 water, or for 1^ hr. in 2 oz. of corrosive sublimate 
 •dissolved in 15 gal. of water. 
 
 ROOT CROPS 
 
 The principal plants that are grown as farm crops for 
 their fleshy roots are mangel wurzels, beets, turnips, 
 rutabagas kohlrabi, carrots, parsnips, and artichokes. 
 
 Mangel Wurzels.— Among the best known varieties 
 of mangel wurzels, or cattle beets, or field beets, are the 
 Norbiton Giant, Gate Post, Golden Tankard, and Yellow 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 85 
 
 Globe. These are grown almost entirely as feed for 
 livestock. 
 
 Sugar Beets.— Sugar beets are grown both for the 
 manufacture of sugar and as feed for livestock. The 
 leading variety grown for sugar production is the 
 Kleinwenzlebener. The leading varieties grown for 
 stock feed are Lane's Imperial, Danish Red Top, and 
 Danish Improved. 
 
 Turnips.— Three members of the turnip family are 
 commonly grown as farm crops, namely, the common 
 turnip, the rutabaga, and the hybrid turnip, which is a 
 cross of the common turnip and the rutabaga. Some 
 of the most-used varieties of common turnips are: 
 Purple Top, White Globe, Golden Ball, Snow Ball, 
 Strap Leaf, and Cow Horn. 
 
 In general appearance and habits of growth rutabagas 
 are much the same as common turnips. They are used 
 both as vegetables for human food and as a feed for 
 stock. Two common varieties of rutabagas are the 
 Purple Top and the Green Top. 
 
 Rutabagas are larger than common turnips and will 
 yield twice as much bulk per acre, for which reasons 
 they are grown more extensively as a root crop for 
 stock feeding. One of the most apparent differences 
 between the turnip and rutabaga is that the latter has 
 a greater development at the crown, producing a distinct 
 neck which the turnip does not have. 
 
 Kohlrabi.— Kohlrabi is a plant that is frequently re- 
 ferred to as the turnip-headed cabbage, for the only 
 part used is the enlarged fleshy stem that grows above 
 ground. 
 
 The two most common varieties are the White Vienna 
 and the Purple Vienna. 
 
 Carrots. — The carrot is grown for human food and as a 
 feed for livestock, particularly for horses. The juices 
 of some varieties are used for coloring butter and the 
 seed is employed in the manufacture of some kinds of 
 liquor. 
 
84 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 Parsnips.— The parsnip is a hardy plant that is widely 
 grown in the United States for human food, and to 
 some extent as a feed for horses. In European coun- 
 tries, it is valued highly as a cattle feed. Since the 
 roots grow entirely under the soil, harvesting is more 
 difficult than with most other root crops, and as the 
 roots are comparatively small it is not likely that it 
 will ever become popular in the United States as a 
 crop for livestock. 
 
 Jerusalem Artichokes.— The Jerusalem artichoke is a 
 native of the United States. In its habit of growth 
 it resembles a small sunflower and belongs to the same 
 botanical family. It has a coarse foliage and grows 
 very rank. The artichoke is seldom planted with the 
 expectation that it will be grown but 1 yr. Usually 
 a field is devoted to it for several years, in some cases 
 as many as 7 years. 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 The tobaccos grown most widely in the United States 
 are the White Burley, grown in Kentucky and small 
 areas in neighboring states; Export, or heavy, tobacco, 
 grown in the Middle West and in Maryland; Bright 
 Yellow tobacco, grown chiefly in Virginia and the 
 Carolinas; Sun-Cured tobacco, raised to a very limited 
 extent in Virginia; Perique, which has a wide reputa- 
 tion, but is raised only in a small area in Louisiana; 
 and cigar tobaccos. 
 
 All of the tobaccos named, except cigar tobaccos, are 
 used in the manufacture of chewing, cigarette, and pipe 
 tobaccos and are known as manufacturing tobaccos. 
 However, a portion of the Export tobacco is used in 
 foreign countries for the manvifacture of cigars. 
 
 The cigar tobaccos are classed according to their use 
 as cigar-filler, cigar-binder, and cigar-wrapper tobaccos. 
 
 Cigar tobaccos are raised in two distinct zones in the 
 United States. The northern zone includes a large 
 portion of the Connecticut River valley in the states 
 
GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 85 
 
 of Connecticut and Massachusetts; two districts in 
 New York, embracing Chemung and Onondaga and por- 
 tions of adjoining counties in one, and Tioga and por- 
 tions of adjoining counties in the other; Lancaster and 
 adjoining counties in Pennsylvania; Montgomery and 
 Miami and portions of adjoining counties in Ohio; and 
 small areas in Southern and Western Wisconsin. The 
 southern zone includes Gadsden County, Florida, with 
 the adjacent county of Decatur in Georgia and small por- 
 tions of adjoining counties; and small areas in Southern 
 Alabama, and Anderson and Nacogdoches counties, 
 Texas. 
 
 SOILING CROPS 
 
 Crops that are cut and fed green to livestock, either 
 in the stable or the feed lot, are called soiling crops. The 
 practice of feeding such crops is known as soiling. 
 Soiling may be either partial or complete, depending on 
 whether the feeding is practiced simply to supplement 
 pastures or to supply all of the green feed used by the 
 animals. Often several soiling crops are grown on the 
 same land in a single season and each soiling crop 
 produces a large quantity of feed per acre. 
 
 In the accompanying table is given a suggested list of 
 crops and the acreage required in a partial soiling 
 system for soiling 20 cows during the usual dry period 
 
 PARTIAL SOILING SYSTEM FOR 20 COWS 
 
 Kind of Crop 
 
 Area to be 
 Seeded 
 Acres 
 
 Time of Feeding 
 
 Oats and peas 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 T 
 3 
 
 July 4 to Aug. 1 
 Aug. 1 to 20 
 
 
 Millet 
 
 Com 
 
 Rape 
 
 Aug. 10 to 20 
 Aug. 20 to Sept. 5 
 Aug. 15 to Oct. 15 
 
 Clover (second crop) 
 
 Sept. 1 to Oct. 1 
 
86 
 
 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
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 o o CO oOO 
 
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GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
 87 
 
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 GENERAL FARM CROPS 
 
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FRUIT CULTURE 89 
 
 from Aug. 1 to Oct. 15, in a region where blue-grass 
 pastures prevail. In this plan, the soiling crops are 
 depended on to supplement the pasture until corn 
 silage is available, silage being used through the winter. 
 
 In the table on page 86 is given a complete suc- 
 cession of soiling crops, together with the rate and time 
 of seeding, and the feeding period. The system given in 
 this table is used in the New England states for the 
 complete soiling of a herd of 20 cows from May to Oct. 
 
 In the table on page 87 is given a system used in 
 Wisconsin, for a herd of 20 cows; the table on page 88 
 is a system applying to conditions in New Jersey and 
 near-by territory and furnishes green feed for 20 cows 
 for a period of 6 mo. 
 
 These tables are not intended as absolute guides, but 
 are for the purpose of giving a correct idea of the 
 essentials of a soiling system and to emphasize the 
 importance of a complete and orderly succession of crops. 
 
 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 SPRAYS FOR FRUIT PLANTS 
 
 INSECTICIDES 
 
 Arsenate of Lead.— Arsenate of lead is a much-used 
 poisonous insecticide that contains very little soluble 
 arsenic; it stays in suspension well, is not easily 
 washed from plant foliage by rain, and has some 
 value as a fungicide. It is sold as a paste and as a 
 powder. The paste form is used at the rate of 2, 3, 
 or 4 lb. to 50 gal. of water, the exact quantity de- 
 pending on the pest to be combated. Half as much of 
 the powdered form as of the paste form is required. 
 
 Paris Green. — Paris green is an arsenical poison easily 
 recognized by its green color. It contains a higher 
 
90 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 percentage of soluble arsenic than arsenate of lead. It 
 should not be used on peaches, cherries, or plums. Often 
 used as a potato spray. Generally used in the form of a 
 spray consisting of 1 lb. to from 75 to 150 gal. of water. 
 
 Arsenite of Lime.— Arsenite of lime is an arsenical 
 spray that is cheaper than arsenate of lead or Paris 
 green, but its use is likely to be attended with spray 
 injury. Made by boiling 1 lb. of white arsenic and 
 2 lb. of good lime in 2 gal. of water for 40 min. Water 
 to make 300 gal. of spray is added. 
 
 London Purple.— London purple is a by-product in the 
 manufacture of aniline dyes. Varies greatly in com- 
 position, and for this reason is not often used in 
 orchard work. Used in the same proportion and in 
 the same way as Paris green. 
 
 Hellebore.— Hellebore is a poison made from the 
 powdered roots of hellebore. Recommended as a substi- 
 tute for arsenical poisons where insects must be com- 
 bated on nearly ripe fruit. May be applied dry 
 mixed with from 5 to 10 parts of flour or lime, or as a 
 spray consisting of 1 oz. of hellebore to 1 gal. of water.- 
 
 Lime-Sulphur. — Lime-sulphur is a contact insecticide 
 made by boiling stone lime and powdered sulphur. 
 Used as a spray on dormant trees at 1.03 sp. gr. for 
 scale insects, especially the San Jose scale. Also used 
 as a fungicide at 1.007 to 1.01 sp. gr. Concentrated 
 lime-sulphur may be purchased or may be made at 
 home by using the proportion of 1 lb. of lime, 1 lb. pow- 
 dered sulphur to 1 gal. of water and boiling for 1 hr. 
 The concentrated mixture should be tested with a 
 hydrometer and water added to give the specific gravity 
 required for the spray. 
 
 Miscible Oil.— Oil that has been chemically treated 
 so that it will combine with water to make a uniform 
 mixture is called miscible oil. Such oils are used 
 successfully as contact insecticides. Many brands of 
 miscible oils are on the market. Miscible oil is often 
 used as a spray for the San Jose scale. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 91 
 
 Kerosene Emulsion.— Kerosene emulsion is a contact 
 insecticide, similar in nature to miscible oil. Made 
 from kerosene with soap as an emulsifier. Much used 
 for combating plant lice. It is made by dissolving 1 lb. 
 of soap in 1 gal. of water and adding 2 gal. of kerosene 
 and churning with a force pump until a butter-like 
 mass is formed. To this is added water in different 
 proportions for spraying. 
 
 \ Distillate Oils.— Distillates are made from oil taken 
 ifrom wells in the western part of the United States. 
 Used either as an emulsion or in the form of a mechan- 
 ical mixture. Used for combating scale insects. 
 
 Tobacco Extracts and Decoctions.— Tobacco extracts 
 and decoctions are spray materials made from tobacco 
 waste. Much used for plant lice and other sucking in- 
 sects. Many proprietary tobacco decoctions are on the 
 market, and these, when applied in accordance with the 
 directions that accompany the packages, will generally 
 prove satisfactory. May be made at home by steeping 
 1 lb. of tobacco in 1 gal. of water. 
 
 FUNGICIDES 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture.— Bordeaux mixture is a much-used 
 fungicide made from copper sulphate and lime. Can 
 be used successfully on most fruit and vegetable crops. 
 Sometimes causes injury to fruit and foliage of apple 
 and other fruit trees. The copper sulphate, lime, and 
 water are combined in different proportions, depending 
 on the plant to be sprayed and the fungus to be com- 
 bated. The strength of Bordeaux mixture is designated 
 by figures giving the proportions of the ingredients and 
 followed by the name Bordeaux. For example, 6 : 6 : 50 
 Bordeaux means that the proportions of the mixture 
 are 6 lb. of copper sulphate, 6 lb. of lime, and 50 gal. of 
 water; 3 : 4 : 50 means that the proportions are 3 lb. of 
 copper sulphate, 4 lb. of lime, and 50 gal. of water. 
 
 Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate.— Ammoniacal copper 
 carbonate is a solution made from copper carbonate 6 oz., 
 
92 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 ammonia 3 pt. and water to make 50 gal. This solution 
 does not cause injury to fruit as Bordeaux mixtures does, 
 and for this reason its use on ripe fruit may some- 
 times be advisable, but it is more injurious to the tree 
 than Bordeaux mixture and is not so effective. 
 
 Sulphur Dust.— Sulphur in the form of dust has con- 
 siderable value as a fungicide. It is used principally 
 to combat powdery mildew on certain kinds of fruit. 
 
 Potassium Sulphide.— A spray of some value as a fungi- 
 cide is made by dissolving from 2 to 3 oz. of potassium 
 sulphide, sometimes called liver of sulphur, in 10 gal. 
 of water. It is of value principally for powdery mildew 
 on berry plants. 
 
 Lime-Sulphur. — During recent years dilute lime-sulphur 
 is being used as a summer fungicide to replace Bordeaux 
 mixture for many classes of fruit plants. It is claimed 
 that lime-sulphur does not cause injury to fruit as does 
 Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur.— Self-boiled lime-sulphur is 
 a mechanical mixture of lime and sulphur. A small 
 quantity of the sulphur becomes dissolved in the mix- 
 ture, and it is this sulphur that gives the preparation 
 its fungicidal property. Much used as a summer spray 
 for peaches. It is made by adding sufficient water to 
 lime to start slaking and then sifting in sulphur. 
 Water is added to keep up the slaking and the mixture 
 is thoroughly stirred. When slaking is complete enough 
 cold water must be added to cool the mixture at once. 
 The proportion of 6 lb. of sulphur, 6 lb. of lime to 
 50 gal. of water is generally used in making the com- 
 pound, but other proportions are sometimes recom- 
 mended. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 93 
 
 APPLES 
 
 VARIETIES OF APPLES 
 
 Summer Varieties.— Among the most important sum- 
 mer varieties of apples are the following: 
 
 Yellow Transparent: Summer apple; good variety for 
 the home orchard. Tree is rather a slow grower, but 
 bears at an early age; often 2- or 3-year-old trees 
 will set considerable fruit. Fruit, above medium in 
 size, beautiful clear yellowish white in color; flesh, 
 white, juicy, with a pleasant flavor. Skin somewhat 
 tender; fruit should be picked often in order to be 
 marketed in good condition. 
 
 Early Harvest: One of the oldest and most widely 
 disseminated varieties of summer apples in America. 
 Tree, vigorous and healthy; comes into bearing rather 
 young. Fruit, medium size; pale yellow; pleasant; of 
 very good quality. 
 
 Red Astrachan: Widely known variety of summer 
 apple. Tree, medium size, fairly vigorous, although in 
 some sections it is not very productive. Fruit, medium 
 to large size; red splashes over greenish or greenish 
 yellow; a little too sour for dessert, but excellent for 
 cooking. Apples mature unevenly; are very perishable; 
 and are not well suited for long shipment. 
 
 Oldenburg : Adapted to a cool climate, but widely dis- 
 seminated; considered one of the most important of 
 summer apples. Tree, rather a slow grower; medium 
 in size; bears when young; prolific in most localities. 
 Fruit, medium to large; roundish to oblate; yellowish, 
 almost completely covered with irregular splashes and 
 stripes of red; stands shipment fairly well; generally 
 in demand on the market. 
 
 Gravenstein : Summer variety that is fairly well known 
 in most sections. Tree, strong, vigorous, spreading. 
 Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblate; red and yellow 
 striped. Flesh, yellowish; firm; quality very good. 
 
94 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Fall and Winter Varieties.— Several of the important 
 varieties of apples suitable for fall and winter use are: 
 
 Fall Pippin: Tree, large; moderately vigorous; long 
 lived. Fruit, large; yellowish-green; of good quality, but 
 ripens unevenly, the first often being ready in September 
 and the last not ripening until a few weeks later. A 
 desirable variety for home and commercial orchards. 
 
 Alexander: Fall, or in some places a late summer 
 apple, grown especially in the eastern apple-growing 
 regions. Tree, a strong grower; bears at an early age. 
 Fruit, round, conic, or oblate conic; very large; coarse 
 in texture; of fair quality; greenish yellow almost cov- 
 ered with red stripes; ripens early in July in Vir- 
 ginia and continues until Sept. or Nov. in New York. 
 
 IVolf River: Similar to the Alexander. Tree, fairly 
 vigorous; large; spreading; comes into bearing rather 
 late. Fruit, large; broad; flat at the base; round; 
 slightly conic; bright red and yellowish stripes blushed 
 with deep red. Flesh yellowish; somewhat coarse; 
 juicy; of only fair to good quality. On account of their 
 high color and good size the apples are in good demand 
 on the market. Fruit may be kept until Dec. in a cool 
 cellar or until Jan. in cold storage. 
 
 Wealthy: An important fall apple extensively grown 
 in the Central States and to some extent in the Eastern 
 States. Tree, hardy and thrifty when young, but with 
 maturity it becomes a rather slow grower. Fruit, me- 
 dium to large; roundish oblate; of good quality; heavily 
 striped with red over light yellow or green. Flesh, 
 white, sometimes tinged with red. 
 
 Fameuse: An old variety decidedly adapted to North- 
 ern regions. Tree, of medium size; a moderate grower; 
 healthy and long lived. Fruit, above medium in size; 
 roundish and somewhat conic; bright red, deepening to 
 purplish black in the best colored specimens. Flesh, 
 white, often streaked or tinged with red; quality, good. 
 
 Mcintosh: Similar to the Fameuse, but adapted to a 
 wider range of localities. Tree, in some localities a 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 95 
 
 slow grower and not very productive; in other places, 
 a strong grower, hardy, and productive; bears fairly 
 early; yields good crops. Fruit, medium to large; 
 roundish to somewhat oblate; red with a slight amount 
 of whitish yellow or green; quality, very good to best; 
 prized for dessert, but lacks sufficient firmness to stand 
 long shipment. Flesh, white or slightly yellowish; often 
 tinged with red; firm; fine; crisp; tender; juicy; 
 aromatic. 
 
 Hnbbardston: An early winter variety. Tree, vigor- 
 ous and generally of good size. Fruit, medium to 
 large; roundish ovate; red mingled with yellow or 
 green. Flesh, whitish; slightly tinged with yellow; 
 quality, very good to best. 
 
 Tompkins King: One of the highest quality apples 
 produced. Tree, rather vigorous; lateral branches, slen- 
 der and somewhat drooping. Fruit, large to very large; 
 roundish; sometimes inclined to conic; red with a 
 small amount of yellow. Flesh, rich yellow; tender; 
 aromatic; juicy; quality very good to best. In ordinary 
 storage the King keeps until Dec. or Jan., and in cold 
 storage until about Feb. King apples are probably at 
 their best about Christmas. 
 
 Yellow Belleilower: Tree, large; vigorous; good grower; 
 fairly hardy; not a satisfactory bearer. Fruit, round- 
 ish oblong, narrowing toward the base; pale lemon yel- 
 low, often with brownish yellow cheek; quality good; ex- 
 cellent for dessert and for cooking. Flesh, white, 
 showing slightly yellowish. The season same as King. 
 
 Winter Banana: Tree, medium; vigorous; a fair grower; 
 bears young; yields moderate crops; in most cases is 
 an annual bearer. Fruit, large; roundish conic; bright 
 pale yellow with a dark pinkish blush; quality, good 
 to very good. Flesh, whitish tinged with yellow; 
 moderately firm; tender; juicy. The apples are better 
 for dessert than for cooking, being too mild in flavor 
 for the latter purpose. They will keep in cold storage 
 until about March. 
 
96 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Smokehouse: Tree, vigorous; healthy; hardy; bears 
 rather young; a good yielder, usually producing crops 
 annually; has a tendency to form a dense head. Fruit, 
 medium large to large; oblate; yellow; deeply mottled 
 red; flesh, slightly tinged with yellow; rather firm; 
 crisp; juicy. Quality is good. Season is from Oct. to 
 Feb. in storage. 
 
 Black Gilliflower: Tree, medium in size; a vigorous 
 grower; generally a reliable bearer. Fruit, medium in 
 size; long ovate to oblong conic; dark red to dull 
 purple. Flesh, whitish or yellowish; becomes mellow 
 and mealy on standing. The season is from Oct. to 
 Jan. or Feb. 
 
 Rambo: Tree, of medium size; moderately vigorous. 
 Fruit, medium in size; roundish or somewhat oblate in 
 form; greenish yellow, mottled with red; quality, good 
 to very good. Flesh, white, tinged with yellow or 
 green; juicy; rather fine grained. In ordinary storage 
 the apples keep until Nov.; in cold storage until Feb. 
 
 Tolman Sweet: Tree, moderately vigorous; a good 
 grower; long lived; very hardy. Fruit, medium; oblate; 
 pale yellow, sometimes slightly blushed; sweet; quality 
 fair to very good. Flesh, white; firm; rather tough. In 
 ordinary storage the apples will keep until about Jan. 1 
 and in cold storage to about March or April. 
 
 York Imperial: Tree, vigorous; a thrifty grower; a 
 good bearer, bearing biennially, or in some cases an- 
 nually. Fruit, medium to large, roundish oblate, and 
 distinctly lopsided; pinkish red over green or yellow. 
 Flesh, yellowish; firm; fairly juicy; quality, generally 
 good. In cellar storage it will keep from Jan, to 
 April; in cold storage it seems to scald badly, and may 
 last only through Feb. 
 
 Smith Cider: Tree, moderately vigorous; has long, 
 stout, straggling branches. Fruit, medium; round; 
 striped pinkish red. Flesh, whitish; juicy; of good 
 flavor. Desirable for cooking purposes; will keep in cel- 
 lar storage until Feb. ; in cold storage until March. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 97 
 
 Baldwin: The most important commercial winter apple 
 grown in America, a standard fruit in both American, 
 and export markets, and one of the principal varieties 
 handled in cold storage. Tree, strong grower; long 
 lived; vigorous; slow to come into bearing, but bears 
 very abundantly, generally biennially. Fruit, medium in 
 size; roundish to conic; red over light yellow or green. 
 Flesh, yellowish; moderately coarse; quality good to 
 very good. Fruit is suitable both for dessert and cooking 
 purposes. Its season in ordinary storage is from Nov. to 
 March, in cold storage until May or June. 
 
 Esopiis Spitccnherg: Better known, perhaps, as Spit- 
 zenberg. Is of the Baldwin type, but of better quality 
 and more highly prized as a fancy dessert fruit. It is 
 also a good quality cooking apple. Tree, rather slow 
 grower and generally rated as a moderate cropper. 
 Fruit, medium to large; oblong; bright red over yellow. 
 Flesh, yellowish; crisp; tender; quality very good to 
 best. Its season extends from Nov. to Feb. or March 
 in ordinary storage and to May or June in cold storage. 
 
 Delicious: Tree, a strong grower and a heavy bloomer. 
 Fruit, large to very large; oblong conic, with 5 points 
 projecting from the basin; red splashed and striped over 
 pale yellow. Flesh, pale yellow; tender; moderately 
 juicy. The quality is of the best, especially for dessert. 
 
 Rhode Island Greening: As a type of green apple, the 
 Rhode Island Greening is the best known in America. 
 Tree, large and spreading; a reliable cropper; yields 
 fruit annually. Fruit medium to large; grass green in 
 autumn, to yellowish green when fully matured; roundish 
 oblate; a good shipper. Flesh, yellowish; firm; fine 
 grained; juicy; quality very good. It is highly prized 
 for cooking and by many is thought to be an excellent 
 dessert fruit. Its season is about the same as that of 
 Baldwin. 
 
 Yellow Newtown: Also known as the Albemarle Pip- 
 pin. Tree, vigorous and erect. Fruit, yellow, often with 
 a pink blush spread over a part of the surface. Flesh, 
 
 7 
 
98 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 yellowish with a mild and highly aromatic flavor. Its 
 season extends from Jan. until April and sometimes until 
 May. 
 
 Northern Spy: Tree, large and vigorous; upright; 
 a slow grower and late coming into bearing, but when 
 mature a good yielder. Fruit, large to very large; 
 roundish conic; pale yellow nearly concealed by pinkish 
 red and splashed with carmine. The flavor is very good 
 and the fruit is well liked for dessert and for cooking. 
 In ordinary storage the apples cannot be kept much 
 later than Feb. or March, and even in cold storage they 
 are likely to deteriorate if left longer than March. 
 
 Jonathan: Tree, medium; fairly reliable cropper; 
 bears rather early. Fruit, small to medium; roundish 
 conic; bright red over yellow, which is sometimes 
 visible where a twig or leaf has shaded the fruit. 
 Flesh, white often marked with red; juicy; spicy; 
 quality, very good to best. Its season is from Oct. to 
 some time in Jan. in ordinary storage, and to Feb. or 
 March in cold storage. 
 
 Ben Davis: Tree, medium; rather a rank grower when 
 young; has coarse, strong wood that will stand under 
 heavy crops. The form of tree tends to be upright and 
 roundish, becoming rather spreading in old trees. Fruit, 
 medium to large; conic; deep red or red striped. Flesh, 
 whitish slightly tinged with yellow; firm; moderately 
 coarse; slightly tough. The quality is fair to poor. Its 
 season extends as late as June or July if the fruit is 
 kept in cold storage. 
 
 Gano: Similar to the Ben Davis, although better in 
 quality. Tree, generally vigorous and of the same up- 
 right spreading habit as the Ben Davis. Fruit, me- 
 dium; roundish conic; light yellow, overlaid almost com- 
 pletely with red. Flesh, whitish, slightly tinged with 
 yellow; firm, but coarse in texture. Its season is about 
 the same as that of Ben Davis. 
 
 Black Ben Davis: Is of the Ben Davis type, but re- 
 sembles the Gano more nearly than the Ben Davis. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 99 
 
 Tree, upright when young but spreading and dense 
 when mature. Fruit, medium to large; roundish conic; a 
 clear pale yellow covered with a brilliant red that be- 
 comes a dark purple on the side exposed to the sun. It 
 lasts until April and May when kept in cold storage. 
 
 Winesap: Tree, of medium size; rather vigorous; bears 
 early; usually an annual cropper. Fruit, small to 
 medium; roundish; slightly conical; deep red. Flesh, 
 yellowish, with an occasional red streak running 
 through it; juicy; crisp; quality, good to very good. 
 The ordinary limit in cold storage is April. 
 
 Staymen Winesap: Tree, fairly vigorous; spreading; 
 rather open. Fruit, medium to very large; roundish conic 
 to globular; a dull red that is rather indistinctly striped 
 with carmine. Flesh, yellowish or greenish; crisp; 
 juicy; quality good to very good. The fruit will keep 
 in storage until April or May. 
 
 Wagener: Tree, small; vigorous when young, but short 
 lived. Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblate; bright, 
 light-red stripes over pale yellow. Flesh, whitish, 
 slightly tinged with yellow; juicy; tender. Quality, 
 very good to best, being similar to the Northern Spy 
 in this respect. Its season extends from Oct. to Feb. 
 
 Grimes: A variety adapted to middle latitudes and one 
 of the best quality apples produced. Tree, moderately 
 vigorous; branches, short, curved, and crooked; good 
 cropper. Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblong. 
 Flesh, yellow; firm; tender. Can be kept until Jan. or 
 Feb. in cold storage. 
 
 Rome, or Rome Beauty: Does well in the latitude of 
 New Jersey and Southern Ohio. Tree, not particularly 
 vigorous, but attains medium size and bears early. 
 Fruit, medium to very large; roundish; red mixed with 
 yellow. Skin, thick; tough; smooth. Flesh, nearly 
 white, with a slight tinge of yellow or green; juicy; 
 crisp; of an agreeable taste; good quality. The fruit is 
 used both for dessert and for cooking purposes. The 
 season extends to about April or May. 
 
100 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Stark: Tree, vigorous; large; a reliable cropper, and 
 very productive. Fruit, medium to large; red mixed 
 with dull green or yellow. Flesh, yellowish and firm; 
 quality, fair to good. The apples can often be kept in 
 storage until May. A variety widely grown in the central 
 part of the United States. 
 
 PRUNING OF APPLES 
 
 When the young apple tree from the nursery is planted 
 it should be cut back and the head started about 2^ to 
 3 ft. from the ground. If the branches are properly 
 placed, the three or four best ones should be cut back 
 to stubs 10 to 15 in. in length; these branches should 
 be strong and be spaced about 6 in. apart on the trunk. 
 If the branches on the tree are not properly placed so 
 that a good head can be started, cut off all the branches, 
 leaving the trunk merely a whip, and form the head 
 from the new shoots that are sent out. 
 
 There is much difference of opinion in regard to the 
 subsequent pruning of the apple tree. Some authorities 
 give detailed instructions as to just how and when an 
 apple tree should be pruned, and the approximate dis- 
 tances the tree should be cut back at different ages. 
 Taking the average experience of a large number of 
 growers, however, it seems that the best results have 
 not been obtained by heavy pruning, but rather by 
 moderate pruning, and that the least cutting possible 
 should be done, consistent with -training the tree into 
 such form that each individual fruit will receive as 
 much light as possible, and with keeping the tree in 
 such form that spraying and harvesting can be done 
 to the best advantage. The most economical way of 
 pruning is to pinch out, and train the growth of the 
 branches during the summer so that only the limbs 
 that are desirable are permitted to grow. This will 
 save cutting out a large quantity of wood later on, and 
 the branches permitted to grow in this way usually grow 
 larger than those pruned during the dormant season. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 101 
 
 From year to year after the tree has once been properly 
 started, it should be developed according to some 
 definite system. Each of the original three or four 
 main branches should be headed back some the second 
 spring and two branches allowed to develop on each of 
 them, the branches coming off at different points and 
 growing in such directions that the top of the tree 
 will be balanced and open. That year, during the 
 summer, the growth on these laterals should be limited to 
 two or three branches, chosen with the same end in view, 
 as in the case of the first laterals. This system of se- 
 lecting branches should be continued for 3 or 4 yrs. until 
 the main framework of the tree has been built up. 
 
 After the framework of the tree has been built up, 
 the quantity of wood cut from the tree should be 
 gradually reduced, until only the removal of misplaced 
 and diseased branches will be needed. When the trees 
 approach bearing age care should be taken to leave the 
 fruit spurs on the tree and to keep the bearing wood 
 low and well distributed in all parts of the tree so that 
 the load of fruit may be well carried and easy of access. 
 
 Future injury to the tree is prevented if the pruning 
 is well and neatly done. No stubs should be left, the 
 cuts being made flush with the limb from which a 
 branch is pruned. All large cuts that will not heal over 
 in a short time should be painted with a good white lead 
 and linseed-oil paint. This painting of the wounds is very 
 important and should never be neglected. 
 
 SPRAYING OF APPLES 
 
 The principal insects attacking the apple are the bud 
 moth, canker worm, coddling moth, apple maggot, cigar- 
 case bearers, San Jose scale, oyster-shell scale, scurfy 
 scale, leaf-blister mite, round-headed borer, and apple- 
 tent caterpillar. The principal diseases of the apple are 
 scab, fire blight, black rot, sometimes called New York 
 apple-tree canker, and bitter rot. 
 
102 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 In order to control the insects and diseases of the 
 apple that can be controlled by spraying the following 
 system of spraying will be found effective: 
 
 1. During the season when the trees are dormant and 
 just as the leaf buds are swelling but before they are 
 open, spray with lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.03 — that 
 is, concentrated lime-sulphur of 33° Baume diluted 
 1 to 8 with water) to which has been added 2 lb. of 
 arsenate of lead to each 50 gal. of solution. This 
 spraying is for the control of the San Jose scale, leaf- 
 blister mite, bud moth, and cigar-case bearer. It is gen- 
 erally known as the dormant spray. 
 
 2. After the leaf buds are open, but just before the 
 fruit blossoms open, or about the time when the fruit 
 blossoms are beginning to look pink at the tips, spray 
 with a dilute lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1,007, that 
 is, concentrated lime-sulphur of Z2)° Baume diluted 
 1 to 40 with water). Bordeaux mixture (8 lb. copper 
 sulphate, 4 lb. lime, water-slaked, 50 gal. water), may 
 be used instead of the dilute lime-sulphur, but it is 
 likely to cause some damage to the foliage or fruit or 
 to both. Whichever of these solutions is used, arsenate 
 of lead should be added (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead to 
 50 gal. of the other spray solution). This combined 
 fungicide-insecticide spray is for the control of the 
 apple scab, bud moth, cigar-case bearer, and canker 
 worm. 
 
 3. After the petals have begun to fall from the apple 
 blossoms, starting when about two-thirds of them have 
 fallen, spray with the solution given in paragraph 
 2, preferably with the lime-sulphur-arsenate-of-lead solu- 
 tion. This spraying is for the control of the apple 
 scab, leaf spot, coddling moth, canker worm, and bud 
 moth, and is the most important of all the applications. 
 
 4. From 10 to 14 da. later another application of the 
 solution given in paragraph 2 should be made for the 
 control of apple scab, leaf spot, coddling moth, and 
 canker worm. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 103 
 
 5. From 8 to 9 wk. after the blossoms fall the spray- 
 ing described in paragraph 2 should again be repeated 
 for any late infections of the apple scab that may occur, 
 and also for any of the later brood of the coddling moth. 
 Though in most seasons this application will not be 
 found necessary, the work is not so expensive but that 
 it generally pays to apply it. 
 
 6. In case the green aphis attacks the foliage, spray 
 thoroughly, before the leaves begin to curl, with a 
 whale-oil soap solution (1 lb. whale-oil soap to 6 gal. of 
 water), or with a tobacco preparation guaranteed to con- 
 tain 2.7 per cent, of nicotine diluted with 65 to 100 
 parts of water, or with kerosene emulsion diluted in the 
 proportion of 1 part of emulsion to 6 parts of water. 
 
 The importance of applying all of these sprays thor- 
 oughly and at the right time cannot be too greatly 
 emphasized. 
 
 PEACHES 
 
 VARIETIES OF PEACHES 
 Early Varieties.— The following are the principal early 
 varieties of peaches that are used in commercial plant- 
 ings: 
 
 Greensboro: Very early. Fruit, white fleshed; medium 
 to large; oblong to oval, often somewhat flattened; 
 clingstone; fair flavor, rather soft for distance ship- 
 ment. Tree, hardy and productive. Best market peach 
 of its season and profitable where an early peach is in 
 demand. Inferior to Carman in flavor and shipping 
 quality, but ripens 2 wk. earlier. 
 
 IVaddell : Early. Fruit, white fleshed; medium size; 
 oblong conic; semi-clingstone; flavor better than 
 Greensboro; better for shipment than Greensboro. Tree, 
 hardy and productive. Fruit needs to be thinned 
 severely to reach good size; ripens only a few days in 
 advance of Carman. Can be used to start the Carman 
 season, especially in local markets. 
 
104 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Carman: Ripens a few days after Waddell. Fruit, 
 white fleshed; large; round to oval; semi-clingstone; 
 flavor, medium to good; shipping quality, fair to good. 
 Tree, hardy and productive. Regarded as the first im- 
 portant early shipping variety. More hardy and pro- 
 ductive than Elberta in most sections, but not high enough 
 in flavor for a good canning peach. 
 
 St. John: Earliest yellow-fleshed market variety. 
 Fruit, yellow-fleshed; medium size; round, blunt at apex; 
 freestone; flavor, high; rather soft for distance shipment. 
 Tree, fairly hardy and productive in some localities. 
 
 Mountain Rose: Medium early; ripens about 7 to 9 
 da. after Carman. Fruit, white fleshed; medium size; 
 nearly round, blunt at apex; freestone; high prominent 
 flavor; shipping quality, fair. Tree, fairly hardy and 
 in favorable seasons, productive; less hardy than Greens- 
 boro, Carman, and Hiley. 
 
 Hilcy, or Early Belle: Medium early fruit, white 
 fleshed; large; oblong conic, apex pointed; freestone; 
 high quality and flavor. This variety has taken the 
 place of Mountain Rose in some localities, as it is hardier, 
 of better shipping quality, and ripens at the same 
 season. 
 
 Brigg's Red May: Early-ripening variety in California. 
 Fruit, medium to large; skin white, with rich red cheek; 
 round; semi-clingstone. Standard early variety. 
 
 Alexander : Widely grown early variety in California. 
 Fruit, greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; 
 medium to large; semi-clingstone; flesh, firm, juicy, and 
 sweet; bears transportation well. 
 
 Mid-Season Varieties.— The following are the prin- 
 cipal mid-season varieties of peaches used in commercial 
 plantings: 
 
 Champion: Ripens about 5 to 8 da. after Mountain 
 Rose or Hiley. Fruit, white fleshed; large; round, blunt 
 at apex; freestone; flavor regarded as the highest; 
 rather tender for distance shipment, otherwise a good 
 market variety. Tree, hardy and productive. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 105 
 
 Belle of Georgia: Ripens a few days before Elberta, 
 and a few days after Champion begins. Fruit, white 
 fleshed; large; oblong conic, apex pointed; freestone; 
 high flavor; especially desirable for distance shipments; 
 very firm. Tree, hardy and productive. Good variety 
 both for market and for the home garden. 
 
 Reeve's Favorite: Ripens about the same time as Belle 
 of Georgia. Fruit, yellow fleshed; very large; round, 
 with blunt apex; freestone; high flavor; good shipping 
 quality. Tree, less hardy than Early Crawford; lacks 
 productiveness as generally grown. 
 
 Foster: Widely grown in California where it ripens 
 just before or about the time of Early Crawford. Fruit, 
 yellow fleshed; uniformly large; slightly flattened, with 
 slight suture; freestone; flavor, good, rich, and juicy. 
 Tree, hardy and productive. 
 
 Oldmixon: Ripens about with Early Crawford. Fruit, 
 white fleshed; large; roundish, or slightly oval in shape; 
 flavor, excellent; flesh, juicy. 
 
 Early Crawford: Ripens about 7 to 9 da. before 
 Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; medium sized; requires 
 severe thinning to be of best size; round oval, blunt at 
 apex; freestone; high quality; rather tender for ship- 
 ping. Tree, rather tender in bud; fairly productive. 
 
 Elberta: Ripens a few days later than Belle of 
 Georgia. Fruit, yellow fleshed; very large; oblong oval, 
 often somewhat flattened; freestone; medium to good 
 quality according to locality; firm; excellent for shipping. 
 Tree, hardy and productive. Most popular market peach 
 grown. 
 
 Edc : Ripens about with Elberta. Fruit, yellow 
 fleshed; large; round oval conic; freestone; higher in 
 flavor than Elberta; shipping quality good. Tree, hardy 
 and productive. 
 
 Frances: Ripens a few days after Elberta. Fruit, 
 yellow fleshed; large; round to oval; freestone; high 
 flavor; good shipping quality. Tree, hardy and pro- 
 ductive. 
 
106 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Late Varieties.— The following are the main late vari- 
 eties of peaches used in commercial plantings: 
 
 Fox Seedling: Ripens about 10 to 14 da. after Elberta. 
 Fruit, white fleshed; large; oval to conic; freestone; 
 flavor good; shipping quality, good. Tree, medium hardy 
 and productive. Best commercial variety of its season. 
 
 Muir: California variety. Ripens a few days before 
 Late Crawford. Fruit, large to very large; freestone; 
 flesh, yellow; flavor, excellent; fruit good both for 
 shipment and canning, and also particularly adapted 
 for drying. Tree, good bearer and strong grower. 
 
 Newhall: Grown largely in California. Ripens with 
 or sometimes a few days before Late Crawford. Fruit, 
 yellow fleshed; very large; freestone; flavor rich, some- 
 what vinous. Tree, hardy, healthy, and vigorous. 
 
 Late Crawford: Ripens from 10 to 14 da. later than 
 Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large, round to oval, 
 blunt at apex; freestone; flavor, good, but rather acid; 
 shipping quality, fair to good. Tree, rather tender in 
 bud, and, therefore, variable in productivity. 
 
 Smock: Ripens from 10 to 14 da. later than Elberta. 
 Fruit, yellow fleshed; medium to large; oblong to oval; 
 freestone; flavor, fair; flesh, rather dry; shipping quality 
 good. Tree, hardy and productive. Old variety, grown 
 commercially in some districts. 
 
 Edgemont Beauty: Ripens about 10 to 14 da. later 
 than Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large; round to 
 oval, pointed at apex; freestone; shipping quality good. 
 Tree of the Crawford type, but appears to be slightly 
 more hardy and productive. 
 
 Iron Mountain: Ripens 5 to 6 da. later than Edge- 
 mont or Late Crawford. Fruit, white fleshed; skin, 
 greenish white; large; oblong to oval; freestone; high 
 quality; firm. Tree, vigorous, hardy, and productive. 
 
 Krummel October: Ripens 7 to 10 da. after Late 
 Crawford. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large; freestone; 
 round, blunt at apex; quality, high; good shipper. 
 Tree, medium hardy and productive. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 107 
 
 Salway: Ripens 2 wk. after Late Crawford. Fruit, 
 yellow fleshed; medium to large; round to oval; 
 freestone; flavor good where season permits of thorough 
 ripening; shipping quality good. Tree, requires long 
 season and good soil to be medium hardy and pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 Yellozv Tuscany: Late variety, grown extensively in 
 southern California. Ripens about 2 wk. later than 
 Late Crawford; fruit, yellow fleshed; large; clingstone; 
 especially desirable for canning. Tree, productive and 
 a strong grower. 
 
 Bilyeii: Ripens about a month later than Late Craw- 
 ford. Fruit, white fleshed; medium to large; round to 
 oval; freestone; quality fair; very firm. Tree, hardy 
 and productive where season is long and soil rich. 
 
 Stalcy: Late variety grown extensively in California; 
 ripens about 3 wk. after Salway. Fruit, white fleshed; 
 very large; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; 
 freestone; flavor, delicious; flesh, very juicy and tender. 
 
 PRUNING OF PEACHES 
 
 Before a young peach tree from the nursery is planted, 
 the top should be cut back to about 2 ft. above the bud. 
 If the side branches that are left are large they should 
 be pruned back to stubs 2 to 3 in. long; if they are 
 slender, the tree Sliould be cut back to a cane. All 
 injured roots should be cut back smoothly, and all of 
 the roots should be cut back to not exceed 6 in. in 
 length. 
 
 The pruning the second spring should be with the 
 object of retaining the strongest two, three, or four 
 main branches that will tend to form the strongest and 
 best balanced tree; all other branches should be pruned 
 off close to the trunk. 
 
 The pruning the third spring consists in thinning out 
 the secondary branches that, when the tree becomes 
 larger, would exclude the light. Where two branches 
 take up much the same space, the weaker or more 
 
108 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 irregular branch should be removed. The branches left 
 should be cut back from a third to a half of the previous 
 season's growth, and if a tree possesses some branches 
 that have made an excessive or irregular growth, these 
 branches should be cut back even more severely in 
 order to maintain a well-balanced top. 
 
 Beginning with the fourth spring, when the form of 
 the tree has become well established, and continuing 
 throughout the life of the tree, the pruning consists in 
 cutting back the annual growth about a third to a 
 half on the leading branches, and in keeping 
 the top well thinned. The cutting back of the tips of 
 the branches will tend to cause a thickening of the 
 top, thus making the thinning of the top a necessity. 
 In cutting back any leading branch, the cut should 
 be made just above or beyond a side branch, or if no 
 such side branch exists, the cutting should be made 
 to a bud on the outside of the branch. Any broken 
 branches should be cut off smoothly where they join 
 another branch. 
 
 The annual cutting back of bearing peach trees re- 
 duces the bearing surface and may considerably reduce 
 the crop, because the peach bears its fruit principally 
 on the previous season's wood or twig growth, although 
 some of the fruit is produced on spurs and short twigs 
 that develop on portions of branches that are 2 and in 
 some cases even 3 yr. old. Most commercial varieties 
 of peaches, however, set such an abundance of fruit buds 
 that some annual cutting back is necessary to keep them 
 from overbearing and to retain the vigor of the tree. 
 
 Unpruned peach trees frequently produce a somewhat 
 larger crop the first season than trees that have been 
 regularly pruned, but after the first or second crop the 
 pruned trees generally produce the larger crop, as they 
 are likely to be more vigorous and to have a greater 
 annual growth. Peach trees that are regularly pruned 
 are much longer lived than unpruned trees, and the 
 buds are less likely to be injured in winter. 
 
FRilT CILTCRE 109 
 
 SPRAYING OF PEACHES 
 
 The principal insects attacking the peach are the 
 peach borer, plum curculio, and San Jose scale. The 
 principal diseases of the peach are brown rot, black 
 spot, or scab, leaf curl, and yellows. Spraying is not 
 effective for yellows, the only known means of control 
 being to take out and burn diseased trees as soon as 
 they are discovered. 
 
 The following method of spraying should be followed 
 for peaches: 
 
 1. Spray, before the buds open, with lime-sulphur 
 mixture (at sp. gr. 1.03 to sp. gi". 1.035 — that is, 
 concentrated lime-sulphur of 3i° to 34° Baunie diluted 
 1 to 8 or 1 to 9 with water) for the control of scale and 
 peach-leaf curl. 
 
 2. Spray just after petals fall from blooms with a 
 mixture of 2 to 3 lb. arsenate-of-lead paste to 50 gal. of 
 water to control the curculio. 
 
 3. Spray when calyx is being shed from the fruit with 
 self-boiled lime-sulphur (about 8 lb. sulphur, 8 lb. lime, 
 50 gal. water) to which has been added 2 to 3 lb. arsenate 
 of lead for each 50 gal. of solution, for the control of 
 curculio, scab, and brown rot. 
 
 4. Spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (same formula 
 as given in paragraph 3) about 3 wk. after the third 
 spraying for the control of scab and brown rot. 
 
 5. For mid-season and late varieties, such as Cham- 
 pion, Elberta, Fox Seedling, Salway, and Bilyeau, 
 spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (same formula as 
 given in paragraph 3) about 2 wk. after the fourth 
 spraying, for the control of scab and brown rot. 
 
110 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 PEARS 
 
 VARIETIES OF PEARS 
 
 Of the many thousand varieties of pears the following 
 are the most important commercially; they are named 
 approximately in the order in which they mature, the 
 summer, fall, winter, varieties being given in the order 
 named: 
 
 Bloodgood: Of considerable importance throughout 
 California. Tree, generally hardy, close grower, having 
 deep reddish-brown wood; short jointed; comes into 
 bearing early and bears an abundance of fruit. Fruit, 
 yellowish-white flesh; though fairly good in flavor is not 
 very attractive in appearance. 
 
 Clapp's Favorite: Tree, very strong grower; young 
 wood, reddish, dark brown; tree tends to rather upright 
 growth, but when fruiting will spread considerably; 
 bears its fruit evenly and is very productive. Flesh 
 very fine and very juicy, being sweet and vinous in 
 flavor. 
 
 Bartlctt : European variety and known in Europe as 
 the Williams Bonchretien. It is the king of pears com- 
 mercially, has a very good market, and is one of the 
 most profitable varieties. Tree comes into bearing early; 
 generally healthy and vigorous, making a strong growth 
 but varying somewhat in fruitfulness. Fruit, large, 
 varying somewhat in form; when ripe is of a yellowish 
 color, often with an attractive blush on one side; flesh, 
 white and juicy; has a musky and perfumed flavor. 
 
 Beurrc Hardy: In different localities may be a sum- 
 mer pear, an early autumn pear, and in some localities 
 it becomes a late autumn pear. Tree, a strong, erect 
 grower, with an abundance of foliage. Fruit, somewhat 
 sub-acid but of rich, delicious flavor, and is well re- 
 ceived in some markets. 
 
 Flemish Beauty: Popular variety, being known by more 
 than twenty names. Tree, vigorous and hardy; tends 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 111 
 
 to come into bearing early; heavy bearer. Fruit, gen- 
 erally large, yellow, often marbled and covered with 
 patches of light russet; flesh, white, juicy, sweet, and 
 often slightly musky in flavor. On the Pacific coast 
 it must be picked early and ripened in the house to be 
 of the best quality. 
 
 Scckel: Very small pear, but what it lacks in size 
 is made up in quality. Fruit, very sweet and juicy, 
 making a delightful pear for eating, pickling, or 
 spicing. Because of small size, does not meet with 
 much demand in many markets, but those markets that 
 do know it appreciate it highly and will pay good 
 prices when it is well grown. Tree, generally small, 
 with a rather rounded head; likely to be a rather slow 
 grower, but is fairly hardy and generally healthy. 
 
 Howell: Increasing in popularity on the Pacific coast, 
 due largely to its handsome appearance and tendency to 
 be an annual bearer. Fruit, light yellow, often with a 
 red cheek; flesh, white and melting, generally juicy. 
 Tree, generally vigorous grower of upright habit; comes 
 into bearing early and bears annually. 
 
 Sheldon: Very popular pear in parts of the East; often 
 troubled with core rot, due no doubt to its hanging on 
 the tree too long. Tree, upright grower, vigorous, and 
 early, generally producing a round-headed tree and 
 tending to be a good bearer. Fruit, of medium size and 
 roundish; greenish yellow; often has a light russet 
 color, and at times becomes a bright red where exposed 
 to the sun; sweet, aromatic, juicy. 
 
 Duchesse d" AngouUme: Grown extensively along At- 
 lantic seaboard. When well grown it is an attractive 
 pear of good quality, but must be well grown to be 
 profitable. Fruit, varies in size, from large to very 
 large; greenish yellow, with more or less streaks and 
 spots of russet; flesh, white, juicy, and fine in flavor. 
 Tree, generally vigorous and does very well grafted on 
 the quince; is often used in double working for other 
 varieties. 
 
112 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Beurre Bosc : Unfortunately, not as well known in 
 America as it should be. When well grown, is one of 
 the most delicious varieties to be found anywhere; its 
 unattractive appearance has been against it, but as 
 people come to know it better, the demand is constantly 
 increasing. Fruit, large size and generally tapering; 
 color varying from dark yellow to green, often covered 
 with a cinnamon russet; there may also be streaks or 
 dots of red on the fruit; in some regions fruit becomes 
 almost entirely russet; flavor very delicious; has a 
 melting buttery, very rich flesh. Holds in storage well. 
 
 Beurre Clairgeau: Fruit, very large and of pyriform 
 shape; apt to vary in size; color, very yellow; often 
 contains some cinnamon streaks covered with russet 
 dots; varies extremely in quality; because of its at- 
 tractiveness, often brings high prices and at times one 
 of the most profitable varieties. Tree, an erect grower, 
 and very vigorous, has handsome foliage, is a heavy 
 bearer, and comes into bearing early. 
 
 Beurre d'Anjou: Becoming one of most popular pears 
 on Pacific coast, also popular in many of the Eastern 
 States. Fruit, very good quality and in good modern 
 storage house can be held until Jan. or even Feb. ; gen- 
 erally large and has a pyriform shape; stem short; 
 color, generally greenish yellow — may have trace of 
 russet and at times a shade of crimson on the sunny 
 side; flesh, fine grained, very juicy; flavor rich, gen- 
 erally perfumed. Tree, in some parts of the country 
 is a fair grower, and in other regions a rank grower. 
 
 Doyenne dti Cornice: French variety and has prac- 
 tically brought top prices for American pears, having 
 sold as high as $10 per box in the Rogue River Valley; 
 one of the favorite English Christmas pears and holds 
 up very well in cold storage. Tree, fairly vigorous, up- 
 right grower, although with age becoming rather broad 
 and spreading; unfortunately, comes into bearing late 
 and is not very productive. Fruit, generally large, of 
 pyriform type; color, greenish yellow and often russeted; 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 115 
 
 on the sunny side becomes shaded with crimson; quality, 
 highest; flesh, white, melting, and has an abundance of 
 sweet, rich juice. 
 
 Glont Morceau: An old pear, formerly grown quite ex- 
 tensively in the East, but on account of susceptibility 
 to scab and blight is not grown as much as formerly, 
 should, however, receive more attention. Tree, has a 
 dark wood; generally of a spreading habit, usually 
 hardy, and although it does not come into bearing early, 
 when matured produces good crops and tends to bear 
 regularly. Good variety to use as a dwarf. Fruit, highly 
 prized by English trade, being on a par with Comice; 
 varies somewhat in form; generally large; of a short 
 pyriform type, at times approaching an oval; color, 
 pale greenish yellow; flesh is very fine grained, white, 
 melting, sugary, and extremely delicious. 
 
 Kieffcr: Hybrid, supposed to be a cross between 
 Chinese sand pear and Bartlett or some similar variety; 
 has become the most popular variety in the South and 
 parts of the Middle West; increasing in popularity, 
 especially as a cooking pear; has been one of the most 
 resistant to the blight. Fruit, ships and keeps well; 
 probably stands rougher handling than most European 
 and American varieties; quality, poor for eating but 
 good for cooking; grows from a medium to a large size, 
 generally oval pyriform shape; often sprinkled with 
 small dots and has a tinge of red on the sunny side; 
 flesh, coarse and juicy. 
 
 Le Conte: Le Conte is a variety that is grown rather 
 extensively, especially in the South. It is supposed to 
 be a hybrid between the Chinese pear and some other 
 cultivated variety. Tree, generally vigorous, prolific, 
 and hardy. Fruit, like the Kieff'er in quality, is poor 
 and is not grown in regions where the Bosc, Comice, 
 etc., succeed; skin is generally yellow; large, pyriform. 
 
 Eastern Beurre : Grown quite extensively on the Pa- 
 cific coast, especially in California; very late winter 
 variety, often keeping until April. Fruit, color is 
 
114 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 generally yellow, may contain some russet, often has a 
 brown cheek, and occasionally has patches of russet; 
 when well grown, flesh is fine, white, sweet, and juicy. 
 Tree, makes a moderate growth, has a round head and 
 under favorite conditions is a good bearer; must be 
 grown on good, rich soil. 
 
 Columbia: Being grown to some extent in California 
 and is valued in parts of the South. Tree, good bearer 
 and handsome grower. Fruit, yellow and when fully 
 matured often is deep orange. 
 
 Lawrence: One of hardy winter varieties valued in 
 the East. Tree, generally a good bearer and a fair 
 grower. Fruit, in markets where it is known brings a 
 good price; color, light yellow with some russet; flavor, 
 generally melting, sweet, and aromatic; juicy; medium 
 in size. 
 
 Winter Nells: King of the winter pears. When well 
 grown, reaches superb quality. Tree, however, often 
 comes into bearing late and the fruit often tends to 
 become rather small. Must be planted on deep, rich 
 soil and thinned well if it is to succeed. Fruit, generally 
 yellow in color, but may have patches of russet; when 
 well grown, flesh is very fine grained and buttery, 
 sweet, juicy, and of very good quality; generally a yellow 
 white. Can be kept well by proper handling. 
 
 Patrick Barry: Receives more diversity of comment 
 than almost any other variety, being condemned by 
 some and praised by others. It is one of the few 
 pears that can be shipped through the tropics. On the 
 Pacific coast it is displacing the Winter Nelis in certain 
 regions. Fruit, an elongated pyriform, fairly large; color, 
 will vary from almost a complete russet to a rich 
 golden russet or a deep yellow. Flesh, generally white, 
 juicy, and melting; may vary extremely from very 
 poor to fair. Tree, comes into bearing early and tends 
 to bear regularly. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 115 
 
 PRUNING OF PEARS 
 
 The same general principles of pruning that were 
 given in the discussion of the apple apply equally well 
 to the pear. The first .3 yr. the pruning should be 
 practically the same as for the apple, the laterals being 
 chosen and the framework being built up in the same 
 way. 
 
 After a pear tree comes into bearing, however, close 
 attention must be given to pruning, and pruning in 
 such a way as to produce a growth of soft, sappy 
 twigs or branches should be avoided, as such a growth 
 is easily injured by fire blight. The pruning should 
 be done regularly, and long, rangy branches that in 
 time will have to be headed in severely should not 
 be allowed to develop, for such heading in stimulates 
 a rank growth of soft wood. 
 
 Summer pruning, when properly and not too severely 
 done, is very effective on the pear, because it does not 
 tend to stimulate a growth of soft wood and tends to 
 throw the tree into heavy bearing. Terminal growth 
 of branches checked in the summer will avoid the 
 necessity later of heading in long, rambling branches, 
 and will also force the formation of twigs further down, 
 on the branch that in turn will bear fruit buds and 
 thus better distribute the crop over the tree. As many 
 pears have a tendency to produce a large percentage 
 of their buds near the tips of the branches, summer 
 pruning on such varieties is particularly desirable. 
 
 SPRAYING OF PEARS 
 
 The most serious insect pests of the pear are the pear 
 psylla, leaf-blister mite, San Jose scale, coddling moth, 
 and pear slug. The most destructive diseases attacking 
 the pear are fire blight, and pear scab. 
 
 For the control of the insects and diseases of the pear 
 that can be controlled by spraying the following system 
 of spraying will be found effective: 
 
116 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 1. The first spraying of the pear should be the same 
 as for the apple, the spray solution being the same 
 and applied before the buds swell. This spraying is 
 for the control of the San Jose scale and leaf-blister 
 mite. 
 
 2. The second spraying of the pear is "likewise given 
 at the same time as the second spraying of the apple 
 (before the blossoms open), but the fungicide used may 
 be weaker and no arsenate of lead is needed. In this 
 spraying a dilute lime-sulphur mixture (at sp. gr. 1.006 
 — that is 33° Baume lime-sulphur solution diluted 1 to 50 
 with water) should be used; if Bordeaux is preferred, the 
 same Bordeaux as used for the second spraying of the 
 apple may be used. This spray application is for the 
 <;ontrol of the pear scab. 
 
 3. While the petals of the blossoms are still falling 
 and the calyx is still open, spray with arsenate of 
 lead (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead, 50 gal. water) and the 
 same lime-sulphur solution given in paragraph 2. This 
 spraying is for the control of the coddling moth, pear 
 scab, and any other fungus diseases present. 
 
 4. After the blossoms have fallen, spray with dilute 
 kerosene-soap emulsion (1 part kerosene-soap emulsion 
 stock solution, 6 parts water), or whale-oil soap (1 lb. 
 whale-oil soap, 4 or 5 gal. water), or one of the tobacco 
 extracts (a preparation guaranteed to contain at least 
 2.7 per cent, nicotine diluted with 65 to 100 parts of 
 water). This spraying is for the control of the pear 
 psylla and should be repeated at intervals of 3 to 7 da. 
 until the insects are under control. 
 
 5. From 10 to 14 da. after the spraying described in 
 paragraph 3, spray with the same lime-sulphur-arsenate- 
 of-lead solution. This is principally for the control of 
 the coddling moth and pear scab. 
 
 6. For the entire control of the coddling moth, an 
 arsenate-of-lead spray (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead, 
 50 gal. water) may have to be applied in July, Aug., or 
 even as late as Sept. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 117 
 
 7. The green aphis is controlled in the same way as 
 on the apple. This pest should be sprayed for as soon 
 as it appears, before the leaves curl, and is easy to 
 control if this rule is followed. The green aphis has a 
 number of broods and can rarely be controlled with 
 one spraying. 
 
 8. The fire blight of the pear cannot be controlled by 
 spraying. Prune out all affected parts as soon as in- 
 fection is detected, cutting from 6 to 10 in. below the 
 lowest affected part. Disinfect all cut surfaces with 
 corrosive-sublimate solution (1 part corrosive sublimate 
 to 1,000 parts of water). Coat all large wounds with 
 paint or gas tar. 
 
 GRAPES 
 
 VARIETIES OF GRAPES 
 
 Not less than 300 varieties of grapes are offered by 
 nurserymen to the grape growers of the United States. 
 The following list of varieties of grapes includes those 
 of the various classes that are generally considered the 
 most important commercially. The varieties are ar- 
 ranged under the botanical groups to which they belong, 
 a list of varieties being given, and then the par- 
 ticularly important ones being described. 
 
 Vinifera Grapes.— Black Ferrara, Black Hamburg, 
 Black Morocco, Cornichon, Emperor, Gros Colman, Ma- 
 laga, Mission, Muscat, Palomino, Rose of Peru, Sultana, 
 Thompson's Seedless, Tokay, Verdal. 
 
 Black Ferrara: In California, considered excellent both 
 for local market and for shipping a long distance. 
 Bunches and berries, large, and berries cling well to 
 stem; berries, black; flavor, superior; skin, thick; and 
 pulp, firm. 
 
 Cornichon: Also known as Purple Cornichon and Black 
 Cornichon. Vine, very vigorous and bears large, loose, 
 bunches of grapes on long peduncles; berries, large and 
 long, more or less curved; skin, dark in color, spotted 
 
118 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 and thick; berries, borne on long pedicles; quality, not 
 of the best, but variety is desirable because of its ex- 
 cellent shipping qualities, lateness, and curious shape of 
 the grapes. 
 
 Malaga, or White Malaga: Is grown in southern Cali- 
 fornia as a table grape and for raisins. Vine, vigorous; 
 bunch, very large, loose, shouldered, long, borne on a 
 long, flexible stem; berries, very large, oval, yellowish 
 green, covered with white bloom; skin, thick; flesh 
 firm; of very good quality. 
 
 Mission: Delicious table grape, grown more or less in 
 all parts of California having vineyards, but not largely 
 shipped out of the state. Vines, very vigorous and pro- 
 ductive. Bunches, of medium size, slightly shouldered, 
 loose; berries, of medium size, round, dark-purplish 
 black, heavy bloom; skin, thin; pulp, juicy; very sweet. 
 
 Muscat, or White Muscat of Alexandria: Leading table 
 grape of Pacific coast. Vines, although short and 
 straggling, are vigorous and productive, bearing often 
 two and sometimes three crops annually; bunch, long, 
 loose, shouldered; berry, oblong, light yellow, nearly 
 transparent, covered with bloom; skin, thick; pulp, 
 firm; very sweet, rich, with a musky flavor. 
 
 Thompson's Seedless: Vines, very vigorous, having an 
 especially long trunk and long canes; bunch, large, 
 cylindrical, well filled; berries, below medium or small, 
 oval; skin, rather thick, of fine golden-yellow color; 
 flesh, firm, crisp, juicy; quality, very good; as name 
 implies, this variety is seedless and is now the most 
 popular seedless grape grown on the Pacific coast, being 
 found in vineyards in all parts of Vinifera grape-growing 
 regions. 
 
 Tokay, or Flame Tokay: Leading shipping grape of 
 Pacific coast. Vines, very vigorous, all parts being 
 large; bunches, very large, sometimes weighing 8 or 10 
 lb., compact shouldered; berries, very large, oblong, red 
 or reddish, covered with heavy bloom; skin, thick; pulp, 
 firm; season, late; quality, rather poor. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 119 
 
 Labrusca Grapes.— Agawam, Brighton, Campbell Early, 
 Catawba, Concord, Diamond, Eaton, Empire State, Gaert- 
 ner, Herbert, lona, Jefferson, Salem, Vergennes, Win- 
 chell, Worden, Niagara. 
 
 Agawam: Best known of the hybrids between La- 
 brusca and Vinifera grapes. Qualities which commend 
 it are large size of bunch and berry; beautiful purplish- 
 red, oval grapes; rich, sweet, aromatic flavor; attractive 
 appearance; excellent keeping qualities, vigor of vine, 
 and capacity for self-fertilization. 
 
 Catawba: One of the four standard grapes of eastern 
 America. Characters which give it prominence are: 
 adaptability to many soils; splendid keeping qualities; 
 rich, sweet delicious flavor when fully ripe; vigorous, 
 hardy, productive vine; large handsome bunch, with 
 attractive dull purple-red berries; skin, thick but not 
 disagreeable; flesh, juicy, fine grained, sweet, and rich. 
 The chief defects of the variety is that it is susceptible 
 to fungi, and its lateness keeps it from being grown in 
 very northern regions. 
 
 Concord: Ranks first among the grapes of eastern 
 America. Probably 50% of the grapes grown in this 
 eastern region are Concords and at least 75% of those put 
 on the markets are that variety. Characters of Con- 
 cord which have enabled it to take first place in eastern 
 America viticulture are: elasticity of constitution 
 whereby it adapts itself to many soils and climates; its 
 great productiveness; hardiness; ability to withstand 
 diseases and insects; certainty of maturity in northern 
 regions; and attractiveness from size of bunch and 
 berry, both of which are usually uniform, the latter of 
 a beautiful blue-black color. 
 
 Diamond: One of leading green grapes of the La- 
 brusca group, being surpassed in quality and beauty by 
 few other grapes. Vine, early, hardy, productive, vigor- 
 ous. Fruit, of splendid quality; rivals Niagara for first 
 place among green grapes; ships and keeps fairly well, 
 and makes a very good white wine. 
 
120 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Warden: Seedling of Concord and has most of the 
 good qualities of its parent; differs chiefly from Con- 
 cord in having larger berries and bunches, in being 
 better in quality, and in being a week earlier; equally 
 as hardy, healthy, vigorous, and productive. Its fault 
 that keeps it from being as popular as the Concord 
 is that it is more fastidious as to soils and the berries 
 crack badly. 
 
 Niagara: Has been leading green grape, but plantings 
 of it have so signally failed that it is now ranked 
 below several other green grapes. In vigor and pro- 
 ductiveness, nearly equals the Concord, but it falls far 
 short of this variety, and of a number of green grapes, 
 in hardiness. Fruit, although highly esteemed by many, 
 has too much foxiness to be high in quality; shell 
 badly and do not keep well; of no value for wine 
 making; ripens about with Concord; clusters, of medium 
 size or large, usually shouldered, compact; berries, 
 large, oval, light green or pale yellow; skin, thin, 
 tender, astringent; seeds, separate easily from the 
 pulp, rather numerous, and of large size. 
 
 Aestivalis Grapes.— Cynthiana, Norton, Berckmans, 
 Delaware, Herbemont, Lenoir, Moir, Walter. 
 
 Norton: Leading wine grape in eastern America, but 
 the fruit has small value for any other purpose. Vine, 
 hardy, but requires a long, warm season to mature its 
 fruit; has great adaptability to different soils, but 
 thrives particularly well in rich alluvial soils; vines are 
 robust, very productive, as free or more so from diseases 
 than any other native grape, and very resistant to 
 insects. Bunches, of medium size. Berries small, almost 
 black; pulp, firm, rich, and spicy; pure-flavored but acid; 
 skin, thick; fruit keeps well. 
 
 Delaware: Standard grape in quality for eastern 
 America. Vines, productive, hardy, and adapted to many 
 soils and conditions; fairly immune to fungus diseases; 
 next to the Concord, probably most popular grape for 
 garden, commercial vineyard, and wine press now grown 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 121 
 
 in eastern United States. Fruit, matures sufficiently 
 early to make crop certain; its handsome red color 
 makes it attractive; grapes keep and ship well. Faults 
 are: Small size of vine, bunch and berry, and slowness 
 of growth; suffers very seriously from the depredations 
 of robins. 
 
 Riparia Grapes. — Bacchus, Canada, Clinton, Elvira, 
 Janesville, Noah. 
 
 Bacchus: Wine grape grown from seed of Clinton, 
 an older and better known grape, which it much re- 
 sembles in vine characters, but surpasses in quality 
 of fruit and in productiveness; little by little it is 
 superseding its parent. Vines, vigorous, hardy, pro- 
 ductive, free from mildew, and adapted to a great 
 variety of soils. Bunches and berries, small, latter 
 dark red; quality does not fit it for a dessert grape, 
 being too sour, yet if left until after frosts it becomes 
 very good. 
 
 Noah: Rather largely grown in Missouri, where it is 
 much used for wine making. Vine, remarkable for 
 health and productiveness. Fruit, green, one of the few 
 good Riparia grapes of this color. Clusters, for one of its 
 species, are large, as are also the berries. Fruit ripens 
 with the Concord or a little later, and neither keeps 
 nor ships well. Seeds separate with difficulty from the 
 pulp and are numerous; pulp, tough, juicy, and rather 
 acid. Used for making white wines. 
 
 Rotundifolia Grapes.— James, Thomas, Mish, Flowers, 
 Memory, Scuppernong. 
 
 James: Probably best general-purpose Rotundifolia 
 grape for the South. Ripens toward the end of Aug. 
 and remain on vines 2 or 3 wk. longer. Vines, vig- 
 orous, productive, healthy; bunches bear from 4 to 12 
 large, blue-black grapes of large size; skin, thin; pulp, 
 sweet and juicy; quality, very good. 
 
 Flowers: One of the very late Rotundifolias, ripening 
 last of Sept. and remaining on the vine until last 
 of Oct. Vines, vigorous, healthy, and exceedingly 
 
122 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 productive; bunches, bearing from 10 to 20 purplish- 
 black, oblong, large berries; skin, thick and tough; 
 acid, pulpy; quality, good only wTien very ripe. 
 
 Memory: Considered best Rotundifolia table grape. 
 Vines, vigorous and productive; bunches, bearing from 
 4 to 12 large, rouiid, brownish-black berries; skin, thick 
 and tough; pulp, juicy, sweet, tender; of very best 
 quality. 
 
 S cupper nong: Oldest of cultivated varieties of Rotun- 
 difolia grapes, and still largely cultivated; also lightest 
 in color of the varieties commonly cultivated, being a 
 brownish amber. Vines, very vigorous, very healthy, and 
 very productive. Bunches bear from 6 to 10 large ber- 
 ries; skin, thin; pulp, sweet, juicy, vinous, and with a 
 peculiar flavor characteristic of this variety; quality, 
 very good. 
 
 PRUNING AND TRAINING THE GRAPE 
 
 In discussing the pruning of the grape, the following 
 technical terms are often used: 
 
 Trunk — the body of the vine when 2 or more yr. old. 
 
 Arm — a branch from the trunk when 2 or more yr. old. 
 
 Cane — l-yr.-old branch of an arm or of the trunk. 
 
 Spur — a very short but annually lengthening arm, 
 from which cane renewals are made. 
 
 Shoot— 21. growing, leafy branch of the current season. 
 
 When young grape vines are to be planted in per- 
 manent places in a vineyard, the roots should be rather 
 severely cut back, usually leaving stubs from 6 to 10 in. 
 in length, and all dead or injured roots cut out. The 
 top almost always should be cut back to a single cane 
 and to two or three buds. 
 
 The aim for the first two or three seasons should be to 
 develop a good root system; to accomplish this the 
 growth of the first summer is cut back, late in the 
 winter or early in the spring, to two buds, leaving the 
 vines in apparently the same condition as at setting. 
 At the end of the first year all grapes to be grown on 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 123 
 
 trellises should be tied up to keep them out of the 
 way of the cultivator. Grapes to be grown on stakes 
 are staked at this age also. 
 
 Any fruit set the second season should be removed 
 before it has attained much size. Two years after 
 setting, the vines should be ready to train permanently 
 on the trellis or stakes, as the case may be. East of 
 the Rocky Mountains all species of grapes are grown 
 commercially on trellises, or on wires stretched on 
 posts. On the Pacific coast they are nearly always 
 grown on stakes. 
 
 Whatever the method of pruning and training chosen, 
 the grower must keep in mind the relationship of the 
 wood to fruit bearing; that is, grapes are borne on the 
 base of shoots of the same year's growth, which in 
 their turn spring from the canes of the preceding year. 
 
 The average yield for a Concord grape vine is about 
 15 lb. In order to produce this quantity, from forty to 
 sixty clusters of grapes are required. As each shoot 
 bears from two to three clusters, usually two, twenty 
 to thirty buds must be left on the previous year's 
 growth, or sufficient spurs to furnish the required 
 number of clusters. These buds might be left on a 
 single cane; but usually two, three, or more canes are 
 selected, variously distributed on one or two main stems 
 in accordance with different systems of training and 
 trimming. Good pruning, then, consists in removing all 
 wood except canes or spurs sufficient to furnish the 
 shoots necessary for the desired number of clusters. 
 
 The time for pruning grapes extends from the dropping 
 of the leaves in the fall to a period just before the 
 swelling of the buds in the spring. Some vineyardists 
 prune after a vigorous flow of the sap has begun and 
 claim that no serious injury results, but such bleeding 
 must be devitalizing to the vines. In sections where 
 winters are severe it is often necessary, in order to 
 prevent freezing, to cover the vines in position or to 
 lay them on the ground for covering. To lessen the 
 
124 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 area to be covered, it is best to prune some before 
 covering. In such pruning it is advisable to leave more 
 wood than is actually needed for the next year's crop, 
 as there is danger of some of the buds being broken 
 off or of the canes being otherwise injured by the 
 covering and uncovering. It is seldom advisable to 
 prune when vines are actually frozen, as frozen canes 
 are brittle and easily broken during handling. 
 
 Where the vines are in a vigorous condition the 
 system of training to be adopted becomes somewhat 
 optional with the grower, although there is no doubt 
 that certain varieties do best when trained to a certain 
 type. For example, it is generally agreed that strong- 
 growing varieties like the Concord, Niagara, and others 
 do best when trained with the shoots drooping, and the 
 weaker and slower-growing varieties like the Delaware 
 can be best trained to some form in which the shoots 
 are upright, other conditions being the same. 
 
 SPRAYING OF GRAPES 
 
 The most serious insect pests attacking the grape are 
 phylloxera, grape-vine fidia or grape-root worm, grape- 
 vine flea beetle or steely flea beetle, grape-leaf hopper, 
 grape-berry moth, and the rose chafer. Some one or 
 several of these pests must be reckoned with in most 
 parts of the country. 
 
 The serious diseases of the grape are black rot, 
 downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose, and 
 chlorosis, or yellow leaf. 
 
 The best method of spraying for the control of such 
 insects and diseases of the grape that can be controlled 
 by spraying will vary. The following, however, will serve 
 as a guide: 
 
 1. For the control of the grape-vine flea beetle, spray 
 thoroughly just before the buds begin to swell with 
 arsenate-of-lead solution (4 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. 
 water). Later in the season, when the worms appear on 
 the leaves, arsenate of lead should be added to one of 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 125 
 
 the Bordeaux sprayings (8 lb. arsenate of lead to 150 gal. 
 Bordeaux mixture). 
 
 2. If anthracnose has to be combated, apply to the 
 surface of the canes when the buds are swelling, but 
 before they begin to open, a warm, saturated solution 
 of copperas (iron sulphate), to which may be added if 
 necessary to make it stronger, 1% of sulphuric acid. 
 This solution is very caustic and should be handled 
 with care. If the saturated solution of copperas is used 
 alone the solution may be sprayed on, but if the 
 sulphuric acid has been added, it is safer to apply it 
 to the canes with a swab. Thoroughness is essential in 
 this work, as all the surface of the canes must be cov- 
 ered if the solution is to be effective. Anthracnose is 
 not satisfactorily controlled by Bordeaux alone. 
 
 3. For the control of the black rot, and incidentally 
 for the control of downy mildew and powdery mildew, 
 spray with Bordeaux mixture (4 lb. copper sulphate, 
 4 lb. lime, water slaked, and 50 gal. water) just as the 
 pink tips of the first leaves appear. 
 
 4. From 10 to 14 da. after the spraying described in 
 paragraph 3, spray again with the same strength Bor- 
 deaux for the same troubles. 
 
 5. Repeat the spraying just after blossoming. 
 
 6. Repeat the spraying in from 10 to 14 da. later. 
 
 7. Repeat the spraying in from 10 to 14 da. later. 
 
 8. For the control of the grape-vine fidia, or grape 
 root worm, while the beetles are feeding on the foliage 
 about the middle of June, spray with a molasses- 
 arsenical mixture (1 gal. molasses, 6 lb. arsenate of lead, 
 100 gal. water). 
 
 9. For the control of the grape leaf hopper, when the 
 hoppers appear, spray with a nicotine preparation guar- 
 anteed to contain at least 2.7% nicotine diluted with 65 
 to 100 parts of water. 
 
 10. For the control of the rose chafer, when the in- 
 sects are present, spray with glucose-arsenate mixture 
 (10 lb. arsenate of lead, 25 lb. glucose, 100 gal. water). 
 
126 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 11. If the sprayings for black rot are not necessary, 
 other means of control must be applied for the powdery 
 mildew. In such cases in dry climates, dusting the 
 vines with flowers of sulphur is effective. 
 
 12. If the vines are suffering from chlorosis, or yellow 
 leaf, this trouble is thought by some to be overcome by 
 applying a small quantity of iron sulphate to the soil 
 about the vine. But as a number of the American 
 varieties are known to be free from this trouble, plant- 
 ing them is probably the wiser course. 
 
 PLUMS 
 
 VARIETIES OF PLUMS 
 
 Plums grown in the United States and Canada may 
 be divided into four groups: (1) Plums that have been 
 introduced from Europe; (2) native plums; (3) plums 
 introduced from Japan; and (4) hybrid plums. 
 
 Of the European plums, only two species are of special 
 interest to American growers. These are the Domestica, 
 to which most of the large European plums grown in 
 America belong, and, second, the Insititia, which are 
 smaller plums and include fewer species of value. 
 
 The native plums may be divided into the following 
 prominent species: (1) Americana, known as the red 
 plum, yellow horse, hog plum, and goose plum; this 
 plum is grown over a large portion of America. (2) The 
 second division, the Hortnlana, which includes a number 
 of variable plums that are adapted to a wide range of 
 climate and especially adapted to growing in the South- 
 ern States and the Mississippi valley. The Hortulana 
 make good stock upon which to graft varieties of the 
 same and other native plums. (3) The third division 
 of the native plums is Primus nigra. This species of plum 
 grows further north than any other native plum and is 
 often called the Canadian plum. The fruit of the Prunus 
 nigra ripens earlier than that of the Americana, or 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 127 
 
 Hortulana. It is more oblong in shape, darker in color, 
 has less bloom and a finer skin that that of the 
 Americana. 
 
 The plums introduced from Japan belong to the variety 
 known as Primus triUora. These plums are about as 
 hardy as the Domestica, and some of them have proven 
 of special worth. However, many varieties of Prunus 
 triflora that have been introduced into America have 
 proved worthless. 
 
 Hybrid plums are produced by crossing different 
 species. Many valuable hybrid plums are grown in 
 America. 
 
 The following are the most important varieties of 
 plums grown in this country: 
 
 Abundance: Triflora. Variable; several distinct 
 strains exist; has been much overplanted. Fruit, ships 
 and keeps poorly; subject to brown rot and drops 
 readily; must be picked before it is ripe; color, pinkish 
 red to dark red. 
 
 Agen: Domestica. One of the best plums of Europe 
 or America for prune making; rich in sugar and solids; 
 very good preserving plum; its defect is lack of size; 
 many strains of this variety. Tree, bears regularly and 
 heavily. Fruit, hangs well on trees; excellent for home 
 orchard and for commercial use. 
 
 Apple: Triflora. Fruit, large and has firm, compact, 
 red flesh; excellent keeper; fruit has peculiar flavor; 
 inferior for dessert or kitchen. Tree, robust grower. 
 
 Arch Duke: Domestica. Well known. Fruit, large, 
 dark, rich purple; keeps and ships well; suitable for 
 home and market use. Tree, medium grower. Season, late. 
 
 Arctic: Domestica. Tree, hardy and productive; small; 
 medium grower. Frviit, m.edium size; blue. Mid-season. 
 
 Bavay: Domestica. One of the best of the green 
 plums; a descendant of Reine Claude. Fruit, excellent 
 dessert plum; high flavor; good canner; keeps well and 
 flavor not quite equal to Reine Claude. Tree, medium 
 size, vigorous. Season, late. 
 
128 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Bradshaw : Domestica. Tree, regular bearer, produc- 
 tive, hardy, healthy. Fruit, ships well; not very high 
 in flavor. Ripens in peach season, which is against it. 
 Leads all other plums in number of trees in New York. 
 
 Burbank: Triflora. Second to Abundance in number 
 of trees planted in New York. Fruit, handsome, red; 
 keeps and ships better than Abundance. Ripens a week 
 later than Abundance. Tree, vigorous, but wood is 
 brittle. 
 
 Compass: Hybrid of American type. It is being adver- 
 tised as of value commercially for the Northwest. Fruit, 
 small and of no value unless for regions mentioned. 
 
 Datnsons: Insititia. Name is from Wamascus. Fruit, 
 usually oval, black; chiefly used for making preserves. 
 Tree, scarcely surpassed in productiveness, vigor, and 
 hardiness by any of the plums. The Damsons show 
 great adaptability to various soils and climates. There 
 are a number of improved varieties of Damson, among 
 which are Crittenden, Shropshire, a standard, and French. 
 Many of these improved varieties excel the Damson in 
 quality. 
 
 Diamond: Domestica. Fruit, large, well formed; flesh, 
 coarse; flavor, poor; ships well; otherwise it is disap- 
 pointing for market fruit. Tree, vigorous, hardy, and 
 productive. 
 
 German Prune: Domestica. One of the oldest plums 
 under cultivation; of several strains. Tree, medium to 
 large; purplish black; flesh, yellowish green. Dis- 
 tributed over the whole country. Season, late. 
 
 Golden Drop: Domestica. Largest and best of the 
 yellow plums; fit for the home garden only. 
 
 Grand Duke: Domestica. Tree, rather late in coming 
 into bearing; fruit, excellent market plum, hangs well, 
 and ships well; flavor moderate; good canner; large 
 sized. Season, late. 
 
 Giieii. Domestica. One of the standards. Tree, bears 
 early and abundantly; large, vigorous, healthy, hardy. 
 Fruit, of poor quality, but excellent shipper. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 129 
 
 Italian Prune: Domestica. One of the most widely 
 grown of all plums; leading plum in the Pacific North- 
 west. Fruit, fine flavor; purple; attractive when cooked; 
 ships well. Tree, large; hardy, productive; regular 
 bearer, but often capricious as to soil and climate. 
 
 Lombard: Domestica. One of the most easily grown 
 of all plums. Tree, hardy, productive; regular bearer; 
 much used as a stock on which to graft weaker growing 
 varieties. Fruit, very poor in quality. 
 
 Middlehurg : Domestica. A very good late pUun for 
 New York. Fruit, purple. Not enough planted. 
 
 Monarch: Domestica. One of the most popular of the 
 recent introductions. Fruit, of moderate quality; color, 
 purple. 
 
 October: Triflora. Late plum. Tree, vigorous, rather 
 tardy in bearing in some places. Mid-season or later. 
 Fruit, dark red. 
 
 Pond: Domestica. Fruit, one of the largest; poor 
 quality; purple. 
 
 Pottaivattamie: Native. Especially adapted to north- 
 ern latitudes. Fruit, good quality for a native plum. 
 Tree, dwarf, vigorous, productive. 
 
 Quackenboss: Domestica. Tree, large, vigorous, hardy. 
 Fruit, purple, large, good quality. One of the best. 
 
 Reine Claude: Domestica. Fruit, unexcelled in quality. 
 Tree, moderate; grows very poorly in the nursery; 
 productive; is apt to sun scald. 
 
 Satsuma: Triflora. Fruit, red flesh; one of the best of 
 its class in quality; keeps and ships well; is subject 
 to brown rot in the Southern States. Tree, fairly good 
 grower; hardy; productive. 
 
 Washington: One of the largest of the Reine Claude 
 or green gage type. Fruit, fine flavor; suitable for home 
 use. 
 
 Wayland: Hortulana. Suitable for Central Iowa and 
 Nebraska. Fruit, sour and small; excellent for jelly. 
 
 Wood: Americana. Can be recommended for the cold 
 parts of the country. Fruit, red. 
 
130 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Yellow Egg: Domestica. Fruit, largest and most 
 handsome of the yellow plums; good for culinary use. 
 
 PRUNING OF PLUMS 
 
 As a rule, the plum should be pruned as little as 
 possible. More growers overprune plum trees than 
 underprune them; and this is a serious condition, be- 
 cause a plum tree will not recover from overpruning 
 nearly so readily as will an apple tree. 
 
 Plum trees are grown in two types, or forms. The 
 first type has a leader, or main stem, with four or five 
 branches coming from it at different points. This type 
 is often used in New York for the Domestica and 
 Damson plums. The second type of pruning is more 
 common on the Triflora group of plums; in this it is 
 usual to start four or five branches at a head about 
 2 ft. from the ground, and remove the leader, making 
 the tree into a vase shape, somewhat like an inverted 
 umbrella; the branches should be spaced 4 to 6 in. 
 apart on the trunk to prevent splitting. 
 
 Subsequent pruning of the plum consists of the re- 
 moval of limbs which cross and in keeping the trees 
 low. Until the trees begin to bear, as little pruning as 
 possible should be given; if this policy is adhered to 
 it will tend to make the trees bear early. One dis- 
 advantage attending excessive pruning is that such a 
 practice once started must be continued. 
 
 The trees should be kept low to lessen the expense 
 of picking. In some orchards, plum trees are shorn off 
 at a certain height and are never allowed to make a 
 growth of more than two or three buds above this each 
 year. Some of the Americana varieties make such a 
 crooked, dense growth that considerable pruning is 
 necessary in order to allow sufficient room for the 
 pickers to harvest the fruit. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 131 
 
 SPRAYING OF PLUMS 
 
 The principal insect attacking the plum is the plum 
 curculio. The principal diseases of the plum are the 
 black knot, brown rot, plum pockets, and leaf spot, 
 peach yellow and little peach. 
 
 The following method of spraying the plum has been 
 recommended: 
 
 1. If San Jose scale is present, spray just before the 
 buds open in the spring with lime-sulphur solution 
 (sp. gr. 1.03— that is, concentrated lime-sulphur of ZZ° 
 Baume diluted 1 to 8 with water). 
 
 2. Just after the blossoms fall, spray with arsenate 
 of lead (3 to 4 lb. arsenate of lead, 100 gal. water) for the 
 control of the plum curculio. 
 
 3. About 10 da. after the blossoms have fallen, or 
 about the time when the shucks, or calyces, are being 
 shed from the fruit, spray with arsenate of lead (3 to 
 4 lb. arsenate of lead, 50 gal. water) combined with 
 self-boiled lime-sulphur (8 lb. sulphur, 8 lb. lime, 50 gal. 
 water), for the control of the plum curculio, leaf spot, 
 and brown rot. 
 
 4. About 2 to 3 wk. after the spraying described in 
 paragraph 3, spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (8 lb. 
 sulphur, 8 ib. lime, 50 gal. water) for the control of 
 leaf spot and brown rot. 
 
 5. About 1 mo. before fruit ripens repeat spraying 
 given in paragraph 4 for the control of the fruit spot 
 and brown rot. 
 
 CHERRIES 
 
 VARIETIES OF CHERRIES 
 
 There are two main types of cherries, sour cherries 
 and sweet cherries. The sour cherries most commonly 
 grown are included in two general groups, the Mont- 
 morency group, and the Morello group. The most im- 
 portant of the sour cherries commercially are: 
 
132 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Baldivin: Morello type. Tree has a stout spreading 
 top and is regarded as promising. 
 
 Brusseler Braune : Very late in ripening, July 15 to 25. 
 Tree, medium to large, upright in type; long branches; 
 slender; twigs, light gray and covered with numerous 
 lenticels; leaves, medium in thickness and slightly 
 rough; dark green on the upper surface, much lighter 
 below; serrated on the edge. In some sections, a poor 
 bearer. 
 
 Dye House: Montmorency group. Fruit, medium to 
 small; smaller than Early Richmond and Montmorency; 
 quality, very good; flavor, slightly acid. 
 
 Early Richmond: Montmorency group. Season, early, 
 or moderately early, June 15. Tree, usually regarded as 
 productive, but inclined to be short lived; hardy, vig- 
 orous, profuse, and regular bearer. Fruit, medium in 
 size, light red; poor for shipping. 
 
 English Morello: Morello group. Classed as one of 
 the best sorts, being very productive and hardy; a firm 
 and excellent shipper. One of the oldest varieties and 
 has been grown in this country for many years. Season, 
 late, about July 15 to 20 in Central Iowa. Tree, medium 
 and spreading; slender and hardy in growth. 
 
 Montmorency: Montmorency group. Much confusion 
 exists in regard to the Montmorency variety. There are 
 at least two strains, the long-stemmed, or Montmorency 
 Ordinaire, and the sort-stemmed, which is the large 
 Montmorency and considered to be of the best quality, 
 but a poor bearer. The long-stemmed variety is the one 
 most generally distributed and the one that is generally 
 secured by the public even when named Montmorency or 
 Montmorency Ordinaire or Montmorency Extraordinaire, 
 the short-stemmed Montmorency being practically non- 
 existent in this country. The Montmorency Ordinaire 
 is the Standard variety, and fruits from June 20 to 
 about July 1, or mid-season. 
 
 Ostheim: Morello group. Really consists of a number 
 of types. Has been grown in the United States for 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 133 
 
 nearly a century. Fruit, round, medium to dark red; 
 juicy; skin, tough; quality, fair. Planted in large num- 
 bers in some sections. 
 
 Siida: Morello group. Hard to distinguish the fruit 
 of this variety from Wragg or English Morello, the 
 only essential difference being in the stem; but the 
 tree is more upright and can thus be readily distinguished 
 from these varieties. Tree, good, prolific bearer in some 
 sections. 
 
 Wragg: Morello. Regarded by some as little more 
 than a large English Morello, which is somewhat later; 
 is being considerably planted in all parts of the North- 
 west; now considered a standard variety. 
 
 The two main groups of sweet cherries commercially 
 are the Bigarreaux and the Dukes. The principal varie- 
 ties of the Bigarreaux group are: 
 
 Ring: Fruit, very large, almost flat, with a sweet 
 flavor; flesh, firm; ripens in mid-season; high in 
 quality; and is regarded as promising. 
 
 Centennial: Said to be a seedling of Napoleon; flesh 
 somewhat similar to Yellow Spanish. Considered prom- 
 ising, especially on the Pacific coast. 
 
 Elton: Tree, good grower, but lacks productiveness in 
 some sections. Fruit, very large, heart shaped; skin, 
 pale yellow, with red blush; flesh, medium light, firm, 
 with a sweet flavor of the best quality. Desirable for 
 some sections. Mid-season. 
 
 Lambert: Originated in Oregon. Fruit, large to very 
 large; heart shaped; color, dark amber, turning a dark 
 red magenta as fruit matures; flesh, dark, rich, firm, 
 and juicy, with a good flavor; pit, small for so large a 
 fruit. 
 
 Napoleon, or Royal Ann: One of the most popular 
 varieties. Tree, strong; vigorous in growth; very pro- 
 ductive. Fruit, large, good quality; flesh, light colored. 
 Mid-season. 
 
 Rockport: Early to mid-season. Fruit, quality very 
 good. Tree, moderate in vigor. 
 
134 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Black Tartarian: One of the oldest and most popular 
 varieties; lacks in vigor and hardiness when compared 
 with Windsor and Napoleon. Fruit, very large, dark 
 red; flesh, of good quality. 
 
 Wiytdsor: Origin, Ontario, Canada. One of the new 
 varieties that has made a good reputation; should be 
 included in almost all cherry orchards. Tree, hardy, 
 vigorous, and very productive. Fruit, heart shaped, 
 dark liver colored; flesh, dark red, firm, fine quality. 
 
 Wood, or Governor Wood: Recommended for all 
 near-by markets and home use. Tree, strong, vigorous 
 grower, and productive. Fruit, medium to large; pale 
 yellow, with a reddish blush; flesh, tender and juicy; 
 of good quality. 
 
 Yellow Spanish: Old and well-known variety and does 
 well under many conditions. Tree, strong grower and 
 productive. Fruit, large sized; good quality. 
 
 The Dukes have one very undesirable feature in that 
 they tend to ripen their fruit over a considerable period 
 of time. In growth of tree they vary from the upright 
 to a round, spreading head. As stated before, these are 
 classed with the sweet cherries, but in flavor the fruit 
 is neither sweet nor sour, being rather half way. It is 
 usually tender, juicy, excellent in flavor, and can be 
 used both fresh and preserved. In so far as acreage is 
 concerned, the Dukes do not occupy a very important 
 position, for they are poor shippers and are subject 
 to rot. 
 
 Eugenie: Tree, lacks vigor, grows upright, and is fairly 
 productive; one of the earliest to ripen and lasts over 
 a long season; flesh, and juice, dark red; and flavor 
 fine. 
 
 Louis Philippe: Downing states that the tree is up- 
 right, spreading in growth; skin, rich; dark; flesh, dark 
 red. Said to be productive. Medium to late. 
 
 Magnifique : One of the latest of all cherries to ripen 
 and of value on this account. Tree, upright, spreading 
 grower, productive; but the fruit is of too light a shade 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 135 
 
 of red to take well on the market; flesh, pale yellow, 
 firm, and juicy. 
 
 May Duke; One of the most popular of all varieties, 
 being one of the earliest to ripen. Tree, vigorous 
 grower, productive. Fruit, dark red. 
 
 Montr euil Belle De: Comparatively new; productive 
 and profitable. Fruit, glossy red, almost black; flesh 
 and juice, dark red. Medium late in season and ripens 
 in good season for a Duke. 
 
 Clivet: Tree, strong, spreading grower, frequently re- 
 ported as unproductive. Fruit, color, dark red. Season, 
 medium late. 
 
 PRUNING OF CHERRIES 
 
 Compared with other fruits, the cherry receives little 
 pruning, especially after the first 2 or 3 yr. If the 
 head is started within 18 in. of the ground and oppor- 
 tunity is given for the tree to spread, a desirable 
 spreading habit may be started. Some of the most 
 successful growers of cherries prefer to train their trees 
 with a leader from which from three to five main 
 branches are allowed to develop. , 
 
 During the first year, just sufficient wood should be 
 removed to secure the spreading habit, and no more. 
 When a low-headed tree of this sort is forced to spread 
 its growth, most of the fruit may be readily picked, 
 thus materially reducing the cost of picking, and the 
 spreading branches shade the trunk and to some extent 
 prevent the cracking and splitting seen on some trunks. 
 
 When the trees reach bearing age, comparatively little 
 pruning is needed other than to take out wood that 
 crosses, and wood showing disease. 
 
 SPRAYIJfG OF CHERRIES 
 
 Among the principal insects attacking the cherry are 
 the black cherry aphis, plum curculio, San Jose scale, 
 and other scale insects. The principal fungus diseases 
 of the cherry are the black knot, brown rot, shot-hole 
 fungus, or leaf blight, and powdery mildew. 
 
136 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 The following system of spraying will be found ef- 
 fective in controlling the insect and disease troubles 
 of the cherry: 
 
 1. Just before the leaf buds break, or open, spray 
 with a lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.03 — that is, con- 
 centrated lime-sulphur of iZ° Baume diluted 1 to 8 with 
 water). This spraying is for the control of the San 
 Jose and other scales. 
 
 2. Just before the fruit buds burst open, spray with 
 a lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.007 to 1.006— that is, 
 concentrated lime-sulphur of 2ii° Baume diluted either 
 1 to 40 or 1 to 50 with water), to which has been added 
 arsenate of lead (1^ or 2 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. 
 lime-sulphur solution). This spraying is for the con- 
 trol of the plum curculio and the fungus diseases. 
 
 3. As soon as the fruit has set, spray again with the 
 same lime-sulphur-arsenate-of-lead solution given in 
 paragraph 2, for the control of both the insect and the 
 fungus troubles. In some cases it may be advisable to 
 make two or three later sprayings with the same ma- 
 terial. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture is sometimes used in place of the 
 dilute lime-sulphur solution given in paragraph 2, but 
 on account of the liability of injuring the foliage, this 
 is not to be recommended. 
 
 QUINCES 
 
 VARIETIES OF QUINCES 
 
 There are comparatively few varieties of quinces in 
 cultivation. The following are brief descriptions of the 
 important commercial varieties, including information 
 that the prospective planter would find useful in se- 
 lecting varieties for his orchard: 
 
 Orange, or Apple Quince: Probably most important 
 commercially. Tree, moderately vigorous, with spread- 
 ing habits. Fruit, variable in size and shape, and is 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 137 
 
 modified somewhat by the treatment it receives; it may 
 be pear shaped or flattened on the end something like 
 an apple; color, pale orange, surface being moderately 
 covered with down. Flesh, firm and of good flavor. Mid- 
 season variety and when well grown can be kept until 
 Feb. Best general-purpose variety. 
 
 Champion : Tree, upright grower, somewhat taller than 
 Orange. Fruit, large, pear-shaped and furrowed about 
 the top; color, generally greenish yellow; covered with 
 a prominent fuzz; late in maturing and in some places 
 does not ripen well; it is one of the best keepers. 
 
 Rae, or Rae's Mammoth: Tree, small, of two-thirds the 
 size of Orange at the same age. Fruit, large to very 
 large; somewhat pear shaped; color, orange; surface, 
 smooth; flesh, of good quality; ripens early but does not 
 keep as well as Orange. 
 
 Meech, Meech's Prolific: Tree, something like Orange, 
 bears young; fairly good cropper. Fruit, handsome but 
 inclined to be small and not as valuable for market as 
 some other varieties. 
 
 Missouri Mammoth: Tree, one of the largest and most 
 handsome; bears reasonably young; generally regarded 
 as prolific. Fruit, rich and aromatic. 
 
 Bourgeat: Tree, strong grower; regarded as a good 
 bearer. Fruit, bright golden yellow; large in size, with 
 a small core; good keeper; can be held until spring. 
 
 Van Deman : Recent introduction of Luther Burbank; 
 by some claimed to be one of the hardiest and surest 
 bearers in existence. Fruit, ripens throughout a com- 
 paratively long season and is claimed to be a good 
 keeper. 
 
 Chinese, or Hong Kong: Sometimes catalogued as a 
 new, unique, and distinct fruit. Fruit, may be regarded 
 as very large in size, somewhat oblong in shape. Tree, 
 not unlike an ordinary quince tree in habit; it is gen- 
 erally regarded as hardy in New York. Of no particu- 
 lar value for commercial growing. 
 
138 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 PRUNING OF QUINCES 
 
 When the quince is planted direct from the nursery 
 TOW and already has a good head started within a few 
 inches of the ground, all the pruning necessary is to 
 remove any excess of limbs and plant as it is; cutting 
 back the terminal is not even necessary. However, if 
 the tree has become dried in shipment and the tips of 
 the limbs are dead, all dead parts should be pruned off. 
 
 Some quince growers prune their trees severely, as 
 much as one-half of the new growth each year, but 
 such men are usually those who force their trees with 
 manures and other nitrogenous fertilizers, and who 
 must prune severely to keep the trees within bounds. 
 The better practice seems to be to use nitrogenous 
 fertilizers sparingly and to prune very little. 
 
 A good plan is to head the trees from 6 to 8 in. from 
 the ground and to allow them to grow at will until 
 they come into bearing, the amount of pruning necessary 
 to keep the fire blight in subjection being adequate. At 
 the end of 4 years or so the trees may need heading 
 back, but this is a matter of judgment in each case. 
 In such cases, winter pruning is the best. 
 
 After the tree comes into bearing and thinning of 
 the fruit is desirable in order to improve the size and 
 quality of the fruit borne, heading in may be practiced. 
 This consists in cutting back the annual growth a 
 certain amount each year. There is, however, danger 
 in this pruning, because the quince, like the pear, is 
 subject to fire blight, and as excessive pruning will 
 cause an excessive growth of tender sprouts on which 
 the fire blight is especially severe, the pruning should 
 be done with care and judgment. 
 
 SPRAYING OF QUINCES 
 
 The principal insects attacking the quince are the 
 round-headed apple-tree borer, quince curculio, coddling 
 moth, and San Jose scale, though the latter, very 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 139 
 
 fortunately, seldom attacks the quince and when it does 
 causes very little harm. The most serious diseases of 
 the quince are fire blight, leaf and fruit spot, or black 
 spot, and rust, or cedar rust. 
 
 The following system of spraying the quince is fol- 
 lowed by some of the best commercial growers: 
 
 1. Just before the blossoms open, spray with Bordeaux 
 mixture (6 lb. copper sulphate, 6 lb. lime, water 
 slaked, 50 gal. water) ; Bordeaux mixture appears to be 
 well adapted to the requirements of the quince. Arsenate 
 of lead (2 or 3 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. of fungicide 
 solution) should also be used with the fungicide spray 
 at this time. This spraying is for the control of leaf 
 and fruit spot, or black spot, rust, and curculio. 
 
 2. Immediately after the blossoms have fallen, or 
 even while the last of the petals are falling, spray 
 with Bordeaux mixture (3 lb. copper sulphate, 4 lb. 
 lime, water slaked, 50 gal. water) and arsenate of lead 
 (2 or 3 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. spray solution). 
 This spraying is for the control of the same troubles 
 mentioned in paragraph 1. 
 
 3. From three to four other sprayings at intervals of 
 10 days after the spraying described in paragraph 2 
 will be sufficient to keep the fruit and foliage in 
 excellent condition. 
 
 STRAWBERRIES 
 
 VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES 
 
 The following varieties of strawberries have been 
 recommended for commercial planting, the varieties 
 being named in the order of their ripening and 
 designated as perfect and imperfect. These terms refer 
 to the sex of the flowers. Perfect flowers have both 
 sets of sexual organs, and varieties having them are 
 self- fertile; varieties having only the pistils, or female 
 organs, cannot fertilize themselves and should be planted 
 with perfect varieties. 
 
140 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Michel's Early: Perfect. Fruit, pointed, conical; me- 
 dium to below in size; seeds, not prominent; dull, pale 
 red; flesh, pale, juicy, acid, subacid when dead ripe; 
 rather soft; quality medium. Season, extra early; plant, 
 moderately vigorous. Foliage, moderately good; rusts 
 slightly to considerably. 
 
 Virginia: Imperfect. Plants, few in number; of 
 medium vigor; healthy; productive. Leaves, inclined to 
 be large; rather dark green. Blooms early in mid-sea- 
 son; ripens slightly before mid-season; picks easily. 
 Seeds, deeply depressed. Fruit, large to medium, those 
 ripening late being small; roundish conic to wedge, 
 bluntly pointed and often with depression at apex; 
 color, light and dark glossy scarlet, resembling Hunn. 
 Flesh, medium red; of average firmness; mild; not high 
 in flavor or quality. Only a fairly desirable variety. 
 
 Beder Wood: Perfect. Fruit, round to conical; medium 
 size; pale red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, pale, juicy, 
 acid, moderately firm, medium quality. Season, early to 
 extra early. Plant, vigorous; runners numerous; foliage 
 moderately good; rusts considerably. 
 
 Clyde: Perfect. Fruit, round, large to very large, 
 pale red; seeds not prominent; flesh, pale red, juicy, 
 subacid, pleasant, firm, and above medium in quality. 
 Season, early to medium. Plant, vigorous, with numer- 
 ous runners. Foliage, poor to moderately good; rusts 
 considerably. 
 
 Lovett: Perfect. Fruit, pointed to wedge conical; 
 above medium size; bright red, glossy; flesh, bright red, 
 juicy, acid, moderately firm, and above medium in 
 quality. Season, early to medium. Plant, vigorous, with 
 but few runners; poor to moderately good foliage; rusts 
 considerably. Attractive berry. 
 
 War-Held: Imperfect. Fruit, pointed conical; medium 
 to above medium size; deep red, glossy; seeds, rather 
 prominent; flesh, deep red, juicy, acid, moderately firm; 
 quality, medium. Season early to medium. Plants, vigor- 
 ous, with large number of runners; foliage moderately 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 141 
 
 good; rusts considerably. Handsome berry and a good 
 cropper. 
 
 Glen Mary: Perfect. Fruit, irregular, roundish to 
 wedge conical; very large to large; deep red at base, 
 becoming pale toward tip; seeds not prominent; flesh, 
 bright red, juicy, rather watery; subacid, firm, of 
 medium quality. Season, medium. Plant, moderately 
 vigorous, with numerous runners; foliage, moderately 
 good to good; rusts considerably. 
 
 Senator Dunlap : Perfect. Fruit, handsome, pointed, 
 wedge shaped; medium to large in size; deep, glossy 
 red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, rich red, juicy, tender, 
 subacid, moderately firm; above medium quality. Sea- 
 son, early. Plant, vigorous, with large number of run- 
 ners; productive; foliage, moderately good; rusts con- 
 siderably. 
 
 Sample: Imperfect. Fruit, handsome, pointed, regular 
 in shape; above medium to large; bright or rather deep, 
 glossy red; seeds fairly prominent; flesh, bright red, 
 juicy, almost watery, subacid, moderately firm; quality, 
 medium. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, 
 productive, with large number of runners; foliage, mod- 
 erately good to good; rusts considerably. 
 
 President: Imperfect. Plant has numerous runners; 
 vigorous; somewhat injured by blight; productive; 
 leaves, large, dark green. Blooms and ripens in mid- 
 season; picks easily. Fruit, of largest size, slightly 
 conic; seeds, slightly depressed; attractive bright scar- 
 let; flesh, medium light color, firm, moderately juicy, 
 mild; fair to good quality; good variety where size and 
 color are prime requisites. 
 
 Brandywine: Perfect. Roundish to sugar loafed; me- 
 dium to large; deep, dull red; appearance, unattractive; 
 seeds, not prominent; flesh, bright red, juicy; sub- 
 acid, good, firm, and of good quality. Season, late. 
 Plant, vigorous grower, with medium number of runners; 
 foliage, moderately good to good; rusts slightly to con- 
 siderably. Good late variety. 
 
142 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Gandy: Perfect. Roundish; medium to large; pale, 
 dull red; seeds, not specially prominent; flesh, bright 
 red, juicy, subacid, pleasant, firm; above medium to 
 good in quality. Season, late. Plant, moderately vig- 
 orous, with a moderate number of runners; foliage, good; 
 rusts slightly. 
 
 Marshall: Perfect. Fruit, pointed conical; large to 
 very large; deep red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, pale 
 red, moderately juicy, mildly subacid, firm, of good 
 quality. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, with 
 a large number of runners; foliage good; rusts consid- 
 erably. Probably better for home use than for market. 
 
 Bubach: Imperfect. Fruit, irregular wedge shaped; 
 very large; bright red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, 
 bright red, juicy, subacid, moderately firm; of good 
 quality. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, with 
 moderate number of runners; foliage, moderately good, 
 but rusts considerably. One of most satisfactory in 
 regard to size and appearance of fruit, productiveness, 
 and good foliage. 
 
 Steven's Late Champion: Perfect or semiperfect. Plant, 
 sets few plants; vigorous, healthy; unproductive; leaves, 
 large; dark green. Blooms and ripens in mid-season; 
 picks easily. Fruit, large; retains its size well through 
 the season; seeds, depressed; irregular in shape, but 
 averaging wedge shaped; flesh, attractive light scarlet, 
 well colored, firm, agreeably acid; quality, good. Plants 
 should be set closer than most varieties. 
 
 SPRAYING OF STRAWBERRIES 
 
 The principal insect enemy of the strawberry is the 
 white grub, though the strawberry leaf roller often does 
 considerable damage, and the most serious diseases are 
 the leaf spot, leaf blight, or rust. When once in a straw- 
 berry bed, the white grub can be controlled only by digging 
 it out from below the crown of the infested plant, and by 
 cultivating the land about the plants early in the fall. 
 Strawberries should not be set on old sod land which is 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 143 
 
 likely to be infested with white grubs. If cultivated for a 
 year in corn or other farm crops (not potatoes) upon 
 which the grub does not feed, a field will be rid of most 
 of them. 
 
 The following method of spraying for the control of 
 leaf spot and the leaf roller has been recommended: 
 
 1. Soon after the growth of the newly set plants be- 
 gins, spray with Bordeaux mixture (5 lb. copper 
 sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water slaked, 50 gal. water). 
 
 2. Repeat this spraying in about 2 wk. and two or 
 three times more during the first season, as may be 
 needed. 
 
 3. The second spring, before the plants blossom, spray 
 with the Bordeaux mixture of the formula given in 
 paragraph 1. Whenever the strawberry leaf roller is 
 present add from 2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead to each 
 50 gal. of Bordeaux solution. 
 
 4. Two weeks later give another spraying with the 
 Bordeaux mixture mentioned in paragraph 1. 
 
 RASPBERRIES 
 
 VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES 
 
 Red Raspberries. — The varieties of red raspberries 
 most usually planted are: 
 
 Cuthbert: Bush, strong grower but only moderately 
 hardy; where hardy, it is productive and is the main 
 crop variety. Fruit, large, dull red, moderately juicy, 
 of good quality, and a good shipper. Mid-season. 
 
 Herbert: Bush, strong grower, hardy, and very pro- 
 ductive. Fruit, bright red, sweet, juicy, and of good 
 quality. Mid-season. Likely to replace Cuthbert in 
 localities where that variety is not sufficiently hardy. 
 
 Loudon: Bush, only medium grower, hardy, but not 
 productive in all localities. Fruit, large and of good 
 flavor. Mid-season. 
 
144 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Marlboro: Bush, fairly strong grower, hardy, usually 
 productive. Fruit, medium or a little larger; bright red, 
 and of medium quality. Best early variety. 
 
 Black Raspberries.— The most commonly planted va- 
 rieties of black raspberries are: 
 
 Cumberland : Bush, strong grower; one of the hardiest, 
 productive. Fruit, large, black, sweet, and of good 
 quality. Season, medium, early. 
 
 Gregg: Bush, very strong grower; not hardy in all 
 localities, but productive where hardy. One of most 
 widely planted black raspberries. Fruit, large to very 
 large; black, with a gray bloom; moderately juicy, 
 sweet, and of good quality. Season, late. 
 
 Kansas: Bush, moderately vigorous grower; pro- 
 ductive; not hardy in all localities, but promising where 
 hardy. Fruit, above average in size; glossy black, and 
 of good quality. Mid-season. 
 
 Black Diamond: Bush, vigorous grower; resistant to 
 disease; very productive. Fruit, large, black; good 
 shipper. Mid-season, a few days later than Kansas. 
 
 Ohio: Bush, strong grower; productive. Fruit, of 
 medium size, but very seedy and for this reason very 
 desirable for drying, because it will yield a high 
 percentage of dried fruit to the bushel. 
 
 Palmer: Bush, strong grower; not always hardy; 
 moderately productive. Fruit, medium size; black, juicy, 
 sweet, and of good quality. Season, early. Probably 
 best of the early varieties in localities where it does 
 not winter-kill. 
 
 Purple-Cane Raspberries.— The purple-cane varieties 
 are not of much importance commercially. Two of the 
 best are: 
 
 Shaffer: Bush, very strong grower; fairly hardy; very 
 productive when canes are not winter-killed. Fruit, 
 large, dark, purplish red; juicy; quality, fair. Season, 
 medium to late. 
 
 Columbian: Bush, strong grower; very productive when 
 canes are not injured during the winter. Fruit, large, 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 145 
 
 dark purplish red, juicy, and of good quality. Season, 
 late. 
 
 PRUNING OF RASPBERRIES 
 
 Red Raspberry.— The wood of the red raspberry is 
 biennial— that is, it lives for 2 yr. ; but the roots 
 are perennial — that is, they live year after year. The 
 young canes shoot up from the roots in the spring and 
 should be allowed to grow at will during the first season. 
 The second spring each l-yr.-old cane should be cut 
 back to a height of about 2 ft. to cause the development 
 of laterals on which the fruit is to be borne. As soon 
 as the fruit has been picked from these in the summer, 
 the old canes should be cut out to allow room for the 
 development of the new canes. Some growers summer 
 prune the young canes of the red raspberry, but this 
 is not generally recommended. 
 
 Black Raspberry.— The wood and roots of the black 
 raspberry are similar in growth to that of the red rasp- 
 berry, but the pruning is different. As soon as the young 
 canes that start up from the crown of the plant reach 
 a height of 2 to 2]^ ft. their tender tips, or terminal buds, 
 should be pinched off with the fingers. This will pre- 
 vent the further elongation of the cane and force the 
 growth of the lower buds into lateral branches. The 
 second spring the laterals of these l-yr.-old canes 
 should be cut back so that the cane will somewhat re- 
 semble a small conical tree, the lower side branches 
 being cut back to a length of about 18 in. and each 
 branch above proportionately shorter. These laterals 
 will in turn throw out side branches on which the 
 fruit will be borne during the summer. As soon as 
 the fruit has been picked the old canes that bore it 
 should be cut off close to the ground, taken out of the 
 plantation and burned. On soils where the growth of 
 black raspberries is very vigorous, the canes are sup- 
 ported by wires stretched on posts. 
 
 Purple-Cane Raspberries.— The pruning of the purple- 
 cane raspberry is similar to that of the black raspberry, 
 10 
 
146 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 ■except that as the growth is somewhat more vigorous the 
 young canes should be allowed to grow to a height of 
 21/2 to 3 ft. before being pinched off. 
 
 BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 
 
 VARIETIES 
 
 Blackberries.— Blackberries are a popular bush fruit 
 and a large number of varieties are planted. Those 
 most extensively planted are: 
 
 Agawani: Bush, vigorous grower; hardy and pro- 
 ductive. Fruit, medium to large; glossy black, firm, 
 juicy, sweet, and of good quality. Mid-season or a 
 little earlier. 
 
 Eldorado: Bush, strong grower; hardy, but only mod- 
 erately productive. Fruit, black, sweet, juicy, and of 
 good quality. Season, about same as Agawam. 
 
 Mcrsereau: Bush, good grower but not as hardy as 
 Agawam. Fruit, above medium size; glossy black, sweet. 
 
 Rathhun: Bush, moderately strong grower, but lacks 
 hardiness. Fruit, large, black, and of good quality. 
 
 Snyder: Bush, vigorous and very hardy. Fruit, me- 
 dium size; usually black but sometimes with a reddish 
 tinge; juicy, sweet, and of good quality. Mid-season 
 or a little earlier. 
 
 Dewberries.— Two of the most prominent varieties of 
 dewberries are: 
 
 Lucretia: Bush, good grower but not hardy in north- 
 ern localities. Fruit, large, glossy black, sweet, juicy, 
 and of good quality. Season, early. 1 
 
 Mayes: Bush, strong grower but lacks hardiness. 
 Fruit, very large; glossy black, juicy, and of good 
 <iuality. Season, very early— earlier than Lucretia. 
 
 PRUNING OF BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 
 
 Blackberries.— The pruning of the blackberry is also 
 similar to that of the black raspberry, the growth of 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 147 
 
 the wood and of the roots being the same, except that 
 the suckers, or young canes, spring up from the roots. 
 When the young canes are 18 to 24 in. high their tips 
 should be pinched off and all except three or four of 
 the strongest canes should be cut out. The second 
 spring the laterals forced into growth by the previous 
 summer pruning should be pruned so that each cane 
 will assume a conical appearance, with the lower lat- 
 erals about 18 in. long, though the proper length varies 
 considerably with different varieties. As soon as the 
 old canes have borne fruit they should be cut out and 
 burned. The second year from five to six of the young 
 canes should be allowed to grow, and should likewise 
 be pinched off at a height of 18 to 24 in. The young 
 canes will not all reach the required height at the same 
 time, and for this reason the patch must be gone over 
 several times. Blackberries are frequently supported 
 on wires or stakes. 
 
 Dewberries.— Though the canes of the dewberry are 
 very similar in growth to those of the other brambles, 
 they grow long and trail much more along the ground. 
 The dewberry is not summer pruned like the black- 
 berry, but the l-yr.-old canes, if too long, are cut back 
 in the spring to a length of 18 to 24 in., and are thinned 
 out to four or five strong canes in a hill. On account 
 of their drooping, or trailing, habit of growth, the dew- 
 berry canes that are to bear fruit should be tied up 
 in the spring; this will prevent the fruit from becoming 
 soiled and will make cultivation easier. The young 
 canes are allowed to trail along the ground, where their 
 tips take root and form new plants, which may be used 
 for starting new plantations. 
 
 SPRAYING OF RASPBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, 
 AND DEWBERRIES 
 Spraying of Raspberries.— The principal insects that 
 attack raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries are 
 the saw fly and the cane borer. 
 
148 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 The principal fungous diseases of these small fruits are 
 the following: Anthracnose, which is very destructive 
 to black raspberries but not often a serious problem on 
 red raspberries; cane wilt, or cane blight, a destructive 
 disease on both red and black raspberries; crown gall, 
 or root knot, a destructive disease on red raspberries; 
 and red rust, often a serious trouble on black rasp- 
 berries and blackberries, but which does not affect red 
 raspberries. 
 
 Spraying is not often practiced on raspberries, black- 
 berries, or dewberries, because their disease and insect 
 troubles are largely controlled by cutting out diseased 
 canes. For the control of anthracnose on raspberries, 
 it is sometimes desirable to spray with Bordeaux mix- 
 ture (5 lb. copper sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water slaked, 
 50 gal. water), the first application being made when 
 the young growth of canes is from 6 to 8 in. high, and 
 the second and third applications being made at in- 
 interval of about 2 wk. each. It is, however, often 
 found that such spraying is not profitable. 
 
 In case the brambles are attacked by the saw fly, 
 sprayings with arsenate of lead (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of 
 lead, 50 gal. water) or with Paris green (1 lb. Paris 
 green, SO gal. water) should be given until the pest is 
 under control. One thorough application of either of 
 these poisons, especially of the first, will usually be 
 sufficient. Care should be taken not to apply either of 
 these poisons after the fruit has formed. 
 
 In some sections of the country, at rare intervals, the 
 canes in blackberry plantations will suddenly be found 
 to be covered with dark-brown soft scales. These may 
 be so abundant as almost to cover the entire canes. 
 These insects suck the sap from the plants and greatly 
 weaken them. In case of such an attack, all of the 
 unnecessary wood should be pruned out and in the 
 spring before growth begins a thorough spraying given 
 with lime-sulphur solution (at sp. gr. 1.03— that is, con- 
 centrated lime-sulphur solution of 33° Beaume diluted 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 149 
 
 1 to 8 with water) or with a kerosene emulsion. In 
 most cases, however, .it will be found necessary to 
 abandon a blackberry plantation so attacked and to 
 set out another on good, rich soil. 
 
 CURRANTS 
 
 VARIETIES OF CURRANTS 
 
 Red Currants.— Of the fifty or more varieties of red 
 currants the following are the more important com- 
 mercially: 
 
 Cherry: Bush, strong grower and productive in most 
 places. Fruit, large to very large in long, well-filled 
 bunches; deep red, acid, and medium in quality. Tips 
 of branches sometimes go blind. Origin, Italy. Mid- 
 season. 
 
 Fay: Bush, medium, spreading grower; branches lop 
 and fruit gets soiled; is slow in starting to bear in 
 some localities, but is largely grown. Fruit, large to 
 very large in well-filled bunches; red berries and of 
 a milder acid flavor than Cherry. Mid-season. 
 
 London Market: Bush, erect in growth and is less 
 injured by diseases and borers than others. Fruit 
 resembles Fay but is more acid. Mid-season. 
 
 Prince Albert: Bush, upright grower, with strong 
 canes; moderately productive. Fruit, medium in size in 
 short bunches; pale scarlet; medium in quality. Very 
 late. 
 
 Red Cross: Bush, strong grower and productive. Fruit, 
 large in short, compact bunches; red; excellent flavor. 
 Origin, New York. Mid-season. 
 
 Filler: Bush, productive. Fruit, red and of good 
 quality. 
 
 Pomona: Bush, rather spreading grower and pro- 
 ductive. Fruit, bright red, of good quality, and con- 
 tains few seeds. 
 
 Red Dutch : Bush and fruit, small. Not recommended. 
 
150 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 Versailles : Bush, good grower and productive; a 
 seedling of Cherry and something like it. Mid-season. 
 
 Victoria: Bush, a good grower and little troubled 
 by leaf diseases or borers; foliage very good, but 
 susceptible to injury by hot weather; very productive. 
 Fruit, small, red, acid, and of good flavor. Late mid- 
 season. 
 
 Wilder: Bush, strong, upright grower; productive. 
 Fruit, large, hangs well; red, and of a good, mild flavor. 
 Mid-season. 
 
 Perfection: Bush, productive and foliage good. A 
 good variety for table use when well grown. Fruit 
 large, mild in flavor, and borne in long bunches. Origin, 
 New York. 
 
 Diploma: Bush, a strong grower. Fruit, large and 
 of good quality. 
 
 White Currants.— The following are the most commonly 
 planted varieties of white currants: 
 
 White Imperial: Best white currant. Bush, pro- 
 ductive. Fruit, pale yellow, sweet, rich, and used for 
 the table. 
 
 White Grape: Bush, productive. Fruit, pale yellow, 
 mild, and of good quality. 
 
 Black Currants.— The following are the most com- 
 monly planted varieties of black currants: 
 
 Lcc's Prolific: An improvement on Black Naples, 
 and similar to it. 
 
 Black Naples: Bush, a strong grower. Fruit, large and 
 borne in small bunches. 
 
 Champion: Bush, a good grower. Fruit, large and of 
 mild flavor. Mid-season. 
 
 PRUNING OF CURRANTS 
 
 Practically no pruning is needed at the time of plant- 
 ing, although some growers prune the nursery plant 
 to a single cane and head that cane back to five or six 
 buds. In the commercial currant plantation, little 
 pruning is given until the plants are 4 or 5 yr. old. 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 151 
 
 The red and white currants and the black currants 
 bear the largest proporton of their fruit on wood of 
 different ages and therefore require different pruning. 
 The red and white currants bear their fruit on wood 2 
 or more yr. old, the most and best of it being on 
 wood from 3 to 5 yr. old; hence a plentiful supply of 
 wood of these ages should be left on the bushes. The 
 black currant bears most of its fruit on wood that 
 developed the previous summer; therefore black currant 
 bushes should always have a sufficient supply of 1-yr.- 
 old wood to bear a large crop of berries. At the be- 
 ginning of the second year the bushes should be thinned 
 out to five or six strong canes, or even less if a bush 
 is not vigorous. Pruning during the succeeding years 
 should be devoted to keeping about five or six strong, 
 healthy canes in each bush, keeping the bush open 
 enough so that sunlight will be admitted to all the 
 fruit, and maintaining the proper proportion of fruit- 
 bearing wood. 
 
 Currants are sometimes pruned to grow in tree form, 
 but such plants are of no commercial value, because 
 the damage done by a single borer will ruin the bush. 
 
 SPRAYING OF CURRANTS 
 
 The currant is attacked by the San Jose scale, currant 
 borer, currant worm, or currant saw fly, green leaf hop- 
 per, or currant leaf hopper, yellow leaf currant bug, or 
 four-lined leaf bug, grape flea beetle, currant plant 
 louse, currant miner, and by the currant leaf spots. A 
 number of the insects do but little damage. 
 
 To control the above insects and diseases, the currant 
 should be given the following spraying: (1) Before the 
 buds open with a 1 to 9 lime-sulphur solution to control 
 the San Jose scale (sp. gr. about 1.03— that is, 33° Baume 
 lime-sulphur diluted 1 to 9 with water); (2) as soon as 
 the plants have gone out of bloom, with 4 : 5 : 50 Bor- 
 deaux mixture (4 lb. copper sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water 
 slaked, 50 gal. water), and a 2 : 50 arsenate of lead 
 
152 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 (2 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. Bordeaux mixture) 
 combined to control the leaf spots and currant worm; 
 when arsenate of lead is used in this spraying there is 
 often no necessity for applying it again; (3) as soon 
 as the fruit is harvested with the same spray as that 
 given in (2), or without the arsenate of lead if the 
 currant worm has been controlled by the previous 
 spraying. 
 
 In some cases an application of 4 : 5 : 50 Bordeaux 
 mixture between the second and third regular sprayings 
 is advisable to control the leaf spots, but this application 
 should not be made so late that the spray will stain 
 the fruit. No arsenate of lead should be applied within 
 4 wk. of harvest. 
 
 GOOSEBERRIES 
 
 VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES 
 
 Gooseberries are of three general classes: American, 
 European, and American-European hybrids. 
 
 American GoosebexxiQS.—D ozvning : One of the best 
 of the American class and most widely grown. Bush, 
 strong grower, seldom troubled with mildew, and very 
 productive. Fruit, large for its class, with a thin, 
 smooth, pale green skin; pulp, soft, sweet, juicy, and 
 of good quality. Mid-season. 
 
 Houghton: Parent of Downing. Bush, vigorous and 
 hardy, but somewhat drooping grower, and is productive. 
 Although fruit is small and dark red in color, with a 
 whitish bloom, flavor is very good. 
 
 Pearl: Cross between Downing and Ashton's Seedling 
 or Broom Girl, and closely resembles Downing. Bush, 
 strong, fairly erect grower, seldom attacked by mildew, 
 and productive. Fruit, medium, or about as large as 
 Downing; pale green skin; pulp, juicy, and of good 
 flavor. Mid-season. 
 
 Red Jacket, or Josselyn: Cross between Houghton and 
 Warrington Red. Bush, strong grower; does not mildew; 
 
FRUIT CULTURE 153 
 
 productive. Fruit, good size; skin, reddish green to red 
 and tender; pulp, rich, fragrant, and of good quality. 
 Highly esteemed by some growers. Mid-season. 
 
 Purple Red: Bush, strong grower and productive. 
 
 European, or English, Gooseberries.— Among the 
 European, or English, gooseberries, of which about a 
 thousand are catalogued, the following appear to have 
 been of some value in certain sections in the Northern 
 States and Canada: 
 
 Industry: One of the best. Bush, heavy cropper 
 where it succeeds, but often suffers from mildew. 
 Fruit, medium to large; skin, smooth or nearly so; dark 
 red; pulp, very good in flavor; excellent for marketing 
 in unripe condition. 
 
 Crown Bob: Good variety for early market. Fruit 
 resembles Industry in color but is smaller. 
 
 Wellington Glory: Has proven productive in some parts 
 of the country. Fruit, an attractive pale yellow. 
 
 Warrington Red: Bush, strong grower; somewhat sub- 
 ject to mildew. Fruit, pale red, hairy; pulp, sweet and 
 of good quality. 
 
 Whitesmith: Frequently recommended as a desirable 
 variety, especially for the home garden. Fruit, medium 
 to large; skin, smooth, and pale yellowish green; pulp, 
 of good quality. 
 
 American-European Hybrid Gooseberries.— Two of the 
 American-European hybrids, which resemble the Euro- 
 pean in type, are of value: 
 
 Columbus: Bush, strong grower, and comparatively 
 free from mildew. Fruit, white or greenish yellow, and 
 of good quality. 
 
 Chautauqua: Bush, vigorous, healthy grower. Fruit, 
 large, smooth; pale green. 
 
 PRUNING OF GOOSEBERRIES 
 
 At the time of planting no pruning is needed except 
 to take off injured roots or twigs, nor is any usually 
 given for the first 2 or 3 years except to head in a 
 
154 FRUIT CULTURE 
 
 branch that may be growing too rapidly. Gooseberries 
 are trained to grow in two forms, the bush form and 
 the tree form. The bush form is the only commercial 
 form; four, five, or six canes are allowed to develop to 
 make the bush in the same way as described for cur- 
 rants. The gooseberry bush should not be pruned out 
 too much, as such pruning may expose the fruit to too 
 much sunlight. After three or four seasons of growth 
 the new wood should be pruned back in the spring 
 one-half of the growth made the previous summer, in 
 order to prevent the formation of a large quantity of 
 blind wood. Canes 4 to 6 yr. old should be removed. 
 The best and the largest proportion of fruit is borne 
 on wood 3 to 5 yr. old. 
 
 SPRAYING OF GOOSEBERRIES 
 
 Gooseberries are subject to the same insects and dis- 
 eases already mentioned for currants, with the addition 
 of the gooseberry mildew, which is a serious problem 
 with European varieties. To avoid this mildew as 
 much as possible, gooseberries should be planted on an 
 elevation where they will have a good circulation of 
 air about them, and should be pruned and cultivated 
 so as to allow the air to circulate as freely as possible. 
 
 The first two sprayings for the gooseberry should be 
 the same as those for the currant. Then, as soon as 
 the fruit is set the plants should be thoroughly sprayed 
 with a 1 to 35 lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.008, that 
 is concentrated lime-sulphur solution of 33° Baume di- 
 luted 1 to 35 with water), or a solution of 1 oz. 
 of potassium sulphide in 2 gal. of water, making 
 sure that both the upper and under surfaces of the 
 foliage are well covered. These sprayings should be 
 repeated at intervals of 10 da. until the fruit is 
 harvested. Even in spite of all that can be done, how- 
 ever, the mildew will sometimes destroy the crop. 
 After the fruit is harvested the bushes should be 
 sprayed as described under (3) for currants. 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 155 
 
 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 ESSENTIALS OF VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 MARKET GARDENING 
 
 Location for Market Gardening.— Before locating a 
 market garden in a particular locality, the vegetable 
 grower should give careful consideration to all con- 
 ditions existing in the region. Some of the conditions 
 may be improved; others are fixed. The points of 
 greatest importance to consider in choosing a location 
 are: the kind of market that is available, the distance 
 from market, the nature of the roads to market, the 
 labor supply, the stable-manure supply, the climate^ 
 the seasons, and the social conditions. 
 
 Site for Market Gardening.— The choosing of the site 
 that is to be used as a market garden is of prime im- 
 portance. The factors that influence the desirability of 
 a site are: the kind of soil, the drainage of the soil, 
 the water supply, the exposure of the land, and the 
 previous treatment that has been given to the soil. 
 
 Unless certain special crops are grown, the kind of 
 soil best suited for a market garden is one of light to 
 medium loam. A soil of this nature is easy to work, 
 it does not retain water to a degree to make it sticky, 
 and it can be worked early in the spring or soon after 
 a rain. Owing to the fact that much hand working of 
 the soil is necessary in gardening, it is advantageous to 
 have a soil free from stones. To have a soil rich in 
 vegetable matter and plant-food is also desirable, 
 although if necessary, this can be supplied in manures. 
 Other soils than light to medium loams can be used for 
 vegetable growing, of course, but they are not so 
 
156 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 suitable because they do not have the properties just 
 mentioned. 
 
 Soil in which surplus water stands at or within 1^ 
 ft. of the surface is of little use for the production of 
 vegetable crops until the surplus water has been re- 
 moved. However, soils that need draining are often 
 very rich in plant-food; all they require to make them 
 productive is the removal of the surplus water. 
 
 In the selection of a site for a market garden the 
 availability of a water supply for the house and barn, 
 and the shed where the vegetables are washed, and for 
 irrigation purposes, is an important factor, as mar- 
 ket gardening cannot be conducted without an adequate 
 supply of water. 
 
 The ideal exposure for a market garden in the North 
 Temperate zone is one with a slight slope to the south- 
 east and with a protection on the northwest from the 
 full sweep of the winds from that direction. The next 
 best exposure is a level one. Level land is very desir- 
 able for market gardens provided it is well drained. 
 One trouble with level lands, however, is that they are 
 often exposed to winds that may at certain seasons do 
 considerable damage. 
 
 The treatment soil has received before being con- 
 verted into a market garden needs but little attention. 
 If a soil is of the right type it can be made suitable 
 for a garden by the addition of vegetable matter and 
 other plant-food and by working it with proper garden 
 tools and implements. A soil that has been made fertile 
 by previous treatment is, of course, a valuable asset to a 
 market garden, but, as just stated, it is not a requisite. 
 
 In selecting a site, the local seasonal differences 
 •should be studied. For instance, if a market gardener 
 has decided on a region in which to locate, he should 
 .ascertain before choosing a site, whether or not there 
 are frost belts in the region. 
 
 Equipment for Market Gardening.— Equipment for 
 market gardening includes capital to run the business, 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 157 
 
 land used for gardening and as a site for the buildings, 
 the buildings themselves, a water-supply system, live- 
 stock, barn equipment, tools, machinery, glass for hot 
 beds and cold frames, seeds, plants, stable manure, 
 commercial fertilizer, and labor. The equipment may be 
 either comparatively simple or very extensive, depend- 
 ing on the size of the business, the capital of the 
 gardener, the nature of the soil, the kind of crops to be 
 grown, the cost of labor, and the ideas of the grower. 
 Following is given an approximate list of items needed 
 on a ten-acre market garden that requires fixed and 
 working capital, and the cost of each item. It may be 
 possible, of course, under local conditions, to dispense 
 with some of these items, and the prices given may 
 vary in different localities. The items and figures given 
 are taken from the books of a market gardener in the 
 northern part of the United States. 
 
 Items Requiring Fixed Capital 
 
 Land (10 acres at $100 per acre) $1,000.00 
 
 Buildings : 
 
 House 1,000.00 
 
 Barn 600.00 
 
 Combination packing shed, tool room, and im- 
 plement shed 500.00 
 
 Water-supply system, including 3^ H. P. gaso- 
 line engine and duplex pump 400.C0 
 
 Livestock : 
 
 1 team of work horses weighing about 2,600 lb.. 400.00 
 
 1 express horse weighing about 1,200 lb 200.00 
 
 1 cow 75.00 
 
 Barn equipment : 
 
 1 two-horse manure wagon 200.00 
 
 1 one-horse market wagon 175.00 
 
 1 one-horse tip cart 50.00 
 
 1 carriage 125.00 
 
 1 second-hand express wagon 35.00 
 
 1 heavy double harness 45.00 
 
 1 medium express harness 40.00 
 
 1 tip-cart harness 18.00 
 
 1 driving harness 18.00 
 
 3 collars 9.00 
 
 2 heavy horse blankets 8.00 
 
158 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 1 medium- weight blanket 3.50 
 
 3 stable blankets 4.50 
 
 2 carriage robes 6.00 
 
 2 sets of curry combs, brushes, etc 3.00 
 
 Incidentals 5.00 
 
 Tools and machhiery : 
 
 1 two-horse plow 15.00 
 
 1 one-horse plow 8.50 
 
 1 double-action disk harrow 24.00 
 
 1 smoothing harrow 15.00 
 
 1 Meeker harrow 22.50 
 
 1 five-tooth shovel cultivator 8.50 
 
 1 twelve-tooth spike cultivator 8.50 
 
 1 seed sower 9.00 
 
 1 wheel hoe 5.00 
 
 2 slide hoes 3.00 
 
 5 common hoes 2.00 
 
 3 manure forks 2.70 
 
 3 fourteen-tooth iron garden rakes 1.80 
 
 3 shovels 3.60 
 
 2 spades 1.50 
 
 1 hammer .60 
 
 1 rip saw 1.25 
 
 1 cross-cut saw 1.25 
 
 1 plane 1.00 
 
 1 level 75 
 
 2 chisels 50 
 
 1 bit stock and bits 2.00 
 
 Miscellaneous tools 5,00 
 
 Miscellaneous garden equipment: 
 
 1 garden line and reel .- l.OO 
 
 50 ft. of hose 4.00 
 
 Small tools not listed 10.00 
 
 25 hotbed sash at $4.25 each 106.25 
 
 Lumber for frames 20.00 
 
 Total $5,204.20 
 
 Items Requiring Working Capital 
 
 Seeds and plants $100.00 
 
 Stable manure, 400 tons at $1 per ton 400.00 
 
 Commercial fertilizer 200.00 
 
 Labor : 
 
 6 men at $1.50 per day, working 26 days per 
 month for 8 months 1,248.00 
 
 2 men at $25 per month for 12 months per year. . 600.00 
 
 Total $2,548.00 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 159 
 
 Total Capital Required 
 
 Fixed capital required $5,204.20 
 
 Working capital required 2,548.00 
 
 $7,752.20 
 
 Markets for Market-Garden Produce.— Markets for 
 
 market-garden produce may be classified as four kinds: 
 wholesale markets, wholesale-retail markets, retail mar- 
 kets, and special markets. 
 
 Wholesale markets are those where produce is bought in 
 large quantities to be sold to dealers, who, in turn, sell 
 it to consumers. The consumer, therefore, buys goods 
 that have been handled by the grower, by transporta- 
 tion agents (if the goods have been shipped), by the 
 wholesale dealer, and by the merchant to whom the 
 wholesaler sells. He pays, therefore, at least two profits 
 other than that of the grower. 
 
 Wholesale-retail markets are those where the produce is 
 sold by the grower direct to the retailer and by the 
 retailer to the consumer. To this class belong all mar- 
 ket and grocery stores. The wholesale-retail market 
 does not usually offer a very acceptable opportunity to 
 the market gardener because of the accessibility of the 
 wholesale market, in which sales can be generally made 
 with less trouble than in the wholesale-retail market. 
 In small cities where no wholesale market exists and 
 in towns where there are a number of enterprising 
 marketmen and hucksters, however, good wholesale- 
 retail markets are often open to the market gardener. 
 To supply such a market a large variety of produce 
 should be grown. 
 
 Retail markets are those where the producer sells direct 
 to the consumer. Such trade is largely monopolized in 
 the large cities and their suburbs by peddlers. In towns 
 and villages the opportunity for such business is prob- 
 ably greater than elsewhere. 
 
 Special markets may be classified as two kinds: mar- 
 kets developed by the ingenuity of the gardener, and 
 
160 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 markets for a special product. In the case of markets 
 of the first kind a broad field is open to the grower, 
 provided he is able to devise some successful scheme 
 for packing and distributing his produce, either to the 
 wholesale-retail market or to the consumer. In the 
 case of markets of the second kind, the market may be 
 a canning factory that uses large quantities of certain 
 vegetables, or it may be a hotel that demands a high- 
 grade product. Often private families are willing to 
 pay a fancy price for some exceptionally desirable 
 product, and thus a profitable special market can be 
 developed. 
 
 Range of Crops for Market Gardening.— The range of 
 crops that may be grown by a market gardener is so 
 great that usually the grower can find some crop 
 especially suited to his soil, climate, or market. There 
 are about forty vegetable crops that are commonly 
 found in the markets of the United States, and it is 
 possible to produce the greater number of these crops 
 in most sections of the country. Of each of these 
 different vegetables there are many varieties. In ad- 
 dition to this wide range of vegetable crops there are a 
 number of small fruit crops that fit in well with the 
 cropping and the marketing of the market gardener. 
 
 TRUCK FARMING 
 
 Location for Truck Farms.— The factors influencing the 
 location of a truck farm are similar to those influencing 
 the location of a market garden, but are of a different 
 relative importance. In the order of their importance 
 they are: Transportation facilities, climate, soil, mar- 
 keting organizations, labor, distance to shipping centers, 
 roads to market, and social factors. 
 
 Transportation Facilities for Truck Farming.— The 
 truck farmer is absolutely dependent on public carriers 
 for the transportation of his produce. These carriers are, 
 as a rule, railroads and boats. Before locating a truck 
 farm, consideration should be given to whether the 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 161 
 
 service of such carriers as are available is adequate 
 for the purpose. 
 
 Climate for Truck Farming.— The great variations of 
 climate in different sections of the United States have 
 made truck farming possible. The range in climatic 
 conditions along the Atlantic coast, for example, is such 
 that a succession of tender crops grown in the field are 
 available to the northern consumer from one year's 
 end to the other. The climate influences the selection 
 of crops, the time of year of shipment, and indirectly 
 the cost of transportation to the markets where the 
 produce will be sold. 
 
 Soils for Truck Farming.— The ideal soil for truck 
 farms is a sandy loam that is free from stones. Such 
 soil should be well drained and in a high state of 
 fertility. 
 
 Marketing Organizations for Truck Farming.— When 
 truck farms are located a long distance from market it 
 is practically impossible for individual growers to 
 market their crops satisfactorily. Such a condition 
 compels the growers to organize associations and pro- 
 vide sales departments to sell their produce. Such 
 organizations have satisfactorily solved the marketing 
 problem for truck farmers. These associations are found 
 in localities where a number of growers can conveniently 
 act together. To locate where affiliation with such an 
 organization is impossible would be unwise for the 
 truck farmer at a considerable distance from market. 
 
 Labor for Truck Farming.— The labor problem of truck 
 farmers is not usually so difficult to solve as that of 
 market gardeners, on account of the slack demand for 
 labor in remote regions as compared to that near large 
 cities. However, the cost of labor for the truck farm, 
 is comparatively large. An investigation of labor con- 
 ditions should precede the selection of a location for the 
 business. 
 
 Distance to Shipping Centers.— The extreme distance 
 from a shipping center to the truck farm should not be 
 11 
 
162 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 more than 10 miles, and each mile nearer than this 
 distance deducts the annual constant expense to a large 
 degree. 
 
 Roads to Shipping Centers.— The same problems in re- 
 gard to roads confronts both the truck farmer and 
 the market gardener. Locations admirably suited by 
 natural conditions for the business of truck farming 
 may be rendered entirely unsuitable by impassable 
 roads. 
 
 Social Conditions. — The truck farmer is usually in a 
 sparsely settled region, and for this reason his social 
 problems are more difificult of satisfactory solution than 
 are those of the market gardener located in more 
 thickly settled communities. For this reason, a pros- 
 pective truck farmer should study thoroughly all con- 
 ditions pertaining to the social life and customs of a 
 locality before establishing a business. 
 
 Equipment for Truck Farming.— The size of a truck 
 farm varies between wide limits. Some truck farms 
 have from 4 to 5 acres of ground; others often have as 
 many as 600 to 800 acres under cultivation. This vari- 
 ation in size is due largely to the type of crops grown, 
 the ideas of the farmer, the length of time he has spent 
 in the business, the success he has attained, and the 
 amount of capital invested. 
 
 The capital necessary to go into truck farming is 
 small, but the amount that may be invested is almost 
 unlimited. A lesser investment in land, glass, build- 
 ings, and labor, makes the amount needed by the truck 
 farmer less than that required by the market gardener. 
 The cost of selling produce is also less because of the 
 opportunity to sell through organizations. To start a 
 small truck farm $1,000 would be sufficient. Some per- 
 sons could start on less and succeed and others would 
 need more. 
 
 Markets for Truck-Farm Produce.— It is typical of 
 the truck farmer to sell his produce in distant markets, 
 through a selling organization. Occasionally a truck 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 163 
 
 farmer operating a large farm is found who handles 
 his own products, the bulk of his business enabling 
 him to do this to advantage. It is also typical of the 
 truck farmer to produce large quantities of single 
 crops. Such crops are marketed in carload lots to 
 wholesale distributors. 
 
 The marketing organization of the truck farm bears 
 much the same relation to the grower as the commission 
 house of the large city bears to the market gardener. 
 There is, however, one distinct difference; as the mar- 
 keting organizations exist to provide a market for truck 
 farmers' products, they are controlled by the grower, 
 while the commission man of the city is in business 
 to amass wealth for himself. The truck farmer gets 
 much more satisfaction from his method of marketing 
 than does the average market gardener who depends 
 on commission merchants to handle his crops. On the 
 other hand, it is necessary for the truck farmer to 
 market his produce through his association or not at 
 all, while to the market gardener a number of ways of 
 distribution are opened. 
 
 Truck-Farm Crops.— The crops of the truck farm are 
 practically identical with those of the market garden, 
 different crops being grown in different sections of the 
 country. The development of methods of distribution 
 and of packing have made possible the shipment of 
 verry perishable products for a long distance and have 
 thus increased the range of crops that may be pro- 
 duced on sections far distant from market. 
 
 There are a number of distinct trucking sections 
 along the Atlantic coast of the United States. The 
 largest of these centers is at Norfolk, Va. The prin- 
 cipal crops of this section in the order of their im- 
 portance are: Irish potatoes, spinach, cabbage, kale, 
 sweet potatoes, strawberries, radishes, peas, lettuce, 
 cucumbers, cantaloups, egg plants, tomatoes, asparagus, 
 beans, and beets. In the trucking centers of Texas, 
 onions are the principal crop. Florida excels in the 
 
164 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 production of lettuce, cucumbers, celery, and tomatoes. 
 Colorado is foremost in the production of cantaloups. 
 Georgia leads in growing watermelons. Other sections, 
 of course, produce the crops to which they are adapted. 
 
 HOME GARDENING 
 
 Site for Home Garden. — In selecting a site for a home 
 garden the following factors need careful attention: 
 (1) Convenience of access from the house; (2) extent of 
 land available; (3) richness of the soil; (4) ease of 
 working the plot; and (5) appearance of the garden. 
 
 A home garden not convenient of access to the house- 
 keeper loses a large part of its value. The garden 
 should be located so that when vegetables are wanted 
 they can be quickly obtained, fresh from the soil. 
 
 The fact that a home garden must be located largely 
 according to the land available often makes accessibility 
 to the house out of the question. Nevertheless, it does 
 not lose its importance on this account. 
 
 Size of Home Garden.— The extent of land needed for 
 the home garden depends on the size of the family to 
 be fed, and the amount of time and money that can 
 be spent on the garden. A home garden 20 ft. long by 
 10 ft. wide can be made to produce a good supply of 
 some of the smaller vegetable crops, such as lettuce, 
 radishes, spinach, beets, carrots, turnips, and perhaps 
 a few potatoes and tomatoes. 
 
 An area 50 ft. x 100 ft. will yield sufficient produce 
 for a large family for both the summer and winter 
 supply. In a home garden the plants can be grown 
 close together and more than one crop can be taken 
 from the same land the same season. 
 
 Soil for Home Garden.— The home garden, especially 
 if it is in a city or town, must often be located with 
 little opportunity for selection according to soil charac- 
 teristics. The soil should preferably be sandy. Other 
 types of soil can be made to produce crops, but always 
 with more labor and expense. 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 165 
 
 Soil Improvement for Home Garden.— Soil improvement 
 for a home garden should consist of the addition of as 
 much stable manure as can be obtained conveniently. A 
 quantity that covers the soil to the depth of from 3 to 
 8 in. is desirable, provided it is later worked into the 
 soil. The plowing under of grass sod and the addition 
 of all vegetable matter available, such as clipped lawn 
 grass, garbage, etc., help to increase the capacity of 
 the soil for crop production. The addition of wood 
 ashes is also helpful. Except in limestone regions, 
 the use of about 50 lb. of lime to every 100 sq. ft. of 
 soil is good practice. Lime and manure should not, 
 however, be added at the same time. If good tillage 
 is coupled with the addition of the fertilizing material 
 and lime, satisfactory crops can be produced from prac- 
 tically any type of soil. Drainage, if necessary, should 
 be provided in a home garden. 
 
 Selection of Crops for Home Garden.— The selection of 
 crops for the home garden is distinctly a family problem. 
 The home gardener is practically unlimited in his choice 
 of garden crops, and the greater the variety, within 
 reasonable limits, the greater the interest in the garden, 
 and the more benefits received from it. 
 
 The majority of garden crops are easily grown from 
 seed, and the cost of seeds of the best kind and from 
 the most reliable sources is very small. Plants of those 
 crops that must be started in hotbeds or cold frames 
 can usually be purchased ready for transplanting from 
 dealers in towns and cities. The cost of such plants, 
 too, is usually not high. 
 
 Glass for Home Garden.— Home gardening for the city 
 and town worker is made much more interesting by the 
 use of a few sash for the production of plants out of 
 season. From 1 to 5 sash is the usual number in use 
 on a home garden, depending on the amount of money 
 it is desired to spend, the room available, and the time 
 allowable for the work. The type of glass structure 
 most used by home gardeners is the cold frame. 
 
166 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 Arrangement of Home Garden.— A rectangular shape 
 is the most desirable for the home garden, as the plan 
 of cropping may then be such as to make necessary 
 the least possible labor in the care of the garden. The 
 gardener can, in addition, economize on space in a 
 rectangular plot. 
 
 Every home garden, if of sufficient size, should have 
 the following perennial crops: Asparagus, rhubarb, 
 raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, and currants. 
 These should be located on one side of the garden 
 where they will not interfere with the annual plowing 
 and harrowing for other crops. A border of perennial 
 crops makes a most desirable arrangement. In addition 
 to the perennial crops, the following are desirable: 
 Strawberries, lettuce, beets, carrots, cabbage, cauliflower, 
 cucumbers, spinach, radishes, sweet corn, string beans, 
 and tomatoes. 
 
 To be most successful with the garden a plan should 
 be made before the gardening season opens. In making 
 a plan the gardener should arrange the crops according 
 to their planting time and degree of hardiness. The 
 length of time usually needed from seed to maturity 
 should also be considered, as it is often desirable to 
 plant crops on ground that has already produced a crop 
 earlier in the season. 
 
 General Rules for a Home Garden.— Some general rules 
 in regard to cropping a home garden are given following: 
 (1) Group the perennials; (2) plant the hardy crops to- 
 gether, so that no more land than is necessary need 
 be cared for early in the season; (3) group the small 
 crops and the large crops that need similar tillage; 
 (4) as soon as one crop has been harvested, follow it 
 by another; (5) interplant some of the slow-growing 
 large crops with quick-growing small crops. 
 
 Tillage of a Home Garden. — The soil of a home garden 
 should be plowed after the manure has been applied. 
 The plowing then mixes the manure with the soil and 
 upturns the soil particles to the air, thus making the 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 167 
 
 soil fine in texture. Spading the ground will ac- 
 complish the same result as plowing, but it is more 
 expensive and tiresome. 
 
 After the soil has been plowed a harrow should be 
 used to make a finely pulverized seed-bed. On small 
 areas a hand garden rake can be used in place of a 
 harrow. 
 
 After the plants in the garden have commenced to 
 grow, tillage between the rows is necessary. Thorough 
 working of the soil should be done to keep the ground 
 stirred to a depth of 1 or 2 in. during the whole 
 growing season. This stirring of the soil conserves soil 
 moisture and keeps the garden free from weeds, both of 
 which are essential in gardening. 
 
 Planting and Harvesting of Home-Garden Crops.— The 
 planting of the seeds, the setting out of the plants, and 
 the harvesting of the crops take place in different parts 
 of the garden throughout the entire season. There is no 
 general planting and harvesting time for home-garden 
 crops, as in most branches of agriculture. 
 
 Tools for a Home Garden.— For the average home gar- 
 den the following implements and tools will be found 
 useful. The average cost of the equipment is also given. 
 
 1 seed sower and wheel cultivator combined. $9.00 
 
 1 common hoe 40 
 
 1 fourteen-tooth iron garden rake 50 
 
 1 spading fork 70 
 
 M shovel 1.00 
 
 1 garden hose and reel 1.00 
 
 1 wheelbarrow 4.50 
 
 Total $17.10 
 
 For the man who plants an area of say 10 ft. x 20 ft., 
 such an equipment is not necessary. The hoe, rake, 
 and spading fork are all the tools that he need have. 
 
168 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 VEGETABLE CROPS 
 
 Vegetable plants are of three degrees of hardiness: 
 Hardy, half hardy, and tender. Hardy plants are those 
 that can withstand frost without injury. Half-hardy 
 plants are those that will grow in the cool moist season 
 of the year, but will not withstand frost without injury. 
 Tender plants are those that are killed by frost; they 
 should not, therefore, be put in the ground until the 
 season is far enough advanced that no long period of 
 cool weather is likely to occur. 
 
 Following is given a list of the common vegetable 
 crops classed as hardy, half hardy, and tender: 
 
 Hardy crops: Rhubarb, beets, cabbage, carrots, cauli- 
 flower, celery, lettuce, onions, peas, parsnips, radishes, 
 turnips. 
 
 Half-hardy crops: Asparagus, beans (some varieties), 
 sweet corn (some varieties). 
 
 Tender crops: Beans, sweet corn, cucumbers, potatoes, 
 squashes, tomatoes. 
 
 HARDY VEGETABLE CROPS 
 Rhubarb. — The ideal soil for rhubarb is a deep, rich, 
 sandy loam, but the plant can be grown successfully 
 on all types of soil, provided they are put in proper 
 condition. Rhubarb requires an enormous quantity of 
 soil moisture, consequently irrigation is especially 
 valuable. 
 
 Propagation of rhubarb is usually accomplished by 
 root division. A piece of root that has a strong eye 
 will, under favorable conditions, produce a good plant 
 in one season. The best time to plant rhubarb is in 
 the early spring. The roots are usually planted 
 3 ft. X 4 ft. or 4 ft. X 4 ft., being covered with several 
 inches of soil. Linnaeus and Victoria are the most 
 popular varieties. 
 
 Beets. — Beets thrive best on sandy loams that are 
 deep and moist, but well drained. They will, however, 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 169 
 
 grow in practically all American gardens. When grown 
 in heavy soils they are likely to be too fibrous. 
 
 Beets are propagated from seed. The early varieties 
 are sown as early in spring as the ground can be pre- 
 pared. From about 6 to 8 weeks are required for the 
 roots to reach a size sufficient for use. Succession 
 plantings of oval and turnip-shaped beets may be made 
 until the middle of August. In planting beets, the 
 distance between plants in the row should be from 
 2 in. to 3 in. for small-topped varieties, and from 5 in. to 
 5 in. for the larger-rooted varieties. These distances 
 are secured by thinning. If cultivating is to be done 
 with a hand-wheel hoe, the rows should be about 12 in. 
 apart; if cultivating is to be done with a horse cul- 
 tivator, the distance between rows should be from 
 24 in. to 30 in. 
 
 Cabbage. — Cabbage will do well on any soil that is 
 constantly moist, yet well drained, and that has abun- 
 dant plant-food. Perhaps the largest crops of late 
 cabbage have been grown on clay loams that have been 
 well manured. The best climate for cabbage is one that 
 is cool and moist, consequently the growing of cabbage 
 is largely confined to northern districts. 
 
 For early cabbage, fall plowing is generally desirable; 
 for late cabbage, it is the practice to break the ground 
 early in the spring. When early cabbage is to be raised, 
 it is now almost a universal practice in the North to 
 so^ the seed in hotbeds or greenhouses in Jan. or Feb. 
 Late cabbage seed is sowed in the open sometime during 
 May in northern latitudes. When the plants have 
 reached a suitable size they are transplanted into rows. 
 The proper distance to set the plants depends on the 
 methods of cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. Early 
 varieties, such as Jersey Wakefield, may be planted 
 14 in. X 26 in. or even closer; Charlestown Wakefield, 
 16 in. X 28 in.; Danish Ball Head, 18 in. x 30 in.; 
 and Flat Dutch and the other late flat-headed varieties, 
 24 in. X 36 in. 
 
170 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 Carrots. — The soil for carrots should be fine, mellow, 
 fertile, moist, and not inclined to bake. The best roots 
 are grown in distinctly sandy soils. 
 
 The carrot is propagated from seed sown in the open. 
 If an early crop is desired, the seed should be sown as 
 early in the spring as the ground can be prepared. A 
 succession of roots is secured by planting at various 
 times throughout the season. The early varieties mature 
 in from 8 to 10 wk. and late varieties in from 4 to 5 mo. 
 
 Carrot seeds germinate slowly, consequently it is an 
 advantage to sow enough radish seed with the carrot 
 seed to mark the rows, so that cultivation may not be 
 interfered with. The seed should be covered, as a rule, 
 with about ^ in. of soil. 
 
 For the small early varieties, 10 in. to 12 in. between 
 rows is sufficient space if a hand-wheel hoe is used. 
 For later varieties, 15 in. between rows is about right. 
 When a horse cultivator is to be used, all varieties 
 should be planted in rows from 24 in. to 30 in. apart. 
 Various spaces are recommended for the distance be- 
 tween plants in the row, from 4 in. to 5 in. being the 
 usual space allowed. Thinning, of course, is necessary 
 to space the plants properly. 
 
 Cauliflower.— Cauliflower thrives best in rich, heavy, 
 loams, although large crops are obtained when the 
 crop is grown in light soils. A constant supply of 
 moisture is the most important factor. 
 
 Cauliflower, both late and early, is grown by prac- 
 tically the same methods as late and early cabbage. 
 As cauliflower plants are more tender than cabbage 
 plants, it is customary, however, to sow the former 
 somewhat later than the latter. Mar. 1 being about 
 right for northern districts. The planting distances are 
 the same as for cabbage. 
 
 Celery.— Muck soils are specially adopted to celery 
 growing, because they are very moist, fertile, loose, and 
 mellow. It is a fact, however, that the flavor of celery 
 is somewhat deficient when the crop is grown on muck 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 171 
 
 soil. Many clay and silt soils produce good crops, 
 especially when well manured and irrigated. Large 
 quantities of celery are also raised on light sandy 
 loams, but it is usually necessary to use considerable 
 commercial fertilizer. 
 
 Celery seeds are very small and slow to germinate 
 and must be provided with the best conditions in the 
 seed-bed. The soil should be in fine condition and 
 moist. It is seldom best to sow seed for the early crop 
 before Mar. 1. In most Northern districts, the seed 
 may be sown in flats, hotbeds, or greenhouses. When 
 the rough leaves appear, the small seedlings are trans- 
 planted into flats or beds; 1^ in. each way is ample 
 space. Seed for the late crop is usually sown in the 
 open or in protected beds as early in the spring as 
 the ground can be prepared. The rows are generally 
 1 ft. apart. This provides plenty of space for wheel-hoe 
 cultivation until the plants are transplanted. 
 
 In most sections, planting for the early crop should 
 not occur until from May 10 to 15. Vigorous plants, 
 properly set at this time, should produce a marketable 
 crop by Aug. 1. The late plants may be set the latter 
 part of June and throughout the month of July. 
 Planting distances are extremely variable. If planting 
 is to be in blanching trenches, the distance between 
 rows must not be less than 3J/2 ft. ; 5 ft. is the more 
 coi,nmon spacing, especially for the tall, green varieties. 
 \Mien boards or other devices are used for blanching, 
 the space between rows varies from 18 in. to 3 ft. The 
 standard distance between the plants in the row is 6 in. 
 Some of the best growers plant the early varieties 
 only 4 in. apart and allow 24 in. between rows. At this 
 distance, 65,000 plants are required for an acre. 
 
 Lettuce. — Rich, sandy soils, properly fertilized, are 
 preferable for growing early crops of lettuce. For all 
 classes of lettuce, however, sandy loams furnish the best 
 conditions. The soil preparation for lettuce should be 
 thorough. The seed is sown in the open from early spring 
 
172 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 until late fall, and all winter in the far South. It is cus- 
 tomary to drill lettuce in rows about 1 ft. apart, and to 
 thin to 1 ft. or less. In home gardens, the plants are often 
 thinned out at first to about 4 in. and later to 1 ft. 
 
 Onions.— Perhaps the best soils for onions are those 
 containing large quantities of organic matter. Such 
 soils as muck and peat seem to be an ideal medium for 
 the growing of this crop, as they warm up rapidly in the 
 spring, and thus facilitate early planting, which is very 
 important. Such soils also retain moisture, so that 
 drouth seldom injures the crop to any great extent. 
 Land used in growing onions should be practically level 
 to prevent damage from washing. Onions are easily 
 washed out on sloping lands. 
 
 Most of the onions grown in the United States are 
 produced from seed sown in the open, where the crop 
 matures. When wheel hoes are used, it is customary 
 to plant the crop 12 in. to 14 in. between rows. When 
 horse tools are used the rows are made from 24 in. to 
 30 in. apart. In fairly heavy soil, the seed should be 
 covered with not more than 1/2 in. of soil. In very sandy 
 soil, it is advisable to cover the seed a little deeper. 
 It is customary to allow 8 to 12 plants to the lineal 
 foot. The proper distance in a row is secured, of 
 course, by thinning. 
 
 Peas. — A cool, moist, but well-drained soil is essential 
 to the largest yields of peas. Sandy loams are preferred, 
 although good results can be obtained on any loose, 
 friable, and well-prepared soil. 
 
 For the earliest crop, the seed should be planted in 
 Mar., or as soon as the ground can be prepared. For 
 the first planting, a shallow covering of about 1 in. of 
 soil should be given to the seed. As the season ad- 
 vances, the planting should be deeper. Planting dis- 
 tances depend on the height of the vines, whether the 
 vines are to be supported or not, and the purpose of the 
 crop. When sown in drills, the space between rows 
 varies from 18 in. to 3 ft. 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 173 
 
 Parsnips.— Parsnips do best in deep, fertile, sandy- 
 loams. Clay soil has a tendency to produce crooked 
 and branching roots. 
 
 Parsnip seeds germinate very slowly, consequently 
 they should be sown as early as possible in the spring. 
 A few radish seeds should be sown with the parsnips 
 to mark the rows so that cultivation may be begun 
 before the parsnips are up. The soil should be thor- 
 oughly prepared before sowing. From ^S in. to 1 in. of 
 soil is suilicient covering. It is customary to use plenty 
 of seed, and then thin the plants to 6 in. or 7 in. in 
 strong soils, or 4 in. to 5 in. in poorer ones. There 
 should be 15 in. to 18 in. between rows for wheel-hoe 
 cultivation, and 2 ft. or more when horse implements 
 are to be used. 
 
 Radishes.— The soil for radishes should be cool, moist, 
 fertile, and friable. Sandy loams are preferable. In 
 heavy soils, the roots are likely to be rough or ill 
 shaped, with a large number of tibrous laterals. 
 
 Radishes are planted from early spring, as soon as the 
 ground can be worked, until 6 wk. before frosting 
 weather. By the selection of different varieties, and 
 sowing at frequent intervals, a constant succession of 
 radishes may be had throughout the season. The seeds 
 are strong in germination, and should be sown thinly. 
 The distance between plants in the row should vary 
 from 1 in. to 5 in., depending on the size of roots and 
 tops. As a rule, rows are about 1 ft. apart. 
 
 Spinach.— For spinach a very rich, moist soil is re- 
 quired. In soils of moderate fertility, the plants become 
 spindling, and the production is light. The general 
 practice is to make early sowings in low beds from 5 
 to 9 ft. wide. The rows, which should be 10 or 14 in. 
 apart, are drilled lengthwise in the beds and the plants 
 thinned to from 4 to 6 in. apart. It is important to 
 sow in good time, so that the plants will become 
 thoroughly established before winter. Sept. 25 is the 
 favorite time for sowing in the latitude of Norfolk, Va. 
 
174 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 Turnips.— Turnips, like other root crops, are best 
 grown in sandy soils, and although the crop is produced 
 in a wide range of soil types, to obtain large yields and 
 high quality, the soil must be fertile and constantly 
 moist. 
 
 For an early crop, the seed should be sown as soon as 
 the ground can be prepared. For a late crop, the seed 
 should be sown the latter part of July, or early in Aug., 
 depending on the locality. If a wheel hoe is to be used 
 in cultivating, the rows should be from 12 to 18 in. 
 apart, and if a horse cultivator is to be employed, the 
 rows should be from 26 to 30 in. apart. In the case 
 of the early crop, the plants should be about 2^/^ to 3 in. 
 apart in the row. For the larger late varieties, 4 or 5 in. 
 between plants in a row is about right. The seed 
 should be planted from ^ to )4 in. deep. 
 
 HALF-HARDY CROPS 
 
 Asparagus.—Asparagus is grown successfully on a 
 great variety of soils. The best soil is a deep, rich, 
 moist, sandy loam. Sandy loams are especially im- 
 portant for the green or blanched asparagus, because it 
 is very difficult to produce straight shoots in heavy clay 
 soils. 
 
 Asparagus is propagated by seed and by dividing the 
 crowns. The latter method, however, is not satisfactory 
 and is seldom practiced by commercial growers. Owing 
 to the fact that the asparagus plantation is to last 10 
 years or longer, too much thought or care cannot be 
 given to the preparation of the soil. Planting distances 
 vary considerably in different sections. In the growing 
 of white stalks, the average spacing in New Jersey is 
 2 ft. X 5^ ft.; in New York, about 2 ft. x 5 ft.; in 
 California, about 2 ft. x 9 ft. In the growing of green 
 asparagus, the average spacing in New Jersey is 2 ft. x 
 5 ft.; in Massachusetts, 2 ft. x 4 ft.; in Pennsylvania, 
 2 ft. X AYz ft. Spring planting is universally regarded 
 as better than fall planting. In America, the asparagus 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 175 
 
 plants are set from 6 in. to 1 ft. deep, but 8 in. is 
 considered deep enough. An ordinary moldboard plow 
 is used to make the trenches for planting. The furrow 
 soil is thrown on each side of the furrow. It is often 
 necessary to make two or three rows before the proper 
 depth has been obtained. It is not best to set the 
 plants in the bottom of a hard trench. The best prac- 
 tice is to spread the roots over a slight mound of fine 
 soil and then cover the crown with 2 or 3 in. of fine, 
 moist soil. The crown should be fully firmed over the 
 fleshy roots. 
 
 Beans.— Beans are discussed here as a half-hardy 
 crop, but in reality only certain varieties are half hardy, 
 the others being tender varieties. 
 
 The soils for beans should be well drained and have 
 a moderate quantity of organic matter. Some varieties 
 of beans will grow and mature light crops on poor 
 soils, but high fertility is necessary to larger yields. 
 The light sandy loams are especially important for lima 
 beans. 
 
 It is better to wait until the ground is thoroughly 
 warm and there is little danger of damaging weather 
 conditions before planting beans. Kidney beans may 
 be planted early, followed by the marrows, and then 
 the pea varieties. In New York, the kidney beans may 
 be planted the latter part of May, and the pea varieties 
 from^ June 5 to 20. The distances between rows range 
 from 24 in. to 34 in., 28 in. being abovit the proper 
 spacing. The usual distance of the beans apart in a 
 row is from 2 to 4 in. In heavy soils, lyi in. is ample 
 depth for planting; in lighter soils, 2 in. to 3 in. is 
 about right. 
 
 Sweet Corn. — Sod land is invariably the best for sweet 
 corn. The crop may be grown successfully on prac- 
 tically all types of soils, but large yields are to be 
 obtained, of course, only from very fertile soils. As 
 in the case of beans, some varieties of sweet corn are 
 half hardy and some are tender. 
 
176 VEGETABLE CULTURE 
 
 When grown for market, early planting of sweet corn 
 is especially important. The crop is often grown in 
 hills, but drills are preferred. Plants of a lighter 
 growing variety, may stand 10 in. apart, and 1 ft. is 
 not too much space for vigorous varieties. The space 
 between rows varies from 30 in. to 4 ft. It is best to 
 seed freely and then if necessary to reduce the number 
 of plants. 
 
 TENDER CROPS 
 
 Cucumbers. — Light, sandy loams are best for early 
 cucumbers, if earliness is the chief consideration, but 
 yields are larger and the bearing period longer in 
 heavier soils. Whatever the type of soil, it must be 
 moist but not wet. 
 
 Planting should not occur until the ground is warm 
 and there is practically no danger of frost. Many 
 growers plant seed at two different depths. The early 
 plants come on first, and if these are killed or damaged 
 by frost, the later ones will be likely to escape. Plant- 
 ing in hills was the universal practice some years ago 
 and is still preferred by many growers. In good soils, 
 the distance between hills should be not less than 
 5 ft. X 5 ft. and some prefer to plant 6 ft. x 6 ft. In 
 lighter and moderately fertile soils, 4 ft. X 5 ft. may be 
 permissible. 
 
 Potatoes.— Soil for potatoes should be rather loamy in 
 character and should have a liberal supply of potash, 
 either naturally or supplied in the drill by the applica- 
 tion of sulphate of potash. 
 
 Potatoes are cut into sections for planting, a section 
 being a small piece containing one or more eyes. The 
 pieces are planted 3 or 4 in. below the surface of the 
 ground. It is the best practice to plant in drills, drop- 
 ping two pieces every 12 to 18 in. If horse cultivation is 
 used, the drills should be at least 3 ft. apart. 
 
 Squashes. — A rich, warm, but well-drained, moist soil 
 is essential to quick maturity and high yields in 
 squashes. The plants are often started under glass. 
 
VEGETABLE CULTURE 111 
 
 like cucumbers and muskmelons, and planted in the 
 open. It is customary to sow from 10 to 12 seeds in 
 hills enriched with two or three forkfuls of rotten 
 manure, and then to thin to two or three plants. 
 Squashes are often planted in drills and thinned as 
 may be desired. The dish types of pattypan and crook- 
 neck squashes are generally planted 4 ft. x 4 ft. apart. 
 The winter, or running varieties, should be planted 
 about 8 ft. X 8 ft., or 10 ft. x 12 ft., depending on 
 the fertility of the soil and the vigor of the varieties. 
 
 Tomatoes.— A deep, fertile, sandy loam, or a well- 
 drained clay sod soil undoubtedly provides the best 
 conditions for the culture of tomatoes. The crop, how- 
 ever, is grown successfully on a great variety of 
 soils. The tomato is propagated from seed sown in 
 hotbeds, cold frames, or greenhouses. When the seed- 
 lings have attained sufficient size, they are transplanted 
 to the open ground. The proper distances should be 
 determined by the fertility of the soil, the vigor of 
 the variety, and the method of culture. In fine soils, 
 and with early varieties, 3 ft. x 3 ft. apart will be 
 satisfactory. In many soils, 3 ft. x 4 ft. are good 
 distances for early varieties; 4 ft. x 4 ft., and 4 ft. x 5 ft. 
 are good planting distances for late varieties. 
 
 12 
 
178 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 HORSES 
 
 For a proper understanding of the terms used by 
 horsemen, a knowledge of the various parts and exterior 
 regions of a horse is necessary. In the accompanying 
 illustration is shown a profile view of a horse with the 
 parts and exterior regions numbered. The names of 
 the numbered parts and regions are given following 
 the cut. 
 
 The common unit of measurement for the height of 
 horses is the hand. A hand is 4 in. or the supposed 
 width of the human palm. Thus, if a horse were 5 ft. 
 4 in. tall, its height would be expressed as 16 hands; 
 if it were 5 ft. 6 in. tall, its height would be expressed 
 as 16^ hands. The measurement of a horse's height is 
 taken from the ground to the top of the shoulders. 
 
 THE ARAB HORSE 
 
 The native home of the Arab breed of horse is in 
 Arabia, but it is probable that the breed is not indig- 
 enous to that country. Arab horses range from 14 to 
 15 hands in height, rarely exceeding 15J4 hands. The 
 head is of splendid appearance, being broad and high, 
 the muzzle short and fine, the face bony, the veins 
 handsomely coursed, the nostrils large, the ears small 
 and well set, the eyes large and prominent, and the 
 jaw heavy and wide, giving an abundance of room for 
 the windpipe. The neck is deep where it joins the 
 shoulder, of good length, and nicely turned in the 
 throatlatch. The shoulders are long and obliquely set, 
 but the withers are often too thick and are inclined to 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 179 
 
 /, Chin groove 
 
 18, Shoulder 
 
 55, Loin 
 
 2, Lips 
 
 19, Arm 
 
 36, Hip 
 
 3, Nostril 
 
 W, Point of shoul- 
 
 37, Croup 
 
 4, Muzzle 
 
 der 
 
 38, Dock 
 
 6, Face 
 
 21, Forearm 
 
 S5, Tail 
 
 6, Nose 
 
 22, Elbow 
 
 40, Point of but- 
 
 7, Eye 
 
 23, Knee 
 
 tock 
 
 8, Forehead 
 
 24, Front cannon 
 
 41, Thigh 
 
 42, Stifle 
 
 9. Poll 
 
 :25, Front fetlock 
 
 10, Ear 
 
 26, Front pastern 
 
 43, Quarters 
 
 11, Lower jaw 
 
 :27, Front coronet 
 
 44, Gaskin 
 
 12, Angle of lower jaw 
 
 28, Front hoof 
 
 45. Hock 
 
 13, Throat latch 
 
 29, Chestnuts 
 
 4^, Hind cannon 
 
 i4. Neck 
 
 30, Floor of chest 
 
 47. Hind fetlock 
 
 15, Crest 
 
 31, Belly 
 
 48, Hind pastern 
 
 le. Juncture of neck 
 
 S^. Ribs 
 
 49, Hind coronet 
 
 and shoulder 
 
 33, Flank 
 
 60. Hind hoof 
 
 17, Withers 
 
 S4. Back 
 
 
180 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 be rather low for saddle purposes. The body is rather 
 short and usually deeply ribbed, the ribs springing out 
 well from the spine with a symmetrical curve; the back 
 is well sustained with heavy muscles; the loins are 
 broad and muscular; the croup is rather long and level, 
 and the tail is set high and usually carried with style; 
 the quarters are long and deep, but the gaskins and 
 hocks are not of the most approved shape. The legs 
 and feet are of good size and shape for strength. 
 
 Contrary to popular opinion, the prevailing color of 
 the Arab is not snow white, or coal black, or spotted. 
 The best authorities state that about 50% of the animals 
 are bays, about 20% are chestnuts, and about 30% are 
 grays and white with dark skin; occasionally a brown 
 specimen is found and very rarely a black. 
 
 As a saddle horse the Arab ranks high. 
 
 THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE 
 
 The Thoroughbred has a fine, lean head that has 
 quality, eyes that are prominent and intelligent, ears 
 of medium size, a broad forehead, a heavy jaw, and a 
 refined muzzle. The neck is long and rather thin, the 
 crest fairly straight from the withers to the poll, and 
 the head carried somewhat low with the nose pointing 
 forwards when the animal is running. In the best 
 specimens of the breed, the shoulders are obliquely set 
 and well covered with muscle, and the withers are high 
 and thin. The chest of a Thoroughbred has a tendency 
 to be narrow and deep; very narrow chests, however, 
 are objectionable. It is desirable that the front legs, 
 from the bottom, or floor, of the chest to the ground, 
 should be little more than half the height of the horse. 
 The back and loins are comparatively short and well 
 muscled, the conformation of these parts indicating an 
 ability of the animal to carry weight. The ribs are 
 long and well sprung. The croup is of good length, 
 rather level, and curved gracefully with the tail, which 
 is attached at a medium height and is somewhat lightly 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 181 
 
 haired. The Thoroughbred is heavily muscled in the 
 thighs and quarters, which are long and deep, exhibiting 
 great propelling power. The gaskins, or lower thighs, 
 should be broad, and the feet and joints should show 
 strength and quality. The cannons are broad and the 
 pasterns are longer than those of any other breed and 
 frequently too sloping. It is desirable that the hind 
 legs should be a trifle straighter than in the case of 
 harness horses. 
 
 In color, Thoroughbred horses are variable. Bay and 
 brown are the most common and the most popular colors, 
 although chestnut is by no means uncommon, and black, 
 sorrel, gray, and roan occasionally occur. 
 
 THE AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE 
 
 Between 1830 and 1840 many horses were taken into 
 Kentucky, principally from Virginia and other eastern 
 states and from Canada. Most of the horses from 
 Virginia were either Thoroughbreds or animals largely 
 permeated with Thoroughbred blood. Many of those 
 taken from New York and the New England states 
 were pacers, and were descendants from crosses of the 
 early French Canadian mares with the stallions of New 
 York and New England. It is probable, also, that 
 many of them were descendants of the Narrangansett 
 Pacer, a well-known strain that existed in the eastern 
 part of the country in colonial times. These pacing 
 horses, when taken to Kentucky, were crossed with 
 the Thoroughbreds that had been brought from Virginia. 
 From the animals resulting from this cross the American 
 Saddle horse has been developed. 
 
 The size most desired for animals of this breed is a 
 height of from 15 hands 1^ in. to 15 hands 2^/^ in. and 
 a weight of from 950 to 1,100 lb. The saddle horse 
 exhibits much style in carriage of head and in arch 
 of neck and tail. In the best animals of the breed, 
 the back is very strong and hence capable of sus- 
 taining considerable weight. The shoulders and pasterns 
 
182 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 are usually long, obliquely set, and springy. The croup 
 is long and level, and the tail is long, set high, and 
 stylishly carried. 
 
 Gaits of the Saddle Horse.— The most distinguishing 
 feature of the saddle horse is his variety of gaits. The 
 three natural gaits of a horse are the walk, trot, and 
 gallop. The gallop, in the case of the saddle horse, has 
 been changed by training to the canter. The canter is 
 performed by practically the same movement of the legs 
 as the gallop, but is slower and easier on the rider. 
 Some saddle horses have only the three gaits, the walk, 
 the trot, and the canter; and are known as walk-trot- 
 canter horses, or merely as plain-gaited horses. Many 
 saddle horses have acquired through training two addi- 
 tional gaits, the rack and a slow gait. The rack is a 
 gait in which each foot strikes the ground separately 
 and in a peculiar rhythm. The rack was formerly 
 termed the single-foot gait, but the American Saddle 
 Horse Breeders' Association has officially adopted the 
 term rack. The slow gait may be either the running 
 walk, the slow pace, or the fox trot, all of which are 
 closely allied. The running walk is faster than the 
 common walk but is performed with the same rhythm; 
 that is, each foot strikes the ground independently of 
 the others. The slow pace is a slow, modified form of 
 the common pace. The fox trot is a slow trot or a jog 
 trot. A horse that can show the walk, the trot, the 
 canter, the rack, and the running walk or the slow 
 pace or the fox trot is called a gaited horse. 
 
 THE MORGAN HORSE 
 
 The Morgan horse is small, standing from 14 to 15^ 
 hands high, and weighing from 900 to 1,200 lb. The 
 head is small and neat, the forehead being broad and 
 high. The eyes are large and brown, and are neatly set 
 in the head. The head and ears are smaller and more 
 refined than those of the American Trotter, and the 
 neck is longer, has a better crest, and is set better, 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 183 
 
 being carried higher. The shoulders are long and ob- 
 liquely set, and the chest is deep and capacious, indi- 
 cating endurance and hardiness of constitution. The 
 back is short and well muscled; the ribs spring well 
 from the spine, giving a round barrel; the croup is long 
 and the tail neatly set; and the limbs are clean and 
 cordy, the bone being of the best quality. The pre- 
 vailing colors are bay, chestnut, brown, and black. 
 Although but few Morgans ever attained phenomenal 
 speed, most of them have good action and are clean, 
 open-gaited trotters. Many of them with a little school- 
 ing readily acquire saddle gaits. 
 
 THE AMERICAN TROTTER 
 
 The American Trotter breed, the animals of which are 
 commonly known as standard-bred horses, includes both 
 the trotter and the pacer. In fact, the trotting and the 
 pacing gaits are somewhat interchangeable and many of 
 the so-called trotting horses have both. In the early 
 development of this type, breeders failed to recognize 
 any standard toward which to breed, but simply bred 
 for speed. The American Trotter horse is scattered 
 widely throughout the United States, being found in 
 almost every section. He is distinctly the product of 
 America and has been developed because of the love 
 of Americans for horse racing at the trotting and 
 pacing gaits. 
 
 No breed of horses is characterized by such a great 
 variation in size, conformation, and color, as the 
 American Trotter. In fact, there is so little of breed 
 type found among these light-harness horses that some 
 persons refuse to recognize them as belonging to a 
 breed. In the best of these animals there is great 
 symmetry of form. The head is inclined to be a little 
 large and coarse; the neck rather short, lean, and 
 straight; the shoulders sloping and well laid; the back 
 and loin longer than is desired; and the croup short 
 and somewhat drooping. American Trotters usually have 
 
184 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 deep chests and, as a rule, short, clean, fine-boned 
 legs, and strong feet of excellent quality. The accion 
 is quick and the stride long. Breeders desire a weight, 
 in the case of stallions, of about 1,150 lb., and, in the 
 case of mares, of about 1,050 lb. Bay and brown are 
 the most common colors of these horses. 
 
 THE ORLOFF TROTTER 
 
 The Orloff Trotter has the characteristic conformation 
 of light-harness horses and is used chiefly for driving 
 purposes. The average height is about 16 hands, and 
 the weight varies considerably, running from about 
 1,000 to 1,300 lb. Gray, white, and black are the most 
 common colors of these horses, although chestnut and 
 bay are not uncommon. It is said that Orloff Trotters 
 are lacking in quality. The head is usually small and 
 the face dished. In good animals of the breed, the 
 neck is strong, well arched, and carried high. The 
 back is short and strong, and the loin full and muscular. 
 The croup is somewhat sloping, being commonly criticized 
 in this respect, but is heavily muscled. The shoulders 
 are sloping but lack heaviness of form. The legs are 
 strongly muscled and the bone and feet are regarded as 
 of superior quality. 
 
 THE HACKNEY HORSE 
 
 The most desirable height for the Hackney is from 
 \5y2 to 15^ hands, but the breed shows a wide variation 
 in this regard. Some animals are less than 14 hands 
 and others range over 16 hands. In England, the 
 horses of this breed under 14 hands are called Hackney 
 ponies; those from 14 to 15 hands Hackney cobs; and 
 those 15 hands and over. Hackney carriage horses. They 
 have all been bred much alike with the exception of 
 size, which represents a difference of the breeders' ideas 
 as to what is most desired and useful. The largest 
 Hackney rarely weighs over 1,250 lb. Animals of this 
 breed are usually stoutly built, compact, strong boned, 
 muscular, and of kindly disposition. The head is light. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 185 
 
 clean cut, and intelligent in appearance; the neck is 
 strong, well arched and muscular, but free from coarse- 
 ness; the shoulders are smooth and oblique; the body is 
 rotund, short, and compact; the legs are short, strong 
 boned, and flattish; the tendons are prominent; and the 
 hoofs are symmetrical and of good quality. The action 
 of the Hackney is high, quick, elastic, and regular, the 
 hocks being well flexed. The common colors are bay, 
 chestnut, and brown, although black, roan, gray, and 
 buckskin occasionally occur. 
 
 THE FRENCH COACH HORSE 
 
 The French Coach breed of horses, as the name im- 
 plies, originated in France. The name French Coach, 
 however, is an American one, there being no breed of 
 that name in France. The breed known in America as 
 French Coach is termed in France the Demi-Sang, 
 meaning half blood. The horses of this breed are, on 
 an average, about 16 hands high. The average weight 
 of the stallions is about 1,350 lb., and of the mares 
 about 1,200 lb. There is, however, considerable varia- 
 tion in the size. French Coach horses have a good 
 length of body; a refined, well-placed neck; and a 
 neat head. The back is short, broad, and well muscled; 
 the croup is level and of good length; and the tail is 
 well carried. The limbs are well placed, of good shape, 
 and have quality; and the feet and pasterns are of 
 superior quality. The trot of the French Coach horse 
 is not so snappy and high as that of the Hackney, but 
 the, stride is longer and more powerful. Bay and brown 
 are the prevailing colors, but black and chestnut are 
 not unusual, and sometimes other colors occur. 
 
 THE GERMAN COACH HORSE. 
 
 The German Coach breed of horses, as the name sug- 
 gests, is a product of Germany. Horses of this breed 
 range in height from 15^ to 17 hands, and weigh from 
 1,250 to 1,600 lb. The usual height is from 16 to WA 
 
186 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 hands, and the weight from 1,300 to 1,500 lb. The head 
 of the German Coach is neat, the neck is long and 
 arched; the shoulders are oblique and well placed; and 
 the withers are prominent. The German Coach horse 
 is larger than the French Coach horse, the body being 
 longer and heavier. In color, the German Coach horses 
 are bay, brown, and black, brown and bay being more 
 prevalent than any other color. 
 
 THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE 
 
 In height, the Cleveland Bay ranges from about 16 
 to 16M hands, and weighs from 1,200 to 1,550 lb. The 
 body is of the large coach type. The neck is of mod- 
 erate length and the head is neat. The shoulders are 
 long and sloping; the back and loins short and broad; 
 and the croup high. These animals have an abundance 
 of bone of good quality, and their action is good, 
 although by no means as high as that of the Hackney. 
 The color of the Cleveland Bay horse is always some 
 shade of bay, either light or dark, with black legs, 
 mane, and tail. 
 
 THE YORKSHIRE COACH HORSE 
 
 The Yorkshire Coach breed is recognized as a distinct 
 breed in England, but is registered in the same stud 
 books as the Cleveland Bay in the United States. The 
 Yorkshire Coach horse is not so heavy as the Cleveland 
 Bay but is a little taller, often standing 17 hands high. 
 He is finer in bone, with more quality and refinement 
 about the limbs, head, and neck, and is also a little 
 more snappy in his action. In the best animals, the 
 color is bay or brown, with black eyes; and there is an 
 abundance of mane and tail. 
 
 THE PERCHERON HORSE 
 
 Percherons range in height from about 16 to 17^ 
 hands and weigh from about 1,600 to 2,200 lb. An 
 average weight for a Percheron stallion in good condition 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 187 
 
 is from 1,900 to 2,000 lb. The Percheron has a deep, 
 thick, compact body on rather short legs, which are 
 devoid of the long hair characteristic of the Clydes- 
 dale and the Shire. The head is neat and refined, of 
 good width between the eyes and the jaws, and tapers 
 to a refined muzzle; the forehead is broad and full; and 
 the ears are small, pointed, and carried erect. The 
 neck is of moderate length, rather arched, and is 
 usually set well on the shoulders. 
 
 In action, the Percheron is quick and energetic, ex- 
 hibiting considerable snap. Percherons are good walkers 
 but have a shorter stride than either the Clydesdales or 
 the Shires. The trot is performed with vim and energy, 
 and the knees and hocks are usually flexed well when 
 carried forwards. Gray and black are the predominating 
 colors, although occasionally bay, brown, and chestnut 
 occur. The Percheron has a sanguine temperament, and 
 an amiable disposition, in these respects being the best 
 of all the draft breeds. 
 
 THE CLYDESDALE HORSE 
 
 Clydesdales commonly range in height from 16 to 17 
 hands, and weigh from about 1,800 to 2,000 lb. In the 
 best animals the head is of good shape; the shoulders 
 are rather oblique; and the chest is somewhat narrower 
 than in animals of the other draft breeds. The body 
 of the Clydesdale is criticized by many competent 
 judges, who assert that it is lacking in depth and cir- 
 cumference. The feet, bone, and action are cardinal 
 points with Clydesdale breeders, and in these respects 
 animals of the breed are superior. A prominent charac- 
 teristic of Clydesdale horses is the long, fine, silky hair, 
 commonly termed feather, which grows out from the 
 backs of the cannons and from the coronets. 
 
 In the early days a few of the Clydesdales were black, 
 a few were gray, and a few were chestnut, but the 
 Highland Agricultural Society made it a rule that only 
 bays and browns should be allowed to compete for 
 
188 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 prizes. This checked the production of blacks and grays, 
 which were rather common in the country at that time. 
 Gray Clydesdales are still unpopular, and some authori- 
 ties think that a chestnut color indicates Shire blood. 
 
 THE SHIRE HORSE 
 
 Shire stallions range in height from 16 to 17^ hands 
 and weigh from about 1,800 to 2,400 lb. The shoulders 
 are massive and powerful. The back is of moderate 
 length and the croup of fair length, although not so 
 level as that of the Clydesdale. The Shire is inclined 
 to be a little plain over the hips and a little too short 
 and straight in the pasterns. The feet are inclined to 
 be small and too flat, lacking height at the heel, and 
 also brittle, especially feet of a white color. As a 
 rule, animals of the breed have an abundance of bone. 
 A deep chest and heavily muscled shoulders, thighs, and 
 quarters are characteristic of the breed. Shire horses 
 have a profuse growth of feather coming out from the 
 cannons; often the feather is not as fine and silky as 
 is desired. 
 
 Horses of the Shire breed are usually of a bay or 
 brown color, although black, gray, and occasionally 
 chestnut occurs. As a rule, they have white faces, the 
 white extending from the forehead to the muzzle, and 
 one or more white feet and legs, the white extending 
 to the knee or hock, and occasionally higher. • 
 
 THE BELGIAN HORSE 
 
 The Belgian is the heaviest of all draft horses. The 
 stallions range in height from 16 to 17 hands and vary 
 in weight from 1,800 to 2,500 lb. The mares, of course, 
 are considerably lighter in weight than the stallions, 
 but are heavy in comparison with mares of the other 
 draft breeds. 
 
 The characters that distinguish the Belgian draft 
 horse from the horses of other draft breeds are the deep, 
 thick body and short legs, which are free from long 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 189 
 
 hair. He lacks the levelness of top that is desired, 
 many animals of the breed being low in the back, rising 
 rather high on top of the hips, and being rather short 
 and drooping in the croup. The neck of the Belgian is 
 short and thick and has a heavy crest that extends to 
 the poll. The pasterns, in many instances, are a little 
 short and upright, and the feet are small, having much 
 the shape of the feet of a mule. 
 
 The prevailing colors of the Belgians are chestnut, 
 bay, brown, and red roan; occasionally black and in- 
 frequently gray occurs, the latter color, however, not 
 being popular. 
 
 THE SUFFOLK HORSE 
 
 Suffolk horses range in height from I51/2 to 16^^ 
 hands high and weigh from about 1,700 to 1,800 lb. The 
 Suffolk is not claimed to be strictly a draft horse, but 
 is suited for agricultural purposes. 
 
 The Suffolk differs from the Clydesdale and the Shire 
 in that it is free from all long hair on the limbs. It 
 has a neat head, which is wide in the forehead, and the 
 jaw tapers to the muzzle. The neck is of good length 
 and the crest exceptionally well developed, presenting 
 an arched appearance. The shoulders are long but not 
 extremely straight nor obliquely set. The legs, which 
 are rather short, are free from feather, and appear to 
 be a little light in bone; however, breeders disclaim this, 
 stating that it is simply because they are free from 
 feather. The pasterns are of moderate length and the 
 feet are of good texture, although at one time they were 
 criticized for being too flat. 
 
 In color, the Suffolk is always some shade of chestnut, 
 either light or dark, the light being preferred. The 
 color of horses of this breed is exceptionally uniform. 
 
 MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 The market classification of horses is based on their 
 size, conformation, height, weight, style, and action. A 
 classification based on such widely variable characters 
 
190 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 as these must necessarily be somewhat flexible, that is, 
 the lines of division between the classes must be more 
 or less a matter of personal opinion and subject to 
 change according to the market demands for and the 
 supply of any particular class. Many animals go to 
 market and help to supply the demand that are not 
 altogether typical of the market class in which they are 
 sold. In attempting to meet the market demands, if 
 there are not enough horses of a particular type, dealers 
 try to fill the demand as far as possible with animals 
 that are only partly typical of the class. 
 
 In the table on page 191 are given the names of the 
 market classes and subclasses of horses, and the height 
 and weight requirements for each. It will be seen that 
 in most cases the name of the class and subclass is 
 suggestive of the use to which the horses belonging to 
 it are put. 
 
 Draft-Horse Class.— The draft-horse class is composed 
 of horses that are broad, massive, rugged, and compact, 
 and have sufficient weight, strength, and endurance to 
 pull heavy loads. The weight should come from size 
 rather than an abundance of fat. Draft horses range in 
 height from 15^ to 17j^ hands, and weigh from 1,600 to 
 2,200 lb. or more. The action should be energetic and spir- 
 ited, and the stride at the walk should be long and rapid. 
 
 The draft-horse class has been divided into light 
 draft horses, heavy draft horses, and loggers, but the 
 distinction between the light and the heavy subclasses 
 is rarely made on the market, pertaining almost ex- 
 clusively to the show ring. 
 
 Light draft horses are from 15)4 to I6I/2 hands high 
 and weigh from 1,600 to 1,750 lb. Although 15^4 hands 
 is accepted as the minimum height, a horse of this 
 height is less desirable that one that is taller, and 
 it closely approaches the eastern chunk subclass. 
 
 Heavy draft horses are the heaviest type of horses; 
 they weigh from 1,750 to 2,200 lb. or more, and are from 
 16 to 17y2 hands high. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
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192 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Loggers are heavy draft horses that are used in the 
 lumbering regions for drawing heavy loads of logs. They 
 usually differ from the heavy draft horses in being 
 plain, rough, or slightly unsound in some respect, such 
 as being defective in wind, having sidebones, boggy 
 hocks, etc. Occasionally, good horses are purchased for 
 logging purposes, but as a rule the trade demands 
 rather cheap animals. 
 
 Chunk Class. — Horses of the chunk class are short 
 legged, broad, and heavy set. As a class, chunks are 
 less uniform in type than the animals of any other 
 class. They vary in height from 15 to 16 hands and 
 weigh from about 800 to 1,550 lb. The subclasses of the 
 chunk class are eastern and export chunks, farm 
 chunks, and southern chunks. 
 
 Eastern and export chunks are of much the same type 
 and conformation as draft horses, but are a little more 
 blocky and compact. At one time a considerable num- 
 ber were exported, but in recent years the price has 
 been too high to permit of a profit in such business. 
 Eastern and export chunks are largely used in pairs 
 and in threes for trucking purposes. 
 
 Form chunks are an important item in the horse mar- 
 ket, particularly during the spring months. At other 
 seasons they are usually sold to supply demands other 
 than for farming. Farm chunks are lighter in bone and 
 not as uniform in type as eastern chunks. 
 
 Southern chunks, or southern horses, as they are more 
 generally called, are lighter in bone and more rangy 
 in conformation that farm chunks. They are somewhat 
 of the road-horse type, and usually have considerable 
 light-horse blood. Southern chunks are taken to the 
 southern states, where they are largely used for agri- 
 cultural purposes. 
 
 Wagon-Horse Class.— Animals of the wagon-horse 
 class are used principally for the pulling of light wagons, 
 such as delivery and express wagons, on city streets. 
 Horses of good action are required for this purpose, as 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 193 
 
 they are required to do their work at a fairly rapid gait. 
 Horses of this class are from about 15 to 17J<^ hands 
 high and weigh from about 1,050 to 1,700 lb. The sub- 
 classes of the wagon-horse class are express horses, 
 delivery-wagon horses, artillery horses, and fire horses. 
 
 Express horses are used singly or in pairs by express 
 companies in the collecting and delivering of packages. 
 The size of the horses that are used is determined by 
 the weight of the wagon, whether the horses are worked 
 singly or doubly, and the extent of the territory from 
 which collections and deliveries are made. The lightest 
 grade of express horses, which are used for the de- 
 livering of valuable packages, such as money, etc., are 
 known as money horses; such horses must be capable 
 of doing fast work. 
 
 Delivery-cvagon horses, or, as they are often termed, 
 wagon horses, are similar to express horses, but are not 
 quite so large and generally not as high grade, as most 
 mercantile firms do not care to pay large prices for 
 horses. However, there are exceptions, some large de- 
 partment stores buying nothing but choice animals. 
 
 Artillery horses should be from 5 to 8 yr. old. Only 
 geldings are used for artillery purposes, and the demand 
 is rather spasmodic. 
 
 Fire horses, as the term implies, are animals that are 
 used for the drawing of fire-fighting apparatus. Because 
 of the fact that such horses are required to pull com- 
 paratively heavy loads at fast speed, it is necessary 
 that they be more rangy than express horses. 
 
 Carriage-Horse Class.— Horses of the carriage-horse 
 class are used foi drawing heavy vehicles and are fre- 
 quently spoken of as heavy-harness horses. They range 
 in height from 14^ to 16^ hands and weigh from 900 to 
 1,250 lb. The subclasses of the carriage-horse class are 
 coach horses, cobs, park horses, and cab horses. 
 
 Coach horses must have high action and beauty of 
 form. They must flex the hocks well under the body 
 and carry the knees high toward the chin. They are a 
 13 
 
194 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 little larger than other horses of the carriage class, and 
 may be said to be a little more stately in action than 
 cobs or park horses. 
 
 Cohs are small, stocky coach horses. The cob is a 
 popular English type, and in England a horse is never 
 considered a cob that is over IS hands high. The action 
 of the cob is much the same as that of the coach horse, 
 being, perhaps, a trifle higher at the knees and hocks. 
 Cobs should be somewhat quicker on their feet than 
 coach horses. 
 
 Park horses are used strictly for display purposes, such 
 as for driving in parks or on boulevards, and are usually 
 used by horse fanciers. An abundance of quality and 
 extremely high action at both knees and hocks are 
 essential in horses of this subclass. 
 
 Cab horses are usually either the lower grades of the 
 coach class or worn-out and discarded coach horses. 
 They are used chiefly in cities for the conveyance of 
 vehicles for public service. 
 
 Road-Horse Class. — Road horses are more lithe in build 
 and angular in form than those of the carriage class. 
 They are frequently spoken of as drivers or as light- 
 harness horses. Although performance is the principal 
 quality sought, a good conformation is very desirable. 
 This class is composed of runabout horses and roadsters. 
 
 Runabout horses occupy an intermediate place between 
 typical roadsters and carriage horses. They wear har- 
 ness much like that of carriage horses, but in action 
 and conformation and in the use to which they are put 
 they correspond more to the roadster. They are not so 
 heavy and full as coach horses, and are not so light, 
 thin, and angular as roadsters. They are used on run- 
 abouts, driving w^gigons, phaetons, etc. 
 
 Roadsters are less uniform and usually more lithe 
 and angular than runabout horses. In general, a 
 roadster may be described as having the greyhound 
 form, often being a little higher at the hips than at 
 the withers, and powerfully developed in the hind 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 195 
 
 limbs. Speed, style, and stamina are the principal 
 qualities sought for. 
 
 Saddle-Horse Class.— The most important requirement 
 for an animal of the saddle-horse class is to be sure of 
 foot, as no rider cares to mount a stumbler. A saddle 
 horse should also be an easy rider, and be easily con- 
 trolled. In selecting a saddle horse, it is a good plan 
 to choose a conformation that will place the rider well 
 back on the animal, thus lessening the weight on the 
 fore end. The subclasses of the saddle-horse class are: 
 five-gaited saddlers, three-gaited saddlers, hunters, 
 cavalry horses, and polo ponies. 
 
 Fivc-gaited saddlers, often spoken of as gaited saddle 
 horses or as American saddle horses, are the result of 
 skilful selection and breeding for more than half a 
 century. They have the five recognized distinct gaits 
 under the saddle, namely, the walk, the trot, the canter, 
 the single-foot, or rack, and a slow gait, which may be 
 either the running walk, the fox trot, or the slow pace. 
 
 Three-gaited saddlers are much the same in general type 
 and conformation as the five-gaited saddlers, but they 
 are a kittle more compactly built, having shorter necks 
 and bodies; the tails are usually docked and set; and 
 they have only the three gaits: the walk, the trot, and 
 the canter. 
 
 Hunters are horses used by sportsmen to ride after 
 hounds. They are often required to take daring leaps 
 over fences and gullies, and must be fearless and trained 
 to jump. They should be strongly built and able to 
 stand long, hard rides without becoming unduly jaded. 
 
 Cavalry horses, as the name implies, are horses used by 
 the government for cavalry mounts. For this service, 
 the government requires geldings of uniform and lasting 
 color, that are from 4 to 8 yr. old. 
 
 Polo ponies are small saddlers that are used in playing 
 polo. The four essentials which they must have are a 
 specified size, weight-carrying ability, agility, and speed. 
 
196 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 197 
 
 DAIRY CATTLE 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DAIRY TYPE 
 
 The majority of animals of all breeds of cattle that 
 are noted for the secretion of large quantities of milk 
 have a peculiar and distinct conformation, commonly- 
 termed the dairy conformation, and animals that 
 have this conformation are said to be of the dairy type. 
 The most distinguishing features of the dairy type are 
 the triangular, or wedge, shape of the body and the 
 
 Names of Exterior Regions of Dairy Cattle 
 
 a, Poll n, Thigh 
 
 b, Neck 0, Pin bones, or thurls 
 
 c, Muzzle p, Flank 
 
 d, Face q, Fore flank 
 
 e, Forehead r, Udder 
 
 f, Withers s, Teats 
 
 g, Shoulders t, Milk veins 
 li, Chest M, Escutcheon 
 i, Barrel v, Navel 
 
 y, Back, or chine w, Dewlap 
 
 k, Loin A, Heart girth 
 
 /, Hips B, Width of Chest 
 
 VI, Rump 
 
 lean frame. This conformation is decidedly more marked 
 in the females than in the males. 
 
 In addition to being wedge-shaped, the characteristic 
 dairy form is angular, or lean; that is, it has a com- 
 paratively thin covering of muscular tissue. The 
 shoyilders are thin and the ridge of the shoulder blade 
 is prominent. The ribs are thinly covered with muscle, 
 particularly on the upper part close to the backbone. 
 The loin is broad and flat but bony, and the thighs 
 are thin, flat, and incurved at the rear as viewed from 
 
198 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 the side. That the angularity is due to a lack of mus- 
 cular development rather than to a lack of fatty tissue 
 is shown by the fact that cows of the dairy type 
 frequently take on fat when far advanced in the period 
 of lactation or when completely dry. 
 
 The characters of the dairy type of animal that have 
 just been described are the most striking, but there 
 are numerous minor characters that distinguish this 
 type from thj beef type. Among these are: leanness of 
 head, breadth of muzzle, and thinness of neck. The 
 dairy type of cow also has a distinctly feminine ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 The desired conformation of a dairy cow is shown in 
 the accompanying illustration, (a), (&), and (c) showing, 
 respectively, a profile view, a rear view, and a front 
 view. The different exterior regions of the animal are 
 marked with letters and in connection are given the 
 corresponding letters with the names commonly applied 
 to these regions. 
 
 JERSEY CATTLE 
 
 Jersey cattle are characterized by small to medium 
 size. The official score card of the breed calls for from 
 800 to 1,000 lb. as the weight of a mature cow. The bulls 
 weigh considerably more than this, their weight usually 
 ranging from 1,200 to 1,800 lb. when they are mature. 
 
 A prominent characteristic of the Jersey form is the 
 tendency of the bones to be short and curved. For 
 instance, the face is short and usually dished; the 
 hind legs are crooked; and in many cases there is more 
 or less of a tendency for the back to depart from a 
 straight line. 
 
 In color, the Jersey is variable. The typical color, 
 however, is fawn or gray shading to black at the ex- 
 tremities, with a black muzzle, a black tongue, and a 
 black switch at the end of the tail. As a rule, there is 
 a ring of light-colored hair immediately about the 
 muzzle. In some animals, particularly in bulls, the 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 199 
 
 gray shades to black over the whole body, and in others 
 the fawn color deepens to almost a red. A considerable 
 proportion of Jerseys are marked with more or less 
 white. 
 
 The Jerseys produce a moderate quantity of milk, 
 which contains a high percentage of butter fat. Normal 
 Jersey milk contains about 5% of butter fat; frequently 
 the per cent, is less and frequently greater, in some 
 cases rising as high as 7%. In quantity of butter fat 
 produced in a year, the Jersey ranks as one of the 
 leading dairy breeds. 
 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE 
 
 Guernseys are of a larger size than the Jerseys, 
 although the animals, as a whole, cannot be character- 
 ized as large. Mature cows will seldom weigh more 
 than 1,200 lb., and occasionally weigh less than 1,000 
 lb. The official score card of the breed calls for a 
 weight of 1,050 lb. for a cow 4 yr. old or over, and 
 1,500 lb. for a bull of the same age. 
 
 In form. Guernseys have the characteristic wedge 
 shape and the spareness and angularity of conformation 
 of the dairy type, although in some animals there is a 
 slight tendency to beefiness and to thick, heavy 
 shoulders. This latter conformation is more frequently 
 seen in bulls, although a number of the cows are thicker 
 through the shoulders than is desirable. 
 
 The bones of the Guernsey are much straighter than 
 those of the Jersey and are inclined to be somewhat 
 longer. 
 
 The characteristic Guernsey color is fawn and white. 
 Breeders of fancy stock prefer the colors to be about 
 equally distributed and in rather large blocks or 
 patches. Occasionally, Guernseys are seen with no 
 white at all; and the number of animals of this breed 
 in which the white color includes more than two-thirds 
 of the whole surface is comparatively small. The shade 
 of fawn varies from very light to very deep or dark, 
 
200 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 almost red, the shade most preferred being usually de- 
 scribed as orange fawn. Whatever the shade of fawn, 
 there should be no black hairs, especially in streaks or 
 patches, forming a brindled appearance, 
 
 A characteristic of the Guernseys that has considerable 
 influence in affecting their color is a profuse secretion 
 of yellow coloring matter, which pertains to the whole 
 skin, but may be seen especially on those parts where 
 the skin is bare or only thinly covered with hair, such 
 as in the ears, about the muzzle, in the fore flank, and 
 about the vulva. In the best specimens, this secretion 
 is of a deep golden-tan color shading into orange yellow. 
 This color extends also to the hoofs and horns, giving 
 these, especially in choice specimens, an amber appear- 
 ance. The muzzle of the Guernsey should be of a clear 
 flesh color tinged with orange. 
 
 Guernseys do not produce large quantities of milk, 
 but their milk is ordinarily of about the same quality 
 as that of the Jerseys, varying from 4^ to 6^% of 
 butter fat. The milk, cream, and butter of the Guern- 
 seys are of a higher color than the similar products of 
 any other breed. 
 
 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE 
 
 Holstein cattle are characterized by large size. Mature 
 cows of the breed seldom weigh less than 1,200 lb. and 
 not infrequently reach a weight of 1,400 to 1,500 lb. The 
 bulls, when mature, often exceed 2,000 lb. in weight. 
 The characteristic wedge shape is usually strikingly 
 developed in these cattle. In general, the form is in- 
 clined to be spare, although in many individuals there 
 is considerable muscular development, even approaching 
 what may be termed beefiness. The animals have long, 
 straight faces, long backs, long ribs, and the legs, in 
 some cases, are rather long. The back and legs are 
 straight, although there is often a decided tendency for 
 the back to droop from a point over the hip bones to the 
 root of the tail. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 201 
 
 A prominent character of Holstein cattle is their color, 
 which is distinctly black and white, the two colors 
 being entirely separate from each other. The proportion, 
 of the two colors is variable, running from almost all 
 white to almost all black; during recent years the pro- 
 portions most desired by the breeders have been rather 
 more white than black, with the two colors in rather 
 large patches. Although animals marked in this way 
 are considered to be more desirable, little discrimination 
 is made against those showing other proportions of color. 
 
 Holstein cows excel those of all other breeds in milk 
 production. The percentage of butter fat in the milk, 
 however, is small, in occasional instances so small as 
 to interfere seriously with the sale of the milk as such. 
 In addition, the butter fat in Holstein milk is soft and 
 of rather light color, but with modern methods of butter 
 manufacture these disadvantages are largely overcome, 
 so that, taking into consideration the large quantity of 
 milk produced, Holsteins are often as satisfactory as 
 any breed from the standpoint of butter production. 
 
 AYRSHIRE CATTLE 
 
 Ayrshire cattle are of medium size. The American 
 standard calls for a weight of about 1,000 lb. in the case 
 of mature cows, and of 1,500 lb. for mature bulls. The 
 Scotch standard calls for a weight of about 1,050 lb. for 
 a mature cow. 
 
 The characteristic wedge shape of the dairy type is 
 clearly defined in the Ayrshires. Their lines are 
 straight and their bones fine and well knit together, 
 which gives them a smooth appearance even when they 
 do not carry much flesh. They are particularly round 
 in the barrel, and the hindquarter is long, strong, and 
 square. The cows commonly have large, symmetrical 
 udders, with rather small teats placed wide apart and 
 on ^ the lines of a square. 
 
 In color, Ayrshires are the most variable of any of the 
 dairy breeds, running from almost pure white to all 
 
202 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 admixtures, except roan, of white with yellow red, red, 
 dark red, brown, and even black. The most common 
 color at the present time is dark red and white, with 
 a large preponderance of white in most cases. 
 
 Although definite statistics are lacking, it is com- 
 monly believed that Ayrshires are particularly econom- 
 ical users of feed, and that, in proportion to the feed 
 consumed, their milk production is relatively high. 
 Ayrshires give a large flow of milk, ranking next to 
 Holsteins in this respect, although the milk is not par- 
 ticularly rich in butter fat, seldom exceeding 4%. 
 
 DUTCH BELTED CATTLE 
 
 Dutch Belted cattle are of medium size, being in this 
 respect comparable to the Ayrshires. The cows average 
 about 1,000 lb. when full grown, and the mature bulls 
 about 1,500 lb. Animals of this breed have a distinct 
 dairy form. 
 
 In color, the Dutch Belted cattle are black and white; 
 the black is confined to the forequarters and hindquar- 
 ters and the white extends in a broad belt about the 
 middle. Much attention is given by breeders to the 
 particular markings of the animals. In a perfectly 
 marked specimen, the white belt should extend from the 
 shoulders back to the hips in a regular band around the 
 whole body. In the case of the cows, the band, or belt, 
 includes the forward half of the udder; in the case of 
 the bulls, the belt is similar, except that the sheath . 
 of the penis is usually black. A very narrow belt or a 
 belt running onto the forequarters or the hindquarters 
 is looked on with disfavor, as is any irregularity of the 
 belt, such as a black spot in the white or broken patches 
 of white in the black areas. 
 
 In milk production, the Dutch Belted cattle have 
 considerable merit, and there are many animals of the 
 breed that are listed high in this respect. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 203 
 
 BROWN SWISS CATTLE 
 
 Brown Swiss cattle are of large size and rather heavy 
 form. The bones of the head and legs are large and 
 strong, giving the animals a sturdy appearance. Many 
 specimens have considerable muscular development, 
 enough to be described as beefy, although they do not 
 approach the pronounced beef type as seen in beef 
 breeds. 
 
 In color, the Brown Swiss are of a uniform dark 
 grayish-brown or mouse color, running toward gray in 
 the flanks and on the belly, and with a light ring about 
 the muzzle. There is little variation in the color. 
 Occasionally, an animal will shade a little darker 
 toward black and occasionally one a little lighter 
 toward light gray. 
 
 The Brown Swiss are hardy and vigorous and, as a 
 rule, easy to keep in good condition. As milk pro- 
 ducers, they vary considerably. Few individuals have 
 made notable records. 
 
 SIMMENTHAL CATTLE 
 
 The Simmenthal breed of dairy cattle is closely related 
 to the Brown Swiss breed. The animals of the Sim- 
 menthal breed are from the valley of the Simme in 
 Switzerland, and are found in largest numbers in the 
 vicinity of Berne, in that country. They are similar 
 to the Brown Swiss in all respects save color. In color, 
 they are a light fawn mixed with white. Only a few 
 have been imported into America. 
 
 FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE 
 
 French Canadian cattle are small, of a strictly dairy 
 type, and somewhat resemble the Jersey in form. In 
 color, they vary from a dark reddish brown to black, 
 and almost never have any admixture of white. They 
 are -prized by their owners on account of their activity 
 and vigor and their ability to thrive under adverse 
 
204 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 205 
 
 conditions as to feed and climate. They have not, as yet, 
 become firmly established as a breed in any part of the 
 United States. 
 
 BEEF CATTLE 
 DESCRIPTION OF BEEF TYPE 
 
 Beef cattle are cattle that are kept primarily for the 
 production of beef, in contrast to dairy cattle, which are 
 raised primarily for the production of milk. 
 
 Names 
 
 OF 
 
 Exterior Regions 
 
 OF Beef Cattle 
 
 7, Muzzle 
 
 
 
 
 20, 
 
 Fore ribs 
 
 2, Face 
 
 
 
 
 21, 
 
 Midribs 
 
 3, Tongue fat (feeder' 
 
 s wattle) 
 
 22, 
 
 Barrel 
 
 4, Poll 
 
 
 
 
 23, 
 
 Belly 
 
 5, Breast 
 
 
 
 
 24, 
 
 Hind flank 
 
 6, Brisket 
 
 
 
 
 25, 
 
 Back 
 
 7, Shoulder 
 
 point 
 
 
 26, 
 
 Loin 
 
 8, Neck 
 
 
 
 
 27, 
 
 Rump 
 
 9, Dewlap 
 
 
 
 
 28, 
 
 Hooks 
 
 10, Shoulder 
 
 vei 
 
 in 
 
 
 29, 
 
 Thighs 
 
 //, Shoulder 
 
 
 
 
 20, 
 
 Gaskins 
 
 12, Withers 
 
 
 
 
 31, 
 
 Hocks 
 
 13, Elbow 
 
 
 
 
 22, 
 
 Pin bones 
 
 14, Arm 
 
 
 
 
 22, 
 
 Tail head 
 
 15, Knee 
 
 
 
 
 24, 
 
 Switch 
 
 16, Cannon 
 
 
 
 
 25, 
 
 Twist 
 
 17, Dew claws 
 
 
 
 36, 
 
 Udder in cows; cod 
 
 18, Crops 
 
 
 
 
 
 in steers; scrotum 
 
 19, Fore flank 
 
 
 
 
 in bulls. 
 
 An animal of the correct beef type has a compact 
 form. It is short in the neck and legs, and has a broad, 
 short head; well-sprung ribs; a deep, broad chest; well- 
 laid-jn shoulders and hips; a long, level rump; and 
 well-fleshed thighs. The top line and bottom line are 
 
206 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 approximately straight and parallel. In general, a 
 beef-type animal has a high percentage of meat to bone 
 and offal. 
 
 Animals of the beef type invariably show marked indi- 
 cations of having a high percentage of the blood of one 
 or more of the recognized improved breeds of beef 
 cattle. The breeds that are classed as beef breeds are: 
 the Shorthorn, the Polled Durham, the Hereford, the 
 Aberdeen-Angus, the Galloway, and the Sussex. 
 
 In describing beef cattle, it is necessary to mention 
 various parts and regions of the body. The location of 
 all of the parts and exterior regions about which doubt 
 might arise is shown in the accompanying illustration. 
 In (a) is shown a profile view of an animal; in 
 (&), a front view; and in (c) a rear view. These views 
 also illustrate the ideal type of beef animal. 
 
 SHORTHORN CATTLE 
 
 The Shorthorn breed has wonderful adaptability, and 
 this quality has led to wide distribution of the animals 
 not only in this country under various conditions, but 
 in nearly every country in which cattle are bred. 
 Shorthorns were the first cattle used for improving the 
 cattle on the ranges, but notwithstanding their value 
 for this purpose, they are best adapted to a system of 
 mixed farming, such as is carried on in the Central 
 States. The Shorthorns are popular in localities where 
 land is high in value, because many of the animals yield 
 a profit in milk as well as in calves. 
 
 The Shorthorn may be red, white, red and white, or 
 roan in color. Animals of the breed are the heaviest 
 of the beef cattle, mature bulls often weighing as much 
 as 2,400 lb. At present the tendency is to breed for 
 early maturity, and as a result present-day Shorthorns 
 are not as large and coarse as they were formerly. The 
 Shorthorn is characterized by great scale and substance, 
 together with symmetry and style. The Shorthorn is a 
 good feeder and makes large gains for the feed consumed. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 207 
 
 The breed is very popular in the United States, Canada, 
 England, and other countries where beef is produced. 
 The "Prime Scots," so popular in the English markets, 
 are crosses of the Shorthorn on the Aberdeen-Angus, 
 and the "blue-gray" steers are crosses of light-colored 
 Shorthorns on Galloways. 
 
 POLLED DURHAM CATTLE 
 
 Polled Durhams have been developed along two lines, 
 the single standard and the double standard. The 
 single-standard line of breeding had its origin in crosses 
 of Shorthorn bulls on native muley, or hornless, cows. 
 The term single standard is derived from the fact that 
 animals of this line of breeding can be registered only 
 in the American Polled Durham Herd Book. The 
 double-standard line of breeding had its inception in 
 what might be termed a freak of nature— the birth of 
 hornless calves from pure-bred Shorthorn parents. The 
 term double standard is derived from the fact that 
 animals of this strain are eligible to registry in both 
 the American Polled Durham Herd Book and the 
 American Shorthorn Herd Book. 
 
 In size, color, and general appearance, the Polled 
 Durhams are similar to the typical Shorthorn, save 
 that the Polled Durhams are hornless. The preferred 
 and prevailing color is red. The breed is so much like 
 the Shorthorn that no additional description need be 
 given. 
 
 The breed is not yet sufficiently strong in numbers and 
 has not been handled enough for dairy purposes to 
 furnish milk records of value. The animals have been 
 from the first, and continue to be, bred primarily for 
 the development of beef qualities as their dominant 
 character, consequently their dairy qualities must be 
 regarded as a secondary consideration. 
 
208 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 HEREFORD CATTLE 
 
 In general conformation, the Hereford represents the 
 beef type to an extreme, having a broad, deep, com- 
 pactly built, thick-fleshed body set on short legs. The 
 horns are white or waxy yellow, often coarser and con- 
 siderably longer than those of the Shorthorn; in cows 
 and steers they are often a little elevated, but in bulls 
 they are usually drooping. The color of the Hereford 
 is red with white markings. The most common mark- 
 ings are a white face, a white stripe on top of the 
 neck and sometimes part of the way down the back, 
 white on the legs from the hock down, and more or 
 less white on the belly. White may occur to a greater 
 or less extent on any part of the body. Herefords have 
 proved to be especially well adapted to range conditions 
 and are used more extensively for the improvement of 
 the cattle on the ranges of the West and Southwest 
 than are the animals of any other breed. In size, the 
 Herford ranks a little below the Shorthorn. The bulls 
 often weigh as much as 2,200 lb. and the cows 1,500 lb. or 
 more. 
 
 ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE 
 
 The striking features of the general outline of the 
 Aberdeen-Angua are smoothness, compactness, and a 
 cylindrical shape of the body. The Aberdeen-Angus 
 are low-set; have great style, quality, and symmetry; 
 and are evenly and smoothly covered with a wealth of 
 firm flesh that retains its smoothness and firmness even 
 if the animals are forced in fattening. 
 
 In the early history of the breed, browns, blacks, reds, 
 and brindles were common, but now black is the pre- 
 vailing color, although red calves are occasionally 
 dropped, showing a tendency to revert back to the old 
 colors. White is objectionable except on the bottom 
 line behind the navel, and it is tolerated there only to 
 a moderate extent. In size, the Aberdeen-Angus is 
 somewhat smaller than the Shorthorn; mature cows 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 209 
 
 usually weigh from about 1,200 to 1,600 lb. and mature 
 bulls, from about 2,000 to 2,200 lb. 
 
 An important point in favor of the Aberdeen-Angus 
 is their hornless character. 
 
 It is frequently claimed that the Aberdeen-Angus 
 surpasses all other breeds in the production of beef. 
 There is, of course, a considerable difference of opinion 
 as to this, but it is safe to say that the Aberdeen-Angus 
 is second to none as an all-round beef breed, and is, 
 in some respects, superior to all others. This claim is 
 substantiated by the position that the breed has taken 
 at the leading fat-stock shows and by the high regard 
 in which the meat is held in the market. 
 
 The milking qualities of the Aberdeen-Angus have 
 been considerably neglected, more attention having been 
 paid to beef production. However, there are some indi- 
 viduals and certain strains of the breed that make a 
 creditable showing as milkers. 
 
 GALLOWAY CATTLE 
 
 Galloways are best adapted for a cold, damp climate, 
 their special qualifications for these conditions being 
 .ruggedness and a thick coat of hair that protects them 
 from cold and rain. They have been found very suit- 
 able for Dakota, Montana, and Idaho ranches, and for 
 the Canadian Northwest. Being of a rather small frame 
 and very muscular and active, they are well adapted 
 to rugged pastures. 
 
 The Galloway is a thick, low-set, symmetrical, black, 
 polled animal, resembling somewhat the Aberdeen- 
 Angus. In good animals the head is short and broad, 
 without any trace of horns or scurs, and is surmounted 
 by a poll that is not quite as sharp as that of the 
 Aberdeen-Angus. The ears are set a little farther back 
 than those of the Aberdeen-Angus and point forwards 
 and upwards, and have a fringe of long hair. The 
 body is cylindrical but somewhat longer and flatter in 
 the rib than that of the Aberdeen-Angus. 
 14 
 
210 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 The color of the Galloway is black with a brownish 
 tinge; white markings on the feet, legs, or any portion 
 of the body above the bottom line are very objectionable. 
 
 In size, the Galloway hardly equals the Shorthorn, 
 Hereford, or Aberdeen-Angus. Galloway steers can 
 usually be made to weigh from 1,000 to 1,200 lb. as 
 yearlings past; from 1,200 to 1,400 lb. at 2 yr. old; 
 and from 1,400 to 1,600 lb. at 3 yr. old. Mature bulls 
 will weigh about 1,800 to 1,900 lb., and mature cows 
 from about 1,200 to 1,500 lb. 
 
 The Galloway is distinctly a beef breed and lays no 
 claim to milking qualities, although the animals pro- 
 duce enough milk to raise their calves, and the milk is 
 of good quality. 
 
 SUSSEX CATTLE 
 
 The Sussex are best adapted to localities that are 
 rich in crop production and temperate in climate. Their 
 grazing qualities are nearly if not quite equal to those 
 of the Herefords. Ttiey are very hardy, which is due 
 largely to the manner in which they have been handled. 
 The color of the Sussex is solid red, a moderately deep 
 shade being preferred. The horns are inclined to be 
 large and long, curving around in front and often in- 
 clining slightly downwards. The nose is of flesh color. 
 The form is blocky, the ribs being well sprung and 
 long, and the body capacious. The Sussex is compara- 
 tively large, ranking about on a par with the Hereford 
 in size. The average weight of mature cows is about 
 1,400 lb. and of mature bulls about 2,000 lb. 
 
 The Sussex has long been held in high esteem as a 
 beef breed, as might be assumed from the excellent 
 showing it has made at fat-stock shows in England. In 
 beef production it is comparable to the Shorthorn and 
 the Hereford. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 211 
 
 DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DUAL-PURPOSE TYPE 
 
 Dual-purpose cattle are cattle that are kept for the 
 production of both beef and milk. An appropriate term 
 for them and one that is commonly applied is general- 
 purpose cattle. They produce, when fattened, fairly 
 satisfactory carcasses of beef, although they are not 
 the equals of the special-purpose beef cattle in this 
 respect, and the cows give a sufficient quantity of milk 
 of fair butter^fat content to warrant milking them. If 
 cattle of a dual-purpose breed or strain possess merit as 
 beef animals but are without dairy qualities, they 
 should be classed as beef cattle. If, on the other hand, 
 they possess dairy qualities but neither they nor their 
 offspring exhibit beef qualities, they should be classed 
 as special-purpose dairy cattle. 
 
 The dual-purpose type of animal is not restricted to 
 any particular breeds, but because a large number of 
 animals of certain breeds are of this type, the breeds 
 are spoken of as dual-purpose breeds. These breeds 
 are: the Devon, the Red Polled, and the Brown Swiss; 
 certain animals and strains of the Shorthorn breed are 
 also classed as dual purpose. 
 
 DEVON CATTLE 
 
 In color, the Devon is a solid red, with the exception 
 of deep orange-colored rings around the eyes and oc- 
 casionally a small amount of white in front of the 
 udder or the scrotum and in the switch. White is not 
 permissible on any other part of the body. The red 
 varies from dark to light; some breeders prefer one 
 shade and some the other. 
 
 The Devon is smaller than the Shorthorn and the 
 Hereford, the size varying greatly, however, with the 
 breeding, feeding, and care. The lack of size of the 
 Devons makes them less popular than they would 
 
212 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 otherwise be, but what they lack in size they make up 
 in quality, fattening powers, compactness of flesh, per- 
 fection of form, splendid handling qualities, and beauty 
 when finished. The average weight of mature cows 
 is about 900 lb. and of mature bulls about 1,200 lb. The 
 bulls seldom weigh more than 2,000 lb. 
 
 Combining fair flesh and milk-producing qualities, 
 the Devons are very suitable animals for hilly regions 
 where a system of mixed farming is followed. 
 
 RED POLLED CATTLE 
 
 The Red Polled breed is one of the best of the dual- 
 purpose breeds. Red Polls produce an abundant quan- 
 tity of milk and the steers fatten readily, producing 
 carcasses that are very acceptable to the butcher. As 
 the name implies, the animals are without horns, all 
 indications of such being very objectionable. The color 
 is red, varying from a light to a dark shade. A solid 
 red is preferred, but a little white is permissible on 
 the udder, on the belly, and on the switch of the tail. 
 In size, the Red Poll ranks below most of the animals 
 of the beef breeds. Typical mature bulls of the breed 
 will weigh from about 1,800 to 2,000 lb. and mature cows 
 from about 1,100 to 1,300 lb. 
 
 Although the dairy qualities of the Red Poll do not 
 rank with those of special dairy cattle, the breed stands 
 high in this respect among the dual-purpose cattle. 
 
 MARKET CLASSES OF CATTLE 
 
 Variations in the quality, condition, weight, and age 
 of cattle reaching the great livestock markets make it 
 necessary that different classes and grades be estab- 
 lished. If it were not for these classes and grades it 
 would be impossible properly to designate different 
 kinds of cattle and intelligently to report market con- 
 ditions through the public press. A list of the various 
 market classes and grades of cattle is given in the 
 accompanying table. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 213 
 
 Market Classes and Grades of Cattle 
 
 Classes 
 Beef cattle 
 
 Butcher stock 
 
 Cutters and 
 canners 
 
 Stockers and 
 feeders 
 
 Veal calves 
 
 Grades 
 Prime steers 
 Choice steers 
 Good steers 
 Medium steers 
 Common steers 
 
 Prime heifers 
 Choice heifers 
 Good heifers 
 Medium heifers 
 Prime cows 
 Choice cows 
 Good cows 
 Medium cows 
 Common rough steers 
 Choice bulls 
 Good bulls 
 Medium bulls 
 
 Good cutters 
 
 Medium cutters 
 
 Common cutters and good canners 
 
 Medium canners 
 
 Inferior canners 
 
 Bologna bulls 
 
 Fancy selected feeders 
 
 Choice feeders 
 
 Good feeders 
 
 Medium feeders 
 
 Common feeders 
 
 Inferior feeders 
 
 Feeder bulls 
 
 Fancy selected yearling stockers 
 
 Choice yearling stockers 
 
 Good yearling stockers 
 
 Medium yearling stockers 
 
 Common yearling stockers 
 
 Inferior yearling stockers 
 
 Good stock heifers 
 
 Medium s'tock heifers 
 
 Choice 
 Good 
 Medium 
 Common 
 
 Milkers and springers 
 
214 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Beef Cattle.— In the beef-cattle class are included all 
 grades of fat steers and occasionally the best grades 
 of fat heifers and cows. Condition and quality rather 
 than weight determine whether an animal shall be in- 
 cluded in this class. Beef cattle are in demand in the 
 Chicago market by three classes of buyers: exporters, 
 packers, and shippers. Exporters desire fat cattle for 
 export to the British markets; packers desire them for 
 slaughter in Chicago as dressed beef; and shippers de- 
 sire them for shipping to Boston, New York, Philadel- 
 phia, Pittsburg, Baltimore, Cleveland, Albany, Detroit, 
 and many smaller eastern cities. The Chicago packing 
 houses use from about 50 to 60% of the beef cattle sold 
 on the Chicago market, and the exporters and shippers 
 from about 20 to 25% each. 
 
 The beef cattle class is made up of the following 
 grades: Prime steers, choice steers, medium steers, and 
 common rough steers. Prime steers are those that are 
 practically above criticism as to both condition and 
 quality. The bulk of the prime steers sold at Chicago 
 weigh from about 1,200 to 1,600 lb. Choice steers are 
 not quite right as to either quality or condition but 
 have to a marked degree desirable characteristics. Such 
 steers usually weigh from about 1,150 to 1,600 lb. Steers 
 that are of good quality, but noticeably lacking in con- 
 dition or in finish, or those that are finished but are 
 deficient in quality, or those lacking in both quality 
 and condition but above the average are graded as 
 good. They weigh from about 1,150 to 1,600 lb. Steers 
 of about average quality and condition but lacking to 
 a marked degree the finish and quality demanded in a 
 prime steer are graded as medium steers. Steers of this 
 grade are usually of light weight, weighing from about 
 1,100 to 1,400 lb. Common rough steers, as the term 
 implies, are the roughest grade of beef cattle. Such 
 steers weigh from about 900 to 1,200 lb. 
 
 Butcher Stock.— A large number of cattle of all grades 
 as to weight and quality reach the market after having 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 215 
 
 been merely warmed up — an expression used by cattle- 
 men to designate the fact that cattle have been full fed 
 but a short time. Then, no matter how carefully 
 stockers and feeders are selected, there is almost sure 
 to be a few animals that do not fatten satisfactorily. 
 These, together with the better grades of heifers, cows, 
 and bulls are classed as butcher stock. The butcher 
 stock class is made up of the following grades: prime 
 heifers, usually weighing from about 800 to 1,200 lb.; 
 choice heifers, weighing from about 700 to 1,000 
 lb. ; good heifers, weighing about the same as choice 
 heifers; medium heifers, weighing from about 600 to 900 
 lb.: prime cows; choice cows; good cows; medium cows; 
 common rough steers; choice bulls; good bulls; and medium 
 bulls. 
 
 Cutters and Canners.— Thin cows, inferior steers, 
 rough heifers, and the poorer grades of bulls, provided 
 they carry sufficient flesh to allow of the loin or rib, 
 or both, being used for cutting, or selling over the 
 butcher's block, are classed as cutters. Cutters are a 
 slightly better grade of cattle than canners, which are 
 cattle of the same general class as cutters, but too 
 inferior to allow of even a part of their carcasses being 
 used for sale over the butcher's block. Canners are 
 used largely for canning purposes. The class of canners 
 and cutters and the grades within this class are more or 
 less elastic and variable, as are all market classes and 
 the grades within them. 
 
 The bulk of cattle classed as cutters and canners may 
 be graded as follows: Good cutters, medium cutters, common 
 cutters, and good canners, medium canners, inferior canners. 
 and Bologna bulls. The impression prevails among persons 
 unfamiliar with the cutter-and-canner trade that only old, 
 thin cows are classed as canners. This is an erroneous im- 
 pression, as wretchedly thin bulls, steers, and heifers are 
 included as well. 
 
 Stockers and Feeders.— The class known as stackers and 
 feeders includes calves, yearlings, 2-yr.-olds, and older 
 
216 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 cattle. When it is necessary to refer to steers or bulls 
 18 mo. old or older that are intended for immediate 
 use in the feed lot, they are spoken of as feeders. 
 Calves, heifers, and young steers, including yearlings, 
 are referred to as stackers. Some difficulties are en- 
 countered, however, in attempting to draw a definite 
 line between stockers and feeders. Cattle of the same 
 grade, age, quality, and weight shipped to the country 
 by two different feeders might not be handled at all 
 alike; one feeder might use them as stockers while 
 the other might place them in the feed lot for imme- 
 diate use. 
 
 It is seldom that a steer weighing less than 800 lb. 
 is placed in the feed lot; the common practice is to 
 buy steers for feeders that weigh from 900 to 1,000 lb. or 
 more. Such steers are usually 18 mo. of age or older. 
 Steers spoken of in the market as feeders are, generally 
 speaking, in better flesh than stockers. As a rule, there- 
 fore, feeders may be classified as steers weighing 900 lb. 
 or more, that are 18 mo. old or older, and that are 
 fleshy enough to render an extended period of low feed- 
 ing unnecessary. 
 
 The stocker and feeder class of cattle is divided into 
 the following grades: Fancy selected feeders, choice feeders, 
 good feeders, medium feeders, common feeders, inferior feeders, 
 feeder bulls, fancy selected yearling stockers, choice yearling 
 stockers, good yearling stockers, medium yearling stockers, com- 
 mon yearling stockers, inferior yearling stockers, good stock 
 heifers, medium stock heifers, and common stock heifers. 
 
 Veal Calves.— Calves of suitable age, condition, and 
 weight to sell, when slaughtered, as veal are classed as 
 veal calves. Veal calves are graded as follows: Choice 
 veals, good veals, medium veals, and common veals. 
 Weight is not as important in determining the grade of 
 a veal calf as age and flesh, although desirable weight 
 in the good and choice grades of veals is important. A 
 veal either 25 lb. too light or too heavy may be sold 
 at a reduced price when one of the same quality, age, 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 217 
 
 and flesh, but of desirable weight, would sell as a choice 
 veal. It is more difficult to distinguish breeding in 
 young calves than in older cattle; it is fortunate, there- 
 fore, that the breeding of veals is of little importance 
 and that the most important point is to get fane finish 
 on a young calf— say a weight of from about 140 to 160 
 lb. with faultless finish on an 8-wk.-old calf. 
 
 Milkers and Springers.— A cow that is in milk 
 when she goes to market or has a calf at her side is 
 classed as a milker. One that shows unmistakable signs 
 of pregnancy is classed as a springer. Milkers and 
 springers may be either slaughtered or returned to the 
 farm to serve as dairy cattle or as breeding stock. 
 
 SHEEP 
 
 In order that the description of the types and breeds 
 of sheep may be more intelligible, the position of the 
 different parts of a sheep is indicated on the animal 
 shown in the accompanying illustration. The names 
 
 of the different parts are as follows: a, head; h, neck; 
 c, shoulder; d, brisket; e, top of shoulder, or withers; 
 /, fore leg; g, chest; h, back; i, loin; ;, hip; k, rump; 
 /, leg of mutton; m, twist; n, hind leg; o, flank; p, belly; 
 q, fore flank; r, ribs, or sides; and s, tail, or dock. 
 
218 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 WOOL TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 From the sheep that centuries ago were raised in the 
 southern part of Europe, especially in the hills of 
 Spain, and fostered by the early Romans, there has 
 been developed a type of sheep known as the wool 
 type. The animals of this type are noted for the pro- 
 duction of a large quantity and a fine quality of wool, 
 from which the finest woolen cloth is made. 
 
 A typical wool-type animal is angular in shape; the 
 skin lies in folds over the body, especially about the 
 neck; and the head presents a strong and rather coarse 
 appearance, particularly in the case of a ram that shows 
 great vitality. The neck is long, rather thin, and often 
 droops where it joins the body; the shoulders are close 
 together, sharp, and prominent on top; the brisket is 
 narrow ; the fore legs are close together, with the fore 
 feet often wider apart than the knees; and the fore 
 flanks are low but thin. The ribs slope downwards 
 sharply from the backbone, which appears to be too 
 long for the length of the sheep; the back is narrow; 
 the loin is thin and narrow; the rum.p is short and in- 
 clined to droop abruptly from the hips, which are also 
 narrow; the thighs are thin and separated well up 
 toward the tail, or dock; the flanks are thin; the bot- 
 tom line is generally level; and the legs have a 
 tendency to be long. 
 
 Some breeds of the wool type of sheep have been 
 developed by feeding, selection, and breeding until they 
 produce a fair quantity and quality of mutton as well 
 as excellent fleeces of wool. 
 
 MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 In the British Isles, sheep raising has been carried 
 on for several centuries, but in this region the chief 
 aim of the breeder has been the production of a fine 
 quality of mutton, wool production being a secondary con- 
 sideration. The type of sheep that has been developed 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 219 
 
 under these conditions is known as the mutton type. 
 In form, a sheep of the mutton type is smooth, round, 
 compact, symmetrical, and free from angularities, and 
 the flesh is evently distributed over the carcass. The 
 head is broad between the eyes, which are large and 
 prominent; the neck is short and thick; the brisket 
 is broad and full; the fore legs are short, straight, and 
 set squarely under the body; the fore flanks are well 
 filled so that there is but a slight depression just back 
 of the shoulders, which are evenly and deeply covered 
 with flesh and are smooth and round on top. The ribs 
 are well covered with flesh and spring boldly out from 
 the backbone, making the back broad and level and the 
 body cylindrical. The loin is broad and thickly cov- 
 ered with flesh; the flanks are let well down but are 
 thick, giving a straight bottom line that is parallel with 
 the top line. The hindquarters are broad; the rump is 
 long and level; and the twist extends well down to the 
 hocks. The legs stand well apart; and the thighs, both 
 on the outside and between the legs, are well covered 
 with flesh, thus making a good leg of mutton. 
 
 Sheep of breeds of the mutton type produce heavy 
 fleeces, but these are not of as fine a quality as those 
 produced by sheep of the wool type. 
 
 AMERICAN MERINO SHEEP 
 
 In general appearance, a typical animal of the Ameri- 
 can Merino breed of sheep more nearly represents the 
 ideal wool type than does an individual of any other 
 breed in America. The American Merino is narrow 
 and angular in conformation; has a rather long neck 
 and long leg; and has many distinct folds in its skin, 
 except on the back. 
 
 The head of the American Merino is small as com- 
 pared with the heads of animals of other breeds, and 
 usually the lips, nostrils, legs, and part of the face 
 are covered with fine, white, silky hair. The ears are 
 small, and, as a rule, are covered like the parts just 
 
220 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 mentioned, with fine, white hair, although occasionally 
 tan-colord spots of hair are found on one or more of 
 such parts. The head of the ewe is hornless, but the 
 rams carry heavy, spiral horns, which are marked with 
 transverse wrinkles. 
 
 In size, American Merinos vary greatly. It is gen- 
 erally accepted, however, that mature ewes should 
 weigh about 100 lb. and mature rams about 150 lb. 
 
 The American Merino is an inferior animal for mut- 
 ton production, because it does not make a rapid growth, 
 lay on flesh rapidly, or produce a first-class carcass. 
 The meat is lacking in quality, and there is always 
 much waste in dressing, due to the extensive folds of 
 the skin, the long legs, and the large proportion of 
 bone to flesh. 
 
 In wool production, sheep of the American Merino 
 breed surpass those of all other breeds in America. 
 Sheep of no other breed produce as fine or as heavy 
 fleeces. 
 
 DELAINE MERINO SHEEP 
 
 Sheep of the Delaine Merino breed differ from Ameri- 
 can Merino sheep in having a larger and better mutton 
 carcass, fewer wrinkles and folds on the body, and 
 longer wool that contains less yolk. The minimum 
 weight for ewes of the various families of Delaine 
 Merinos varies from 100 to 130 lb., and the minimum 
 weight for the rams, from 150 to 180 lb. 
 
 The Delaine Merino breed is really a branch of the 
 American Merino breed, and has been developed prin- 
 cipally in the section including the western part of 
 Pennsylvania, the Panhandle district of West Virginia, 
 and a few counties in the eastern part of Ohio. 
 
 The Delaine Merino is superior to the American 
 Merino for mutton production, and, as a rule, is inferior 
 in wool production. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 221 
 
 RAMBOUILLET SHEEP 
 
 In general appearance, a typical animal of the Ram- 
 bouillet breed of sheep bears some resemblance to the 
 American Merino, but the Rambouillet is larger and 
 has more of a mutton carcass. The outline of the body- 
 is rounder and more plump; the back is broader; the 
 ribs are better arched; and there is a better develop- 
 ment of loin, hindquarters, and leg of mutton, and a 
 deeper fleshing all over the body than in the American 
 Merino. The females are hornless, but the rams usually 
 bear large, spirally curved horns; occasionally, polled 
 rams are found. 
 
 In size, the Rambouillet is considerably larger than 
 the American Merino. Mature rams usually weigh from 
 175 to 250 lb., and occasionally one will weigh 300 lb. 
 Mature ewes weigh from about 110 to 150 lb., and 
 mature wethers from about 150 to 200 lb. 
 
 The Rambouillet is not one of the best breeds of 
 sheep for mutton production, but it is better in this 
 respect than the American Merino, although not so 
 good as the Delaine Merino. 
 
 The Rambouillet is one of the best breeds for wool 
 production. The wool covers the body evenly, is of 
 good length on the belly, and grows well down on the 
 nose and legs. 
 
 SOUTHDOWN SHEEP 
 
 The Southdown breed of sheep probably more nearly 
 represents the ideal mutton type than does any other 
 breed. In general appearance, the typical Southdown 
 presents a compact, broad, deep, and smooth body evenly 
 covered with flesh. The head is small and hornless in 
 the case of both rams and ewes. 
 
 The Southdown is the smallest of the medium-wool 
 breeds, and is often criticised on account of its lack of 
 size. However, the carcass of a Southdown is so com- 
 pact that mature rams of the breed will weigh, on an 
 average, about 175 lb. and mature ewes about 135 lb. 
 
222 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 For the production of mutton, the Southdown breed is 
 one of the best. Animals of this breed are good feeders, 
 make good gains for the feed consumed, mature quickly, 
 and can be made ready for the market at almost any age. 
 
 In wool production, the Southdown does not rank 
 high, although the wool is finer in quality than that of 
 sheep of any other breed of the mutton type. 
 
 SHROPSHIRE SHEEP 
 
 The Shropshire breed of sheep is a medium-wool breed 
 that is popular with sheep raisers. The sheep of this 
 breed are larger and heavier than those of the South- 
 down breed, which they resemble in general conforma- 
 tion, although they are not so compact as the South- 
 downs. Both the ram and the ewe are hornless, and in 
 the case of the best specimens of the breed, the head, 
 with the exception of a small part of the nose, is covered 
 with a dense cap of wool. The nose of the ram is 
 slightly Roman, and the nostrils are strong and large; 
 the head of the ewe is finer than that of the ram and 
 the nose is straight. The ears of a Shropshire sheep are 
 small, short, pointed, moderately thick, wide apart, and 
 covered with short, fine wool. 
 
 In size, the Shropshire is about an average of the 
 sheep of the medium-wool breeds. Mature rams should 
 weigh about 225 lb. and mature ewes from 150 to 160 lb. 
 
 The Shropshire breed ranks next to the Southdown in 
 the quality of mutton produced; in fact, the quality of 
 Shropshire mutton is claimed by some to be equal to 
 that of the Southdown. Shropshires fatten readily and 
 there is comparatively little offal in dressing. 
 
 The wool of Shropshire sheep is of superior fineness 
 and crimp for a medium-wool breed, is usually about 
 3y2 in. in length, and often contains a considerable 
 quantity of yolk. The fleeces from a flock of Shropshire 
 sheep should average about 7 or 8 lb. in weight. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 223 
 
 OXFORD DOWN SHEEP 
 
 Sheep of the Oxford Down breed are the largest of 
 the animals of the medium-wool breeds. They resemble 
 the Southdowns and Shropshires in general conformation, 
 which is that of the mutton type. The head is hornless, 
 the poll, or top of the head, is well covered with a 
 tuft or a topknot of wool, and the cheeks are covered 
 with wool, although the rest of the face is usually 
 covered with dark hair. The ears are rather long, thin, 
 set low and well back, and are free from wool. The 
 face and legs are of a dark-brown color. The body is 
 practically the same as that of the Shropshire. The 
 rump is broad, level, and well covered with flesh. 
 
 When mature, Oxford Down rams should weigh not 
 less than 275 lb., and some rams of the breed have 
 attained a weight of 400 lb. Mature ewes should weigh 
 about 200 lb. Lambs dropped in April should weigh 
 from 100 to 120 lb. in the following September. 
 
 In the ability to produce mutton, Oxford Down sheep 
 rank high on account of their large carcasses, the 
 small proportion of waste in dressing, and the fine 
 quality of the mutton. The lambs grow rapidly and 
 attain a desirable killing size at 12 mo. of age, and 
 when kept until older they continue to make good gains. 
 
 As wool producers, the Oxford Downs are much in 
 favor on account of their heavy fleeces. The wool is 
 of a quality known as combing wool, which is longer 
 and coarser than that from sheep of any of the other 
 medium-wool breeds. The fleeces from a flock of good 
 Oxford Down sheep should average from 10 to 12 lb. 
 
 HAMPSHIRE SHEEP 
 
 The ears, nose, and legs of Hampshire sheep are of a 
 uniformly dark-brown color that often shades to almost 
 black. The ears, the back of which may be of a dark 
 mouse color, are rather long and in the best specimens 
 of the breed are inclined to fall slightly outwards. The 
 
224 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 head is well covered with wool between the ears and on 
 the cheeks; the neck is rather long, thick, and well 
 muscled, and the body is very much like that of an 
 animal of the Oxford Down breed. 
 
 The Hampshires raised in America are lighter in 
 weight than the Oxford Downs, but in England the 
 Hampshires are often regarded as the heaviest sheep of 
 the medium-wool breeds. Mature rams should weigh 
 about 250 lb. and mature ewes about 190 lb. Occasion- 
 ally, by careful breeding and good care, rams weighing 
 300 lb. are produced. 
 
 For production of mutton, Hampshire sheep have long 
 ranked high. The wool of the Hampshire sheep is of 
 medium length and not so fine as that of the Southdowns. 
 
 DORSET SHEEP 
 
 The Dorset breed of sheep, also known as the Dorset 
 Horn breed, is a breed that is distinctly marked. Both 
 the rams and the ewes have horns. The horns of the 
 ram are spirally curved rather close to the head; those 
 of the ewe are shorter, smaller, not so close to the 
 head and are curved less than those of the ram. The 
 sheep of the Dorset breed have white faces and legs. 
 The face, muzzle, ears, and that part of the legs below 
 the knees and hocks are covered with short, white hair. 
 The nostrils are large and white. The body of the 
 Dorset, although smooth and well covered with flesh, is 
 longer in proportion to its depth and width than the 
 body of a sheep of the other breeds of the mutton type. 
 
 In size, sheep of the Dorset breed rank somewhat 
 above the average of those- of the medium-wool breeds. 
 Mature rams should weigh about 225 lb. and mature 
 ewes about 165 lb.; an extra good 2-yr-old ram has 
 been known to weigh 317 lb.; a yearling ram, 287 lb.; 
 a 5-mo.-old ram lamb, 184 lb.; and yearling ewes, 
 250 lb. 
 
 In the production of mutton, sheep of the Dorset breed 
 rank only fair among those of the medium-wool breeds. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 225 
 
 Sheep of this breed dress with a larger percentage of 
 waste than those of some other breeds, although the 
 quality of the meat is fair. The principal value of 
 Dorset sheep is in the production of early, or hothouse, 
 lambs, for which they have long been highly valued. 
 The Dorset does not rank high in production of wool. 
 
 CHEVIOT SHEEP 
 
 Sheep of the Cheviot breed are white in color and 
 have a graceful • carriage. The head is usually hornless 
 in the case of both the male and the female, although 
 occasionally horns occur on the ram; according to an 
 enactment of the American Cheviot Sheep Society, all 
 male lambs dropped after January 1, 1905, are ineligible 
 to registry unless they have a true polled head. The 
 head, back to a line just back of the ears and around 
 under the middle of the lower jaw, and the legs from 
 the knees and hocks down, are usually covered with 
 fine, white hair; sometimes small black spots, which are 
 not considered objectionable, appear on the head and 
 ears. Reddish or sandy hairs that occasionally occur 
 on the face and legs are objectionable. 
 
 A mature Cheviot ram should weigh from 200 to 225 
 lb. and a mature ewe from 150 to 160 lb. 
 
 The quality of the meat of the Cheviot is good, 
 although not so delicate as that of the Southdown, and 
 there is comparatively little offal in dressing. 
 
 Cheviot sheep produce fleeces of a medium quality 
 known in the market as half combing wool. 
 
 SUFFOLK SHEEP 
 
 Sheep of the Suffolk breed have a characteristic inky- 
 black color in the region of the head, ears, and legs. 
 The head, in the case of both the male and the female, 
 is hornless. The face is long and narrow, and the ears 
 long and rather large. The face and the ears are cov- 
 ered with jet-black hair; there is rarely any wool on 
 any part of the head, although a small quantity of 
 15 
 
226 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 clean, white wool on the forehead is not regarded as 
 objectionable. 
 
 In size, the Suffolk sheep rank somewhat above the 
 average of those of the medium-wool breeds. Mature 
 rams should weigh from about 225 to 240 lb., and mature 
 ewes about 175 lb. 
 
 Sheep of this breed rank high for the quality and 
 quantity of the mutton that they produce, but do not 
 rank high as wool producers. 
 
 LINCOLN SHEEP 
 
 Sheep of the Lincoln breed are large, squarely built 
 animals, and are nearly white in color. The head is 
 large and hornless in the case of both the ram and the 
 ewe; the face is rather long and usually is covered 
 with fine, white hairs, but frequently has a grayish 
 tinge over the nose; the poll is surmounted by a short 
 tuft of wool; and the ears are large and often covered 
 with brownish spots. 
 
 Lincoln sheep are the largest of any breed. Mature 
 rams should weigh from about 275 to 300 lb., and mature 
 ewes from about 225 to 250 lb. 
 
 Lincoln sheep are good feeders and mature quickly, 
 but they do not rank high as mutton producers. The 
 carcass is too large to suit the modern market demand, 
 yields too much fat, and the quality of the meat is not 
 first class. 
 
 Sheep of this breed produce longer wool and heavier 
 fleeces than those of any other breed with the exception 
 of sheep of the fine-wool breeds. 
 
 LEICESTER SHEEP 
 
 The Leicester breed is divided into two strains; the 
 English, or Dishley, Leicester, and the Border Leicester. 
 These names are derived from the sections of England 
 where the two strains were developed. The sheep of 
 the two strains are much the same in general appearance, 
 and the same description will apply to both, except 
 where differences are stated. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 227 
 
 The heads of both the ram and the ewe are hornless 
 and usually are white, although small black spots occa- 
 sionally occur on the face and ears. The head of a 
 Border Leicester is covered with fine, soft, white hair, 
 but occasionally the poll of the head of a Dishley 
 Leicester is covered with a tuft of short wool. The 
 ears are thin, somewhat large, and stand rather erect. 
 The nose is slightly Roman and the skin at the muzzle 
 is black. The hindquarters are not so large as breeders 
 desire, because the thighs are not sufficiently thick, 
 especially near the hocks. 
 
 When mature and fitted for market, Leicester sheep 
 carry too much fat to be popular. The lambs fatten 
 readily and make desirable mutton if killed before they 
 are 12 mo. old. 
 
 The wool of Leicester sheep is about 6 in. long and is 
 a fine grade of coarse wool. 
 
 COTSWOLD SHEEP 
 
 Sheep of the Cotswold breed are large, long-wooled, 
 and white in color, and somewhat resemble those of the 
 Lincoln and the Leicester breeds. The head in the case 
 of both the male and the female is hornless and carried 
 high, and the poll is surmounted by curling locks of 
 wool, which often almost cover the eyes and extend 
 down as far as the nostrils. This forelock is one of the 
 characteristic features of the breed and is not trimmed 
 when the sheep are shorn or trimmed for show. The 
 face is usually covered with white hair, but is sometimes 
 spotted with gray or brown patches. 
 
 In size, Cotswold sheep are larger than those of the 
 Leicester and almost and sometimes fully as large as 
 those of the Lincoln breed. The weight of these sheep 
 will average about 25 lb. lighter than that of the Lin- 
 colns. A mature ram should weigh from about 250 to 275 
 lb. and a mature ewe from about 200 to 250 lb. 
 
 Cotswold sheep make a desirable grade of mutton if 
 killed at about 1 yr. of age. If they are allowed ta 
 
228 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 grow to 2 yr. of age, the carcasses are too large, bear 
 too much fat, and the flesh is not of as desirable quality 
 as when the sheep are killed at a younger age. 
 
 Cotswold sheep produce a lustrous combing of wool 
 that is rather coarse and hair-like, and hangs in spiral 
 curls, or locks. The wool is coarser than that of either 
 Leicester or Lincoln sheep. 
 
 MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP 
 
 Almost the entire number of sheep and lambs received 
 at the large livestock markets are classed as mutton 
 sheep, feeder sheep, or breeding sheep. 
 
 All sheep and lambs that are shipped to a large 
 market and sold for slaughter, no matter what their 
 condition, age, or weight may be, are classed as mutton 
 sheep. The largest part of the sheep received in the 
 market consists of this class, which is divided into the 
 following subclasses: Lambs, yearlings, wethers, ewes, 
 bucks, and stags. Lambs are animals that are mostly 
 tinder 12 to 14 mo. of age. Yearlings are the castrated 
 lambs from about 12 to 14 mo. of age until they are 
 about 2 yr. old, or mature, after which they are 
 known as wethers. All female sheep received in the 
 markets and that are older than lambs are known as 
 ezves. Rams after they have passed out of the lamb 
 subclass are designated in the market as bucks. Male 
 lambs that are castrated after they are 12 to 14 mo. old 
 are classed in the market as stags. Each of the sub- 
 classes described and the subclasses of the other market 
 classes of sheep are further divided into market grades 
 of sheep. The grades usually given in market reports 
 are prime or fancy selected, choice, good, medium, and 
 common, or culls. The grades rank in the order named 
 in regard to the quality and the condition of the sheep. 
 
 The class known as feeder sheep consists of sheep that 
 are received in the markets in poor condition and that 
 are sold to be fattened. The recognized subclasses of 
 feeder sheep are lambs, yearlings, wethers, and ewes. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Market Classes and Grades of Sheep 
 
 Classes 
 
 Subclasses 
 
 
 Grades 
 
 
 Lambs 
 
 
 f Prime 
 Choice 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 .Common, or culls 
 
 
 Yearlings 
 
 
 ["Prime 
 < Choice 
 I Good 
 'Prime 
 
 Mutton sheep 
 
 Wethers 
 
 
 . Choice 
 
 Good 
 '■Common 
 
 
 Ewes 
 
 
 'Prime 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 .Common, or culls 
 
 
 .Bucks and 
 
 Stags 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Common 
 
 
 Lambs 
 
 
 'Fancy selected 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 . Common 
 
 Feeder sheep 
 
 Yearlings 
 Wethers 
 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 . Common 
 ("Choice 
 ) Good 
 1 Medium 
 <■ Common 
 
 
 Ewes 
 
 
 f Choice 
 i Good 
 1 Medium 
 L Common 
 
 Breeding sheep 
 Miscellaneous clas 
 
 fFancy selected 
 
 Common 
 Bucks I Not graded 
 ses: Hothouse lambs, export sheep. 
 
 throv/-outs, dea 
 
 1 sheep. 
 
 
 
230 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 The class known as breeding sheep consists of those 
 sheep that are bought in the large markets for breeding 
 purposes. By far the largest number of sheep of this 
 class are ewes. The rams, or bucks, as they are known 
 in the markets, are few in number and most of them 
 show a form and a mixture of blood that make them 
 undesirable for breeding purposes. 
 
 A miscellaneous class consists of hothouse lambs, 
 export sheep, throw-outs or rejects, and dead sheep. 
 Hothouse lambs are those dropped at a time of year that 
 will permit of placing them, when 8 to 12 wk. old and 
 weighing from 25 to 50 lb., on the market between 
 Christmas and the first of May. The weight of the 
 lambs will vary with their age. Export sheep are usually 
 sheep in excellent condition and are of the prime and 
 choice grades of any of the subclasses of the mutton 
 class of sheep. Throw-outs are the sheep first placed in 
 the feeder class on account of their poor condition and 
 then rejected, or thrown out, by purchasers of feeder 
 sheep, a privilege allowed by the market authorities. 
 Such sheep are usually purchased by local butchers who 
 cater to a cheap trade. Dead sheep are those that are 
 killed in transit. They are sold for their wool and for 
 fertilizing purposes. 
 
 The classes, subclasses, and grades of market sheep 
 are shown in the accompanying diagram. 
 
 SWINE 
 
 In describing the different breeds of swine, mention 
 is made of certain parts of a hog, and in order that a 
 clear understanding may be had of the location of these 
 parts, they are designated by letters on the outline view 
 of an animal shown in the accompanying illustration. In 
 the illustration, a is the snout; b, the ear; c, the poll; 
 d, the jowl; e, the neck; /, the shoulder; g, the front 
 leg; h, the chest; ;, the side; j, the back; k, the loin; 
 /, the rump; m, the ham; n, the hind leg; o, the fore flank; 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 231 
 
 p, the belly; q, the hind flank; r, the pastern joint; s, the 
 scrotum; and t, the tail. 
 
 LARD TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 . Hogs of the lard type, as the term implies, produce 
 large quantities of fat. The animals have, as a rule, 
 well developed hams and shoulders, but they produce 
 only a fair quantity of bacon. 
 
 The animals of the different lard-type breeds are of 
 the same general character, but differ in minor respects. 
 An animal of the lard type should show good width and 
 fair length, and should be built low to the ground. The 
 snout should be of medium length, the eyes full, mild, 
 and bright, the face short, the cheeks full, the jowl 
 
 strong and broad, and the neck thick and of a medium 
 length. The shoulders should be broad and compact on 
 top, the chest broad, the sides deep, the back broad 
 and thickly and evenly fleshed, the loins wide and 
 thick, and the bottom line straight and even. The hams 
 should be heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, and wide. 
 
 BACON TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 Hogs of the bacon type, as the name indicates, pro- 
 duce relatively large quantities of bacon. Their bodies 
 are long, deep, and narrow throughout. The shoulders 
 
232 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 and hams are not so well developed as in the lard type 
 of hogs, but they should be smoothly covered with flesh 
 and in line with the sides. The back should be of 
 moderate but uniform width, and smoothly covered. The 
 sides, as they are the parts from which the bacon is 
 taken, should be long and deep, and have a good thick- 
 ness of flesh. There should be no falling away at the 
 flanks, and the flesh should be firm and free from 
 wrinkles. 
 
 In general appearance, hogs of the bacon type are 
 long and narrow, have long heads, and stand up rather 
 high on their legs. There is really no use of the great 
 length of the head and legs, so far as meat production 
 is concerned, but it seems impossible to breed hogs 
 without there being a certain correlation of parts, and 
 it has been found that a hog with long legs and head 
 will generally have a long and narrow body. 
 
 BREEDS OF THE LARD TYPE 
 Berkshire Swine.— The Berkshire breed of swine 
 originated in the southern part of England, particularly 
 in the counties of Berkshire and Wilts. 
 
 The animals of this breed are black in color and 
 usually show six white points, namely, on the face, on 
 the tail, and on the four feet. A splash of white on 
 the jowl, under the neck, or on the fore legs is often 
 found and is not regarded by the American Berkshire 
 Association as a disqualification. White ears are some- 
 times found, but they are not objected to by breeders 
 and judges. The black of the Berkshires differs some- 
 what from the black of some of the other breeds in that 
 it is a sort of blue-black. 
 
 The conformation of the modern Berkshire is typical 
 of the lard hog. An animal of this breed has a short 
 face that is gracefully dished; the ears are short, 
 pointed, and usually erect; the back is broad and level; 
 the hams are full; and the legs are short, strong, and 
 straight. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 233 
 
 Berkshires are of medium to large size. The average 
 mature boar in good breeding condition should weigh 
 about 500 lb. and the sow about 400 lb. Frequently 
 specimens are found that weigh considerably more than 
 these weights. The pigs can be made ready for market 
 at from 6 to 8 mo. of age, if desired. 
 
 Poland-China Swine.— The Poland-China breed of swine 
 originated in the counties of Butler and Warren in 
 Southwest Ohio, as a result of crossing the mongrel 
 hogs of the early settlers with Berkshires and other old 
 breeds from Europe and Asia. Associated with Butler 
 and Warren counties in the early improvement of the 
 breed were Hamilton County in Ohio, and Union and 
 Wayne counties in Indiana, the five counties consti- 
 tuting a region known as the Miami Valley. The 
 Poland-China swine are black with six white points 
 —white in the face, on the tip of the tail, and on the 
 four feet. Splashes of white are sometimes found on 
 the jaw, legs, flanks, sides, or back, and are not objected 
 to by judges and breeders. The black should be jet 
 black and not blue-black, as in the Berkshires. 
 
 Like the Berkshires, the Poland-Chinas possess the 
 characteristic conformation of the lard type. They have 
 short heads, wide faces that are but slightly dished, full 
 jowls, short and wide necks, broad shoulders, wide 
 backs, well-sprung ribs, broad loins, full and broad 
 hams, deep sides, and legs that are straight and of 
 medium length. A distinguishing feature of the breed 
 is the ears; these are rather small and on an ideal 
 animal should stand up slightly at the base to within 
 two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or drop 
 should occur. 
 
 Poland-China swine are of medium to large size. A 
 mature boar in breeding condition should weigh about 
 500 lb. and a mature sow about 400 lb. Poland-China 
 pigs that are fed for market can usually be made to 
 weigh 200 lb. at 6 mo. of age, and 250 lb. is by no 
 means rare at this age. 
 
234 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Duroc- Jersey Swine.— The Duroc-Jersey breed of swine is 
 an American breed that was originated by crossing the 
 Durocs, a breed of red swine found in New York State, 
 with the Jersey Red, a breed of red swine found in New 
 Jersey. These original breeds constituting the foundation 
 stock of the Duroc-Jerseys probably sprang from some of 
 the red swine, such as the Guinea hogs, Portuguese hogs, 
 red Spanish hogs, and Berkshires, that were imported 
 into North America at an early date. 
 
 The Duroc-Jerseys are of a cherry-red color when 
 purely bred. It often happens, however, especially in 
 mature animals, that they become copper or reddish 
 gray in color, and in some instances the tips of the hairs 
 turn black. These variations from the established 
 cherry-red color are undesirable. Black spots on the 
 belly and legs are also undesirable, but are admissible. 
 
 The conformation of Duroc-Jersey swine is similar to 
 that of the Berkshires and Poland-Chinas. The head 
 is small, the face straight or slightly dished, the nose 
 of medium length, the ears are of medium size and 
 point forwards and downwards; the back is broad in 
 comparison to Its length, the sides are deep, and the 
 hams and shoulders are heavily fleshed and extend well 
 down on the legs. 
 
 In size, the Duroc-Jerseys are somewhat large. Mature 
 boars in good breeding condition should weigh from 
 about 500 to 550 lb. and mature sows in the same con- 
 dition should weigh from about 400 to 450 lb. Duroc- 
 Jersey pigs that are fed for market mature quickly and 
 reach a good size. 
 
 Chester White Swine.— The Chester White breed of 
 swine originated in Chester County, Pennsylvania, as 
 a result of crossing the common white swine of that 
 locality with white hogs brought from Europe. 
 
 In 1865, L. B. Silver, of Salem, Ohio, purchased some 
 Chester White swine and began breeding with the pur- 
 pose of securing a type of this breed of large size and 
 superior quality. As a result of his breeding, a strain 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 235 
 
 known as Ohio Improved Chester White, commonly 
 spoken of as O. I. C, was originated. A separate herd 
 book is maintained by breeders of this strain. Both the 
 old type of Chester Whites and the O. I. C. strain have 
 been developed to the extent that they are to be found 
 in all parts of the United States and Canada where 
 swine are kept. 
 
 The Chester White, as the name implies, is a white 
 breed. Blue specks, known as freckles, are often found 
 on the skin of these animals and are not objected to 
 by judges, but black, sandy patches in the hair or on 
 the hide are undesirable and will bar an animal from 
 registration in the breed herd books. 
 
 In conformation, the Chester Whites are of the typical 
 lard-hog shape. They have short, broad heads, and 
 slightly dished fac«^s. The ears are drooping but do 
 not stand out so far from the head as in the case of 
 animals of the Poland-China breed. In width and 
 depth, Chester Whites are similar to the Poland-Chinas, 
 but, as a rule, they have greater length. 
 
 In size, the Chester Whites are large. Mature boars 
 in breeding condition should weigh about 600 lb. and 
 mature sows in the same condition, about 450 lb. Young 
 animals that are fattened for market should weigh 
 from about 250 to 275 lb. at 6 mo. of age. 
 
 Mule-Foot Swine.— The origin of the Mule-Foot breed 
 of swine is unknown. Certain breeders claim a knowledge 
 of its origin, but their claims are discredited by the 
 association fostering the interests of the breed. Doubt- 
 less this lack of information is due to the fact that 
 the breed has only recently been brought to public 
 attention. 
 
 The Mule-Foot hogs are characterized by a solid hoof, 
 which resembles that of the mule, as the name indicates. 
 This gives them great strength in the feet, a point 
 widely exploited by their admirers. In color, they are 
 black, although white points are admissible. It is 
 claimed for the breed that no animal has ever been 
 
236 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 known to have hog cholera, but this claim has been 
 proved erroneous. The Mule-Foots are known to have 
 great vitality and to be good feeders. 
 
 Cheshire Swine. — The Cheshire breed of swine orig- 
 inated in Jefferson County, New York. Evidence indi- 
 cates that the breed is the result of crossing Large 
 Yorkshire and White Suffolk swine with the native 
 white swine of Jefferson County. 
 
 Cheshires are white in color. Black spots sometimes 
 occur on the skins of pure-breds and although objec- 
 tionable do not disqualify them. The animals are 
 smooth, compact, and of symmetrical proportions. As a 
 rule, they mature early. They are of medium size, as a 
 breed, but frequently specimens are found that are as 
 large as the largest individuals of the lard-type breeds. 
 The sows are good mothers and are very prolific. The 
 feeding qualities of the animals of the breed have not 
 been thoroughly investigated. 
 
 Small Yorkshire Swine. — The Small Yorkshire breed of 
 swine originated in England. Little is known of the 
 foundation stock, but it is believed they were Chinese 
 swine. 
 
 Small Yorkshires are white, with occasional black 
 spots on the skin. They are very small and compact. 
 Animals of this breed are noted for quick-maturing 
 qualities, and are well adapted for producing early 
 market pork. Their meat is fine grained and tender, 
 but inclined to be rather fat. 
 
 Victoria Swine. — The Victoria breed of swine originated 
 in Lake County, Indiana, as a result of crossing Poland- 
 Chinas, Berkshires, Chester Whites, and a breed of 
 white hogs from England. 
 
 In color, Victoria swine are white, with occasional 
 dark spots in the skin. The ears are erect or slightly 
 drooping, and the animals have a good coat of fine, 
 soft hair; the head is small and the face is medium 
 dished; the bones are fine, and the back is straight, 
 broad, and level. The Victorias are said to be prolific 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 237 
 
 hogs, easy to keep in condition, and are readily fattened 
 at any age. They are of medium size; matvire sows 
 should weigh about 450 lb. and mature boars about 600 lb. 
 
 Essex Swine.— The Essex breed of swine originated in 
 the county of Essex, England, as a result of crossing 
 Neapolitan swine with the native hogs of Essex. It is 
 thought also that Berkshire and Suffolk blood was 
 used in the crossing. 
 
 Essex swine are black; animals with white on them 
 are not admitted to registry by the record association. 
 They are small, compact animals, set on short legs. 
 The face is dished, the snout short, and the shoulders 
 and hams well developed. The animals are quick ma- 
 turing, and easily fattened; the meat is fine grained, 
 but carries an excessive quantity of fat. The breed 
 does not stand very high in prolificacy'. 
 
 BREEDS OF THE BACON TYPE 
 
 Large Yorkshire Swine.— The Large Yorkshire breed of 
 swine originated in England. For many years large, 
 awkward, white swme have existed in certain parts of 
 that coiuitry, particularly in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, 
 and Norfolk, and it is from these animals that the 
 Large Yorkshires were developed. 
 
 The hogs of this breed are white in color, with occa- 
 sional blu-» spots on the skin. They are large in size, 
 rangy, inclined to be long in the leg and coarse in bone, 
 and are somewhat slow in coming to maturity. They 
 have extreme length and depth of body, and their meat 
 is well streaked with fat and lean, being especially 
 desirable for bacon purposes. In fact, Yorkshire bacon 
 is considered to be the best obtainable. 
 
 Tamworth Swine.— The Tamworth breed of swine 
 originated in central England, notably in the county of 
 Stafford. The breed is one of the oldest in existence 
 and the ancestry is obscure. 
 
 The color of the Tamworths is somewhat variable, a 
 golden-red hair on flesh-colored skin that is free from 
 
238 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 black being preferred. The snout is very long and 
 straight, the ears are large and pointed, and the legs 
 are long. The animals have long, deep bodies and the 
 meat from their carcasses is well fitted for bacon pur- 
 poses. As compared with Poland-Chinas, Berkshires, 
 and other animals of the lard type, they seem long 
 and narrow. In constitution, they take high rank, being 
 especially strong and vigorous. 
 
 Hampshire Swine. — The Hampshire breed of swine, for- 
 merly known as the Thin Rind breed, is indigenous to 
 England. 
 
 The Hampshire is a black animal with a broad white 
 belt encircling the body and with white fore legs. The 
 ears of Hampshires are erect, which, together with the 
 peculiar marking of white, makes them easy to dis- 
 tinguish from animals of other breeds. They have a 
 rather long snoui and narrow face, and incline some- 
 what to smallness of bone. 
 
 The Hampshires can be fed to produce a good selling 
 weight of hog at an early age, and by feeding to 
 maturity they make good heavyweight hogs. As breeders, 
 they are prolific and are said to have good constitutions. 
 
 LIVESTOCK FEEDING 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 
 
 It is a matter of common observation on farms that 
 certain feeds tend to produce growth — the formation of 
 bone, muscles, etc.; that other feeds tend to produce fat; 
 and that still other feeds tend to produce milk. The 
 reason for this lies in the difference in their compo- 
 sition; therefore, a knowledge of the composition of a 
 feed is a valuable guide in feeding livestock. Chemists 
 have made five classes or groups into which all com- 
 pounds that are found in feeds are placed. These 
 classes are water, ash, protein, carbohydrates, and fat. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 239 
 
 The following tabulation shows the elements that make 
 up the compounds of each class: 
 
 Water {gydrogen 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Oxygen 
 Sodium 
 Potassium 
 Calcium 
 Magnesium 
 Iron 
 
 Manganese 
 Sulphur 
 Phosphorus 
 Silicon 
 Fluorine 
 . Chlorine 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Carbon 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen 
 Nitrogen 
 Sulphur 
 Phosphorus 
 .Iron 
 
 r Carbon 
 Carbohydrates < Hydrogen 
 I Oxygen 
 
 f Carbon 
 
 Fat < Hydrogen 
 
 I Oxygen 
 
 Water in Feeds.— All feeds contain water, although 
 the more water a feed contains the smaller is its nu- 
 tritive value. In young and growing plants the presence 
 of water is readily apparent; it constitutes from 70 to 
 90% of the total weight of such plants. Air-dried feeds, 
 such as the grains, corn, wheat, and oats, and well-cured 
 hays, contain on an average only from 8 to 15% of water. 
 
 Ash in Feeds.— The mineral matter, or ash, of a feed 
 is the portion that is left after complete burning; it is, 
 therefore, the incombustible part. 
 
 The common farm feeds contain but a small per- 
 centage of ash, although the percentage varies greatly 
 in different feeds. 
 
 Potatoes contain .9% of ash; rutabagas, 1.2%; corn, 
 1.5%; oats, 3.2%; timothy hay, 4.4%; Red clover hay, 
 cut when the clover is in bloom, 6.6%; and alfalfa hay, 
 8.6 to 10.6%. 
 
 Protein in Feeds. — All plant and animal compounds 
 that contain the element nitrogen are grouped into a 
 class to which the term protein is applied. This is a 
 very general term, and the number of compounds in- 
 cluded in this group is exceedingly large. In addition 
 to nitrogen, there are always found in protein the 
 
240 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and sometimes 
 sulphur, phosphorus, and iron. Owing to the fact that 
 nitrogen is found in all the compounds included in this 
 class, they are often spoken of as nitrogenous com- 
 pounds. 
 
 The percentage of protein in the common feeds is 
 given in the table showing the dry matter and digestible 
 nutrients in 100 pounds of feedstuffs, printed on a subse- 
 quent page. An examination of this table will show 
 that the seeds of plants usually contain a higher per- 
 centage of protein than the other parts of the plants. 
 It will be learned, further, that by-products from mills 
 and slaughter houses are rich in protein. 
 
 Carbohydrates in Feeds.— Like protein, the term carbo- 
 hydrate is a general one and is the name of a large 
 group of compounds. All carbohydrates are alike, how- 
 ever, in that they contain only the three elements, 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are two general 
 classes of carbohydrates, namely, crude fiber and 
 nitrogen-free extract. Crude fiber constitutes the frame- 
 work, or skeleton, of plants, such as the hard, woody 
 portions of corn stalks and of straws. The husks of 
 grains, such as oat hulls and corn and wheat bran, 
 contain large quantities of this material; wood also is 
 an example of crude fiber. Carbohydrates of the 
 nitrogen-free-extract class are- much more valuable as 
 sources of feed than are those of the crude-fiber class, 
 because the former are more easily digested than the 
 latter. Familiar examples of the nitrogen-free-extract 
 compounds are corn starch and common sugar. 
 
 Fat in Feeds. — The term fat, as it is used in connec- 
 tion with feeds, applies to all true fats and oils, as well 
 as to all other feed compounds that are soluble in ether, 
 and because of this fact the terms ether extract and 
 fat are vised synonymously in tables showing the com- 
 position of feedstuffs. Although all feeds contain some 
 fat, the percentage in feeds varies widely. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 241 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDS 
 
 Feedstufifs can be conveniently divided into two gen- 
 eral classes; concentrates and roughages. Roughages 
 are also of two classes: dry and succulent. 
 
 The concentrates include all grains, seeds, and by- 
 products that are used as feeds. Feeds of this class 
 yield a larger proportion of digestible nutrients than 
 those of the other class. The proportion of concentrate 
 feeds that should be supplied in a ration depends on the 
 class of animal that is being fed and on whether or not 
 the ration is merely one for maintenance or is a full 
 ration. 
 
 Three general classes of dry roughage are used as 
 livestock feed. These are hays, straws, and fodders. 
 As compared with the concentrates, all roughage feeds 
 are more bulky in nature, less digestible, and, there- 
 fore, are not so efficient as furnishers of materials for 
 the production of energy, growth, fat, or milk. They 
 usually are the stalks of the plants from which the 
 seed has beeft removed. Their low digestibility is due 
 to the large proportion of crude fiber, or woody matter, 
 that they contain. Though ranking low in feed value, 
 they constitute an essential and necessary part of every 
 ration for all farm animals, except perhaps for pigs. 
 
 On account of the difference in the digestive capacity 
 of the animals, less roughage is used for horses and 
 pigs than for ruminants. The abundance and the com- 
 parative cheapness of roughage on most farms make it 
 highly desirable that the feeder use all such feeds as 
 completely as possible on the farm. 
 
 Hays. — The hays represent the most valuable roughage 
 for feeding purposes. They are of two classes, namely, 
 leguminous and non-leguminous. The leguminous hays 
 have, on an average, a higher feed value, are more di- 
 gestible and usually more palatable when properly 
 cured, and contain a larger proportion of protein than 
 the non-leguminous hays. As leguminous hays contain 
 16 
 
242 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 more protein and less carbohydrates than non-leguminous 
 hays, the former are particularly valuable when fed 
 with corn or other feeds that contain small percentages 
 of protein. The quantity of protein that leguminous hays 
 contain guarantees a high fertilizing value to the 
 manure of the animals to which the hays are fed. There 
 can be no well-directed or wise system of cropping 
 established on farms that does not include some legume 
 in the crop rotation, and experience and scientific inves- 
 tigation both indicate that leguminous hay should be 
 fed on the farm where it is grown. 
 
 Straws.— The straws are the lowest of the roughages 
 in feed value. Their high content of crude fiber makes 
 them hard to digest and reduces their palatability. 
 However, straws are of some use as livestock feed. 
 Ruminants that are to be carried through the winter 
 on merely a maintenance ration can make large use 
 of straw. Idle horses can also be fed some of this 
 material to advantage. 
 
 Fodders.— Most of the fodder available for livestock 
 feed has its origin in the corn plant. Corn fodder, or 
 fodder corn, is the entire corn plant after drying. Corn 
 stover is corn fodder minus the ears. Shredded corn 
 stover is corn stover that has been passed through a 
 corn shredder. 
 
 Soiling Crops.— The crops most valuable for soiling 
 purposes ate field corn, sweet corn, sorghum, millets, 
 rape, rye, oats, wheat, alfalfa, the clovers, cowpeas, 
 soybeans, and vetch. It is desirable that these crops 
 be fairly well matured before they are cut, as the im- 
 mature plants are mostly water and often have an 
 injurious effect on the digestive system of an animal. 
 
 Silage.— Silage may be defined as feed which has been 
 stored in such a manner that its green or fresh con- 
 dition is preserved. Green clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, 
 sorghum, and other forage crops have been stored suc- 
 cessfully in the silo. But the great American crop 
 preeminently suited for the making of silage is the 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 243 
 
 corn plant. Recent tests have shown that it is usually 
 unprofitable to make silage out of a crop that can be 
 successfully cured and stored in the mow without danger 
 of excessive fermentation. The pithy stalk of the corn 
 plant prevents it from drying and being handled in the 
 same way as the hollow-stalked hays and straws. 
 
 Root Crops. — The roots ordinarily grown for feed are 
 mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, and carrots. Horses 
 prefer carrots; sheep, common turnips and rutabagas; 
 and for cattle, mangels are very appropriate. In England 
 and Scotland, roots are largely depended on for all 
 classes of livestock, especially for cattle and sheep. In 
 fact, in those countries roots constitute the greatest 
 part of the daily rations for livestock; but in America 
 roots are not grown extensively for the feeding of 
 livestock. This is due chiefly to the labor required to 
 grow and harvest a root crop, and to the fact that corn 
 is so extensively grown and made into silage. 
 
 BALANCED RATIONS 
 
 Feeding Standards.— A feeding standard shows the 
 experimentally established quantities of dry matter, 
 digestible protein, digestible carbohydrates, and di- 
 gestible fat that are necessary to satisfy the physio- 
 logical requirements per day per 1,000 lb. of live weight 
 of animals under specified conditions. 
 
 Thus, the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards given in 
 the accompanying table show that a dairy cow weighing 
 1,000 lb. and giving 22 lb. of milk should receive 29 lb. 
 of dry matter, 2i/^ lb. of digestible protein, 13 lb. of 
 digestible carbohydrates, and 14 lb. of digestible fat 
 for each 24 hr. This standard is the result of experi- 
 ment and scientific investigation, which has shown that 
 a daily ration supplying the above quantities and kinds 
 of digestible nutrients to a 1,000-lb. cow will maintain 
 on an average, a milk flow of 22 lb. a day. All the 
 other standards in the table have been derived in the 
 same manner. 
 
244 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Nutritive Ratio.— A nutritive ratio is the ratio of the 
 digestible protein to the digestible carbohydrates and 
 fat in any feed or ration. In computing the nutritive 
 ratio of a ration, the amount of digestible fat is multi- 
 plied by 2.25 and the product added to the amount of 
 digestible carbohydrates, and the sum divided by the 
 amount of digestible protein. The ratio of one 
 to the quotient is the nutritive ratio. To illustrate: 
 What is the nutritive ratio of a ration furnishing 2.5 lb. 
 of digestible protein, 15 lb. of digestible carbohydrates, 
 and .5 lb. of digestible fat? 
 
 The calculation is usually made as follows: .5x2.25 
 = 1.125; 1.125 + 15 = 16.125; 16.125^2.5 = 6.45. The nutritive 
 ratio is, therefore, 1 part of protein to 6.45 parts of 
 carbohydrates and fat, or 1 : 6.45. 
 
 Note.— Some authorities on feeding multiply the quan- 
 tity of fat by 2.4 in computing a nutritive ratio, but 
 recent experiments and investigations show that 2.25 is 
 a more nearly correct factor to use. 
 
 The nutritive ratio is wide or narrow according to the 
 proportion of protein that the ration contains. If the 
 relative amount of protein in a ration is large, it is 
 said to have a narrow nutritive ratio, and if the relative 
 amount of protein is small it is said to have a wide 
 nutritive ratio. A ratio of 1 to 5.5 or less is considered 
 narrow; a ratio of 1 to 8 and above is considered wide; 
 between these two the nutritive ratio is medium. Young 
 growing animals generally and cows giving milk need 
 a large amount of protein, and should therefore receive 
 a ration that has a narrow nutritive ratio. Fattening 
 animals thrive well on wide rations, but pregnant 
 animals and horses at work should receive rations of a 
 medium nutritive ratio. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 245 
 
 WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS 
 
 Animal 
 
 Oxen: 
 
 At rest in stall 
 
 At light work 
 
 At medium work 
 
 At heavy work 
 
 Fattening cattle: 
 
 First period 
 
 Second period 
 
 Third period 
 
 Milk cows when yielding 
 daily: 
 
 11.0 1b. of milk 
 
 16.6 lb. of milk 
 
 22.0 lb. of milk 
 
 27.5 lb. of milk 
 
 Sheep: 
 
 Coarse-wool 
 
 Fine-wool 
 
 Breeding ewes with 
 
 lambs 
 
 Fattening sheep: 
 
 First period 
 
 Second period 
 
 Horses: 
 
 At light work , 
 
 At medium work 
 
 At heavy work 
 
 Brood sows , 
 
 Fattening swine: 
 
 First period 
 
 Second period 
 
 Third period 
 
 Requirements per Day per 
 1,000 Lb. Live Weight 
 
 ^ o 
 
 u ^ 
 
 Q 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 
 .7 
 1.4 
 2.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.5 
 3.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.6 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 3.3 
 
 1.2 
 1.5 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.0 
 3.5 
 
 1.5 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 4.5 
 4.0 
 2.7 
 
 n3 
 
 8.0 
 10.0 
 11.5 
 13.0 
 
 15.0 
 14.5 
 15.0 
 
 10.0 
 11.0 
 13.0 
 13.0 
 
 10.5 
 12.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 15.0 
 14.5 
 
 9.5 
 11.0 
 13.3 
 15.5 
 
 25.0 
 24.0 
 18.0 
 
 to 
 
246 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 
 Requirements per Day per 
 1,000 Lb. Live Weight 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Q 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 
 Animal 
 
 II 
 
 <u o 
 
 li 
 f 
 
 ^1 
 
 is 
 II 
 
 Growing cattle — Dairy 
 breeds: 
 
 Age, 2 to 3 mo.; average 
 live weight, 1501b.. . . 
 
 Age, 3 to 6 mo. ; average 
 live weight, 300 lb.. . 
 
 Age, 6 to 12 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 500 
 lb. 
 
 23 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4.0 
 3.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.5 
 
 4.2 
 3.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 13.0 
 12.8 
 
 12.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 13.0 
 12.8 
 
 13.2 
 
 12.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 2.0 
 1.0 
 
 .5 
 
 .4 
 
 .3 
 
 2.0 
 1.5 
 
 .7 
 
 .5 
 
 .4 
 
 1 to 4.4 
 1 to 5.0 
 
 1 to 6.8 
 
 Age, 12 to 18 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 700 
 lb 
 
 1 to 7.4 
 
 Age, 18 to 24 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 900 
 lb 
 
 1 to 8.5 
 
 Growing cattle— Beef 
 breeds: 
 
 Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average 
 live weight, 160 lb. . . 
 
 Age, 3 to 6 mo.; average 
 live weight, 330 lb. . . 
 
 Age, 6 to 12 mo; aver- 
 age live weight, 550 
 lb 
 
 1 to 4.2 
 1 to 4.6 
 
 1 to 5.9 
 
 Age, 12 to 18 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 750 
 lb 
 
 1 to 6.8 
 
 Age, 18 to 24 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 950 
 
 1 to 7.2 
 
 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 247 
 
 
 Requirements per Day per 
 1,000 Lb. Live Weight 
 
 
 S3 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 
 Animal 
 
 <D O 
 -§ Ah 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1.2 
 
 Growing sheep — Wool 
 breeds: 
 
 Age, 4 to 6 mo. ; average 
 live weight, 60 lb 
 
 Age, 6 to 8 mo. ; average 
 live weight, 75 lb 
 
 Age, 8 to 11 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 80 lb. 
 
 Age, 11 to 15 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 90 lb. 
 
 Age, 15 to 20 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 100 
 
 lb 
 
 Growing sheep — Mutton 
 breeds: 
 
 Age. 4 to 6 mo. ; average 
 live weight, 60 lb. ... 
 
 Age, 6 to 8 mo. ; average 
 live weight, 80 lb 
 
 Age, 8 to 11 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 100 
 lb. 
 
 25 
 25 
 23 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 23 
 22 
 
 3.4 
 2.8 
 2.1 
 1.8 
 
 1.5 
 
 4.4 
 3.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 15.4 
 13.8 
 11.5 
 11.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 15.5 
 lo.O 
 
 14.3 
 
 12.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 .7 
 .6 
 .5 
 .4 
 
 3 
 
 .9 
 .7 
 
 .5 
 
 .5 
 
 .4 
 
 1 to 5.0 
 1 to 5.4 
 1 to 6.0 
 1 to 6.7 
 
 1 to 7.7 
 
 1 to 4.0 
 1 to 4.7 
 
 1 to 5 1 
 
 Age, 11 to 15 mo.; aver- 
 age live weight, 120 
 lb. 
 
 1 to 6 2 
 
 Age 15 to 20 mo. ; aver- 
 age live weight, 150 
 lb 
 
 1 to 6.5 
 
 
 
248 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Tab-le— (Continued) 
 
 
 Requriements 
 
 per Day per 
 
 
 
 1,000 Lb. Live Weight 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 rt ^ 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 
 Animal 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 § 
 
 
 t "= 
 
 v> 
 
 > 
 
 
 Q 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 2| 
 
 Vs. 
 
 Growing swine — Breeding 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stock: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 50 lb. . . . 
 
 44 
 
 7.6 
 
 28.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 to 4.0 
 
 Age, 3 to 5 mo. ; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 100 lb.. . 
 
 35 
 
 4.8 
 
 22.5 
 
 .7 
 
 1 to 5.0 
 
 Age, 5 to 6 mo.; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 120 lb.. . 
 
 32 
 
 3.7 
 
 21.3 
 
 .4 
 
 1 to 6.0 
 
 Age, 6 to S mo. ; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 200 lb.. . 
 
 28 
 
 2.8 
 
 18.7 
 
 .3 
 
 1 to 6.9 
 
 Age, 8 to 12 mo.; aver- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age Hve weight, 250 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lb 
 
 25 
 
 2.1 
 
 15.3 
 
 .2 
 
 1 to 7.5 
 
 Growing fattejiing swine: 
 
 
 Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 50 lb. . . . 
 
 44 
 
 7.6 
 
 28.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 to 4.0 
 
 Age, 3 to 5 mo. ; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 100 lb. . . 
 
 35 
 
 5.0 
 
 23.1 
 
 .8 
 
 1 to 5.0 
 
 Age, 5 to 6 mo. ; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 150 lb.. . 
 
 33 
 
 4.3 
 
 22.3 
 
 .6 
 
 1 to 5.5 
 
 Age, 6 to 8 mo.; average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 live weight, 200 lb.. . 
 
 30 
 
 3.6 
 
 20.5 
 
 .4 
 
 1 to 5.9 
 
 Age, 9 to 12 mo.; aver- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age live weight, 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lb 
 
 26 
 
 3.0 
 
 18.3 
 
 .3 
 
 1 to 6.3 
 
 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 249 
 
 Making Up a Balanced Ration.— By the aid of the 
 
 accompanying table giving the total dry matter and 
 the digestible nutrients contained in 100 lb. of the 
 different feedstuffs, and the number of pounds of each 
 of the digestible nutrients, the nutritive ratio may be 
 determined of almost any ration that may be fed. The 
 value of such determinations to the feeder is not only to 
 acquaint him with the wide variations in the demands 
 and requirements of the different classes of livestock, 
 but to increase his knowledge of the chemical com- 
 position of feeds. With a knowledge of feeding 
 standards and of the composition of feeds a stockman 
 is enabled to combine feeds so that they satisfy the 
 needs of animals, or, in other words, to feed a balanced 
 ration. This is the first and a most fundamental prin- 
 ciple of feeding. 
 
 TOTAL DRY MATTER AND TOTAL DIGESTIBLE 
 
 NUTRIENTS IN 100 LB. OF COMMON 
 
 AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS 
 
 Feedstuff 
 
 Total 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter 
 
 in 100 
 Lb. 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 in 100 Lb. 
 
 
 Alfalfa hay 
 
 Alsike clover, green. ... 
 
 Alsike-clover hay 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 Barley and peas, green. 
 Barley and vetch, green 
 
 Barley forage 
 
 Barley grain 
 
 Barley hay 
 
 Barley screenings 
 
 Barley straw 
 
 93.4 
 25.2 
 90.3 
 20.5 
 20.0 
 20.0 
 21.0 
 89.2 
 85.0 
 87.8 
 85.8 
 
 8.4 
 1.3 
 2.1 
 2.1 
 1.9 
 8.4 
 5.7 
 9.5 
 
 40.0 
 11.4 
 39.7 
 14.7 
 9.1 
 6.5 
 10.4 
 65.3 
 43.6 
 49.9 
 40.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 .5 
 
 1.1 
 
 .2 
 
 .4 
 
 .3 
 
 .3 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 .6 
 
250 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Table- 
 
 —(Continued) 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter 
 
 in 100 
 Lb. 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 in 100 Lb. 
 
 Feedsttiff 
 
 S § 
 
 1 ^ w 
 
 ^-3 
 
 ^1 
 
 Barnyard millet, green 
 
 Barnyard millet hay 
 
 Bean, horse, green 
 
 25.0 
 85.1 
 15.8 
 90.8 
 17.8 
 90.0 
 88.7 
 91.6 
 10.2 
 11.5 
 13.5 
 90.8 
 28.3 
 93.1 
 94.0 
 90.6 
 88.1 
 91.3 
 23.0 
 87.2 
 91.8 
 86.6 
 90.1 
 85.0 
 91.0 
 9.9 
 10.0 
 85.0 
 15.3 
 11.4 
 34.0 
 88.0 
 89.0 
 
 87.1 
 25.4 
 11.5 
 20.0 
 84.9 
 
 1.6 
 5.2 
 2.3 
 4.3 
 2.7 
 9.6 
 
 23.1 
 4.1 
 .5 
 1.2 
 1.3 
 6.8 
 1.3 
 6.4 
 
 36.7 
 6.0 
 
 11.9 
 
 20.0 
 4.9 
 4.6 
 5.9 
 8.1 
 1.2 
 3.0 
 8.2 
 3.8 
 2.3 
 
 19.7 
 
 1.8 
 
 .8 
 
 .8 
 
 .4 
 
 7.2 
 
 5.8 
 
 17.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 .8 
 
 4.4 
 
 14.4 
 
 .38.6 
 
 7.3 
 
 39.5 
 
 8.4 
 
 52.5 
 
 49.8 
 
 64.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 9.8 
 
 42.8 
 
 13.4 
 
 44.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 52.5 
 
 42.0 
 
 32.2 
 
 7.6 
 
 42.2 
 
 34.0 
 
 48.2 
 
 37.4 
 
 42.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 5.9 
 
 49.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 28.9 
 
 74.0 
 
 41.6 
 
 41.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 11.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 .3 
 
 .8 
 .2 
 
 Bean, horse, hay 
 
 .8 
 
 Bean, velvet, green 
 
 Bean, velvet, hay 
 
 .4 
 1.4 
 
 
 .8 
 
 Beet pulp, dry 
 
 
 
 
 Beets, common 
 
 .1 
 
 Beets, sugar 
 
 .1 
 
 Beggar-weed hay 
 
 1.6 
 
 Bermuda grass, green 
 
 Bermuda-grass hay 
 
 Bone-and-meat meal 
 
 .4 
 
 1.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 Bran, wheat, all analyses . . 
 
 Brewers' grains, dry 
 
 Brewers' grains, wet 
 
 2.5 
 6.0 
 1.7 
 1.5 
 
 Buckwheat bran 
 
 2.0 
 
 Buckwheat, grain 
 
 2.4 
 .5 
 
 Buffalo-grass hay 
 
 1.6 
 
 Bur-clover hay. . 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 2.1 
 1.0 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 
 
 .4 
 
 Canada field peas, green . . . 
 
 .3 
 ,3 
 
 Cassava 
 
 .2 
 
 Cassava starch refuse 
 
 Cattail-millet hay 
 
 Clover and grass, mixed, 
 hay 
 
 .6 
 1.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 
 3.6 
 
 Common beets 
 
 
 Common millet, green 
 
 Com-and-cob meal 
 
 .2 
 2.9 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 251 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 Feedstuff 
 
 Corn bran 
 
 Com, dent, grain 
 
 Com, flint, grain 
 
 Corn fodder, ears on 
 
 Com leaves 
 
 Com meal 
 
 Com stover, ears removed 
 
 Cottonseed 
 
 Cottonseed hulls 
 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 Cowpeas, green 
 
 Cowpea hay 
 
 Cowpea seeds 
 
 Crimson clover, green 
 
 Crimson-clover hay 
 
 Distillers' grains, dry. . . . 
 
 Dried blood 
 
 Dwarf Essex rape 
 
 Emmer, grain 
 
 Emmer hay 
 
 English hay 
 
 Field -bean hay 
 
 Field peas, Canada, green 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 Flax shives 
 
 Germ oil meal 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 Hairy Vetch, winter, hay. 
 Hay from mixed grasses. . 
 
 Hog millet, green 
 
 Hominy chop 
 
 Hominy feed 
 
 Horse bean, green 
 
 Horse-bean hay 
 
 Horse-beans 
 
 Hungarian -grass hay 
 
 Italian rye-grass hay 
 
 Japan-clover hay 
 
 Japanese millet, green . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter 
 
 in 100 
 Lb. 
 
 90.6 
 89.4 
 88.7 
 57.8 
 70.0 
 85.0 
 59.5 
 89.7 
 88.9 
 93.0 
 16.4 
 89.5 
 85.4 
 19.1 
 90.4 
 92.4 
 91.5 
 14.3 
 91.6 
 93.1 
 86.0 
 95.0 
 15.3 
 90.8 
 90.0 
 91.4 
 90.8 
 88.7 
 84.7 
 20.0 
 90.4 
 90.4 
 15.8 
 90.8 
 88.7 
 86.0 
 91.5 
 89.0 
 25.0 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 in 100 Lb. 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 6.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 12.5 
 
 .3 
 
 37.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 5.8 
 
 16.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 10.5 
 
 22.8 
 
 60.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 20.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 15.8 
 
 21.3 
 
 11.9 
 
 4.2 
 
 6.8 
 2.3 
 4.3 
 23.1 
 5.0 
 4.5 
 9.1 
 1.1 
 
 
 52.5 
 66.8 
 66.2 
 34.6 
 37.8 
 64.3 
 31.2 
 30.0 
 33.2 
 21.4 
 8.7 
 9.3 
 54.9 
 9.1 
 34.9 
 39.7 
 
 8.2 
 70.3 
 43.9 
 44.0 
 39.7 
 
 6.9 
 17.1 
 34.4 
 38.8 
 52.8 
 40.7 
 42.0 
 10.8 
 60.5 
 60.5 
 
 7.3 
 39.5 
 49.8 
 46.9 
 43.4 
 37.7 
 13.6 
 
252 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 Feedstuff 
 
 Total 
 
 Dry 
 Matter 
 in 100 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 in 100 Lb. 
 
 u o 
 
 cats 5 
 
 Johnson grass, green 
 
 Johnson-grass hay 
 
 Kafir corn, grain 
 
 Kafir corn, heads, ground. . 
 
 Kafir corn. Red, green 
 
 Kafir corn, White, green. . . . 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass hay. . . 
 Linseed meal, new-process. . 
 Linseed meal, old -process. . . 
 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 Mammoth-clover hay 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Meadow fescue, green 
 
 Meadow-fescue hay 
 
 Meadow-foxtail hay 
 
 Meat-and-bone meal 
 
 Meat scrap 
 
 Milk, cow's, whole 
 
 Milk, cow's, skim 
 
 Millet seed 
 
 Millet straw 
 
 Milo maize, heads, ground. 
 
 Milo maize, seed 
 
 Mixed grass and clover hay. 
 Molasses, beet, pulp, dry. . . 
 
 Molasses grains 
 
 Molasses, Porto Rico 
 
 Molasses, sugar-beet 
 
 Oat and pea hay 
 
 Oat and vetch hay 
 
 Oat hay 
 
 Oat meal 
 
 Oat middlings 
 
 Oat straw 
 
 Oats and peas, green 
 
 Oats and vetch, green 
 
 Oats, grain 
 
 Orchard-grass hay 
 
 25.0 
 89.8 
 90.1 
 86.4 
 18.4 
 16.6 
 34.9 
 86.0 
 90.3 
 90.2 
 90.5 
 78.8 
 
 9.1 
 30.1 
 80.8 
 93.4 
 94.0 
 89.3 
 12.8 
 
 9.4 
 87.9 
 85.0 
 90.3 
 91.0 
 87.1 
 92.0 
 89.6 
 74.1 
 79.2 
 89.5 
 85.0 
 86.0 
 92.1 
 91.2 
 90.8 
 20.3 
 20.0 
 89.6 
 90.1 
 
 2.9 
 5.2 
 4.2 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.4 
 
 31.5 
 
 30.2 
 
 20.3 
 
 6.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 4.2 
 
 5.3 
 
 36.7 
 
 66.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 7.1 
 
 .9 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.9 
 
 5.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 10.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 7.6 
 
 8.3 
 
 4.7 
 
 11.9 
 
 13.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.3 
 
 10.7 
 
 4.9 
 
 13.7 
 45.6 
 44.3 
 42.4 
 
 9.7 
 
 8.3 
 19.7 
 40.2 
 35.7 
 32.0 
 46.0 
 34.7 
 
 5.5 
 18.6 
 36.9 
 41.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 4.8 
 5.3 
 48.5 
 34.3 
 45.0 
 44.8 
 41.8 
 68.7 
 48.0 
 59.2 
 54.1 
 41.5 
 35.8 
 36.7 
 65.1 
 57.7 
 39.5 
 10.2 
 10.0 
 50.3 
 42.4 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 253 
 
 FeedstuflE 
 
 Total 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter 
 
 in 100 
 Lb. 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 in 100 Lb. 
 
 I g 
 
 
 Oxeye-daisy hay. . . 
 
 Palmnut cake 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Pea and oat hay 
 
 Peanut cake 
 
 Peanut kernels, without 
 
 hulls 
 
 Peanut-vine hay 
 
 Perennial rye-grass hay . . . . 
 
 Potato 
 
 Prairie hay 
 
 Pumpkin, field 
 
 Pumpkin, garden 
 
 Rape-seed cake 
 
 Red clover, green 
 
 Red-clover hay 
 
 Red-dog flour 
 
 Red-top hay 
 
 Rice, grain 
 
 Rowen hay 
 
 Rutabagas 
 
 Rye bran 
 
 Rye forage 
 
 Rye, grain 
 
 Rye-grass hay. Perennial. . . 
 
 Rye-grass hay, Italian 
 
 Rye straw 
 
 Sage, Common 
 
 Salt-marsh-grass hay 
 
 Sanfoin hay 
 
 Serradella, green 
 
 Serradella hay 
 
 Sesame oil cake 
 
 Shorts 
 
 Silage, corn 
 
 Silage, com, ears removed. . 
 
 Sorghum seed 
 
 Soybean hay 
 
 Soybean seeds 
 
 89.7 
 89.6 
 9.5 
 89.5 
 89.3 
 
 92.5 
 92.4 
 86.0 
 20.9 
 90.8 
 9.1 
 13.2 
 90.0 
 29.2 
 84.7 
 90.1 
 91.1 
 87.6 
 86.0 
 11.4 
 88.2 
 23.4 
 91.3 
 86.0 
 91.5 
 92.9 
 50.4 
 89.6 
 85.0 
 20.5 
 90.8 
 92.6 
 88.8 
 26.4 
 26.3 
 87.2 
 88.2 
 88.3 
 
 3.7 
 
 16.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 7.6 
 
 42.8 
 
 25.1 
 6.7 
 6.1 
 1.1 
 3.0 
 1.0 
 1.4 
 
 25.3 
 2.9 
 7.1 
 
 16.2 
 4.8 
 6.4 
 7.9 
 1.0 
 
 11.2 
 2.1 
 9.5 
 6.1 
 4.5 
 .7 
 1.2 
 3.1 
 
 10.4 
 2.1 
 
 11.4 
 
 33.0 
 
 13.0 
 1.4 
 1.1 
 4.5 
 
 10.6 
 
 29.1 
 
 41.0 
 52.6 
 7.2 
 41.5 
 20.4 
 
 13.7 
 42.2 
 37.8 
 15.7 
 42.9 
 
 5.8 
 
 8.3 
 23.7 
 14.9 
 37.8 
 57.0 
 46.9 
 79.2 
 42.2 
 
 8.1 
 46.8 
 14.1 
 69.4 
 37.8 
 43.4 
 39.6 
 14.1 
 39.7 
 36.5 
 
 8.9 
 38.6 
 10.9 
 45.7 
 14.2 
 14.9 
 61.1 
 40.9 
 23.3 
 
254 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Tab le — (Continued) 
 
 Feedstuff 
 
 Total 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter 
 
 in 100 
 Lb. 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 in 100 Lb. 
 
 ■5 c 
 2 g 
 
 Ph (X, 
 
 Soybean straw 
 
 Spelt , grain 
 
 Spelt, hay 
 
 Spring vetch, green 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 Sugar-beet leaves 
 
 Sugar-beet molasses 
 
 Sugar cane; green 
 
 Sunflower seed 
 
 Sunflower-seed cake 
 
 Swamp-grass hay 
 
 Sweet clover, green 
 
 Sweet-clover hay 
 
 Sweet corn, grain 
 
 Sweet potatoes 
 
 Tall-oat hay 
 
 Tankage 
 
 Teosinte, green 
 
 Texas blue-grass hay 
 
 Timothy grass 
 
 Timothy hay, all analyses. 
 
 Turnips, flat 
 
 Velvet -bean hay 
 
 Vetch and barley, green . . 
 
 Vetch and oat hay 
 
 Vetch and oats, green 
 
 Vetch and wheat, hay .... 
 
 Vetch, green 
 
 Vetch, Hairy, winter, green 
 Wheat and vetch, green. . . 
 
 Wheat and vetch hay 
 
 Wheat bran, all analyses. . 
 
 Wheat, grain 
 
 Wheat screenings 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 Whey 
 
 White-clover hay 
 
 White-top hay 
 
 Wild-oat grass hay 
 
 89.9 
 92.0 
 93.1 
 15.0 
 13.5 
 12.0 
 79.2 
 15.8 
 91.4 
 89.2 
 88.4 
 20.0 
 90.9 
 91.2 
 28.9 
 86.0 
 93.0 
 
 9.9 
 85.7 
 38.4 
 86.8 
 
 9.9 
 90.0 
 20.0 
 85.0 
 20.0 
 85.0 
 15.0 
 15.0 
 20.0 
 85.0 
 88.1 
 89.5 
 88.4 
 90.4 
 
 6.2 
 90.3 
 86.0 
 85.9 
 
 2.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 4.7 
 
 .5 
 
 14.8 
 
 29.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 11.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 .8 
 
 3.3 
 
 50.1 
 
 .9 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 .9 
 
 9.6 
 
 2.1 
 
 8.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 11.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 11.5 
 
 5.8 
 2.9 
 
 40.1 
 
 70.3 
 
 43.9 
 
 6.6 
 
 9.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 54.1 
 
 9.5 
 
 29.7 
 
 23.3 
 
 38.9 
 
 8.4 
 
 36.7 
 
 63.7 
 
 22.9 
 
 41.4 
 
 4.9 
 36.3 
 19.9 
 42.4 
 
 6.4 
 52.5 
 
 6.5 
 35.8 
 10.0 
 36.8 
 
 6.6 
 
 6.4 
 10.3 
 36.8 
 42.0 
 67.5 
 48.2 
 35.2 
 
 5.0 
 42.2 
 40.6 
 48.7 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 255 
 
 RATIONS FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF 
 LIVESTOCK 
 
 Ration for Draft Horses.— As an average for draft 
 horses at moderate work, a good plan to follow is to 
 feed 1 lb. of grain and VA lb. of hay per day per 
 100 lb. of live weight of the horse. At this rate, a 
 1,600-lb. horse would receive 16 lb. of grain and 20 lb. of 
 hay per day. If the work is severe, the quantity of 
 grain should be increased to 1^ lb. or more per 100 lb. 
 of live weight of the horse, but should not exceed 
 11/3 lb. When a heavy grain ration is fed it may be 
 necessary to feed a slightly smaller quantity of hay, 
 but this should not be less than 1 lb. per 100 lb. of live 
 weight; the exact quantity must be determined largely 
 by the individuality and appetite of each horse. When 
 a heavy grain ration is being -fed it should be slightly 
 reduced as soon as the work slackens. 
 
 The grain ration should be divided into three equal 
 feeds and given morning, noon, and night. The greater 
 part of the hay should be fed to the horses in the 
 evening, as they will then have all night in which to 
 consume and digest it; about one-quarter should be fed 
 in the morning and one-sixth or less at noon, the 
 quantity for each feed depending on the time allowed 
 for the horses to eat. 
 
 In selecting the kind of grain for the ration of a 
 draft horse, the feeder should be guided by the kind of 
 hay used and the cheapness of the ration; a larger 
 quantity of corn can be economically and satisfactorily 
 used in a ration with clover or alfalfa hay than with 
 prairie or timothy hay. Also, the ration should contain 
 enough digestible protein to meet the requirements of 
 the horse. A ration consisting of ^ part of corn, Ys 
 part of oats, and Vq part of bran, by weight, and 
 a mixture of timothy and alfalfa or clover hay, or of 
 prairie hay and alfalfa or clover, will give satisfactory 
 
256 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 results. For a 1,600-lb. horse at moderate work, a ration 
 of this proportion would be as follows: 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Com 8 
 
 Oats 51 
 
 Bran 2§ 
 
 Timothy or prairie hay 10 
 
 Clover or alfalfa hay 10 
 
 Rations for Driving and Saddle Horses.— An ample 
 ration for a driving or a saddle horse at severe work is 
 1 lb. of good hay and IVs lb. of grain per 100 lb. of 
 live weight of the animal. At this rate a 1,200-lb. horse 
 would receive 12 lb. of hay and 16 lb. of grain per day. 
 Most of the hay' should be fed at night and but little 
 given in the morning before the horse is put at work. 
 The grain should be divided into three equal parts and 
 given morning, noon, and night. 
 
 For extremely severe work, such as racing, less hay 
 should be given than for common road work; most of 
 the nutrients should be supplied by grain, oats being 
 best. About % lb. of hay per 100 lb. of live weight 
 of the animal should be given, most of it being fed at 
 the evening feed. 
 
 Ration for Pregnant Mares.— A good grain ration for 
 a mare that is just past the seventh month of preg- 
 nancy and is being worked is as follows: Ground oats, 
 by weight, 4 parts; corn, 2 parts; wheat bran, 2 parts; 
 alfalfa or clover hay, 1% lb. per 100 lb. of live weight. 
 
 Rations for Mares After Parturition.— For about 3 
 da. after foaling, mares should have a light grain feed 
 of oats and bran, and good clean hay, preferably clover 
 or alfalfa. The ration should be light, as a colt does 
 not need a large supply of milk the first few days of 
 its life. If, at the end of 3 to 4 da. the mare and 
 foal are in good condition, the ration should be gradually 
 increased in order to stimulate the flow of milk. 
 
 A mare that is working and suckling a foal requires 
 a little heavier ration than is usually prescribed for 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 257 
 
 work horses, owing to the fact that she is producing 
 milk in addition to supplying energy for work. The 
 ration should be a highly nutritious one that will pro- 
 duce a good flow of milk; for this purpose good alfalfa 
 or clover hay fed in conjunction with corn and oats 
 is desirable. If good alfalfa or clover hay is not avail- 
 able, some linseed meal or cottonseed meal should be 
 added to the ration. Ordinarily, Ws lb. of grain and 
 VA lb. of hay per 100 lb. of live weight will be sufficient, 
 although it may be necessary to increase the grain to 
 V/i lb. per 100 lb. of live weight if the mare shows 
 signs of getting in poor condition. When such a grain 
 ration is fed it is a good plan to mix the grain with 
 chopped hay in order to prevent any serious digestive 
 disturbances. 
 
 Ration for Stallions.— The sexual tax on a stallion 
 during the breeding season makes it necessary that he 
 be fed a highly nitrogenous ration, as the principal 
 part of the seminal fluid is composed of albuminous 
 matter. During this time there is nothing better to 
 feed than good clover or alfalfa hay, with oats and 
 bran and a very little corn.: A grain ration com- 
 posed of 2 parts of oats, 1 part of corn, and 1 part of 
 bran, by weight, combined with a roughage ration of 
 1 part of alfalfa hay and 1 part of timothy or prairie 
 hay will give satisfactory results. Because of the low 
 protein content of corn, a large quantity should not be 
 fed. During the breeding season a stallion requires 
 about the same quantity of feed as horses at hard 
 work. 
 
 Rations for Dairy Cattle.— The efficiency of the dairy 
 cow depends to a large extent on the feeding of a ration 
 adapted to the production of milk and butter fat. The 
 following rations are offered as suggestions to be 
 modified to suit individual conditions. With these 
 rations as a guide, a dairyman can easily make up from 
 the feedstuffs he has available an economical and 
 satisfactory ration for the cows of his herd. 
 17 
 
258 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 1: 
 
 Mixed hay 20 
 
 Dried distillers' 
 
 grains 4 
 
 Hominy chop 2 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 No. 2: 
 
 Mixed hay 10 
 
 Corn silage 40 
 
 Gluten feed 4 
 
 Corn meal 2 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 No. 3: 
 
 Mixed hay 15 
 
 Mangels 40 
 
 Cottonseed meal 2 
 
 Hominy chop 4 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 No. 4: 
 
 Mixed hay 10 
 
 Dried beet pulp 5 
 
 Cottonseed meal 2 
 
 Hominy chop 4 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 5: 
 Clover or alfalfa hay 15 
 
 Corn silage 25 
 
 Oats 3 
 
 Wheat bran 3 
 
 Buckwheat middlings 3 
 
 No. 6: 
 
 Timothy hay 10 
 
 Corn silage 40 
 
 Dried distillers' 
 
 grains 4 
 
 Cottonseed meal 2 
 
 Hominy chop or 
 corn meal 2 
 
 No. 7: 
 
 Timothy hay 10 
 
 Corn silage 40 
 
 Gluten feed 4 
 
 Linseed meal 3 
 
 Hominy chop or 
 corn meal 1 
 
 No. 8: 
 
 Alfalfa hay 20 
 
 Corn 3 
 
 Oats 3 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Rations for the Fattening of Cattle.— The following 
 are samples of satisfactory daily rations for the fat- 
 tening of cattle under corn-belt conditions: 
 
 Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 1: 
 
 Ear corn 20 
 
 Oil meal 3 
 
 Clover hay 8 
 
 No. 2: 
 
 Shelled corn 18 
 
 Oil meal 3 
 
 Clover hay 9 
 
 No. 3: 
 
 Ear corn 14 
 
 Oil meal 1.5 
 
 Shock corn 14 
 
 Clover hay 8 
 
 Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 4: 
 
 Ear corn 18 
 
 Cottonseed meal 1 
 
 Alfalfa hay 10 
 
 No. 5: 
 
 Ear corn 15 
 
 Corn silage 25 
 
 Alfalfa hay 5 
 
 No. 6: 
 
 Ear corn 16 
 
 Cottonseed meal — 3 
 
 Corn silage 32 
 
 No. 7: 
 
 Alfalfa hay 5 
 
 Corn stover 5 
 
 Corn 18 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 259 
 
 Ration for Unweaned Pigs.— During the time pigs are 
 running with their mothers they should have a rather 
 narrow grain ration. The following materials mixed in 
 the proportion given have been found by experience to 
 be well suited for suckling pigs: 
 
 Parts 
 
 Corn meal 2 
 
 Wheat middlings 7 
 
 Tankage 1 
 
 Skim-milk 30 
 
 These materials are mixed together to form a medium 
 thick slop, and are fed soon after being mixed. Of 
 this mixture the pigs are fed just what they will clean 
 up with a relish. No feed should be left in the troughs 
 to become sour. If skim-milk cannot be procured, pure, 
 fresh water may be substituted. 
 
 Rations for Pigs After Weaning.— After weaning the 
 pigs, the first ration given may be continued until they 
 reach an age of about 4 mo. From the fourth to the 
 sixth month, the following proportions may be used: 
 
 Parts 
 
 Corn meal 5 
 
 Wheat middlings 4 
 
 Tankage 1 
 
 Skim-milk 30 
 
 From 6 mo. up to the time the pigs are marketed, the 
 following proportions are used: 
 
 Parts 
 
 Corn meal 4 
 
 Tankage 1 
 
 This mixture is either fed dry or made into a thick 
 mush by the addition of skim-milk, whey, or water. If 
 fed dry, an abundance of pure, fresh water should be 
 placed where the pigs can get it at will. 
 
 Other mixtures that will give about the same propor- 
 tion of nutrients may be substituted for the preceding 
 rations. Hogs welcome a variety in food as well as do 
 other animals. 
 
260 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Succulent Feed for Fattening Hogs.— In addition to 
 rations given in the preceding paragraphs, young pigs 
 need some kind of succulent feed. In summer this 
 succulent feed can best be derived from pasture. Ani- 
 mals running on pasture require less attention from 
 their caretakers than do animals that are being fed in 
 a lot, for the reason that they gather a large part of 
 their feed themselves. The exercise that the pigs get 
 in searching for food in a pasture tends to give them 
 a good appetite and to keep them healthy. 
 
 Rations for Bacon Hogs.— Rations for producing bacon 
 hogs should be somewhat narrower than those required 
 for fat hogs. In the corn belt, bacon hogs for the first 
 month or two after birth should be fed about the same 
 ration as that given for unweaned pigs of the lard type. 
 The finishing ration, however, should be different from 
 that for fat hogs. A mixture of corn, other grains, mill 
 feed, tankage, skim-milk, and pasture crops makes a 
 satisfactory ration for bacon pigs. Corn should not, how- 
 ever, form more than one-third of the concentrated part of 
 the ration. Outside of the corn belt where barley, peas, 
 and oats are grown, these grains mixed with shorts, 
 middlings, tankage, and skim-milk give good results. For 
 summer, alfalfa, clover, or some other pasture for the pro- 
 duction of green forage is desirable. If the hogs are kept 
 and fed during winter, mangel wurzels, sugar beets, or 
 turnips may form the succulent part of the ration. 
 
 Rations for Herd Boars.— The boar or boars of a 
 breeding herd of swine should be placed in pastures or 
 lots by themselves, where they will have plenty of 
 room in which to exercise, as this has a tendency to keep 
 their appetite vigorous. They should be supplied with 
 abundant water, and it is well to have a quantity of 
 charcoal available. The feed for aged animals should 
 consist of a slop composed of a mixture of different 
 ground grains and mill feeds, enough only being fed 
 to the animals to keep them in fair flesh. A ration that 
 has been found satisfactory consists of the following: 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 261 
 
 Parts 
 
 Ground oats 2 
 
 Corn meal 1 
 
 Wheat middlings 1 
 
 For each mess, a small quantity of salt and a 
 handful of linseed meal may be added to this ration, 
 and these should be mixed together with sweet skim- 
 milk to form a slop. Only as much of this mixture as 
 the boar will eat with a relish should be given at 
 one time. 
 
 Young boars during their first half year should be 
 given enough of a ration consisting of mixed mill feed 
 and grain to keep them in rapid growth. This means 
 that the quantity given at a meal should be all that 
 they will eat with a relish. 
 
 Rations for Brood Sows.— The feed for a brood sow 
 should be similar to that recommended for young pigs. 
 The following combination for the concentrated part of 
 the ration has been found to be satisfactory: 
 
 Parts 
 
 Corn meal 5 
 
 Middlings or ground oats 5 
 
 Tankage 1 
 
 This ration may be fed either dry or mixed with 
 water. If the sows are being fed during the winter, 
 some bulky feed should be added to the above list. 
 Well-cured alfalfa or clover hay will prove to be a 
 good feed. If such hay cannot be procured, sugar beets 
 or mangel wurzels may be used. In the absence of all 
 these, sorghum cane that has been cut when ripe and 
 placed where it is protected from frost will answer. 
 
 A brood sow carrying a litter during the summer 
 should be placed on good alfalfa or clover pasture. She 
 will then require no other bulky feed than that which 
 she can gather. The preceding mixed ration may be 
 fed to the sow if it is easily procurable, but if the 
 pasture is an exceedingly good one, ear corn alone will 
 answer as the grain part of the ration. 
 
262 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Rations for Pregnant Ewes.— Several rations for preg- 
 nant ewes weighing from 140 to 160 lb. that are not on 
 pasture arc ^iven in the accompanying list: 
 
 Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 1: 
 Shelled corn or oats .4 
 
 Wheat bran 1 
 
 Corn silage 2.0 
 
 or root crops 3.0 
 
 Clover hay 2.0 
 
 No. 2: 
 
 Shelled corn or oats .4 
 
 Wheat bran 1 
 
 Corn silage 2.0 
 
 or root crops 3.0 
 
 Alfalfa hay 2.0 
 
 No. 3: 
 
 Shelled corn or oats .4 
 
 Corn silage '2.0 
 
 or root crops 3.0 
 
 Soybean hay 2.5 
 
 No. 4: 
 Oats or shelled corn .4 
 
 Wheat bran 1 
 
 Corn silage 2.0 
 
 or root crops 3.0 
 
 Corn fodder 1.0 
 
 Clover or alfalfa 
 hay 1.5 
 
 No. 5: 
 
 Shelled corn 4 
 
 Wheat bran 1 
 
 Corn silage 2.0 
 
 or root crops 3.0 
 
 Oat or wheat straw 1.0 
 Clover or alfalfa 
 
 hay 1.5 
 
 Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 6: 
 
 Shelled corn 3 
 
 Oats 2 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Clover, alfalfa, or 
 soybean hay 2.2 
 
 No. 7: 
 
 Shelled corn 2 
 
 Oats 2 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Oil meal 5 
 
 Corn fodder 1.0 
 
 Clover, alfalfa, or 
 soybean hay 2.0 
 
 No. 8: 
 
 Shelled corn 2 
 
 Oats 3 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Oil meal 1 
 
 Corn fodder 3.0 
 
 No. 9: 
 
 Shelled corn 3 
 
 Oats 2 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Oil meal 1 
 
 Oat or wheat straw 1.5 
 
 No. 10: 
 
 Shelled corn 2 
 
 Oats 2 
 
 Wheat bran 1 
 
 Oil meal 1 
 
 Corn silage 2.5 
 
 or root crops 3.8 
 
 Corn fodder 2.5 
 
 or oat straw 1.0 
 
 Rations for Ewes With Suckling Lambs.— In the ac- 
 companying table are given a number of rations for 
 ewes with suckling lambs. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 263 
 
 SUGGESTED DAILY RATIONS FOR EWES WITH 
 SUCKLING LAMBS 
 
 Kind of Feed 
 
 No. of Ration 
 
 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No 
 
 Mixture of: 
 
 Shelled corn, 5 parts 
 
 by weight 
 
 Whole oats, 5 parts 
 
 by weight 
 
 Wheat bran, 2 parts 
 
 by weight 
 
 Oil meal, 1 part by 
 
 weight 
 
 Corn silage 
 
 Root crops 
 
 Clover, alfalfa, or soy- 
 bean hay 
 
 Com stover 
 
 Oat straw , 
 
 1.33 
 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.33 
 
 4.00 
 2.50 
 
 1.33 
 
 5.00 
 2.50 
 
 1.60 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.33 
 
 2.50 
 2.50 
 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 
 1.40 
 
 2.50 
 2.50 
 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 
 Rations for the Fattening of Lambs.— In the following 
 list are given rations suitable for the fattening of lambs 
 in the corn belt, in the western part of the United 
 States, and in Canada or in the northeastern and 
 eastern parts of the United States. 
 
 Daily Rations for Fattening One Lamb in 
 
 THE Corn Belt 
 
 Rations Pounds Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 1: 
 
 Shelled corn 1.4 
 
 Clover hay 1.1 
 
 No. 2: 
 
 Shelled corn 1.0 
 
 Clover hay 2.0 
 
 No. 3: 
 
 Shelled corn 1.2 
 
 Linseed meal 4 
 
 Oat straw or shred- 
 ded corn, stover. . 1.0 
 
 No. 4: 
 
 Shelled corn 1.0 
 
 Soybeans 5 
 
 Soybean straw 5 
 
 Oat straw 5 
 
 No. 5: 
 
 Shelled corn 1.0 
 
 Linseed meal 3 
 
 Silage 1.5 
 
 Oat straw 6 
 
264 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Daily Ration for Fattening One Lamb in the West- 
 ern Portion of the United States 
 
 Rations 
 No. 1: 
 Barley 
 
 Pounds 
 1.5 
 
 Rations 
 No. 4: 
 
 Oats 
 
 Peas 
 
 Oat straw .. 
 
 Pea straw . 
 
 No. 5: 
 
 Barley 
 
 Sugar-beet 
 
 (wet) 
 
 Prairie hay 
 
 Pounds 
 7 
 
 Alfalfa hay ., 
 
 1.5 
 
 8 
 
 2.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 3 
 
 1.0 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 No. 2: 
 
 1.0 
 
 Barley 
 
 Alfalfa hay .. 
 
 No. 3: 
 
 Barley 
 
 Wheat bran .. 
 Prairie hay ., 
 
 1.5 
 
 pulp 
 
 6.0 
 
 5 
 
 Daily Rations for Fattening One Lamb in Canada or 
 
 IN the Northern and Eastern Portions of the 
 
 United States 
 
 Rations Pounds Rations Pounds 
 
 No. 1: No. 3: 
 
 Barley 1.3 Barley 5 
 
 Linseed meal 2 Peas 5 
 
 Clover hay 1.2 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Mixed hay 1.0 
 
 No. 2: Root crops 1.2 
 
 Oats 4 
 
 Barley 4 
 
 Peas 4 No. 4: 
 
 Wheat bran 2 Barley 1.4 
 
 Root crops 1.4 Linseed meal 1 
 
 Pea straw 5 Silage 2.0 
 
 Oat straw 5 Mixed hay 5 
 
 DISEASES OF FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Any departure from a condition of health in an 
 animal constitutes a diseased condition. In some cases 
 the departure may be so slight and so unimportant as 
 to be of no particular significance. On the other 
 hand, the disturbance may be severe and the condition 
 of the animal so serious that medical or surgical aid 
 is necessary. Some of the more common of the de- 
 rangements that may require medical aid are described 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 266 
 
 herewith and such treatment suggested as it is prac- 
 ticable for one not skilled in veterinary science to 
 undertake. The treatment of certain complex diseases 
 and certain diseases that are likely to become epidemic 
 and may spread to mankind are matters that should 
 not be left lo unskilled hands, for the situation is one 
 that may involve even more than a heavy loss to the 
 owner and to the community. In the case of some 
 diseases lack of proper measures may even result in 
 loss of human life. For these reasons it is always 
 advisable, when there is reason to suspect that a 
 dangerous transmissible disease has broken out, to call 
 a qualified veterinarian. In many states, a state 
 veterinarian is employed and, if notified, he will visit 
 •suspected premises or send a deputy to make an in- 
 spection, the expense being borne by the state. Every 
 stock owner will do well to post himself as to the pro- 
 visions made by his own state in this particular, and 
 take steps lo make use of any suggestions or assistance 
 that may be available from the state veterinarian's 
 office. Frequently leaflets or bulletins are issued by 
 these offices, and these publications may afford timely 
 warning on matters that are of the most absorbing 
 interest to the owner and breeder of livestock. 
 
 TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASES 
 
 Infectious diseases and contagious diseases, as the 
 terms are usually applied, are those that are trans- 
 missible from one animal to another of the same 
 species, and sometimes to those of another species. A 
 contagious disease is one that requires immediate contact 
 of healthy animals with diseased animals, or with their 
 excretions, before transmission can take place. This is 
 due to the fact that the causal agent of the disease,, 
 usually a bacterium or an animal parasite, cannot exist 
 for an appreciable time outside of or away from its host. 
 Consequently, there is little danger of a healthy animal 
 acquiring a contagious disease unless it comes close 
 
266 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 enough to one affected with the malady to permit the 
 direct passage of the germs to the unaffected indi- 
 vidual. An infectious disease is one that does not require 
 close contact in order for transmission to take place, 
 as the casual agents of infectious diseases are able to 
 exist independently outside of the host. Hence, infec- 
 tion from such a disease, spread on the ground, on 
 feed, in water, or in the air, may remain virulent for a 
 considerable and in some cases an indefinite time, and 
 animals coming in contact with it during this time 
 may contract the disease. This, briefly, is the common 
 distinction between infectious and contagious diseases, 
 but it should be understood that there is no absolutely 
 sharp line of demarcation between the two. Some 
 diseases partake of the nature of both infectious and 
 contagious disorders, hence, there is a tendency among 
 pathologists to discontinue the use of these terms and 
 refer to all the diseases included in the two groups 
 as transmissible diseases. 
 
 Mange, or scabies, is an example of a contagious dis- 
 ease. It is caused by a minute animal parasite, which, 
 although it may live for a short time away from the body 
 of its host, is not capable of reproducing under such con- 
 ditions and consequently cannot exist indefinitely. 
 Healthy animals may contract mange by coming in 
 contact with affected animals, by being confined in 
 quarters or pastures but recently occupied by affected 
 animals, by the use of blankets, harness, etc., recently 
 used on affected animals, or in fact in any way that 
 permits the living parasite to be transferred during its 
 life cycle. If, however, sufficient time elapses between 
 the use of these quarters, or articles, by infected 
 animals and their occupation by or coming in contact 
 with healthy animals the disease will not be transmitted, 
 because the parasites will have been unable to maintain 
 themselves during this time away from the host. 
 
 Blackleg may be cited as an example of an infectious 
 disease. It is caused by a germ or bacterium capable 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 267 
 
 of maintaining itself for an indefinite time outside of 
 
 the body of the host. Hence, pastures, quarters, etc., 
 
 when once infected with the germs of blackleg, are 
 
 likely to harbor the infection for many years. From 
 
 the above it is obvious that contagious diseases are 
 
 much more easily controlled and exterminated than 
 are infectious diseases. 
 
 NON-TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASES 
 
 Under the heading of non-transmissible diseases may 
 be grouped the numerous disorders that are not due to 
 a specific organism. Certain forms of indigestion, for 
 example, are due to errors of diet rather than to any 
 specific germ or animal parasite; some skin diseases 
 are not due to parasites, and some diseases of the heart 
 and of the respiratory organs are not traceable to such 
 causes. 
 
 SANITARY MEASURES 
 
 The maintenance of good sanitary conditions about 
 livestock quarters is of the greatest importance not 
 only in the treatment of animal diseases, but also in 
 their prevention. Although it is not true, as some 
 suppose, that dirt and filth generate disease, it is 
 true that most disease-producing organisms find an ideal 
 breeding ground under such conditions. 
 
 Light.— One of the most important steps in making 
 buildings sanitary is a provision for an abundance of 
 light. Direct sunlight is destructive to most disease 
 germs, and buildings should be so placed and designed 
 as to admit a maximum amount. Parts of livestock 
 quarters that do not get direct sunlight should get an 
 abundance of diffused light. Well-lighted interiors are 
 conducive to the contentment of animals and greatly 
 simplify the routine work of feeding, grooming, and 
 cleaning the building, for accumulations of dirt and 
 dust are quickly noticed and easily removed. 
 
 Ventilation. — Barns that are enclosed on all sides 
 require some provision for ventilation. No domestic 
 
268 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 animal can be confined in an enclosed space that is not 
 adequately ventilated without some bad effects from it. 
 As a rule, quarters for hogs, sheep, beef cattle, and 
 some other animals are somewhat loosely constructed, 
 or consist of sheds rather than enclosed barns; in such 
 cases it is not advisable or necessary to install an 
 extensive system of ventilation, but if a building is of 
 such a nature as not to admit of good natural ventila- 
 tion, some m.eans of supplying fresh air and of re- 
 moving foul air should be provided. The King system 
 
 of ventilating barns is by far the most practical and 
 satisfactory one in use. By this system, fresh air is 
 admitted to the interior of the barn at a point near 
 the ceiling and foul air passes out through flues that 
 open near the floor. The accompanying illustration 
 shows a diagram of a barn ventilated by the King 
 system. Foul-air flues and the openings into them near 
 the floor line are seen at a. Fresh air inlets are shown 
 at b, and at c are auxiliary openings into the foul-air 
 flues. The latter openings are to be kept closed except 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 269 
 
 when the temperature of the barn becomes too high, at 
 which time they may be opened to permit warm air 
 near the ceiling to escape. 
 
 Disinfection.— Although the sanitary measures already 
 described go a long way toward protecting animals 
 from the ravages of disease-producing organisms, it is, 
 nevertheless, advisable and often absolutely necessary 
 to make use of chemical disinfectants as a means of 
 destroying these organisms. Successful stock raisers 
 commonly make it a rule to apply a disinfectant about 
 animal quarters at fixed intervals regardless of whether 
 or not disease is prevalent. Such a course is to be 
 commended, for it tends to prevent the unrestricted 
 multiplication of injurious organisms and may fore- 
 stall a serious outbreak of disease. 
 
 Some of the most commonly-used disinfectants are 
 carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde, and 
 the coal-tar dips. A brief description of these will be 
 found under their respective names in the discussion 
 of common medicines. 
 
 Disinfection, to be effective, must be thorough. In 
 fact it is commonly accepted as true that the inefficient 
 and haphazard use of disinfectants may be even worse 
 than no application, because it is likely to give a false 
 sense of security and also to have the effect of satis- 
 fying legal requirements with reference to disinfection, 
 but in reality leaving the danger still present. In 
 stables, sheds, barns, etc. that are to be disinfected, all 
 movable fixtures should be taken out in order that 
 the disinfectant may reach every accessible part of the 
 structure. If wooden floors are in use and they are 
 decaying and broken, it is advisable to remove them 
 also, for beneath them there is sure to be an accumu- 
 lation of dirt and filth that is favorable to the growth 
 of disease germs. After the interior of the building 
 has been exposed as far as possible by the removal of 
 fixtures, etc., the disinfecting solution should be sprayed 
 on all parts. If a suitable spray pump is not available, 
 
270 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 scrubbing with a broom, brush, or mop will accomplish 
 practically the same results, and even if spraying is 
 resorted to, the scrubbing process should be applied to 
 walls, floors, etc., where there are accumulations of 
 refuse material. 
 
 All fixtures should be treated with the disinfectant 
 before being returned to the structure, or if they are 
 old and racked a better plan is to install new ones. 
 A concrete floor is one of the most valuable aids in main- 
 taining sanitary conditions, and should be substituted 
 for wooden floors whenever possible. 
 
 In rare cases, the use of a gaseous disinfectant such 
 as formaldehyde gas or sulphur dioxide, may be prac- 
 ticable, but in most cases livestock quarters are not 
 sufficiently close to permit of the use of these agents. 
 Hence, liquid disinfectants are almost universally used 
 for this purpose. 
 
 DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES 
 
 The Pulse.— The pulse is one of the most important 
 aids in the diagnosis of disease, because it serves to 
 indicate the action of the heart and also is, to some 
 extent, an indication of the condition of the nervous 
 system. The pulse rate, or the number of beats per 
 minute, is about as follows in different domestic ani- 
 mals: Horse, 30 to 40 beats per min. ; cow, 40 to 50 
 beats per m:n. ; sheep, 70 to 80 beats per min.; swine, 
 70 to 80 beats per min. 
 
 Owing to the fact that there is a considerable varia- 
 tion in domestic animals, even though they may be in 
 perfect health, and the further fact that experience is 
 necessary in order to make a correct interpretation of 
 pulse, it is not likely that the man unskilled in vet- 
 erinary science will be able to diagnose diseases by 
 taking the pulse. Nevertheless, it will be of some 
 assistance, when taken in connection with other diag- 
 nostic indications that are discussed in following 
 paragraphs. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 271 
 
 Temperature.— The following figures indicate the range 
 of temperatures of various animals under normal condi- 
 tions: Horses, 100° to 101°; cattle, 100° to 103°; sheep, 
 101° to 104°; swine, 102° to 104°. 
 
 Temperatures of domestic animals are best taken by 
 means of the special thermometer known as a clinical 
 thermometer, which may be purchased from any drug- 
 gist. A considerable rise or fall of temperature, from 
 the figures given, may be taken as an indication of a 
 diseased condition. In general, veterinarians consider 
 that a rise of 6° or more denotes a serious condition, 
 and any considerable fall below normal almost always 
 signifies approaching death. It must be understood, 
 however, that local conditions may operate to bring 
 about considerable variations in temperature, and all 
 readings of the thermometer should be considered in 
 connection with them. For example, excitement, heat, 
 or oestrum, hot weather, and other factors may cause 
 considerable rise of temperature. Cool weather, large 
 quantities of cold water or cold feed taken into the 
 body, and some other factors may cause a reduction 
 of temperature; hence, if at any time the thermometer 
 indicates a considerable departure from normal tem- 
 perature, an investigation should be made to determine 
 whether it is due to any of these causes. 
 
 Respiration.— The rate of breathing and the sounds 
 heard during the process often afford aid in diagnosing 
 disease. Rapid breathing may be due to disease and 
 often constitutes a symptom of the disorders of the 
 respiratory organs. However, it may also be occa- 
 sioned by extreme heat, excitement, violent exercise, 
 or other factors. Hence, as in preceding cases, it is 
 important that the subject be considered in connection 
 with the conditions that may have influenced it. 
 
 Mucous Membranes.- Ordinarily, mucous membranes, 
 as seen in the mouth, nostrils, and other openings into 
 the body have a characteristic pink color that is indic- 
 ative of health. A diseased condition usually brings 
 
272 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 about more or less change in the appearance of these 
 membranes. A flushed, congested condition indicates 
 a general inflammation of the tissues, while a lack of 
 proper color or paleness is taken as an indication of 
 debility, anemia, or insufficient nutrition. 
 
 COMMON MEDICINES 
 
 The information presented here is offered merely as a 
 suggestion of what may be done in certain cases and 
 is not to be considered as specific directions for treat- 
 ment nor is responsibility assumed by the publishers 
 for cases in which favorable results are not forth- 
 coming. The action of all medicines is relative, as is 
 also the dosage of the same, and hence no attempt is 
 made to lay down fixed rules. 
 
 Anesthetics.— The term anesthetic is applied to 
 medicinal agents that are used for producing insen- 
 sibility during periods of pain, or when an operation 
 is being performed. Some of the anesthetics used in 
 veterinary practice are cocaine, chloroform, and ether, 
 but it is scarcely advisable for a layman to administer 
 them. Carbolic acid has a distinct anesthetic action 
 when applied to the skin, and is sometimes applied 
 locally for this purpose. 
 
 Anodynes.— Remedies that are used to relieve pain 
 are called anodynes. The following are medicines of 
 this class: Cocaine, menthol, tar, carbolic acid, bella- 
 donna, etc. These are used for external applications. 
 Internally, opium, choral hydrate, and turpentine are 
 often given. Morphine is used by veterinarians for hypo- 
 dermic injections. 
 
 Antispasmodics.— Antispasmodics are agents that relieve 
 spasms or cramps. Hot and cold applications, friction, 
 liniments, counter irritation, and bleeding are frequently 
 resorted to. The agents enumerated under anodynes 
 are frequently used internally as antispasmodics. 
 
 Astringents.— Astringents are used to check bleeding, 
 to reduce secretions, and to cause tissues to contract and 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 273 
 
 condense. Chalk, alum, turpentine, boric acid, common 
 salt and iodoform are some common agents of this class. 
 
 Blisters.— Blisters are commonly spoken of as vesicants 
 and counter-irritants. Some blisters merely cause red- 
 ness and a slight irritation; others are so powerful 
 that they actually burn the flesh with which they come 
 in contact. 
 
 Mustard, and tincture of iodine are examples of mild 
 blisters; butter of antimony, lunar caustic, and caustic 
 potash are examples of severe blisters. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES 
 
 In most cases medicines are either administered to 
 domestic animals through the mouth or are applied 
 externally. Veterinarians occasionally resort to hypo- 
 dermic injections, using for this purpose a syringe 
 having a hollow needle. This procedure is often of 
 value when immediate results are desired, or when on 
 account of paralysis or other cause the animal is 
 unable to swallow. It is also useful as a means of 
 getting a drug into a specific locality in which it is 
 required, as, for instance, the injecting of cocaine into 
 the flesh previous to operations, or the injecting of 
 vermicides into the windpipe to destroy worms. In 
 addition to these methods of administration, some drugs 
 are volatilized and animals permitted to inhale them. 
 
 Dosage. — The doses suggested in the following list of 
 medicinal agents are those calculated to be given to 
 adult animals. To small animals or to animals much 
 weakened by disease or other causes reduced doses 
 should be given. It should be noted that ruminants, 
 that is, animals that chew the cud. such as cattle and 
 sheep, will take larger doses than will horses or swine. 
 This is due to the fact that ruminants have four 
 stomachs, and consequently a more extensive digestive 
 system. 
 
 The dosage of a solid medicament is usually given in 
 apothecaries' weight. The tables of apothecaries' weight 
 18 
 
274 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 and fluid measures previously given will be of assistance 
 in this connection. 
 
 LIST OF COMMON MEDICINES 
 
 Acetic acid: Occasionally applied externally for the 
 removal of warts and abnormal growths. 
 
 Aconite, Tincture of: Frequently administered by 
 veterinarians for fevers or inflammations. It is a 
 powerful drug and should be avoided in case an animal 
 is suffering from a weak heart or disturbance of the 
 circulatory system. Dose, horses 10 to 20 drops; cattle 
 20 to 30 drops; sheep, 10 drops; swine, 1 to 5 drops. 
 External applications of this drug are sometimes made 
 to relieve pain, but should be used sparingly. 
 
 Aloes: Extensively used as a purgative for horses. 
 Dose, 5 to 8 drams. Should be administered in a ball 
 or bolus, which may be procured from a druggist. 
 
 Ammonia water: Frequently given as a drench in 
 cases of acute indigestion, colic, bloating, and is also 
 used as a stimulant. Dose, horses, ^ oz. ; cattle, 1 oz. ; 
 sheep, 2 draws; swine, J4 to 1 dram. In all cases to be 
 diluted with water. 
 
 Arnica, Tincture of: Is useful to promote sweating 
 and reduce fever. Dose, horses, J^ to 1 oz. ; cattle, 1 oz. ; 
 sheep, 2 drams; swine, ^ dram. Applied externally, 
 tincture of arnica is useful in sprains, bruises, etc. 
 
 Arsenic, Fowler's solution of: Extensively used by 
 veterinarians as a tonic for animals that are depleted 
 in condition, also used in the treatment of heaves of 
 horses. Dose, horses, 2 to 4 drams; cattle, 4 to 6 drams; 
 sheep and pigs, 5 to 20 drops. 
 
 Belladonna, Fluid extract of: In cases of fever, colic, 
 tetanus (lockjaw), it is believed to be a valuable 
 agent. Dose, horses, Yz dram; cattle, 1 dram; sheep, 20 
 drops; swine, 3 drops. 
 
 Blue vitriol {copper sulphate) : Used in the treatment 
 of foot rot in sheep, also for application to wounds, 
 on which it acts as an antiseptic and astringent. A 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 275 
 
 solution of 1 oz. to 1 pt. of water is usually employed, but 
 in severe cases a stronger solution may be applied. 
 
 Boric acid: A solution of 20 grains of boric acid to 
 1 oz. of water is useful in the treatment of sore or 
 inflamed eyes, mouth, nostrils, etc. Such a solution is 
 practically non-poisonous, yet it has considerable merit 
 as a germicide and astringent. 
 
 Butter of antimony: A caustic used in the treatment of 
 old sores, wire cuts, etc. in which proud flesh has formed. 
 The material is applied undiluted by means of a swab. 
 Must be handled with care and is never administered 
 internally. 
 
 Carbolic acid: Crude carbolic acid in a 5% solution 
 is a suitable disinfectant for use about barns, stables, pens, 
 and for other purposes. May be' applied with a sprayer 
 or by scrubbing the surface with a broom or brush. 
 
 Pure carbolic acid (not crude), diluted with 30 parts 
 of water is useful in the treatment of wounds, sores, 
 scratches, etc., and is one of the most generally used 
 disinfectants in veterinary medicine. The solution 
 given is efficient for sterilizing instruments, which 
 should be immersed in it for five minutes. Both the 
 products mentioned are extremely poisonous, and their 
 careless use or storage is frequently the cause of fatal 
 accidents. It is, therefore, advisable to keep them in a 
 compartment under lock and key, and take careful steps 
 to prevent persons not familiar with their qualities from 
 having access to them. 
 
 Calomel: An extensively used purgative and vermifuge. 
 Dose, horses, ^ to 1 dram; cattle, 1 to 2 drams; sheep 
 or swine, 5 to 20 grains. 
 
 Castor oil: Purgative. Dose, horses, 1 to 2 pt.; sheep, 
 4 oz. ; swine, 2 oz. 
 
 Copperas (sulphate of iron): A valuable tonic and very 
 often one of the constituents of condition powders. 
 Useful for checking scours in pigs or calves. Dose, 
 horses, 1 dram; cattle, 2 drams; sheep, 20 grains; swine, 
 10 grains. 
 
276 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Corrosive sublimate ibicliloride of mercury) : A power- 
 ful disinfectant and very poisonous. For external use 
 only. Corrosive sublimate 1 part in 1,000 parts of water 
 makes a solution that is suitable for use about livestock 
 quarters, also for cleansing wounds and disinfecting prior 
 to operations. It attacks metals, consequently should not 
 be used on instruments or in any place where it will 
 come in contact with metal surfaces. 
 
 Coal-tar dip: A general class of proprietary disin- 
 fectant and insecticidal solutions that are on the mar- 
 ket under different trade names. They are extensively 
 used as dipping and disinfecting solutions for sheep, 
 swine, and cattle, and if they bear the label of reputable 
 manufacturers may be depended on for destroying skin 
 parasites, when used according to directions. They are 
 also useful for dressing cuts, scratches, surgical wounds, 
 etc. They have the advantage of being practically non- 
 poisonous, hence are much safer to use than carbolic 
 acid or corrosive sublimate, and if of good quality they 
 are undoubtedly just as efficient as disinfectants. 
 
 Epsom salts: Purgative. Useful for cattle and sheep, 
 but not much used for horses. Doses, cattle, 1 to 1^ lb.; 
 sheep, 2 to 4 oz. 
 
 Gentian root : Powdered gentian root is one of the 
 most common ingredients of condition powders, and it 
 has considerable merit as a bitter tonic. Dose, horses, 
 2 drams; cattle, 4 drams; sheep, 1 dram. 
 
 Iodine, Tincture of: Used externally to paint surfaces 
 where a counter-irritant is required, also in the treat- 
 ment of skin diseases, such as ringworm. Application 
 may be made once daily until the area becomes sore, 
 when it should be discontinued for a time. 
 
 Jamaica ginger: Useful in many cases of intestinal 
 disorders. Should be given in milk. Dose, horses, 1 oz.; 
 cattle, 2 oz. ; sheep, ^ oz. ; calves and foals, Yi oz. 
 
 Kerosene and gasoline: Sometimes given internally for 
 stomach worms. Lambs will take from 1 to 2 drams, 
 larger animals a proportionate amount. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 277 
 
 Laudaunm : Given internally for the relief of acute 
 pain such as is often present in colic; also useful in 
 severe cases of intestinal disorders. Dose, horses, 1 oz. ; 
 cattle, 1 to 2 oz. ; sheep, 2 drams; swine, 5 to 20 drops. 
 
 Lime water: Frequently given to young animals in 
 cases of diarrhea. Should be diluted with milk, using 
 about 2 parts of milk to 1 part of lime water. 
 
 Linseed oil, razv: Extensively used as a purgative, also 
 as a diluent for mixing drugs that are too strong to be 
 given undiluted. For purgative effects, 1 to 2 pt. may 
 be given to horses; cattle, 2 to 3 pt. ; sheep, ]/2 pt. 
 
 Quinine: A stimulant and bitter tonic. Dose, horses, 
 ^ to 1 dram; cattle, 2 to 4 drams; sheep, ^ dram; swine, 
 10 grains. 
 
 Saltpeter (nitrate of potash) : A favorite remedy for 
 the treatment of kidney disorders, also useful in fevers. 
 Dose, horses, 1 oz. ; cattle, 1 to V/2 oz. ; sheep, 2 drams. 
 
 Spirits of camphor: Will often afford relief from pain 
 in colic. Useful in cases of dyspepsia and sometimes 
 in respiratory troubles, coughs, and colds. Should be 
 given in water. Dose, horses, 2 to 4 drams; cattle, 1 oz. ; 
 sheep, 2 drams; swine, 10 to 20 drops. 
 
 Sulphur: It is a common belief that feeding sulphur 
 will tend to destroy skin parasites, but there is little 
 evidence to support this belief. Dry sulphur dusted into 
 the hair will often accomplish this result. Burning 
 sulphur in a tight enclosure is useful in the treatment 
 of hoose, or verminous bronchitis. 
 
 Turpentine: A standard remedy for colic. Useful in 
 cases of bloating and for the destruction of intestinal 
 parasites. Should be given in linseed oil or in milk. 
 Dose, horses, H to 2 oz. ; cattle, 2 to 3 oz. ; sheep, 1 to 3 
 drams; swine, 1 dram. Turpentine is extensively used 
 in compounding liniments. 
 
 Whiskey: A stimulant that is valuable in cases that 
 require such treatment, as for example, sunstroke, chills, 
 general depression, or collapse. Dose, horses and cattle, 
 2 to 4 oz. ; sheep and swine, 1 to 2 oz. 
 
278 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 COMMON DISEASES 
 
 Abortion. — Contagious abortion, due to a specific germ, 
 is somewhat common in cows, ewes, and mares. Cases 
 should be at once isolated from other animals and the 
 fetus and fetal membranes burned, as they are likely 
 to spread the disease. Disinfect quarters occupied by 
 these animals and douche the womb with a 1% solution 
 of coal-tar dip or a 2% solution of carbolic acid. Repeat 
 douche daily and do not breed until all vaginal dis- 
 charge ceases. A male may become infected by serving 
 affected females, hence care must be used in selecting 
 a sire. 
 
 If accidental abortion, due to injury, overwork, or 
 undue excitement, is threatened, give the patient rest, 
 quiet, and, if necessary, small doses of laudanum. 
 
 Abscesses. — For an abscess, as a rule, a hot poultice 
 is advisable until the abscess softens and pus collects. 
 The abscess should then be opened and thoroughly 
 cleaned with an antiseptic solution such as carbolic 
 acid. Repeat the cleansing daily or oftener if necessary. 
 Apply lard or vaseline to the skin and hair about the 
 abscess. 
 
 Actinomycosis. — Actinomycosis, or lump jaw, affects 
 chiefly young cattle. It is due to a fungus that is 
 usually taken in with feed. If the tumor is external 
 it may be removed and the wound painted with tincture 
 of iodine. Internally, give large doses of potassium 
 iodide— some authorities recommend 3 drams daily until 
 symptoms of poisoning are seen, when the dose should 
 be reduced to 1 or V/z drams or discontinued if necessary. 
 
 Anthrax, or Charbon.— Anthrax, or charbon, affects 
 horses, cattle, and sheep and is transmissible to man. 
 It is a dangerous disease, for which there is no satis- 
 factory treatment. Affected animals should be destroyed 
 and the carcasses burned or buried in quicklime. 
 Premises occupied by such animals should be thoroughly 
 disinfected or abandoned and all discharges from the 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 279 
 
 bodies burned or buried with the carcasses. The utmost 
 care should be observed in this work, since the disease 
 is extremely infectious and usually fatal in man. A 
 vaccine that is somewhat successful in rendering animals 
 immune to the disease may be purchased from druggists. 
 
 Azoturia.— Azoturia is a disease that affects horses, 
 particularly work horses, after a short period of idleness 
 on full feed; it is often called Monday-morning-sickness 
 because of the frequent cases that develop after the 
 animals have rested over Sunday on full feed. Treat- 
 ment should consist of supporting the animal in slings 
 if it is paralyzed, administering a purgative, and cfpply- 
 ing hot blankets. A qualified veterinarian should be 
 called to administer hypodermic injections and give 
 other necessary treatment. Light, succulent feed should 
 be given until recovery is complete. 
 
 Barrenness, or Sterility.— Barrenness, or sterility, may 
 affect breeding animals of any species. Reduction of 
 flesh by restriction of diet and giving abundant exer- 
 cise may correct the condition in overfat animals. 
 Tonics and a liberal ration containing an abundance 
 of nitrogenous feed should be given in the case of 
 depleted animals. Barrenness in cows is sometimes 
 corrected by injecting into the vagina a quart of warm 
 water in which a cake of ordinary compressed yeast 
 has been dissolved. The yeast should be dissolved a 
 few hours before injection and the treatment repeated 
 daily for 3 or 4 da. Some cases of sterility are due 
 to causes that require surgical aid, in which emergency 
 the services of a veterinarian are required. 
 
 Blackleg. — Blackleg is known also as black quarter, and 
 as symptomatic anthrax, the latter term being applied for 
 the reason that the disease somewhat resembles anthrax, 
 but it should be understood that the two are distinct. 
 Blackleg affects chiefly young cattle and its ravages are 
 most pronounced among those that are fat and thrifty. 
 It is almost always fatal and no treatment is satis- 
 factory. Cases should be destroyed and the carcasses 
 
280 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 treated as directed for anthrax cases. Vaccination with 
 a protective vaccine that any stockman can administer 
 is very successful in preventing the disease. Vaccine 
 may be had in pill form at any drug store. 
 
 Cerebrospinal Meningitis.— Cerebrospinal meningitis 
 is sometimes epidemic among horses and sheep. A 
 layman can scarcely undertake treatment. If possible, 
 a veterinarian who is familiar with the disease should 
 be called. 
 
 Choking. — If an animal is choked the first efforts 
 should be directed toward returning the obstruction to 
 the nlouth. If this is not successful, olive oil or castor 
 oil should be given to lubricate the passage and thus 
 aid in passing the obstruction to the stomach. Some- 
 times gentle massage of the exterior of the esophagus 
 will assist in this. In some cases a piece of garden 
 hose may be used to force the obstruction down, but 
 great care is necessary or rupture of the gullet may 
 result. In cattle severe bloating may follow a case of 
 choking, in which case tapping the paunch as directed 
 for hoven may be necessary. A surgeon may be able 
 to open the esophagus by an operation and remove the 
 body. 
 
 Colic— Colic is an extremely common disorder among 
 horses. It is difficult to give specific directions for 
 treatment, as there are various forms of the disease, due 
 to different causes, and a treatment that is suitable for 
 one is often entirely unsuitable for another. Good 
 authorities recognize the following forms of colic: 
 Engorgement colic, obstruction colic, tympanitic colic, 
 spasmodic colic, and worm colic. Horse owners will do 
 well to familiarize themselves with the different forms 
 of colic and from this knowledge there will follow 
 an ability to avoid many cases and to give simple 
 treatment when a case makes its appearance. It is 
 obvious that a satisfactory discussion of the causes, 
 symptoms, and treatment of these various colics cannot 
 be given here. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 281 
 
 Constipation. — Many cases can be benefited if not 
 cured by giving laxative feed, abundant exercise, and 
 good care, Purgatives are often necessary, in which 
 case aloes are usually given to horses and Epsom salts 
 to cattle. Linseed oil or castor oil are often useful. It 
 should be the aim to correct the condition that causes 
 constipation; probably in most cases it will be found 
 to be improper feeding. 
 
 Cough.— As a rule, cough should be regarded as a 
 symptom of a disease rather than as a disease in itself. 
 One of the first steps in treatment is to provide dry, 
 comfortable, well-ventilated quarters. Turpentine, mus- 
 tard, and other mild counter irritants applied to the 
 skin of the neck and chest are often of service. Equine 
 cough syrup containing agents that tend to relieve the 
 irritation may be procured from druggists. Opium or 
 heroin are sometimes administered by veterinarians in 
 cases of violent or spasmodic cough. 
 
 Eczema. — Eczema is, in most cases, due to improper 
 feeding, hence the first step toward treatment should be 
 directed to the correction of this condition. A laxative 
 should be given and the afifected skin may be washed 
 with tar soap and oxide-of-zinc ointment of icthyol 
 applied. 
 
 Farcy.— See glanders. 
 
 Foot-and-Mouth Disease.— Foot-and-mouth disease 
 affects cattle, sheep, swine, and goats. It is extremely 
 infectious and no satisfactory treatment is known, 
 hence immediate destruction of affected animals is 
 recommended. The disease is rare in the United States 
 and Canada, but occasional outbreaks occur, probably 
 resulting from the importation of infected animals from 
 foreign countries. Thorough disinfection of premises 
 occupied by diseased animals is necessary and it is 
 advisable to leave such quarters vacant for several 
 months before placing healthy animals in them. 
 
 Foot Rot. — Foot rot is an infectious disease of sheep. 
 Affected animals should be isolated and unaffected ones 
 
282 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 removed from pastures that may be infected. All 
 affected animals should be compelled to stand for a 
 few moments each day in a shallow tank or trough 
 containing blue vitriol solution, or a 2% solution of 
 coal-tar dip. In advanced cases, individual treatment 
 should be given by removing diseased horn and applying 
 pure carbolic acid or the latter mixed with 10 to 15 
 parts of glycerine, after which a bandage moistened 
 with disinfectant solution should be applied. 
 
 Founder.— For founder hot foot baths and poultices of 
 thermofuge or antiphlogistine are a favorite treatment. 
 If the animal is shod, the shoes should be removed and 
 a clean, dry, well-bedded box stall provided. Bleeding 
 and blistering are frequently practiced by veterinarians. 
 In acute cases it may be advisable to cast the animal 
 or place it in slings. Proper shoeing will often benefit 
 chronic cases. 
 
 Foul in Foot. — The disease known as foul in foot is 
 usually seen in cattle and is often due to animals 
 being confined in wet, filthy quarters. A correction of 
 this condition and the application of the remedies sug- 
 gested for foot-rot in sheep will usually bring about 
 a cure. 
 
 Galls.— Galls are usually due to poor fitting of har- 
 nesses or chafing, and the first steps should be made 
 to remove the cause. Galled surfaces should be 
 cleansed and oxide-of-zinc ointment applied. Alum 
 dusting powders are also often affective. 
 
 Garget.— As a treatment for garget the udder should 
 be milked dry and massaged. Cloths wrung out of hot 
 water or applications of camphor ointment procurable 
 from any druggist are useful. In acute cases it may 
 be well to support the udder by means of a wide 
 bandage around the hips of the animal. Some forms of 
 garget are believed to be contagious, hence it is well 
 to isolate all cases. 
 
 Gid.— Gid is a parasite disease of sheep, often spoken 
 of as grub in the head. The only treatment consists of 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 283 
 
 trephining the skull and removing the parasites, but 
 the operation requires special instruments and skill in 
 their use. Preventive measures such as avoiding in- 
 fected pastures and destroying the heads of sheep that 
 die of the disease are more satisfactory. 
 
 Glanders, or Farcy.— Glanders, or farcy, is an ex- 
 tremely contagious and practically incurable disease of 
 horses, mules, and asses. AfYected animals should be 
 destroyed and premises carefully disinfected. The 
 disease is transmissible to man, hence the work of 
 destroying animals and disinfection should be done 
 with great care. 
 
 Grease. — Grease, sometimes called grease heels or 
 scratches, is a form of eczema affecting horses' heels. 
 Some cases are believed to be due to filth or skin 
 abrasions. The treatment suggested under eczema is 
 often beneficial in early stages. The affected area 
 should be clipped, cleansed, and a hot poultice applied. 
 Carbolic acid and glycerine may then be applied as 
 directed under eczema, the part bandaged, and the 
 animal kept in a dry, clean stall well supplied with 
 bedding. 
 
 Heaves.— Heaves are not curable but may be al- 
 leviated by moistening all grain or hay fed. An 
 affected animal should not be watered immediately 
 before exercise or work. Arsenic, iron, and strychnine 
 are often given, but should be prescribed by a veteri- 
 narian. 
 
 Hog Cholera.— Hog cholera is now believed to be 
 identical with swine plague. Attempts at curative 
 treatment are of little avail. Diseased animals should 
 be destroyed in a manner that will prevent spread of 
 the infection. Thorough disinfection of pens and re- 
 moval of animals to fresh pastures are essential in 
 stamping out the disease. It is generally agreed by 
 authorities on hog cholera that most of the so-called 
 hog cholera cures are worthless. A protective vaccine 
 is being used with good results, but at present its cost 
 
284 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 seems to be almost prohibitive except under certain 
 conditions. Information as to where the vaccine may- 
 be procured can usually be obtained from a state 
 veterinarian. 
 
 Hoose. — Hoose is a parasitic disease of calves and 
 lambs, caused by worms in the bronchial tubes, hence 
 it is sometimes spoken of as verminous bronchitis. Some 
 cases are successfully treated by confining animals in 
 a tent or a tight room and causing them to inhale 
 sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur on char- 
 coal. There is imminent danger of suffocating the 
 animals if they are kept too long in the gas, hence 
 great care is necessary. In some cases an attendant 
 remains with them and opens doors when he is no 
 longer able to endure the gas. Veterinarians sometimes 
 inject choloroform or turpentine into the windpipe by 
 means of a hypodermic syringe. 
 
 Hoven, or Bloat.— Hoven, or bloat, is very likely to 
 occur in cattle when they are allowed to overfeed, 
 particularly on rank-growing forage such as clover or 
 alfalfa. In early stages of the disease, a wooden 
 bit or gag, retained in the mouth by means of 
 light ropes over the horns will assist in getting 
 rid of the gas that is accumulating in the digestive 
 tract. A handful of salt placed in the mouth back 
 of the gag will often make it more effective. A 
 favorite remedy is 2 oz. of turpentine well diluted 
 with milk or linseed oil. Other remedies are: common 
 baking soda in 2-tablespoonful doses as a drench, and 
 Jamaica ginger in 3- or 4-oz. doses given as a drench, well 
 diluted with hot water. In acute cases when bloating has 
 "become so severe that there is danger of suffocation or 
 rupture of the paunch, tapping should be resorted to. 
 Use a trocar and canula, inserting the instrument about 
 half way between the point of the hip or what is often 
 called the hook bone and the last rib on the left side 
 of the animal and choosing the point where the swelling 
 is most prominent. It is well to first make a hole in 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 285 
 
 the skin with a knife. When the puncture has been 
 effected the trocar is withdrawn and the canula allowed 
 to remain in the opening. A pocket knife may be used 
 if a trocar is not available, but with the former there 
 is danger of making the incision too large. 
 
 Intestinal and Stomach Worms.— Intestinal and 
 stomach worms are one of the most common parasitic 
 disorders of domestic animals. Worms in the stomach 
 or intestines interfere with nutrition, cause irritation 
 and spasms, and may give rise to serious complications. 
 Some of the different forms are tapeworms, roundworms, 
 whipworms, threadworms, and pinworms. Common 
 remedies for worms are turpentine, diluted with lin- 
 seed oil, salt, copperas and santonin. It is always 
 advisable to withhold feed for 24 to 48 hr. 
 previous to giving worm remedies, and shortly after 
 giving the drug a purgative should be administered. In 
 obstinate cases a more specific treatment than can be 
 outlined here and one that is particularly adapted to 
 the specific parasite that is causing the trouble may be 
 necessary. 
 
 Indigestion.— The usual treatment for indigestion is 
 to give a purgative, followed by Jamaica ginger and a 
 tonic, but special cases often require special treatment. 
 If the indigestion is due to improper feeding, the cause 
 should be obviated by feeding sparingly for a time, or 
 even by withholding feed entirely. 
 
 Lice. — Lice are more or less common on all domestic 
 animals. A good coal-tar dip is an efficient lice killer 
 and may usually be depended on to exterminate the 
 parasites if used in accordance with directions furnished 
 by the manufacturer. 
 
 Maggots.— Maggots are frequently seen in wounds 
 resulting from dehorning, castrating, and accidents. The 
 treatment is to apply coal-tar dip, kerosene, or turpentine 
 diluted with linseed oil. 
 
 Mange. — Mange is a parasitic disease caused by 
 minute animal parasites or mites. It is common in 
 
286 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 sheep and cattle and is often called scab or scabies; it 
 also affects horses and hogs. Some forms of mange are 
 more resistant to treatment than others. Dipping in a 
 reliable coal-tar dip is the most convenient and satis- 
 factory remedy for small animals. The dip solution does 
 not kill eggs of the mites, hence the dipping should be 
 repeated frequently if it is expected to exterminate the 
 disease. If dipping is not practicable, local treatment 
 with green soap, sulphur ointment, or carbolic acid in 
 glycerine may be applied. The hair should be clipped 
 and scabs softened before application in order to secure 
 the best results. Infected quarters should be thoroughly 
 sprayed with coal-tar-dip solution to destroy parasites 
 that may be harbored there. 
 
 Milk Fever.— Milk fever affects chiefly dairy cows that 
 are heavy milkers. Purgative of Epsom salts may be 
 given early in the disease, but if paralysis has set in, 
 medicine administered by the mouth is likely to cause 
 strangulation. The affected cow should be propped up 
 to a comfortable position with bags of straw, and ice or 
 cold water applied to her head and spine. Oxygen gas 
 injected into the udder is a treatment that is now used 
 very extensively. If oxygen cannot be procured, pumping 
 the udder full of air by means of an ordinary bicycle 
 pump and a milking tube may be resorted to. 
 
 Navel 111. — Navel ill is an infectious disease of the 
 joints. It occurs in foals and sometimes in the young 
 of other animals soon after birth, and is due to the 
 entrance of germs through the navel opening. Pre- 
 vention consists in keeping the dam in a clean, dry, 
 sanitary stall, and in bandaging the navel of the young 
 as soon as it is dropped. Treatment after a case has 
 developed is seldom successful. 
 
 Quarter Crack and Sand Crack.— When a horse is 
 affected with quarter cracks or sand cracks a black- 
 smith may draw the parts of the hoof together with a 
 carefully fitted shoe, or by means of nails. Tar should 
 be applied to exclude dirt from the crevices. 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 287 
 
 Rabies. — Rabies affects all animals and is trans- 
 missible to nmn, in the latter, case being known as 
 hydrophobia. There is no satisfactory treatment of 
 rabies in animals. On account of the imminent danger 
 of spreading the disease, it is advisable to destroy af- 
 fected animals at once. However, in case what is 
 thought to be a rabid animal, as a mad dog, is at large 
 in a community and bites animals or persons it is 
 always advisable to preserve the life of the supposedly 
 rabid animal until a diagnosis can be made to determine 
 whether or not rabies is actually present. This precaution 
 is particularly important in case persons are bitten. 
 
 Rheumatism.— Rheumatism affects horses, cattle, pigs, 
 and goats. Treatment is not very satisfactory. Clean, 
 dry quarters and good, nourishing feed will go a long 
 way toward preventing the disorder and will often 
 bring about marked improvement in cases already de- 
 veloped. Enlarged, stiffened joints may be rubbed with 
 iodine ointment. Veterinarians are sometimes able to 
 fire and blister affected parts with good results. 
 
 Rickets, or Rachitis.— Rickets, or rachitis, is common 
 in young pigs and is believed to be due to improper 
 feeding of the dam. Treatment should be directed 
 toward correcting the diet and providing clean, dry, 
 sanitary quarters. Liquid feeds, such as gruels, are 
 particularly useful. 
 
 Ringworm.— Ringworm attacks horses, cattle, sheep, 
 goats, and swine. The disorder is due to a fungous 
 growth. Painting with iodine or a strong solution of 
 cold-tar dip will usually destroy the parasite. Occa- 
 sionally man acquires ringworm from animals, hence 
 due precaution should be taken in treating cases. Ani- 
 mals transmit the disease to animals of the same 
 species, but it is said that cattle seldom acquire it from 
 horses or vice versa. It is always desirable to isolate 
 cases of ringworm and disinfect the quarters they have 
 occupied. Green soap, boracic acid, and turpentine are 
 other remedies that are frequently used. 
 
288 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Scab in Sheep.— See Mange. 
 
 Scours. — Scours affects chiefly newly born animals. 
 Linseed oil will often assist in a freeing of the in- 
 testinal tract from irritating material. Laudanum is 
 useful to relieve pain. Lime water is a favorite remedy 
 with many stockmen. See that feed is clean and whole- 
 some and milk pails or troughs are sterilized for each 
 feeding. 
 
 Sunstroke. — Apply ice or cold water to the head and 
 along the spine. Bleeding is not advisable. A stimu- 
 lant such as whiskey is often given in these cases. 
 Many authorities consider it inadvisable to drench 
 animals over the entire body with a hose or by throwing 
 pails of water on them. Many cases of sunstroke in 
 horses may be prevented. During periods of intense 
 heat, provide a head covering and place in this a sponge 
 moistened with cold water. Frequent watering is also 
 a safeguard. 
 
 Swine Fever.— See hog cholera. 
 
 Tetanus, or Lockjaw.— Tetanus, or lockjaw, is an 
 extremely contagious disease and a dangerous one be- 
 cause of the fact that it is easily transmitted to man. 
 As a general rule, treatment for the disease is useless, 
 although good results have been reported from the use 
 of a serum. When there is reason to suspect that an 
 animal will develop tetanus because of infection from 
 a wound, an immediate use of the same serum, known 
 as antitetanic serum, is successful in preventing the 
 disease in a large majority of cases. A qualified 
 veterinarian should be employed to administer the 
 serum. A wound that is suspected to contain tetanus 
 germs should be opened and cleaned out so that every 
 part of it will be exposed to the air, as the germs of 
 tetanus do not thrive under these conditions. Pure 
 carbolic acid may be used to clean the wound. 
 
 Texas Fever.— Texas fever is a virulent disease of 
 cattle and one that is very prevalent in the southern 
 part of the United States. It is caused by a minute 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 289 
 
 animal parasite that lives in the body of the Texas 
 fever tick or more properly the splenetic fever tick. 
 Hence, efforts should be made to exterminate the latter 
 pest. The method of immunizing cattle against the 
 disease has been developed and used somewhat ex- 
 tensively. No satisfactory treatment is known, and it 
 is often advisable to destroy affected animals and free 
 the other ones from ticks by dipping or spraying and 
 remove them to new pasture. 
 
 Thrush.— Thrush affects the frogs of horses' hoofs. 
 Treatment consists in placing the animals in clean, dry 
 quarters and cleaning the foot and applying a healing 
 powder such as calomel and iodoform, equal parts. In 
 some cases it may be necessary to cauterize the affected 
 part, for which purpose butter of antimony applied with 
 a swab is effective. Afterwards a dressing of tar and 
 a bandage over the foot will serve to exclude dirt and 
 permit healing. 
 
 Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis affects all domestic ani- 
 mals. There is no satisfactory treatment for this dis- 
 ease, but every effort should be made to stamp it out by 
 destroying the affected animals or at least isolating 
 them and abstaining from the use of any products from 
 them. A discussion of the additional measures for the 
 control of this disease is impossible in this space. 
 Consult a state veterinarian or board of health. 
 
 SCORE CARDS FOR FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES 
 
 Perfect Jxjdge's 
 General Appearance Score Score 
 
 Height: score according to class 1 
 
 Weight: score according to class 6 
 
 Form: according to class, broad, massive, 
 
 symmetrical 5 
 
 Condition: carrying a good amount of firm 
 
 flesh 4 
 
 Quality: bone moderately heavy, clean, firm, 
 and indicating sufficient substance; ten- 
 dons well defined ; hair and skin fine .... 4 
 
 19 
 
290 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES 
 
 (Continued) 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 Score Score 
 
 Temperament: quiet, yet energetic 3 
 
 Head and Neck 
 
 Head: medium in size, not coarse 1 
 
 Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even; 
 
 teeth sound 1 
 
 Eyes: large, full, bright, clear 1 
 
 Forehead: broad and full 1 
 
 Ears: medium size, pointed, well carried, and 
 
 not far apart 1 
 
 Neck: medium length, clean cut, well 
 
 muscled; tapering from shoulder to head, 
 
 and head attached at proper angle; crest 
 
 well developed and nicely arched; throat 
 
 latch fine; windpipe large 2 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 
 
 Shoulders: obUque, long, smooth, and cov- 
 ered with muscle extending into back; 
 
 withers well finished at the top 3 
 
 Arms: short, well muscled, elbow lying close 
 
 to the body _. . 2 
 
 Fore legs: viewed from in front, a perpendic- 
 ular line from the point of the shoulder 
 
 should fall on the center of the knee, 
 
 cannon, pastern, and foot; from the side, 
 
 a perpendicular line dropping from the 
 
 center of the elbow joint should fall on 
 
 the center of the knee and pastern joint 
 
 and back of the hoof 3 
 
 Forearms: heavily muscled, long, wide, and 
 
 tapering from the elbow to the knee .. . 2 
 
 Knees: large, clean, wide, straight, and 
 
 strongly supported 1 
 
 Cannons: short, wide, clean; tendons large, 
 
 set well back, not tied in below the knees 2 
 
 Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, free from 
 
 puffiness 1 
 
 Pasterns: strong, of medium length; angle 
 
 with the ground 45 degrees 2 
 
 Feet: straight, medium size, even; horn 
 
 dense; frog large, elastic; bars strong; 
 
 sole concave; heel wide, high; hoof head 
 
 large 5 
 
 Body 
 Chest: deep, low; girth large; width of breast 
 
 in proportion to other parts 3 
 
 Ribs: long, well sprung 3 
 
FARM LIVESTODK 291 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES 
 
 (Contimicd) 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 Score Score 
 
 Back: straight, short, broad, well muscled. . 3 
 
 Loins: wide, short, thick, and neatly joined 
 
 to hips 2 
 
 Under line: long, flank low 1 
 
 Hindquarters 
 Hips: smooth, level; width in proportion 
 
 with other parts, but not prominent. .. . 2 
 
 Croup: long, wide, muscular, not drooping. . 2 
 
 Tail: attached high, well carried, well haired, 
 
 with straight and not too coarse hair. . 1 
 
 Thighs: long, muscular, thick, and wide; well 
 
 muscled over stifle 3 
 
 Quarters: heavily muscled, deep 2 
 
 Hind legs: viewed from behind, a perpendic- 
 ular line from the point of the buttock 
 
 should fall on the center of the hock, 
 
 cannon, pastern, and foot; from the side, 
 
 a perpendicular Une from the hip joint 
 
 should fall on the center of the foot and 
 
 divide the gaskin in the middle; and a 
 
 perpendicular line from the point of the 
 
 buttock should run parallel with the 
 
 line of the cannon 4 
 
 Gaskins, or lower thighs: long, wide, well 
 
 muscled 1 
 
 Hocks: large, strong, clean, and well defined; 
 
 free from puffiness, coarseness, and curb- 
 
 iness 4 
 
 Cannons: medium length, broad, flat, and 
 
 clean; tendons large and set back, not 
 
 too light below the hock 2 
 
 Fetlocks: large, wide, straight, strong, free 
 
 from puffiness 1 
 
 Pasterns: strong and of medium length; 
 
 obliquity not so great as fore pasterns . . 1 
 
 Hind feet: straight, medium size, even; 
 
 smaller and not so round as fore feet; 
 
 horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars 
 
 strong; sole concave; heel wide; high. . . 4 
 
 Action 
 
 Walk: elastic, quick, balanced; step long. .. . 6 
 
 Trot: rapid, straight, regular, high; should 
 
 not wing or roll in front or go wide or 
 
 too close behind 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
292 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT MARKET HORSES 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 General Appearance Score Score 
 
 Height: score according to class 1 
 
 Weight: score according to class 1 
 
 Form: according to class, symmetrical, 
 
 smooth, and stylish 5 
 
 Condition: carrying a moderate amount of 
 
 firm flesh 2 
 
 Quality: bone clean, firm, and indicating 
 
 sufficient substance; tendons well de- 
 fined; hair and skin fine 3 
 
 Temperament: spirited, yet docile 2 
 
 Head and Neck 
 Head: not too large, features well defined and 
 
 regular 1 
 
 Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even; 
 
 teeth sound 1 
 
 Eyes: large, full, bright, and clear 1 
 
 Forehead: broad and full 1 
 
 Ears: medium size, pointed; well carried, and 
 
 not far apart 1 
 
 Neck: rather long and clean cut, well muscled; 
 
 crest well developed and nicely arched; 
 
 throat latch fine; windpipe large; taper- 
 ing from shoulder to head and head 
 
 attached at proper angle 2 
 
 Forequarters 
 Shoulders: oblique, long, smooth, and covered 
 
 with muscle extending into back; withers 
 
 well finished at the top 4 
 
 Arms: short, well muscled, elbows lying close 
 
 to the body. . _ 2 
 
 Fore legs: viewed from in front, a perpendic- 
 ular line from the point of the shoulder 
 
 should fall on the center of the knee, 
 
 cannon, pastern, and foot; from the 
 
 side, a perpendicular line dropping from 
 
 the center of the elbow joint should fall 
 
 on the center of the knee and pastern 
 
 joint and back of the hoof 3 
 
 Forearms : well muscled, medium length, wide, 
 
 and tapering from the elbow to the knee 2 
 
 Knees: large, clean, wide, straight, and 
 
 strongly supported 1 
 
 Cannons: medium length, wide, clean; ten- 
 dons large, set well back, not tied in 
 
 below the knees 2 
 
 Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, free from 
 
 puffiness 1 
 
 Pasterns: strong, of medium length; angle 
 
 with the ground 45° 2 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 293 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT MARKET HORSES 
 
 (Continued) 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 Score Score 
 Feet: straight, medium size, even; horn 
 ■ dense ; f rog jarge. elastic ; bars strong ; sole 
 
 concave; heel wide, high; hoof head large 5 
 
 Body 
 Chest: deep, low; girth large; width of breast 
 
 in proportion to other parts 2 
 
 Ribs: long, well sprung 4 
 
 Back: straight, short, broad, well muscled. . 3 
 
 Loins: wide, short, thick, and neatly joined 
 
 to hips 2 
 
 Under line: long; flank low 1 
 
 Hindquarters 
 Hips: smooth, level, width in proportion to 
 
 other parts but not prominent 2 
 
 Croup: long, wide, muscular 2 ■. 
 
 Tail: attached high, well carried, well haired 
 
 with straight and not too coarse hair. . . 1 
 
 Thighs: long, muscular, thick, and wide 3 
 
 Quarters: heavily muscled 1 
 
 Hind legs: viewed from behind, a perpendic- 
 ular line from the point of the buttock 
 
 should fall on the center of the hock, 
 
 cannon, pastern, and foot. From the 
 
 side, a perpendicular line from the hip 
 
 joint should fall on the center of the foot 
 
 and divide the gaskin in the middle; and 
 
 a perpendicular line from the point of 
 
 the buttock should run parallel with the 
 
 line of the cannon 4 
 
 Gaskins, or lower thighs: wide, well muscled 1 
 
 Hocks: large, strong, clean, and well defined 4 
 
 Cannons: short, broad, fiat and clean, ten- 
 dons large and set back 2 
 
 Fetlocks: large, wide, straight and strong. . . 1 
 
 Pasterns: strong and of medium length; 
 
 obliquity not so great as fore pasterns . . 1 
 
 Hind feet: straight, medium size, even; 
 
 smaller and not so round as fore feet; 
 
 horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars 
 
 strong; sole concave; heel wide, high. . . 4 
 
 Action 
 
 Walk: elastic, quick, balanced; step long. ... 4 
 
 Trot: rapid, straight, regular, high; should 
 
 not forge, wing, or roll in front, or go 
 
 wide or too close behind 15 
 
 Total 100 
 
294 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY CATTLE 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 General Appearance Score Score 
 
 Form: wedge-shaped as viewed from the 
 
 front, side, and top 5 : 
 
 Form: spare, as indicated by prominent 
 
 joints and clean bone and lack of muscu- 
 lar development along ribs ana loins ... 8 
 
 Quality: hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose, 
 
 medium thickness; secretion yellow, 
 
 abundant 8 
 
 Constitution: vigorous, as indicated by alert 
 
 expression, evidently active vital func- 
 tions, and general healthy appearance . . 6 
 
 Head and Neck 
 Muzzle: clean cut; mouth large; nostrils 
 
 large 
 
 Eyes: large, bright 
 
 Face: lean, long; quiet expression 
 
 Forehead: broad, slightly dished 
 
 Ears: medium size; fine texture 
 
 Neck: fine, medium length; throat clean; 
 
 light dewlap 
 
 Forequarters and Hindquarters 
 Withers: lean, thin; shoulders: angular, not 
 
 fleshy 3 
 
 Hips: far apart; not lower than spine 1 
 
 Rump: long, wide, comparatively level. . . > 5 
 
 Thurls: high, wide apart J 
 
 Thighs: thin, long 2 
 
 Legs: straight, short; shank fine 1 
 
 Body 
 Chest: deep; with large girth and broad on 
 
 floor of chest; well-sprung ribs 10 
 
 Abdomen: large, deep; indicative of capacity; 
 
 well supported 4 
 
 Back: lean, straight; chine open 2 
 
 Tail: long, slim, with fine switch 2 
 
 Loin: broad 2 
 
 Udder: large, long; attached high and full 
 
 behind; extending far in front and full; 
 
 quarters even 20 
 
 Udder: capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable 
 
 skin covered with short, fine hair 10 
 
 Teats: convenient size, evenly placed 2 
 
 Milk veins: large, tortuous, long, branching, 
 
 with large milk wells 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 295 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR MARKET BEEF CATTLE 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 Score Score 
 
 Weight : estimated .... pounds ; actual .... 
 
 pounds; score according to age 10 
 
 Form: straight top and bottom Unes; deep, 
 
 broad, low set, compact, symmetrical . . 10 
 
 Quality: hair, fine; bone, fine but strong; 
 skin, pliable; mellow even covering of 
 firm flesh, especially in region of valu- 
 able cuts; absence of ties and rolls 10 
 
 Condition: prime; flesh, deep; evidence of 
 finish, especially marked in cod, tail- 
 head, flank, shoulder, and throat; ab- 
 sence of bunches, patches, or rolls of fat . 10 
 
 Head: clean, symmetrical; quiet expression; 
 mouth and nostrils, large; lips, moder- 
 ately thin; eyes, large, clear, placid; 
 face, short; forehead, broad, full; ears, 
 medium size, fine texture, erect 5 
 
 Neck: thick, short, tapering neatly from 
 
 shoulder to head; throat, clean 2 
 
 Shoulder vein : full 2 
 
 Shoulder: well covered with flesh; compact . . 3 
 
 Brisket: full, broad, but not too prominent; 
 
 breast wide 1 
 
 Dewlap: skin not too loose and drooping. .. . 1 
 
 Chest: deep, wide, full 1 
 
 Crops: full, thick, broad 3 
 
 Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 
 
 Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly 
 
 fleshed 8 
 
 Loin: thick, broad; thickness extending well 
 
 forward 8 
 
 Flank: full, low, thick 2 . 
 
 Hooks: smoothly covered; width in propor- 
 tion with other parts, but not prom- 
 inent 2 
 
 Rump: long, level, wide and even; tailhead, 
 
 smooth, not patchy 2 
 
 Pin bones: not prominent, width in propor- 
 tion with other parts 1 
 
 Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock 3 
 
 Twist: deep, full; purse in steers full 4 
 
 Legs: straight, short; arm, full; shank, fine, 
 
 smooth 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
296 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 General Appearance Score Score 
 
 Weight : score according to age and breed ... 4 
 
 Form: straight top and under Une; deep, 
 
 broad, low set, compact, symmetrical. . 10 
 
 Quality: hair fine; bone fine but strong; even 
 
 covering of firm flesh; features refined 
 
 but not delicate; stylish 10 . 
 
 Constitution: chest capacious; brisket well 
 
 developed; flank deep; bone strong; 
 
 movement bold and vigorous 10 
 
 Condition: thrifty; skin pink; fleece elastic; 
 
 well fleshed, but not excessively fat; 
 
 deep covering of firm flesh 5 
 
 Disposition: quiet but not sluggish 2 
 
 Color and markings: according to breed. ... 2 
 
 Head and Neck 
 
 Muzzle: mouth and nostrils large; lips thin. 1 
 
 Eyes: full, bright, clear 1 
 
 Face: short, according to breed 1 _; 
 
 Forehead: broad, full 1 
 
 Ears: texture, fine; size and form, according 
 
 to breed 1 . 
 
 Neck: thick, short, neatly tapering to head; 
 
 throat clean, according to breed 3 
 
 Forequarters 
 
 Shoulder: covered with flesh; compact; 
 
 smoothly joined with neck and body ... 4 
 
 Brisket: well developed; breast wide 1 
 
 Fore legs: straight, short, set well apart; 
 
 pasterns upright; feet squarely placed, 
 
 neither close nor sprawling 2 
 
 Body 
 
 Ribs: long, well sprung, thickly fleshed 3 
 
 Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly 
 
 fleshed ^ 
 
 Loin: thick, broad, firm 5 
 
 Flank: full, even with under line 1 
 
 Hindquarters 
 
 Hips: level, smoothly covered; width in pro- 
 portion with other parts 1 
 
 Rump: long, level, wide and even in width; 
 not covered at tail-head with excessive 
 fat 3 
 
 Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock 2 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 297 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 (Coiiti)utcd) 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 Score Score 
 
 Twist: deep, plump, firm, indicating flesh- 
 iness 5 
 
 Hind legs: straight, short, set well apart; 
 bones smooth, strong, being neither 
 coarse nor fine; pasterns upright; feet 
 squarely placed; neither close nor 
 sprawling 3 
 
 Wool 
 Quantity: long, dense, even, according to 
 
 breed 5 
 
 Quality: structure and color true; fine, soft, 
 
 even, according to breed 5 
 
 Condition: strong, bright, clean, slight 
 
 amount of yolk 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
298 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR WOOL TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 Perfect 
 General Appearance Score 
 
 Form: level, deep, stylish; round rather than 
 
 square 8 
 
 Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 
 
 Head and Neck 
 Muzzle: fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white 
 
 Eyes: large, clear, placid 
 
 Face: wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat 
 
 Forehead: broad, full 
 
 Ears: soft, thick, velvety 
 
 Neck: short, muscular, well set on shoulders. 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 
 
 Shoulder: strong, deep and broad 4 
 
 Brisket: projecting forwards; breast wide. . . 1 
 
 Legs: straight, short, wide apart, shank 
 
 smooth and fine 2 
 
 Body 
 
 Chest: deep, full, indicating constitution. . . 10 
 
 Back: level, long; round ribbed 4 
 
 Loin: wide, level 4 
 
 Flank: low, making under line straight 2 
 
 Hindquarters 
 
 Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2 
 
 Rump: long, level, wide 4 
 
 Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, 
 
 fine 2 
 
 Wool 
 
 Quantity: long, dense, even covering, espe- 
 cially over crown, cheek, armpit, hind 
 legs, and belly 15 
 
 Quality: fine fiber; crimp close, regular; even 
 
 quality, including tops of folds 15 
 
 Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure, 
 soft; even distribution of yolk, with 
 even surface to fleece , 15 
 
 Judge's 
 Score 
 
 Total. 
 
 100 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 299 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR BACON-TYPE BARROW 
 
 General Appearance 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 Score Score 
 
 Weight: 170 to 200 pounds, the result of thick 
 cover of firm flesh 
 
 Form: long, level, smooth, deep 
 
 Quality: hair, fine; skin, thin; bone, fine; firm 
 covering of flesh without any soft 
 bunches of fat or wrinkles 
 
 Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh, 
 especially in region of high-priced cuts . . 
 
 Head and Neck 
 
 Snout: fine 
 
 Eyes: full, mild, bright 
 
 Face : slim . . . . ,. 
 
 Ears: trim, medium size 
 
 Jowl: light, trim 
 
 Neck: medium length, light 
 
 10 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 
 
 Shoulders: free from roughness, smooth, 
 compact, and same width as back and 
 
 hindquarters 6 
 
 Breast: moderately wide, full 2 
 
 Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; 
 
 pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. ... 2 
 
 Body 
 
 Chest: deep, full girth 4 
 
 Back: medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 
 Sides: long, smooth, level from beginning of 
 shoulders to end of hindquarters. The 
 side at all points should touch a straight 
 edge running from fore to hindquarters . 10 
 
 Ribs: deep, uniformly sprung 2 
 
 Belly: trim, firm, thick without any flabbi 
 ness or shrinkage at flank 
 
 10 
 
 Hindquarters 
 Hips: smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of 
 
 body 2 
 
 Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward 
 
 tail 2 
 
 Gammon: firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed 
 
 deep and low toward hocks 8 
 
 Legs: straight, short, strong; feet, medium 
 
 size; bone, clean; pasterns, upright. ... 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 10 
 
300 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR FAT-TYPE BARROW 
 
 Perfect Judge's 
 General Appearance Score Score 
 
 Weight: score according to age (pigs of a 
 
 given age should show a certain weight) 6 
 
 Form: deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, 
 
 compact, standing squarely on legs. . . . 
 Quality: hair, silky; skin, fine; bone, fine; 
 
 mellow covering of flesh, free from lumps 
 
 and wrinkles 
 
 Condition: deep, even covering of flesh and 
 
 fat over all parts of the body 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Head and Neck 
 Snout: medium length, not coarse. 
 
 Eyes: full, mild, bright 
 
 Face: short, cheeks full 
 
 Ears: fine, medium size, soft 
 
 Jowl: strong, neat, broad 
 
 Neck: thick, medium length 
 
 Sides: deep, lengthy, full; ribs, close and well 
 sprung 
 
 Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly 
 fleshed 
 
 Loin: wide, thick, straight 
 
 Belly: straight, even 
 
 Hindquarters 
 
 Hips: wide apart, smooth. 
 
 Forequarters 
 Shoulder: broad, deep, full, compact on top 6 
 Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; 
 
 pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. . . 2 
 
 Body 
 
 Chest: deep, broad; large girth. 
 
 Rump: long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight. . 
 Ham: heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 
 
 Thighs: fleshed close to hocks 
 
 Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; 
 pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. . . . 
 
 Total 100 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 301 
 
 GESTATION TABLE 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Dec. 2 
 
 Oct. 12 
 
 May 27 
 
 Apr. 22 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 June 1 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 May 1 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
302 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 T A B L E—(Con tinned) 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow- 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Feb. 1 
 
 Jan. 2 
 
 Nov. 12 
 
 June 27 
 
 May 23 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 July 1 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 June 1 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 303 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 March 1 
 
 Jan. 30 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 July 25 
 
 June 20 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 Feb. 1 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 July 1 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 March 1 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
304 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 
 Ta 
 
 BLE — (Contin 
 
 iicd) 
 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bred 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 March 2 
 
 Jan. 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 July 21 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 Feb. 1 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK- 
 
 305 
 
 
 T. 
 
 K^-L-E— (Continued) 
 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 May 1 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 Feb. 9 
 
 Sept. 24 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 March 1 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 2G 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 May 1 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
306 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 
 TA-Bi.E—fCoiitvuied) 
 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 June 1 
 
 May 2 
 
 March 12 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 307 
 
 TA-B-LE—fCoutinued) 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bred 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 July 1 
 
 June 1 
 
 Apr. 11 
 
 Nov. 24 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 IS 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 May 1 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 July 1 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
308 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 
 Ta 
 
 BLE — (Continued) 
 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 July 2 
 
 May 12 
 
 Dec. 25 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 June 1 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 309 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Aug. 2 
 
 June 12 
 
 Jan. 25 
 
 Dec. 21 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 Feb. 1 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 July 1 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 \\ 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
310 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 July 12 
 
 Feb. 24 
 
 Jan. 20 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 March 1 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 , 9 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 Feb. 1 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 311 
 
 
 TABhE— (Continued) 
 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Oct. 2 
 
 Aug. 12 
 
 March 27 
 
 Feb. 20 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 March 1 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
312 
 
 FARM LIVESTOCK 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Sow 
 
 Date 
 Bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 Due to 
 
 
 Foal 
 
 Calve 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Farrow 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Sept. 11 
 
 Apr 26 
 
 March 22 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 May 1 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 313 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 MILK CONSTITUENTS 
 
 Milk consists of water, butter fat, protein, sugar, and 
 ash. The last four of these constituents are known as 
 the solids of milk, and, when considered collectively in 
 an analysis, are termed the total solids. 
 
 The average composition of cow's milk is: Water, 
 87.40%; fat, 3.75%; protein, 3.15%; sugar, 5%; ash, .70%. 
 
 Milk from different cows varies considerably in com- 
 position from this average. Probably the greatest dif- 
 ference is in the percentage of fat. Cows are known that 
 give milk in which there is as much as 8% of fat, and 
 there are others that give milk in which there is less 
 than 3% of fat. 
 
 The average composition of milk from the cow, nanny 
 goat, ewe, and mare, are given in the accompanying 
 table, for the purpose of showing the difference in the 
 percentages of the different constituents in the milk of 
 these animals. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF MILK OF DIFFERENT SPECIES 
 OF ANIMALS 
 
 Species of Animal 
 
 Water 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Protein 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Per 
 Cent. 
 
 Ash 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cow 
 
 87.40 
 85.71 
 80.82 
 90.78 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.78 
 6.88 
 1.21 
 
 3.15 
 4.29 
 6.52 
 1.99 
 
 5.00 
 4.46 
 4.91 
 5.67 
 
 .70 
 
 Nanny goat 
 
 Ewe 
 
 .76 
 
 89 
 
 Mare. 
 
 .35 
 
 
 
 The butter fat of milk, which is also known as milk 
 fat, is made up of small globules, the number in a 
 
314 DAIRYING 
 
 single drop of milk varying from 30,000,000 to 100,000,000. 
 The globules are arranged both singly and in aggre- 
 gations. The fat is the lightest part of milk, and if 
 milk is allowed to stand quietly for a time most of the 
 globules rise to the surface. Some of the smallest 
 globules, however, are not able to overcome the re- 
 sistance encountered in passing upwards through the 
 milk, and hence do not rise to the surface. 
 
 Cream is the part of milk into which a large part of the 
 fat is gathered. The separation of cream from the other 
 part of milk is known as the creaming of milk. Gravity 
 creaming, or separation, can be accomplished by allow- 
 ing the milk to stand quietly for a time, and then 
 removing the upper layers, in which the fat has ac- 
 cumulated. Cream can be separated also by means of 
 machines known as centrifugal separators. The prin- 
 ciple on which these machines are based is that as cream 
 is lighter than the other part of the milk, centrifugal 
 force can be used in the separation of the cream. 
 
 Two of the substances of milk, casein and albumin, 
 belong to the class of compounds known as protein. 
 Casein forms a large part of the curd obtained when 
 milk is allowed to sour or when milk is curdled by the 
 addition of rennet, a material employed in the manu- 
 facture of cheese. Casein gives to milk much of its 
 opacity. 
 
 If whole milk is curdled, the fat globules are enclosed 
 in the curd. The removal of the curd leaves a yellowish 
 or greenish clear liquid, the whey, which contains the 
 constituents of the milk that are in solution. One of 
 these is albumin, a substance that coagulates on heating 
 and that, in appearance, is much like the white of an 
 egg. The quantity of albumin in milk is small. 
 
 The sugar found in milk is known as lactose. It is 
 much less sweet and less soluble than cane sugar and 
 is obtained by condensing the milk and allowing the 
 sugar to crystallize. It is used for medicinal purposes 
 and for the modification of milk for children. 
 
DAIRYING 315 
 
 Some of the compounds that form the ash of milk are 
 in solution, and hence are found in the whey; others 
 are insoluble and are removed in the curd. The ash 
 constituents are an important part of the milk; without 
 them it would not be a perfect food for young animals. 
 
 BACTERIA IN MILK 
 
 Soon after milk is drawn it begins to undergo 
 changes, the most apparent one of which is that of 
 becoming sour, or acid. This and many of the other 
 changes are caused by bacteria. Many kinds of bacteria 
 are nearly always present in milk, but in varying 
 numbers. It is known, however, that milk produced 
 under cleanly conditions is much freer from bacteria 
 than that produced under unclean conditions. Cleanli- 
 ness, therefore, is an important consideration in milk 
 production. Certain kinds of bacteria are responsible 
 for diseases of mankind, and many of these disease- 
 producing bacteria grow luxuriantly in .milk and are 
 often found there in large numbers; the best way to 
 exclude them is by producing and caring for the milk 
 in the most sanitary manner possible. 
 
 Bacteria thrive best where food is abundant, where 
 the temperature is favorable for their growth, and 
 where moisture is present. These three conditions are 
 found in the soil and in the alimentary tract of animals; 
 therefore, any material from these sources — mud, dirt, 
 or manure, for example — that gets into a quantity of 
 milk carries with it a number of bacteria. In the milk 
 they find conditions favorable for growth — food is 
 plentiful; the temperature, especially if the milk be 
 warm, is favorable; and moisture is present. As a 
 result, they multiply rapidly and in a comparatively 
 short time the milk will contain so many bacteria that 
 it is likely to be unfit for use. 
 
 No other food is so exposed to contamination by mud, 
 dust, and manure, as is milk. If a solid food becomes- 
 
31G DAIRYING 
 
 dirty it can be washed, but when bacteria have once 
 been introduced into milk, the harm cannot be remedied, 
 fo: milk cannot be cleaned like a solid. Insoluble 
 particles of dirt and manure can be removed by straining 
 milk through a fine-meshed cloth, but many of the 
 bacteria that are on the particles will be washed off 
 and will pass through the cloth. Thus, if milk is to 
 keep well and be an appetizing, healthful human food, 
 it must be produced under such conditions that bacteria 
 do not enter it in large numbers. 
 
 Cleanliness as a Means of Control.— One of the most 
 efificient ways of controlling the number of bacteria in 
 milk is to exercise cleanliness at every step in the 
 production and handling. Milk that contains only the 
 bacteria coming from the udder will not sour for days, 
 but that containing large quantities of dirt will often 
 be unfit for use in a few hours. 
 
 Cooling and Storing of Milk.— As bacteria multiply 
 more rapidly at high than at low temperatures, milk 
 will become sour more quickly if kept at a high tem- 
 perature than if kept at a low temperature. For this 
 reason, milk will keep longer if cooled rapidly soon 
 after it is drawn than if it is allowed to cool slowly or 
 is allowed to remain at a fairly high temperature. 
 
 Milk may be cooled in a number of ways. When the 
 quantity to be treated is small, it may be placed in a 
 tall, narrow can and the can placed in cold water. 
 Stirring the milk in the can will hasten the cooling to 
 a great extent. When a large quantity is to be treated, 
 a device known as a milk cooler is employed. The 
 most efficient coolers are those in which the milk is 
 allowed to flow in a very thin stream over a metal 
 surface on the opposite side of which is cold water, or 
 water and ice. 
 
 Milk that has been cooled should, of course, be stored 
 in a cool place, but the temperature should not be below 
 the freezing point, as freezing causes the separation of 
 the fat and casein in such a manner that they cannot 
 
DAIRYING 317 
 
 be reincorporated. A temperature just above the freezing 
 point is satisfactory, for at this temperature the milk 
 will remain sweet iir a long time. 
 
 Use of Preservatives in Milk.— The growth of bacteria 
 in milk can be inhibited by the use of such preservatives 
 as boric acid and formaldehyde. However, since these 
 preservatives are injurious to human health, their use as 
 a milk preservative is, as a rule, prohibited. Formalde- 
 hyde used at the rate of 1 part to 25,000 parts of milk 
 will act as an efficient preservative and will prevent 
 milk from souring for from 24 to 48 hr. ; hence, there is 
 great temptation for its use, especially in the case of 
 the dealer who has milk that cannot be disposed of 
 at once. 
 
 Boiled Milk. — The bacteria that cause souring of milk 
 are almost certain to be killed by boiling the milk, but 
 there are certain putrefactive bacteria that the boiling 
 temperature will not kill. Any injurious bacteria will 
 not be present in any considerable numbers in the milk 
 until after 24 to 48 hr. Boiled milk, therefore, is 
 perfectly healthful if used within, say, 24 to 36 hr. ; 
 after about 48 hr. it is likely to be harmful as human 
 food. Although boiling is a means of controlling the 
 number of bacteria in milk, there are several objections 
 to this method of treatment. Boiled milk is not easily 
 digested and assimilated by the human body; the 
 boiled taste is very apparent and is objected to by most 
 people; and there is always the danger that the milk 
 will be a day or so old, and hence likely to contain 
 putrefactive bacteria. 
 
 Pasteurized Milk.— A method of controlling the number 
 of bacteria in milk by heat that is more satisfactory 
 than boiling is that of pasteurization. Liquids are 
 pasteurized by heating them to a temperature some- 
 what below the boiling point, averaging in practice 
 from 140° F. to 180° F., keeping them at that tempera- 
 ture for a given period of time, and then cooling them 
 rapidly. In milk treated thus, the bacteria that cause 
 
318 DAIRYING 
 
 milk to sour, and most disease-producing forms, are 
 destroyed. Certain spore forms that grow rapidly when 
 acidity is not present are not killed by the heat of 
 pasteurization, and for this reason the milk should be 
 used before it becomes old, say in from 24 to 48 hr. 
 Persons often think that all milk that is not sour is 
 fit for use. Long before souring takes place in pas- 
 teurized milk, it is likely to be unfit for use as human 
 food. It is important, therefore, that pasteurized milk 
 be sold as such and that the consumer recognizes the 
 fact that the milk should be used within a short time 
 after delivery. 
 
 The city of New York requires that milk sold as 
 pasteurized shall be marked as such, and that the date 
 and hour when it was pasteurized be indicated on the 
 bottle; it must be delivered to the customer within 24 
 hr., and must be pasteurized a second time. 
 
 Acid-Forming Bacteria in Milk.— The fermentation 
 most commonly found in milk is that which causes it 
 to become acid. The bacteria that are responsible for 
 this change are known as acid-forming bacteria. Bac- 
 teria of this kind grow more rapidly than those of any 
 other kind, and on this account souring is the most 
 noticeable change, aside from creaming, that occurs in 
 milk. In fact, souring is regarded as such a natural 
 change that milk in which it does not appear is looked 
 upon with suspicion, and justly so. 
 
 All acid-forming bacteria are instrumental in pre- 
 venting the growth of putrefactive forms of bacteria. 
 None of the putrefactive bacteria can grow in an acid 
 substance, and as acid is soon formed in milk by the 
 development of acid-forming bacteria, unheated, or raw, 
 milk becomes a medium unfavorable to the growth of 
 putrefactive forms. This seems an important provision 
 of nature, for, were it not for the development of the 
 acid-forming bacteria, milk in a comparatively brief 
 time after it was drawn would become an offensive, 
 ill-smelling, unhealthful substance. 
 
DAIRYING 319 
 
 The acid condition of milk is useful in the manu- 
 facture of butter, which, as a rule, is made from cream 
 that has been allowed to sour. Butter made from sour 
 cream has a desirable flavor and good keeping quality, 
 but that from sweet cream has little flavor and is poor 
 in keeping quality. 
 
 In addition to being useful to the butter manufac- 
 turer, acid-forming bacteria are very important in cheese 
 making. They are helpful in the ripening process, for 
 if none are present cheese does not ripen. The presence 
 of the bacteria also protects the cheese against attacks 
 of putrefactive bacteria through the acid formed by an 
 action similar to that noted in the case of milk. 
 
 Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk.— As may be inferred 
 from previous statements, milk may contain many kinds 
 of disease-producing bacteria. Technically, these are 
 known as pathogenic bacteria. They may be grouped 
 into two general classes — those that are due to a dis- 
 eased condition of the cow giving the milk, and those 
 that are due to diseases of man and transmitted from 
 one person to another through the medium of milk. 
 Tuberculosis, garget, mammitis, foot and mouth disease, 
 cow pox, digestive troubles, and inflammation of the 
 uterus are among the diseases of cattle that may cause 
 trouble and suffering in the human family if milk from 
 diseased animals is used as food. Therefore, whenever 
 a dairyman finds any of these diseases in his herd he 
 should immediately stop selling the milk and take 
 measures to have the diseased animals treated. 
 
 The diseases of mankind that may be transmitted by 
 milk are those bacteriological diseases that infect 
 through the alimentary tract. Typhoid fever and diph- 
 theria are often carried by milk, and it has been 
 claimed that at least a few epidemics of scarlet fever 
 have been caused by the contamination of milk with 
 scarlet-fever germs. In view of the fact that diseases 
 are often transmitted by milk, great care should be 
 exercised by dairymen and consumers to prevent infection. 
 
320 DAIRYING 
 
 If any of the germ diseases mentioned are near a 
 dairy, the milk should not be used until all danger 
 of infection is over, or if one of the diseases is in the 
 family of a person employed about the dairy, he should 
 not be allowed to handle any of the utensils used for 
 milk, nor should he be allowed to come in contact with 
 the milk in any manner. 
 
 ABSORPTION OF ODORS BY MILK 
 
 Milk has the property of absorbing and retaining 
 certain odors, and the absorption will take place when 
 the milk is either warm or cold. It is important, 
 therefore, in dairy practice to keep milk in an atmos- 
 phere that is free from pronounced odors of any kind. 
 Milk tainted by odors is not necessarily unhealthful, 
 but it is unappetizing, and is sure to be objectionable to 
 the consumer. In view of this fact, it is especially 
 important that the air of the dairy stable be kept free 
 from objectionable odors, especially during milking time. 
 
 Fermenting manures and feeds that have pronounced 
 odors should be kept out of the stables. Silage is 
 sometimes the cause of an odor in milk. If it is fed 
 directly before the milk is drawn, the atmosphere of 
 the barn will be filled with the silage odor and, as a 
 result, the milk will be tainted; if, on the contrary, 
 the feeding is done an hour or so before milking time 
 and the barn is thoroughly aired there will be prac- 
 tically no silage odor in the milk. The keeping of 
 other classes of animals, hogs for example, in a stable 
 with dairy cattle is sometimes responsible for unpleasant 
 odors in milk. If other animals are kept in a stable 
 with cows, great care should be exercised in keeping 
 their quarters clean and thus preventing the contamina- 
 tion of milk. 
 
 Ventilation of the dairy stable is necessary not only 
 for the health of the herd but for preventing the ex- 
 cessive so-called cowy odor that is too often noticed in 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 321 
 
 stables, as a pronounced cowy odor is likely to taint 
 the milk. 
 
 Care should be exercised to prevent undesirable odors 
 in milk after it has been removed from the stable. 
 Placing it in open vessels in cellars or rooms where 
 there is an odor from decaying vegetables, etc., is a 
 bad practice. Bright, clean rooms that have an untainted 
 atmosphere are desirable storage places for milk. 
 
 WEIGHING, TESTING, AND KEEPING OF 
 RECORDS OF MILK 
 
 In order to determine whether a cow is a profitable 
 one to keep, her owner must have a knowledge of the 
 quantity of milk and butter fat that she produces in a 
 year. Such knowledge can be secured only by keeping 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 a record of the quantity of milk produced and of the 
 per cent, of butter fat the milk contains. There are 
 several ways in which this can be done. The milk of 
 each milking from the cow can be weighed and a small 
 21 
 
322 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 sample taken for the determination of the per cent, of 
 butter fat; or the milk can be weighed and sampled 
 1 da. in each week, the figures thus obtained being 
 used as an average for the 7 da.; or each day of 
 every seventh week the milk can be weighed and 
 sampled for testing. The 
 latter method involves less 
 work than either of the two 
 preceding methods, and it 
 has been shown to be ac- 
 curate. The keeping of rec- 
 ords should not be begun 
 until at least 3 wk. after 
 the cow has calved. 
 
 The percentage of fat in 
 milk is determined by means 
 of the Babcock test. The 
 essential parts of one of the 
 cheapest and simplest Bab- 
 cock testing outfits on the 
 market are shown in Figs. 1 
 and 2. In Fig. 1 is illus- 
 trated a centrifugal machine, 
 or centrifuge, commonly 
 called a tester, for making 
 the Babcock test. In Fig. 2 
 (a) is shown a Babcock milk 
 bottle, at least four of which 
 should be provided; in (&), 
 a glass pipette of 17.6 cubic 
 centimeters capacity; and in 
 (c), an acid measure of a 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 capacity of 17.5 cubic centimeters. Such an outfit as the 
 one illustrated can be purchased from dealers in dairy 
 supplies. 
 
 The details of the testing of a sample of milk are as 
 follows: First, the milk is thoroughly mixed by being 
 poured from one vessel into another. For taking the 
 required quantity of the sample for the test, a glass 
 
DAIRYING 323 
 
 pipette, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 2 (b), is used. 
 A quantity of milk is drawn up into the pipette with 
 the mouth until the top of the milk is 1 or 2 in. above 
 the line a that is etched on the pipette tube. The 
 pipette is then removed from the mouth and the fore- 
 finger is quickly placed over the top of the tube. Due 
 to atmospheric pressure without, the milk will remain 
 in the pipette. The pressure of the forefinger is then 
 slightly released and the milk is allowed to drop out 
 of the tube until the top of the milk is on a level with 
 the etched mark on the glass. There is then 17.6 cubic 
 centimeters of milk in the tube, which is the quantity 
 desired for testing. The point of the pipette is now 
 placed in the neck of a test bottle such as the one 
 illustrated in Fig. 2 (o). The bottle and pipette are 
 held in a slanting position, and the milk is allowed to 
 flow slowly into the bottle. Care must be exercised 
 that no milk is spilled in any way. A small quantity 
 will remain in the point of the pipette; this should be 
 blown into the bottle. Next, the acid cylinder is filled 
 with acid to the etched mark on the side that indicates 
 17.5 cubic centimeters; for the testing of milk, sul- 
 phuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.82 or 1.83 is used. 
 The 17.5 cubic centimeters of acid is then poured into 
 the test bottle, the bottle being held at an angle as 
 before. The bottle should be turned around slowly as 
 the acid is flowing down the neck; this washes any 
 adhering milk into the bottle. It should be understood 
 that the quantity of acid just given may not be exactly 
 right for all samples, and it may be desirable, after 
 some experience has been gained, to vary slightly from 
 this quantity. If the acid has been poured into the 
 milk carefully, the liquids will be in two distinct layers, 
 with a band of partly mixed liquids between them. The 
 acid and milk are next mixed together by gently ro- 
 tating the test bottle in such a manner that the milk 
 and acid are whirled round and round inside the bottle. 
 The rotating should be continued until all clots of curd 
 
324 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 that form are completely dissolved. The mixing of the 
 two liquids is accompanied by considerable heat and the 
 milk becomes dark in color. After the mixing, the 
 bottle is placed upright in the tester as shown at a in 
 Fig. 1. It is desirable to have the machine filled with 
 bottles to balance it; in case but one sample of milk is 
 to be tested the three other bottles can be filled with 
 water. When the handle is turned, the chambers con- 
 taining the bottles revolve around a common center and 
 the centrifugal force that is exerted causes the bottles 
 to assume the position shown in Fig. 3. The handle of 
 
 the tester should be 
 turned from 4 to 5 
 min. at the speed 
 given for the particu- 
 lar machine in use. 
 
 After the machine 
 has stopped whirling 
 the bottles will again 
 assume a vertical po- 
 sition, and the fat 
 will be found on top 
 of the liquid. Enough 
 hot water is then 
 added to each bottle 
 containing a sample 
 to fill the bottle to the lower part of the neck; a pipette 
 or some special device can be used for this purpose. The 
 bottles are again placed in the tester and whirled for 
 about 1 min. After that they are taken out and hot 
 water is added until the lower part of the column of 
 fat comes up into the graduated neck of the bottle. 
 The bottles are again placed in the tester and given 
 a final whirl for about 1 min. After the completion 
 of the final whirl the bottles are removed and the 
 percentage of fat is determined by means of the scale 
 on the neck of the bottle. 
 
 For the testing of whole milk, a bottle with a scale 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
DAIRYING 
 
 325 
 
 arranged as shown in Fig. 4 is used. Each division 
 represents .2 of 1% of fat; hence, each 5 divisions 
 represents 1% of fat. The line of separation between 
 the fat and the mixture of milk and acid is curved, as 
 indicated at a. The top of the fat column also is 
 curved, as shown at b. When ascertaining a per- 
 centage, the fat is measured from the >^ y 
 lower part of the line a to the upper part 
 of the line b, as indicated by the brace c. 
 In calculating a percentage, the reading 
 indicated by the line a is subtracted from 
 that indicated by the line b, and the result 
 
 the per cent, of fat in the milk. — e 
 
 8 
 
 MILK STANDARDS 
 
 MILK STANDARDS OF THE UNITED 
 STATES 
 
 Government Milk Standards.— The United 
 States government has comprehensive 
 standards regarding the quality of the 
 milk sold within its jurisdiction. These 
 standards define the various kinds and 
 forms of milk and establish certain re- 
 quirements for them. The government 
 standards of purity define milk as follows: 
 Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion 
 obtained by the complete milking of one 
 or more healthy cows, properly fed and FiG. 4 
 
 kept, excluding that obtained within 15 da. before and 
 10 da. after calving, and contains not less than 8^% of 
 solids not fat, and not less than 3%% of milk fat. 
 
 The government standards define cream as follows: 
 Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which 
 rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated 
 from it by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and 
 contains not less than 18% of milk fat. 
 
326 
 
 DAIRYING 
 
 STATE MILK AND CREAM STANDARDS 
 
 State 
 
 Connecticut . . . . 
 
 California 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts. . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina. 
 North Dakota . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania. . . 
 South Dakota. . 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington. . . . 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.50 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.50 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.50 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.20 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.20 
 4.00 
 3.25 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 2.40 
 
 Solids 
 
 not Fat 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 8.50 
 8.50 
 8.50 
 8.00 
 
 8.50 
 
 8.50 
 
 8.50 
 9.00 
 
 9.50 
 8.50 
 9.00 
 
 8.80 
 9.25 
 8.50 
 8.00 
 8.50 
 
 Total 
 
 Solids 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 11.75 
 
 12 00 
 11.00 
 
 12.50 
 12.00 
 12.00 
 12.50 
 12.15 
 12.50 
 13.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 13.00 
 12.00 
 12.00 
 12,00 
 12.00 
 12.00 
 12.20 
 12.00 
 13.00 
 12.50 
 12.00 
 12.50 
 
 12.00 
 
DAIRYING 327 
 
 The milk standards of the government are merely a 
 statement of the consensus of opinion of experts as to 
 what the composition of milk should be. These standards 
 are not in any law and have no legal standing, but in 
 the trial of a case where milk was an article of inter- 
 state commerce and deficient in milk solids or in butter 
 fat without evidence of actual adulteration, the federal 
 standards representing the consensus of opinion of 
 leading authorities would unquestionably be submitted 
 as evidence in the case and have great weight. 
 
 State Milk Standards.— The majority of the states in 
 the United States have legal standards for milk and 
 cream sold within their borders. The state standards 
 are different from those of the federal government in 
 that they have the force of law. These standards, in 
 many cases, are lower than the federal standards. There 
 is a general movement in progress at the present time, 
 however, among the various states whose milk standards 
 are lower than those of the federal government, to raise 
 the requirements for milk so that they will conform to 
 the federal standards. 
 
 In the accompanying table are given the legal stand- 
 ards for milk and cream of those states that have laws 
 regarding the sale of milk. 
 
 City Milk Regulations.— Many cities, especially the 
 larger ones, have rigid regulations regarding the quality 
 of the milk sold within their limits and the manner of 
 its production. With reference to the composition of 
 milk, the standards of the cities are similar to those 
 of the majority of the states. The question of the use 
 of preservatives, however, is more important in the 
 case of cities, as there is much temptation to use pre- 
 servatives to keep surplus milk sweet from day to day; 
 consequently, in most cities that have milk ordinances 
 or regulations, especial attention is given to the matter 
 of preservatives. 
 
 The ideal condition with reference to the bacterial 
 condition of milk is to have milk delivered to the 
 
328 DAIRYING 
 
 consumer in the same condition, bacteriologically, as 
 when it was drawn from the cow. This condition, of 
 course, can only be approximated, and in cases where 
 the milk is shipped considerable distances, and is sev- 
 eral hours old when it is delivered to the consumer, it 
 is extremely difficult to control the bacterial condition. 
 However, as the carelessness of the producer and the 
 dealer shows in the number of bacteria in the milk, 
 many cities have established bacterial standards for 
 milk, and the sale of milk containing a greater number 
 of bacteria than that of the standard is unlawful. 
 
 Various other city regulations are generally made. 
 Usually a license must be procured by each dealer or 
 person selling milk. The applicant must state, in his 
 application for a license, the source of the milk sold 
 and the conditions under which it is produced. The 
 purpose of the license is to acquaint the health authori- 
 ties with all persons selling milk in the city. Thus, 
 the authorities are enabled to regulate, to some extent, 
 conditions under which the milk is produced. 
 
 Some cities require that the tuberculin test be made 
 on all animals that furnish milk for the city and that 
 all tuberculous cows be removed from the herds. Chi- 
 cago has such a provision, but in lieu of the test the 
 milk may be pasteurized in accordance with the rules 
 of the board of health. Certain cities require that milk 
 shall not be shipped from any farm on which there is a 
 case of typhoid fever, diphtheria, or scarlet fever until 
 a permit stating that there is no danger of infection 
 has been obtained from a physician. As it is possible 
 for milk to become infected with typhoid baccilli at any 
 point in its handling, milk dealers in cities having 
 contagious-disease regulation are required to report all 
 cases that occur in the families of their employes. 
 During the continuance of the disease in the family the 
 employe is not allowed to have anything to do with 
 the milk either directly or indirectly. 
 
DAIRYING 329 
 
 MILK STANDARDS OF CANADA 
 
 Following are given the milk standards of Canada as 
 published by the Canadian Department of Inland Rev- 
 enue. It can be seen that in many respects they are 
 similar to those of the United States. 
 
 Milk, unless otherwise specified, is the fresh, clean, 
 and unaltered product obtained by the complete, unin- 
 terrupted milking, under proper sanitary conditions, of 
 one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, ex- 
 cluding that obtained within 2 wk. before and 1 wk. 
 after calving, and contains not less than 3^% of milk 
 fat, and not less than 8^% of milk solids other than fat. 
 
 Skim-milk is milk from which a part or all the cream 
 has been removed, and contains not less than 8^% of 
 non-fat milk solids. 
 
 Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below 
 boiling, but sufficiently to kill most of the active organ- 
 isms present; and immediately cooled to 45° F., or lower, 
 and kept at a temperature not higher than 45° F. until 
 delivered to the consumer, at which time it shall contain 
 not more than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. 
 
 Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the 
 temperature of boiling water, or higher, for a length of 
 time sufficient to kill all organisms present; and must 
 be delivered to the consumer in a sterile condition. 
 Sterilized milk shall not be sold or offered for sale, 
 except in hermetically-closed containers bearing the 
 words "This milk should be used within 12 hr. after 
 opening the container." 
 
 Certified* milk, sold as such, shall comply with the 
 following requirements: 
 
 *It is evident that the weight carried by the term 
 "certified" will depend upon the character of the or- 
 ganization that asstnnes responsibility. Doubtless this 
 will usually be a local medical association; but there is 
 nothing to prevent any responsible body of properly 
 qualified persons from undertaking the production of 
 certified milk. 
 
330 DAIRYING 
 
 1. It shall be taken from cows semi-annually subjected 
 to the tuberculin test, and found without reaction. 
 
 2. It shall contain not more than 10,000 bacteria per 
 cubic centimeter from June to September; and not more 
 than 5,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter from October 
 to May, inclusive. 
 
 3. It shall be free from blood, pus, or disease-pro- 
 ducing organisms. 
 
 4. It shall be free from disagreeable odor or taste. 
 
 5. It shall have undergone no pasteurization or 
 sterilization, and shall be free from chemical preserv- 
 atives. 
 
 6. It shall have been cooled to 45° F. within J^ hr. 
 after milking, and kept at that temperature until de- 
 livered to the customer. 
 
 7. It shall contain 12 to 13% of milk solids, of which 
 at least 3>4% is fat. 
 
 8. It shall be from a farm whose herd is inspected by 
 a veterinarian, and whose employes are examined 
 monthly by a physician. 
 
 Evaporated milk is milk from which a considerable 
 portion of water has been evaporated, and contains not 
 less than 26% of milk solids, and not less than 7V^% 
 of milk fat. 
 
 Condensed milk is milk from which a considerable 
 portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar 
 has been added. It contains not less than 28% of milk 
 solids, and not less than 7.7% of milk fat. 
 
 Condensed skim-milk is skim-milk from which a M;on- 
 siderable portion of water has been evaporated, with or 
 without the addition of sugar. 
 
 Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter 
 is separated from ripened cream, by the usual churning 
 processes; or a similar product, made by the appropriate 
 treatment of skim-milk. 
 
 Goat's milk, ewe's milk, etc., are the fresh, clean, 
 lacteal secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the 
 complete milking of healthy animals other than cows. 
 
BEE KEEPING 331 
 
 properly fed and kept, and conform in name to the 
 species of animals from which they are obtained. 
 
 Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which 
 rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated 
 from it by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and 
 contains (unless otherwise specified) not less than 18% 
 of milk fat. When cream is guaranteed to contain 
 another percentage of milk fat than 18% it must con- 
 form to such guarantee. Cream must be entirely free 
 from gelatine, suci'ate of lime, gums, or other substances 
 added with a view to give density, consistency, or ap- 
 parent thickness to the article. Cream must contain no 
 preservatives of any kind, nor any coloring matter other 
 than is natural to milk. 
 
 Evaporated cream, clotted cream, condensed cream, or 
 any other preparation purporting to be a special cream, 
 except ice cream, must conform to the definition of 
 cream, and must contain at least 25% of milk fat. 
 
 BEE KEEPING 
 
 status of Bee Keeping as an Industry.— Bee keeping 
 at the present time, although usually considered one of 
 the minor branches of agriculture, is of considerable 
 economic importance. The honey and wax products of 
 the United States have an annual value of between 
 $20,000,000 and $30,000,000. It is said that the state of 
 California alone produced for export, in one year, 500 
 carloads of honey, single apiarists of that state pro- 
 ducing as much as 80 T. One baking establishment 
 has purchased in one lot approximately 1,000 T. of 
 honey. It is not unusual for individual apiarists, in 
 America, to produce from 20 to 30 T. of honey per year. 
 These statements convey some idea of the magnitude 
 of the industry in this country. 
 
 Objects of Bee Keeping.— The objects of bee keeping 
 are various. The industry may be carried on as a 
 business, as a side line to some other business, as a 
 
332 BEE KEEPING 
 
 means of recreation, as a source of honey for home 
 use, as a benefit to horticulture, or for a combination 
 of these objects. 
 
 Bee keeping as a business is now pursued by a large 
 number of persons. It affords a good profit on the 
 money invested, and good wages for the labor and time 
 it requires. It should be emphasized, however, that it 
 is unwise for the average person to undertake extensive 
 bee keeping without considerable previous experience in 
 managing a small apiary. If a person desires to engage 
 in bee keeping as a sole business he should begin on a 
 small scale, make the bees pay all expenses connected 
 with the apiary and the cost of increasing the business, 
 and gradually increase the number of colonies as far 
 as local conditions or his desire will permit. Many per- 
 sons have made a failure at bee keeping, losing all of 
 their bees and considerable money, because they started 
 in the business on too large a scale. 
 
 Bee keeping perhaps has its widest field as a side line 
 to some other occupation. In fact, it is usually not the 
 sole occupation of the bee keeper. It is particularly 
 suitable as a side line to general farming, gardening, 
 fruit growing, poultry farming, and similar pursuits, but 
 it can be practiced without difficulty in connection with 
 most professional and commercial pursuits. If bee 
 keeping is not attempted on too large a scale, it will 
 not interfere greatly with other work. 
 
 Bee keeping has always been a favorite means of 
 recreation, especially to persons engaged in sedentary 
 occupations. It affords a desirable amount of exercise, 
 an opportunity for outdoor work, and an intimacy with 
 an insect whose activity has been a subject of absorbing 
 study from the earliest times. Bee keeping has the 
 advantage of being a recreation that pays its own way 
 and often produces no mean profit. 
 
 Many persons keep bees for the producing of honey 
 for home use. A few colonies will usually produce a suf- 
 ficient quantity to supply a large family the year round. 
 
BEE KEEPING 333 
 
 The value of bees in the pollination of various fruits 
 and seed crops is often sufficient to warrant the keeping 
 of an apiary. The quality and quantity of many varie- 
 ties of apples, pears, plums, and small fruits depend 
 absolutely on cross-pollination. The most active agents 
 in this work are honey bees. 
 
 Adaptability of Various Locations to Bee Keeping. 
 Few industries can be pursued in such a wide latitude of 
 locations as bee keeping. It may be followed in the 
 country, in towns, and, to a limited extent, in large 
 cities. Although at first thought country localities would 
 seem to be the best for bee keeping, it often happens 
 that bees kept in towns or cities find more abundant 
 pasturage than those kept in the country. 
 
 Apiariee have been established in such unexpected 
 places as in the heart of Michigan forests, on floating 
 hovxseboats of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, in the 
 deserts of Arizona and Southern California, in the 
 swamps of Florida, and on house tops in New York, 
 Washington, Cincinnati, and other large cities. Actual 
 experience has demonstrated that bees may be kept 
 successfully in such a wide range of territory and 
 under such a variety of surroundings that it would be 
 unwise to state positively that bee keeping cannot be 
 followed in any given locality. Of course, however, 
 some localities are much better adapted to bee keeping 
 than others. 
 
 The best location for bee keeping is a region in 
 which different pollen- and nectar-bearing plants bloom 
 in succession throughout the spring, summer, and fall 
 seasons. A desirable succession of blossoms is as fol- 
 lows: Red maple, willow, and poplar flowers in early 
 spring, immediately followed by an abundance of fruit 
 bloom, and white-clover, basswood, and locust flowers; 
 buckwheat blossoms in summer; and the flowers of 
 such plants as asters and Spanish needles in the fall. 
 It is particularly important that there be an abundance 
 of late summer or fall flowers that will yield sufficient 
 
334 BEE KEEPING 
 
 nectar to enable bees to gather enough for their winter 
 stores. 
 
 In general, it may be said that bees can be kept in 
 practically all inhabited regions, although the degree of 
 success likely to be attained will depend largely on the 
 abundance of bee pasturage. In addition to inhabited 
 regions there are numerous forest, swamp, prairie, and 
 mountain sections that are well suited to bee keeping. 
 Many regions that at present are entirely worthless 
 would yield a good profit if made to support apiaries. 
 
 Adaptability of Different Persons to Bee Keeping. 
 Any person with fairly steady nerves and some patience 
 and courage can easily learn to control and handle bees. 
 There are, it is true, a few exceptional individuals 
 whose systems are particularly susceptible to the poison 
 injected by the bee, so much so that serious results 
 follow a single sting. Such cases, however, are very 
 rare. In most instances, the system eventually becomes 
 accustomed to the poison, so that beyond momentary pain 
 a sting causes no discomfort. 
 
 There is little if any ground for the belief that bees 
 have a natural antipathy for some persons and a natural 
 liking for others. Bees are angered by actions rather 
 than by any peculiarity of the individual. They prefer, 
 of course, not to be disturbed; hence they usually keep 
 guards on the lookout for intruders. When visitors 
 approach the hives these guards are apt to fly toward 
 them, and if the visitors show fear by striking with 
 their hands or jerking their heads they are likely to be 
 stung. A person not accustomed to bees is very likely, 
 unconsciously, to dodge the head about when a bee 
 buzzes uncomfortably close to the face. Bees resent 
 such actions and when angered by them are almost sure 
 to sting. On the other hand, an unprotected person who 
 moves about with deliberation, will, under the same 
 circumstances, usually escape without a sting. 
 
 Bee keeping is a branch of agriculture that is par- 
 ticularly suitable for women. The work required by 
 
BEE KEEPING 335 
 
 an apiary is comparatively light and does not entail 
 close confinement, heavy lifting, or fatiguing exertion. 
 Many women in towns and cities, as well as in the 
 country, are turning their attention to bee keeping as 
 a source of i-ecreation, pleasure, and profit. 
 
 Profits in Bee Keeping.— Considering the capital and 
 the time required, bee keeping is one of the most profit- 
 able branches of agriculture. It is impossible to give 
 definite figures concerning the profits that may be made 
 from an apiary, as much depends on the locality, the 
 season, the bees, the management, and the number of 
 bees to an area. A conservative estimate for a good 
 locality is 25 to 30 lb. of comb honey — honey in the 
 comb— or 40 to 50 lb. of extracted honey— honey extracted 
 from the comb — per colony per year. It is not uncommon 
 for a colony in a favorable locality to produce 60 lb. of 
 comb honey in a season and even as much as 100 lb. 
 per colony has been produced; these quantities, how- 
 ever, are exceptional and should not be expected each 
 year. Wholesale prices for honey range from about 12 
 to 15c. per lb. for comb honey and from about 7 to 10c. 
 per lb. for extracted honey. If sold direct to the 
 consumer, comb honey brings from about 15 to 25c. 
 per section — a section contains about 1 lb. and ex- 
 tracted honey from about 10 to 20c. per lb. Assum- 
 ing that a colony produces 25 lb. of comb honey 
 per year, which is a fair average, and that the honey 
 is sold for 20c. per lb., which also is a fair average, the 
 gross return will be $5. 
 
 The expense of maintaining an apiary varies as widely 
 as the income. Aside from the item of labor, the ex- 
 penses will include the purchase of comb foundations 
 and sections, repairs, eventual replacing of hives and 
 implements, and interest on the capital invested. It 
 has been estimated that, on an average, the annual 
 expense per colony, not including that for labor, will 
 be from 50c. to $1; this estimate, however, does not 
 provide for increase. Assuming that the average expense 
 
336 BEE KEEPING 
 
 per colony is 75c. and that the average gross returns 
 are $5, the net profit will be $4.25 per colony. This may 
 seem to be a small profit, but it should be remembered 
 that it is only an average. Many bee keepers make con- 
 siderably more, some making double the sum given. 
 
 Time Required in Bee Keeping.— The amount of time 
 required in bee keeping is an important consideration 
 to persons who desire to engage in the industry as an 
 adjunct to some other pursuit. Such persons are anxious 
 to know whether bee keeping will interfere with their 
 regvilar work. The element of time does not, of course, 
 concern persons who desire to devote their entire atten- 
 tion to bee keeping, except as it affects the nvimber of 
 colonies that may be managed. 
 
 If it were not for the fact that at certain seasons, 
 such as during the swarming season, bees require close 
 attention, it would be possible to keep a large number of 
 colonies, even though bee keeping is followed as a sub- 
 sidiary pursuit. During most of the year all the atten- 
 tion that bees require, provided not too many colonies 
 are kept, can be given before or after regular work 
 hours. Bees, to a large extent, supply their own food 
 and water and work on their own initiative. There are 
 times, however, when they must be carefully attended 
 to, and for this reason there is danger of having too 
 many colonies. Persons such as farmers, fruit growers, 
 gardeners, etc., who are not closely confined each day, 
 can usually keep from fifty to one hundred colonies 
 without hindrance to their other work. Persons such 
 as professional men, who are more or less confined, will 
 usually find that from ten to twenty colonies will be 
 all they can handle successfully. Almost any one can 
 keep from one to ten colonies without difficulty. These 
 statements, of course, are only general. If a person 
 begins bee keeping with only a few colonies and 
 gradually increases the number, a good idea of the 
 amount of time required will be obtained and the size 
 of the apiary can be governed accordingly. 
 
BEE KEEPING 337 
 
 Races of Honey Bees. — All domesticated bees, com- 
 monly known as honey bees, are of one species. There 
 are several distinct races, or strains, of this species and 
 a considerable number of varieties. The most important 
 races of bees are: the Italian, the German, or Black, 
 the Carniolan, the Banat, the Caucasian, and the 
 Cyprian. Besides these races there are a number of 
 hybrids that are of more or less importance. 
 
 Treatment for Bee Stings.— If a person is stung by a 
 bee it is important that the sting be extracted as soon 
 as possible. The longer it remains in the flesh the 
 deeper it will work and the more poison will be injected 
 into the wound. A sting should never be grasped with 
 the thumb and forefinger and lifted directly out, as 
 is commonly done, but should either be brushed out 
 sidewise or better be removed by applying pressure at 
 the side of it with a finger nail. Grasping the sting 
 with the thumb and forefinger injects into the wound all 
 of the poison remaining in the sting tube. In extracting 
 a sting it frequently occurs that the sheath only is 
 removed, and that the lancets remain and work deeper 
 into the flesh. The latter may work so deep that they 
 disappear. This need cause no alarm, as the lancets are 
 composed of material that will cause no injury, and 
 they will be absorbed by the blood. 
 
 The Queen Bee. — The queen bee is not a reigning 
 sovereign over her colony, as the term implies, but is, 
 rather, a mother. The sole function of a queen is to 
 lay eggs and thus maintain the population of the hive. 
 She is so highly specialized for this particular purpose 
 that she gives all of her energy to egg laying, not even 
 expending a part of it in procuring and digesting her 
 own food. The food is predigested by the workers and 
 constantly offered to her; often the workers give it to 
 her directly by inserting their tongues into her mouth. 
 As this predigested food is of a highly concentrated, 
 nitrogenous nature and extremely nourishing, the queen 
 is fitted by it to perform a remarkable work. In fact, 
 22 
 
338 , BEE KEEPING 
 
 the rate of egg-laying is almost incredible, often being 
 as high as 3,000 eggs or more per day. The laying of 
 eggs is begun, as a rule, in January, is gradually in- 
 creased until just after the height of the honey season, 
 decreasing when nectar is scarce and increasing when 
 it is plentiful, and is gradually decreased until, gen- 
 erally, about November, when it is almost or entirely 
 ceased for the winter. 
 
 A queen sometimes lives as long as 5 yr., but it 
 frequently happens that the fertilizing element with 
 which she is provided is exhausted long before the end 
 of this time. In fact, the vigor and prolificacy of a 
 queen diminishes after the second, or at most, the 
 third yeax of her life. She may continue to lay fertile 
 eggs during her entire life, but it is probable that after 
 the second or third year she will not be sufficiently 
 prolific to keep up the population of the colony. For 
 this reason it is the practice of the best bee keepers 
 to requeen their colony every 2 yr. ; some bee keepers 
 go so far as to recommend requeening every year, but 
 this is unnecessary if the queen is a good one. 
 
 Worker Bees.— The workers perform all of the work 
 of a colony, aside from the laying of eggs. They gather 
 nectar, pollen, propolis, and water; secrete wax and 
 build comb; serve, when young, as nurses to the brood; 
 feed the queen and, at times, the drones; act as sentinels 
 to ward off intruders; and, within certain limits, regu- 
 late the temperature within the hive. Although the 
 work of an individual worker may seem insignificant, 
 that performed by the thousands of workers that con- 
 stitute the chief part of a colony is amazing. 
 
 Worker bees never attain a great age. Those reared 
 in autumn may live 8 or 9 mo., and if in queenless 
 colonies where little work is performed, even longer. 
 Those reared in spring or early summer usually perish 
 in 3 mo. and, if very active, in from 30 to 40 da. 
 The period of activity of a worker bee is usually 
 terminated by the wearing out of the wing membranes. 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 339 
 
 When a bee is no longer able to fly it is cast out of the 
 hive to perish. 
 
 Drones. — The function of the drones is to fertilize the 
 queen. They serve a slight secondary service in aiding 
 to provide and maintain heat in the colony, which is 
 necessary for the hatching of eggs and the rearing of 
 broods. However, they perform no work whatever, living 
 solely on the labors of the workers. A great many 
 more drones than queens are produced by a colony; 
 this is doubtless a provision of nature to insure that a 
 queen will be fertilized. The drones are usually killed 
 by the workers as soon as the honey-flow commences to 
 diminish. 
 
 Parthenogenesis in Bees.— Male bees, or drones, are 
 produced bi- a peculiar phenomenon of nature known as 
 partlienogenesis. By this term is meant the rearing of 
 young from unfertilized eggs. If a queen fails to mate 
 with a drone, or if her supply of the fertilizing element 
 becomes exhausted, she has the power to lay unfertilized 
 eggs, a power possessed also by a fertilized queen. 
 Unfertilized eggs produce drones and fertilized eggs 
 produce queens and workers, depending on the food given 
 to the larvas. In no other form of animal life, so far 
 as is known, are males produced without the union of 
 male and female. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 PLOWS 
 
 Beam, or Walking, Plows.— Several types of beam, or 
 walking, plows are on the market. For plowing tough 
 sod, plows with long moldboards are best, because they 
 pulverize the soil but little, turn the sod smoothly, and 
 are of light draft. For plowing stubble land, plows with 
 steep moldboards are best, as they bend the furrow 
 slice abruptly and pulverize the soil much more thor- 
 oughly than sod plows. There are on the market also 
 
340 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 general-purpose plows that are used either for sod or 
 for stubble. Where land is so sloping that the furrow 
 slice must be thrown down hill, what is known as the 
 reversible plow is generally used. These plows are made 
 to turn a right-hand or a left-hand furrow by adjusting 
 the bottom, or standard. 
 
 Sulky Plows. — Wheel, or svilky, plows have provisions 
 for interchangeable bottoms; they can be made to turn 
 a 14-, 16-, or 18-in. furrow. These plows are usually 
 provided with a seat for the driver, but in some of the 
 simplest types, the truck, which is bolted to the beam, 
 serves merely to steady the running of the plow and to 
 regulate the depth of furrow. 
 
 Gang Plows. — Wheel plows that have two or more 
 bottoms are called gang plows. Some gang plows are 
 provided with hand or foot levers for raising and low- 
 ering the bottoms and others are so designed that the 
 bottoms are raised and lowered by the team or engine 
 that pulls the plow. Gang plows are equipped with 
 different types of plow bottoms, each with its own form 
 of moldboard and plowshare. 
 
 Disk Plows. — In the disk type of plow a rotating disk 
 has been substituted for the moldboard. These plows 
 are especially recommended for soils that are sticky 
 or for use in very hard ground. 
 
 Subsoil Plows.— What are known as subsoil plows are 
 frequently used where it is desired to loosen the ground 
 to a greater depth than can be done with the surface 
 plow. Such plows are used to follow in the bottom of 
 the furrow made by the common plow. They simply 
 loosen the soil, but do not bring it to the surface of 
 the ground. 
 
 HARROWS 
 
 Spike-Tooth Harrows.— Spike-tooth harrows both pul- 
 verize and compact the soil. By means of levers the 
 teeth may be placed in a vertical position, tilted for- 
 wards, or given a slant backwards. When the teeth are 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 341 
 
 tilted forwards the harrow exercises a vigorous stirring 
 action, but when they are given a slant to the rear, the 
 action is less vigorous and the soil is smoothed and 
 leveled. Sloping the teeth backwards also prevents 
 them from gathering trash and from catching under 
 roots or other obstructions. 
 
 Spring-Tooth Harrow.— The implement known as the 
 spring-tooth harrow breaks up the soil, but does little 
 smoothing or pulverizing. Spring-tooth harrows are very 
 efficient implements for loosening up plowed ground that 
 has become compact. The depth to which a spring- 
 tooth harrow penetrates is adjusted by means of levers. 
 
 Disk Harrows.— A disk harrow consists of a series of 
 sharp disks mounted in such a manner that they may 
 be made to cut straight ahead in the direction the team 
 is moving, or the two sections of the frame may be so 
 adjusted, by means of a lever, as to cause the disks 
 to cut at an angle. Disk harrows are used for cutting 
 up heavy sod preparatory to plowing, for working down 
 sod that has been plowed, and for cutting up clods. 
 They are also very useful for preparing a seed-bed 
 in corn stubble or other loose ground when it is un- 
 desirable to plow the field. They are also sometimes 
 used for disking green manure or stable manure into 
 the soil. 
 
 Acme Harrow. — The Acme type of harrow is equipped 
 with a series of curved blades that slice and turn the 
 surface soil. It is an efficient surface-working tool 
 when the ground is mellow and a cutting action is 
 desired. 
 
 ROLLERS AND DRAGS 
 
 Rollers.— The first rollers were made from the trunks 
 of trees, which were cut into suitable lengths and 
 mounted in frames. Pins passing through the frame 
 and driven into the ends of the log served as bearings 
 on which the roller turned as it was dragged through 
 the field. On a level, even surface this implement is a 
 
342 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 good clod crusher and compacts the soil satisfactorily. 
 The first improvement was a substitution of two or 
 three sections for a single log. Such a roller is much 
 easier to turn in the field than one made of a single log. 
 
 Steel rollers are now in the market. These can be 
 had either as a smooth or as a corrugated cylinder. 
 The smooth-cylinder type leaves the soil in a smooth 
 and compact condition; the corrugated roller leaves the 
 surface of the soil in slight ridges. The smooth roller 
 is wasteful of moisture unless it is followed closely 
 with a harrow; the corrugated roller is a very efficient 
 pulverizer and leaves the soil in excellent condition 
 for further working. 
 
 For use in the semi-arid regions of the West a special 
 form of roller known as the subsurface packer is used 
 for packing the ground beneath the surface for the 
 purpose of increasing the moisture-holding capacity of 
 the soil. This tool consists of a series of wedge-shaped 
 wheels that are designed to penetrate the immediate 
 surface and compact the subsurface soil and bring the 
 furrow slice into immediate contact with the subsoil. 
 
 Drags. — Drags, which are usually nothing more or less 
 than three or four heavy 2-in. boards lapped one over 
 the other and well secured by strips bolted across the 
 top, can be easily made at home. If a vigorous pulver- 
 izing action is desired, the drag is drawn through the 
 field with the sharp edges of the planks forwards, but 
 if a smooth action only is desired, the implement is 
 drawn in the opposite direction. This tool crushes 
 clods and levels the surface of a field very effectively. 
 
 CULTIVATORS 
 
 Single-Shovel Cultivator.— The single-shovel cultivator 
 is used for marking off land with furrows or trenches 
 in which seed or plants may be planted. It is a con- 
 venient implement for marking out a potato patch or for 
 use in the home garden. The depth of the furrow is 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 343 
 
 regulated by the driver, who walks behind and usually 
 carries a part of the weight of the plow by means of 
 handles. If the ground is hard, some pressure on the 
 handles may be necessary to secure sufficient penetration 
 of the soil. 
 
 Double-Shovel Cultivator. — A double-shovel cultivator 
 is generally used where the area to be cultivated is 
 small. This implement is also sometimes used in large 
 fields after the corn is too tall to admit of the use of 
 a straddle-row cultivator. 
 
 Straddle-Row Cultivator.— The straddle-row type of 
 cultivator cultivates the soil on both sides of the corn 
 row at one operation. Straddle-row cultivators can be 
 had either for cultivating a single row at a time or 
 two rows at a time. With an implement of the latter 
 type one man with three horses can cultivate practically 
 twice as much corn in a day as one man with two 
 horses using a single-row implement. 
 
 In the modern single-row and double-row cultivators 
 the plows are attached to a frame that is mounted on 
 wheels, and the implement is provided with levers and 
 other means of adjustment. Cultivators may be equipped 
 with different kinds of shovels, or disks, depending on 
 the character of the work to be done. Under some 
 circumstances the spring-tooth shovel is desirable. In 
 case vines are very troublesome in the field, gangs 
 carrying three disks each are more effective than shovels 
 in cutting their way through the soil. Early in the 
 season large shovels are used on the implement, but 
 after the first or second cultivation these should give 
 way to short narrow shovels, which will stir the surface 
 without disturbing the roots of the crop. If surface 
 cultivation is desirable, sweep plates may be sub- 
 stituted. 
 
344 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 WEEDERS 
 
 The weeder is a very satisfactory implement of 
 tillage when the ground is mellow and the weeds are 
 small. It is of particular value for cultivating corn 
 before it is up and for several days after the plants 
 are through the ground. The slender, flexible teeth 
 destroy the young weeds without injury to the corn 
 plants. Weeders are made in several sizes from those 
 that till a single row to those that till several rows 
 at a time. 
 
 PLANTING IMPLEMENTS 
 
 Broadcasting Seeders.— Seeders that merely scatter 
 the seed over the surface of the field are known as 
 broadcasting seeders, or simply as broadcasters. They 
 are used principally for the seeding of grasses and also 
 sometimes for the seeding of small grains. The simplest 
 form of broadcasting machine is known as the knapsack 
 seeder. It consists of a bag to hold the seed, and is 
 supported by means of a strap over the shoulder. 
 The bottom of the bag has an opening that allows the 
 seed to pass out to the distributing mechanism, which 
 is operated by means of gears turned by a handle. The 
 rate of seeding is determined by the size of the opening 
 in the bottom of the bag, and the rate at which the 
 sower walks. 
 
 Another type of hand broadcaster is the wheelbarrow 
 seeder. In this implement the bottom of the box is 
 provided with openings and a vibrating rod. As the 
 seeder is pushed across the field, the vibrating rod 
 causes the seed to be distributed from the openings of 
 the box. These wheelbarrow machines are made in 
 several widths, 14 ft. being the common width. 
 
 The end-gate broadcasting seeder resembles the knap- 
 sack seeder in general principles, except that the bag 
 is replaced by a metal hopper and the distributing disks 
 are driven by power obtained from a sprocket bolted to 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 345 
 
 the wheels of a wagon, on the end gate of which the 
 seeder is attached. 
 
 Grain Drills. — The modern grain drill consists of the 
 following essential parts: the hopper, the supporting 
 frame, the wheels, the feeding mechanism, the furrow 
 opener, and the tubes for conveying the seed from the 
 hopper to the ground. In addition, manufacturers of 
 drills generally equip their machines with fertilizer at- 
 tachments for distributing commercial fertilizer at the 
 time the seed is sown. The fertilizer is carried in a 
 hopper at the rear of the seed box. The bottom of the 
 hopper is provided with a feeding mechanism that 
 pulverizes che material and conveys it to the tubes 
 leading down to the soil. Another attachment often 
 included on the grass drill is a grass-seeder. The 
 hopper for grass seed is usually placed on the front 
 of the main grain box and is provided with a seeding 
 mechanism that differs from the grain-seeding device 
 only in size. Short lengths of chain are frequently 
 attached to the furrow openers of the implement to drag 
 behind them for the purpose of making sure that all 
 grain is covered. These so-called covering chains are 
 especially useful when the soil is wet. For use in dry 
 regions, drills are frequently equipped with what are 
 known as press wheels, which follow the furrow opener. 
 These press wheels are designed to compact the soil 
 around the seed and thus to encourage the capillary 
 movement of moisture up into the seed-bed. 
 
 Corn and Cotton Planters.— Corn planters are of two 
 types, namely, hand planters and horse planters. Hand 
 planters are used to a limited extent on small farms, 
 but probably their greatest use is found in the replanting 
 of missing hills in large fields. 
 
 The modern two-horse corn planter is designed to drill 
 or to hill drop two rows of seed at a time. The frame of 
 the corn planter is, as a rule, constructed entirely of steel 
 and is made as light as is consistent with strength and 
 rigidity. The front of the planter is usually joined to 
 
346 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 the main frame by a hinge that is controlled by a lever. 
 This lever is used to regulate the planting by raising 
 or lowering the furrow openers. The bottoms of the seed 
 boxes are generally provided with revolving plates, in 
 which are holes or notches to receive the grains of 
 corn. As the plate revolves, a grain or a number of 
 grains are dropped into what is known as the planter 
 shank each time the hole in the plate comes over the 
 opening. 
 
 In some localities, particularly in the eastern and 
 southern parts of the United States, it is desirable to 
 use commercial fertilizers to secure early and quick 
 growth of corn. To meet this need, fertilizer attach- 
 ments may be secured with almost any make of planter. 
 
 The single-row corn drill, for which only one horse is 
 necessary, is extensively used in some parts of the 
 country. The mechanical principles used in this drill 
 are practically the same as those employed in connec- 
 tion with the two-row planter. The standard equipment 
 has one dropping plate, which may be adjusted to drop 
 one grain every 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, or 18 in. as desired. 
 
 In the semi-arid regions it is desirable to plant corn 
 in the bottom of a deep furrow and gradually fill this 
 furrow as the plant develops. This method of planting is 
 known as listing, and the machines constructed for the 
 purpose are called listers. 
 
 Combination corn and cotton planters of the same 
 general type as the regular corn planters are to be 
 secured on the market. In these machines only a slight 
 adjustment is necessary to adapt the drill to either 
 corn or cotton. 
 
 Potato Planters. — In many of the potato-growing dis- 
 tricts, special potato planters are used that open the 
 furrow and drop either cut or whole potatoes at regular 
 intervals and cover the furrow. Fertilizer is used very 
 generally by large potato growers; hence, the potato 
 planters are usually equipped with fertilizer attachments. 
 In these attachments the fertilizer is carried in boxes 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 347 
 
 from which it is forced in the desired quantities inta 
 the furrow, where it is mixed with the soil by disks. 
 Seedling Planters.— In the tobacco districts and in the 
 extensive trucking sections young seedling plants are 
 frequently transplanted by machinery. In one of the 
 most modern of these transplanters the essential parts 
 consist of a barrel for carrying the water supply, a 
 furrow opener, and a covering device. Two men riding 
 on seats provided at the rear of the implement hold the 
 plants in an upright position in the furrow just behind 
 the opener until the soil is pressed around them by a 
 covering shovel. The soil in the furrow is moistened 
 by water from the barrel. 
 
 HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 
 
 HAY-HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 
 
 Mowers. — Mowers are now made in sizes of 3^, 4, 4]/^, 
 5, 6, and 7 ft. in width of cut. The ordinary two-horse 
 farm mowers are usually either 4J/2 or 5 ft. in width of 
 cut. The cutting swath of the one-horse mower is 
 about 3^ ft. 
 
 The best mowers are provided with roller bearings on 
 the main shaft for the purpose of reducing friction and 
 draft. Gears on the main and cross-shafts should in all 
 cases be closed to prevent dust and grit from getting 
 in and wearing out the parts. 
 
 The cutter bar of a mower is usually known as a 
 floating bar, because it is connected to the frame in 
 such a way that it practically floats over the uneven 
 ground. Every mower should have some method of 
 adjusting the cutter bar so that when the pins wear 
 and sag in the bar, caused by the constant pressure 
 against it, the space may be taken up. 
 
 The grass board fastened to the outside end of the 
 cutter bar serves the purpose of turning the grass in 
 toward the cutter bar. This board should be provided 
 
348 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 with a spring so that it may be adjvisted to heavy grass 
 without danger of breaking either the board or the out- 
 side shoe. All mowers are provided with some arrange- 
 ment by which the cutter bar can be raised by the 
 operator from the seat. Some have both a hand and a 
 foot lift. 
 
 Windrower, or Buncher.— Where clover is raised for 
 seed, a very handy attachment for the mower is a 
 buncher. This implement is used for bunching clover, 
 timothy, prairie hay, and field peas. It places the grass 
 or vines in windrows where the sun and air have a 
 chance to dry and cure them. 
 
 Hay Rakes. — Two classes of front-delivery hay rakes 
 are in general use in the United States: the so-called 
 hand-dump rake and the self-dump rake. The former 
 is operated by means of a lever and the latter by a 
 foot trip that throws into action a ratchet in the wheel. 
 This raises the teeth of the rake at regular in- 
 tervals and leaves the hay in the windrow. 
 
 The side-delivery hay rake is an invention of recent 
 years and is used in connection with hay loading. With 
 the front-delivery style of hay rake it is diiificult to 
 rake hay so that it will lie in long windrows con- 
 venient for loading with the hay loader. With the 
 side-delivery rake, however, a continuous windrow can 
 be made. 
 
 Where large fields of hay are to be handled quickly 
 and taken directly to the stack, a sweep rake is 
 used. The large wooden teeth, which are drawn be- 
 tween two horses, will take up the hay either from 
 the swath or the windrow. When the load is secured, 
 the teeth are raised and the hay is drawn to a point 
 where the stack is being built and is dumped on the 
 teeth of the stacker and by it elevated to the stack. 
 
 Hay Stacker.— A power hay stacker is usually used 
 in connection with a sweep rake. By means of a 
 stacker the hay is quickly elevated and swung to any 
 part of the stack. Several types of stackers are in use 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 349 
 
 in various parts of the country and they have been 
 found to be economical labor-saving devices where a 
 large quantity of hay is to be stacked. 
 
 Hay Tedder. — Hay tedders are valuable machines for 
 shaking up hay so that the sun can cure it. They are 
 especially valuable for stirring up hay that has been 
 rained on or that is very heavy. 
 
 Hay Loaders. — By means of hay loaders it is possible 
 to load a quantity of hay on a wagon in much less time 
 than by pitching it with forks. Usually, hay loaders are 
 mounted on two wheels and are made to be drawn after 
 the wagon. They have a cylinder carrying hooks de- 
 signed to lift the hay from the ground and deposit it 
 vipon the endless carrier that elevates it onto the 
 wagon. One type of loader consists of a series of rakes 
 so mounted on a crank-shaft that they grasp the hay in 
 the swath and draw it a short distance upwards on 
 the frame of the loader by a peculiar alternating move- 
 ment of the rakes. The hooks on the under side of 
 each rake gradually carry the hay to the top of the 
 elevator, where it falls over on the wagon. 
 
 SMALL-GRAIN HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 
 Grain Binders. — The operation of the grain binder is as 
 follows: As the machine advances the grain is caught 
 by the reel and pushed backwards between the cutter-bar 
 fingers until it is cut. The grain then falls on the 
 platform and is conveyed by the platform canvas to the 
 elevator, which carries it to the binding mechanism. As 
 soon as a sufficient quantity of grain has accumulated 
 in the binding mechanism, it is bound into a bundle 
 and deposited on the carrier. When a number of these 
 bundles have accumulated, the bundle carrier is released 
 by means of a lever controlled by the driver and the 
 bundles are deposited in a convenient pile. Grain 
 binders are made with 5-, 6-, 7-, and 8-ft. cuts for the 
 pull machines, and 10-, 12-, and 14-ft. cuts for the push 
 machines. 
 
350 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 Headers. — Machines known as headers are much used 
 in the prairie regions for harvesting small grain. They 
 are fitted with a long reel and a cutting device that 
 removes the heads and drops them on a moving canvas, 
 by which they are elevated and deposited in a wagon 
 driven along by the side of the machine. The header 
 is pushed by attaching four or more horses abreast to 
 tongues in the rear. 
 
 Combined Harvester and Thrasher.— In California and 
 other localities where there is no probability of rain 
 during the harvest seasons, use is made of a machine 
 known as the combined harvester and thrasher. These 
 machines head, thrash, and sack the grain at one 
 operation. They are propelled either by horses or by 
 a traction engine. If horses are used, from thirty to 
 thirty-six are required to furnish the power necessary. 
 The machines have a daily capacity of from 60 to 125 A. 
 of grain. 
 
 Self-Rake Reaper.— The self-rake reaper is an imple- 
 ment used chiefly for cutting small grain. It cuts the 
 grain and places it in bundles ready for binding. These 
 machines are used principally in regions too hilly for 
 binders. They are also used for cutting grain — flax, for 
 example— that it is not desired to have bound into 
 bundles. 
 
 CORN-HARVESTING MACHINERY 
 Corn Pickers. — Up to the present time there are two 
 general classes of pickers on the market. One type is 
 intended to pick the ears and remove the husks before 
 the corn i& elevated into a wagon that is drawn beside 
 the machine. The other type picks the ears without any 
 attempt to remove the husks. Neither type has come 
 into very general use, perhaps largely on account of the 
 expense of the implement. 
 
 Corn Binders. — During recent years corn binders have 
 come into extensive use for the harvesting of corn. 
 These machines cut the corn stalks and bind them into 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 351 
 
 bundles. They weigh complete from 1,400 to 1,800 lb. 
 Generally speaking, those weighing in the neighborhood 
 of 1,500 lb. have been most successful, this weight seem- 
 ing to give the proper relation between driving power 
 and durability. 
 
 Corn Huskers and Shredders. — The scarcity of farm 
 labor and the desirability of having corn fodder shredded 
 for convenience in handling has led to the development 
 of a combined husker and shredder. In most of these 
 machines the fodder is placed on a feeding table from 
 which it is fed into snapping rolls. As the stalks pass 
 these rolls the ears are removed and allowed to fall 
 directly on husking rolls, or on a conveyer, which car- 
 ries them to husking rolls. The husks are removed from 
 the ear by these rolls and are conveyed to the rear of 
 the machine by a husk drag. After the removal of the 
 ears, the stalks pass to the shredder head, where they 
 are cut and split into small fragments. From the 
 shredder head the material is carried to the conveyer at 
 the opposite end of the machine. The ears pass from 
 the husking rolls to a conveyer at the front of the 
 machine. The shredded fodder passes over beaters that 
 remove any shelled corn that it may contain. 
 
 ROOT-CROP HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 
 Potato Diggers. — Single-shovel potato harvesters that 
 are provided with an advanced furrow opener and a 
 shaker at the rear are on the market. The shaker is 
 operated by means of a spur wheel, which engages the 
 soil at the bottom of the furrow and gives the rods a 
 rapid vertical motion. This motion separates the dirt 
 from the potatoes and leaves them in a continuous row 
 on the surface. 
 
 Where a large number of potatoes are grown annually, 
 a type of digger with a greater capacity than that of 
 the single-shovel type is in use. These large machines 
 are provided with two main drive wheels at the rear and 
 a two-wheeled truck in front. A feature of this machine 
 
352 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 are steel rods that have a backwards and forwards mo- 
 tion that sifts out all the dirt and deposits the potatoes 
 in a compact row on clean ground at the rear of the 
 machine. At the same time, the vines and trash are 
 deposited at one side by another set of rods, assisted 
 by vine forks. 
 
 Beet Lifters.— The depth which sugar beets extend 
 into the soil has made necessary a special type of plow 
 for lifting them and breaking the tap roots without 
 injuring the beets. Several different forms of plows 
 designed for this purpose are on the market. In one 
 of the best of these types the implement does not re- 
 move the beets from the soil, but simply lifts them 
 sufficiently to break the root connections, after which 
 they may be pulled up by hand and the tops removed. 
 
 THRASHING MACHINERY 
 
 In the modern thrashing machine the grain is con- 
 veyed to a cylinder, where it is shelled from the head 
 by the passage of the straw between the cylinder and 
 what is known as a concave. From the cylinder the 
 straw passes over straw racks to the stacker and as the 
 straw passes back over the racks, the thrashed grain 
 sifts down through screens where a blast of air from 
 a fan blows out the dust and fine chaff. From the 
 screens the grain passes to what is known as the auger, 
 by means of which it is removed from the machine. The 
 capacity of a thrashing machine is indicated by the 
 width of the cylinder and the width of the machine 
 proper. A medium-sized machine will require for its 
 operation a 15- or a 16-H. P. engine, and will have a 
 capacity of 500 to 1,000 bu. of wheat per day, or double 
 that quantify of oats. 
 
 Bean and Pea Thrashers.— Where beans and peas are 
 grown extensively, special thrashers are often used to 
 separate the grain. These differ from the grain thrashers 
 in having two cylinders operated at different speeds. 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 353 
 
 The vines first pass through a low-speed cylinder that 
 thrashes out the dry pods and then through a more 
 rapidly revolving cylinder to remove the seeds from the 
 damp pods. These machines are usually provided with 
 a recleaner and a clod crusher to remove dirt that may 
 be adhering to the vines. 
 
 Clover Huller.— The clover huller operates on the same 
 principle as the grain thrasher, except that it is pro- 
 vided with an additional hulling cylinder. The first 
 cylinder removes the heads and thrashes out a part of 
 the seed. The heads are then separated from the stems 
 and chaff and passed to the hulling cylinder, which 
 removes the seeds from the pods. The separation of 
 the seed from the straw and chaff is accomplished in 
 the same manner as in the grain thrasher. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FARM IMPLEMENTS 
 
 Manure Spreaders.-At the present time there are 
 several successful manure spreaders on the market. The 
 capacity of spreaders is usually stated in bushels, and 
 the rate of speed is designated as tons per acre. The 
 ordinarv two-horse spreader is usually rated at 70 bu. 
 Some spreaders are equipped with lime distributors. 
 This attachment consists of a box or hood that fits down 
 over the beater of the machine and prevents the fine 
 dust of the lime from being blown away. 
 
 The greatest advantage from using a manure spreader 
 comes from the manner in which the machine pulverizes 
 and spreads the manure. The fineness and evenness of 
 the spreading has much to do with the crop grown, and 
 to be effective the spreader must break fhe lumps into 
 pieces and spread the manure evenly over the ground. 
 The increase in crop production resulting from the 
 manure spreader will usually pay for the implement in 
 one season's use, to say nothing of the labor saved. 
 
 Sprayers.— By proper spraying a very large part of 
 the annual loss caused by insects and fungi to fruit 
 23 
 
354 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 and vegetable plants can be prevented. To do this work 
 effectively, spraying machines must be employed. The 
 kind of spraying outfit to use will depend entirely on 
 how much work is to be done. For the home garden or 
 small orchard, hand sprayers are satisfactory. Several 
 types of hand sprayers are on the market, from the small 
 bucket pumps to knapsack sprayers that are carried on 
 the back of the operator. 
 
 What are known as barrel spray outfits are satis- 
 factory for an orchard of, say, 5 or 6 A., or for a garden 
 of about the same size. These consist essentially of a 
 force pump inserted either into the end or into the side 
 of a barrel that contains the spray solution. Some kind 
 of agitator for keeping the spray mixture in motion 
 should also be a part of the equipment. 
 
 An outfit with a double-action force pump is used for 
 orchards of, say, from 6 to 15 A. This double-action pump 
 can be mounted on skids and the spray material pumped 
 through a hose from a barrel standing beside the pump. 
 
 For a large orchard or garden, power spray outfits of 
 some kind are necessary. These consist essentially of 
 a large pump, a tank of some kind for holding the spray 
 material, and some source of power. This power is 
 generally furnished by a gasoline engine. 
 
 CARE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS AND 
 MACHINERY 
 
 The total value of the machinery on the farms of the 
 United States is more than three-quarters of a billion 
 dollars, and, in addition to this amount vast sums are 
 expended each year in adding to this investment by the 
 purchase of new machines and in the repair of old 
 machinery. The factories of this country produce farm 
 machinery each year to the value of about $100,000,000, 
 of which about $16,000,000 worth is exported, leaving a 
 balance of $84,000,000 that is purchased by the American 
 farmer. 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 355 
 
 From a study of these figures, it is easy to see that 
 a very great saving would come to the farmers of this 
 country if by careful operation and proper care the life 
 of each machine could be extended for a term of years. 
 The profit from this extended term of service will be 
 realized by the greater durability and the increased 
 efficiency that comes from proper care and expert 
 management. 
 
 The care of farm machinery naturally comes under 
 two heads: (1) the proper handling of the machinery 
 while in operation in the field, and (2) the proper care 
 of the machines when not in use. 
 
 The driver or operator of any piece of machinery 
 should have a thorough knowledge of the working parts 
 of the machine that he is using and should be able to 
 detect the first indications of loose parts or lack of 
 adjustment. A loose bolt or lack of adjustment of 
 parts may in a very short time result in permanent 
 injury to the machine and an expensive delay in the 
 work. Very often the delay is more expensive than the 
 repair, especially if the break occurs during harvest. 
 Such a break often necessitates a trip to the shop, which 
 consumes time during which the help is idle and the 
 crop is suffering. 
 
 Much of this delay and annoyance can be avoided by 
 having on the farm a small shop in which all minor 
 repairs can be made. In fact, such a shop with a modest 
 supply of blacksmith and carpenter tools should be a 
 part of the equipment of every farm. The man who 
 has any mechanical ability will soon learn to use such 
 tools and be able to attend to all minor repairs and 
 thus keep his machinery in a high state of efficiency. 
 The shop should be located in a small building well 
 apart from the barn on account of the danger of fire 
 from the forge. It need not be a separate building, how- 
 ever, but may be built in connection with a wagon or a 
 scale shed. Some means should be provided for heating 
 the shop in winter. 
 
356 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 The following tools will be found sufficient to equip 
 a shop for all ordinary repair work. Other tools, of 
 course, may be desirable, but they are not absolutely 
 necessary. A statement of the average cost is also given. 
 
 Wood-Working Tools 
 
 Saw $2.00 
 
 Hatchet 50 
 
 Draw shave 50 
 
 Jack plane 75 
 
 Ratchet brace 1.25 
 
 Bits 2.00 
 
 Chisels 75 
 
 Oil stone 50 
 
 Square 75 
 
 Rule 25 
 
 Screwdrivers 25 
 
 Total $9.50 
 
 Iron-Working Tools 
 
 Forge or blower $5.00 
 
 Anvil 6.00 
 
 Tongs, 2 pairs 75 
 
 Hand hammer 50 
 
 Sledge hammer 1.00 
 
 Vise 5.00 
 
 Small tools 2.00 
 
 Total $20.25 
 
 Total cost of all tools, $29.75. 
 
 The presence of a shop with the above equipment will 
 in a single season often effect a saving of an amount 
 sufficient to pay for the entire list of tools, to say noth- 
 ing of the satisfaction that is derived from being able 
 to have the machinery of the farm always in good 
 working order. 
 
 The lack of durability in farm machinery is often due 
 to the fact that the machines are placed in the hands of 
 ignorant or inexperienced men who are not familiar 
 with the operation and are therefore not capable of 
 handling them properly. 
 
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 357 
 
 All machines when not in use should be properly 
 housed and protected from the weather. A season with- 
 out shelter detracts more from the value of a machine 
 than the wear caused by its use during the same season. 
 It is a well-known fact that the iron and steel parts of 
 a machine rust when exposed to the weather. This 
 results in a gradual destruction of these materials and 
 greatly interferes with the working of the machine when 
 it is put in use. Also rusting results in loss of 
 efificiency and a gradual weakening of the parts. From 
 the financial side of the subject it pays well to care 
 for and house farm implements. A well-regulated farm 
 of, say, 160 A., for its successful operation, should have 
 at least the following implements, which cost approx- 
 imately the sum named: 
 
 1 grain binder $125.00 
 
 1 mower 45.00 ~ 
 
 1 gang prow 50.00 
 
 1 walking plow 12.00- 
 
 2 cultivators 40.00- 
 
 1 disk pulverizer 25.00' 
 
 2 farm wagons 100.00 
 
 1 smoothing harrow 18.00- 
 
 1 planter 35.00 • 
 
 1 seeder 50.00 ■ 
 
 1 manure spreader 100.00 
 
 1 hay loader 45.00 
 
 1 hay rake 20.00' 
 
 1 light road wagon 60.00 
 
 1 buggy 75.00 . 
 
 Total $800.CO 
 
 This makes a total of $800, assuming that all the 
 machinery is new. For $200 a very convenient tool shed 
 can be built that by a little careful planning can be 
 made to shelter all of the above machinery very satis- 
 factorily, especially if a floor is provided on a level with 
 the eaves by which means considerable room can be 
 made for some of the implements which can be easily 
 taken apart, and for parts removed from some of the 
 
358 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 
 
 larger ones. Assume that a man starts farming with 
 $800 invested in implements, and that if these imple- 
 ments are sheltered and well cared for they will 
 last 10 yr. and if not sheltered they will last 
 only 5 yr. If the implements stand out in the 
 weather it costs $800 more to purchase a new set of 
 implements at the end of 5 yr. The compound 
 interest on this amount for 5 yr. at 5% amounts to 
 about $215, or, the extra amount of money paid out for 
 machinery, with its accrued interest, equals $1,015. If 
 our tool shed costs $200, the compound interest on this 
 amount for 10 yr. at 5% equals $125, or the shed 
 may be co.isidered to cost $325. After paying the ex- 
 penses for the shed, it leaves at the end of 10 yr. 
 a balance of $690.40 in favor of housing the machinery, 
 and the shed is perhaps good for 10 yr. more. This 
 does not take into consideration the saving in the cost 
 •of repairs. 
 
 It is very poor economy to buy good tools and convert 
 them into poor ones by the lack of care. This is 
 especially true of plows. In order to do good work, a 
 plow must scour properly, and in order to do this the 
 moldboards are made very hard and given a high polish. 
 When plows are left in the soil or exposed to the 
 weather the polished surface soon becomes pitted with 
 rust and its scouring qualities are lost unti>«a new 
 polish can be obtained. Plows left in the field over 
 night should have the polished surfaces covered with 
 grease or oil. Between seasons, plows should be prop- 
 erly housed in the barn or in a tool shed and the 
 polished surface covered with paint or grease. Paint is 
 to be preferred, because mice and rats are apt to remove 
 the grease before spring. 
 
 Rainy days and spare time during the winter season 
 should be devoted to the inspection and repair of all 
 machinery. For this reason the tool shed or storage 
 room should be light and machines so placed that they 
 are readily accessible. At this time all bolts should be 
 
MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 359 
 
 tightened, the paint renewed on the wooden parts and 
 all bearings thoroughly cleaned and oiled. If this is 
 done much valuable time will be saved later during the 
 busy season when the tools are in almost constant 
 demand. 
 
 The man who expends money in the proper housing 
 and in care of his machinery will find that it will all 
 come back to him in the lengthened life of his ma- 
 chines, in the reduced cost of repairs, and in the satis- 
 faction derived from having his machinery always in 
 good order. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL 
 TABLES 
 
 QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED PER ACRE 
 
 Kind of Seed Quantity 
 
 Alfalfa, broadcasted 20 to 25 lb. 
 
 Alfalfa, in drills 15 to, 20 lb. 
 
 Artichokes 6 to 8 bu. 
 
 Asparagus 4 to 5 lb. 
 
 Barley 8 to 10 pk. 
 
 Barley and peas, each 1 to 2 bu. 
 
 Beans, dwarf, in drills I5 bu. 
 
 Beans, field, small variety 2 to 3 pk. 
 
 Beans, field, large variety 5 to 6 pk. 
 
 Beans, pole, in drills 10 to 12 qt. 
 
 Beet 4 to 6 lb. 
 
 Beggar weed, for forage 5 to 6 lb. 
 
 Beggar weed, for hay 8 to 10 lb. 
 
 Bent grass 1 to 2 bu. 
 
 Blue grass 25 lb. 
 
 Brome grass, alone for hay 12 to 15 lb. 
 
 Brome grass, alone for pasture 15 to 20 lb. 
 
 Broom com 3 pk. 
 
 Broom com, for seed 1 pk. 
 
 Buckwheat 3 to 5 pk. 
 
 Bur clover 12 lb. 
 
 Cabbage I to 1 lb. 
 
 Carrot 4 to 6 lb. 
 
 Chicory 1 to li lb. 
 
 Clover, Alsike, alone for forage 8 to 15 lb. 
 
 Clover, Alsike, on wheat or rye 4 to 6 lb. 
 
 Clover, Crimson 12 to 15 lb. 
 
 Clover, Japan 12 lb. 
 
360 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
 Table— (Coiitimicd) 
 Kind of Seed Quantity 
 
 Clover, Mammoth 12 to 15 lb. 
 
 Clover, Red, alone for forage 16 lb. 
 
 Clover, Red, on small grain 8 to 14 lb. 
 
 Clover, Sweet (Melilotus) 2 to 4 pk. 
 
 Clover, White 10 to 12 lb. 
 
 Clover, Yellow 3 to 5 lb. 
 
 Corn, in hills 6 to 10 qt. 
 
 Corn, for silage 9 to 11 qt. 
 
 Cotton 1 to 3 bu. 
 
 Cowpeas 1 to 1^ bu. 
 
 Cowpeas, in drills with corn 5 to 1 bu. 
 
 Cowpeas, for seed .3 pk. 
 
 Cucumber, in hills 2 lb. 
 
 Cress, water, in drills 2 to 3 lb. 
 
 Cress, upland 2 to 3 lb. 
 
 Eggplant, for 1,000 plants 1 oz. 
 
 Field pea, small variety 2^ bu. 
 
 Field pea, large variety 3 to 3| bu. 
 
 Flax, for seed 2 to 3 pk. 
 
 Flax, for fiber 1§ to 2 bu. 
 
 Grass, for lawns 2 to 4 bu. 
 
 Hemp, broadcasted 3| to 4 pk. 
 
 Hungarian grass, for hay 2 pk. 
 
 Hungarian grass, for seed 1 pk. 
 
 Johnson grass 1 to 1| bu, 
 
 Kafir com, in drills 3 to 6 lb. 
 
 Kafir corn, for fodder 10 to 12 lb. 
 
 Kale 2 to 4 lb. 
 
 Kohlrabi 4 to 5 lb. 
 
 Lettuce 20 to 30 oz. 
 
 Lupine 1^ to 2 bu. 
 
 Mangels 5 to 8 lb. 
 
 Meadow fescue 12 to 15 lb. 
 
 Millet, barnyard, in drills 1 to 2 pk. 
 
 Millet, foxtail, in drills 2 to 3 pk. 
 
 Millet, German, for seed 1 pk. 
 
 Millet, Pearl, for soiling 4 lb. 
 
 Millet, Pearl, for hay 8 to 10 lb. 
 
 Milo 5 lb. 
 
 Muskmelon, in hills 2 to 3 lb. 
 
 Mustard, broadcasted ^ bu. 
 
 Oat grass. Tall 30 lb. 
 
 Oats 2 to 3 bu. 
 
 r. , ■, rOats, 2bu. 
 
 Oats and peas {^^^^ i bu. 
 
 Onion, in drills 5 to 6 lb. 
 
 Onion, for sets 30 lb. 
 
 Onion sets 6 to 12 lb. 
 
 Orchard grass 12 to 15 lb. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 361 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 Kind of Seed Quantity 
 
 Parsnip 4 to 8 lb. 
 
 Pop com 3 lb. 
 
 Potatoes, cut tubers 6 to 20 bu. 
 
 Pumpkin 4 lb. 
 
 Rape, in drills 2 to 4 lb. 
 
 Rape, broadcasted 4 to 8 lb. 
 
 Radish, in drills 8 to 10 lb. 
 
 Red top 12 to 15 lb. 
 
 Rice 1 to 3 bu. 
 
 Rutabaga 3 to 5 lb. 
 
 Rye, early 3 to 4 pk. 
 
 Rye, late 6 to 8 pk. 
 
 Rye, for forage 3 to 4 pk. 
 
 Rye grass 2 to 3 bu. 
 
 Sage, in drills 8 to 10 lb. 
 
 Sainfoin 40 lb. 
 
 Salsify 8 to 10 lb. 
 
 Sand lucerne, broadcasted 15 lb. 
 
 Sheep's fescue 2i to 3 bu. 
 
 Sorghum, for forage 1^ to 2 bu. 
 
 Sorghum, for seed or syrup 2 to 5 lb. 
 
 Sorghum, saccharine, for silage 6 to 25 lb. 
 
 Sorghum and peas, each f pk. 
 
 Soybeans, in drills 2 to 3 pk. 
 
 Soybeans, broadcasted 1 to 1^ bu. 
 
 Spinage 10 to 12 lb. 
 
 Spurry 6 to 8 qt. 
 
 Spurry, for seed 4 qt. 
 
 Squash, bush, in hills 4 to 6 lb. 
 
 Squash, running, in hills 3 to 4 lb. 
 
 Sugar beet 15 to 20 lb. 
 
 Sugar cane 4 T. of cane 
 
 Sunflower 10 to 15 lb. 
 
 Sweet potatoes 1| to 4 bu. 
 
 Teosinte 1 to 3 lb. 
 
 Timothy 15 to 25 lb. 
 
 Timothy and clover { Tj-ot^hy. ■;•■■■;;■■■■.•;■ | »• 
 
 Tomato, for transplanting \\h. 
 
 Turnip, broadcast 2 to 4 lb. 
 
 Turnip, in drills ] lb. 
 
 Turnip, hybrid 3 to 5 lb. 
 
 Velvet bean J to 4 pk. 
 
 Vetch, Hairy, in drills 1 bu. 
 
 Vetch, Hairy, broadcasted 1? bu 
 
 V^tch, kidney 18 to 22 lb. 
 
 Vetch, spring f pk. 
 
 Watermelon, in hills 4 to 5 lb. 
 
 Wheat 6 to 9 pk. 
 
362 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
 MIXTURES RECOMMENDED FOR 1 A. OF 
 
 MEADOW 
 Mixture Pounds 
 
 No. 1: 
 
 Timothy 8 
 
 Red clover 8 
 
 No. 2: 
 
 Timothy 8 
 
 Red clover 6 
 
 Alsike clover 2 
 
 No. 3: 
 
 Red top 13 
 
 Orchard grass 18 
 
 Meadow fescue 9 
 
 Red clover 4 
 
 No. 4: 
 
 Timothy 8 
 
 Red clover 4 
 
 Alsike clover 2 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 2 
 
 Red top 2 
 
 MIXTURES RECOMMENDED FOR PERMANENT 
 PASTURES 
 
 For fertile land: Pounds 
 
 Timothy 8 to 12 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 4 to 6 
 
 Meadow fescue 1 to 4 
 
 Orchard grass 1 to 4 
 
 R.ed clover 6 
 
 Alsike clover 3 
 
 White clover 1 to 2 
 
 For rather poor land : 
 
 Timothy 8 to 12 
 
 Red top 4 
 
 Canadian blue grass 4 
 
 Red clover 6 
 
 Alsike clover 3 
 
 White clover 1 
 
 For wet pasture: 
 
 Red top 14 
 
 Alsike clover 8 
 
 Creeping bent grass 6 
 
 Perennial rye grass 2 
 
MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 363 
 
 NUMBER OF PLANTS REQUIRED TO 
 
 SET 1 A. 
 
 OF GROUND AT GIVEN DISTANCES 
 
 Distance 
 
 Plants 
 
 Distance 
 
 Plants 
 
 1 in.X 6 in. 
 
 1,045,440 
 
 12 in.X 15 in. 
 
 34,848 
 
 1 in.X Sin. 
 
 784,080 
 
 12 in. X 18 in. 
 
 29,040 
 
 1 in.X 10 in. 
 
 627,269 
 
 12 in.X 20 in. 
 
 26,136 
 
 1 in.X 12 in. 
 
 522.720 
 
 12 in.X 30 in. 
 
 17,424 
 
 2 in.X 6 in. 
 
 522,720 
 
 12 in.X 42 in. 
 
 12,446 
 
 2 in. X 8 in. 
 
 392,040 
 
 12 in. X 54 in. 
 
 9,680 
 
 2 in.X 10 in. 
 
 313,632 
 
 15 in.X 15 in. 
 
 27,878 
 
 2 in.X 12 in. 
 
 261.360 
 
 15 in.X IS in. 
 
 23,232 
 
 3 in.X 6 in. 
 
 348,480 
 
 15 in.X 20 in. 
 
 20,908 
 
 3 in.X 8 in. 
 
 261,360 
 
 15 in.X 24 in. 
 
 17,424 
 
 3 in.X 10 in. 
 
 209,088 
 
 15 in.X 30 in. 
 
 13,939 
 
 3 in.X 12 in. 
 
 174,240 
 
 15 in.X 36 in. 
 
 11,616 
 
 4 in. X 6 in. 
 
 261,360 
 
 15 in.X 42 in. 
 
 9,953 
 
 4 in. X 8 in. 
 
 196.020 
 
 15 in.X 48 in. 
 
 8.712 
 
 4 in.X 10 in. 
 
 156,816 
 
 15 in.X 54 in. 
 
 7,744 
 
 4 in.X 12 in. 
 
 130,680 
 
 15 in.X 60 in. 
 
 6,969 
 
 5 in.X 6 in. 
 
 209,088 
 
 18 in.X 18 in. 
 
 19,360 
 
 5 in. X 8 in. 
 
 156,816 
 
 18 in.X 20 in. 
 
 17,424 
 
 5 in. X 10 in. 
 
 125,452 
 
 IS in.X 24 in. 
 
 14,520 
 
 5 in.X 12 in. 
 
 104,544 
 
 18 in.X 30 in. 
 
 11,616 
 
 6 in.X 6 in. 
 
 174,240 
 
 18 in.X 36 in. 
 
 9,680 
 
 6 in.X 8 in. 
 
 130,680 
 
 18 in.X 42 in. 
 
 8.297 
 
 6 in.X 10 in. 
 
 104,544 
 
 IS in.X 48 in. 
 
 7,260 
 
 6 in.X 12 in. 
 
 87,120 
 
 18 in.X 54 in. 
 
 6.453 
 
 7 in.X 7 in. 
 
 128,013 
 
 18 in.X 60 in. 
 
 5,808 
 
 7 in.X 8 in. 
 
 112,011 
 
 20 in.X 20 in. 
 
 15,681 
 
 7 in.X 10 in. 
 
 89,609 
 
 20 in.X 24 in. 
 
 13.168 
 
 7 in. X 12 in. 
 
 74,674 
 
 20 in.X 30 in. 
 
 10.454 
 
 8 in.X 8 in. 
 
 98,010 
 
 20' in.X 36 in. 
 
 8,712 
 
 8 in.X 10 in. 
 
 78,408 
 
 20 in.X 42 in. 
 
 7,467 
 
 8 in.X 12 in. 
 
 65,340 
 
 20 in.X 48 in. 
 
 6,534 
 
 9 in.X 9 in. 
 
 77,440 
 
 20 in.X 54 in. 
 
 5.308 
 
 9 in.X 10 in. 
 
 69,696 
 
 20 in.X 60 in. 
 
 5,227 
 
 9 in.X 12 in. 
 
 58,080 
 
 1 ft.X 1 ft. 
 
 43.560 
 
 10 in.X 10 in. 
 
 62,726 
 
 1 ft.X 2 ft. 
 
 21,780 
 
 10 in.X 12 in. 
 
 52.272 
 
 1 ft.X 3 ft. 
 
 14,520 
 
 10 in.X 15 in. 
 
 41,817 
 
 1 ft.X 4 ft. 
 
 10.890 
 
 10 in.X 18 in. 
 
 34,848 
 
 1 ft.X 5 ft. 
 
 8,712 
 
 10 in.X 20 in. 
 
 31,362 
 
 1 ft. X 6 ft. 
 
 7,260 
 
 10 in.X 24 in. 
 
 26,132 
 
 1 ft. X 7 ft. 
 
 6.223 
 
 10 in. X 30 in. 
 
 20,908 
 
 1 ft. X 8 ft. 
 
 5.445 
 
 10 in.X 36 in. 
 
 17,424 
 
 1 ft.X 9 ft. 
 
 4,840 
 
 10 in.X 42 in. 
 
 14.935 
 
 1 ft.X 10 ft. 
 
 4,356 
 
 10 in.X 48 in. 
 
 13,068 
 
 1 ft.X 11 ft. 
 
 3.960 
 
364 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 Distance 
 
 Plants 
 
 Distance 
 
 1 ft. X 12 ft. 
 
 3,630 
 
 6 ft. X 12 ft. 
 
 2ft.X 2 ft. 
 
 10.890 
 
 7ft.X 7 ft. 
 
 2ft.X 3 ft. 
 
 7,260 
 
 7 ft.X 8 ft. 
 
 2ft.X 4 ft. 
 
 5,445 
 
 7ft.X 9 ft. 
 
 2ft.X 5 ft. 
 
 4,356 
 
 7 ft.X 10 ft. 
 
 2ft.X 6 ft. 
 
 3,630 
 
 7 ft.Xll ft. 
 
 2ft.X 7 ft. 
 
 3,111 
 
 7 ft.X 12 ft. 
 
 2ft.X 8 ft. 
 
 2,722 
 
 8 ft.X 8 ft. 
 
 2ft.X 9 ft. 
 
 2,420 
 
 Sft.X 9 ft. 
 
 2 ft. X 10 ft. 
 
 2,178 
 
 8 ft. X 10 ft. 
 
 2ft.Xll ft. 
 
 1,980 
 
 8 ft.Xll ft. 
 
 2ft.X12ft. 
 
 1,815 
 
 8 ft.X 12 ft. 
 
 3ft.X 3 ft. 
 
 4,840 
 
 9 ft.X 9 ft. 
 
 3ft.X 4 ft. 
 
 3,630 
 
 9 ft.X 10 ft. 
 
 3ft.X 5 ft. 
 
 2,904 
 
 9 ft.X 11 ft. 
 
 3ft.X 6 ft. 
 
 2,420 
 
 9 ft.X 12 ft. 
 
 3ft.X 7 ft. 
 
 2,074 
 
 9 ft.X 14 ft. 
 
 Sft.X 8 ft. 
 
 1,815 
 
 9 ft.X 15 ft. 
 
 3ft.X 9 ft. 
 
 1,613 
 
 9 ft.X 18 ft. 
 
 3 ft. X 10 ft. 
 
 1,452 
 
 9 ft.X 20 ft. 
 
 3 ft. X 11 ft. 
 
 1,320 
 
 10 ft.X 10 ft. 
 
 3 ft. X 12 ft. 
 
 1,210 
 
 10 ft.X 12 ft. 
 
 4ft.X 4 ft. 
 
 2,722 
 
 10 ft.X 15 ft. 
 
 4ft.X 5 ft. 
 
 2,178 
 
 10 ft.X 18 ft. 
 
 4ft.X 6 ft. 
 
 1,185 
 
 10 ft.X 20 ft. 
 
 4ft.X 7 ft. 
 
 1,556 
 
 10 ft.X 24 ft. 
 
 4ft.X 8 ft. 
 
 1,361 
 
 10 ft.X 30 ft. 
 
 4ft.X 9 ft. 
 
 1.210 
 
 10 ft.X 36 ft. 
 
 4 ft. X 10 ft. 
 
 1,089 
 
 10 ft.X 42 ft. 
 
 4ft.Xll ft. 
 
 990 
 
 10 ft.X 45 ft. 
 
 4 ft. X 12 ft. 
 
 907 
 
 10 ft.X 48 ft. 
 
 5ft.X 5 ft. 
 
 1,742 
 
 10 ft.X 54 ft. 
 
 5ft.X 6 ft. 
 
 1,452 
 
 10 ft.X 60 ft. 
 
 Sft.X 7ft. 
 
 1,244 
 
 12 ft. X 12 ft. 
 
 5ft.X 8 ft. 
 
 1,089 
 
 12 ft.X 15 ft. 
 
 Sft.X 9ft. 
 
 968 
 
 12 ft.X 18 -ft. 
 
 Sft.X 10 ft. 
 
 871 
 
 12 ft.X 20 ft. 
 
 Sft.X 11 ft. 
 
 792 
 
 12 ft.X 24 ft. 
 
 Sft.X 12 ft. 
 
 726 
 
 12 ft.X 30 ft. 
 
 6ft.X 6 ft. 
 
 1.210 
 
 12 ft.X 36 ft. 
 
 6ft.X 7 ft. 
 
 1,037 
 
 12 ft.X 42 ft. 
 
 6ft.X 8 ft. 
 
 907 
 
 12 ft.X 48 ft. 
 
 6ft.X 9 ft. 
 
 806 
 
 12 ft.X 54 ft. 
 
 6 ft. X 10 ft. 
 
 726 
 
 12 ft.X 60 ft. 
 
 6 ft.Xll ft. 
 
 660 
 
 15 ft.X 15 ft. 
 
 193 
 
M ISC ELLA XEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 365 
 Table — (Continued) 
 
 Distance 
 
 Plants 
 
 Distance 
 
 Plants 
 
 1 5 ft. X 18 ft. 
 
 161 
 
 30 ft. X 30 ft. 
 
 48 
 
 15 ft. X 20 ft. 
 
 145 
 
 30 ft. X 36 ft. 
 
 40 
 
 15 ft. X 24 ft. 
 
 121 
 
 30 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 34 
 
 15 ft. X 30 ft. 
 
 96 
 
 30 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 30 
 
 15 ft. X 36 ft. 
 
 80 
 
 30 ft. X 54 ft. 
 
 26 
 
 15 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 69 
 
 30 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 24 
 
 15 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 60 
 
 36 ft. X 36 ft. 
 
 33 
 
 15 ft. X 54 ft. 
 
 53 
 
 36 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 28 
 
 15 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 48 
 
 36 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 25 
 
 ISft.XlSft. 
 
 134 
 
 36 ft. X 54 ft. 
 
 22 
 
 18 ft. X 20 ft. 
 
 121 
 
 36 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 20 
 
 18 ft. X 24 ft. 
 
 100 
 
 38 ft. X 38 ft. 
 
 30 
 
 18ft.X30ft. 
 
 80 
 
 38 ft. X 40 ft. 
 
 28 
 
 18 ft. X 36 ft. 
 
 67 
 
 38 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 27 
 
 18 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 57 
 
 38 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 23 
 
 18 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 50 
 
 38 ft. X 50 ft. 
 
 22 
 
 18 ft. X 54 ft. 
 
 44 
 
 38 ft. X 54 ft. 
 
 21 
 
 18 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 40 
 
 38 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 19 
 
 20 ft. X 20 ft. 
 
 108 
 
 40 ft.X40 ft. 
 
 27 
 
 20 ft. X 24 ft. 
 
 90 
 
 40 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 25 
 
 20 ft. X 30 ft. 
 
 72 
 
 40 ft.X4S ft. 
 
 22 
 
 20 ft. X 36 ft. 
 
 60 
 
 40 ft. X 50 ft. 
 
 21 
 
 20ft.X42ft. 
 
 51 
 
 40ft.X.54ft. 
 
 20 
 
 20 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 45 
 
 40 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 18 
 
 20 ft. X 54 ft. 
 
 40 
 
 42 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 24 
 
 20 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 36 
 
 42 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 21 
 
 24ft.X24ft. 
 
 75 
 
 42 ft. X. 54 ft. 
 
 19 
 
 24 ft. X 30 ft. 
 
 60 
 
 42 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 17 
 
 24 ft. X 36 ft. 
 
 50 
 
 48 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 18 
 
 24 ft. X 42 ft. 
 
 43 
 
 48 ft. X 54 ft. 
 
 16 
 
 24 ft. X 48 ft. 
 
 37 
 
 4Sft.X60ft. 
 
 15 
 
 24 ft.X54 ft. 
 
 33 
 
 50 ft.X50 ft. 
 
 17 
 
 24 ft. X 60 ft. 
 
 30 
 
 
 
366 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
 AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEED 
 TO GERMINATE 
 
 Crop 
 
 Days 
 
 Crop 
 
 Days 
 
 Bean 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 6 to 8 
 
 Beet 
 
 7 to 10 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 12 to 18 
 
 
 7 to 10 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Pea 
 
 6 to 10 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 Pepper 
 
 9 to 14 
 
 Celery 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 Salsify 
 
 7 to 12 
 
 Com 
 
 5 to 8 
 
 Radish 
 
 3 to 6 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 6 to 10 
 
 Tomato 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 Endive 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 Turnips 
 
 4 to 8 
 
 TIME REQUIRED FOR MATURITY OF DIFFERENT 
 VEGETABLE CROPS FROM SEEDING 
 
 Crops 
 
 Days 
 
 Crops 
 
 Days 
 
 Beans, string. . 
 
 45 to 65 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 65 
 
 Beans, shell . . . 
 
 65 to 70 
 
 Onions 
 
 135 to 150 
 
 Beets, turnip . . 
 
 65 
 
 Peppers 
 
 140 to 150 
 
 Beets, Long 
 
 
 Radishes 
 
 30 to 45 
 
 Blood 
 
 150 
 
 Squashes, sum- 
 
 
 Cabbage, early 
 
 105 
 
 mer 
 
 60 to 65 
 
 Cabbage, late. 
 
 150 
 
 Squashes, win- 
 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 110 
 
 ter 
 
 125 
 
 Corn 
 
 75 
 150 to 160 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Turnip 
 
 150 
 
 Eggplant 
 
 60 to 70 
 
 COMPARISON OF BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 HYDROMETER READINGS FOR LIQUIDS 
 
 HEAVIER THAN WATER 
 
 Baum6 
 
 Specific 
 
 Baum6 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Gravity 
 
 1 
 
 1.007 
 
 24 
 
 1.198 
 
 2 
 
 1.014 
 
 25 
 
 1.208 
 
 3 
 
 1.021 
 
 26 
 
 1.218 
 
 4 
 
 1.028 
 
 27 
 
 1.229 
 
 4.3 
 
 1.030 
 
 28 
 
 1.239 
 
 15 
 
 1.115 
 
 29 
 
 1.250 
 
 16 
 
 1.124 
 
 30 
 
 1.261 
 
 17 
 
 1.133 
 
 31 
 
 1.272 
 
 18 
 
 1.142 
 
 32 
 
 1.283 
 
 19 
 
 1.151 
 
 33 
 
 1.295 
 
 20 
 
 1.160 
 
 34 
 
 1.306 
 
 21 
 
 1.169 
 
 35 
 
 1.318 
 
 22 
 
 1.179 
 
 36 
 
 1.330 
 
 23 
 
 1.188 
 
 
 
CAPACITY OF CIRCULAR SILOS AND QUANTITY 
 
 OF SILAGE TO BE FED TO LOWER THE 
 
 SURFACE 2 IN. DAILY 
 
 Inside 
 Diameter 
 
 Depth 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Acreage of 
 Corn to 
 
 Quantity 
 to be Fed 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Tons 
 
 Fill. 15 T. 
 
 Daily 
 
 
 
 to the Acre 
 
 Pounds 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 2.8 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 47 
 
 3.0 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 51 
 
 3.4 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 56 
 
 3.7 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 65 
 
 4.3 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 4.6 
 
 525 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 61 
 
 4.1 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 67 
 
 4.5 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 32 
 
 74 
 
 5.0 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 80 
 
 5.3 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 87 
 
 5.8 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 94 
 
 6.4 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 
 101 
 
 7.3 
 
 755 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 83 
 
 5.5 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 91 
 
 6.1 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 100 
 
 6.7 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 109 
 
 7.2 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 36 
 
 118 
 
 7.9 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 128 
 
 8.5 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 138 
 
 9.2 
 
 1030 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 108 
 
 7.2 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 131 
 
 8.7 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 143 
 
 9.5 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 155 
 
 10.3 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 167 
 
 11.1 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 180 
 
 12.0 
 
 1340 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 151 
 
 10.0 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 166 
 
 11.0 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 34 
 
 181 
 
 12.0 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 196 
 
 13.2 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 212 
 
 14.1 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 229 
 
 15.2 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 246 
 
 16.4 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 44 
 
 264 
 
 17.6 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 46 
 
 282 
 
 18.8 
 
 1700 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 187 
 
 12.5 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 205 
 
 13.6 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 224 
 
 15.0 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 243 
 
 16.2 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 281 
 
 18.8 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 42 
 
 300 
 
 20.0 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 44 
 
 320 
 
 21.3 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 46 
 
 340 
 
 22.6 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 361 
 
 24.0 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 382 
 
 25.5 
 
 2100 
 
 367 
 
368 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
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370 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
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MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 371 
 
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372 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
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MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 373 
 
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374 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
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MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 375 
 
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376 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 
 
 Notes Concerning 
 
 ^Not defined. 
 
 ^Small white beans, 60 lb. 
 
 ^Green apples. [wurzel. 
 
 *Sugar beets and mangel 
 
 ^Shelled beans, 60 lb. ; vel- 
 vet beans, 78 lb. 
 
 ^White beans. 
 
 ^Wheat bran. 
 
 ^Green unshelled beans, 
 56 lb. 
 
 ^English blue-grass seed, 
 22 lb. ; native blue-grass 
 seed, 14 lb. 
 ^**Also castor seed. 
 "Soybeans, 58 lb. [30 lb. 
 ^^Green unshelled beans, 
 ^^Soybeans 
 "Free from hulls. 
 ^^Commercially dry, for all 
 
 hard woods. 
 ^®Fifteen lb. commercially 
 
 dry, for all soft woods. 
 "Standard weight in bor- 
 ough of Greensburg. 
 ^^Dried beans. 
 ^''Red and white. 
 20Corn in ear, 70 lb. until 
 
 Dec. 1 next after grown; 
 
 68 lb. thereafter. 
 ^^Sweet corn 
 ^-On the cob. 
 -^Indian corn in ear. 
 2*Unwashed plastering hair, 
 
 8 lb.; washed plastering 
 
 hair, 4 lb. 
 2^Corn in ear, from Nov. 1 
 
 to May 1 following, 70 
 
 lb.; 68 lb. from May 1 to 
 
 Nov. 1. 
 ^^Indian-corn meal. 
 ^^Cracked corn. 
 28Shelled. 
 ^^Free from hulls. 
 ^"Standard weight bu. corn 
 
 meal, bolted or unbolted, 
 
 48 lb. 
 '^Except the seed of long 
 
 staple cotton, of which 
 
 the weight shall be 42 lb. 
 
 Preceding Table 
 
 3-Green unshelled corn, 
 100 lb. 
 
 ^^Green cucumbers. 
 
 3*See also "Popcorn," "In- 
 dian corn," and "Kafir 
 corn." 
 
 ^"Green peaches. 
 
 ^^Green pears. 
 
 3'Malt rye. [i2 lb. 
 
 3*Top sets; bottom sets, 
 
 s^Shelled, 56 lb. 
 
 ""Shelled, dry. 
 
 "^Strike measure. 
 
 "^Bottom onion sets. 
 
 "^German and American. 
 
 "Shelled. 
 
 "■''Peaches (peeled) ; un- 
 peeled 32 lb. 
 
 "^Cowpeas. 
 
 "^Roasted; green 22 lb. 
 
 "*Not stated whether peeled 
 or unpeeled. 
 
 "''Top onion sets. 
 
 ^"Including split peas. 
 
 ^^In the ear. 
 
 J^Slacked lime, 40 lb. 
 
 ^^German, Missouri, and 
 Tennessee millet seeds. 
 
 ^"Matured onions. 
 
 ^^Bottom onion sets, 32 lb. 
 
 ^'^Matured. 
 
 "Matured pears, 56 lb.; 
 
 dried pears, 26 lb. 
 ^^Black-eyed peas. 
 ^^Barley malt. 
 ^"Includes "Rice corn." 
 ^^"Rice corn." [seed. 
 
 •'^Sorghum saccharatum 
 '^Red top grass seed 
 (chaff); fancy, 32 lb. 
 6^Seed. 
 
 ^^Irish potatoes. 
 ^*'Free from hulls. 
 6^Ground salt, 70 lb. 
 ^^India wheat, 46 lb. 
 *^In some states herd's 
 grass is a synonym for 
 timothy; in other states, 
 for Red top. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 377 
 
 The states of Idaho, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming 
 have no standard for bushel weights. 
 
 LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF VARIOUS COM- 
 MODITIES FOR WHICH BUSHEL WEIGHTS 
 HAVE BEEN ADOPTED IN BUT ONE 
 OR TWO STATES 
 
 Alsike (or Swedish) seed, 60 lb. (Md. and Okla). 
 
 Beggar weed seed, 62 lb. (Fla.) (Tenn.). 
 
 Blackberries, 30 lb. (la.); 48 lb. (Tenn.); dried, 28 lb. 
 
 Bernuida grass seed, 40 lb. (Okla.). 
 
 Blueberries, 42 lb. (Minn.). 
 
 Bromus inermus, 14 lb. (N. Dak.). 
 
 Bur clover, in hulls, 8 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Cabbage, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Canary seed, 60 lb. (Tenn.); 50 lb. (la.). 
 
 Cantaloup melon, 50 lb. (Tenn.) 
 
 Castor seed, 50 lb. (Md.). 
 
 Cement, 80 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Cherries, 40 lb. (la.); with stems, 56 lb. (Tenn.); with- 
 out stems, 64 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Chufa, 54 lb. (Fla.). 
 
 Cotton seed, staple, 42 lb. (S. C). 
 
 Culm, 80 lb. (Md.). 
 
 Currants, 40 lb. (la. and Minn.). 
 
 Feed, 50 lb. (Mass.). 
 
 Fescue, seed of all the, except the Tall and Meadow 
 fescue, 14 lb. (N. C). (N. C). 
 
 Fescue, Tall and Meadow fescue grass seed, 24 lb. 
 
 Grapes, 40 lb. (la.); with stems, 48 lb. (Tenn.); with- 
 out stems, 60 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Guavas, 54 lb. (Fla.). 
 
 Hominy, 60 lb. (O.); 62 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Horseradish, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Italian rye-grass seed, 20 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Japan clover in hulls, 25 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Johnson grass, 28 lb. (Ark.); 25 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Kale, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Land plaster, 100 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Lentils, 60 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Lucerne, 60 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Lupines, 60 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Meadow seed, tall, 14 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Meal (?), 46 lb. (Ala.); unbolted, 48 lb. (Ala.). 
 
 Middlings, fine, 40 lb. (Ind.); coarse middlings, 30 lb. 
 (Ind.). 
 
 Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 lb. (Mass. and N. H.). 
 
 Mustard, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Mustard seed, 58 lb. (N. C). 
 
378 ARITHMETICAL TABLES 
 
 Oat grass seed, 14 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Oat grass seed, 14 lb. (N. C). (Mich.). 
 
 Plums, 40 lb. (Fla.); 64 lb. (Tenn.): dried, 28 lb. 
 
 Prunes, dried, 28 lb. (Ida.); green, 45 lb. (Ida.). 
 
 Radish seed, 50 lb. (la.). 
 
 Raspberries, 32 lb. (la. and Kan.); 48 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Rhubarb, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Sage, 4 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Salads, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Sand, 130 lb. (la.). 
 
 Seed of brome grasses, 14 lb. (N. C), 
 
 Spinage, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Strawberries, 32 lb. (la.); 48 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Sugar cane seed (amber), 57 lb. (N. J.) 
 
 Sunflower seed, 24 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Teosinte, 59 lb. (N. C). 
 
 Velvet grass seed, 7 lb. (Tenn.). 
 
 Vetches, 60 lb. (N. C). 
 
 ARITHMETICAL TABLES 
 
 MEASURES OF EXTENSION 
 
 Measures of extension are used in measuring lengths (dis- 
 tances), surfaces (areas), and solids (volumes), and are divided, 
 accordingly, into linear measure, square measure, and cubic 
 measure. 
 
 Linear measure has one dimension (length), square measure 
 has two dimensions (length and breadth), and cubic measure 
 has three dimensions (length, breadth, and thickness). 
 
 LINEAR MEASURE 
 
 12 inches (in.) =1 foot ft. 
 
 3 feet =1 yard yd. 
 
 5^ yards =1 rod rd. 
 
 320 rods = 1 mile mi. 
 
 in. ft. yd. rd. mi. 
 
 12= 1 
 36= 3 = 1 
 198= 161= 5h= 1 
 63,360 = 5,280 =1,760 =320 = 1 
 
ARITHMETICAL TABLES 379 
 
 SQUARE MEASURE 
 
 144 square inches (sq. in.) . , . . = 1 square foot sq. ft. 
 
 9 square feet =1 square yard sq. yd. 
 
 30} square yards =1 square rod sq. rd. 
 
 160 square rods = 1 acre A. 
 
 640 acres =1 square mile sq. mi. 
 
 sq. in. sq.ft. sq. yd. sq. rd. A. sq. mi. 
 
 144= 1 
 
 1.296= 9 = 1 
 
 39.204= 272i= 30|= 1 
 
 6,272.640= 43.560 = 4.840 = 160 = 1 
 4,014.489,600 = 27.878,400 = 3.097.600 = 102,400 = 640 = 1 
 
 SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE 
 
 625 square links (sq. li.) =1 square rod sq. rd. 
 
 16 square rods =1 square chain . . .sq. ch. 
 
 10 square chains =1 acre A. 
 
 640 acres =1 square mile . . . . sq. mi. 
 
 36 square miles (6 miles square). . = 1 township Tp. 
 
 A square measuring 208.71 ft. on each side contains 1 A. 
 The following are the comparative sizes, in square yards, 
 of acres in different countries: 
 
 sq. yd. sq. yd. 
 
 England and America 4,840 Amsterdam 9.722 
 
 Scotland 6,150 Dantzic 6,650 
 
 Ireland 7.840 France 11.960 
 
 Hamburg 11.545 Prussia 3.053 
 
 CUBIC MEASURE 
 
 1.728 cubic inches (cu. in.) =1 cubic foot cu. ft. 
 
 27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard cu. yd. 
 
 128 cubic feet = 1 cord of wood. 
 
 cu. in. cu. ft. cu. yd. 
 1.728 = 1 
 46.656 = 27 = 1 
 
380 
 
 ARITHMETICAL TABLES 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT 
 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 
 
 16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound 
 
 100 pounds =1 hundredweight. . 
 
 20 hundredweight 1 
 
 2.000 pounds ' ' ' ' ' 
 
 oz. 
 
 16 = 
 
 1,600 = 
 
 32,000 = 
 
 .lb. 
 .cwt. 
 
 1 ton T. 
 
 lb, 
 1 
 = 100 = 
 2,000 = 
 
 cwi. T. 
 
 1 ton T. 
 
 LONG-TON TABLE 
 
 16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound 
 
 28 pounds =1 quarter 
 
 4 quarters = 1 hundredweight, 
 
 20 hundredweight 1 
 
 2,240 pounds J " * 
 
 oz. lb. qr. cwt. T. 
 
 16= 1 
 448= 28= 1 
 1,792= 112= 4= 1 
 35,840 = 2,240 = 80 = 20 = 1 
 
 TROY WEIGHT 
 
 24 grains (gr.) =1 pennyweight 
 
 20 pennyweights =1 ounce 
 
 12 ounces = 1 pound 
 
 gr. pwt. oz. lb. 
 24= 1 
 480= 20= 1 
 5.760 = 240 = 12 = 1 
 
 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 
 
 20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple sc. 
 
 3 scruples =1 dram dr. 
 
 8 drams =1 ounce oz. 
 
 12 ounces =1 pound lb. 
 
 gr. 3 5 S ft) 
 20= 1 
 60= 3= 1 
 480= 24= 8= 1 
 5,760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1 
 
 lb. 
 qr. 
 cwt. 
 
 pwt. 
 
 oz. 
 
 lb. 
 
 or 3 
 or 5 
 or S 
 or ft 
 
ARITHMETICAL TABLES 381 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY 
 
 LIQUID MEASURE 
 
 4 gills (gi.) =1 pint pt. 
 
 2 pints =1 quart qt. 
 
 4 quarts =1 gallon gal. 
 
 3U gallons =1 barrel bbl. 
 
 aire s l ^^ hogshead hhd. 
 
 63 gallons J 
 
 gi. pt. qt. gal. bbl. hhd. 
 4= 1 
 8= 2= 1 
 32= 8= 4= 1 
 1,008 = 252 = 126 = 31§ = 1 
 2.016 = 504 = 252 = 63 =2 = 1 
 
 APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE 
 
 60 minims, or drops (TTL) =1 fluid dram £5 
 
 8 fluid drams =1 fluid ounce f S 
 
 16 fluid ounces =1 pint O. 
 
 8 pints =1 gallon Cong. 
 
 DRY MEASURE 
 
 2 pints (pt.) =1 quart qt. 
 
 8 quarts =1 peck pk. 
 
 4 pecks =1 bushel bu. 
 
 pt. qt. pk. bu. 
 
 2= 1 
 16= 8=1 
 64 = 32 = 4 = 1 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 
 
 METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF POUNDS, FEET, ETC. 
 
 The government publishes the equivalents in pounds, etc. 
 of the metric system, but the American shipper wants to 
 know what the pounds, inches, feet, and gallons, to which 
 he is accustomed, are in the metric system. The following is 
 a convenient table showing the metric values of our measures. 
 Some countries demand that the metric system should be 
 used in the consular papers, and in most countries, especially 
 
382 
 
 ARITHMETICAL TABLES 
 
 in Latin-America, the consignees ask for the weights, etc. in 
 the metric system. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Kilos 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Kilos 
 
 1 
 
 = .4536 
 
 2 
 
 = .9072 
 
 3 
 
 = 1.3608 
 
 4 
 
 =1.8144 
 
 5 
 
 =2.2680 
 
 6 . . 
 
 =2.7216 
 
 7 
 
 =3.1751 
 
 8 
 
 =3.6287 
 
 9 
 
 =4.0823 
 
 10 
 
 = 4.536 
 
 20 
 
 = 9.072 
 
 30 
 
 = 13.608 
 
 40. 
 
 =18.144 
 
 50 
 
 =22.680 
 
 1,000 kilos = 
 1 inch 
 
 = 1 metric ton (T 
 
 Centimeters 
 = 2.54 
 
 1 foot 
 
 = 30.48 
 
 1 yard 
 
 = 91.44 
 
 2 feet 
 
 = 60.96 
 
 3 feet 
 
 = 91.44 
 
 4 feet . . . . 
 
 =121.92 
 
 5 feet 
 
 = 152.40 
 
 6 feet 
 
 = 182.88 
 
 60 =27.216 
 
 70 =31.751 
 
 80 =36.287 
 
 90 =40.823 
 
 100 = 45.36 
 
 200 = 90.72 
 
 300 = 136.08 
 
 400 =181.44 
 
 500 =226.80 
 
 600 =272.16 
 
 700 =317.51 
 
 800 =362.87 
 
 900 =408.23 
 
 1,000 =453.60 
 
 lelada metrico). 
 
 Centimeters 
 
 7 feet =213.36 
 
 8 feet =243.84 
 
 9 feet =274.32 
 
 10 feet =304.80 
 
 11 feet =335.28 
 
 12 feet =365.76 
 
 13 feet =396.24 
 
 14 feet =426.72 
 
 TABLE OF DISTANCES 
 
 1 mile =5,280 ft.; 1,760 yd. 
 
 320 rd.; 8 fur. 
 
 1 furlong = 40 rd. 
 
 1 league =3 mi. 
 
 1 knot,* or nautical mile =6,080 ft.; or If mi. 
 
 *A knot is really a measure of speed and not of distance; 
 when used in this sense, it is equivalent to 1 nautical mile 
 in 1 hour. Thus, a vessel traveling 20 nautical miles per hour 
 has a speed of 20 knots. 
 
ARITHMETICAL TABLES 383 
 
 1 nautical league. =3 nautical mi. 
 
 1 fathom = 6 ft. 
 
 1 meter = 3 ft. 3| in., nearly 
 
 1 hand = 4 in. 
 
 1 palm = 3 in. 
 
 1 span = 9 in. 
 
 1 cable's length = 240 yd. 
 
 MEASURES OF VOLUME 
 
 1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in. 
 
 1 ale gallon = 282 cu. in. 
 
 1 standard, or wine, gallon =231 cu. in. 
 
 1 dry gallon = 268.8 cu. in. 
 
 1 bushel =2,150.4 cu, in. 
 
 1 British bushel =2,218.19 cu. in. 
 
 1 cord of wood = 128 cu. ft. 
 
 1 perch = 24.75 cu. ft. 
 
 1 ton of round timber =40 cu. ft. 
 
 1 ton of hewn timber = 50 cu. ft. 
 
 Cylinders having the following dimensions in inches con- 
 tain the measures stated, very closely; the diameters are 
 given first: 
 
 Gill = If in.X3 in. Gallon = 7 in.X 6 in. 
 
 Pint =3Hn.X3in. 8 gallons =14 in.X 12 in. 
 
 Quart =3^in.X6in. 10 gaUons. . . . = 14 in. X 15 in- 
 
NI e: NI O R AN D A 
 
NIKMORANDA 
 
 25 
 
nie:m:orane>a 
 
NIKMLORANDA 
 
NIKMORANDA 
 
Promotion 
 Advancement in Salary 
 
 and 
 
 Business Success 
 
 Secured 
 Through the 
 
 GENERAL FARMING 
 
 Soil Improvement 
 
 Farm Crops 
 
 Livestock and Dairying 
 
 POULTRY FARMING 
 
 Poultry Breeding 
 
 COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
 OF THE 
 
 International 
 Correspondence Schools 
 
 International Textbook 
 Company, Proprietors 
 
 SCRANTON, PA.. U. S. A. 
 
 SEE FOLLOWING PAGES 
 
The Benefits oE an Agri- 
 cultural Course 
 
 The benefits to be derived from a Course in 
 Agriculture in the I. C. S. are manifold, the 
 most important, perhaps, is that it teaches the 
 tiller of the soil to grow not only a better crop, 
 but realize a greater production, as well as to 
 do it with a great deal less of labor and expense, 
 thereby making the tilling of the soil more of 
 a pleasure than a drudge. Farmers, as well as 
 others, are waking up to the truth that scien- 
 tific farming is the only proper method to 
 pursue, especially in these days of worn-out 
 land, problems of drainage, and other things 
 too numerous to mention. In this connection, 
 your instruction on manures is worth the price 
 of the whole Course. I might say the same 
 of your instruction on drainage, etc. 
 
 I have just put out twenty-five ParagonChest- 
 nut Trees, and a quantity of Catalpa Speciosa, 
 Bald Cypress, etc., and, in the proper prepara- 
 tion of the soil to receive these trees, your 
 instruction, of course, stood me in good stead. 
 Ann also growing Ginseng, Golden Seal, Pink 
 Root, Ladies' Slipper, and others of the so- 
 called "special crops," on the same farm; the 
 preparation of the soil for the successful grow- 
 ing of such plants requires special consideration 
 and study. I also have a problem of drainage 
 on my hands, on the same farm, but, with the 
 instruction given in your Agricultural Course, 
 it will be a very easy matter to meet all the 
 conditions. 
 
 I have endeavored to make my letter brief, 
 but, on account of the great scope or magni- 
 tude of your Agricultural Course, it would be 
 difficult to say it all upon a hundred sheets of 
 paper of this size. 
 
 Wayne Canfield, 
 84 Madison St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
 
SECURED A POSITION ON A POULTRY FARM 
 
 Jack Chamberlain, Petoskey, Mich.: "Since taking up 
 your Course in Poultry Farming I have been employed on a 
 poultry farm, and my wages are 10 per cent, higher than ever 
 before, due to the knowledge gained from your Course." 
 
 WELL SATISFIED 
 
 Phillip Becker, 1910 Prospect Ave., New York, N. Y.: 
 " I desire to state that I find your Course in Agriculture all that 
 I expected it would be. It not only explains everything, but 
 tells what to do, when to do it, and how to do it. I am very 
 well satisfied with the Course." 
 
 MANAGING A LARGE PLANT 
 
 Philip J. Roy, St. Joseph Academy, Tipton, Ind.: "From 
 the knowledge gained from the lessons in your Poultry Farming 
 Course that I have completed, I have been appointed man- 
 ager of poultry farming for this institution, and as a special 
 favor I ask all the assistance that the I. C. S. may see fit to 
 give me to make my work a success. At present, I have 1,000 
 eggs under incubation. The president and general manager 
 of this institution have inspected my studies thus far and they 
 have given me their confidence in my work; they think your 
 Course so complete that one can be successful if your teach- 
 ings are followed." 
 
 FIT TO MANAGE A FARM 
 
 J. H. Pennington, Pennington Gap, Va.: "My Course in 
 Agriculture has been of great practical value to me and I am 
 sure that any one who studies it will be fully able to manage a 
 farm." 
 
 NOW MANAGER 
 
 Claude C. Rocke, Manager Hillair Farm, Sterlington, 
 N. Y.: "I find the knowledge derived from your Course 
 in Soil Improvement and Farm Crops of practical value in my 
 business. I took up the Course with the idea of gaining all 
 the information possible concerning agriculture, also the more 
 advanced methods of farming. I now have charge of a gentle- 
 man's estate, and there is seldom a day but some points of the 
 Course are of benefit to me in my work." 
 3 
 
Worth Many Times Its 
 Cost 
 
 I wish to express my gratitude to the faculty 
 of the International Correspondence Schools 
 for the assistance they have rendered me and 
 the interest they have taken in my progress 
 and success since I enlisted for a Course in Soil 
 Improvement and Farm Crops. The Instruc- 
 tion Papers are very lucid and cover every 
 point of importance with the utmost care, 
 thereby making it easy for a person to grasp 
 the meaning of what is taught. I think any 
 one who contemplates making farming his life 
 vocation will find an International Correspond- 
 ence Schools' Course in Agriculture worth many 
 times the cost. 
 
 William R. Halloway, 
 River Side Farm, Newark, Md. 
 
MOST PRACTICAL 
 
 Harold Brown, 1511 W. 8th St., Los Angeles, Cal.: "I 
 think your Poultry Course is the most complete and practical 
 I have ever seen, covering as it does every branch of the busi- 
 ness thoroughly from start to finish." 
 
 WE HELPED fflM OBTAIN A POSITION 
 
 John Gowdey, Millville Poultry Farm, Millville, N. J.: 
 "The Poultry Farming Course in which I enrolled last October 
 is now nearly finished and I have found it to be an exceedingly 
 Valuable Course, as it contains a great amount of very valuable 
 information along the line of poultry raising — information 
 which no one person could gain in even a lifetime of practical 
 experience without such aid. I consider this Course one of 
 the best investments of my life; and would not be without the 
 information gained through it for many times the cost of the 
 Scholarship. I wish also to thank your Students' Aid Depart- 
 ment for the valuable assistance they have rendered in securing 
 a position that I desired." 
 
 SAVED HIM FROM FAILURE 
 
 Jas. Archer Gurney, Charleston, S. C: "When I began 
 studying the Poultry Farming Course for which I enrolled 
 with the I. C. S. I had no idea there was so much to be learned 
 about poultry. Had I attempted to go into the business prior 
 to the study of this Course I would have made a grand failure. 
 The knowledge gained from each one of your Instruction 
 Papers is worth the price of the entire Course." 
 
 NO HOBBY OR THEORY 
 
 Marshall J. Lune, South Hill, B. C, Canada: "I found 
 the Poultry Farming Course of the L C. S. to be simple, pointed, 
 and accurate. I have been impressed with the fine judgment, 
 sound business methods, and scientific research which stamps 
 the author as a scientific and practical man of long experience. 
 The subject matter is well chosen and carefully pruned of all 
 hobbies and unproven theories." 
 
 HIS COURSE PROFITABLE 
 
 C. L. Law, 2036 W. 83d St., Cleveland, Ohio: "I have 
 found my Poultry Farming Course very satisfactory. Pre- 
 vious to enrolment with the I. C. S. I had studied poultry raising 
 and had bred poultry to some extent; but I must say that your 
 Course has been of great profit to me." 
 
Learned More in a Few 
 
 Months Than in Six 
 
 Years Previous 
 
 The knowledge that I have gained since I 
 started to study your Course in General Farm- 
 ing has been of great assistance to me. I had 
 6 years of practical farm experience previous 
 to taking the Course, but I have learned more 
 about farming in the few months that I have 
 studied than in the 6 .years previous. The 
 textbooks make everything so plain that any 
 one with a common school education can easily 
 understand them. I feel very confident that 
 the Course will be very helpful to any one 
 engaged in agricultural work. 
 
 C. H. SlEMER, 
 
 Bernardsville, N. J. 
 
CANNOT FAIL TO SUCCEED 
 
 Bert White, Box 477, Burlingame, Kans.: "Any one- 
 interested in poultry should invest in the Poultry Fanning 
 Course with the I. C. S. From personal experience I can say 
 that any one that will study the Course cannot fail to succeed. 
 Each subject is well explained and easily understood. Since 
 I began to study my Course the profits of my flock are rapidly 
 increasing." 
 
 MARKED SUCCESS 
 
 Walter L. Harlan, 218 Center St., Mauch Chunk, Pa.: 
 "After studying your Poultry Farming Course I can truthfully 
 say that I made a marked success in raising and caring for 
 poultry, and I will always recommend the Course to any one 
 interested in the subject." 
 
 mS COURSE BROUGHT SUCCESS 
 
 Moses L. Kohen, Pueblo, Colo.: "I think the Poultry 
 Farming Course issued by the I. C. S. is fine. As a result of 
 studying it I have been able to raise a nice lot of chickens 
 and I know that I could not have succeeded as I have without 
 the information obtained through your Schools." 
 
 mS COURSE PROFITABLE 
 
 T. C. Threnhauser, Fair Haven, Pa.: "I cannot express 
 my appreciation of the value of your Poultry Farming Course 
 since the benefits derived are far beyond my anticipation. 
 Since taking your Course I have spent some time at the gov- 
 ernment experiment station. Their course in some respects 
 is quite like yours, but it it not so extensive or so complete. 
 I have been offered two positions to take charge of poultry 
 farms, both of which I declined, because I can do much better 
 by caring for my own poultry." 
 
 mS COURSE A BENEFIT 
 
 W. T. Courtney, Atlanta, Ga.: "I found the Agricultural 
 Course to be of great benefit to me; in fact I know of no other 
 way in which I could have gained the same practical informa- 
 tion so readily. I was promoted to be superintendent of 
 grounds of the Spelman Seminary. This threw a herd of dairy 
 cows and several acres of land on my hands. Being practi- 
 cally ignorant of such things I turned to agricultural liter- 
 ature, but found nothing that helped me to systematize what 
 I learned. I then decided to take your Course, and feel that 
 I have learned more from it than would have been possible 
 any other way. I have been uniformly successful in follow- 
 ing out your instructions." 
 
A Course that Leads 
 to Success 
 
 I have found your Course in General Farm- 
 ing to be simple, practical, and of the greatest 
 value to a prospective farmer or stockman. 
 A study of your Course is not only a mortgage 
 lifter, but it will put a common-sense man in a 
 position to be envied by his fellow men. I 
 would not part with my Course for many times 
 the amount paid. You not only get the Course 
 but four beautiful Bound Volumes for refer- 
 ence and future use. I shall always endeavor 
 to interest my friends to the best of my ability 
 and will advise them to take the Course, as a 
 study of it will lead to their greatest aim in life. 
 Alex. R. Gaul, 
 272 Western St., Albany, N. Y. 
 
mS MOST SATISFACTORY INVESTMENT 
 
 Martin- J. Rooney, 408 S. Ohio St.. Butte, Mont.: "The 
 I. C. S. Course in Poultry Farming is thorough in every par- 
 ticular. I can honestly say that I consider the price I paid 
 for the Course one of the most satisfactory investments I ever 
 made." 
 
 THE BEST OF ITS KIND 
 
 Fr.\xk H. Payne, 115 Patterson Ave., Ogden, Utah: "I 
 am more than satisfied v\4th my Course in Poultry Farming 
 for which I enrolled in the I. C. S., and can truthfully recom- 
 mend it to any one wishing a thorough knowledge of the poul- 
 try business. I have studied several books on poultry culture, 
 but your Course is the best of its kind." 
 
 NO EXCUSE FOR FAILURE 
 
 D. H. McFalls, White Plains, X. Y.: "I am pleased to 
 express my appreciation of the Poultry Course by the I. C. S. 
 If I had had the knowledge your Course has now furnished me 
 two years ago, I would have been spared much anxiety and saved 
 loss, since your Paper on feeding alone would have been worth 
 more to me than the cost of the whole Course. To any one 
 having your Course, there need be no more excuse for failures 
 in the poultry business. 
 
 THE I. C. S. VERSUS EXPERIENCE 
 
 C. L. Swartz, Detroit, Minn.: "I like your Poultry Farm- 
 ing Course ver\' much and have learned a great many things 
 that would have taken years of experience to have found out. 
 Any one starting in the poultry business would be spending 
 his time and money wisely by taking the Course, as when 
 he has finished the Course, he can start right in to make 
 a success of the business." 
 
 MANAGING A POULTRY PLANT AT DOUBLE HIS FOR- 
 MER WAGES 
 
 Jack W. Patton. Coxeyetta Poultry Farm, Box 64, Mas- 
 sillon, Ohio: " Since studying your Course in Poultry Farming, 
 I have been able to increase my earnings 100 per cent. I have 
 secured the position of manager with the Coxeyetta Poultry 
 Farm of Massillon, Ohio. I consider the lesson papers on 
 Poultry Feeding alone worth the price of the entire Course. 
 Any one completing your Course should have no difficulty 
 in securing a position as manager or superintendent of a poul- 
 try plant." 
 
A Help to the Ambitious 
 
 The knowledge which I have obtained from 
 my Course has assisted me materially in my 
 general farm work. My aim in studying the 
 General Farming Course is to learn all that I 
 possibly can now, so that when I shall be thrown 
 on my own resources I may make a success of 
 my profession. I find that the knowledge 
 derived from my Course of instruction, owing 
 to the clear and concise manner in which mat- 
 ters pertaining to agriculture are explained and 
 described, will assist me considerably toward 
 the fulfillinent of my ambitions. 
 
 John Baranowski, 
 R. R. 3, Box 6, Montrose, Colo. 
 
 10 
 
THE BEST SOURCE 
 
 Gilbert M. Burr, Meshoppen, Pa.: "As a student now 
 completing your Poultry Farming Course, I can heartily recom- 
 mend it to any one engaged in raising or handling poultry. I 
 do not believe any one can derive as much benefit from any 
 other source as by studying this Course. As a breeder of single- 
 comb White Orpingtons, I find it full of valuable information 
 and practical instruction for all phases of the work." 
 
 MONEY WELL SPENT 
 
 John B. Gallagher, 418 Broad St., Bethlehem, Pa.: "In 
 fifteen years of poultry keeping I have not had such a successful 
 winter as the present one and I have had only the I. C. S. to 
 thank for my success. I thought that I knew how to keep 
 poultry, but every lesson taught me new points. I consider 
 the Course the best investment of my life and any one inter- 
 ested in poultry will do well with poultry and soon learn to 
 make money from them. If they take this Course, it will be 
 money well spent. Wishing you success in the good work you 
 are doing, I remain." 
 
 FOUND OUR COURSE SUPERIOR 
 
 Paul O. Arnswald, 5917 N. 12th St., Philadelphia, Pa.: 
 "I wish to inform you that I am a student of your Poultry 
 Farming Course, and although I have seen a great many books 
 on this subject, those I have received from you are absolutely 
 the best I ever came in contact with. I think every one inter- 
 ested in poultry should have these books and your Course. 
 Thanking you for your interest in me, I remain." 
 
 PRAISES HIS COURSE 
 
 Lewis Furman, R. F. D. 2, Sunbury, Pa.: "I have almost 
 completed your Course on Poultry Farming and I think it is 
 fine. If more people took your Course on Poultry Fanning 
 there would be more successful poultrymen." 
 
 OUR COURSE INDISPENSABLE 
 
 Edw. j. Murphy, 260 Bloomingdale Road, Worcester, Mass.: 
 "I find your Course just what you claim it to be, and anybody 
 intending to embark in the poultry business, either the novice, 
 amateur, or expert, should study it. To accompUsh success 
 your Course is indispensable." 
 
 11 
 
Found His Course Helpful 
 and Practical 
 
 I desire to state that I have gained consider- 
 able knowledge from your Course in Agricul- 
 ture. I am engaged in farming and what I 
 have learned from your Instruction Papers has 
 been very helpful to me. I feel confident that 
 any one wishing to take up agricultural work 
 will derive great benefit from the study of an 
 I. C. S. Agricultural Course. I do not see how 
 the Course could be made any plainer or easier 
 to vmderstand. Any one who can read and 
 write can get along with such a Course without 
 any trouble whatever. 
 
 R. F. Snyder, 
 
 Ashland, Pa. 
 
 12 
 
NOTfflNG LACKING 
 
 C. H. RoSENBAUM, 227 Poplar St., Norristown, Pa.: "Be- 
 fore taking your Course in Poultry Husbandry. I had been 
 studying the business for several years; reading the best 
 books published on the subject, and all that, but in them ah 
 there was always something lacking — something that was not 
 thoroughly explained. Your Course in Poultry Husbandry 
 leaves nothing unexplained to the smallest detail. I consider 
 myself greatly benefited by your Course. The articles on 
 feeding alone are worth the price of the entire Course. 
 
 NO OTHER POULTRY LITERATURE 
 APPROACHES OURS 
 
 E. F. Staudacher, Brooklyn, N. Y.: "I have read various 
 poultry magazines, government bulletins, different poultry- 
 system books, etc., but I have never read any poultry literature 
 that, in my opinion, could approach the Poultry Farming 
 Course that you are now furnishing. It is the most practical, 
 comprehensive, and voluminous treatise on the subject that I 
 have ever come across; it fully covers the subject matter in all 
 its phases; is most interestingly and entertainingly written, and 
 it seems to me that the further I go into it. the more enthu- 
 siastic I become with it. In short, it is a clear, concise, and 
 most excellent write-up in which the presentation of facts is 
 attractively set forth in a manner easily understood." 
 
 STUDIED BOOKS AND FAILED— OUR INSTRUCTION 
 TURNED FAILURE INTO SUCCESS 
 Chas. S. Fry. 241 Rose St.. Reading. Pa.: "After having 
 taken your Course on Poultry Farming, would say it is very 
 interesting and instructive, and I have derived great benefits 
 from it. I have been interested in poultry for about twenty 
 years; read all kinds of poultry books and thought I knew a 
 great deal about poultry, but had failures all through. Your 
 Course has overcome these failures and cannot be recommended 
 too highly, because it not only instructs how to house, breed, 
 and feed all kinds of poultry, but gives all the details on dis- 
 eases which must be known by all successful poultrymen." 
 
 OUR COURSE MORE VALUABLE THAN ALL POULTRY 
 PUBLICATIONS 
 
 Ralph W. Weston, Box 26, Honolulu, Hawaii: "Having 
 about completed your Course in Poultry Farming, I can say 
 in all faith that the methods set forth are of priceless value 
 to any one intending to keep poultry, ducks, geese, turkeys, 
 or squabs. In a small way, I have applied the methods set 
 forth in the Course and find the results as stated. In my 
 opinion the Poultry Farming Course is worth all the poultry 
 rnagazines published, and is also worth many times the expen- 
 diture of time and money." 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
Praises the I. C. S. 
 
 As a student of your Agricultural Course, 
 I have received the best instruction that I 
 could have found anywhere. To a person 
 that already has work of some kind, as I had, it 
 offers a good chance of gaining more knowl- 
 edge without taking very much time from 
 regular work. Also, it is not expensive. The 
 Course starts from the beginning and treats 
 all subjects so that any one without any pre- 
 vious knowledge of the subject can easily mas- 
 ter the instruction given and can carry the 
 work completely through. This knowledge 
 will be of great practical assistance to any one. 
 The volumes that are furnished with the 
 Course are very good. I would advise any one 
 thinking of taking a Course to do so with the 
 International Correspondence Schools. 
 Ernest E. Vest, 
 
 Scottsburg, Ind. 
 
 14 
 
WORTH MANY TIMES THE PRICE 
 
 Clarence Theo. Anvick, Box 23, Areata, Cal.: "It would 
 hardly seem just for one to finish your Course in Poultry Farm- 
 ing without giving an opinion on it. Every branch of poultry 
 farming has been so thoroughly touched, and presented in such 
 simple language that no one who takes up its study can fail 
 to fully comprehend the text. The Course is worth many 
 times the price paid for it and cannot be easily forgotten. It 
 can be safely recommended to all who wish a broader knowl- 
 edge of the subject, and should appeal alike both to those who 
 intend to enter the business of poultry raising on a small scale 
 or a large scale." 
 
 DOLLARS AND CENTS KNOWLEDGE 
 
 Thomas H. Pollard, 916 Eighth Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.: 
 "Having been a subscriber to your Mechanical Course in for- 
 mer years, I was pleased to learn that you were issuing a Course 
 in Poultry Farming. Knowing the need of information on this 
 subject, I siibscribed for the Course. In reading and study- 
 ing the first Instruction Papers, I began to realize the greatness 
 and perfection of the Course. Step by step the student is led 
 to proficiency and also I find that each step has been carefully 
 examined beforehand from one standpoint — the question of 
 dollars and cents. In this lies the crux of the matter, the 
 secret of success." 
 
 SUPERIOR TO OTHER COURSES 
 
 W. A. Moore, 14.3 Sherman Ave., N. Hamilton, Ont., Can.: 
 "This is to certify that I have nearly completed the I. C. S. 
 Poultry Course and I find it up to date and the best so far. 
 I have taken courses in two other poultry schools and followed 
 the experimental farms and find points completely covered 
 in the I. C. S. Course which all others said they had no data of. 
 Any one desiring a thoroughly practical poultry course can get 
 nothing better." 
 
 HIS COURSE BROUGHT SUCCESS 
 
 D. Brannan, 223 Beech St., Grafton, W. Va.: "I can truly 
 say that since I began to study the Course in Poultry Farming 
 I have had perfect success mth my fowls. I have 11 pullets 
 and four cockerels and have been getting from 50 to 75 per cent, 
 egg yield since my flock was 6 months old, and I am not troubled 
 with colds, etc., in my flock as before. The Poultry Farming 
 Course is very good in its teachings with regard to the com- 
 mercial side of poultry raising; that is, raising fowls for meat and 
 eggs." 
 
 15 
 
ULU D 15*12 
 
 Proprietor of a Pros- 
 perous Business 
 
 Before I enrolled with the I. C. S. for the 
 Poultry Farming Course I was in the milk 
 business. Since enrolment I have sold out and 
 now devote all my time to poultry. I found no 
 difficulty in completing my Course and I have 
 to thank the I. C. S. for putting me where I am 
 today. No one going into the poultry busi- 
 ness for profit can do without the I. C. S. 
 Course. There is much to learn and the Course 
 will take you over all the dangerous places in 
 safety. There is no branch of the poultry 
 business omitted. I am at present making 
 about three times as much by selling hatching 
 eggs and day-old chicks as I did before enrol- 
 ment. 
 
 G. F. Kaihler. 
 
 508 S. Lime St., Lancaster, Pa. 
 
 16