. *' -'■ > aV O THE WORLD WE LIVE IN; OR, THE HOME AND FOREIGN TRAVELER: A COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY OF THE SCENERY, RESOURCES, POPULATION, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, LITERATURE, CIVILIZATION, ARTS AND USAGES OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD : WITH NOTICES OF DISTINGUISHED MEN, ETC. BY EOBERT TUKNBTTLL, AUTHOR OF " THE GENIUS OF SCOTLAND," " GENIUS OF ITALY," ETC. PUBLISHED BY H. E. KOBINS AND CO. HARTFORD AND NEW YORK. 1851. forty-five days appear as the necessary traveling time between Liverpool and Canton : .that is but about one-third of the time usually occu- pied by sailing-vessels from Liverpool or New York, when passing around Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope to Canton. On tracing the fortieth parallel of north latitude on a map of the world, it will be found nearly the central line between the great commercial nations of the earth, and to cut our continent near the points which Avould be connected by such a railroad as we have mentioned." This, then, will give to the United States a field for commercial, literary, and religious enterprise superior to that of any nation in the world. The resources of California, just acquired, are yet scarcely realized. Not to speak of her extensive deposits of gold, millions of which have been already collected, she possesses vast tracts of arable land, large forests of excellent timber for ship- building and other purposes, and navigable rivers every where running from her interior to the sea. Connected by railroads and other means of communication with the Eastern States, California will become the recipient and highway of the Oriental trade. The 2 26 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. rich commerce of Asia must flow through her center ; and back again the commerce, literature, and religion of Europe and the United States must flow to transform and elevate the Oriental world. The influence of such interchange can scarcely be over- rated ; it will infallibly bless the inhabitants of Asia with a highei form of civilization, and in return enrich this country with then valuable and exhaustless products. " Where has that commerce ever flowed without carrying wealth and dominion with it ? Look at its ancient channels, and the cities which it raised into kingdoms, and the populations which upon its treasures became resplendent in science, learning, and the arts. Tyre, Sidon, Balbec, Palmyra, Alexandria, among its ancient emporiums, attest the power of this commerce to en- rich, to aggrandize, and to enlighten nations. Constantinople, in the middle ages and in the time of the crusades, was the wonder of Western Europe ; and all because she was then a thoroughfare of Asiatic commerce. Genoa and Venice, mere cities, in later time became the match of kingdoms and the envy of kings, from the mere divided streams of this trade, of which they became the thoroughfare. Lisbon had her great day, and Portugal her pre- eminence during the little while that the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope put her in communication with the East. Amsterdam, the city of a little territory rescued from the sea, and the Seven United Provinces, not equal in extejit to one of our lesser States, became great in arms, in letters, in' wealth, and in power, and all upon the East India trade. And London, what makes her the commercial mistress of the world ? What makes 'an island, no larger than one of our first-class States, the mistress of possessions in the four quarters of the globe — a match for half of Europe, and dominant in Asia ? What makes all this, or contributes most to make it, but this same Asiatic trade ? In no instance has it failed to carry the nation or the people which possessed it to the highest pinnacle of wealth and power, and with it the highest attainments of letters, arts, and sciences." Who can look, not only at the relations of this vast territory to the rest of the world, but to its peculiar characteristics, passing as it does through every variety of climate, and containing every species of animal, vegetable, and mineral productions, with its vast and beautiful lakes — say, rather, inland seas — its long canals, its interminable railroads, its magnetic telegraphs, its mighty forests, its majestic and long-reaching rivers, without a sensation, not sim- ply of admiration, but of awe ? Then, again, look at its people. They are mostly of the Saxon race, and derive their origin from a long line of the best ancestry. THE UNITED STATES. 27 Hardy, active, enterprising, they are capable of all endurance, susceptible of all improvement. With the most august and thrill- ing' recollections of the olden time, with a heritage of freedom and faith bought by the blood of their fathers, the descendants mainly of the New-England pilgrims — but not only of these, but of the old English patriots, in whose veins ran unchecked the blood of freedom, and whose hearts bowed only to God, the great stream of American population, as it flows to future ages, will be kept vis'orous and free, intermingled, indeed, and augmented, though, never essentially modified, by lesser streams setting in continually from the hills and valleys of modern Europe. Observe the" manner in which the population increases ; it is almost appalling, even to think of it. The fact is well ascertained that it doubles once in twenty-three years and a half, and that it has done so regularly during the two hundred years which have elapsed since its first settlement by the British, under the colonial and monarchical as well as the republican governments. This, therefore, may be regarded as its natural rate of increase, and will probably continue to be such in future, even should all emigration from Europe be cut off. Internal divisions, indeed, civil wars, the dominion of vice, and the disorder and ruin which always follow the separation of states and the disruption of religious and social obligations, may greatly check it ; so that the prediction of Burke, who has been styled "the unrivaled prophet of politics" — though we ourselves believe it morally impossible — may yet be fulfilled, and " American Tartars, armed with the pike and the saber, may pour over the Alleghanies and sweep away the wealth and popu- lation, and the existence of a long line of cities, grown indolent, avaricious, and defenseless by the natural course of popular gov- ernment and profligate prosperity." We may hope, however, that the pure and all-controlling influence of truth and piety will so subdue the multitudes yet to fill the great valley of the West, that this prediction, like others of a similar kind, will fail of its accomplishment. The probability is, that the rate of increase, to which we have referred, will be perpetuated for many generations. In 1850 the United States contained a population of near 25,000,- 000, 20,000,000 of the Saxon, and about 5,000,000 of African and other races. Fifty years thence it may be expected to con- tain from S0,000,000 to 100,000,000; and one hundred years thence, from 350,000,000 to 400,000,000, a number one-third greater than the entire present population of Europe. Our grand- children may live to see this country filled with this immense mass of human beings. Reflect also upon their national progress. See how they ad- 28 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. vance over hill and valley, through forest and stream, to the occupancy of the vast and untrodden domains of the West. Hark how their strokes ring from the primeval forest, while the voice of psalms, on Sabbath morn, rises from the low-roofed cabin by the desert stream. "They do not pass through," says Alison, the historian of Europe, " like a desolating fire or a raging torrent ; they settle where they take up their abode, never to return. Their war is with the forest and the marsh. Spreading them- selves over an extent of nearly 1200 miles in length, these ad- vanced posts of civilization commence the incessant war with the hatchet and the plough ; and at the sound of their strokes re- sounding through the solitudes of their forests, the wild animals and the Indians retire to more undisturbed retreats. Along this frontier tract the average advance of cultivation is about seventeen miles a year. The ground is imperfectly cleaned by the pioneers, but still the forest has disappeared ; the green field, the wooden cottage, the signs of infant improvement have arisen, and behind them another wave of more wealthy and skillful settlers succeeds, who complete the work of agricultural improvement." The advance of population and improvement in future must be chiefly in the West — in. the great valley of the Mississippi, which lies hundreds of miles between the Alleghanies on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west, the great inland seas of Erie, Ontario, Huron, and Michigan on the north, and the Gulf of Mex- ico on the south, watered by the magnificent rivers of the Ohio, the Missouri, the Mississippi, and the Arkansas, and containing vegetable and mineral resources sufficient almost to support the whole population of America and Europe combined. It is ascer- tained that the population of the West increases at the rate of 300,000 to 500,000 per annum, which, in forty or fifty years, will give it the control of the whole American continent, and, through that, of the world. But the Rocky Mountains will also be left behind, and millions will be found occupying the vast regions which lie on the other side, and extend to the shores of the Pa- cific. San Francisco is destined to be one of the most important commercial emporiums in the world. The tide of population pouring in continually from the Old World is a circumstance of profound interest to us all. Depreca- ted by some as a gigantic evil, God evidently designs it for a blessing. For ourselves, we rejoice in the immense accessions from Ireland, Italy, ai:d Germany annually made to this country ; for if we are true to Freedom and to God, we shall find that they are brought here to be emancipated and redeemed. " This great republic," says an English writer who will not be THE UNITED STATES. 29 supposed guilty of exaggeration in this instance, " is the para- mount state on the American continent, and the third, if not the second power in the world ; and it is rapidly preparing to contend for the first place. It is customary to speak of England, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, as 'the five great powers,' and in diplomatic science to regard these as the only states which are competent to take the initiative in political matters. It is time for us to amend our classification. Nations take rank according to their powers of mischief — a strange standard for a Christian people in the nineteenth century, but in the logic of accepted statesmanship the only true one. Yet even in this, the United States yield to no power in Europe. " In naval resources, America is second only to England. It has a territory larger and infinitely richer than that of Russia, more compact and defensible than that of France. It is active, wealthy, and progressive; has no fiscal difficulties to embarrass it, no pub- lic debt, no governmental taxation. / " In natural resources, fertility of soil, salubrity of climate, mineral wealth, fine harbors, means of inland navigation, the country of the United States is not inferior to any other of equal extent of territory in the world. Her income exceeds her expend- iture. With her immense possessions to protect ; with her vast frontier line on the west, resting on an uncivilized country ; with her large extent of sea and river coast, and commerce on all the oceans to cover, she only finds it necessary to keep a permanent military and naval establishment of 7500 men each, a total for all purposes of defense of 15,000, or about one-third the number of English commissioned officers ! To one educated in the midst of the military system of Europe, this would seem to indicate paucity of resources and poverty of defense. Truly, it indicates just the contrary. The Anglo-American republic has no use for armies. In the Old World these costly appendages of power are kept up for police purposes, for internal coercion, rather than for foreign defense. Political equals need no standing armies to keep them in order. Free institutions are the best bulwarks." What is to be the future influence of a nation thus formed and forming, it is impossible to compute. Even now its sails whiten every sea, its productions are found in every land, its sons traverse the globe, some as sailors and merchants, some as travelers and men of science, some as diplomatists and politicians, some as min- isters of the Gospel and missionaries of the Cross. If it be not elevated by Christianity, with her twin products, freedom and vir- tue, it will be vicious, and powerful only for evil ; nay, it will fall, and dr; g other nations with it to destruction. But should truth 30 THE WORLD WE LIVE LIST. and righteousness prevail, and the blessings of civil and religions freedom be perpetuated, then it will become the glory of all lands, the Jerusalem of the West, the Thermopylae of the world. In referring to the discovery of America by Columbus, we stated that that great event was associated with other discoveries which exerted an immense influence on the destiny of the race. It is worthy of observation that the recent rapid progress of the United States, the acquisition of California, and the immense ex- tension of our territory to the south and west, have been associated with one of the most stupendous discoveries of the age, the elec- tric telegraph, which is itself the result of the great discoveries in electro-magnetism, and intimately associated with the application of steam to purposes of transportation by sea and land. On this account we cannot help contrasting our present progress, through these surprising instrumentalities which have linked all parts of the country in what we hope will prove indissoluble bonds, with the state of things in the days of Fulton, whose successful exper- iment on the North River gave such an impetus to commerce and discovery. Fulton's first boat was " a queer-looking craft," and while on the stocks excited much attention, and not a little ridicule. When she was launched, and the steam-engine placed in her, that was regarded with the same feelings as the boat built to float it. Public curiosity was greatly excited. When the New York news- papers announced that the boat would start from the foot of Cortlandt-street, at half past six on Friday morning the 4th of September, and take passengers to Albany, there was "a broad smile" on every face, when the inquiry was made, if any would be fool enough to risk himself in her. A Quaker met a young gen- tleman of his acquaintance in the street, who talked of going, and said to him, with the utmost gravity — " John, wilt thee risk thy life in such a concern? I tell thee, she is the most fearful ivild- fowl living, and thy father ought to restrain thee." On Friday morning the wharves, piers, house-tops, indeed, every spot which could be occupied in view of " the strange craft," were crowded with spectators. There were twelve berths, and the fare was seven dollars. The whole machinery was uncovered and exposed to view, and, in comparison with modern improvements, were awkward enough. The forward part was covered by a deck, which gave shelter to the hands ; the after part was fitted up, in a rough way, for passengers. The entrance into the cabin was from the stern, in front of the steersman, who worked a tiller as in an ordinary sloop. Dense masses of smoke issued from the chimney, steam escaped from every valve and crevice of the THE UNITED STATES. 31 poorly constructed engine. Fulton was on hand, eager and de- cided, with his peculiarly sharp, clear voice, heard above the noise of the engine and the hum of the multitude. He heeded not the doubt, fear, curiosity, contempt, and sarcasm of those about him, but made his preparations for departure with vigor. It was a crisis in his life, a crisis in the progress of discovery and civilization. Every thing being ready, the engine was started on its perilous movement, and the boat moved slowly but steadily from the wharf. As she turned up the river and was fairly under way, there arose such a huzza from the dense multitude as made the whole welkin ring. Fulton stood upon the deck, with swelling bosom and flashing eye, as he gazed upon the multitude ; he felt that the crisis was passed, and his name written upon the annals of fame. But he was silent, and the peculiar expression of his countenance alone indicated what was passing in his mind. Coming up Haverstraw Bay, a man was waiting for them in a skiff. He happened to be a miller, and being taken on board, was actually persuaded, by a facetious Irishman, that the whole thing was a floating corn-mill. He wanted to see the mill-stones ; but the other quickly replied — "That is a secret the master," pointing to Fulton, " has not told us yet ; but when we come back from Albany with a load of corn, then, if you come on board, you'll see the meal fly !" As they passed West Point the whole garrison was out, and cheered them as they passed. At Newburg it seemed as if all Orange county was out ; the entire hill-side was animated with life. The river was covered with every sort of water-craft ; the ferry-boat from Fishkill was filled with ladies. Fulton, who was engaged seeing a passenger landed, did not observe the boat until she bore up nearly alongside ; turning around, the waving of so many handkerchiefs, and the smiles of bright and happy faces, struck him with surprise ; he raised his hat, with a smile, and ex- claimed — " That is the finest sight we have seen yet." In his letter to Barlow (22d August, 1807), Fulton adds: " My steamboat voyage to Albany has turned out rather more favorably than I had calculated. The distance to Albany is 150 miles ; I ran up in thirty -two hours. I had a light breeze against me the whole way going and coming, so that no use was made of my sails ; and this voyage has been performed wholly by the power of the steam-engine. I overtook many sloops and schoon- ers beating to the windward, and passed them as if they had been at anchor." And now the North River, and indeed all the navigable rivers 32 THE WORLD WE LIVE LN". of the country, are covered with floating palaces ; and, not content with these means of communication, long lines of railroad are laid, not only across the country, but even along the banks of some of our largest rivers. In the valley of the Mississippi alone there are 16,000 miles of steamboat navigation fully occupied. Europe and America are united by steam ; and far out in the wilds of Oregon and California the silence of the primeval forests is disturbed by its presence. In the United States the progress of railway construction is equally astonishing. A line of 563 miles in length connects Bos- ton and Buffalo, and presently will dip into the margin of Lake Michigan, 500 miles further west. In the State of Michigan a railway is in operation across the entire State. Detroit will be connected with Buffalo by the Canadian Railway and a suspension bridge below the Falls of Niagara ; Boston with Montreal by the Northern, Vermont Central, and La Prairie' Railway, and steam navigation on the St. Lawrence ; and the same city with New York by the New Haven and -Long Island road. New York, seeing that she must become impoverished under the enterprise of Massachusetts, which is draining off her Western trade, is unit- ing her commercial emporium with Albany and Lake Erie. Phil- adelphia is extending a railway to Pittsburg, 335 miles, 108 of which are now constructed ; and it is contemplated to extend con- nections with it to Cincinnati and St. Louis. From Baltimore two lines of railway branch out, north and south, one running 506 miles into Maine, the other 420 miles to Wilmington, North Car- olina. A branch goes west from Baltimore toward the Alleghany Mountains, at present completed 180 miles, and will soon reach the Ohio. In South Carolina a railroad is completed to Augusta, 136 miles, and others are rapidly extending their branches north and east through the State. Georgia, taking up the work where South Carolina terminates it, at Augusta, extends railways through her entire territory, north to the Tennessee line, west to Columbus, on the Chattahooche, and south in the direction of Pensacola. By these various lines travelers will soon, at an expense of fifty dollars, in one hundred hours pass with comfort and safety from New York to New Orleans. Fifty years ago, there were in the United States little more than 2000 or 3000 clergymen, of all denominations, preaching the Gos- pel ; now there are over 20,000. Newspapers were confined to the larger cities and the more cultivated regions of the country ; now they are spread by millions and myriads to the remotest cor- ners of the north, south, east, and west. The anticipations of the poet of Hope, with reference to this country, regarded, perhaps, THE UNITED STATES. 33 by many as mere declamation or poetical extravagance, have been more than realized : — " On Erie's banks, where tigers steal along, And the dread Indian chants a dismal song ; Where human fiends on midnight errands walk, And bathe in brains the murderous tomahawk ; There shall the flocks on thymy pastures stray, And shepherds dance at summer's opening day ; Each wandering genius of the lonely glen Shall start to view the glittering haunts of men, And silent, watch, on woodland hights around, The village curfew as it tolls profound."* Imperfections enough and evils enough, some of them, it may be, deep and direful, we certainly have in this fair land ; and what disastrous changes may issue from some of them we cannot tell — but the good predominates. The hand of God is in our history ; and we cannot resist the conviction that a lofty career and a glo- rious destiny are before us. Slavery, indeed, is a disturbing influ- ence ; the problem as to its disposal is not yet solved. Our very Union is threatened with dissolution ; yet what well-informed person really believes that such threat can be fulfilled ? In our own deliberate judgment, the dissolution of the Union is a moral impossibility. The Union is the growth of ages ; its roots strike deep into the soil amid the granite rocks of New England, beneath the prairies of the West, and the savannas of the South. Its gnarled and massive trunk rises high into the encircling heavens, and its wide-spread branches droop over land and sea. Can words, then, dissolve it, as if it were gossamer ? Can resolutions, nay, more, can treason and insurrections, the winds and storms of political agitation, tear up its roots and scatter its branches, as if it were a sapling or a gourd ? The leaves may tremble with the fury of the blast, nay, its strong limbs may quiver and bend, but its mighty roots will only strike deeper into the heart of the earth, and its lofty trunk rise higher and stronger in the serene and pu- rified atmosphere. * Campbell's Pleasures of Hope. 2* 34 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN". CHAPTER III. NEW ENGLAND STATES, We propose now to take a rapid excursion among the various States and Territories of " the Union," in which we shall find the same great elements of prosperity and power, though with con- siderable diversity of character and attainments. Much of the United States, both physically, morally, and socially, is in a sort of unformed or transition state ; and it would be folly to expect, in every part, the refinements of advanced civilization. Where the school-house and the log-hut, the church and the wilderness, as in several states and territories, are side by side, we must look for much that is immature and defective. In all, however, we shall discover traces of order, energy, and enterprise ; and in some marks of the highest improvement. Arms of Maine. First, then, we plunge amid the green valleys and wide-spread forests of Maine, a State much of which is yet a wilderness, having an area as large as the rest of all New England, with its long- reach of sea-board, indented with creeks and bays, and having some of the finest harbors in the country, its deep and beautiful rivers, its thriving towns and villages, and, above all, its industrious and enterprising inhabitants. Let any one sail, by steamboat or other water-craft, up and down the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers, and he will meet as picturesque scenery, and as attractive towns and villages, nestling among the tufted trees, as can any THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 35 where greet the eye. The country, indeed, in many parts, espe- cially toward the north, is comparatively new and wild ; but, in most places, you behold tokens of energy and improvement. Maine has great internal resources. Between the Kennebec and Penobscot is a tract of land not exceeded in fertility by the best portions of the United States. Vast quantities of pine and other lumber are floated down its long-reaching rivers. With a sea- coast of 230 miles, indented with spacious bays, and protected by numerous islands, it affords great facilities for ship-building and commerce. In the interior, and to the north of the State, are many fine ponds and lakes. Indeed, it is computed that one- tenth of the surface of the State is covered with water. It has three colleges, several academies, one or two theological institu- tions, and a good system of common-school education. Its people, who are rapidly increasing, are an energetic, thriving race. They are of the true Yankee stock, and possess all the requisites for prosperity and happiness. Ardently attached to liberty, and dis- posed to form their own opinions for themselves on all matters, civil, social, and religious, they are essentially democratic in then notions and habits. Like the rest of the New Englanders, they are somewhat given to roving, and may be found in all parts of the Union, and in many portions of the world besides ; but they greatly love their native land, and often return to it, with all the fondness of a first love, to spend the evening of their days among its trees and streams, and lay their bones in the sepulchers of their fathers. Enter any of the thriving cities or villages on the banks of the Kennebec, such as Bath, Gardiner, Hallowell, or Augusta, the last of which is the capital, and you will see at a glance that they are " going ahead" in commerce, trade, manufactures, education, and religion. Every place is well supplied with schools, churches, and other evidences of moral and social advancement. Maine, though of recent growth, is not altogether undistin- guished in literature. We have not space to enumerate all her gifted sons ; but pass into the city of Portland, and, by a little in- quiry, you will find that it is the birth-place, if not the residence, of a group of men of genius. Among these is John JSeal, bold, energetic, vigorous, and free, somewhat careless, indeed, " throwing out diamonds and stones at random," but occasionally rising to great beauty and pathos ; Longfellow, regarded by some as the first of American poets, with his foreign air and exquisite melody, rolling off, in harmonious numbers, the " Voices of the Night," or singing a clear and thrilling chant for liberty and truth ; N. P. Willis, with all his dilettanteisms, a true poet, and a man of genius, 36 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. whose lines to his Mother and Scriptural Sketches are among the most beautiful things in the language ; William Cutter, a writer of excellent promise, though not, perhaps, equal to the first-named three ; Isaac McLellan, a true child of song ; Grenville and Fred- erick Mellen, both known in the literature of their country ; and Seba Smith, with his lady, Mrs. Seba Smith, some of whose pieces have much of the fine expression and delicate flow which the critics ascribe to the poet Moore.* Other distinguished men belong to Portland, but we cannot name them now, nor is it necessary, as those already mentioned reflect upon her sufficient honor. George B. Cheeve'r, whose "Wanderings of a Pilgrim" are written with great force and beauty, is a native of Hallowell, on the Kennebec River. mm Water ville College, Me. We pass now into the Green Mountains of Vermont, so called from the evergreens with which they are crowned. Here we dis- cover much rough but beautiful scenery, particularly in the region of Lake Champlain, lying partly in Vermont and among the Green Mountains, which run, in an unbroken range, between the Con- necticut River on the east, and Lake Champlain on the west, and stretching into Massachusetts. Vermont is celebrated for her " Green Mountain Boys," brave and undaunted souls, who love their home, much in the spirit of William Tell and the natives of Switzerland. It was settled by emigrants from Massachusetts, and, as its lands were claimed by * We find, on examination, that Grenville Mellen was born in Biddeford, Maine. We may add that Mrs. Seba Smith, author of " The Sinless Child," was born in a small village near Portland. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 37 Arms of Vermont. some of the neighboring States, it had a difficult part to play in the Revolutionary struggle. At the commencement of the war, Con- gress dared not admit Vermont into the Union, for fear of offend- ing the other States. The British endeavored, but in vain, to de- tach it from the American confederacy. The Green Mountain Boys proved their patriotism by their daring conduct in the hour of trial; and in 1791, Vermont was admitted into the Union, whose independence she had aided to secure. The soil of this State is generally fertile, even among the mount- ains, but is better adapted to grazing than to grain. It has some fine towns, the chief of which are Montpelier, Windsor, Burling- ton, Rutland, and Woodstock. The climate in winter is severe, but healthful ; and in summer, bracing and delightful. Vermont is not behind her sister States in the matter of education. Her colleges, or universities, at Burlington, Middlebury, and Norwich, though not large, are thriving institutions. Among all her hills, the humble school-house and the heaven-aspiring church adorn the landscape. In the Revolutionary struggle, the Green Mount- ain Boys distinguished themselves by their daring bravery. Vermont can lay claim to some celebrated literary men, among whom are Dr. James Marsh, Hon. George P. Marsh, George Bush, Thomas C. Upham, and Rufus Choate. The well-known 0. E. Brownson is a native of this State. James Marsh and Thomas Upham have distinguished themselves in mental and moral philosophy ; Bush and Brownson by their speculations in religion, and startling changes of opinion ; and Choate by his rich and vehement style of forensic eloquence. Both in Vermont and in Maine, manufactures have made some 38 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. progress, and are destined to yet further increase. The people, generally, are moral, industrious, and enterprising. The climate and country are favorable to the development of a hardy and vir- tuous race. Arms of New Hampshire. But New Hampshire, " the Old Granite State," as her citizens love to call it, attracts us ; not " old" in the proper sense of the word, for this is only an expression of endearment and veneration, "but young, vigorous, and thriving. The glory of New Hamp- shire, next to her free institutions and evangelical faith, is her "White Mountains," the loftiest and most romantic east of the Mississippi, with old Monadnoc towering to the sky, and Mount Washington, the highest and grandest of the range, overlooking the surrounding hills and vales. Many fine streams water the valleys of New Hampshire, among which the Merrimac is pre- eminent, being famed at once in song and story, and, what is of more immediate practical utility, driving the. water-wheels and spindles of innumerable mills, giving wealth to many, and em- ployment to more. Whittier, the amiable and gifted Quaker poet, belongs in part to New Hampshire, and has immortalized the Merrimac in his exquisite verse : — * " Stream of my fathers ! sweetly still The sunset rays thy valley fill ; Pour'd slantwise down the long defile, Wave, wood, and spire beneath them smile. I see the winding Powow fold The green hill in its belt of gold ; * He was born on the banks of the Merrimac, in Haverhill, Mass. ; but Massachusetts and New Hampshire, as finked by the Merrimac, bear a very similar character. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 33 And following down its wavy line, Its sparkling waters blend with thine. There 's not a tree upon thy side, Nor rock which thy returning tide, As yet, hath left abrupt and stark Above thy evening water-mark ; No calm cove with its rocky hem; No isle, whose emerald swells begem Thy broad, smooth current ; not a sail, Bow'd to the freshening ocean gale ; No small boat with its busy oars, Nor gray wall sloping to thy shores; Nor farm-house, with its maple shade, Or rigid poplar colonnade, But lies distinct and full in sight, Beneath this gush of sunset light !" New Hampshire claims the honor of giving birth to Joseph C. Neal, author of " Charcoal Sketches," and, above all, Daniel Web- ster, whose colossal intellect and commanding eloquence have won the admiration of the civilized world. Like her sister New England States, New Hampshire has paid much attention to her common schools, and has a prosperous college in the town of Dartmouth. Phillips Academy, at Exeter, is the best endowed institution of the land in the United States, and has sent out many fine scholars. The State is chiefly agricultural in its character, though not without considerable manufactures along the courses of her streams. Immense quantities of lumber, from her exten- sive forests, are exported to other parts of the country. Pine woods are abundant, and frequently grow to the hight of two hundred feet. The whole State is beautified by a great varjety of thriving forest-trees, especially maples, beeches, birches, and so forth, mingled with evergreens, which, in the fall, when touched by evening frosts, present, on the mountain-sides, the most gor- geous appearance. " In this country," says Dr. Dwight, who has given an animated description of the White Mountains, " it is often among the most splendid beauties of nature. All the leaves of trees which are not evergreens are, by the first severe frost, changed from their verdure toward the perfection of that color which they are capable ultimately of assuming, through yellow, orange, and red, to a pretty, deep brown. As the frost affects different trees, and the different leaves of the same tree, in very different degrees, a vast multitude of tinctures are commonly found on those of a single tree, and always on those of a grove or forest. These colors also, in all their varieties, are generally full, and, in many instances, are among the most exquisite which are found in the regions of nature. Different sorts of trees are susceptible of 40 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. different degrees of this beauty. Among them, the maple is pre- eminently distinguished by the prodigious variety, the finished beauty, and the intense luster of its hues, varying through all the dyes, between a rich green and the most perfect crimson, or, more definitely, the red of the prismatic image. There is, however, a sensible difference in the beauty of this appearance of nature, in different parts of the country, even when the forest-trees are the same. I have seen no tract where its splendor was so highly finished, as in the region which surrounds the little town of Lancaster, for a distance of thirty miles. The colors are more varied and more intense, and the numerous evergreens furnish, in their deep hues, the best groundwork of the picture. I have remarked that the annual foliage on these mountains had been already changed by the frost. Of course the darkness of the evergreens was finely illumined by the brilliant yellow of the birch, the beech, and the cherry, and the more brilliant orange and crimson of the maple. The effect of this universal diffusion of gay and splendid light was to render the preponderating deep green more solemn. The mind, encircled by this scenery, irresist- ibly remembered that the light was the light of decay, autumnal and melancholy. The dark was the gloom of evening, approxi- mating to night. Over the whole the azure of the sky cast a deep misty blue, blending toward the summits every other hue, and predominated over all." This elaborate description will give some conception of the au- tumnal glories peculiar to the whole of New England, but seen in all their magnificence among the White Mountains. They are evanescent, however, as the dreams of youth, and leave the mount- ains bleak and bare, or whitened by the heavy snows of the north- ern winter. Then the merry sleigh-bells ring among the valleys, and the hardy sons of the forests chase the deer, or the bear, among the cold, rugged cliffs. After all, it is a bleak and some- what forbidding country, and far inferior to Italy, and even to England in " cultured beauty." Still, it is " the nursery of giant men," the home of freedom, the haunt of virtue. " ! greener hills may catch the sun Beneath the glorious heaven of France ; And streams rejoicing as they run Like lite beneath the day-beam's glance, May wander where the orange bough With golden fruit is bending low ; And there may bend a brighter sky O'er green and classic Italy — And pillar'd fane and ancient grave Bear record of another time, THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 41 And over shaft and architrave The green luxuriant ivy climb ; And far toward the rising sun The palm may shake its leaves on high, Where flowers are opening one by one, Like stars upon the twilight sky ; And breezes soft as sighs of love Above the broad banana stray, And through the Brahmin's sacred grove A thousand bright-hued pinions play ! Yet unto thee, New England, still Thy wandering sons shall stretch their arms, And thy rude chart of rock and hill Seem dearer than the land of palms ; Thy massy oak and mountain pine More welcome than the banyan's shade, And every free, blue stream of thine Seem richer than the golden bed Of Oriental waves, which glow And sparkle with the wealth below !" Whittier. New Hampshire, sometimes called the Switzerland of America, has ever been true to freedom, and her sweet native minstrels have "sunsr it round the world." Arms of Massachusetts. But of all the New England States, Massachusetts, perhaps, is the most distinguished : first, by her memories of the olden time, Plymouth, Boston, Lexington, and Bunker's Hill ; and secondly, by her renown in all the walks of literature, and especially in the perfection of her system of common-school education. Here, in the days which tried men's souls, was "rocked," in old Faneuil Hall, the cradle of the Revolution. Here, brave men fought and fell, on the hights of Charlestown ; and here the wise and the 42 THE WORLD WE LIVE ES - . good pledged their lives and sacred honor in the cause of freedom and independence. Here, too, first settled the pilgrim fathers, and laid the foundations of enduring prosperity in religion and vir- tue. Here, they first founded schools and colleges " for the glory of God," and the " better ordering of the commonwealth."* And here patient and heroic men have proved the power and perma- nence of self-government, as the highest element of national pros- perity and happiness. Dear old Bay State, with thy poor soil and rocky shores, whose chief productions and exports are said to be granite and ice, thou hast won for thyself, by industry and re- ligion, a crown of imperishable glory. " Rough, bleak, and cold," says her poet, Whittier — " Rough, bleak, and cold, our little state Is hard of soil, of limits strait ; Her yellow sands are sands alone, Her only mines are ice and stone. But on her rocks, and on her sands And stormy hills, the school-house stands, And what her rugged soil denies, The harvest of the mind supplies. For well she keeps her ancient stock, The stubborn strength of Pilgrim Rock ; And still maintains with milder laws And clearer light, the Good Old Cause ! ISTor heeds the skeptic's puny hands While near her school the church spire stands ; Nor fears the blinded bigot's rule While near the church spire stands the school !" In the days of old, indeed, Massachusetts, false to her funda- mental principles, persecuted the Quakers and Baptists. The Puritans, good as they were, banished the noble and learned Roger Williams from their soil ; but all these things have passed away long ago. They were shadows on the disk of the sun ; and now over all the hills and vales of Massachusetts shines the full efful- gence of civil and religious freedom. The spirit of the Pilgrim State was ever one of enlightenment and liberty, and it could not but work itself clear of all the mists and obscurities of error. The church and school have been the pillar of cloud by day, and the pillar of fire by night, to lead her forth into the full possession of * Harvard University, the largest (except Yale, perhaps) and the best endowed institution in the country, was founded in 1638, eighteen years after the first landing on Plymouth Rock. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 43 truth and right. What a long procession of great and good men — statesmen, divines, and scholars, poets, orators, and teachers — see we issuing from her homes and schools ! Here are the Hancocks and Adamses, the Franklins and Quincys, the Ameses and Storys, the Mathers and Channings, the Bancrofts and Prescotts, the Spragues and Lowells, the Everetts and Danas, the Wares and Allstons, the Sedgwicks and Hawthornes, the Emmonses and Stu- arts, the Beechers and Paysons, the Whipples and Bowens, the Pierces and Manns, of ancient and of modern times. It is no small distinction to have given birth to William C. Bryant, William Bow- ditch, and John Quincy Adams, and, with all his crudities and absurdities, to that singular and wayward child of genius, Ralph Waldo Emerson. In the estimation of angels, perhaps, it is a higher distinction still, to have nursed in her bosom the first American missionaries, and given to the homage and admiration of the world such men as John Elliott, William Brainard, and Adoniram Judson. Massachusetts can boast the possession of several distinguished academies and colleges, and, with one exception, the largest and best endowed university in the country. Her system of common schools is nobly conceived and generously supported. Here every child may receive a thorough education, and, if possessed of gifts, may rise to the highest distinctions of learning. The larger towns and cities have expended immense sums on their schools, and are daily reaping the fruits in the intelligence, industry, and enterprise of the people.* Commerce and manufactures every where pros- * "We append the following statement of the relative proportion, in dif- ferent countries, of pupils to the whole population. Of course it is only an approximation to the actual state of the case, but will probably be found, in the main, correct. It is derived from a Scottish journal. 1. State of Maine, .' 1 to 3 2. " New Hampshire, 1 — 3 3. " New York, 1— 3i 4. " Massachusetts, 1 — 4 5. " Vermont, 1 — 4 6. " Ohio, 1—4 V. " New Jersey, 1 — 5 8. Canton of Zurich, 1- — 5 9. " Argau, 1 — 5J 10. Saxony, 1— 5-£ » 11. Bohemia, 1 — 5^ 12. Prussia, 1 — 6 13. Canton of Vaud, 1—6 14. Baden, 1—6 1/ Wurtemburg, 1 — 7 1 . Denmark, 1 — 7 44 THE WOELD WE LIVE IX. per. The growth of such manufacturing towns as Lowell, Law- rence, and Hadley Falls, is really astonishing. Situated on the south bank of the Merrimac, Lowell has sprung into existence and prosperity, only within a few years, with a rapidity and energy more like the work of magic than reality. In 1820 Lowell was scarcely known as a village with about 200 souls. Now it is the second city in New England, and has a population of 30,000. In twenty years its population increased a hundred-fold ; the value of its property during the same period was enhanced one hundred and twenty-fold. Its motive power is supplied by a broad and deep canal from the falls of the Merrimac, a little above the city — a motive power capable of turning 300,000 spindles. New com- panies are constantly springing up to avail themselves of this pro- digious force. Thousands of males, and especially females, from the country towns, not only of Massachusetts, but of Maine and New Hampshire, here find employment ; and as a proof of their thrift and virtue, the greater portion of their earnings is deposited in savings banks.* They generally make it the stepping-stone to something better, and generally return to their old homes, to glad- den the hearts of those they love, or go off with their husbands to the West to buy farms, and rise in the world. A literary paper has been conducted for years by the females alone, and, from its vigorous and moral character, proves, conclusively, that there is both " mind" and " heart" among the spindles. Every facility is 17. Norway 18. Bavaria, 19. Holland, 20. Pennsylvania 21. Switzerland generally, . 22. Austria, 23. Belgium, 24. England, 25. Scotland (in 1834), 26. Lombardy, 27. Ireland, 28. France to 7 — 7 — 8 — 9 — 9 —10 —104 — 11 — 11 —124 — 13| -134 * " In the city of Lowell, a city not thirty years old yet, there are two savings institutions, which have five thousand two hundred and sixty-five depositors. The amount of money deposited, according to the returns just published by the Secretary of State, is eight hundred and sixty-eight THOUSAND, TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY-TWO DOLLARS AND FORTY-ONE CENTS. Yes, $868,262 41. Aside from this, there is not a mill in Lowell in "which the operatives at work therein do not own a part of the stock. In the Merri- mac Mills alone, there are upward of seventy thousand dollars of the stock owned by operatives. Then they own largely in the Lowell Railroad and in other railroads, also bank and other stocks." THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 45 afforded them for mental and moral improvement. Several socie- ties for literary and other purposes have been established among themselves. Lowell has eight grammar-schools, mostly free, and thirty public free schools, where the rich and the poor may meet together and enjoy the benefits of a thorough educational training. The number of children attending the free schools is about 6000, and this out of a population of 30,000 ! And now Lawrence and Hadley Falls have sprung into existence, under the same influences, and are destined to rival Lowell itself. The Connecticut River has been dammed, and its mighty stream turned among the spindles ; already stores, churches, and schools are springing up on the banks of the beautiful river, as the immediate result of the enter- prise. CHAPTER IV. NEW ENGLAND STATES CONTINUED. But Boston, the capital of the State, " the Athens of New Eng- land," demands our attention; for here are concentrated the best elements of New England character, intelligence, energy, and re- finement. Ascend the state-house, and look around, on the vast and beautiful panorama which every where greets the eye. Sur- rounded by a coronet of attractive villages, and reposing on islands of the sea, or land won from the waves, Boston looks like a queen upon her throne. Beautiful for situation, with a glorious mingling of land and water, fine buildings and shady trees, a spacious com- mon, and magnificent environs, few cities are more attractive and delightful. Blending, too, the olden with the modern times, by means of Faneuil Hall, the state-house, and Bunker Hill, with old Harvard in the distance, and the wide-spread bay, gleaming in the sunlight, and dotted with vessels, the whole city is invested with the most interesting and stirring associations. The following "glimpses of the past," which we take from an authentic source, will give some idea of ancient manners, and of the spirit and progress of New England society. " It is pleasant, if not profitable, occasionally to recur to the past, and to trace, in the moldy volume of old Time, the influ- ences of far-off events upon the time that is. How eloquent at THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. times is ' still life !' The old wooden mansion of Gov. Hancock, in Beacon-street, is more eloquent and attractive in its venerable dilapidation, than the 'swelled fronts' of its more fashionable neighbors. Who that has the imagination of an ordinary mortal does not, while sauntering, fancy-free, upon our upper mall on Boston Common, see this old edifice peopled by beings of other days, and of other ways than those we live in ; and as their figures darken the portal, or flit by the antiquated windows, feel an im- pulse to doff the modern ' moleskin' (no longer beaver) before the venerable cocked-hat of a by-gone generation ; to say nothing of the silver buckles that braced the 'hinges of the knee,' or sat, in massive state, upon the summit of the instep ? ' High in the in- step' is with us a current phrase, expressive of pride ; — can it have any reference to the buckles of our grandsires ? The tout ensemble of their attire was imposing. The cocked-hat looked defiant, and the buckle, clasping the circlet of the knee, seemed to indicate the stubbornness of a joint unused to bend under the men of those days, save only in the attitude of prayer and thanksgiving to the God of heaven. Add to this the buckle on the instep, imparting an aspect of strength to the pedestal, and, from the summit to the base, the full stature of a man stands before you firm as the marble. Old Major Melville was the 'last of the cocked-hats' of Boston. We remember him well — and what Bostonian does not? " ' But the old three-cornered hat, And the breeches — and all that — Were so queer !' " There is an ancient-looking cottage in the town of Weymouth, in this State, which furnishes the following traditionary anecdote. We are indebted to a friend for the recital of the facts (assured to be such) upon which our relation is founded. In 1*762 the chim- neys of the old edifice referred to furnished evidence, which would have been conclusive to the mind of Dean Swift, of the hospitality to be found within ; for the witty Dean, in describing the reaction in a house from short commons to good dinners, takes his cue from the chimneys, and breaks out, " ' Now chimneys smoked that never smoked before !' However applicable this line might be in this case, we know not ; but at the time referred to, the hospitality of the house was pre- sided over by a scion of that interminable race, the Smiths. It was then the residence of the Rev. Wm. Smith, a gentleman whose character is briefly and clearly summed up in his ' peculiar THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 47 aristocratic feelings.' The reverend gentleman had two daugh- ters — Mary and Abigail. That they were attractive, either in their persons or their minds, or both, or from their family stand- ing, may be inferred from the fact that they both had suitors. Mary was betrothed to a young gentleman of wealth and station, to the great delight of her father. Abigail, in this latter particu- lar, was not so fortunate ; for she, poor maid, had given her heart, and promised her hand, to the son of an honest but humble farmer in the town of Quincy, which plebeian extraction ran counter to the current of the pure blood of the Smiths. However, Abigail's suitor was tolerated on this one ground, that he had forsaken the plough and was then passing through the study of the law. He was barely allowed ingress and egress to the house, but was de- nied the common rites of hospitality, or the old man's welcome. Even his poor horse, that had borne him on ' love's light wings' on those delightful errands from his native village, had to stand unsheltered in the winter s cold. This was very trying ; but love ' increaseth by impediment,' and, this being the case, all the hos- pitality the young man wanted Abigail was abundantly able to supply. Mary's wealthy wooer, tout au contraire, was ever wel- come ; feasted upon the good things of Mr. Smith's table by spe- cial invitation, and hung his hat up as in his father's house. Thus, while the one sister was commended for her judicious choice by her father, and was sailing down the smooth current of joyful an- ticipation with her intended lord, the other was snubbed and cen- sured for her plebeian tastes and vulgar indiscretion in falling in love with one so much below her station, and saw the object of her choice treated with ' the proud man's contumely.' When the time had arrived that Mary was to be married, the Rev. Mr. Smith, in the plenitude of his joy, called his daughter to him, and gave her the privilege of choosing a text, from which he would preach a sermon on the interesting occasion, the Sabbath following the nuptials ; but she declined the offer, begging him to make his own selection. He did so ; and, true to his past policy, preached a sermon from the text, ' Mary hath chosen that good part, which shall not be taken from her,' in which he made some sharp hits at poor Abigail. Shortly after, Abigail's time came to be married to the young lawyer, whose name was John Adams, and she also had the privilege of choosing a text, Avhich she availed herself of by making the following retaliatory selection : — ' And John came neither eating nor drinking, and ye say he hath a devil !' Whether the old man preached from this text our informant saith not ; but it is chronicled that in the year 1764, John Adams, Esq., of Quincy, was united in the bands of wedlock, to Miss Abigail, sec- 48 THE "WOULD WE LIVE IN". ond daughter of Rev. Wm. Smith, of Weymouth. We also find it recorded in the ' Lives of the Presidents,' that the farmer's son of Quincy became the successor of Washington, as President of the United States ; and that said Abigail, his wife, was his devoted partner for fifty-four years. " A letter from this excellent woman, written during the war, is preserved, from which we make the following extract. It breathes the spirit of the times, and shows how happily yoked she was with her energetic and indomitable husband. " ' Heaven is our witness,' she says, ' that we do not rejoice in the effusion of blood, or the carnage of the human species ; but having been forced to draw the sword, we are determined never to sheathe it slaves to Britain. Our cause is the cause of truth and justice, and will finally prevail, though the combined force of earth and hell should rise against it. To this cause I have sacri- ficed much of my own personal happiness, by giving up to the councils of America one of my dearest connections, and living more than three years in a state of widowhood.' " When we hear of the aristocracy of wealth, we are reminded that ' riches make to themselves wings and fly away ;' when as- sailed by the claims of rank, the lines recur : " ' The rank is but the guinea-stamp, The man's the gowd for a' that ;' and when the pride of lineage is the theme of panegyric, we fall back upon the common-sense epitaph of the poet Prior, written by himself : " 'Nobles and heralds, by your leave, Here lies what once was Matthew Prior ; • The son of Adam and of Eve, — Can Stuart or Nassau claim higher ?' " To this we add the following, touching "the good part" of Mary. The personage who became her husband was none other than Richard Cranch, father of the present judge, of Washington City, D. C, a very worthy and estimable man. "At the age of twenty years he came to America, under the charge of Joseph Palmer, his uncle, who was president of the Provincial Congress, and brigadier-general of the Massachusetts forces during our Rev- olution, through the whole of which he was an active participant, both in body and pocket, having expended freely his fortune in that cause. " The statement that ' Mary was betrothed to a young gentle- man of wealth and station,' is correct ; but Richard Cranch had obtained both of these prerequisites by personal application and THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 49 industi-^ . He was by trade a watchmaker, then postmaster of Quincy and Braintree, finally, judge of the court of common pleas, and, by reputation, one of the best of men ; was of sufficient com- manding dignity of manners and deportment ; and, besides, of un- assuming piety, always observing morning and evening prayers in his family. His wealth consisted of the mansion in which he lived, with something of a farm attached. " The relationship of sisters and brothers-in-law — the Smiths, Adamses, and Cranches — was an unalloyed source of satisfaction ; and we cannot rightly infer that any animosity existed between the parties, fioAving from their relative position in society. What became of Mary and her ' good part,' I have endeavored to make plain ; their memory needs no record, but that imprinted upon the hearts of their descendants, and upon the tombstone beneath which they rest, after a good long pilgrimage of happiness through this life. Both daughters of the Rev. Wm. Smith were of supe- rior natural and acquired education, and, what was more, they were the most actively benevolent of their sex, of their time ; into whatever situation or embarrassment they were thrown, they were perfectly at home. For the benefit of our readers, and to show how well adapted the Smiths (both of resembling character) were for any position, we copy an original letter in our possession of the wife of the first President Adams ; it speaks for itself. " ' Haverhill, . " ' To William Cranch, Esq. " ' Dear Cousin : — We propose to visit Haverhill next week, and we wish you to purchase as much hay as you can procure for the inclosed bill, and put it into Mr. Shaw's barn. As we shall have three horses, we think it will be less expensive to us to get the hay than to send them to a tavern ; and we wish to have it there ready for us ; if you could engage us four bushels of oats, we will thank you. I should suppose five hundred will supply three horses for five or six days. " ' Yours affectionately, " ' A, Adams.' " To this private reminiscence, which has a peculiar interest of its own, as connected with the history of Massachusetts, we give a more public one. When John Hancock, at the signing of the Declaration of Independence, remarked with energy, that " there must be no pulling different ways, and that all must hang to- gether ;" " Yes," responded Franklin, in his peculiar way — " Yes, we must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately !" 3 50 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". In Boston may be seen the house and tomb of the New England patriot and philosopher. Let us descend through Beacon-street into Union- street, where, at the corner of Union and Hanover, you will see the very spot where the wonderful old printer spent his early years. It is a homely brick house of three stories, with small windows, and very small panes of glass in them, and the walls of a dirty yellow. Upon a gilded ball protruding from the corner you read, " Josias Franklin, 1698." The side of the house on Union-street remains as it was in the days of Franklin, but that on Hanover has been " shockingly" altered. John Knox's house in Edinburgh is covered with sign-boards, some of them announcing gin for sale ; and here, shades of the mighty dead ! is a bonnet warehouse ! In this house, then, " Poor Richard" grew in stature and wisdom, developing those peculiar traits of honesty, shrewdness, and intelligence which have given his name to immor- tality. Here he pondered over " Bunyan's Works," which he read in separate volumes, " Barton's Historical Collections," "small chapman's books, and cheap, forty volumes in all," " Plu- tarch's Lives," a book of De Foe's, called " An Essay on Proj- ects," and good old Dr. Mather's "Essay to do Good;" and where, too, " his lamp" (more probably his candle's end) was oft seen, as he sat up, at the dead of night, devouring the books which his friend, the bookseller's apprentice, used to lend him over night out of the shop, to be returned next morning. But we are forgetting "Boston present," with its 150,000 in- habitants, its extensive commerce, and, above all, its literary and moral eminence. From its settlement by the Puritans, education in Boston has received the constant attention of the citizens. Its public schools are of a higher character, and better supported, than those of any other city or considerable town in the Union. It is estimated that at least one-fourth of the entire population are kept at school during the year, at an expense of $200,000. Of the public free schools, the Latin High School, resting upon the broad basis of the Primary and the Grammar Schools, is pre- eminently distinguished. There the poorest boy in the city can be thoroughly fitted for college. It is under the direction of a principal, vice-principal, and four assistants. Boston has over a hundred literary and charitable societies ; in this respect, as in many others, strikingly resembling the " North- ern Athens," the metropolis of Scotland. The Boston Athenseum has a library of from 30,000 to 40,000 volumes, -with many ancient coins, medals, paintings, and so forth. Innumerable newspapers, literary journals, and reviews issue from Boston. It has about a hundred churches of all Christian denominations, characterized THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 51 by a remarkable spirit of kindness and tolerance Boston, of course, has her faults, her vagaries, and absurdities. Reformers, the most ultra and excessive, swarm here ; but their very fanati- cism, the fanaticism of love, is a proof of the benevolence from which it springs. The literature of Boston, including history, philosophy, theology, and criticism, is known throughout the civil- ized world. The historians Bancroft, Sparks, and Prescott rank with the greatest masters of historic literature. Her poets, infe- rior only to Milton, Shakspeare, Schiller, and Wordsworth, will bear comparison with any of their class in the Old World. AU- ston and Greenough are distinguished in the arts ; Bowditch and Pierce in science ; Story in jurisprudence ; Choate and Webster, both identified with Boston, in forensic eloquence ; Bowen and Whipple in periodical literature and criticism. We have often been struck with the aspect of Boston on the Sabbath. It is, for its size, perhaps the quietest city in the world on that holy day, the spirit of decorum and repose reigning through all her streets, and indicating her high moral and religious char- acter. Then the voices of her Sabbath bells sound as sweetly as such bells are wont to do in the quiet retreats of rural life. " Hear the holy Sabbath bells — Sacred bells ! Oh, what a world of peaceful rest Their melody foretells ! How sweetly at the dawning Of a summer Sabbath morning Sounds the rhyming And the chiming of the bells ! How they peal out their delight At the happy, happy sight Of the citizens' commotion, As they wend to their devotion ! What emotions fill the breast, At the ringing And the singing ! And the solemn organ blending With the fervent prayer ascending To the God who made the Sabbath For the weary pilgrim's rest ! What joy — what pain the bosom swells, As fondly reminiscence dwells O'er the happy hours of childhood, When we heard those Sabbath bells !" Before leaving Boston and Massachusetts, we must linger a few moments in the quiet retreats of Mount Auburn, the Pere la Chaise of New England, and one of the most delightful monu- 52 THE WORLD WE LIVE ITST. ments of her taste and piety. The beauty, the solemnity, the re- pose of these extensive grounds, so tastefully laid out, and so richly adorned with forest-trees, evergreens, and flowers, mingled with elegant and appropriate monuments in honor of the dead, do great credit to the head and heart of the New England metropo- lis. Here may be seen the appropriate monument of Spurzheim and that of Dr. Bowditch, whose fine meditative bust has a de- lightful effect among; the surrounding verdure. Here also are the tombs of Noah Worcester and the eloquent Dr. Channing. In these calm solitudes repose many of the distinguished men of Harvard University. Deeply hidden among the green foliage are several monuments and inscriptions of exquisite beauty. You come upon them occasionally with a feeling of sudden and de- lightful surprise. One of these has always affected us deeply : it is that of a beautiful child, represented, by the sculptor's device, lying upon her couch in that calm, deep sleep " which knows no waking," and beneath is the following inscription : " Shed not for me the bitter tear ; Give not the heart to vain regret ; 'Tis but the casket that lies here — The gem that filled it sparkles yet !" On a plain slab are the simple but affecting words, " My Mother and my Sister." A magnificent granite monument marks the spot where that merchant prince, Mr. Lowell, founder of the Lowell Lectures, who died in Egypt, reposes among the sepul- chers of his people. Flowers are scattered all around — tokens of love, emblems of hope and heaven ; and forest birds, unconscious of sorrow and decay, are " singing among the branches." Many of the emblems on the tombs, and passages of Scripture, intimate the hope of the sleepers that they shall rise again, when " this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have put on immortality." But we bid adieu to Massachusetts, and find ourselves in the small but spirited State of Rhode Island, " billow cradled," and fast anchored in the deep. "Little Rhody," as her own citizens sometimes call her, is the San Marino of the United States, and possesses at least one grand and lasting distinction, having been the early home of true "soul freedom" — the asylum, in the olden time, and in that age, the only one in the world, of entire liberty of conscience ; for all the other States of New England, though free in many respects, and aiming at the establishment of just and equal laws, misapprehended this fundamental principle, and ban- ished from their borders Roger Williams, the founder of Rhode THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 53 Arms of Rhode Island. Island, and the first asserter of entire religious freedom. Others had contended for liberty of conscience and the right of self-gov- ernment, in general terms, but none, till he, had fully and consist- ently separated the Church from the State, and insisted upon the amplest freedom of thought and liberty of speech. This glory belongs to Roger Williams and the State of Rhode Island. It was in January, 1636, "the sternest month of a New Eng- land winter," when Roger Williams left his wife and children in Salem, and went forth into the wilderness, the sole depository of that mighty principle which, under God, is yet to emancipate the world. " I was sorely tossed," he says, " for fourteen weeks, in a bitter winter season, not knowing what bread or bed did mean." He would have perished amid the ice and snow of the forests, had it not been for the friendly aid of the Indians, whose friendship Williams had cultivated in the true spirit of Christian charity. " These ravens," says he, " fed me in the wilderness." He made his way first to the lodges of the Pokanokets, whose chief, Massa- soit, who had known Mr. Williams when he lived in Plymouth, and had often received presents and other tokens of kindness at his hands, received him with cordial hospitality, and granted him a tract of land on the Seekonk River, to which, in the opening of the spring, he repaired, and where he pitched his tent, and began to build and plant, and where also he was joined by some of his friends from Salem. But his corn was scarcely green when he was reminded that he was yet within the prohibited district of the persecuting Puritans. So, abandoning his new-found home without a murmur, he set sail in a canoe on the Seekonk River, for the other side of the water. Five others bore him company. As they glided along the silent waters of the Seekonk, Williams was hailed by some Indians from * 54 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. the hights on the western bank of the stream, with the friendly- salutation, " What cheer, netop (friend) ? — what cheer ?" and soon after landed at the spot now called Slate Rock. After exchang- ing salutations with the Indians, and making inquiries respecting the country, he again embarked, coasting round the headlands known as Fox Point and India Point, up the harbor, to the mouth of Mooshausic River, on Narragansett Bay. Landing on the beauti- ful slope of the hill that ascends from the river, he descried the spring of water around which he commenced the first plantations of Providence. " A little distance north of what is now the center of the city, the spring is still pointed out which drew the attention of the humble voyagers of Seekonk. Here, after so many wanderings, was the weary exile to find a home, and to lay the foundations of a city which should be a perpetual memorial of pious gratitude to the superintending Providence which protected him and guided him to the spot. How changed is the scene in the lapse of two hundred years ! Art and wealth have covered with their beauti- ful mansions the hill-side that rose in luxuriant verdure before him, and Learning has. erected her halls upon its summit. The solitary place has become a thickly peopled city, the abode of wealth and elegance ; and instead of the deep silence of nature that then reigned over the scene, there are now heard, over hill, and plain, and water, the hum of the spindle, the bustle of trade, and the cheerful murmur of busy life." Rhode Island, for many years, prospered under its old colonial charter, which confined the right of suffrage to particular classes of the community. This was a source of difficulty some years ago, now happily removed. The new constitution is essentially similar to those of the other States, and " little Rhody" has before her a bright career of improvement and prosperity. Her com- merce is quite extensive, and her green fields support a numerous and thriving population. Somewhat late in organizing her system of common schools, it is now in successful operation. Providence is the second commercial city in New England. It boasts the pos- session of one of our ablest and most successful universities, at the head of which stands Dr. Francis Wayland, one of the most profound and vigorous writers in the country. Newport was the residence of the well-known Calvinist theologian, Dr. Hopkins, and the birth-place of the amiable and accomplished Channing. The Hon. Henry Wheaton, a distinguished scholar, and an able writer on international law, was a native of Rhode Island. The Hon. Job Durfee has conferred honor upon his native State by his original and vigorous poem of What Cheer, which John Foster THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 55 regarded with the highest admiration. It illustrates the early his- tory of the State, and especially its first settlement by Roger Will- iams. The following passage, furnishing a fine contrast with the present condition of things in and around Providence, we cannot refrain from quoting : " The winds of March o'er Narragansett's bay Move in their strength ; the waves with foam are white ; O'er Seekonk's tide the waving branches play ; The woods roar o'er resounding plain and liight. 'Twixt sailing clouds the sun's inconstant ray' But glances on the scene, then fades from sight ; The frequent showers dash from the passing clouds ; The hills are peeping through their wintry shrouds. " Dissolving snows each downward channel fill ; Each swollen brook a foaming torrent brawls ; Old Seekonk murmurs, and from every hill Answers aloud the coming waterfalls. Deep-voiced Pawtucket thunders louder still ; To dark Mooshausic joyously he calls, Who breaks his bondage, and, through forests brown, Murmurs the hoarse response, and rolls his tribute down. " But hark ! that sound about the cataracts And hollow winds, in this wild solitude, Seems passing strange : who, with the laboring axe, On Seekonk's eastern marge, invades the wood ? Stroke follows stroke — some sturdy hind attacks Yon ancient groves, which from their birth have stood Unmoved by steel ; and, startled by the sound, The wild deer snuffs the gale, then, with a bound, " Vaults o'er the thickets, and down yonder glen His antlers vanish. On yon shaggy hight Sits the lone wolf, half peering from his den, And howls, regardless of the morning light. Unwonted sounds and a strange denizen Vex his repose ; then, cowering with affright, He shrinks away, for, witli a crackling sound, Yon lofty hemlock bows, and thunders to the ground." The State of Rhode Island is honorably distinguished for its be- nevolent institutions. Miss Dix, we believe, belongs to Rhode Island, and the whole State, as well as the other States of the Union, has felt the influence of her Howard-like benevolence. The Hon. Nicholas Brown, whose name has been given to the uni- versity at Providence, has left behind him many memorials of his high and expansive charity. Long may this little State give birth to such benefactors of their race ! 56 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. Arms of Connecticut. The last, though by no means the least, State of New England we have to visit is Connecticut, sometimes facetiously called the " Wooden Nutmeg State," by others the " Freestone State," from the immense beds of old red sandstone which underlie the Con- necticut River and the adjacent regions, the haunt of genius, and the home of the genuine Yankee peddler, Avho goes " whittling" and bargaining "round the world." The old Puritans who set- tled this State were a noble and substantial race of men, who "feared God, and kept his commandments ;" but, from erroneous notions, and the habits of the age in which they lived, a little too stern in their social discipline. This gave rise to the celebrated Blue Laws, which arranged the dress, and cropped the hair to Puritan dimensions, and gave occasion to certain punishments for light misdemeanors and follies, at which we laugh now, but which assisted to preserve the sanctity of virtue, and form a character at once strong and influential. These Blue Laws, too, have been greatly misrepresented, and are not nearly so bad as is generally imagined. The Episcopal High Churchman, Peters, no great honor, in our judgment, to the venerable church of his fathers, mingled some inventions of his own, and certain hearsays of others, with- the authentic laws of the State, and imparted to them a deeper blue than they naturally possessed. * The Connecticut character has been well and wittily described by Fitz- Greene Halleck, " a poet of their own," and a man of fine genius : " And still her gray rocks tower above the sea That murmurs at their feet, a conquer'd wave ; 'Tis a rough land of earth, and stone, and tree, Where breathes no castled lord, or cabin'd slave ; Where minds, and tongues, and hands are bold and free, And friends will find a welcome, foes a grave ; The very existence of the " Blue Laws" has been denied. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 57 And where none kneel, save when to Heaven they pray ; Nor even then, unless in their own way. " Theirs is a pure republic, wild, yet strong ; A 'fierce democracie,' where all are true To what themselves have voted, right or wrong, And to their laws, denominated blue, * * * * A vestal state which power could not subdue. " They love their land, because it is their own, And scorn to give aught other reason why ; Would shake hands with a king upon his throne, And think it kindness to his majesty ; A stubborn race, fearing and flattering none : Such are they nurtured — such they live and die ; All but a few apostates, who are meddling With merchandise, pounds, shillings, pence, and peddling. " Or, wandering through the Southern countries, teaching The ABC from Webster's spelling-book ; * «• * # Or gaining by what they call ' hook and crook,' And what the moralists call over-reaching, A decent living. * * * "But these are but their outcasts. View them near At home, where all their worth and pride is placed, And there their hospitable fires burn clear ; And there the lowliest farm-house hearth is graced With manly hearts ; in piety sincere, Faithful in love, in honor stern and chaste, In friendship warm and true, in danger brave, Beloved in life, and sainted in the grave !" Connecticut has rather a poor and rugged soil, though very fer- tile and beautiful along the courses of her streams, the Connecti- cut, the Thames, the Housatonic, and the Farmington. A long range of mountains, or rather hills, runs through the State, like the backbone of a fish, coming down from the mountains of the north, and terminating at New Haven, in the high rocky bluffs called East and West Rocks. The State is essentially manufacturing ; her rapid streams, " which run among the valleys," driving innumer- able mills, which turn out all sorts of " Yankee notions," such as tin-ware, wooden-ware, clocks and coffee-mills, and the more sub- stantial articles of cotton and woolen fabric. Her noble river, the Connecticut, is one of the most beautiful in the country, often reminding one of the Rhine, though without the old castles and vine-covered hills of that ancient river; but eveiy where, on its high sloping banks, you see the fair cottage 3* 58 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. or more substantial farm-house, the neat school-house and gleam- ing church, " white as the snows of heaven," with its green blinds and slender spire. No finer cities of their size can be found than Hartford, New Haven, and Middletown. Her schools and colleges are of the highest order. " Old Yale," the glory of the pilgrims, is one of the largest in the United States, well endowed, and thoroughly manned with a noble corps of learned and accomplished teachers. The Wesleyan University at Middletown, though smaller, is a very respectable institution. The Connecticut School Fund, the largest in the country, now exceeds two millions of dollars. Connecticut can show a long list of celebrated men — celebrated at once in peace and war. Her Davenports, Winthrops, Sher- mans, Putnams, Trumbulls, Ledyards, and Seymours are well known. Her literary history, too, is one of the most brilliant in the country. Jonathan Edwards, the greatest metaphysician, and perhaps preacher of his day, belongs to this State. Timothy Dwight, poet, orator, and divine, is one of her sons. A host of other distinguished preachers and theologians, whom we cannot even name, adorn her annals. Her poets, of whom Connecticut has been peculiarly prolific, are among the stars of American literature. Among these are Trumbull, the author of " McFin- gal," the Hudibras of his country ; Joel Barlow, whose " Hasty Pudding" is well known ; John Pierpont, whose " Airs of Palef tine" and patriotic lyrics have awakened sweet echoes in many hearts ; James A. Hillhouse, the amiable and gifted author of "Hadad;" Fitz-Greene Halleck, whose "Marco Bozzaris" sounds like a trumpet among the mountains ; S. G. Goodrich, the Peter Parley of the world, and the author of some fine poems, among them " Lake Superior," of considerable poetic merit ; Dr. James G. Percival, one of the most learned though singular men of his day, and a poet of rare power, rising frequently to strains which would do honor to Wordsworth and Coleridge ; John Brainard, the author of " Connecticut," an exquisite piece of descriptive verse ; Lydia H. Sigourney, the Hemans of America, with many others, as the newspapers say, " too numerous to mention." Con- necticut is celebrated for her teachers, and perhaps no State has produced so many admirable text-books for schools and acade- mies. Noah Webster, " the great word man," as the people. some- times impressively call him, has produced the best and most pop- ular dictionary of the English language. Nor is this State undistinguished in science. Her Olmsteds and Sillimans are known throughout the scientific world. Before leaving this State, we will linger a little while in the city of Hartford, lying on a gentle acclivity which rises gradually from THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 59 the banks of the Connecticut, and possessing much picturesque beauty. On a bold eminence south of the city stand the hand- some buildings of Trinity College, surrounded by thick masses of magnificent foliage. Beyond it, toward the south, is the State Lunatic Asylum, a fine silvan retreat, and one of the best institu- tions of the kind in the country. On this side, and separated from the college by Sickenam River, a sluggish stream, which winds in rural beauty through the intervening valley, rises Lord's Hill, sometimes called Asylum Hill, with handsome villas and cottages, and surmounted by the extensive buildings of the Asylum for Deaf Mutes, a noble and well-supported institution, with its dozen teachers, and three hundred pupils. Beneath these hills, in the direction of the Connecticut River, the city proper spreads itself north and south, adorned with handsome churches and lofty spires, among which towers the State House, a plain but handsome building and not far from it, the Athenaeum, an elegant structure, in the semi- Gothic style, containing a large public library, as also the library of the Historical Society, the most of which, however, belongs to the great New England " Biblist," the venerable Dr. Robbins, a good collection of paint- ings, from the pencils of Trumbull, Stewart, West, and others, and an interesting cabinet of antiquities. Here may be seen por- traits of some of the old governors and clergymen of Connecticut ; the sign-post of General Putnam ; the jacket and shirt of Ledyard, perforated by the sword of his recreant conqueror ; Elder Brew- ster's chest, porridge-pot, and tongs, brought over in the May- flower ; an old English chair, fit for a giant, brought over in the same vessel ; a chair, or ottoman, which belonged to General Washington ; and several other rare and precious relics of former days. The reading-room and library of the " Young Men's In- stitute," so well arranged, furnish unmistakable evidence of the virtue and intelligence of the place. A little further south, a few steps beyond the bridge which spans the Little or Sickenam River, in a street which runs at right angles from Main-street toward the Connectic\it River, stands the veritable Charter Oak, in which the bold patriots of the olden time hid the colonial char- ter, which James the Second endeavored to wrest from their grasp. What strange and startling changes has this venerable denizen of the primeval forest, now all alone in the heart of the city, beheld since the days of its youth ! " Change steals o'er all ! the bark canoe No longer cleaves the streamlet blue ; Nor even the flying wheel retains Its ancient prowess o'er the plains ; 60 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. The horse, with nerves of iron frame, Whose breath is smoke, whose food is flame, Surmounts the earth with fearful sweep, And strangely rules the cleaving deep." The Charter Oak, by Mrs. Sigoumey, The character and manners of the people of Connecticut, similar to those of the New Englanders generally, differ, in no essential particulars, from those of the Anglo-Saxons of England, whence they spring. A little more keen and practical — an enemy would say, more close and cunning — they possess the same general fea- tures of temper and habits. Intelligent, sociable, enterprising, they are perhaps more mercurial and locomotive. Never was such a people for inventing, contriving, changing, " guessing," " fixing," and traveling. Upon the whole religious— in some cases sternly so — they give liberally to all benevolent enterprises, and take the deepest interest in the progress of freedom and truth throughout the world. Their amusements are of the solid and virtuous character, though " breaking out" considerably on training and celebration days. Fond of their homes, warmly attached to their children and friends, they are happiest in private and social intercourse. Thanksgiving and the Fourth of July are the great festivals of New England. Christmas is celebrated by some ; but the population being composed chiefly of Congregationalists and Baptists, with a respectable sprinkling of Episcopalians and Metho- dists, all good members of the community, Thanksgiving is the real Christmas holiday of New England. Then the "fatted calf" — we mean the fatted turkey — is killed, and the pumpkin pies are baked. Friends and families, far and near, gather in the old churches, and in the old homes, to spend the day. Family ties are renewed, old memories are invigorated, old affections and hopes are brightened. Songs and stories, quips and cranks, smiles and tears, vows and greetings, counsels and cautions, feastings and frolickings, prayers and blessings, fill up the day. Then ten thousand happy families can sing : " We are all here, Father, mother, Sister, brother, All who hold each other dear. Each chair is filled — we're all at home ! Bless, then, the meeting and the spot ; Let once be every care forgot ; Let gentle peace assert her power, And kind affection rule the hour : — We're all here — all here ! Charles Sprague. THE NEW ENGLAISD STATES. 61 THE MIDDLE STATES. 63 CHAPTER Y, THE MIDDLE STATES. Arms of New York. We bid farewell to New England, with her schools and col- leges, her poets and pumpkins, and hasten to New York, justly- styled the " Empire State." It is a bright and balmy day in June, as, in our noble steamer, we plow the waves of Long Island Sound. On one side are the rocky shores of old Connecticut ; on the other, the verdant slopes of Long Island, which may be termed the garden of New York, for thence, to a great extent, are the markets of the latter sup- plied with vegetables. We pass rapidly the cultivated banks of what we may now call the East River, for the Sound is narrowed to the dimensions of an ordinary river, adorned on either side with handsome villas and shady lawns ; and yonder is New York, with her forest of masts, gathered from all nations, and her innumerable chimneys, church towers, and spires stretching to the sky, the second great commercial metropolis in the world, being inferior only to London in the extent of her business and shipping. The population of New York is immense, and constantly increasing. The same may be said of her trade and commerce. Her natural resources and advantages are unprecedented, having, perhaps, the finest harbor in the world ; connected on the one hand, by means of this harbor, with the vast Atlantic, and consequently with the entire commerce of the earth ; and on the other, through her in- ternal channels of communication, in the form of railroads and 64 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". rivers, with the whole United States. On these accounts, both the City and State of New York are yet destined to an amazing ex- pansion and increase. Let any one take the railroad cars, or the North River, and pass on, amid the magnificence of nature, and the thriving towns, cities, villages, hamlets, and homes which adorn the banks of the Hudson, to Albany or Troy ; then let him pro- ceed through the interior of the State hundreds of miles, along her canals or her railroads, touch at Ontai-io on the north, and Erie on the west, and finally stand by the shores of Niagara, listening to the roar of its mighty cataract, and he will not hesitate to say that New York is fairly entitled to the appellation of the " Empire State." With scenery as grand and picturesque as any in the world ; immense and beautiful inland lakes ; long lines of canal and railroad communication ; rivers running from north to south, from east to west, deep and long-reaching, and covered with the com- merce and population of the neighboring countries ; vast mountain ranges crowned with verdure ; exuberant forests for timber and shipping ; wide and fair valleys, rich meadows, and uplands, clothed with grass or grain ; extensive manufactures ; a noble system of free- school education ; an intelligent and industrious population, con- stantly increasing in numbers, intelligence, and wealth ; the Bible scattered every where in church, school-house, and home ; an ener- getic corps of Christian ministers of various denominations, and churches every where adorning the landscape, the State cannot fail to be prosperous and happy. New York is especially rich in agriculture ; but situated as she is, manufactures and commerce must necessarily occupy much of her attention. In both these departments of industry, her prog- ress has been rapid and striking. No State or country has ex- celled her in the matter of internal improvements. Indeed, there seems to be no limit to her resources in this respect. The Erie Canal, her former pride, and now the North River and Erie Rail- roads, are stupendous works of art, traversing the State, and com- manding the commerce of the Far West ; for one has only to start from the foot of Cortlandt-street, and keep on moving, day after day, continuously, by steamer and rail-car, in order to find him- self now at Buffalo, now at Detroit, anon at Chicago, and finally at Milwaukie, or some other more distant point in the once un- broken wilderness. It is a source of infinite satisfaction that New York has taken such a decided stand in the matter of common-school education. The people are to be wholly educated ; and although the best-laid scheme will fail at particular points, and in the best-educated communities many will be found incapable of reading and writing, THE MIDDLE STATES. 65 yet it will not fail as a whole, and the great mass of the com- munity will become a reading and well-informed people. New York is, in its character, essentially New England, with some slight modifications from foreign emigration, and from the prevalence here and there, especially among the Manhattaners, of a Dutch element. In their manners, perhaps, they are more gen- erous and free ; a little more given, we should think, to personal indulgence ; in some respects, it may be, more liberal in their tone of thinking, and a little more easy and careless in their general manners. Still, they are, to all intents and purposes, the same kind of people, profess the same beliefs, enjoy the same forms of government, speak the same language, read the same books, cher- ish the same hopes. This, it is true, may be said of the great majority of the inhabitants of the United States. Portions of them, indeed, # are peoples by themselves. The Germans, the Irish, the Jews, the Danes, the Africans, and some others, have their national peculiarities ; but it is surprising to see how rapidly all the varieties of the Norman, Teutonic, and Anglo-Saxon stocks are blending together, losing their peculiarities, and forming a single homogeneous race. New York is well supplied with colleges, universities, medical and theological schools. Her literary men are among the fore- most in the country. At the head of these stand Washington Irving, the Addison, or, perhaps, the Goldsmith of America, and Cooper, next to Walter Scott, perhaps, the most successful novel- ist of modern times. New Jei-sey, indeed, may claim Cooper, as he is a native of that State. But the city of New York, from its great commercial advantages, naturally attracts literary as well as business men. Here reside Bryant, Dr. Robinson (born in Southington, Connecticut), Fitz-Greene Halleck, N. P. Willis, and many others, attracted to New York, as one of the great centers of literary influence. Among the distinguished writers of native stock, we may mention, without intending to disparage others, Verplanck, Hoffman, Paulding, Fay, Headley, Mathews, Hosmer, Street, Mrs. Kirkland, Fanny Forrester, Mrs. Osgood, Miss Gould, and Mrs. Embury. Of preachers, learned and elo- quent, New York has a noble list. Many of her sons have gone "far hence to preach among the Gentiles the unsearchable riches offchrist." Reluctantly we bid adieu to New York, and crossing the ferry, find ourselves in the cars, dashing through the level, peach-clad plains of New Jersey. Originally settled by Dutch in 1624, New Jersey yet retains a Dutch element ; and is an honest, indus- trious, thriving State. Its manufactures, particularly of iron, are 66 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. quite extensive. It lias two colleges : that of Nassau Hall, or the College of New Jersey, at Princeton, at which place, also, is a Arms of New Jersey. celebrated theological seminary belonging to the Presbyterians; and Rutger's College, at New Brunswick, both flourishing institu- tions, from which have issued many able and influential men. The Alexanders, father and sons, have acquired a just celebrity as scholars and theologians. New Jersey played an important part during the Revolutionary war. The battles of Trenton, of Princeton, and of Monmouth, in all of which her citizens bore a share, have won for her imperish- able renown. But yonder is Philadelphia, with its green trees and level squares, the city of that great and good man, William Penn — who, according to Dean Prideaux, laid it out after the model of ancient Babylon — next to New York, the largest city in the United States, 'and ever memorable as the scene of the Declaration of Independ- ence. The first thing that attracts us, and the most interesting, though one of the plainest of her public buildings, is the old State House, now called Independence Hall, at once venerable and beau- tiful, from its situation and early associations. It fronts on Chest- nut-street, with Independence Square in its rear. The wood-work of the steeple of the main building was so much decayed in 1*774, that it was taken down, leaving only a small belfry to cover the bell for the use of the town-clock. The first bell, originally im- ported from England, being broken, a new one was cast in Phil- adelphia, under the direction of Isaac Norris, then speaker of the Colonial Assembly, who caused to be inscribed on it a passage from Leviticus, xxv., 10, " as if prophetic of its future use," " Pro- claim liberty throughout this land unto all the inhabitants thereof" THE MIDDLE STATES. Ql That very bell, the moment the Declaration of Independence was signed by the noble men gathered in one of the rooms beneath, rang out its joyous tones, proclaiming to the anxious multitudes who were waiting the result, the consummation of that august and thrilling: act. Arms of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania is a large and highly prosperous State, the great coal and iron region, from which, mainly, the whole United States are supplied with these indispensable articles. It has extensive manufactures ; in this respect, indeed, it is the first State in the Union, and possesses large tracts of rich arable land. Its mount- ains are filled with coal, marble, iron, and other minerals. The population is large, and constantly increasing, fairly entitling it to the appellation, in the language of political life, of the Keystone State. Pennsylvania has quite a number of flourishing universities and colleges, and a fair system of common schools. Except, however, in the larger cities, education is in a somewhat backward condition. The country people of this State have not yet awakened to a full sense of the value of this inestimable blessing. Still, progi*ess has been made in inference to this interest, and, we doubt not, Pennsyl- vania,' "slow, but sure," will, in her educational movements, soon rival her sister States. The late Stephen Girard left 2,000,000 of dollars for the establishment of a free orphan school in Philadel- phia. The magnificent edifice of white marble erected for this institution is an ornament to the city and State. Being originally settled by Quakers, Pennsylvania has a large proportion of this quiet and excellent class of men, with their broad-brimmed hats, drab breeches, thee and thou conversation, and staid demeanor. A large portion of the State is also settled 68 THE WOELD WE LIVE W. by Germans, who speak their own language, and maintain their own worship, chiefly Lutheran or Dutch Reformed. The Mora- vians, a simple-hearted, pious people, have settlements at Nazareth and Bethlehem. The latter occupies an attractive situation, rising from the banks of the Lehigh, here crossed by a bridge. It has a large Gothic church, a female seminary, and, in the immediate vicinity, a beautiful rural cemetery. The society is distinguished for their great simplicity of manners and love of music. Much of their worship consists of music, in which the whole congregation unite. A solemn requiem is sung from the dome of the church at the death of any of their number, and the body, after remaining three days in the " corpse-house," is borne to the grave accom- panied by sweet and plaintive music. Pennsylvania is not peculiarly distinguished in the literature of the country. Still, she has borne her part in this sphere, and has produced many accomplished orators, poets, and divines. Benja- min Franklin long resided in Philadelphia. Here lived and labored the lamented Willis Gaylord Clark. Rufus W. Griswold and Dr. Bethune have been long identified with Philadelphia. Charles Brockden Brown was a Pennsylvanian, and Joseph C. Neal, the author of " Charcoal Sketches," though born in New Hampshire, made his home in Pennsylvania. Arms of Delaware. Arms of Maryland. But we must hasten on our journey. The little States of Dela- ware and Maryland, not unknown in the annals of the Union, in- vite us. Here we begin to breathe the balmy air of the South, and see the first indications of slavery, existing in Maryland, per- haps in its mildest form, but not unaccompanied by some of those disadvantages, which none are more ready to deplore than the free and generous portion — which we believe to be the larger THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 69 portion — of the Southern people themselves. Baltimore, the prin- cipal city of Maryland, and of this part of the country, is a large, prosperous commercial emporium, with much vigor and enterprise, being the third largest city in the Union. These small States, particularly Maryland, are not undistin- guished in literature. To prove this, we have only to mention the names of William Wirt of Bladensburg, and his elegant biog- rapher, J. P. Kennedy, Edgar A. Poe, that rare but wayward son of genius, Ed. C. Pinckney, a statesman and poet, Dr. Bird, the author of " Calavar," and Richard H. Wilde, one of the most accomplished scholars in the country, author of " The Love, Im- prisonment, and Madness of Torquato Tasso." We will remain a short time in the District of Columbia, that anomalous but interesting spot, which contains the seat of govern- ment, and ought to be, though we fear, in all respects, it is not, the light and glory of the Union. Washington, the capital of the country, the " city of magnificent distances," has many interesting features. Its great attraction, however, consists in its connection with the government. "The public buildings of Washington," says an English writer, " have a magnificence becoming a great nation." The Capitol is the finest building in the United States. It is every way suitable that the representatives of the sovereign people should be accommodated in a building which would do honor to royalty, and be worthy of the most august legislative body in the world. The Capitol is universally regarded as an honor to the nation. It is elevated seventy-three feet above tide- water, and affords a commanding view of the city and of the sur- rounding country. The building is of freestone, and covers an area of more than an acre and a half ; the length of the front is 352 feet, including the wings ; the depth of the wings is 121 feet. In the projection on the east front there is a splendid portico of twenty-two lofty Corinthian columns, thirty-eight feet high ; and in the west front there is a portico of ten Corinthian columns. The bight of the building to the top of the dome is 120 feet. Under the dome, in the middle of the building, is the rotunda, a circular room, ninety-five feet in diameter, and of the same bight, adorned with sculptures in stone panels, in bold relief, containing groups of figures representing Smith delivered by the interposition of Pocahontas ; the Landing of the Pilgrims on Plymouth Rock ; the Conflict of Boone with the Indians ; and Penn treating with the Indians ; and four magnificent paintings by Trumbull, with figures as large as life, representing the Presentation to Congress of the Declaration of Independence, in which all the figures, forty-seven in number, in that august assembly, which William Pitt, in the 10 THE WORLD WE LIVE LN". British Parliament, pronounced superior in wisdom to any body of men whom he had ever heard or read of, are correct likenesses ; the Surrender of Burgoyne to General Gates ; the Surrender of Capitol at Washington. Cornwallis at Yorktown ; and Washington Resigning his Commis- sion to Congress at Annapolis. To these have recently been added the Baptism of Pocahontas, by Chapman, and the Embark- ation of the Pilgrims, by Weir. These paintings (by native artists) possess great merit as works of art, in addition to their commem- oration of great events in American history. The rotunda has recently received a splendid additional ornament in Greenough s statue of Washington, a colossal figure in a sitting posture, twice as large as life. There are in Washington various other build- ings and objects of interest worthy of notice, but we have no room for their description. We will, however, mention only one more, the glory of the age, in the line of invention and scientific progress, Professor S. F. B. Morse's electric telegraph, the source of all the other telegraphs in the country, and one of the most astonishing triumphs of genius, industry, and skill. THE DISTEICT OF COLUMBIA. 71 On the north bank of the Potomac, two miles west of the Cap- itol, and on the highest point of the land in the District, stands the National Observatory. On a clear day, a correspondent of the Globe remarks, the view from it embraces a scene of mingled variety and beauty, which would alone repay a visit. The cities of Washington and Georgetown appear spread out at your feet, the broad avenues of the former marked as upon a map. The eye, easily directed to Columbia College and the Catholic Seminary, ranges also over the different churches and public edifices, while far off, upon an emi- nence already green under the first breath of spring, rises the Capitol, the flag of the Union floating proudly from its summit, and its numerous windows gleaming in the sun. Nearer, you see the Long Bridge, which crosses the Potomac, and Arlington House, nestled among the hills that skirt the Virginia shore. The river, whose waves break beneath you upon the grounds of the Observatory, makes a bend before it sweeps away to Alexandria, imparting an additional charm to a scene which, for its still and solemn beauty, is not equaled by that of the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace, and is even superior to any of the exquisitely contrasted combinations of land and water views, sometimes produced by the abrupt course of the Alleghany, in the south- ern counties of New York, as it winds " mountain - curved along." The Observatory itself is a large two- story building, surmounted by a revolving dome, and has wings upon its eastern and western extremities, with a similar projection at the north, in which are placed the instruments for astronomical observation. In the dome is the " Equatorial," the most important instrument in the build- ing. It consists of a fourteen-feet telescope with a nine-inch object-glass, equatorially mounted. It was made in Dresden, and cost, we think, $40,000. The east wing contains a five-foot transit instrument, with an object-glass of four and a half inches, and also a " fine mural circle," with a telescope six feet in length, and an object-glass of five and a half inches. In the south room is a "prime vertical" and a refraction in- strument, and in the adjoining wing may be seen a seven-foot transit, and the justly celebrated magnetic clock, We are off once more, not exactly on the wings of the wind, but on those of steam, if the figure may be allowed, and, in due time, find ourselves in Old Virginia, one of the most enlightened and patriotic of the old thirteen States that banded together in the cause of liberty ; mother of heroes and' great men, for here 12 THE WORLD WE LIVE EN". were born Washington, Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Madison, and other lofty spirits, whose names stand among the first in the an- nals of their country, and of the world. Here, then, properly commence our brief sketches of the Southern States. CHAPTER VI. THE SOUTHERN STATES, Arms of Virginia. Virginia is a large and beautiful State, though somewhat worn out in parts by slave culture, the growth of tobacco, and so forth. Ever brave and chivalrous, Virginia bore an important part in the Revolutionary struggle. No State in the Union has given birth to greater or better men. Her Patrick Henry, as a Revolutionary orator, perhaps the most powerful and thrilling the Union has ever produced ; her Washington, " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," in fact, the greatest man of modern times ; her Jefferson, scholar, statesman, and orator, at once accomplished and profound ; her Madison and her Monroe, statesmen of the highest order ; her Marshall, as a judge and ex- pounder of laAv, one of the clearest and ablest in the annals of jurisprudence, have conferred upon her undying honor. From the character of the early settlers, and the nature of her social and domestic institutions, the people of Virginia possess some peculiar traits of character. The manners of her planters THE SOUTHERN STATES. 73 are polished and courteous. Hospitality and generosity are every- day virtues. The common people, however, and the slave popu- lation, have also their traits, and suffer greatly in comparison. Education is imperfectly diffused. The higher schools and col- leges are pretty well patronized, but alas ! the common schools are common enough. Indeed, they scarcely exist, and much gross ignorance prevails among the poor whites, and, of course, among the colored population. The people of Virginia are said to be kind to their slaves. Many of these can read, Avrite, and cipher, and a few of them have made some progress in general intelligence. Considering their circum- stances, they succeed in passing their time in tolerable comfort. Many of them are church members, and greatly enjoy the sing- ing. But the poor creatures have often to be removed from their homes, a thing which they dread — which their masters some- times dread, but which they cannot help. On Sundays, at meet- ing, on "general training days," Christmas and the Fourth of July, and at barbecue feasts, they appear " light-hearted and merry," for this is the nature of the negro ; but they are a poor, ignorant, hapless race, to whom their possessors owe the deepest responsibilities, which, we trust, they will yet fully and generously meet. Virginia has some great natural curiosities, which attract the admiration of all travelers. Among these are the passage of the river Potomac through the Blue Ridge, at Harper's Ferry, a part of the Appalachian chain of mountains, presenting the appearance of a huge rent three-quarters of a mile wide, through a stupen- dous wall of rocks ; the Rock Bridge over Cedar Creek, a gigantic rock, eighty feet in width, and covered with soil and trees, thrown across a chasm 200 feet in depth, nearly perpendicular, through which the stream passes, thus forming a natural arch, " so beauti- ful, so elevated, so light, and springing, as it were, up to heaven," as to produce, according to Jefferson, " emotions the most sublime and delightful ;" and especially Weyers Cave, in Augusta county, among the mountains, " vast, spacious, and beautiful, abounding in sparry concretions, and equal, in the singularity and splendor of its contents, to the celebrated grotto of Antiparos." This natural cave is composed of various apartments and figures, among which are the Dragon s Room, in imitation of a dragon facing a stupen- dous wall, under which is a projecting rock, with many soniferous spires; Solomon's Temple, "one of the sublimest sights in the world," containing a "wave-like folding of incrustations from the ceiling to the floor, exactly resembling water tumbling over a precipice which had conglaciated in falling, called the Cataract or 4 74 THE WORLD WE LIVE IJST. Falls of Niagara," with other magnificent and infinitely diversified stalactites and stalagmites, like thrones, pillars, and divans ; the Lady's Dressing-room, elegantly festooned ; Washington's Statue, having the appearance of a large person vailed in white ; Lady Washington's Drawing-room ; Washington Hall ; the Pyramids ; the Dining-room ; the Church Steeple ; Jefferson's Salt Mount- ain ; Lot's Wife, and we know not what all. Before leaving Virginia we must pay a visit to Mount Vernon, the home and the burying-place of the immortal Washington, " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his country- men." It lies pleasantly on the west bank of the Potomac, fifteen miles from Washington, and nine from Alexandria. The mansion, yet standing, is a plain and unpretending wooden edifice, sur- rounded, however, by spacious and beautiful lawns and gardens. The tomb is a simple excavation in the earth, walled with brick, and overgrown with evergreens. But the greatness of the man. needs nothing more than the presence of his dust to invest the scene with a sublime and thrilling interest. " How sleep the brave, who sink to rest By all their country's wishes blest ! When spring, with dewy fingers cold, Returns to deck their hallowed mold, She there shall dress a sweeter sod Than fancy's feet have ever trod." Carlyle, with a strange perversity, has asked, What great idea, what great man, has America produced ? To which we . reply, Liberty, and Washington. " I stood with him," says one who knew him well, " on that same stone platform before the door of the hall, elevated by a few steps from the pavement, when the carriage of the President drew up. It was, as he describes it, white, or rather of a light cream-color, painted on the panels with beautiful groups, representing the four seasons. The horses, according to my recollection, were white, in unison with the car- riage. (He says they were bays ; perhaps he is more correct.) As he alighted, and, ascending the steps, paused upon the plat- form, looking over his shoulder, in an attitude that would have furnished an admirable subject for the pencil, he was preceded by two gentlemen, with long white wands, who kept back the crowd that pressed on every side to get % nearer view. At that moment I stood so near that I might have touched his clothes — but I should as soon have thought of touching an electric battery. I was penetrated wUh a veneration amounting to the deepest awe. Nor was this the feeling of a school-boy only ; it pervaded, I be- lieve, every human being that approached Washington ; and I THE SOUTHERN STATES. 75 have been told that, even in his social and convivial hours, this feeling in those who were. honored to share them never suffered intermission. I saw him a hundred times afterward, but never with any other than that same feeling. The Almighty, who raised up for our hour of need a man so peculiarly prepared for its whole dread responsibility, seems to have put an impress of sacredness upon his own instrument. The first sight of the man strack the heart with an involuntary homage, and prepared every thing around him to obey. When he ' addressed himself to speak,' there was an unconscious suspension of the breath, while every eye was raised in expectation. At the time I speak of, he stood in profound silence, and had that statue-like air which mental greatness alone can bestow. As he turned to enter the building, and was ascending the staircase leading to the Congressional Hall, I glided along unperceived, almost under cover of the skirts of his dress, and entered instantly after him into the lobby of the House, which was, of course, in session to receive him. On either hand, from the entrance, stood a large cast-iron stove ; and, resolved to secure the unhoped-for privilege I had so unexpectedly obtained, I clambered, boy-like, on this stove (fortunately then not much heated), and from that favorable elevation enjoyed, for the first time (what I have since so many thousands of times witnessed with comparative indifference), an uninterrupted view' of the American Congress in full session, every member in his place. Shall I be pardoned for saying its aspect was very different from what we now witness ? There was an air of decorum, of compo- sure, of reflection, of gentlemanly and polished dignity, which has fled, or lingers with here and there a 'relic of the olden time.' " The House seemed then as composed as the Senate now is, when an impressive speech is in the act of delivery. On Wash- ington's entrance the most profound and death-like stillness pre- vailed. House, lobbies, gallery, all were wrapped in the deepest attention ; and the souls of that entire assemblage seemed pouring from their eyes on the noble figure which deliberately, and Avith an unaffected but surpassing majesty, advanced upon the broad aisle of the Hall, between ranks of standing Senators and mem- bers, and slowly ascended the steps leading to the Speaker's chair. I well remember, standing at the head of the Senate, the tall, square, somewhat gaunt form of Mr. Jefferson, conspicuous from his scarlet waistcoat, bright-blue coat, with broad, bright buttons, as well as by his quick and penetrating air, and high- boned, Scottish cast of features. There, too, stood Gen. Knox, then Secretary of War, in all the sleek rotundity of his low stature, with a bold and florid face, open, firm, and manly in its expression. 16 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. But I recollect that my boyish eye was caught by the appearance of De Yrujo, the Spanish embassador. He stood in the rear of the chair, a little on one side, covered with a splendid diplomatic dress, decorated with orders, and carrying under his arm an im- mense chapeau bras, edged with white ostrich feathers. He was a man totally different in his air and manner from all around him, and the very antipodes especially of the man on whom all eyes but his seemed fixed as by a spell. I saw many other very strik- ing figures grouped about and behind the Speaker's chair, but I did not know their names, and had no one to ask ; besides, I dared not open my lips. " The President, having: seated himself, remained in silence, serenely contemplating the Legislature before him, whose mem- bers now resumed their seats, waiting for the speech. No house of worship, in the most solemn pauses of devotion, was ever more profoundly still than that large and crowded chamber. " Washington was dressed precisely as Stuart has painted him in Lord Landsdown's full-length portrait — in a full suit of the richest velvet, with diamond knee-buckles, and square silver buckles set upon shoes japanned with the most scrupulous neatness, black silk stockings, his shirt ruffled at the breast and wrist, a light dress- sword, his hair profusely powdered, fully dressed, so as to project at the sides, and gathered behind in a silk bag ornamented with a large rose of black ribbon. He held his cocked hat, which had a large black cockade on one side of it, in his hand, as he advanced toward the chair, and, when seated, laid it on the table. " At length, thrusting his hand within the side of his coat, he drew forth a roll of manuscript, which he opened, and rising, held it in his hand, while in a rich, deep, full, sonorous voice, he read his opening address to Congress. His enunciation was deliberate, justly emphasized, very distinct, and accompanied with an air of deep solemnity, as being the utterance of a mind profoundly im- pressed with the dignity of the act in which it was occupied, conscious of the whole responsibility of its position and action, but not oppressed by it. There was ever about the man some- thing which impressed the observer with a conviction that he was exactly and fully equal to what he had to do. He was never hurried, never negligent ; but seemed ever prepared for the occa- sion, be it what it might. If I could express his character in one word, it would be, appropriateness. In his study, in his parlor, at a levee, before Congress, at the head of an army, he seemed to be just what the situation required him to be. He possessed, in a degree never equaled by any human being I ever saw, the strongest, most ever-present sense of propriety. It never forsook THE SOUTHERN STATES. 11 him, and deeply and involuntarily impressed itself upon every beholder. " His address was of moderate length ; the topics I have, of course, forgotten. Indeed, I was not of an age to appreciate them ; but the air, the manner, the tone, have never left my men- tal vision, and even now seem to vibrate on my ear. " A scene like this once beheld, though in earliest youth, is never to be forgotten. It must be now fifty years ago, but I could this moment sit down and sketch the chamber, the assem- bly, and the max. " Having closed the reading, he laid down the scroll, and, after a brief pause, retired as he had entered ; when the manuscript was handed, for a second reading, to Mr. Beckley, then Clerk of the House, whose gentlemanly manner, clear and silvery voice, and sharp articulation, I shall ever associate with the scene. When shall we again behold such a Congress, and such a President?" We have remained so long in Virginia that we shall be com- pelled to pass with great rapidity through the remaining Southern States, which are alike in many particulars, presenting much the same phases of society, and much the same aspects of natural scenery. As you proceed southward, the population becomes more sparse, the climate warmer, the vegetation more luxuriant. The lands on the sea-board are level and monotonous ; in the in- terior, a hundred or a hundred and fifty miles from the sea, more varied and beautiful. Arms of North Carolina. Arms of South Carolina. Worth Carolina and South Carolina, in their mountain districts, possess some of the most magnificent and picturesque scenery in the world. These are wealthy and chivalric States, though occa- sionally deemed somewhat proud and vainglorious in their, mode 78 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. of expressing their patriotism. North Carolina is the more mod- est of the two, and, perhaps, equal to her more showy sister in good sense and solid worth. Charleston is a cultivated place, and boasts the possession of some distinguished literary men. Raleigh is a pleasant capital, and is the residence of many inter- esting and highly polished families. Georgia is a large and prosperous State, with a genial climate, luxuriant soil, and thriving population. The woods are adorned with magnificent magnolias, and other flowering trees and shrubs. Cotton is abundant ; oranges, lemons, and figs, especially in the southern parts of the State, give a rich and brilliant aspect to the landscape. Mercer University, and other literary institutions, do honor to the intelligence and enterprise of the citizens. If they could only maintain a good system of common schools, their higher institutions would be vastly more influential and flourishing. Arms of Georgia. Arms of Florida. Florida, the land of the " orange and myrtle," has large tracts of pine-barrens, low-lying, swampy lands, full of snakes and alli- gators ; but with many beautiful savannas covered with a rich vegetation, and some fine highlands, where the magnolia, the palmetto, and other fair trees of southern climes give a peculiar charm to the scenery. In this State the population is sparse, and the roads poor. Churches and school-houses are " few and far between." Alabama, once the dwelling of the Creek Indians, who have found a home beyond the Mississippi, is a wealthy cotton-growing State, with many slaves and extensive plantations. The high table-lands in the center of the State are quite beautiful ; the low- lands are dull and monotonous. The atmosphere is warm — in- tensely so in the summer months ; and the soil generally fertile, THE SOUTHERN STATES. 79 and well adapted to the growth of cotton, rice, and tobacco. The people of this State, like those of their sister States of the South generally, are distinguished for their hospitality. The large land- ed proprietors and planters are a spirited and aristocratic race. Those of them that are educated are attractive in their manners, while others, who have not enjoyed this advantage, though less polished, are equally hospitable. They are somewhat fiery in their temper, and quick in their resentments. Hunting, horse- racing, visiting, barbecuing, and so forth, here, as throughout the entire South, are the principal amusements. The negroes have their own modes of merriment, to which they devote themselves with the greatest enthusiasm. It is only here and there, however, at remote distances, that a traveler meets with a church or a school. Many of the churches have preaching only once a month. Tuscaloosa is a pleasant town, and has a flourishing university. Arms of Alabama. Arms of Mississippi. Mississippi, notwithstanding her repudiating propensities, is growing in wealth and population. Large tracts of the country are yet uncultivated, and the population is scattered, and in some places poor and ignorant. Its rich lands and warm climate are favorable to the growth of large cotton crops, the principal article of commerce. On the banks of the lordly Mississippi, the towns, cities, and villages are increasing rapidly in resources and pop- ulation. On the other side of the river, opposite to the State of Missis- sippi, lies the fair and fertile Louisiana, with her half-French and half- American population, rich in lands, cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar, and especially rich in the trade and commerce of the Mis- sissippi. New Orleans is half French, half Catholic in its char- acter, and is distinguished for its wealth, gayety, and godiessness. 80 THE WOELD WE LIVE EN - . Some, indeed, affirm that it is as moral as New York or Philadel- phia, though greatly addicted to gambling, drinking, dueling, and other " gentlemanly" sports ! It is a great mart of business with the whole American continent and Europe, and is destined, there- fore, to a large and rapid increase. Louisiana has made some laudable efforts in the cause of education, though in this respect far behind the Middle and Eastern States. Arms of Louisiana. Arms of Tennessee. Tennessee has considerable resources, though much of her terri- tory is yet unimproved. The people are quite enterprising, and. are doing all they can to improve their domain. The cause of education has not altogether been neglected. Less wealthy than Georgia or Alabama, they are as patriotic and enterprising. Still, the bowie-knife and the pistol are too rife among them. Arms of Arkansas. Arms of Missouri. Missouri, though western, belongs to the South in climate, usages, and influence. It is only partially cultivated, and has THE SOUTHERN STATES. 81 many Indians. Its resources are yet to be developed. St. Louis, on the banks of the Mississippi, is destined to be one of the largest inland cities of the Union. But of all the slave States, old Kentucky, the home of Clay and other distinguished men, is our favorite. Brave, gallant, and hos- pitable, albeit violent sometimes, and even intolerant, it has many redeeming features. Her schools and colleges, however, and even her churches, have not much to boast of ; still these are improv- ing, and we hope the day is not far distant when Kentucky will vie in knowledge, freedom, and virtue with her Eastern and Western sisters. But we are getting too far west, and must dismiss the southern part of the Union with a few gen^ eral remarks. Arms of Kentucky. Arms of Texas. Texas, however, in character, institutions, climate, and produc- tions, is so essentially southern, that we must briefly refer to this State for the sake of grouping it with its natural allies. With a climate perhaps the blandest and purest on the North American continent, a rich soil, exuberant vegetation, extensive forests, and magnificent prairies, enameled with flowers and covered with game, Texas might be one of the wealthiest and most prosperous States of the Union. Heterogeneous as her population is, her progress thus far has been marked and decisive. Too ambitious, however, and withal, grasping, Texas has many defects. Long years must elapse before this youthful State can acquire the pu- rity and elevation which are the glory of republics. Still, Chris- tianity is planting her institutions, her schools and churches, on the banks of its noble rivers and by the sides of its mountains and meadows, and even now we can see, in the improved charac- ter of the population, her bland and peaceful influence. Many 4* 32 THE WORLD "WE LIVE EST. parts of the country are infested by wild Indians, while, others are the haunt of the buffalo, the jaguar, and the wolf. In the South generally, and especially in the extreme South, the roads are poor, at certain seasons all but impassable, and the hotels and other places of public entertainment poor and infre- quent. The people, however, when under the influence of natural and kindly impulses, are hospitable and generous to a proverb. Excitable, and sometimes violent, they too frequently give way to their passions, so that lynching and dueling are by no means un- common. Many of the rich planters are intelligent and courteous, well acquainted with men and books, and especially versed in commerce and politics. Much of the country, with all its wealth, and many even of the better class of- houses, have a raw and un- finished appearance. The poor white people, are poor indeed ; and the negroes, with all their ignorance and degradation, often take more solid comfort than some of their white neighbors. Of a sanguine, lively, laughing disposition, they often make the woods ring with their noisy merriment. In all the Southern States may be found some educational in- stitutions, academies, colleges, and theological schools ; but com- mon schools are all but an impossibility there, on account of the sparseness of the population and the peculiar condition of society. Except the richer proprietors and professional men, the great mass of the people, white and black, are very ignorant. Still it ought to be mentioned, to their credit, that some of the States, especially in the southwest, are making vigorous efforts to estab- lish common schools. Owing to their wealth and leisure, the leading men of the South will generally be well informed and influential. From their ranks have sprung some of our greatest statesmen, warriors, and orators. The -productions of this part of the Union are various and abundant ; but the chief dependence is cotton. Thus far, this important staple has been produced here in greater perfection and abundance than in all the world besides. General agriculture, however, is far inferior to that of the Northern States or of Eng- land. Manufactures are beginning to be prosecuted with some success in some of the Southern States ; but in this sphere of in- dustiy it will be impossible for them to compete with Europe or * the North. In certain departments of literature the South is by no means deficient. Its rich planters, lawyers, and statesmen, perhaps, have less temptation to book-making than their Northern neighbors. They seem to be most at home in " polite literature" and oratory. The " Southern Literary Messenger" has been conducted with THE SOUTHERN STATES. 83 spirit and ability, and gives a fair sample of the Southern mind. In science some of their writers have done good service. Drs. Smyth and Bachman, of Charleston, S. C, and especially Audubon, who belongs to Louisiana, are among our most distinguished naturalists. It may be said, in conclusion, with reference to the Southern people, that, while they have certain advantages of soil, position, and- climate, they have also serious drawbacks and disadvantages, from which their character, high and attractive in many aspects, suffers injury and loss. This, however, may be less owing to choice than to circumstances. Theirs is a peculiar condition of society. For, if the whites are free, the blacks are enslaved ; if the whites are enlightened, the blacks are ignorant ; and if some of both are Christians, many, especially of the latter, are little better than heathen. Ignorance and besotment in any portion of a community, even among helots and slaves, react upon the other. The pestilential malaria, generated in lowlands and marshes, rise to the highest elevations, and affect the whole region in which they lie with disease and death. We ought, however, to say here that much generous effort is expended by various bodies of Christians in the South to give the Gospel to the slaves. Though, contrary to the literal provisions of the statute-book, many of them are taught to read, while thousands have the privilege of listening to the Word of God. But the various problems which this subject involves it is not our province, at present, to discuss. The whole subject is one of difficulty ; and certainly we will not condemn indiscriminately a condition of society in which we have never lived, and from Avhich have sprung so many noble characters, so many heroic virtues. Cotton-Field. 84 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. CHAPTER VII. THE "WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. We enter now a field of observation all but interminable. The West — the great West, where is it, and what is it ? Who can tell ? Something may be said of it, but even after the most vivid and elaborate description, much must remain untold. People used to talk of going to the West, when they Avent to Buffalo, or Detroit, or Cincinnati ; now they go West all the way to the Rocky Mountains, and beyond that huge backbone of North America, to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. This matter has been presented in a lively and amusing light by Mr. Catlin, in his charming book on the American Indians, which we commend to the attention of our readers, as a noble specimen of American genius and enterprise. " Notwithstanding all that has been written and said, there is scarcely any subject on which the knowing people of the East are yet less informed than on the character and amusements of the West. By this I mean the Far West, that country whose fascinations spread a charm over the mind almost dangerous to civilized pursuits. Few people even know the true definition of the term West : and where is its location ? Phantom- like, it flies before us as we travel, and on our way is continually gliding before us as we approach the setting sun. "In the commencement of my tour, several of my traveling companions from the city of New York found themselves at a frightful distance to the West when we arrived at Niagara Falls, and hastened back to amuse their friends with tales and scenes of the West. At Buffalo a steamboat was landing with 400 passen- gers, and twelve days out. 'Where from?' 'From the West.' In the rich State of Ohio, hundreds were selling their farms and going — to the West. In the beautiful city of Cincinnati people said to me, ' Our town has passed the days of its most rapid growth; it is not far enough West.' In St. Louis, 1400 miles west of New York, my landlady assured me that I would be pleased with her boarders, for they were nearly all merchants from the ' West.' I then asked, ' Whence come those steamboats laden with pork, honey, hides, &c. ?' "'From the West.' " ' Whence those ponderous bars of silver which those men have been for hours shouldering and putting on board that boat ?' THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 85 " ' They come from Santa Fe — from the West.' " ' Where goes this steamboat, so richly laden with dry-goods, steam-engines, &c. ?' " ' She goes to Jefferson City.' " ' Jefferson City !— Where is that ?' "'Far to the West.' " ' And where goes that boat, laden down to her gunwales, the Yellow Stone ?' " ' She goes still further to the West.' — ' Then,' said I, ' I'll go to the West.' " I went on board the ' Yellow Stone' * * * Two thousand miles on her and we are at the mouth of the Yel- low Stone River — at the West. What ! invoices, bills of lading, &c, a wholesale establishment so far to the West ! And those strange-looking, long-haired gentlemen, who have just arrived, and are relating the adventures of their long and tedious journey. ' Who are they ?' " ' Oh ! they are some of our merchants just arrived from the West.' " ' And that keel-boat, that Mackinaw-boat, and that formidable caravan, all of which are richly laden with goods ?' " ' These, sir, are outfits starting for the West.' "Going to the West, ha? 'Then,' said I, 'I'll try it again. I will try and see if I can go to the West.' * * * * " 'What, a fort here too ?' " ' Oui, Monsieur, — Oui, Monsieur' (as a dauntless and semi- barbarian-looking, jolly fellow dashed forth in advance of his party on his wild horse to meet me). " ' What distance are you west of Yellow Stone, here, my good fellow ?' " ' Comment ?' " ' What distance ? — (stop) — quel distance ?' " ' Pardon, Monsieur, je ne sais pas, Monsieur.' " ' Ne parlez vous l'Anglais ?' " ' Non, Monsieur. I speaks de French and de Americaine ; mais je ne parle pas l'Anglais.' " ' Well, then, my good fellow, I will speak English, and you may speak Americaine.' " ' Val, sare, je suis bien content, pour I see dat you speaks putty coot Americaine.' " ' What may I call your name ?' " ' Ba'tiste, Monsieur.' " ' What Indians are those so splendidly dressed, and with such fine horses, encamped on the plain yonder ?' 86 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. " ' lis sont Corbeaux.' " ' Crows, ha ?' " ' Yes, sare, Monsieur.' ". ' We are, then, in the Crow country ?' " ' Non, Monsieur, not putty exact ; we are in the country of de curse Pieds Noirs.' " ' Blackfeet, ha ?' " ' Oui.' " ' What blue mountain is that which we see in the distance yonder ?' " ' Ha, quel montaigne ? Cela est la Montaigne du — (pardon).' "'Du Rochers, I suppose?' " ' Oui, Monsieur ; de Rock Montaigne.' " ' You live here, I suppose ?' " ' Non, Monsieur ; I comes fair from de West.' " ' What, from the West ! Where, under the heavens, is that ?' " ' Wat, diable ! de West ? Well, you shall see, Monsieur. He is putty fair off, suppose. Monsieur Pierre Chouteau can give you de histoire de ma vie — il bien sait que je prends les cas- tors, very fair in de West.' " ' You carry goods, I suppose, to trade with the Snake Indians beyond the mountains, and trap beavers also ?' " ' Oui, Monsieur.' " ' Do you see any thing of the " Flat Heads" in your country V " ' Non, Monsieur ; ils demeurent very, very fair to de West.' " ' Well, Ba'tiste, I'll lay my course back again for the present, and at some future period endeavor to go to the West.'" For the present we, too, will fall back a little, and starting at New Orleans, the great commercial emporium of the South, to which descend, in a constant stream, the vast resources of the North and West for thousands of miles, we will proceed up the Mississippi, the " Father of Waters," as it is justly termed, one of the longest and most magnificent rivers in the world, rushing from its far source, the beautiful Itasca Lake, or Lac la Biche, as the French call it, situated among hills covered with the primeval pine forests, and fed by living springs fifteen hundred feet above the level of the ocean, and rushing a distance of three thousand one hundred and sixty miles, to the Gulf of Mexico. With its im- mense tributaries, the Mississippi touches ten or a dozen States, embracing a territory almost equal in extent to that of Europe west of the Uralian Mountains, of boundless resources, and filling up, from year to year, with a vigorous and thriving population. As we ascend, we pass through the States of Louisiana, Missis- sippi, Arkansas, Alabama, Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 8 1 Indiana, and Illinois. It is true that we branch off into the tribu- taries of the Mississippi, in order to reach some of the latter States : but all converge to a single point, and, with their commerce and trade, swell the tide of business in the direction of this mighty river. It passes through vast solitudes and interminable forests ; but its broad bosom is covered with flat-boats, steamers, and all sorts of water-craft, crowded with passengers and produce. Boats of forty tons can ascend to the Falls of St. Anthoiry, a distance of two thousand miles. Cities have sprung up on its shores, some of them large and beautiful, where, a few years ago, the howl of the wolf and the yell of the savage were the only sounds which disturbed the silence of the unbroken wilderness. The first steam- boat on the Western waters was built at Pittsburg, in 1811. There are now from four to five hundred, some of them of great burden, on the Mississippi and its tributaries. But these are nothing' to the great number of other water-craft on this river, of all shapes and sizes ; and among others, the Ark, or Kentucky Flat, a huge frame of square timber, with a roof some fifteen or sixteen feet wide, and from 600 to 800 long, filled with goods, passengers, and produce, and sometimes animals ; in fact, a floating village, or rather store, including pig-pen, hen-roost, and stable. In the spring, a hundred boats, of all sorts, have been numbered, that landed in one day at the mouth of the bayou at Madrid. " I have strolled," says Mr. Flint, " to the point, on a spring evening, and seen them arriving in fleets. The boisterous gayety of the hands, the congratulations, the moving picture of life on board the boats, in the numerous animals, large and small, which they carry then different loads, the evidence of the increasing agriculture ot the country above, and, more than all, the immense distances which they have already come, and those which they still have to go, afforded me copious sources of meditation. They have come from regions thousands of miles apart ; they have floated to a common point of union. The surfaces of the boats cover some acres. Dunghill fowls are fluttering over the roofs, as an invari- able appendage. The chanticleer raises his piercing note ; the swine utter their cries ; the cattle low ; the horses trample, as in their stables. There are boats fitted on purpose, and loaded en- tirely with turkeys, that, having little else to do, gobble most furiously. The hands travel about from boat to boat, make in- quiries and acquaintances, and form alliances to yield mutual, as- sistance, on their descent from this to New Orleans." Some of these boats ai-e regular stores, that glide from point to point, to trade along the river ; others contain workshops, taverns, shows, strolling mountebanks, and so forth. 88 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. As you ascend the river, you leave the region of cotton and to- bacco, and come into that of corn and wine ; for the vine is now cultivated in Ohio, Illinois, and other Western regions. The dif- ferent States vary somewhat in their character, as well as produc- tions. The people of Louisiana derive their peculiarities from France ; Kentucky from Virginia and North Carolina ; Ohio from New England and New York. What we ordinarily call the West, or the Great Valley of the Mississippi, receives its predominant character from Kentucky and Ohio— Kentucky exhibiting the traits of the South, and Ohio those of the East ; and both blend- ing together, and giving rise to a new and interesting variety, hav- ing some of the faults and some of the virtues of both. The whole, indeed, has been modified by their "life in the wilderness," having acquired a vigor, boldness, and recklessness, mingled with frankness and generosity, from the habits of the first settlers. Less perfectly educated, and less polished in their manners, than the people of the East, they are more easy, more natural, and generous. A dash of the romantic and roving mingles in their composition. A little rough, perhaps, like the forests in which they have roamed, they are full of vigor and manly promise. The free Western States, as every one knows, advance the most rapidly in education, agriculture, commerce, and population. Arras of Ohio. Ohio has made prodigious progress. Already she numbers her population by millions. Her broad acres teem with the produc- tions of agriculture, while her schools, churches, and colleges adorn the fair landscape. Cincinnati, the " Queen of the West," has distinguished herself not only in trade and commerce, but in education and literature. Her noble Astronomical Observatory, THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 89 founded by the indefatigable exertions of Professor Mitchell, whose work on astronomy, a tine monument of his genius, is a credit to the city which has sustained and fostered such a man and such an enterprise. Arms of Illinois. Arms of Indiana. Illinois possesses much of the vigor and prosperity of Ohio. So also does Indiana. But the whole Western valley is full of energy. Her population, somewhat rough and heterogeneous, being gathered from nearly all lands under heaven, is acquiring a homogeneous character. The Saxon element is yet, and must be, predominant. Evangelical religion still presides over the forma- tion of their character and destiny. Still, as in every neio coun- try, a dash of barbarism is uniformly found, and some bad ten- dencies have been developed. In the extreme Western, and espe- cially Southwestern States, one meets with many things to disturb and shock his moral v sensibilities. Generous, it may be, in some aspects of their character, the people are often impulsive, passion- ate, and even revengeful. The bowie-knife style of civilization oc- casionally makes its appearance. Law is sometimes set at defi- ance. Mobocracy and Lynching rule the hour. Penetrating still further west and south, where the confines of civilization pass into those of barbarism, a wild and somewhat savage frontier style of life discovers itself. Religion and law are little known. Rudeness and violence characterize a large portion of the ignorant and scat- tered inhabitants. Here and there, indeed, are found individuals and families of noble and generous qualities, but many more are degraded and lawless. Poor, besotted Indians, half-breeds, free- booters, who have fled from the face of society to hide themselves in the woods, and persons of a morose or savage turn of mind, frequent these frontier settlements, or rather solitudes. The fol- 90 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. lowing, from Audubon, will give a lively idea of this class of per- sons, and the necessity thence resulting of taking the law into one's own hands : — " On our return from the Upper Mississippi, I found myself obliged to cross one of the wide prairies which, in that portion of the United States, vary the appearance of the country. The weather was fine ; all around me was as fresh and blooming as if it had just issued from the bosom of nature. My knapsack, my gun, and my dog were all I had for baggage and for company. But although well moccasined, I moved slowly along, attracted by the brilliancy of the flowers, and the gambols of the fawns around their dams, to all appearance as thoughtless of danger as I felt myself. My march was of long duration. I saw the sun sinking into the horizon long before I could perceive any appearance of woodland, and nothing in the shape of man had I met that day. The track which I followed was only an old Indian trace ; and, as dark- ness overshadowed the prairie, I felt some desire to reach at least a copse, in which I might lie down to rest. The night-hawks were skimming over and around me, attracted by the buzzing wings of the beetles, which form their food ; and the distant howling of wolves gave me some hope that I should soon arrive at the skirts of some woodland. I did so, and almost at the same instant a fire-light attracting my eye, I moved toward it, full of confidence that it proceeded from the camp of some wandering Indians. I was mistaken. I discovered, from its glare, that it was from the hearth of a small log- cabin, and that a tall figure passed and re- passed between it and me, as if busily engaged in household ar- rangements. I reached the spot, and, presenting myself at the door, asked the tall figure, which proved to be a woman, if I might take shelter under her roof for the night. Her voice was gruff, and her attire thrown negligently about her. She answered in the affirmative. I walked in, took a wooden stool, and quietly seated myself by the fire. The next object that attracted my no- tice was a finely formed young Indian, resting his head between his hands, with his elbows on his knees. A long bow rested against a log wall near him, while a quantity of arrows and two or three raccoon skins lay at his feet. He moved not ; he appar- ently breathed not. Accustomed to the habits of the Indians, and knowing that they pay little attention to the approach of civilized strangers (a circumstance which, in some countries, is regarded as evidence of the apathy of his character), I addressed him in French, a language not unfrequently partially known to the people of the neighborhood. He raised his head, pointed with his finger to one of his eyes, and gave me a significant glance with the other. The THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 91 fact was, that an hour before this, as he was in the act of dis- charging an arroAV at a raccoon, in the top of a tree, the arrow had struck upon a cord, and sprung back with such violence into his right eye as to destroy it forever. Feeling hungry, I inquired what sort of fare I might expect. Such a thing as a bed was not to be seen, but many large untanned bear and buffalo hides lay piled in a corner. I drew a fine time-piece from my breast, and told the woman that it was late, and that I was fatigued. She had espied my watch, the richness of which seemed to operate upon her feel- ings with electric quickness. She told me there was plenty of venison and jerked buffalo meat, and that, on removing the ashes, I should find a cake. But my watch had struck her fancy, and her curiosity had to be gratified by an immediate sight of it. I took the gold chain that secured it from around my own neck, and presented it to her. She was all ecstasy, spoke of its beauty, asked me its value, and put the chain around her brawny neck, saying how happy the possession of such a watch would make her. Thoughtless, and, as I fancied myself, in so retired a spot, secure, I paid little attention to her talk or her movements. I helped my dog to a good supper of venison. The Indian rose from his seat, as if in extreme suffering. He passed and repassed me several times, and once pinched me on the side so violently, that the pain nearly brought forth an exclamation of anger. I looked at him. His eye met mine ; but his look was so forbidding, that it struck a chill into the more nervous part of my system. He again seated himself, drew his butcher-knife from its greasy scabbard, exam- ined its edge as I would that of a razor suspected dull, replaced it, and again taking his tomahawk from his back, filled the pipe of it with tobacco, and sent me expressive glances whenever oiu - hostess chanced to have her back toward us. Never until this moment had my senses been awakened to the danger which I now suspected to be about me. I returned glance for glance to my companion, and rested well assured that, whatever enemies I might have, he was not of their number. I asked the woman for my watch, wound it up, and tinder pretense of wishing to see how the weather might probably be on the morrow, took up my gun, and walked out of the cabin. I clipped a ball into each barrel, scraped the edges of my flints, renewed the primings, and, return- ing to the hut, gave a favorable account of my observations. I took a few bear-skins, made a pallet of them, and calling my faith- ful dog to my side, lay down, with my gun close to my body, and in a few minutes was, to all appearances, fast asleep. A short time had elapsed, when some voices were heard, and from the corner of my eyes I saw two athletic youths making their entrance, 92 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. bearing a dead stag on a pole. They disposed of their burden, and asking for whisky, helped themselves freely to it. Observing me and the wounded Indian, they asked who I was, and why the devil that rascal (meaning the Indian, who, they knew, understood not a word of English) was in the house. The mother (for so she proved to be) bade them speak less loudly, made mention of my watch, and took them to a corner, where a conversation took place, the purport of which required little shrewdness in me to guess. I tapped my dog gently ; he moved his tail, and, with indescribable pleasure, I saw his fine eyes alternately fixed on me and raised toward the trio in the corner. I felt that he perceived danger in my situation. The Indian exchanged a last glance with me. The lads had eaten and drunk themselves into such condition, that I already looked upon them as hors du combat ; and the frequent visits of the whisky bottle to the ugly mouth of their dam I hoped would soon reduce her to a like state. Judge of my astonishment, reader, when I saw this incarnate fiend take a large carving-knife, and go to the grindstone to whet its edge. I saw her pour the water on the turning-machine, and watched her working every way with the dangerous instrument, until the sweat covered every part of my body, in despite of my determination to defend myself to the last. Her task finished, she walked to her reeling sons, and said, ' There, that '11 soon settle him ! Boys, kill him ; and then for the watch.' I turned, cocked my gun-locks silently, touched my faithful companion, and lay ready to start up and shoot the first who might attempt my life. The moment was fast approach- ing, and that night might have been my last in this world, had not Providence made preparations for my rescue. All was ready. The infernal hag was advancing slowly, probably contemplating the best way of dispatching me, while her sons should be en- gaged with the Indian. I was several times on the eve of ris- ing and shooting her on the spot ; but she was not to be punished thus. The door was suddenly opened, and there entered two stout travelers, each with a rifle on his shoulder. I bounced up on my feet, and making them most heartily welcome, told them how well it was for me that they should arrive at that moment. The tale was told in a minute. The drunken sons were secured, and the woman, in spite of her defense and vociferations, shared the same fate. The Indian fairly danced with joy, and gave us to understand that, as he could not sleep for pain, he would watch over us. You may suppose we slept much less than we talked. The two strangers gave me an account of their once having been themselves in a somewhat similar situation. Day came, fair and rosy, and with it the punishment of our captives. They were now THE WESTERN" STATES AND TERRITORIES. 93 quite sobered. Their feet were unbound, but their arms were se- curely tied. We marched them into the woods off the road, and having used them as Regulators were wont to use such delin- quents, we set fire to the cabin, gave all the skins and implements to the young Indian warrior, and proceeded, well pleased, toward the settlements." Arms of Michigan. Arms of Wisconsin. Passing to the northeast, though yet in the region of the West, just above the Mississippi Valley proper, we find the country and people becoming more and more like those of the Eastern or Mid- dle States. Michigan is a fine thrifty State, settled chiefly from New York and New England, and making rapid progress in agri- culture and commerce. Lying snugly between the two great lakes, the Erie and the Michigan, and traversed through her entire breadth by a substantial railroad, she possesses superior advan- tages for trade and transportation. Some idea may be formed of the immense travel and business on this road, by a glance at the depot in Detroit — we presume, the largest in the country, being some 800 feet in length, and of proportional width and hight. Michigan has made ample provision for a complete system of common-school education, having reserved a sufficient amount of the public domain to endow a university, with different subordi- nate branches, as well as primary schools and grammar schools, for the whole population. Advancing further west, we find a new world forming in Wis- consin ; and still further, about the head- waters of the Mississippi, in the beautiful and diversified regions of Minesota, which has been styled the "New England of the West." "The gallant State of Wisconsin," says a writer in the National Era, " is laying a broad basis for the instruction of her youth. The number of 94 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IjST. acres in her school sections is 1,408,000, to which, if we add the 500,000 acres ceded by Congress for school purposes, we have very nearly 2,000,000 acres in this State for a permanent school capital. These lands will yield, on an average, $5 per acre, which will give $10,000,000 as the school fund of Wisconsin ; more, by near $400,000, than that of New York. In addition to it, above 46,080 acres of the best lands are set apart for the establishment of a university." Western School-Tea As to Minesota, it embraces an area of aoout one hundred and sixty-six thousand square miles along the banks of the Mississippi, and on the head-waters of rivers which flow into Hudson's Bay THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 95 and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between the 47th and 48th parallel, full of beautiful lakes and streams, suitable for navigation and commerce, and of great variety and fertility of soil ; a land of promise to thousands of emigrants. H Arms of Iowa. To the south is the fine Territory, or rather State, of Iowa, with many Indians, but filling up with emigrants from the East, and destined to be one of the largest and most influential States in the West. Proceeding in the direction of the setting sun, you come to the vast regions of the Mandans, and crossing the Rocky Mountains, to the wide-spread lands, lakes, rivers, mountains, and forests, in- 96 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. eluded in the newly acquired Territory of Oregon, lying north of California, and terminating on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. But we retrace our steps, and, standing once more on the banks of the Mississippi, let us form some estimate of the extent, popu- lation, and prospects of this wild, but magnificent West. Says a good authority — " The ' West', in distinction from the East, properly embraces all those States and Territories west of the Alleghanies, over the Rocky chain to the Pacific, commencing with the line of the fol- lowing States on the East, viz., Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, and embracing Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and the territory west of ,the Pacific. We will divide all the States west of the Alleghanies, for the sake of convenience, into Northwestern and Southwestern. The former, embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin ; the latter, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Ala- bama, and Texas. "The entire National Domain now amounts to 3,252,574 square miles. Deducting the territory occupied by the sixteen States, and one district east of Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, equaling 427,500 square miles, and there remain 2,825,074 square miles as the domain of the ' West,' or nearly seven- eighths of the whole, and containing fourteen organized States, occupying from 800,000 to 1,000,000 of square miles, or more than twice the territory embraced by the sixteen Eastern States and one District. The West is capable of making 70^ States as large as Ohio; 376§ as Massachusetts; and 21084^ as Rhode Island. If as many can subsist on its soil as are in England, then 847,500,000 can find support on it ; or as found in Massachusetts, over 300,000,000. " A table, calculated by Dr. Patterson, of the United States Mint, in Philadelphia, showing the center of representative popu- lation of the United States at each census from 1790 to 1840, in- clusive, gives the following results: In 1790 the center of repre- sentative population was in Baltimore county, Maryland, forty-six miles north and twenty-two east- from Washington. In 1800 it was in Carroll county, Maryland, fifty-two miles north and nine east from Washington. In 1810 it was in Adams county, Penn- sylvania, sixty-four miles north and thirty west from Washington. In 1820 it was in Morgan county, Virginia, forty- seven miles north and seventy-one west from Washington. In 1830 it was in Hampshire county, Virginia, forty-three miles north and one hundred and eight west from Washington. In 1840 it was in Marion county, Virginia, thirty-six miles north and one hundred THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 97 and sixty west from Washington. Thus it would appear that the center of representative population has kept nearly on the same parallel of latitude for fifty years, the latitude of 1840 being within ten miles of that of 1790. It has in the same fifty years moved westward one hundred and eighty-two miles. " Thus we perceive that the mass of representative population is moving westward with accelerated velocity. The following statement exhibits the fact : — "From 1790 to 1800, the movement West was 13 miles. " 1800 to 1810, do. do. 39 " " 1810 to 1820, do. do. 41 " " 1820 to 1830, do. do. 37 " " 1830 to 1840, do. do. 52 " " The center of representative population is now just about the Ohio River, and in 1850 will be in Washington or Monroe county. " Such is a glance at 'The West,' a region comprising 2,825,000 square miles, now peopled with a population, exclusive of aborig- ines, of only ten millions, and capable of sustaining 847,500,000 at the rate that England is populated. Such a number will be found upon it before the middle of the next century, according to the present rate of increase. Its mountains, valleys, lakes, and rivers are on the grandest scale. Its natural facilities for internal communication are great. The Missouri is 3600 miles in length, or more than twice as long as the Danube. The Ohio is 600 miles longer than the Rhine. Its lakes extend from east to west over 15-j degrees of longitude, covering an area of 93,000 square miles, and draining a country of 400,000 square miles. The Mis- sissippi and its tributaries alone afford a steamboat navigation of 25,000 or 30,000 miles. Its inland commerce in 1846 was $432,000,000, more than twice the foreign commerce of the country. The vast chains of railroads and dikes commenced, when completed, intersecting it in every direction, will enhance it. A more bountiful soil, giving richer remuneration to the cultivator, cannot be found on earth. Of all the great staples, coffee is the only one which does not grow in its limits. Already it has begun to pour into the lap of suffering Europe its surplus bread-stuffs. Last year it raised 3,000,000 surplus bushels of wheat, 35,000,000 surplus barrels of flour, 17,000,000 surplus bushels of Indian corn, with potatoes and other vegetables, and meats in luxuriant proportion. For years, Europe will in a great degree be depend- ent on its markets for bread. It is said that the wheat raised in the section north of the Ohio River, bounded east by an imaginary 5 98 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. line running north from Pittsburg to Lake Erie, and west by the Mississippi River, is sufficient to supply the demands of the United States, and that all raised elsewhere is surplus. "Nor is it less deficient in those other great resources in which the wealth of a nation is supposed in part to consist. Its mineral resources are inexhaustible. Ohio alone, without sinking a pit below the level of her valleys, could supply coal equal to the amount dug from the mines of England and Wales for twenty- five hundred years. Iron abounds from Tennessee to Lake Erie, and forms the very mountains of Missouri and Arkansas. Salt wells up from secret storehouses in every Northwestern State. ' Lead enough to supply the human race is raised from the great metallic dikes of Illinois and Wisconsin. Copper and silver beckon capi- talists to the shores of Lake Superior. The discoveries of gold in New California are of the most extraordinary character. " If the importance of the United States is seen from its extent of territory ; from its richness and variety of soil ; from its healthi- ness of climate, its mineral resources, and as furnishing a desirable abode for man, especially is that of the West seen from the same considerations, and from the fact that it constitutes seven-eighths of the whole domain ; that it is the granary of the United States ; that most of the great staples are derived from it ; that it contains the great lakes, the great rivers, the great mines ; that it pre- sents, from these considerations, the greatest attractions to emigrant man as a habitation ; that thitherward, in consequence, has been the greatest flow of population— its last decadal increase to that of the region east of the Alleghanies, having been in the ratio of 74 to 16^ ; that within a very few years the preponderance in popu- lation, and consequently of political power, will be in its favor ; that, at the close of the present century, there will be contained within its limits at least 80,000,000 !" Of New Mexico, with its defective half-Indian, half-Mexican, half- American population, its long ranges of mountains, its exten- sive, and, in many respects, beautiful valley of the Rio del Norte, running through the center, we can say, at present, comparatively nothing. But we must add a few words respecting California, the richest recent acquisition of the United States — the El Dorado of the West — which is attracting the attention of the civilized, and in part of the savage, world, such is the potent spell of gold, with which it abounds. "The indications of its presence," says Senator Benton, "extend over an area of more than two thousand miles. They are in New Mexico — on the waters of the Middle Colorado — on the mountains THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 99 both beyond and on this side of the Sierra Nevada. Professor Dana, who was geologist to Captain Wilkes's Exploring Expedition, and who examined the country between the coast range and the Arms of California. Cascade range of mountains, found the gold-bearing rocks, as geologists call them, on theUmpqua, the Shastl, and the Tlamath rivers, and at the head of the Sacramento valley. He did not visit the Sierra Nevada, but said there was gold yet to be dis- covered in the Sacramento valley. It has been discovered, and no one can tell where it is to end. The Sierra Nevada is six hundred miles long, ten or twelve thousand feet high, and has a slope of from forty to seventy miles ; and all this seems to be an auriferous region. South of the Sierra Nevada are prolongations of the same chain and of the same character, and known to possess gold. The Ural Mountains, now yielding so much gold to Russia, are but twelve hundred miles long and five or six thousand feet high : the mountain chains in New Mexico and Cali- fornia which produce gold are near twice as long and twice as high as the Ural Mountains." Silver also abounds in California, and several mines of great richness have recently been opened. Cinnebar, platinum, lead, iron, copper, and sulphur all exist, apparently in large quantities. But the region itself, independently of its mineral treasures, is rich in natural resources. It is destined, owing to its locality on the western shores of the Pacific, and its harbor of San Francisco, one of the noblest in the world, to command the commerce of Asia. Its extent is great. From Cape Mendocino, at the borders of what used to be the United States, of which California now forms a part, to " the root" of the peninsula, is seven hundred miles, while Lower California stretches its long line, of country to 100 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. an almost equal distance. The old region is for the most part a broken, hilly, and barren tract of land, but relieved occasionally by rich and beautiful plains. Alta California extends from the coast to New Mexico. The interior is a huge desert basin, but partially ex- plored, wooded, wild, and rocky, with a few lakes and streams, and peopled by savage Indian tribes. The great gold region is divided from this wilderness by the Sierra, or Snowy Range, between which and the sea lies another line of mountains, forming a valley of 500 miles in length, watered by the Sacramento and San Joachim, both rich in gold, and bordered by fertile valleys and wooded slopes, now filled with the hum of busy industry. These two streams form a junction in the center of the valley, and pour their united current into the harbor of San Francisco. The aspect of the country is diversified and beautiful. Green valleys and flowery slopes, deep woods, gleaming lakes, and verdant hills adorn the interior borders, backed by the dome-like spires of the Snowy Range, whose deep ravines and caverns are peopled by laborious gold-hunters. The banks of the rivers are becoming covered with cottages here and there in the more favored localities, while " amateur delvers" dig among the sands for the yellow treasure. As a whole, the country is fertile, producing abundance of grains, fruits, and vegetables, with excellent timber ; while fair meadows and pasture-grounds afford nourishment to the flocks and herds that once formed the principal wealth of California. The first discovery of gold was made by Captain Sutter, in 1847, in his water-mill course, a thousand feet above thelev-ef-of the valley, where the Rio de los Americanos pours down from the Sierra Nevada, to swell the combined streams of the Sacra- mento and San Joachim. This was soon spread abroad, — gold- dust was discovered in other parts of the country, in the beds and sand-bars of the rivers, in the mountains, and in the valleys. It spread over the United States like lightning, and soon reached England, Spain, France, Germany, the Sandwich Islands, South America, and even China ; and from all these quarters thousands flocked to this new land of "golden" promise. The harbor of San Francisco was filled with vessels of various colors — cities, villages, hamlets, houses, tents, sprung up as by magic along the valleys and the streams. Soldiers abandoned their posts and citi- zens their employments, and hurried to the Sacramento and the San Joachim. Half-naked Indians ; " canny Scotchmen" and bustling Englishmen ; sharp-visaged Yankees in straw hats and loose frocks ; groups of swarthy Spanish Americans ; old Dons in the gaudy costumes of a dead fashion; gigantic trappers, with THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 101 their rude prairie garb ; and gentlemen traders from the United States, with strange groups of Sandwich Islanders and waddling Chinese, "jostled in tumultuous confusion through the gold region." California at last, with her free institutions planted on the shores of the Pacific, was admitted into the American Union. Order, law, religion, prosperity, immediately ensued. Every where Christian enterprise follows in the track of commercial enterprise. Churches spring up in San Francisco, Sacramento, and other places, and of course schools and colleges will speedily follow. "American enterprise," says an English journal, "is clearing the forest lands, cleansing out mines, planning cities, speculating in town lots, erecting school-houses, universities, and churches ; while land is selling at prodigious prices. Dreaming adventurers call to mind the coffers of King Croesus, and hearing that in Cali- fornia there is ' Gold to fetch, and gold to send, Gold to borrow, and gold to lend, Gold to keep, and gold to spend, And abundance of gold in futuro' pour in mad torrents to the favored land, while building up visionary castles more extravagant than those of the sanguine Alnaschar in the Thousand and One Nights." Much incidental evil doubtless comes of all this, — much suffer- ing and sorrow, much crime and death. Nevertheless, California is steadily rising in prosperity, and exerting a wide commercial and moral influence. Utah, the new and peculiar home of that strange, fanatical, half-Jewish, half-Mohammedan, half-Christian sect, the Mormons, demands a passing notice ; as it may figure, by-and-by, largely in the history of the Far "West. The name Utah is given to an extensive tract of country bounded by California, Oregon, and New Mexico, and what was formerly termed the great Western Territory. Considerable portions are wild and wooded, others are not only difficult of access, but rocky and sterile, covered with in- crustations of salt, or a giant species of sage, their only vegetation, of no use except to be consumed as fuel. In the midst of its snow-covered mountains, through which there is no access but by arid and lonely passes, choked live months of the year with snow- drifts, lies a tract of land, five thousand feet above the level of the sea, called The Great Basin, of considerable fertility, and by no means destitute of mineral treasures, in which the Mormons hoped, in " silence and secrecy," to form a new, peculiar, ecclesiastical empire. 102 THE WORLD WE LIVE IW. But it has been discovered and overrun by the great stream of American emigration to California, and made "the Half-way- House" to the Pacific. " This basin is some 560 miles in diameter, has its own system of lakes and rivers, and has no known communication whatever with the sea, unless the existence of the whirlpools in the Salt Lake, which are reported to be lately discovered, should prove an internal communication with the Pacific, or with some spring or lake in the lower country. In the northern part of this basin lies the Great Salt Lake. The waters of this sheet are shallow, so far as explored, though probably its central parts' will be found very deep. Its waters are intensely salt, more so than the ocean — three gallons making one gallon of the purest, whitest, and finest salt. Southeast of this lake, shut in by the mountains, lies the Mormon Valley that contains their capital city, by some called the Great Salt Lake City ; by others, Mormon City. This valley is thirty miles by twenty-two, connected to another valley, which is about fifty miles by eight. These two valleys contain the prin- cipal body of the settlers. Explorers think that they are capable of supporting a population of a million. " Fifty miles south of the city is the Utah Lake and Valley. Here lies the city of Provo, on the Provo River. The lake is pure water, eight miles by four, and abounds in fish. There is still another valley one hundred miles further south, called San Pete, where there is another settlement ; and here we find the hiero- glyphic ruins, the remains of glazed pottery, &c, that indi- cate the former existence of the outlying cities of the Aztec Empire. " The soil of all these valleys is astonishingly productive, though requiring, constantly, artificial irrigation from the mountain streams. The climate is one of the healthiest, and the air the purest, on the continent. The neighboring mountains rise to the bight of a mile and a half above the valley, and are covered with perpetual snow. " The City is laid out in blocks of ten acres each ; eight lots to the block ; an acre and a quarter to the lot ; the streets eight rods wide ; each ten-acre block to be surrounded by a stream brought down from the mountains. No two houses front each other ; so that, standing in his own door, every man looks into his neighbor's garden. In the city are four public squares, to be sur- rounded with shade-trees, and supplied with fountains. " The peculiar locality of Utah will prove of immense service as a stopping-place for rest, refreshment, and provisions for the army of emigrants that will, year after year, seek California, or INDIAN TERRITORY AND INDIANS. 103 Oregon, by the Southern Pass ; and when the great railway is established, it will prove of incalculable benefit as a great Station- House on the route." Commencing a Settlement. CHAPTER VIII. INDIAN TERRITORY AND INDIANS. Before leaving the United States, we will make a brief visit to the Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi, where the great body of the aboriginal tribes are now gathered, and where some of them, for example, the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees, are advancing rapidly in agriculture, education, and Christianity. These tribes have formed constitutions similar to that of the United States, and have, within their domains, schools and churches, with a regular administration of justice. In nearly all the other States and Territories are some small and scattered rem- nants of Indian tribes ; but the larger and more influential tribes, and, indeed, the great majority of the Indian people, have taken up their abode beyond " the Father of Waters." To the south are the Choctaws, Creeks, Seminoles, Cherokees, Senecas, and •Quapaws ; further north we find the Peorias, Delawares, Kansas, 104 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. Gros Ventres, Kickapoos, Otoes, Missourias, the Pawnees, Oma- hoes, Pottawattamies, Iowas, and Foxes. Still further north, to- ward the head-waters of the Mississippi and Missouri, are the Sacs and Foxes, beyond whom, toward the west, are the Sioux and the Mandans ; while further west and north are the Crows and Blackfeet, ranging all the way from the Mandan Territory to the base of the Rocky Mountains. Beyond these mighty barriers are the Flatheads, and some other tribes, all the way to the shores' of the Pacific. In Texas, New Mexico, and California are numer- ous bands of native tribes, but generally inferior to those on the eastern side of the mountains, especially those in the Indian Ter- ritory proper, which has certain defined limits, extending from the western boundary of Arkansas and Missouri to that of the United States, lying between the Red River, on the north, and the Nebraska, on the south, or more generally, perhaps, the State of Texas, being about 600 miles in breadth and 700, more or less, in length, and containing an area of some 225,000 or 300,000 square miles. To the west of the Mandan Territory, properly Indian in its character, lies the Great American Desert, as it is called, which extends along the foot of the Rocky Mountains, with a breadth of about 500 miles, much of the soil being arid and barren, with stinted trees and shrubs. The eastern part of the Indian country is com- paratively fertile, and in many places rich and beautiful, with magnificent prairies and abundant rivers. The eye roams over boundless meadows, or flats, through which range the elk and the buffalo. " From St. Louis to the falls of the Missouri," says Catlin, " a distance of 2600 miles, is one continued prairie ; with the exception of a few of the bottoms formed along the banks of the river and the streams which are falling into it, which are often covered with the most luxuriant growth of forest timber. The summit-level of the great prairie, stretching off to the west and east from the river, to an almost boundless extent, is from two to three hundred feet above the level of the river, which, by its con- tinual overflowing, has formed deposits with a horizontal surface, spreading the deepest and richest alluvion over the surface of its meadows on either side, through which the river winds its serpen- tine course, alternately running from one bluff to the other, which present themselves to its shores in all the most picturesque and beautiful shapes and colors imaginable — some, with their green sides, gracefully sloping down in the most lovely groups to the water's edge ; while others, divested of their verdure, present them- selves in immense masses of clay of different colors, which arrest the eye of the traveler with the most curious views in the world." Upon these various forms of nature, the result of rains, frost, INDIAN TERRITORY AND INDIANS. 105 and other agents, travelers dwell with enthusiasm, as presenting in endless variety aspects of the sublime and picturesque, often appearing like the ruins of ancient cities, ramparts, terraces, domes, towers, citadels and castles, cupolas and magnificent por- ticoes, with here and there a solitary column and crumbling ped- estal and spire of clay which stand alone and glistening in the distance, as the sun's rays are refracted back by the thousand crystals of gypsum which are imbedded in the clay of which they are formed. . Among these wild and quiet haunts the mountain sheep and the fleet- bounding antelope sport and live in herds, secure from their enemies. Here also the grizzly bear has his chosen place of abode, where he sullenly sneaks through the gulfs, and chasms, and ravines, and frowns away the lurking Indian. But the most characteristic feature of the Indian Territory are the prairies, vast, silent, and solitary, except when disturbed by the yelp of the prairie-dog, the howl of the wolf, the tramp of the buffalo, the shout of the savage, or the roar of thunder. Here the Indian finds his game, and here the white man feels himself awed and subdued amid interminable, but sublime and attractive solitudes. Every where the splendid panorama of a new and pe- culiar world opens to his gaze, " with its thousands of miles, and tens of thousands of grassy hills and dales, where naught but silence reigns, and where the soul of a contemplative mold is seemingly lifted up to its Creator." Tbe Indians of North America, as is well known, are copper- colored, strong, tall, elastic and wiry, with black eyes, black hair, and high cheek-bones ; from whom descended, is an unsettled question, but, generally speaking, having certain features which ally them with the Tartars of the aboriginal East, the great fount- ain of nations. They are savages, but of the noblest stock, hav- ing traits of character which ally them to the best nations of the earth ; but rude, wild, uncultivated, the wandering denizens of the forest and wilderness. Once they numbered no less than 16,000,000, but they have been scattered, peeled, destroyed by the knife, the bayonet, the bottle, the small-pox, and other diseases un- known to their fathers. Six millions alone have fallen victims to the small-pox. Of the 2,000,000 remaining, about 1,400,000 are already " the miserable victims and dupes of the white man's cu- pidity, degraded, discouraged, and lost in the bewildering maze that is produced by the use of whisky and concomitant vices ;" while the remaining number remain " yet unroused and unenticed from their wild haunts or their primitive modes by the dread or love of the white man and his allurements." 5* 106 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. It ought to be stated here, however, that the entire population within the Indian country proper is beginning to improve. The Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks are already organ- ized States, having settled .constitutions, written laws, representa- tive, legislatures, and regular courts of justice. They are in- creasing in wealth and knowledge, in piety and virtue, and their example upon the' neighboring tribes is beginning to be deci- sively felt. As to the general character of the wild, uncultivated Indians, much magniloquent nonsense has been written. They are sav- ages, as we have already said, of a somewhat noble stock, with the virtues and vices of savages. Some writers have described them as dark, dishonest, cruel, relentless, and murderous in the extreme, with scarce a quality to elevate them above the brutes. Others have given them an elevated rank in the scale of humanity, as " honorable, humane, and highly intellectual beings." The truth probably lies between these extremes. The worst specimens of the Indians are on the frontiers, the best, perhaps, in their na- tive wilds, far beyond the pale of civilization ; for, alas ! most of these " sons of nature" seem incapable of learning any thing from the white man but his vices. Unless Christianized, they fall into deeper barbarism than that of their original state. That all of them have much of the tiger cunning and lion fierceness of the savage state, cannot be denied ; but they are generally brave, magnanimous, and hospitable, at least to those they deem their friends. They are capable of immense endurance, and of great heroism. The Mandans, as described by Catlin, have not only fine athletic forms, but possess many high qualities. He speaks of them as uniformly kind, hospitable, and even generous to him- self ; but then he passed among them for a " great medicine-man," a sort of " supernatural genius" having special endowments, a kind of character for whom they cherish a superstitious reverence. Catlin, however, goes into raptures over their fine forms, free, magnanimous natures, jovial looks, dignified deportment, merry talk, and happy lives. The Indians have some notion of a Great Spirit, who speaks in the thunder, and controls the winds and waves ; but with this notion, somewhat vague and local, they associate many ridiculous superstitions. Their government is simple and patriarchal. Po- lygamy is a common practice. Women are the servants of the men, perform the out-door as well as in-door labor, so that a man's wealth among them may be estimated by the number of his wives. They are fond of their children ; they are warmly attached to their friends, cruel and relentless to their enemies. Revenge is a uni- INDIAN TERRITORIES AND INDIANS. 107 versal quality among the Indians. The men are all warriors ; fighting and hunting are the great business of their lives. They are fond of amusements ; and though dignified and silent among: strangers, are exceedingly free, garrulous, and merry among them- selves. They offer sacrifice, especially presents, to propitiate the Great Spirit.* Their " medicine-men," which means mystery- men, are their priests, doctors, and advisers, who, having power with the Great Spirit or Spirits, control the elements, bring rain, good luck, health, and buffalo-meat. As illustrative of their char- acter and superstitions, we give the following from Catlin, some- what condensed : It was a time of long and severe drought ; and there was little prospect among the Mandans of having any corn, of which they raise great quantities. The old women were groaning, and the young ones were sighing over their sad prospects. The medicine or mystery men, who, besides curing, by means of spells, incanta- tions, wild dances, and hideous yellings, all sorts of sickness, are also rain-makers, supposed to be capable of controlling the clouds of heaven, provided the medicine or mystic poiver be strong enough. They put off the women as long as they could, recommending patience as a special virtue. But the corn was growing yellow and withering, and the prospect of their annual festivity, " the green-corn dance," to which they attach great importance, was fast fading away. At last, however, the medicine-men were com- pelled to yield to the importunities of the people. They assembled in the council-house, with all their mystery apparatus about them, with an abundance of wild sage and other aromatic herbs, with a fire prepared to burn them, that their savory odors might be sent forth to the Great Spirit. The lodge was closed to all the villagers, except some ten or fifteen young men, who were willing to risk the dreadful alternative of making it rain or suffering the everlasting disgrace of failure. After the use of all sorts of spells and ceremonies in the lodge, they were called by lot, each in his turn, to spend a day upon the top of the lodge, to test the potency of his medicine ; the people gathered in a mass around the lodge, in solemn silence awaiting the result. While the venerable doctors were burning incense in the lodge below, chanting dismal songs and prayers for success to the Great Spirit, " who lives in the sun, and commands the thun- ders of heaven," Wah-kee (The Shield) was the first who as- cended the wigwam at sunrise. In vain, however, did he stand * Human sacrifices have been offered by some of the wilder tribes, but they are discontinued. 108 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. all day, telling his beads, and invoking the clouds of heaven. Not a cloud was seen in the clear, hot heavens ; and at the setting of the sun, he descended from the lodge and went home, — " his medicine was not good," nor can he ever be a medicine-man. Om-pah (The Elk) Avas the next who ascended the lodge at sun- rise, his body entirely naked, and covered with yellow clay. On his left arm he carried a beautiful shield, and a long lance in his right ; and on his head the skin of a raven, the bird that soars amid the clouds, and above the lightning's glare.. He flourished his shield and brandished his lance in vain ; for at sunset the ground was dry, the squaws were crying, and their corn was with- ering at its roots. Wah-rah-pah (The Beaver) was the next, but the heavens were deaf to his voice ; and, next morning, Wak-a-dah-ha-hee (The White Buffalo's Hair), a small but beautifully proportioned young man, took the stand. He was dressed in a tunic and lego-ins of the skin of the mountain sheep, splendidly garnished with porcu- pine quills, and fringed with hair taken by his own hand from the scalps of his enemies. On his arm he carried his shield, made of the buffalo's hide ; its boss was the head of the war- eagle, and its front was ornamented with "red chains of lightning." In his left hand he clinched his sinewy bow and one single arrow. After a pompous speech to the assembled multitude, he promised, by the lightning of his shield, and the force of his arrow among the clouds, to bring down the rain, or take his place, in everlasting disgrace, among old women and dogs. After pouring contempt upon those who preceded, and especially upon " The Beaver," whose emblem lives under the water, and never wants it to rain, he said, " My friends ! I see you are in great distress, and noth- ing has yet been done ; this shield belonged to my father, the White Buffalo, and the lightning you see on it is red ; it was taken from a black cloud, and that cloud will come over us to-day. I am the White Buffalo's Hair — and I am the son of my father." In this manner flourished " The Hair of the AVhite Buffalo," alternately appealing to his audience and the heavens, holding converse with the winds and the je-bi (spirits) floating about them, stamping his feet over the Magi involved in mysteries beneath, and invoking the spirits of darkness to send rain upon the fields. It happened on this memorable day, about noon, that the steam- boat " Yellow Stone," on her first trip up the Missouri River, and the first in that region the Indians had ever seen, approached and landed at the Mandan village. No rain appeared, but a salute of twenty guns, of twelve pounds calibre, was fired from the steamer. The Indians supposed it to be thunder. All eyes were fixed upon INDIAN TERRITORY AND INDIANS. 109 the "White Buffalo's Hair," who turned this new sound to good account. The medicine-men were coming out of the lodge to be- stow upon him the envied title of medicine-man, or doctor — wreaths were prepared to decorate his brow — with eagles' plumes and cal- umets to do him honor — his friends rejoiced — his enemies wore on their faces a silent gloom and hatred. During all this excitement " The White Buffalo's Hair" kept his position, assuming the most commanding and threatening as- pects, brandishing his spear in the direction of the thunder, though not a cloud was to be seen, until he, poor fellow, being elevated above the rest of the village, espied, to his inexpressible amaze- ment, the steamboat plowing its way up the windings of the river, puffing steam from her pipes, and sending forth the thunder from her guns. The White Buffalo's Hair stood pale and petri- fied, when, with trembling lips, he turned to the multitude and said, " My friends, we will get no rain ! there are, you see, no clouds ; but my medicine is great, I have brought a thunder-boat ! Look and see it ! The thunder you hear is out of her mouth, and the lightning you see is on the waters !" At this intelligence the whole village flew to the tops of their wigwams, and gazed, with affright, upon the huge monster which approached them. Descending, they stood their ground manfully for a few moments ; when, by an order of their chiefs, all hands were ensconced within the pickets of their village, and all the warriors armed for desperate defense. The steamer was soon moored. Three or four chiefs boldly advanced to the river, with a spear in one hand and a calumet (pipe) of peace in the other. The Indian agent, an old acquaint- ance of theirs, made his appearance, and all their fears were speed- ily allayed. But where was the Rain-maker ? Appalled at the " thunder- boat," or fearing the inevitable scom and disgrace into which he must fall, he slunk off and hid himself ; but being reassured, he began to mingle with the crowd, and congratulated them on the arrival of their friends with the boat, pretending that he had fore- seen the whole. Toward evening a cloud appeared in the sky, and "The White Buffalo's Hair," more watchful than others, in- stantly took his place on the top of the lodge, stiffened and braced to the last sinew, with his arrow pointed toward the cloud, now coming over the village. The multitude were again drawn to- gether, and " The White Buffalo's Hair" vaunted his superhuman powers, waved his spe^r and stamped his foot, at the same time oommanding the cloud to come near, that he might draw down its contents on the corn-fields of the Mandans. In this wise he 110 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. stood, waving his shield over his head, stamping his foot, and frowning as he drew his bow and threatened the heavens, com- manding it to rain — his bow was bent, and the arrow, drawn to its head, was sent to the cloud, and he exclaimed, " My friends, it is done ! Wak-a-dah-ha-hee's arrow has entered that black cloud, and the Mandans will be wet with the water of the skies." His prediction was fulfilled, and in a few minutes the rain fell in torrents. The great medicine-man, who had made it rain, of course awaited his well-earned honors. All night it continued to rain, the thunder broke in terrible peals over the village, and one flash of lightning pierced through a wigwam and killed a beautiful girl ! Here was food and fresh fuel for their superstitions. The dreams of the new-made medicine-man were troubled, and he had dreadful apprehensions for the coming day ; for he knew that he was subject to the irrevocable decree of the chiefs and doctors, who canvass every strange event with eager and superstitious scrutiny, and let vengeance fall without mercy upon its immediate cause. Indeed, it was possible that the life of the poor man might pay the forfeit of his "audacity ; for he himself ascribed the death of the girl to his criminal desertion of his post on the ap- pearance of the "thunder-boat." In the morning, having learned from his friends the opinion of the wise men, and the nature . of the tribunal that was preparing for him, he sent to the prairie for his three horses, and mounted the medicine lodge, around which in • a few moments the villagers gathered. " My friends," said he, " I see you all around me, and I am before you ; my medicine, you see, is great — it is too great — I am young, and I was too fast — I knew not when to stop. The wigwam of Mah-sish is laid low, and many are the eyes that weep for Ko-ka (The Antelope). Wak-a-dah-ha-hee gives three horses to gladden the hearts of those who weep for Ko-ka ; his medicine was great — his arrow pierced the black cloud, and the lightning came, and the thunder -boat also ! Who says the medicine of Wak- a-dah-ha-hee is not strong ?" At the close of this sentence a unanimous shout of approbation went up from the multitude, and " The Hair of the White Buf- falo" descended among them, where he was greeted by shakes of the hand, and among whom he now lives and thrives under the fa- miliar and honorable appellation of the "Big Double Medicine!" The Indians always succeed in procuring rain, for the simple reason that they continue their conjurations until it comes ; and a great medicine-man who has succeeded in drawing down the bless- ing, seldom makes a second attempt. INDIAN TERRITORY AND INDIANS. m The following amusing account of a medicine-man is given by Col. McKinney, who met him among the Choctaws : " 1 shook hands with him, and told him I was glad to see him ; that I had heard of his greatness, and that I was so anxious to know the secret of rain-making, that I would give him an order on the agent for a pair of scarlet leggins, a pound of tobacco, a string of wampum, a pound of powder, two pounds of lead, and a blanket, if he would tell me all about it. He stood up and looked around him, and then holding his head first on one side and then on the other, listened ; when, looking well round him again, he sat down, saying to the interpreter, ' Ask him if he will give me these things.' ' Most certainly,' I replied, ' upon the con- dition that he will tell me all about his art as a rain-maker.' He stood up again, and looked and listened, and then seating himself, began : " ' Long time ago, I was lying in the shade of a tree on the side of a valley. There had been no rain for a long time ; the tongues of the horses, and cattle, and dogs, all being out of their mouths, and they panted for some water. I was thirsty ; every body was dry. The leaves were all parched up, and the sun was hot. I was sorry ; when, looking up, the Great Spirit snapped his eyes, and fire flew out of them in streams all over the heavens. He spoke, and the earth shook. Just as the fire streamed from the eyes of the Great Spirit, I saw a pine-tree, that stood on the other side of the valley, torn all to pieces by the fire. The bark and limbs flew all round, and then all was still. Then the Great Spirit spoke to me, and said : " Go to that pine-tree, and dig down to the root where the earth is stirred up, and you will find what split the tree. Take it, wrap it carefully up, and wear it next your body ; and when the earth shall become dry again, and the horses and cattle suffer for water, go out on some hill-top, and ask me, and I will make it rain." I have obeyed the Great Spirit ; and ever since, when I ask him, he makes it rain.' " I asked to see this thunderbolt that had shivered the pine- tree. He rose upon his feet again, and looking well around him, sat down ; and drawing from his bosom a roll which was fastened round his neck by a bit of deer-skin, began to unwrap the folds. These were of every sort of thing — a piece of old blanket, then one of calico, another of cotton, laying each piece, as he removed it, carefully on his knee. At last, and after taking off as many folds as were once employed to incase an Egyptian mummy, he came to one that was made of deer-skin, which, being unwound, he took out the thunderbolt, and holding it with great care be- tween his finger and thumb, said, ' This is it !' I took it and 112 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. examined it, with an expression of great interest, telling him it certainly was a wonderful revelation and a great sight ; then handing it back to him, he carefully wrapped it up again with the same wrappers, and put it back in his bosom. " The reader is no doubt curious to know what this talismanic charm, this thunderbolt, was. Well, it was nothing more nor less than that part of a glass stopper that fills the mouth of a decanter, the upper or flat part having been broken off ! "■ I wrote and gave him an order for the presents, when he shook hands and left me, doubtless much edified as well as bene- fited by the interview, to carry on his operations as a rain-maker till it should rain." As hunting and war are the great employments of the Indians, most of their amusements have reference to the one or the other. They are fond of wild and furious dances, in which they shout and yell like demons let loose from Pandemonium, throw themselves into all grotesque and horrible attitudes, and whirl round and round, accompanied with song and beat of drum. Among these is the " buffalo dance," in which, dressed in buffalo-skins, with their ghastly-looking heads covering their own, they dance from day to day until the buffalo come ; and the bear dance, in which many of the dancers wear masks made of the skin of the bear's head. In this, as in the buffalo dance, they imitate the motions of the animals in whose honor the dance is given, and jump and yell to their own infinite satisfaction, and the great amusement of " the gentler sex," to whom the honor of mingling in such grave and lordly exercise is not conceded. They have also the beggar s dance, the object of which is to excite commiser- ation for the poor. In this dance every one sings as loud as he can shout, uniting his voice with others in an earnest appeal to the Great Spirit to open the hearts of the bystanders to give to the poor. They love especially the scalp dance, which is given as a cel- ebration of a victory ; it is' often danced in the night, by the light of torches, and is continued a number of nights in succession. The scalps are held up as tokens of prowess ; the warriors brandish their weapons, shout, yell, and groan, twist their faces and limbs into the most hideous shapes, jumping, rushing, and roaring to- gether in a circle ; seizing each other by the hair, stamping, strik- ing, cutting and carving each other to pieces, as if in actual combat. The gnashing of teeth, the hiss and rush, the whoop and groan of these dances, at the dead of night, in the solemn wilderness, under the glaring light of torches, are said to be inex- pressibly horrible and appalling. Indeed, the dances of the Indians are innumerable. Every 114 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". INDIAN TERRITORY AND INDIANS. 115 thing among them, whether pertaining to common life, to war, or to religion, is danced. Their prayers to the Great Spirit are made by dancing. Scarce an hour elapses, by night or day, when the drum is not heard. The living and the dead are honored by dances. The medicine-man, dressed in the most frightful-looking wolf or bear robes, dances around the bed of the dying. But we have not space to dwell upon these customs of savage life. It is a more interesting consideration that the Indians, with all their wildness, are capable of the highest acts of heroism and magnanimity, a number of striking instances of which are related in the '.' Memoirs of Col. McKinney," and, above all, that they are susceptible of the highest cultivation. Some have thought that the Indians could never emerge from their savage state, and that it was folly to attempt their civilization, and especially their con- version to Christianity. But this notion has been refuted by facts. One of the noblest and most beautiful of the race, the far-famed Pocahontas, was a true convert to the Christian faith. She was baptized in the small, rude church at Jamestown, by the name of Rebecca. In Capt. Smith's account of her, she is called " the first Christian convert of that nation, the first Virginian that ever spoke English." In another place he says : "In London, divers court- iers and others of my acquaintances have gone with me to see her, that generally concluded God had a great hand in her con- version." " Star of Virginia ! in her darkest hour Her joy, her theme of glory and of song ; Her wild, red rose, that in the Stuart's bower Shed grace, not took it from the courtly throng. " Her, her I sing not — and yet her I sing, Freed from earth-worship, cleansed from rites obscene — Who from unnumbered gods to Zion's King Escaping, waves her palm of deathless green. " First convert of the West ! The Indian child A Christian matron stands, from whose sweet tongue Flows the pure stream of English undefiled, Flows the deep anthem and eternal song. She died afar : no pilgrim finds her tomb — Unknown the spot, yet holy is the ground ; The Savior's breath there left a rich perfume, And angels keep their guardian watch around. " As Pocahontas, while these skies remain, Still shall our zodiac show the virgin sign ; But as Rebecca, when yon stars shall wane, Yon heavens roll by, she as a star shall shine !" Miss Caulktns. 116 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN". A host of other Indians, some of them chiefs and warriors, have also been converted, and by the meekness, purity, and dignity of their lives, the serenity, beauty, and triumph of their deaths, have proved the " divinity" of their faith. Who has not heard of the famous Oneida chief, Skenendoah, " whose pathway for sixty years had been marked with blood, whose terrible war-whoop rang for many years through the Mohawk Valley, and who was in all respects the cruel, the indomitable savage?" But under the in- fluence of the Gospel the lion was turned into a lamb ; the toma- hawk fell from his grasp, and his long life was one continued hymn of holy love and joy. He died at the age of a hundred years. A short time previous to his death, a friend calling to see him and inquiring after his health, received this answer: "I am an aged hemlock ; the winds of a hundred winters have whistled through my branches. I am dead at the top" (referring to his blindness). "Why I yet live, the great Good Spirit only knows. When I am dead, bury me by the side of my minister and friend" — (Rev. Mr. Kirkland, under whose ministry he had been awak- ened and converted) — " that I may go up with him at the great resurrection !" We give only another instance of a similar kind, that of Kusick, chief of the Tuscaroras, who lived in Western New York many years, a good man and a minister of the Gospel to his own people. As Col. McKinney will not be suspected of undue partiality in such a case, we give- his account of this interesting Indian chief. " He had served under Lafayette, in the army of the Revo- lution. It was usual for him, in company with a few of his lead- ing men, to visit, once in every two or three years, the State of North Carolina, whence his tribe originally came, to see after some claims they had upon that State. In passing through Washington, the old chief would call at my office, for the purpose of submitting his papers and of counseling with me. On one of these occasions he made a call before bi'eakfast, at my residence, accompanied by his companions. A neighbor had stepped in to see me, on his way to his office, and our conversation turned on Lady Morgan's France, which had just then been published, and was lying on my table. We spoke of Lafayette. The moment his name was mentioned, Kusick turned quick upon me his fine black eyes, and asked, with great earnestness — " ' Is he yet alive — the same Lafayette that was in the Revolu- tionary war ?" " ' Yes, Kusick,' I answered, ' he is alive, and he is the same Lafayette who was in that war. That book speaks of him as being not only alive, but looking well and hearty.' INDIAN TERRITORY AND INDIANS. 11 7 '-'He said, with deep emphasis, ' I'm glad to hear it.' " ' Then you knew Lafayette, Kusick ?' . " ' Oh, yes,' he answered, ' I knew him well ; and many a time in the battle I threw myself between him and the bullets, for I loved him.' " ' Were you in commission ?' " ' Oh, yes,' he replied, ' I was a lieutenant ; Gen. Washington gave me a commission.' " My friend (the late venerable Joseph Nourse, at that time Register of the Treasury) and myself agreed to examine the rec- ords, and see if the old chief was not entitled to a pension. We (or rather, he) did so. All was found to be as Kusick reported it, when he was put on the pension list. "Some years after, in 1827, when passing through the Tusca- rora reserve on my way to the wilderness, I stopped opposite his log-cabin, and walked up to see the old chief. I found him en- gaged drying fish. After the usual greeting, I asked him if he continued to receive his pension. " ' No,' said the old chief — ' no ; Congress passed a law making it necessary for me to swear I cannot live without it. Now, here is my little log-cabin, and it's my own ; here's my patch, where I can raise corn, and beans, and pumpkins ; and there's Lake Oneida, where I can catch fish. With these I can make out to live without the pension ; and to say I could not, would be to lie to the Great Spirit!' " Here was principle and deep piety, and a lesson for many whose advantages had far exceeded those of this poor Indian. In connection with this, I will add another anecdote in proof of his veneration for the Deity. He breakfasted with me on the mornino- to which I have referred ; and knowing him to be a teacher of the Christian religion among his people, and an inter- preter for those who occasionally preached to them, I requested him to ask a blessing. He did so, and in a manner so impressive as to make me feel that he was deeply imbued with the proper spirit. He employed in the ceremony his native Tuscarora. I asked him why, as he spoke very good English, he had asked the blessing in his native tongue. He said — 'When I speak English, I am often at a loss for a word. When, therefore, I speak to the Great Spirit, I do not like to be perplexed, or have my mind dis- tracted to look after a word. When I use my own language, it is like my breath ; I am composed.' Kusick died an honest man and a Christian, and, though an Indian, has doubtless entered into bis rest." We may add, that Kusick was a member of the Baptist denom- 118 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN", ination, and highly honored among them, especially by those who knew him personally. He possessed a mild and generous spirit, and died, in a good old age, full of faith and holy joy. Hunters and Grizzly Bear. CHAPTER IX. REGIONS TO THE NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES. North of the United States, in the direction of the polar seas, bounded on the one side by Russian America, and on the other by the Atlantic Ocean, lie vast tracts of county, of greater or less value for agricultural or commercial purposes, belonging to the British government. Of these the most important is Canada, formerly divided into Upper and Lower, now Western and East- ern Canada, occupied by a somewhat mixed population, consisting of colonies from France, England, Ireland, and Scotland, with here and there some scattered tribes of Indians. Canada covers the whole of the country lying north of the great lakes and rivers, drained by streams falling into the river St. Lawrence, and con- taining an area of about 1300 miles long and 700 broad, in all about 348,000 square miles. Filled with lakes and streams, and containing every variety of climate and soil, with a river, lake, and ocean navigation which, under favorable circumstances, might command the commerce of the world, Canada possesses great REGIONS NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 119 natural resources. The population is about a million and a half, the majority of whom are of French origin, and speak the French language. But these French Canadians, however polite and viva- cious, are far behind their neighbors in vigor, intelligence, and enterprise. The single fact that only one in ten of the whole male population can read, reveals a mournful state of ignorance, prejudice, and degradation. The other portion of the population, consisting chiefly of English, Scotch, and Irish, are much more intelligent and enterprising, and are making great and rapid prog- ress. The French, with slight exceptions, are Catholics, entirely imder the domination of their priests, who possess considerable wealth and influence. This difference of races, with a partial dependence, in all mat- ters of government, upon the mother- country, has greatly hin- dered the prosperity of Canada, and still threatens her future peace and prosperity. Still, her progress in agriculture, com- merce, and even in religion and education, are highly commend- able. The principal cities are Quebec,. Montreal, and Toronto, the last of which is now the seat of government. The climate is severe in winter, though warm and genial during the brief and rapid summer. In general, the people are thrifty, hospitable, and agreeable in their manners. The French are lively and pleasant, fond of amusements, and greatly addicted to dancing, horse-racing, and merry-makings of every sort. Sunday is their great /^te-day ; though every day that can be spared, and every evening, particu- larly in winter, is devoted to amusement. Great crimes are un- common among the French Canadians ; and, perhaps, great vir- tues are equally scarce. Multitudes of the females are employed in out-door labor, and look old and ugly long before they attain old age. The French population long for independence and self- government, and sometimes talk of annexation to the United States, but it is a mistake to suppose that they do so from love of any thing like legitimate freedom or pure republicanism. Beyond Canada stretch wide and desolate regions, occupied by Indians, bears, and wolves. The Esquimaux, though Indian in their character and habits, have some traits of form and personal appearance resembling Europeans. They are of small stature, but firm and hardy, live by hunting and fishing, and, notwith- standing the hardships to which they are exposed, and their rough manner of living, enjoy, it is said, a fair amount of material enjoy- ment. They have but little or no idea of a Supreme Being, and place their chief delight in eating and merry-making. They are, in fact, mere children, with little knowledge and little morality, "pleased with a rattle and tickled with a straw." They dress in 120 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. skins, and in winter "burrow" like dogs under the snow. They are excessive eaters, whenever they have opportunity of indulging their appetite. No matter what their food is, though mere offal, they devour it with greediness. Captain Parry states that he has known them, after a long fast, eat vigorously for hours, and the quantity consumed was in proportion to the time. He says that he " speaks within bounds" in stating that " a little girl" got through " eight pounds of solids" in a day, and he mentions that a lad consumed in twenty hours the following things, and did not think the effort extraordinary ! — Sea-horse flesh, frozen, four pounds and four ounces ; the same, boiled, four pounds and four ounces ; head, one pound and twelve ounces ; in addition to which he swallowed one pint and a half of rich gravy soup, three wine- glasses of raw spirits, one tumbler of strong grog, and one gallon and one pint of water. The Esquimaux are much dependent upon their fine race of dogs, which they harness to little sleds, and make their way, with considerable rapidity, over the frozen snow. They are fond of dancing and all sorts of trivial amusements. Captain Parry introduced "leap-frog" among them, with which they were excessively delighted. A little present will throw them into fits of incontrollable laughter. They are said to be affection- ate to their children, but ungrateful, dishonest, and treacherous. The Moravian missionaries have labored for their benefit with much patience and very gratifying success. The change in the charac- ter and manners of the converts has been striking. Similar to the Esquimaux, of the same race, language, and manners, in fact, are the natives of Greenland. Quite a number of them have been converted under the self-denying labors of the Moravians. But the most interesting people in these polar regions of eternal ice and snow are the inhabitants of Iceland, that singular, rocky island, with its mighty heart of flame, ever-burning Hecla, and perennial springs of boiling water. Iceland, however, belongs to Europe. Its people are of the best Norwegian stock, and are singularly intelligent, pious, and happy, forming in this respect the most striking contrast to the natives of Greenland or Labrador. Religion and education are universally diffused. Their manners are simple and courteous ; their amusements grave and dignified. They belong to the Lutheran branch of the Christian faith, and are warmly attached to the customs of their fathers. The reli- gious sentiment is the predominant one in their character. The common salutation on meeting is Oriental, borrowed evidently from the Scriptures — " Peace be with you !" To which the response is, " The Lord bless you !" On knocking at a door for admission, it REGIONS NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 121 is customary to say — " The Lord be in this place !" to which the reply is — " The Lord bless you !" It is the universal custom to give thanks, with clasped hands, before and after meals. At meeting and parting, the kiss of peace is the ordinary salutation. Before and after crossing a river, the Icelander takes off his hat and offers a short prayer, and also when he starts in a boat from the shore. As characteristic of the simplicity and elevation of their faith, the Rev. Dr. Henderson gives the following example : " I could not but notice," says he, " the manner in which my hostess spoke of her children. On my inquiring how many she had, she replied, ' / have four ; two of them are here with us, and the other two are with God. It is the best with those that are with Him, and my chief concern about those that remain is, that they may reach heaven in safety.' " The Icelanders have cultivated literature with success. Few people are more intelligent and refined. On winter evenings one of the family is selected to read some instructive or entertain- ing work, while the rest ply their tasks. In fact, the Icelanders are among the happiest and most virtuous people on the face of the earth ; a result to be ascribed to nothing but the prevalence among them of a pure and primitive Christianity. Settled as early as the ninth century, Iceland was long an in- dependent republic. In 1264 it passed under the dominion of the King of Norway, with which country it was subsequently transferred to the crown of Denmark, under which it now remains. No person ever suffered capital punishment in Iceland. Persons amenable to this extreme penalty are sent for execution to Copen- hagen, no Icelander being willing to become executioner in such a case. The laws are mild, and great crimes are exceedingly rare. The people form a single family, so to speak, dwelling alone, in their far island fastness; in a word, " a peculiar people," holy, peaceful, and happy. 6 122 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. CHAPTER X, MEXICO. It is time again to pass southward ; so leaving the regions of eternal snow, we traverse, once more, the lands through which we have already passed, and after a few weeks of travel, again strike the " Father of Waters," reach the city of New Orleans, whence we proceed across the Gulf of Mexico, and find ourselves wandering amid the rich valleys and lofty mountains of Mexico. This naturally fertile and beautiful country lies along the shores of the Pacific on the one side, and the Atlantic on the other, forming a tract of land of almost unequaled variety. It belongs to the tropics, and yet has all the climates and productions of more temperate regions. This arises from the inequalities of its surface, and the influence of its mountain ranges. It is composed, indeed, of three plateaus or terraces, of unequal hight, and of different temperatures and productions. The first of these, form- ing a narrow track along the coast of the Atlantic, is intensely hot, thence called by the inhabitants tierra caliente, having the ordinary temperature of equinoctial countries. Burning plains, sandy and barren, are intermingled with others of exuberant fer- tility, covered with aromatic shrubs and wild flowers, among which rise to a great hight magnificent tropical trees laden with blossoms and fruit. This is the region of deathly malaria and destructive thunder-storms. The season of the bilious fever — vomito — the scourge of these coasts, lasts from spring to the au- tumnal equinox, when it is checked by the cold winds which de- scend from Hudson's Bay, but which in winter often " freshen" into fearful tempests and desolating hurricanes. Some twenty leagues beyond this fervid region, the land begins to ascend, and we find ourselves in a purer atniosphere. The landscape insensibly changes, passing gradually from the torrid to the temperate zone. Still, it is warm and genial,. and although the " vanilla, the indigo, and the flowering cacao groves," are left behind, the " sugar-cane and the glossy-leaved banana" still ac- company us. Ascending further, about four thousand feet, we see, " in the unchanging verdure, and the rich foliage of the liquid amber-tree, that we have reached the hight where clouds and mists settle in their passage from the Mexican Gulf." This is the region of " perpetual humidity," but it is free from malaria and pestilence. " The features of the scenery become grand, and even MEXICO. 123 MEXICO. 125 tei'rible. Our road sweeps along the base of mighty mountains, once gleaming with volcanic fires, and still resplendent in their mantles of snow, which serve as beacons to the mariner, for many a league at sea. All around we behold traces of their ancient combustion, as the road passes along vast tracts of lava, bristling in the innumerable fantastic forms into which the fiery torrent has been thrown by the obstacles in its career. Perhaps at the same moment, as we cast our eye down some steep slope, or almost un- fathomable ravine, on the margin of the road, we see their depths glowing with the rich blooms and enameled vegetation of the tropics." Advancing still further upward, we mount into other climates, with other styles of cultivation, more nearly resembling those of Europe or of the United States. Indian corn, of course, is found in the warmer levels below, and covers these more temperate re- gions ; but here, also, extensive fields of wheat greet the ' eye, mingled with plantations of the aloe, or American agave, applied to such a variety of uses by the ancient inhabitants of Mexico. Lofty oaks and forests of pine give proof that we have entered what the Mexicans call the tierra fria, or cold region, the third and last of the great natural terraces into which the country is divided. When we have climbed to the hight of between seven and eight thousand feet, " we stand upon the summit of the Cor- dillera of the Andes, that colossal range, that, after traversing: South America and the Isthmus of Darien, spreads out as it enters Mexico into that vast sheet of table-land, which maintains an elevation of more than six thousand feet, for the distance of nearly two hundred leagues, until it gradually declines into the higher latitudes of the north." " Across this mountain rampart a chain of volcanic hills," says Prescott, whose admirable sketch we are mainly following, "stretches, in a westerly direction, of still more stupendous di- mensions, forming, indeed, some of the highest land on the globe. Their peaks, entering the limits of perpetual snow, diffuse a grate- ful coolness over the elevated plateaus below ; for these last, though termed cold, enjoy a climate the mean temperature of which is not lower than that of the central parts of Italy. The air is exceedingly dry ; the soil, though naturally good, is rarely clothed with the luxuriant vegetation of the lower regions. It frequently, indeed, has a parched and barren aspect, owing partly to the greater evaporation which takes place on these lofty plains, through the diminished pressure of the atmosphere ; and partly, no doubt, to the want of trees to shelter the soil from the fierce influence of the summer sun. In the time of the Aztecs, the 126 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". table-land was thickly covered with larch, oak, cypress, and other forest trees, the extraordinary dimensions of some of which, re- maining to the present day, show that the curse of barrenness in later times is chargeable more on man than on nature." In the central region, midway between the continent, though somewhat nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic Ocean, at an eleva- tion of nearly seven thousand five hundred feet, lies the remark- able valley of Mexico, encircled by a colossal rampart of porphy- ritic rocks, and forming a circumference of about sixty-seven leagues, with a sky of the deepest blue, a serene atmosphere, and a magnificent landscape. In this rare valley, with its five ancient lakes, snow-crowned volcanoes, and fertile plains, stands the city of Mexico, one of the richest and most beautiful cities in the world, with its crowded population and innumerable spires and domes. This was the Mazitli, so called from one of their gods, or Tenochtitlan of the Aztecs, richer and far more beautiful even than it is now, standing in the midst of its five great lakes, now much shrunk in their di- mensions, upon green and flower-enameled islands, like Venice amid the waves, with myriads of Indian boats gliding along its liquid streets, long lines of low houses mingled with great num- bers of pyramidal temples, lofty trees and flower-gardens floating, as it were, on the bosom of the. waters, and here and there a loftier temple sacred to the gods of the land. Though built on piles, the city of Mexico is celebrated for its magnificence. It is said by Humboldt " to be undoubtedly one of the finest cities ever built by Europeans in either hemisphere ; being inferior only to Petersburg, Berlin, London, and Philadel- phia, as respects the regularity and breadth of the streets, as well as the extent of its public places." The architecture is generally fine, and many of the buildings of noble construction, though usu- ally of a somewhat plain exterior. Two sorts of hewn stone, porous amygdaloid and porphyry, are generally used in the better parts of the city. The balustrades and gates are of Biscay iron, ornamented with bronze ; and the houses, which are three or four stories high, have flat terraced roofs, like those of Italy and other southern countries. The principal plaza, or square, is one of the finest to be seen in any metropolis. The Cathedral, the Palace, and the Mineria, are imposing structures. The interior of the Cathedral is quite gorgeous. The high altar is loaded with golden ornaments. It is inclosed by a massive railing of mixed metal, so valuable on account of the gold which it contains, that a silver- smith of Mexico is alleged to have offered the bishop a new silver rail of equal weight in return for the old metal. MEXICO. 127 In the interior of the Cathedral, also, are some curious remains of the olden time, including several idols, and "a stone of sacri- fice," on which lay the human victim when his breast was pierced, and his quivering heart torn out by the priest ! On the outer wall is fixed the KelUnda, a circular stone of basaltic porphyry, covered with hieroglyphic figures, by which the Aztecs, or native Mexicans, used to designate the months of the year, and which is supposed to have formed a sort of perpetual calendar. Bat the remains of ancient temples and other buildings are mostly gone, and few traces remain of the pride and splendor of the ancient Aztecs, who reared among the surrounding lakes a city of greater magnificence than that which their conquerors have built. On a summer evening, when the people are abroad, and the canals are covered with light canoes, filled with mestizoes hum- ming gay tunes, or striking their guitars, the rosy light of depart- ing day yet lingering upon the mountains, and tinging the snow- crowned summits of the Cordilleras, which encircle the valley, the city of Mexico presents a most attractive appearance, and suggests to the thoughtful traveler the striking contrast between its past and present condition. As he listens to the hum of the cheerful population, mingled with the sound of evening bells from Chris- tian temples, calling men, not, as the Aztec drum did, to human sacrifices, but to sacred vespers, he cannot but feel grateful that the ancient form of Mexican society has passed away forever. Imperfect as the present religion of Mexico is, certainly it is far better than the bloody rites of heathenism. The population of the city of Mexico is about 150,000, of an exceedingly mixed character, comprising about 68,000 Creoles, or descendants of Spaniards ; 28,000 mestizoes, or half-breeds be- tween Europeans and Indians, though many of them are scarcely distinguishable in color from the former; about 35,000 copper- colored natives ; 10,000 mulattoes ; and only about 6000 Euro- peans. A few of the citizens, among whom are the nobles and speculators in mines, are excessively rich, but the mass of the population are indolent and poor. The lower orders, resembling the lazaroni of Naples, are filthy, despise labor of every kind, and may be seen constantly lounging or lying about the churches or markets, leaning against the walls, or loitering near the theaters and coffee-houses. Indeed, the leperos of Mexico are worse than the lazaroni of Naples, being frequently stained with the crimes of robbery and assassination. The dress and habits of the higher orders resemble those of Europeans. The large cloak of Spain is universally worn. The costume of the ladies is uniformly black, 128 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. with the vail and mantilla ; but on holydays and public occasions their dress is distinguished for variety and gayety of colors, as well as expensiveness of material. " Indeed, when in their carriages, in the Passeo, they contrast somewhat strangely with the same persons, when seen at home in complete dishabille, without stock- ings, squatting on the floor, and either pursuing their favorite amusement of cigar-smoking (for Mexican ladies are much ad- dicted to smoking), or eating cakes and capsicum out of the dirty earthenware of the country. The ladies seldom go out during the day ; but after sunset, young and old come forth from their hiding-places, and the Alameda, Passeos, and Portales swarm with the damas and senoritas of the city, chatting and smoking with their gallants. Many gentlemen belonging to the higher classes are intelligent, and a few even fond of literature ; but the city is so badly supplied with libraries, and other means of study, as to give little encouragement to such pursuits. There are three or four newspapers ; but they are miserable productions, contain- ing little besides the merest chit-chat, copiously interspersed with advertisements." Mexican Gentlemen. With respect to the country in general, we may add, that the scenery of Mexico is bold and beautiful. Its productions are of MEXICO. 129 all climates, temperate and torrid. Indeed, there is no sort of plant or tree which may not be raised in this fertile country. Its commerce is limited, its agriculture far inferior to that of Europe. The people are not enterprising, like those of New England and other northern regions. Education makes no progress among them. The country has immense resources, not only in agricul- ture, but in mines of gold and silver, but the people are languid, sensual, and pleasure-loving. Some of them are wealthy, but most are poor. This is the case especially with the Indian popu- lation. They have little or nothing in religion, politics, or even in the common wants of life, to stimulate them. They are con- tent simply to live — to vegetate, and then to die. Good Cath- olics, they feel safe and easy for time or for eternity, no matter how ignorant and sensual, how besotted or vicious. " Mexico," says Chevalier, " is a country so rich, that famine scarcely visits the most indolent, In the tierras calientas, and even on the pla- teaus, the natives are content to dwell, with their families, in a cabin of bamboo trellis-work, so slight as scarcely to hide them from the stranger's gaze, and to sleep either on mere mats, or at best on beds made of leaves and brushwood. Their dress consists simply of a pair of drawers, or petticoat, and a serape (or dyed woolen garment), which serves for a cloak by day and a counter- pane by night. Each has his horse, a sorry beast, which feeds at large in the open country ; and a whole family of Indians is amply supplied Avith food by bananas, chilli, and maize, raised almost without labor, in a small inclosure round the hut. Labor, indeed, occupies but a trifling portion of the Indian's time, which is chiefly spent in drinking pulque, sleep, or singing to his wretched man- dolin hymns in honor of Notre Dame de Guadeloupe, and occa- sionally carrying votive chaplets to deck the altar of his village church. Thus he passes his life in dreamy indifference, and ut- terly careless of the ever-reviving emeutes by which the peace of Mexico is disturbed. The assassinations and robberies which the almost impotent government allows to be committed with impu- nity on the public roads, and even in sight of the capital, are to him only matter for conversation, the theme of a tale or ditty. And why should he trouble himself about it ? Having nothing in the world but the dress in which he stands, his lance, spurs, and guitar, he has no fear of thieves ; nor will the poniard of the assas- sin touch him, if he himself, drunk with pulque or chingarito, do not use his own." The condition of the half-breeds, and even of the lower orders of Spanish descendants, is not much superior to that of the Indian. Thousands of them live precisely as he does, and thousands more by begging or stealing. Some, indeed, are 130 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. farmers, and live upon their comfortable haciendas, and others rise somewhat in the world, and have a deeper interest in the or- der and peace of the community ; but all, more or less, have caught the Indian traits, and are more distinguished for their in- dolence and love of pleasure than their enterprise and virtue. In the larger cities, the prevalent amusements are the theater, bull-fights, horse-races, dancing, and gambling. The entire population numbers from six to seven millions, partly Spanish, but mostly Indian ; not, indeed, pure Indian, but mixed. Perhaps the predominant element is Spanish and European ; but the Indian is wonderfully diffused, as may be seen in the bronze color, long black hair, deficient beard, and oblique eyes of the people. The pure Indians number at least two-fifths of the entire popu- lation. The Mexicans of European extraction — the Creoles, as they are called — may be said to govern the country. They are the nobles, merchants, and miners of Mexico ; and while inferior to the inhabitants of England and the United States, and even of Spain, their mother- country, are. certainly far superior to the In- dians. Many of them are quite intelligent and polished, having enjoyed all the advantages of a European education. The government is professedly republican, but is insecure and despotic. The laws are said to be just and mild, but wretchedly administered. Indeed, Mexico is not unfrequently in a state of absolute anarchy. Robberies and assassinations are common as day. " With tranquillity," says the intelligent Chevalier, " every thing else is also lost. There is no longer any security. It is a mere chance if the diligence from Mexico to Vera Cruz proceed the whole way without being stopped and robbed. It requires whole regiments to convey the conducta of piasters to Vera Cruz. Travelers who cannot afford to pay for an escort, go armed from head to foot, and in little caravans. Here and there rude crosses, erected by the sides of the roads, and surrounded by heaps of stones, thrown by passers-by, in token of compassion, point out the spot where some wayfarer, and almost always a stranger, has perished by the hand of robbery." All education, such as it is, is in the hands of the priesthood, who make certain of its being kept within safe limits. The re- ligion of the country is universally Catholic. Many of the churches are magnificent, literally blazing with gold and jewels. In the city of Mexico, the services of religion are celebrated with great pomp ; but the people, and even the priests, are ignorant, sensual, and superstitious. So say all travelers. The mass' and the bull- fight have equal charms. Among such a people, of course, with much latitude of manners, there will often be great severity of re- MEXICO. 131 ligious discipline. The following is a description by Madame de la B -, lady of the Spanish Minister to Mexico, who wrote two volumes on Mexico a few years ago, of a singular flagellating penance, which often takes place in their churches ; — " To-day we attended the morning penitence, at six o'clock, in the church of San Francisco, the hardest part of which was their having to kneel, for about ten minutes, with their arms extended in the form of a cross, uttering groans — a most painful position, for any length of time. But the other night I was present at a much stranger scene, at the discipline performed by the men ; admission having been procured for us by certain means, private, but powerful. According^, when it was dark, enveloped from head to foot in large cloaks, and without the slightest idea of what it was, we went on foot through the streets to St. Augustin. When we ar- rived, a small side-door apparently opened of itself, and we en- tered, passing through long vaulted passages, and up steep wind- ing stairs, till we found ourselves in a small vailed gallery, looking down directly upon the church. The scene was curious. About one hundred and fifty men, enveloped in cloaks and serapes, their faces entirely concealed, were assembled in the body of the church. A monk had just mounted the pulpit, and the church was dimly lighted, except where he stood in bold relief, with his gray robes and cowl thrown back, giving a full view of his high, bald forehead and expressive face. His discourse was a rude, but very forcible and eloquent, description of the torments prepared in hell for impenitent sinners. The effect of the whole was very solemn. It appeared like a preparation for the execution of a multitude of condemned criminals. When the discourse was fin- ished, they all joined in prayer with much fervor and enthusiasm, beating their breasts, and falling -upon their faces. Then the monk stood up, and, in a very distinct voice, read several passages of Scripture descriptive of the sufferings of Christ. The organ then struck up the Miserere, and all of a sudden the church was plunged in profound darkness ; all but a sculptured representation of the Crucifixion, which seemed to hang in the air illuminated. I felt rather frightened, and would have been very glad to leave the church, but it would have been impossible, in the darkness. Suddenly, a terrible voice in the dark cried — ' My brothers ! when Christ was fastened to the pillar by the Jews, he was scourged /' At these words, the bright figure disappeared, and the darkness became total. Suddenly we heard the sound of hundreds of scourges descending upon the bare flesh. I cannot conceive any thing more horrible. Before ten minutes had passed, the sound became splashing, from the blood that was flowing. 132 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. " I have heard of these penitences (penances) in Italian churches, and also that half of those win go there do not really scourge themselves ; but here, where there is such perfect concealment, there seems no motive for deception. Incredible as it may seem, this awful penance continued, without intermission, for half an hour ! If they scourged each other, their energy might be less astonishing. " We could not leave the church, but it was perfectly sicken- ing ; and had I not been able to take hold of Senora 's hand, and feel something human beside me, I could have fancied myself transported into a congregation of evil spirits. Now and then, but very seldom, a suppressed groan was heard, and occasionally the voice of the monk encouraging them by ejaculations, or by short passages from Scripture. Sometimes the organ struck up, and the poor wretches, in a faint voice, tried to join in the Mise- rere. The sound of the scouro-insf is indescribable. At the end of half an hour, a little bell was rung, and the voice of the monk was heard calling upon them to desist ; but such was their enthu- siasm, that the horrible lashing continued louder and fiercer than ever. In vain he entreated them not to kill themselves, and as- sured them that Heaven would be satisfied, and that human nature could not endure beyond a certain point. No answer but the loud sound of the scourges, which are many of them of iron, with sharp points that enter the flesh. At length, as if they were perfectly exhausted, the sound grew fainter, and, little by little, ceased alto- gether. We then got up in the dark, and, with great difficulty, groped our way, in the pitch darkness, through the galleries, and down the stairs, till we reached the door, and had the pleasure of seeing the fresh air again. They say that the church floor is fre- quently covered with blood after one of these penances, and that a man died the other day in consequence of his wounds."* This method of " satisfying" the Deity is rather heathenish, and reminds us of the more terrible sacrifices of the ancient Aztecs to satisfy their bloody god ; but we believe that it is in accordance with Mexican and Spanish, and even Italian, orthodoxy. It re- minds us of the answer made by a tolerably intelligent Spaniard to the question, What do you understand by penitence ? when, suiting the action to the word, as if he were scourging himself, he said in broken English, " Whip um ! whip um !" Perhaps it* may be a good plan for these wretched Mexicans to whip the demon of evil out of their skins ; but how such inflictions are pleasing to the Deity, it would be difficult to say. * " Mexico as It Is " vol. i. MEXICO. 133 But the Mexican has his pleasures to put over against his pen- ances. Among these, one of his favorites is the bull-fight, a de- scription of which we will give, from the authority just quoted : — ■ " Fancy an immense amphitheater, with four great tiers of boxes, and a range of uncovered seats in front, the whole crowded almost to suffocation ; the boxes filled with ladies in full dress, and the seats below by gayly dressed and most enthusiastic spectators ; two military bands of music, playing beautiful airs from the operas ; an extraordinary variety of brilliant costumes, all lighted up by the eternally blue sky ; ladies and peasants, and officers in full uniform, and you may conceive that it must have been alto- gether a varied and curious spectacle.* Bernardo's (the chief ma- tador) dress, of blue and silver, was very superb, and cost him five hundred dollars. The signal was given, the gates Avere thrown open, and a bull sprang into the arena ; not a great, fierce- looking animal, as they are in Spain, but a small, angry, wild- looking beast, with a troubled eye. " ' Thrice sounds the clarion ; lo, the signal falls, The den expands, and expectation mute Gapes round the silent circle's peopled walls. Bounds with one lashing spring the mighty brute, And wildly staring, spurns, with sounding foot, The sand, nor blindly rushes on his foe ; Here, there, he points his thundering front, to suit His first attack, wide waving to and fro His angry tail, red rolls his eye's dilated glow.' " A picture equally correct and poetical. That first pose of the bull is superb ! Pasta, in her Medea, did not surpass it. Mean- while the matadors and the banderilleros shook their colored scarfs at him — the picadors poked at him with their lances. He rushed at the first and tossed up the scarfs which they threw at him, while they sprung over the arena ; galloped after the others, sticking the horses so that, along with their riders, they occasion- ally rolled in the dust, both, however, almost instantly recovering their equilibrium, in which there is no time to be lost. Then the matadors would throw fire- works, crackers adorned with streaming ribbons, which stuck on his horns, and, as he tossed his head, en- veloped him in a blaze of fire. Occasionally the picador would catch hold of the bull's tail, and passing it under his own right leg, wheel his horse round, force the bull to gallop backward, and throw him on his face. " Maddened with pain, streaming with blood, stuck full of darts, * The occasion was a special one. 134 THE WORLD WE LIVE IIST. and covered with fire-works, the unfortunate beast went galloping round and round, plunging blindly at man and horse, and fre- quently trying to leap the barrier, but driven back by the waving hats and shouting of the crowd. At last, as he stood at bay, the matador ran up and gave him the mortal blow, considered a pe- culiar proof of skill. The bull stopped, as if he felt that his hour were come, staggered, made a few plunges at nothing, and fell. A finishing stroke, and the bull expired. " The trumpets sounded, the music played. Four horses gal- loped in, tied to a yoke, to which the bull was fastened, and swiftly dragged out of the arena. In a similar manner eight bulls were done to death. The scene is altogether fine, the address amusing ; but the wounding and tormenting of the bull is sicken- ing, and as here the tips of his horns are blunted, one has more sympathy with him than with his human adversaries. It cannot be good to accustom a people to such bloody sights. " Yet let me confess, that though at first I covered my face and could not look, little by little I grew so much interested in the scene that I could not take my eyes off it, and I can easily un- derstand the pleasure taken in these barbarous diversions by those accustomed to them from childhood."* CHAPTER XI. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. South of Mexico, between the Mexican Gulf and the Caribbean Sea on the one side, and the Pacific Ocean on the other, stretches a long and unequally shaped strip of country toward South Ameri- ca, forming a sort of natural link, or isthmus, between the two great divisions of the American Continent, usually styled Central America. Lying under the tropics, and containing a great variety of soil, with vast mountain ranges (a continuation of the Cordil- leras) and deep valleys, its productions are rich and diversified. The heat, of course, is intense, yet cooled in many places by the fresh mountain breezes, and the streams which descend from the regions of snow. The lofty mountain-peaks are volcanic, several * "Mexico as It Is," Vol. i. pp. 120, 121. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 135 of them now in active operation, roaring and blazing amid the snows which encircle their summits. It is a region, however, of tropical storms and earthquakes, and inhabited by a people similar to those of Mexico, with, perhaps, a greater proportion of Indians. This also is the locality of those ruins (particularly in Yucatan) which attest the ingenuity, power, and even splendor of the more ancient races long passed away. These have been admirably de- scribed by Stephens and others, and are objects of intense and curious interest to the learned. The Republic of Guatimala, or Central America, contains the States of Guatimala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the Federal District, with a population of about 2,000,000. The people are said to be hospitable, friendly, and pleasure-loving. Like the Mexicans, they are addicted to cock- fighting, bull-fighting, gambling, dancing, and so forth. They are also excessively fond of religious processions, and other striking ceremonies of the Church, which they seem to regard much in the light of amusements, and from which at least they pass freely to the most giddy diversions. Perhaps it may be regarded as singular that all the monkish establishments have been sup- pressed. This indicates the prevalence among them of some liberal and reformatory movements. Most of the cities, among which are Guatimala, Leon, and San Salvador, have occasionally suffered from earthquakes. In Guatimala, the services of religion are cel- ebrated with great pomp and ceremony half the Sunday, while the other half is devoted to feasting and frolicking. The morals of the people suffer in consequence. Education is much neglected. All classes are fond of showy dresses and exciting pleasures. The productions of the country are indigo, logwood, and other dyes, mahogany, cedar, gold, silver, and precious stones. Mer- cury is also found here, as also copper, iron, nickel, zinc, antimony, and so forth. In the lower grounds, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and cocoa are freely grown. Various kinds of tropical fruits are raised in abundance. The wild animals comprise the American tiger (or jaguar), wolf, tapir, mountain cow, wild goat, striped boar, &c. Immense flocks of sheep and herds of cattle are reared in the La- denos, or table-lands, of Quesaltenango. The horses are inferior to the mules, which are mostly used. The trade and commerce of this part of the world is mostly in the hands of foreigners, es- pecially Americans and English, and carried on chiefly through Balize, or Honduras, which belongs to the British. A new chan- nel is opened for trade with the United States through the acces- sion of New Mexico and California, and the recent arrangements touching a ship canal, connecting, by means of the Lake Nica- 136 THE WOULD WE LIVE EST. ragua, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This lake, the largest in Central America, lies principally between the eleventh and twelfth degrees of north latitude, about twelve miles, in a direct line, from the Pacific, and ninety from the Caribbean Sea. It is of an oval shape, being some 130 miles long by 40 wide, discharging its sur- plus waters by the river San Juan into the Caribbean Sea, which is said to be navigable during the rains through its whole extent. It would seem, therefore, that the two oceans might easily be brought together by means of a ship canal, one of the most stu- pendous internal improvements of the age. Central America, in position, productions, and population, be- longs more to the South than to the North. We pass, therefore, into the more southern regions of the continent. South American Costumes. The most striking things in the external aspect of South America, which is somewhat less than North America, though more compact, and in outline somewhat resembling Africa, are its vast mountain ranges, its magnificent rivers, its immense forests CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 137 and plains, or llanos, with their singularly diversified forms of vegetable and animal life. It has three distinct systems of mount- ains. The first are the Andes, the "longest and loftiest," coming down from the north and running through the whole extent of the continent, branching off here and there on the one side and the other, forming the natural boundaries of the various countries, and inclosing long and wide-spread valleys, through which rush the streams fed from the hills. They he, however, chiefly on the Pacific side of the country, a distance of 150 miles, rising into lofty volcanic peaks at immense elevations, covered with eternal snow, while their sides, in almost all instances beautifully wooded, are covered in regular series with the various productions of tem- perate and tropical climes. The whole chain of these sky- piercing mountains is subject to violent volcanic action. From Cotopaxi to the Southern Ocean are no less than forty volcanoes in constant operation. Some of these mountains rise to the hight of fifteen, and even twenty and twenty-five thousand feet. Cotopaxi is 19,000, Chimborazo 21,730, Illimani 24,250, and Sorata, the two last in Bolivia, 25,400 feet. The other mountain ranges are the Parima, consisting of several chains to the northeast, in the upper part of the continent, run- ning' through Venezuela and Guiana ; and the third, the. Brazilian, of considerably less elevation, the highest reaching only a little more than 6000 feet. The Andes divide the country, from lat. 9° N. to 52° S., into three extensive plains, open toward the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and on the west inclosed by a huge rampart of mountains. The most northern of these, watered by the Orinoco, which runs in an easterly direction and falls into the Atlantic, consists of llanos, or level tracts, covered with reedy plants and a few straggling palms. To the south is the vast wood-covered plain of the Ama- zon, with mighty forests of tropical growth, beyond which is the far-reaching flat of the pampas, covered with coarse herbage, and thronged with innumerable herds of cattle. The three principal rivers of the country are the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata, flowing through the broad slope of the Atlantic and emp- tying into the ocean at different points, so as to traverse the whole country. They are ' more like inland seas or lakes than rivers proper, expending their treasures upon the countries through which they pass, and bringing but a small tribute to the ocean. The entire course of the Amazon, which looks more like a system, or tree of rivers, than a single river, is estimated at 4700 miles, and is navigable from the sea to the east foot of the Andes, a distance of 2000 miles. The Orinoco has a course of about 1800 138 THE WORLD WE LIVE IiST. miles, and the La Plata, which runs south, with a slight inclination to the east, 2500 miles. Within these vast regions the climate and productions are infi- nitely diversified. This is owing not simply to difference of lati- tude, but to difference of elevation, and the presence, first, of lofty mountain ranges, and then of deep valleys, and long-extended plateaus. Some of the plains are found at an elevation of from 6000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the sea! Thus the plain of Quito, immediately under the equator, where the heat ought to be intense, has an elevation of above 9600 feet, and its mean tem- perature does not exceed 53° Fahr. These different climates, fre- quently in close proximity, have different vegetable and animal productions. Hence the traveler journeying down the deep de- scent of one of the magnificent ravines, through forests of birches, oaks, and pines, finds himself suddenly among Oriental palms. He sees wolves of northern aspect dwelling in the vicinity of monkeys ; humming-birds returning periodically from the borders of the fro- zen zone, with the northern bunting and soft-feathered titmice, to nestle with parrots ; and our common European whistling ducks and teal, swimming in lakes which swarm with sirens and Brazil- ian parrots and boatbills.* " In the Andes," says Humboldt in his Cosmos, Vol. I. pp. 11, 12, "of Cundinamarca, of Quito, and of Peru, furrowed by deep barrancas, it is permitted to man to contemplate all the families of plants and all the stars of the fir- mament. There, at a single glance, the beholder sees lofty feath- ered palms, humid forests of bamboos, and all the beautiful family of the Musaceae ; and, above these tropic forms, oaks, medlars, wild roses, and umbelliferous plants, as in our European homes ; there, too, both the celestial hemispheres are open to his view, and when night arrives, he sees displayed together the constella- tion of the Southern Cross, the Magellanic clouds, and the guid- ing-stars of the Bear which circle round the Arctic pole. There the different climates of the earth, and the vegetable forms of which they determine the succession, are placed one over another, stage above, stage, and the laws of the decrement of heat are in- delibly written on the rocky walls and the rapid slopes of the Cordilleras, in characters easily legible to the intelligent observer. * * * * In the burning plains which rise but little above the level of the sea, reign the families of the bananas, of cycadeae, and of palms, of which the number of species included in our floras of the tropical regions has been so wonderfully aug- * " Richardson's Zoology of North America," in the Sixth Report of the British Association. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 139 merited in our days by the labors of botanic travelers. To these succeed, on the slopes of the Cordilleras, in mountain valleys, and in humid and shaded clefts of the rocks, tree ferns, raising their thick cylindrical stems, and expanding their delicate foliage, whose lace-like indentations are seen against the deep azure of the sky. There, too, flourishes the cinchona, whose fever-healing bark is deemed the more salutary the more often the trees are bathed and refreshed by the light mists which form the upper surface of the lowest stratum of the clouds. Immediately above the regions of forests the ground is covered with white bands of flowering social plants, small Aralias, Thibaudias, and myrtle-leaved Andromedas. The Alp rose of the Andes, the magnificent Belfaria, forms a pur- ple girdle round the spiry peaks. On reaching the cold and stormy regions of the Paramos, shrubs and herbaceous plants, bearing large and richly colored blossoms, gradually disappear, and are succeeded by a uniform mantle of monocotyledonous plants. This is the grassy zone, where vast savannas (on which graze lamas, and cattle descended from those of the Old World) clothe the high table-lands and the wide slopes of the Cordilleras, whence they reflect afar a yellow hue. Trachytic rocks, which pierce the turf, and rise high into those strata of the atmosphere which are supposed to contain a smaller quantity of carbonic acid, support only plants of inferior organization, lichens, lecideas, and the many-colored dust of the leprairia, forming small round patches on the surface of the stone. Scattered islets of fresh-fallen snow arrest the last feeble traces of vegetation, and are succeeded by the region of perpetual snow, of which the lower limit is distinctly marked, and undergoes extremely little change. The elastic sub- terranean forces strive, for the most part in vain, to break through the snow-clad domes which crown the ridges of the Cordilleras ; but even where these forces have actually opened a permanent channel of communication with the outer air, either through crev- ices or circular craters, they rarely send forth currents of lava, more often erupting ignited scoriae, jets of carbonic acid gas and sulphuretted hydrogen, and hot steam." This is the region of earthquakes, often terrible and devastating, shaking the whole continent, and causing the huge mountains to tremble to their foundations, drying up rivers, and casting to the ground temple and tower, village and city. It is the region also of deadly malaria and violent tornadoes ; and, we may add, of social changes and revolutions. The population is similar to that of Mexico and Central America, being derived from much the same stock, with some slight excep- tions, and educated in much the same manner. This especially 140 THE WORLD WE LIVE LIST. holds true of the more northern States and Republics, where the Spanish and Indian elements give the predominant features of the inhabitants. Of the same faith, with the same traditions and usages, and subjected generally to much the same influences, they occupy about the same level of character, moral, social, and polit- ical. The Republics of South America are scarcely worthy of the name. They are maintained only by force, and thus far have bred nothing better than tyrants and usurpers. The bayonet rather than the ballot-box is the great ruling power in them all. Nor can we hope for any thing better so long as the people are governed by a superstitious priesthood, and kept back from free inquiry and universal education. The native Indians are no better, if, indeed, as good, as their forefathers, and, under the present political and religious regimen, seem incapable of rising higher in the scale of civilization. Doubtless there are exceptions, but this is true of the great mass of the aboriginal inhabitants. Many of them, especially toward the south, are wild and savage. But it is time we set off on an exploring expedition to some of the States and communities into which South America is divided. Crossing the rocky boundaries of Central America, we descend into the beautiful and diversified regions of New Granada, which consists chiefly of elevated plateaus bounded by lofty mountains, and lies on the head-waters of the Orinoco, with a population of something less than 2,000,000, and containing rich mines and washings of silver and gold, as well as mines of emeralds and other precious stones. The government is republican, and Bogota is the capital, the cathedral of which contains an image of the Virgin, adorned with 1358 diamonds, 1295 emeralds, and other precious stones. From this, stretching all along the valley of the Orinoco to the Atlantic Ocean, we come to Venezuela, also a Republic, such as it is, with a sparse population, not much troubled with enlighten- ment, and addicted to political changes. The banks of the Ori- noco are covered with immense forests, resounding with the cries of the jaguar, the puma, and innumerable multitudes of monkeys. The huge boa hangs from the trees ; and the waters of the stream teem with alligators, porpoises, and manatees. The people live upon the plains, in the higher regions. The majority of the inhab- itants are Indians. Caracas, the capital, was seriously injured by an earthquake in 1812. South of New Granada, under the shadow of the Andes, with the snow-crowned peaks of Cotopaxi and Chimborazo, and trav- ersed by the head-waters of the Amazon, is the Republic of CENTEAL AND SOUTH AMEKICA. 141 Ecuador, or the Equator, with a population, climate, and produc- tions somewhat similar to those of New Granada. The climate is an eternal spring. Vegetation never ceases. The meadows and trees are covered with perpetual^ verdure. The plow and the sickle are in use together — buds, blossoms, and fruit are found on the same tree. One flower succeeds another. The colors of autumn, spring, -and summer are blended together, while in the distance the lofty peaks of the Andes are clothed with sparkling snow. This, however, is true only of the valley and table-land of the interior ; the other parts of the country, especially that lying along the coast, are filled with poisonous serpents, musketoes, ants, caymans, and deadly malaria. Quito, too, often trembles with earthquakes, and the whole land seems " founded" upon a fire-flood, into which at any time it may be precipitated. The population is about 650,000 souls. Quito, the capital, is a gay, luxurious place, with a population of 70,000, changeable and giddy. Earthquakes and revolutions are equally common. Masses and processions, carnivals and bull- fights, go hand in hand. But we pass to Peru, North and South, the fair and fertile regions of the ancient sun-worshipers, with their mild civilization and singular manners, traversed by lofty mountain peaks, with terraced beauties, rich in mines of gold and mercury, and in all the productions both of temperate and tropic zones, having a population, chiefly "Creoles, of 1,700,000. The ancient capital was Cuzco, surrounded by mountains ; the present is Lima, having a population of 80,000, mostly Creoles, though with many foreign- ers, English, Spanish, and American. It is a beautiful city, charmingly situated, with a serene atmosphere and magnificent views. It lies in a delightful valley, the Rimac, from 500 to 600 feet above the level of the sea, not far from the Pacific, and con- tains considerable wealth. The buildings are low and substantial, on account of the earthquakes, to which it is much exposed, but not without grace and ornament. They are usually terraced, and have flat roofs. The cathedral is a building of considerable mag- nificence. The beauty of the landscape, the sweetness and serenity of the atmosphere, and the graceful appearance of the women, are much praised. " Would you see more of Lima?" says one writing to a friend in H . " Well, then, step out on to my balcony, and stand with me while we look upward into the cloudless blue heavens, whose transparency seems penetrable, almost to the re- vealing of the ' golden gates.' See those huge birds, lazily floating on their outstretched wings, anon wheeling in circles, then up and down, then right, then left, always slowly and gracefully, as though 142 THE WORLD WE LIVE I1ST. moving in harmony with the music of the spheres. Alas ! that they should be only turkey- buzzards ! So let's leave them, and look straight across the street to the opposite balcony, and there you have a specimen of the Limanian style of beauty, in the per- son of a young senorita ; an heiress, too, for her father counts his millions. She has the beautiful hair peculiar to her countrywomen, which she wears in braids reaching half way to her feet. In other respects, her costume is the same as ours ; and oh ! while you look on her beauty, and welcome it ' as God's handwriting,' drink in also, as a charmed draught, a cup of blessing, new life, and health, and hope, from this glorious sunshine, this lovely sky, and these cool ocean-zephyrs, which, like all our Lord's mercies, are new every morning, and repeated every evening ; for though we are near the middle of summer, and under an almost vertical sun, the heat is, even at noonday, never oppressive. Our nights are cooled by winds from the far-off ice-mountains ; and so far, a blanket on the bed is. quite necessary to one's comfort." This is the pleasing side of the picture ; for what with earth- quakes, bull-fights, assassinations, and revolutions, Lima is not the most desirable place on earth. The changes there, political and moral, are often as sudden and startling as the tornado or the earthquake. Gayety and devotion, revelry and murder, succeed each other with fantastic rapidity. The following piquant account of one of these revolutions, and of a religious festival, we have just taken from one of our newspapers : " Lima, March 17th, 1850. * * * We are in the midst of a revolution ! This, although Sunday, is the day of election, and the parties of the rival candi- dates for the Presidency are in a terrible ferment ; and as merely depositing a vote quietly, as in our country, does not satisfy these turbulent spirits, they parade the streets, shouting ' Viva Echi- nique /' ' Viva Vicanco /' (the names of the rivals) and, when- ever the two parties meet, are ready for a fight, armed with stones, knives, clubs, &c. A mob of this sort have just attacked, and nearly demolished, a bakery in the block opposite the theater, the military not arriving until the destroyers were sated with their work of ruin. Unlike our mobs, they fear the militaiy, and on its approach take to flight. A guard of soldiers has been left to pro- tect the premises, and the mayor, with his troop of horse and foot, has gone to another street where the like scenes are enacting. Several have been already killed, and it appears to me that the officer in command, instead of parleying with the vagabonds, ought to sweep them down, as Bonaparte did the mobs of Paris. Speedy CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 143 and deadly measures in such cases, I am convinced, are not only the most effectual, but the most merciful. * * * It is now half past 1 P. M., and the excitement is increasing. The Plaza is filled with troops, and the candidate who can command the strongest force will probably install himself in the palace as President. This is the usual method of procedure in Lima. Exciting times, these ! How unlike our peaceful Sab- bath at "home ! The great gates, opening into the porte-cochere, of the houses are to-day fast shut ; people look from their bal- conies with pale and anxious faces, fearing a renewal of the bloody scenes so often enacted in the streets of this beautiful city. * * % j£ i s now evening, and the streets are quiet, the rioters having been dispersed by the strong military force who are now patrolling in every quarter. The law is, that no election shall proceed while a military force are in the city — they must be at least two leagues distant ; and when the voting commenced this morning, the troops were in Callao, thus affording a fine oppor- tunity for the vagabonds of both parties, and the lawless of no party, to do each other to death, without fear of hinderance by the authorities, for they recognize no civil power. In the rencounters of this morning, twenty-eight were killed, and about forty wounded, including among the latter a general, who was shot in the arm with a pistol. The killed and wounded are generally the lowest orders of the people, ruffians in the fullest sense of the word. The strongest party, that of Echinique, say they shall go on with the election, in defiance of the law respecting the presence of the military ; and as the voting will continue through the week, we shall probably see something worth recording. I am not sure but that a high-handed, absolute monarchy would be better for such republicans. The Emperor of Russia, with his strong power, would have speedily settled this day's business, to my satisfaction at, least, had he been autocrat here. * * * Monday Evening, 18th. — I have just come in from a walk to the Plaza. The military have possession of the streets, and, on the slightest indication of a gathering of the populace, ride through them, dispersing them instanter. Despite their efforts, however, the people gather and hold together long enough to shout their ' vivas/ and fire off rockets, which we hear in every quarter, from time to time. The palace occupies one side of the Plaza, and, in common with all private residences, is occupied by stores on the first floor. These stores, and all others surround- ing the Plaza, and in the streets leading; to it, are now fast closed and barricaded. People, with anxious faces, stand talking in groups, and one would suppose the city was in a state of siege, or 144 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". that some terrible calamity was hovering over it. No one dares to speak his mind aloud, lest he should be assassinated by some partisan of the opposing candidate. * * % Sunday, 2ith. — I have been waiting, day after day,' thinking I should have something stirring to tell you ' a la revolu- tion ;' but, since the outbreak on the first day of the election, all has been quiet, the populace being kept in check by the presence of the soldiery. To-day, while I write, the bells are ringing mer- rily, and rockets exploding by the hundreds, in proclaiming the election of Echinique, the candidate favored by the government, who, however, does not assume the duties of the office till one year from this time. The present President deserves much com- mendation for the energetic measures by which peace has been preserved — measures in opposition to the constitution, but of which he, like an illustrious predecessor in the Republican chair of State, says, ' I take the responsibility.' The wheels of government will now, I suppose, again roll on with their usual steadiness, which steadiness, by-the-way, is a fine practical illustration of what has been called the ' stability of change !' * ■* * March 29th. — It is now the closing week of Lent, called ' Semana Santa' (Holy Week), during which many gorgeous, and perhaps impressive, spectacles are produced by the church powers, of which silver plate, gold lace, silks, satins, and embroi- dered work, with cloth of gold and waving plumes, form an im- portant and conspicuous part. The first spectacle which we went to see was a procession, and, after forcing our way through a crowd made up of all classes, we took our station on one of the abutments of the bridge, over which the procession was to pass. Hundreds continued to press on and over the bridge to the church, where it was to stop, and it was not until dusk that the procession opened upon us. First came boys and men bearing lighted can- dles three feet high ; then three negroes in white robes, the center one bearing the holy banner, which is, in shape, like a barrel wrapped in cloth of gold, a deep gold fringe surrounding the bot- tom, and the top surmounted by a cross, while the other two car- ried candles wreathed with flowers. Following these was a pro- miscuous crowd of men, women, and children, with palm branches ; then women with vessels of burning incense ; then a platform about six feet square, borne on men's shoulders, covered with em- broidered satin, and hung around the edges with lace, gay ribbons, and flowers, the offerings of the pious ; while forming a railing around this platform were huge burning candles. In the center of it, a huge bunch of palms overshadowed an imitation (not very life-like) of an ass, upon which was seated an image of the CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 145 Savior, covered with a glittering dress, with a gilt crown on his head, while, leaning from the palm-tree, in a very hazardous po- sition, and anxiously peering through its branches, stood Zaccheus, dressed in a scarlet coat, trimmed with gold lace. As this passed by, all uncovered their heads, repeated their prayers in a low voice, and crossed themselves. Next came about twenty priests in white robes, bearing palms, and chanting plaintively ; then another canopy, surrounded with lighted candles, under which was the Virgin Mary and another saint ; then followed a company of soldiers and a band of music, with the entire populace of Lima in their rear. In about an hour's time the bridge was clear, and we made our way home. " Our next sortie for sight-seeing was on the evening of ' Good Friday.' In the first church we entered, seated on the platform in front of the altar, were figures, of the size of life, representing our Lord washing the feet of the disciples, among whom Judas sat on the end of the bench, dressed in red (his hair and face in- clining to the same color), with the money-bag under his arm. Then there were the ' publicans and sinners' looking on, dressed in costumes ornamented with gold lace. In the next church was a ' dead Christ' on a bier, with the face and feet uncovered, around which pressed the multitude, each in turn kissing these exposed por- tions of the body. The bier was covered with a gorgeous white satin gold-embroidered pall, strewed with white Bowers, whose fra- grance, together with the incense burning in various parts of the house, was almost overpowering. At the head of the bier sat a priest, with a table before him, on which were laid the contribu- tions of the charitable. Passing on, we paused before the ' grand altar,' on the steps of which was arranged all the plate of the church, of great value, interspersed with pots of magnificent flowers in full bloom, and myriads of tall candles, occupying every possible spot among the pillars and images which reach from the altar to the high ceiling. In front of the steps was a representa- tion of the ' Last Supper.' The whole immense nave of the church was densely packed with kneeling ladies, all dressed in black, with black mantillas over their heads, from whose parted folds shone out, like stars from parting clouds, the brightly flashing eyes of many a youthful senorita. The sefiors always stand, or sit on some lew benches arranged along the borders of this female parterre. " We went to two other churches, in all of which there were similar ceremonies ; and to the cathedral, in which there was a grand illumination. "April 1st. — 'Easter Sunday' came yesterday, but I did not 7 146 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. go out. The day began as our Fourth of July does, by the ring- ing of bells and firing of rockets, and these continued throughout the day. The streets swarmed with people in gay attire, all wearing flowers. A 'bull-fight' took place as usual, and the theater was crowded ; and thus you have the ' Holy Week' at Lima." To this we add the following description, by Mr. Colton, of a bull-fight in Lima, which, it appears, took place, like the election and revolution, on the Sabbath. As they say in Scotland, " the better day, the better deed." " On the Sabbath which succeeded Holy Week I went to the cathedral to attend worship, and found it closed ; continued on to the church of San Pedro, and found that closed ; turned off to the church of San Augustin, and found that also closed. Observ- ing the streets full of people, who were moving toward the broad bridge which crosses the Rimac, I concluded that there must be some great religious festival in that quarter, and followed on. " The crowds continued to move over the Rimac, but instead of entering any church, wound off, in solid column, through the rows of trees which shade its left bank. I at last inquired of an intelli- gent-looking man who was walking at my elbow, to what sacred spot they were bound. When, with a look of half- wonder at my ignorance, he replied, ' To the corrida de tows /' — the bull-fight ! I turned on my heel and threaded my way back, with some diffi- culty, through the crowds who were pressing onward to the sav- age spectacle. Among them were groups of children from the schools — boys in gay frocks, and girls in white, with wreaths of flowers around their sunny locks, headed by their teachers. Monks with their beads, mothers with their daughters ; infancy at the breast, and old age with one foot in the grave ; all chattering and laughing, and jostling and shouting, and pressing on to the bull- ring, on the Sabbath ! " Upon inquiry, I found that these bull-fights formerly took place on Monday, but that the Archbishop of Lima, to enable the laboring classes to attend them, had changed the day to the Sab- bath. They are a horrible spectacle at best, utterly revolting to every sentiment of refinement and humanity ; and the social and moral evils which they inflict would be sufficiently revolting were they confined to secular occasions, but they become doubly per- nicious when they involve such an outrage upon the sanctity of the Sabbath, under the sanction, too, of the highest ecclesiastical functionary in the State. " Bull-fights, as conducted here, involve very little peril and suf- CENTRAL AJSTD SOUTH AMERICA. 147 fering except to the poor beast. His antagonists are pretty safe, or he would drive them out of the arena. It is an exhibition of craft and cowardice on one side, and courage and despair on the other. Of the two, the bull sustains much the nobler part, and would have much the larger share of my sympathy and respect. If men must fight for the amusement of their fellows, let them fight one another. If the death of one don't furnish sufficient ex- citement, then let the other be shot or hung, as the taste of the spectators shall suggest. But let them not catch a poor beast, torture him with fagots and fire, skulk themselves, and pick him to death with their long weapons, and then insult the intelligence of the community by calling the dastardly act an exhibition of chivalry and valor. "It is no wonder the ladies in Lima are deficient in delicacy and moral refinement, accustomed as they are, from their child- hood, to such savage spectacles. It is but justice, however, to say, that there are some mothers here who will not pennit their daughters to attend them ; nor will they allow them, for this or any other purpose, to disguise themselves in the saya y manto. There was one righteous man in Sodom, and there is more than one good mother even in Lima." The Indians of Peru are few and feeble. Discouraged and de- pressed, they find it difficult to maintain their national existence. Indeed, they may be said to have no national existence. Nomi- nally " Catholics," without much knowledge of Christianity, they look back with regret to the days of their ancient splendor, and venerate the memory of their Incas. The descendants of those ancient princes are now almost entirely extinct. One or two, it is said, yet linger amid the mountains of Peru. The following letters addressed to the late President of the United States, and communicated by him to the American Ethnological Society, with respect to " the last of the Incas," will be read with interest. The first is from Samuel G. Arnold, Esq., of Providence, a gentleman who, in the course of an extensive exploratory tour through South America, had paid a visit to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the Incas of Peru. " Peovidknce, May 1, 1849 " To the President of the United States : " Sir : — In the course of an extensive tour through the interior of South America, during the past year, I visited Cuzco. That city, renowned as the capital of the Inca Empire, and the limit of the conquests of Pizarro, is among the most interesting places I have seen in any part of the world. The extreme difficulty of 148 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. reaching it, owing to its distance from the coast, and the lofty chains of Andes intervening, appears to be the chief reason that this celebrated city is so little known to our countrymen. It abounds in stupendous monuments of art, attesting a civilization quite equal, if not superior, to that of the. Aztecs. But amid these remains of ancient days there exists a living relic of the past, some short notice of whom may throw light on the inclosed letter. The venerable Doctor Don Justo Sahaurauria, a canon of the Cathe- dral of Cuzco, and now more than ninety years of age, claims to be a lineal descendant in the seventh degree from Haana-Caipac, the last reigning Inca, and father of the ill-fated Atahualpa, burnt alive by the conquerors in the plaza of Caxamorca. The evidence of his claim appears to me to be conclusive ; so that in this man we see the last of the royal race of Incas, as no others of unmixed blood are known to exist. He is a man of learning, and quite dis- tinguished in the history of his country, having personally received the thanks of Bolivar, at the close of the War of Independence, for his services in the cause of liberty. A clerical friend took me to the old man's house. We found him reading Tasso in his gar- den, a secluded spot just under the walls of the great Temple of the Sun, where his ancestors, as high-priests of the sun and hered- itary lords of Peru, once officiated at the altar in the grand and imposing worship of ' The Children of the Sun.' He received us very affably, and showed me many matters of interest about his house. He conversed more intelligently than is usual with Peru- vians of the interior, concerning ' El grande Republica del Norte,' as they call the United States, and appeared much interested in the slight sketch of our political system which he requested me to give him. He had many questions to ask — who was President, and who would be the next President? He is a fine-looking man, with a physiognomy quite different from that of the Quicha In- dians (the race peopling this part of Peru), having a high fore- head, large regular features, and an intelligent eye. A paralytic stroke about two years ago deprived him of the power of writing, except early in the morning, when he can sign his name. His son acts as his amanuensis. He always affixes the word Inca to his name. The seal of the inclosed letter bears the arms granted by Charles V. to his family in 1544 — the original letters patent are carefully preserved in his library. I left Cuzco in June last. Some time afterward I received a letter from him, in which he asked a continuance of the correspondence, which I provided for through the U. S. Consul at Lima, although scarcely expecting to hear from the aged Inca again. On parting from him he had de- sired me to present his compliments, &c, to the President of the CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 149 United States on my return home. This he repeated, with the usual additions of Spanish courtesy, in the letter I received from him at Lima. After my return to the United States I received a package of letters from the venerable Dr. S., "dated Cuzco, August 16th, in which he desires me to deliver the inclosed letter: 'Y signified a esse grand hombre mis rendimdentos.' I should be pleased to receive an acknowledgment of the receipt of this, as I shall write to Cuzco in a few days, and wish to assure the old gentleman that his letter has reached its destination. " Trusting that the subject of this letter will be found of sufficient interest to atone for its length, I remain your excellency's most obedient servant, " Samuel G. Arnold. " Gen. Z. Taylor, President of United States." [translation.] " To the most Excellent President of the United States of North America : From the Capital of the Sovereign Incas of Cuzco, the 1 6th of August, 1848 : " The possessor of my profoundest Respect and Veneration : " A Peruvian prince, the seventh in descent from the Emperor Huaynaccapac, the most immediate branch of the sovereign Incas, places himself under the protection and auspices of your excel- lency, entreating that you will have the goodness to receive his homage. " When the Spaniards entered the Peruvian Empire, giving the name of conquest to a sanguinary devastation, they found in the principal temple of Cuzco various prophecies, and among them one that foretold the destruction of the empire, together with its rites and ceremonies ; and that this was to take place in the reign of the twelfth emperor. " When the Emperor Huaynaccapac was told by his vassals in Tumpis that there had appeared on the coast certain canoes like houses, the crews of which were composed of bearded men very different from themselves, he said that a tradition existed among the members of the royal family to the effect that there should come from beyond the sea an unknown people who would destroy the empire, its religion, rites, and ceremonies. This, he said fur- thermore, was to take place during the reign of the twelfth em- peror ; and, as he was the twelfth in succession, the prediction was, doubtless, about to be fulfilled, even as it is said in the proph- ecy, ' Inter alia vaticinia, quae de amissione Regni loquuntur.' " Moreover, the prediction inspired the Children of the Sun with the hope that the day would arrive in which they should be 150 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. reinstated in their ancient splendor, by the aid of a people from a country called England ; and, in order that your excellency may be fully possessed of the whole prophecy, I here transcribe it as follows : " ' Et Deum ego testor, mihi a D. Antonio de Berreq affirmatum, quemadmodum etiam ab alijis cognovi, quod in prsecipuo ipsorum Templo inter alia vaticinia, quae de amissione Regni loquuntur, hoc enim sit, quo dicitur fore, ut Inc^s, sive Imperatores et Reges Peruvise, ab aliquo Populo, qui ex Regione quadam, quo [quae] Inglaterra vocetur, in Regnum suuni rursus introducantur.'* " As the prophecy does not expressly say whether they are to be Anglo-Europeans or Anglo-Americans, it appears to me that the Children of the Sun ought to follow their own inclinations. I, like others, am well convinced, and constantly hear of the great kindness with which all who are inclined to the grand Republic of North America have been welcomed by it. On these accounts, and because of the preference which I personally entertain, I place myself under the shelter of the Republic, and under that of your excellency, who will not disdain to receive an unfortunate prince like myself. " Praying the Almighty to preserve the health of your excel- lency during all the years that America may require it, and es- pecially the humble priest who kisses the hands of your ex- cellency, " I am, most excellent sir, " Dr. Justo Sahaurauria, Inca." We must not stay longer in Peru, but pass over into Bolivia, with its lofty mountain peaks — the loftiest, we believe, on the con- tinent of America, and, except two or three in the Himalayan Mountains, the loftiest in the world — its extensive and beautiful lake Titicaca, high up among the ranges of the Andes, several thousand feet above the level of the sea, and its rich mines of gold and silver. Among the latter is the famous Potosi, or La Rica, The Rich, as the natives call it. It was discovered in 1545 by a Peruvian named Hualpu, who, ascending the mountain with his flocks, grasped a bush, whose roots gave way, revealing the pres- ence of a rich mass of silver ore. For some time this shepherd * " I call God to witness that I was informed by Don Antonio de Berreo, even as I had learnt from others, that among the prophecies preserved in the principal Temple, which speak of the loss of the Kingdom, there is one which says that the Incas, or emperors and kings of« Pern, shall be restored to their Kingdom by a people who shall come from a certain country called Inglaterra (England) " CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 151 concealed the discovery from all his acquaintances, and resorted to the place only at intervals to supply his wants. But the ob- vious change in his fortune attracted the suspicions of the Indians, who, with difficulty, wrung from him his secret. In consequence of a quarrel with Hualpu, these Indians revealed it to his master. It was then formally registered and opened' since which time it has been worked with success. Its yield has been immense. The vein was found running through the entire mountain, the whole of which nearly has been excavated. Millions upon millions have been derived from this source. The inhabitants of Bolivia, estimated at something more than a million, resemble those of the neighboring States, to which we have already referred. They are said to be quite hospitable. The government is Republican, the religion Catholic. More than one- half of the inhabitants are said to be Indians, some of whom are wild and warlike in their habits. Stretching from Peru to Patagonia, between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean, is the long and narrow, but rich and fertile Throwing the Lasso/ Chili, with its evergreen foliage, medicinal gums, resplendent flowers, and precious ores. The population consists principally of Spaniards, mestizoes, and Indians, with some English, American, French, Irish, and negroes. There are some independent Indian communities, as the Aracaunians, possessed of considerable en- ergy of character. Earthquakes are common in Chili. Beggary, also, are somewhat numerous, and, it is said, actually often ride on horseback to solicit alms. But horses and other cattle are very numerous here, and are caught wild among the mountains, by means of the lasso, which the people practice with great dexterity. 152 THE WORLD WE LIVE IIST. This, however, is not confined to Chili, but is common through South America. The lasso is a long line or thong with a noose, which a Chilian at full speed, on horseback, can throw over the horns, head, or legs of a wild animal, as a horse or bull, at full speed. Its use is practiced by the children in the case of dogs, cats, &c, from their earliest years. The lasso is sometimes used in war with considerable effect. There is a well-authenticated story of a party of eight or ten men, who had never seen a piece of artillery till one was fired at them in the town of Buenos Ayres. They galloped fearlessly up to it, placed their lassoes over the cannon, and, by their united strength, fairly overturned it. The government of Chili is Republican, but, as usual in South America, where education and religion are so poor, is in an un- settled, state. South of Bolivia, between Chili and the river La Plata, south of the Atlantic, lies the Argentine Republic, as it is sometimes called, more properly, Buenos Ayres, or provinces of La Plata, with its vast unwooded plains or pampas, 1200 miles in length and some 500 in breadth, on which roam innumerable herds of wild oxen, horses, ostriches, thousands and thousands of which are annually taken by means of the lasso. In the upper part of the country, with woods and mountains, are many mines of gold and silver, as also several of gems, jasper, and emeralds. Buenos Ayres [good airs, from the salubrity of the climate), the capital, stands on the southwest side of the La Plata, the houses built of brick or chalk, with flat roofs, and innumerable gardens. The population of the city is 80,000, one-f6urth of whom only are whites, the rest being mixed breeds, Indians and negroes. The population of the whole State, which is Republican, falls short of a million, with many Indians, some of them independent. Slavery and gambling are prevalent. In the upper part of the continent, to the southwest, are small colonies of Dutch, French, and English, in the two former of which slavery prevails, and in the latter are many blacks. But these need not detain us. They are important chiefly for their commerce. Nor will Patagonia, on the extreme south, with its huge In- dians, rude manners, and Jesuit institutions, detain us from more interesting regions. Uruguay is a small State, lying between Buenos Ayres and Brazil. Paraguay, a little above, enjoys, or perhaps suffers, a singular dictatorship, under Doctor Francia, and has a tolerably thriving population of 20,000 whites, and 250,000 blacks. Inter- CENTEAL AND SOUTH AMEEICA. 153 dieted from commerce with foreigners, and shut in, by a rigid sys- tem of police, within its own boundaries, the nation is said to be contented and happy. All are taught to read and write, so 'tis said ; and though the tyrannic Doctor rules them with a rod of iron, he rules them well. View of Bio Janeiro. The last State which demands our attention is Brazil, the largest and most important of South America, occupying nearly one -third of the whole continent ; extending, on the one side, from Venezuela on the north, to Uruguay on the south ; and on the other, from Peru to the Atlantic Ocean, with an area of 3,000,000 square miles, a population of 5,000,000, and commanding nearly the whole of the river Amazon, the largest river in the world, with its 200 tributaries, and vast mouth, or rather mouths, of 175 miles in extent. The tide ascends perceptibly 600 miles from the sea, and the river is navigable for ships several times that distance. Brazil was settled from Portugal, though the descendants of the 154 THE WORLD WE LIVE EN". Portuguese, who govern the country, are greatly exceeded in • number by Indians and mixed breeds. The government, now in- dependent of the mother-country, is imperial, with a tendency, it is said, to republicanism. The character of the people is Portu- guese, with a mixture of Indian. In some parts of the country are colonies of Irish, Swiss, and Germans. Some English may be found at Rio Janeiro, the capital, a city of 150,000 inhabitants, which stands on the west side of a bay close to the sea, and is a place of much opulence and splendor. Slavery is universal. A portion of the inhabitants are nobles, among whom are some dis- tinguished and wealthy agriculturists, ennobled by Don Pedro. Brazil, though only partially cultivated, is a country of ample resources, almost all the productions of tropical countries being found there, as also those of more temperate regions. It abounds in the precious metals and other minerals ; and not only so, but in precious stones and diamonds. The diamond mines are wrought by collecting the ferruginous earth, in which the diamonds are found, mixed with flints, and washing it. The former operation is gener- ally performed during the hot season, at a time when the beds and torrents of the rivers are dry, and the diamond sand can be easily collected. When the wet season arrives, the operation of washing- commences. It is performed in the open air, and frequently under sheds, where the action of the sun is least likely to injure the health of the negroes. At the bottom of the shed glides a small stream, which occupies one of its sides. Seats, raised, and with- out backs, are arranged along the shed in such a manner, that the subaltern officers are enabled to watch the negroes at work. One of these superintends eight negroes. Each negro works in a com- partment of the shed, separated from the others. The material to be examined is placed in troughs close to the stream, and the negroes are introduced entirely naked, excepting in time of ex- treme cold, when they are allowed a kind of waistcoat, but with- out either lining or pockets. They are supplied with a sort of hand-spike, by means of which they separate the earth from the flint ; and then taking the largest stones in their hands, they pro- ceed to 'search for the diamonds. Notwithstanding all the precau- tions taken, robberies of diamonds by the negroes frequently occur. When a negro discovers a diamond, having first shown it to the attendant officer, he deposits it in a large wooden vessel suspended in the center of the shed. If any negro is fortunate enough to discover a diamond weighing seventeen carats, he is bought by the government, and receives his liberty. The discovery of a stone of less weight also confers liberty, but with some restrictions. Various premiums are distributed, according to the value of a CE1STTEAL AND SOUTH AMEEICA. 155 stone, even to a pinch of tobacco. But diamonds are frequently- stolen, and sold to smugglers at a low price. The negroes, how- ever, somewhat cunning, sometimes contrive to impose upon the contrabandists, by crystals, to which they give the appearance of rough diamonds. Some 20,000 negroes are employed in this business. Brazil abounds in forests, and in all kinds of beautiful and use- ful trees. Cotton is also cultivated. The forests and rivers are filled with wild animals, serpents, tigers, monkeys, crocodiles, and caymans. The domestic animals, such as the horse and ox, are very numerous ; and though much of the country is uninhabited, being occupied by vast forests and untrodden marshes, their agri- cultural productions are quite considerable. Great masses of hides, tallow, horns, and beef are exported to other countries. They also export coffee, sugar, and cotton. In education, literature, the fine arts, and especially religion, which is Catholic, the Brazilians rise no lusher than their neio-h- bors of South America generally. Perhaps they are inferior to some of them. The first printing-press in the country was intro- duced in 1808! Gross ignorance prevails among the common people. Many of the rich nabobs, or sugar- planters, know little more than their negroes. A few are educated, and all, it is said, are somewhat remarkable for their pompous vanity. The Indians are partly civilized, and partly savage. Their condition, in most instances, is depressed. Distinctions of color scarcely exist. All intermarry. The mulattoes are among the most energetic people of the country. Fitted to the climate, they gain in wealth and influence. The progress of Brazil, in wealth and population, has been slow ; but of late years, the infusion of new elements, by means of foreigners, and the change in its political institutions, has given it a powerful impulse in the right direction. It will, how- ever, take a long time to rise superior to the combined influence of ignorance, slavery, and superstition. As an instance of their superstition, Dr. WaJsh informs us that, at Rio, they claim to have the descendant of the cock which crowed when Peter denied his Master. Dr. W. was favored with a sight of him, and describes him as an ungainly bird of great size, and with a sort of a croak in his crowing that was quite monitory. The negroes, it is said, are treated, in some cases, with indis- criminate kindness ; in others, with fearful severity. Every day, says Walsh, negroes are sacrificed ; not so much as delinquents punished for offenses, as victims offered up to the revenge or malice of their masters. They are often whipped to death. Sometimes they commit suicide, to avoid what they deem a more 156 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. terrible doom. " They have a method of burying their tongue in their throat, in such a way as to produce suffocation. A friend of mine was passing through the Carioca, when a slave was tied up and flogged. After a few lashes, he hung his head apparently lifeless, and when taken down, he was actually dead, and his tongue found wedged in the oesophagus, so as completely to close the trachea."** A stranger, on entering Rio Janeiro for the first time, is struck with the extremes of condition in the population. Two-thirds are slaves, and so debased, in form and manners, are many of them, that they appear more like baboons than men. The nobles and merchants are rolling in wealth and splendor, while multitudes of the slaves are all but naked and starving. Still, many of them rise in comfort, and even in wealth, and many of them secure their freedom. Occasionally, a tawny-faced African may be seen officiating as priest, and instructing his white brethren in the truths of religion. A slave, after ten years' bondage, is entitled to his freedom, as also when he is the father of ten children ! Thirty- three holidays are allowed them, on which they may have their wages ; and any one can free himself, by paying the price of his first cost. The slave-trade, domestic and foreign, is carried on briskly in Brazil. Thousands are brought from Africa annually, and sold in the markets. The slaves are kept naked in stalls, to be sold. The voice of the owner, or a crack of the whip, brings them out for ex- hibition and sale. The following description of the slave market, &c, with which we close our notices of Brazil, is from the pen of Dr. Walsh, considered excellent authority with reference to Bra- zilian usages : " Round the rooms are benches, on which the elder generally sit, and the middle is occupied by the younger, particularly fe- males, who squat on the ground, stowed close together, with their hands and chins resting on their knees. Their only covering is a small girdle of cross-barred cotton, tied round the waist. Tie first time I passed through this street, I stood at the bars of the window, looking through, when a cigano (gipsy-dealer) came and pressed me to enter. I was particularly attracted by a group of children, one of whom, a young girl, had something very pensive and engaging in her countenance. The cigano observing me look- ing at her, whipped her up with a long rod, and bade her, with a rough voice, come forward. It was quite affecting to see the poor, timid, shrinking child standing before me, in a state the most * Walsh. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 157 helpless and forlorn that ever a being like myself, with a reason- able mind and an immortal soul, could be reduced to. Some of these girls have remarkably sweet and engaging countenances. Notwithstanding their dusky hue, they look so modest, gentle, and sensible, that you could not for a moment hesitate to acknowl- edge that they are endued with a like feeling and a common nature with your own daughters. The men were generally less in- teresting objects than the women. Some were soot-black, having a certain ferocity of aspect, that indicated strong and fierce pas- sions, like men who are darkly brooding over some deep-felt wrongs, and meditating revenge. When any one was ordered, he came forward with a sullen indifference, threw his arms over his head, stamped with his feet, shouted, .to show the soundness of his lungs, ran up and down the room, and was treated exactly like a horse put through his paces at a repository ; and when done, he was whipped to his stall. Many were lying stretched on the bare boards ; and among the rest, mothers with young children at their breast, of which they seemed passionately fond. They were all doomed to remain on the spot, like sheep in a pen, till they were sold. They have no apartment to retire to ; no bed to repose on ; no covering to protect them. They sit naked all day, and lie naked all night, on the bare boards or benches. Among the objects that attracted my attention in this place, were some young boys, who seemed to have formed a society to- gether. I observed several times, in passing by, that the same, little group was collected near a barred window. They seemed very fond of each other, and their kindly feelings were never in- terrupted by peevishness. Indeed, the temperament of a negro child is generally so sound, that he is not affected by those little morbid sensations which are the frequent cause of crossness and ill-temper in our children. I do not remember that I ever saw a young black fretful or out of humor. I sometimes brought cakes and fruit in my pocket, and handed them in to the group. It was quite delightful to observe the disinterested and generous manner in which, they distributed them. There was no scrambling with one another — no selfish reservation to themselves. The child to whom I happened to give them took them so gently, looked so thankfully, and distributed them so generously, that I could not help thinking that God had compensated their dusky hue by a more than usual portion of amiable qualities. Nothing is more absurd than to say that the Africans are happy, or reconciled to slavery. They seem to have as keen a sense of bondage, and to repine as bitterly at their lot, as any white man 158 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. in the same state in Africa ; indeed, if we may judge from the effects, still more. The harbor is constantly covered with the bodies of blacks, on whom no marks of violence are found, and who are known to have thrown themselves in, to escape from an insupportable life. I have seen them, myself, left by the tide on the strand, and some lying weltering just under our windows. We were eye witnesses to a very striking and melancholy fact of this kind. One evening, some policemen were conducting a woman to the calabouca, along the road leading from Catete. Just when they came opposite our door, where there was an open descent to the strand, the woman suddenly rushed down the rocks, and cast herself into the sea. The place in which she fell was too shallow to drown her ; so, after lying on her face a moment, she again raised herself, and, rushing forward into deeper water, she sunk and dis- appeared. The policemen made no attempt to save her, but Mr. Abercrombie ordered some of the blacks of our house to follow her. They immediately did so, brought her up apparently dead, and carried her into our hall. The negroes, supposing her to be dead, threw her down on the bare stones, just as they would be treated themselves, and she lay there just like any other worthless and despised object; but on examining the poor creature, we had reason to suppose it still possible to restore suspended animation. She was seized with convulsions, succeeded by a violent shudder- ing, when she fell into a slumber, from which she awoke in a sen- sible state. She had been employed in washing, which she will- ingly performed ; but her master treated her with the greatest cruelty and inhumanity, and in proof, she showed her arms and side, which were greatly swelled and inflamed, from the effect of blows received a few days before. She could endure it no longer, and fled to the wood. Her master immediately gave sixteen mil- reis to the capitao do mato, whose office it is to take fugitive slaves. She was pursued and overtaken, and was on her way back, when she conceived such a horror at again returning to en- counter the brutality she had before experienced, that she deter- mined not to be brought home alive. She appeared very grateful for the kindness with which she was treated, so different from any thing she had experienced in Brazil before, and proposed to do any work with alacrity to which she was put ; but when we spoke of her returning to her master, she expressed a degree of horror in her looks and manner that amounted to distraction, and seemed to think that she was little indebted to those who saved her life, if she was again to be given up to that suffering, than which loss of life was more tolerable." EUROPE. 159 CHAPTER XII. It is natural to pass from the UnifeM States to Europ£, for, in many respects, America, and especially the United States, repro- duce the peculiarities of Europe. Thence all the inhabitants of this country, except the Indians and the Africans, are derived. There are many striking differences between them, it is true, aris- ing from government and local influence ; after all, these differ- ences are not essential. The great lineaments of character are the same. The language, the literature, the habits of thought, the aspirations and aims, all are the same. And yet an American is always struck with the sti-ange and peculiar aspect of things in what he calls "the Old World." This impression, however, passes away, and he soon finds himself at home amid the usages of the mother- country. An intelligent citizen of the United States is soon domesticated in England or Scotland. He finds there, for the time being, a second and a congenial home. 160 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. Still, in comparison with America, Europe is old and mature. Old associations, antique buildings, the hoary monuments of by- gone days, the haunts of genius consecrated for ages, ancient battle-fields, castles and baronial halls, beautiful ruins among the hills and vales, venerable grave-yards, ivy-clad churches, and haunted cairns, all are there, with their strange fascination. On that soil, soaked by the blood of martyrs, trod the mighty men of the olden time. There freedom fought and fell, or rose to su- premacy and triumph. There our holy religion was planted, amid agony and strife, and, acquiring a dominion wider than that of the Caesars, blessed the world with its gentle reign. There fought the Bruces and the Tells for liberty and their native land. There preached Luther and Fenelon, Zuingle and Chalmers, John Howe and Jeremy Taylor. There Newton and La Place read the starry heavens, and there sang, in numbers that will never die, Dante, Shakspeare, and Milton. We are in Europe, then, my readers, and I their humble cicerone in our journey round the world. Before us spread the green meadows of England, the vine-clad hills of France, the orange- fields of Spain, the green forests of Germany, the level steppes of Russia, the glacier peaks of Switzerland, and the olive-groves of Italy, mingled and beautified by the works of industry and art. Every thing, externally at least, appears mature and finished.* Roads, bridges, buildings, the fields, covered with the waving produce of agriculture, the fences, the cottages of the peasantry, the dwellings especially of the gentry, the residences of the nobil- ity, the gardens, the lawns, the places of out-door amusement, the squares and public promenades, all have an aspect of finish and elegance. In the larger cities, indeed, and even in the country hamlets, much poverty and crime, and consequent wretchedness, may be found ; but the general appearance of Europe, particularly in Great Britain, is that of wealth and civilization. Beggars enough, meager and tattered, swarm every where, in this respect differing essentially from the United States, where beggars, and especially tattered ones, are exceedingly rare ; and yet every re- gion almost, both in England and on the Continent, presents indi- cations of elegance and plenty. These, indeed, may be in the actual possession of "the few," while "the many" are struggling with difficulties ; but the countries themselves, as a whole, are attractive and beautiful. The first thing which strikes us in Europe, which has an area of something less than four millions of square miles, is the density of * Except, perhaps, in Russia. EUEOPE. 161 the population, the whole amounting to nearly two hundred and seventy millions, which makes a population of about seventy to a square mile, the most intelligent, the most vigorous, the most en- terprising population in the world. The population of the United States, however, being of the same origin and races, are included in this category. " Nearly all the Europeans," says Ungewitter, in his Europe, " belong to the Caucasian race. Only a few tribes in Russia are Mongolians. With respect to their origin, the Eu- ropeans form three great divisions : the Germanes, Slavonians, and Romanians. The Germanes are to be considered as descend- ants of Gomer (Gen. x. 2), or of the Kimres, who at first lived in the countries near the mouths of the Dnieper and Dniester, whence they afterward moved to the north and northwest, and peopled the Scandinavian peninsula, the present kingdom of Denmark, Gei-many, &c. The old Goths were likewise Germanes. Thus, to the great family or tribe of the Germanes belong the Germans proper, most of the Swiss, and part of the English, the Dutch, the Flemings (in Belgium), the Banes, Icelanders, Norwegians, and Swedes. The Slavonians (or, rather, Slaves, but in another sense than those who are in bondage), in ancient times called Sarmates, are probably descendants of Magog and Madai (Gen. x. 2), or of the Scythians and Medes. In the beginning, they lived in the country between the Don, Volga, and the Caucasus Mountains, and, in the course of time, spread over the present Russia and Poland, and westward to the river Elbe. To the great family or tribe of the Slavonians belong the Russians, Poles, Ser- vians, Bosnians, Bulgarians, Croats, Slavonians proper, Bohe- mians, &c. The Romanians are descendants partly of the ancient Iberians, Gauls, &c, partly of the ancient Romans and Greeks, and partly of the Germanes ; and the Italians, French, Spaniards, Portuguese, and part of the Swiss, belong to this great family or tribe. Besides these three great divisions, there are still found descendants of the ancient Celts, or Gaels, in Ireland and Wales, and the Highlands of Scotland, and Basques, or descendants of Iberians, in Biscay, and in the neighborhood of Bayonne in France. The Turks belong to the Tartar tribe ; the Magyars in Hungary are probably descendants of the ancient Scythians, and lived, until the close of the ninth century of the Christian era, in the vicinity of the Ural River ; and the Greeks are descendants partly of the ancient Greeks, but chiefly of Slavonian tribes. The descent of the Jews is universally known. With the exception of about seven millions Mohammedans, three millions Jews, and a few pagans among the Samoides and Kalmucs, all the Europeans are Christians. Of these, nearly 162 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. 133,000,000 are Roman Catholics (occupying the Pyrennean pen- insula and Italy, and prevailing in France, Ireland, Belgium, Po- land, Austria, and Bavaria), more than 59,000,000 are attached to the Greek Church (chiefly in Russia, and moreover prevailing in Turkey, Greece, and the Ionian Islands), and about 58,000,000 are Protestants, almost exclusively occupying the Scandinavian peninsula and Denmark, and prevailing in Great Britain, Prussia, Holland, Finland, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, and in most of the German States." In all the European States, the mechanic arts, the fine arts, music, sculpture, architecture, and painting, as also literature and science, agriculture and commerce, are carried to the highest point of perfection. Husbandry has reached the highest improvement in England, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and Lom- bardy (the north of Italy). In manufactures and commerce Great Britain exceeds all other empires ; though in some branches of manufactures France, Belgium, and Germany are superior to it. The European States next after Great Britain, in commercial and political importance, are France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hol- land, &c. France has weakened herself by political changes and revolutions ; Great Britain, Russia, perhaps also Prussia, are steadily advancing in strength and resources. Italy, Spain, and Portugal are feeble — that is, feeble in comparison with the States just mentioned, as also in comparison Avith their former prosperity. The south is chiefly Catholic ; the north, with the exception of Russia, Protestant. Of all the European families, the German, including not only the inhabitants of Germany, but of England, Scotland, &c, or, as we sometimes term them, the Teutonic and Saxon races, are the most powerful, and, at present, possess the greatest influence. "Their own country," says McCulloch, " has never been conquered, while the Germans have been the most extensive and permanent of all conquerors, as is shown by their conquests of France, Eng- land, Italy, and Spain, and by the still more extensive conquests they are now achieving across the Atlantic and in Australia. The German family has probably exhibited greater enterprise, perse- verance, and even invention, than any other family, as evinced by its discoveries in arts and sciences, its military enterprises, and its political institutions. For the last two thousand years, and proba- bly even before it was known to the rest of the world, it has gone on steadily advancing in civilization, and in the accumulation of knowledge. The portraits of Luther, Milton, and Newton are favor- able representations of this family, and those of Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII. exhibit its ruder and more vulgar form." EUEOPE. 163 It is worthy of remark here that free institutions, civil and re- ligious, prevail among the German and Anglo-Saxon branch of the European family. Learning, industry, science, art, religion nourish among them, and, through their agency, are spreading in far and foreign lands. The form of civilization which they embrace is gaining ascendency throughout the world. Asia, Africa, Aus- tralia, are beginning powerfully to feel its influence. Indeed, the fate of mankind seems to be very much in their control. At this point we venture to introduce some statements touching the balance of power, and the relations. 5f the different European States. " Among the questions which occupy the attention of political men, none is perhaps more important than that which relates to the maintenance of the European balance of power. This balance consists in preserving the equality between the different powers of Europe, so that one of them can never dictate laws to the rest. It is easy to understand how this principle has gradually possessed the minds of the nations and controlled the counsels of kings. For, the equality of the great States renders all secure. Without it, all would be subordinated to the will of one man, or of one nation, and the independence of the others would be lost. But if the duty of maintaining the political balance in Europe is essential, it must be confessed that it leads also to much injustice, and exposes the secondary States to be agitated or oppressed by the stronger. Let us examine, first, by the light of history, the origin of the idea of a European balance of power ; and then see what are the results at the present moment. In the Dark Ages, when the feudal system prevailed from one end of the continent to the other, the thought of forming a gen- eral balance of power was almost entirely unknown. The nations had then little communication with one another. They did not know what passed beyond their respective frontiers, or but vaguely. Germany was ignorant of the internal condition of France, and France of that of Germany. Further, in one and the same coun- try, one province was often ill-informed of what took place in an- other. No newspapers ; no regular means of information. Thou- sands of petty feudal lords made war or peace at their pleasure. The European Republic, as it has been sometimes called, did not then exist. The first event which began to bring together the nations of Europe was that of the Crusades. The rulers of the different kingdoms became acquainted with each other. The nations min- gled with one another in vast armies, marching to the Holy Land, 164 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. and learned to appreciate one another's ability. In this respect a real service was done to our Old World. Opinions became more liberal ; relations were formed between the various parts of Chris- tendom, and the fanatical desire of rescuing a grave at Jerusalem from infidels, gave the impulse to that vast European union which was established in subsequent ages. The bishops of Rome conceived -the plan of being the leaders of this new confederation of nations. They pretended to decide all great affairs which occurred in Europe, and kings found them- selves at the foot of him who wore the triple crown. These efforts of popery to exercise universal empire contributed, after the Cru- sades, to bring together the nations of Europe. But the evil was as great as the good, and perhaps greater ; for the Roman pon- tiffs, instead of employing their high authority to render strict justice to all, followed oftenest the suggestions of pride and ava- rice, and filled all the palaces with unworthy intrigues. Still, the idea of unity in the Christian world gained ground, and already we see, in the fifteenth century, nations opening frequent commu- nications with one another. The Reformation appeared at first to inflict a terrible blow upon this unity. It separated Europe into two hostile camps. Princes and their subjects formed alliances, not influenced by political considerations, but by their religious belief. For some time all was disorder. Romanists and Protestants, constantly in arms, struggled desperately for the ascendency, and sundered all the ties of the European confederation. It seemed, then, as if Chris- tendom would be divided into two great irreconcilable parts ; and the popes did not fail, from selfish motives, to foster these bloody discords. But, after some years, the Reformation contributed to unfold the idea of the European balance of power. Kings understood that the State has to do with politics .rather than with religion. They were tired of shedding the blood of their soldiers for doc- trinal disputes, and began to consult the social interests of their States. Thus, at the end of the sixteenth century, the King of France, Henry IV., in concert with his illustrious minister, Sully, conceived the high thought of a European congress, which should serve to protect the rights of nations, and to establish universal peace. He had contrived his plan with much wisdom, and pre- pared to put it in execution, when he fell under the dagger of an assassin, a disciple of Jesuits. In the seventeenth century, a prince of the Romish Church, Cardinal de Richelieu, feared not to join a Protestant king, Gus- tavus Adolphus, to fight the Catholic house of Austria. It be- EUROPE. 165 came evident, from this time, that political questions exerted more influence than doctrinal disputes. What was the aim of Cardinal de Richelieu ? He desired to weaken the Emperor of Germany, because the vast States of this prince endangered the European balance. Another cardinal, Mazarin, presided, in 1648, at the peace of Westphalia, in which the civil rights of Protestants were duly regarded. He did not concern himself to know if Rome would be satisfied or not, provided the power of France was not endangered by that of the German emperors. Since the peace of Westphalia, the principle of the balance in Europe has constantly ruled in the councils of sovereigns ; and a history of the last two centuries might be written by taking this principle for the guide. All the important events, the wars, alli- ances, coalitions, friendly relations or cabinet quarrels, are explained by the need of protecting this balance, or of restoring it when lost. Look, for example, at what happened under the reign of Louis XIV. This prince had added several prov nces to his States ; he acquired gradually a preponderance dangerous to other nations. What then did they do ? They met under the direction of King William III., and forced the proud Louis XIV. to yield a part of his conquests. The eighteenth century brought upon the political stage two new States of the first order : Prussia and Russia. The first of these two powers had before been blended with the secondary States of Germany, and exerted no influence upon the general destinies of Europe. The military and diplomatic genius of Fred- erick II. first gave to Prussia the high rank which she now holds. Russia was barbarous before the eighteenth century, and seemed to belong less to Europe than to Asia, But she grew wonderfully under the Czar Peter and his successors. The cabinet of St. Petersburg undertook to interfere in all the affairs of the conti- nent, and now nothing important can be definitively settled with- out its leave. Here, then, are five great States in Europe : England, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Formerly, Spain and the Ottoman Empire figured in the number ; but they are dwindled to the rank of secondary States, and others have taken their place. Strange vicissitudes in the fate of nations ! Nations are like individuals : they have their times of growth and of decay. The European balance has been several times in danger for fifty years. Napoleon, especially, completely deranged it. There was a time when he was absolute master of all the States except Eng- land and Russia. His empire extended from the Tagus to the Baltic. Italy, Spain, Holland, and part of Germany were sub- 166 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. jected to his iron scepter. Austria dared not stir. Prussia was crushed, The small northern States trembled at his voice. Then the oppressed nations made gigantic efforts to restore the old bal- ance. There was a unanimous cry : " Independence ! National independence ! Better to die than to remain in bondage !" And Napoleon, in spite of his genius, succumbed. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1814, the diplomatists had but one idea, one aim : that of restoring the balance of Europe. The intention was wise and good, but the result was unhappy. Then appeared in all its nakedness the oppression which the large States exercised over the small. The sovereigns of England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (I do not name France, for she was van- quished and humiliated) partitioned arbitrarily among themselves the nations, as if they were cattle. Ancient national ties were sac- rificed to political calculations. Unhappy Poland was adjudged to the northern powers, and must stifle her complaints before the bayonets of Cossacks. Belgium was united to Holland, though these two countries had nothing common in their religion, habits, nor even in their language. Italy was given up to the despotic power of Austria. Thus, the great States disposed tyrannically of the smaller, and, under pretense of constituting a better balance, changed at their will the map of Europe. Here is the abuse of a principle good in itself. By what right do the strong crush the weak ? Why should Poland, Belgium, Italy, Saxony, and other small States be mutilated, enslaved, stripped of their national character? Evidently, the principal members of the Congress of Vienna committed the same fault for which they so bitterly reproached Napoleon. They made no ac- count of historical traditions ; they did not respect ancient laws and principles of justice. The superiority of brute force was their only guide,, and the result is, that the treaties of 1815 have never taken deep root in the public mind. They have been violated at different times, even by those who dictated them, and the nations have protested, in the name of right, against the violence of which they were victims. In 1830, after the revolution of July, the French government proclaimed a new principle : that of non-intervention. This signi- fied that the great States were not authorized to interfere by force of arms in the internal affairs of the small States, that every na- tion was at liberty to change its political constitution as it saw fit, and that the independence of all was inviolate. This principle of non-intervention was observed in regard to Belgium, which was allowed to separate herself from Holland, without being invaded by the Prussian armies. The French nation was then determined EUKOPE. 1G? to hinder the encroachments of the northern sovereigns, and to go to war rather than let the liberty of Belgians or Spaniards be stifled. But this new principle was not long regarded. When troubles arose in Italy, Austria sent troops into the Pontifical States, de- claring that she was ready to make war upon France, if her right of intervention was disputed. The cabinet of Louis Philippe re- coiled from the prospect of a general war, and was content to interfere in turn in the affairs of Italy, by seizing upon the city of Ancona. Since that time the principle of non-intervention has been habitually violated. The great States have only consulted their own convenience, their own interests ; and, every time they have thought it for their advantage to oppress secondary jwwers, they have not scrupled to do it. In an abstract point of view, the question presents serious diffi- culties. Indeed, can the principle of non-intervention be laid down in an absolute manner ? Is it just and good in all cases ? Imagine that there are in a country of Europe two parties who butcher one another for whole years, without the one succeeding to conquer the other. Shall the civilized world witness, as an in- different spectator, this butchery ? And is it not their duty to interfere and stop such a cruel effusion of blood ? Suppose still that a sect of fierce Fourierists should become the ruling party in one of the States of our continent, that they should resort to pil- lage and murder to seize upon others' property, and arouse the indignant passions of the neighboring nations ; shall they be for- bidden to interfere ? And shall the government wait, in inaction, till the flames have reached their own dwellings ? This is impossible. The principle of non-intervention is not ab- solute. There are circumstances in which a nation has a right, further, when it is its duty, to meddle directly in the internal affairs of its neighbor. But what are the cases of exception? This seems incapable of being solved at present. If the cabinets of the large States are the sole judges of the circumstances in which they ought to interfere, it is clear that all is referred to the force of the bayonet, and that feeble countries have no protection against the power of the strong. We hope that the progress of public morals and of civilization will enable us one day to realize the noble thought of Peace So- cieties, which calls for a supreme tribunal to be instituted to decide international disputes. This tribunal should be composed of rep- resentatives of all the States. Matters should there be maturely discussed ; and when the majority shall pronounce sentence, who shall dare to oppose it ? We have already had diplomatic con- 168 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. gresses in Europe. But the great powers were then alone repre- sented, and they decided without appeal upon the interests of nations which had not been called to express their opinion. This was not just, and unhappily, the time would seem still distant when each nation shall have a vote in a universal congress." We add a single observation here, that it must be evident to every attentive reader, that the principle and form of the preva- lent religion exert a prodigious, and, indeed, controlling influence, upon national character and destiny. Where this is weak, imper- fect, superstitious, or fanatical, the nation is subject to change, revolution, and final decay. On the other hand, where it is free, energetic, and pure, the nation becomes strong and prosperous, permanent and happy. The hand of God is visible in all the his- tory of man. ENGLAND. 169 CHAPTER XIII, ENGLAND. Tintern Abbey. Our readers will please to imagine themselves passing, on stage- coach or rail-car, or, what is better, in a comfortable carriage, with a couple of handsome horses, and a sleek, well-fed, good- natured postillion, through the busy towns, sweet hamlets, and sunny glades of " merry England," as it was called in the days of yore, in many respects the finest and most beautiful country in the world. Other lands may be superior to it in the boldness and richness of their scenery, the beauty of their skies, and the balmy purity of their atmosphere ; but, as a whole, none are so highly cultivated, or present such a charming variety of hill and dale, garden and meadow, forest and upland, adorned with all the re- sources of genius and wealth, and the thickly scattered monuments 8 170 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. of science and religion. The climate is rather cold and variable, but moist and mellow, particularly in summer and autumn, when the verdure of the trees and lawns is so peculiarly and intensely green, and the vast profusion of fruits and flowers attests the fer- tility of the soil and the good taste of the people. We remember well the first time we visited England. It was in the latter part of May, or, perhaps, the first or second week in June, we forget which, when sunshine and shadow, green leaves and blossoms, mingle their glories from one end of the land to the other. We were perched high upon the mail-coach, which dashed along over the smooth and level roads, winding: through meadow and wood- land, busy mart and rural retreat, at the rate of ten miles an hour. The country, far as the eye could reach, seemed to be one mag- nificent orchard. The day was " beautiful exceedingly," neither too warm nor too cold, but "just right;" the occupants of the mail-coach full of cheer, quite sociable and chatty, inspired, doubt- less, by the fine weather, the beautiful scenery, and the exhila- rating motion of the coach. The drivers were good-looking, care- defying fellows, with rosy cheeks and high cravats ; and the " guard," the veriest John Bull, dignified, yet merry, with a little eye incased in fat, and a short neck reposing upon a mass of shawl. Away we went, to the merry sound of the guard's bugle ; for, fat as he was, he had " great power of wind," and woke the echoes occasionally as we passed along ; now gliding through some fair landscape ; then ascending the uplands, rich in their garniture of trees and grass ; anon gaining some lofty summit, from which a wide prospect could be seen, of woods and streams gleaming in the sunlight, substantial cities, and rural villages ; then again diving into the valley, with its thick umbrage and cool retreats, its garden slopes, and handsome villas ; emerging into a wide plain, checkered with blossom-covered hedges, and clustering apple and plum trees, and adorned with large and comfortable farm-houses ; meeting here and there a cluster of cottages among the trees, cov- ered with roses and honeysuckles, and occasionally descrying some castle, or castellated mansion, on the acclivities beyond ; now roll- ing along a shady avenue of lofty trees, whence the ruins of some ancient abbey, or the country-seat of some baronet, marquis, or duke could be seen, with its spacious edifice, and superb lawn, smooth as velvet, its patriarchal trees, and timid deer gazing through the thickets, or startled from their repose by the sound of our vehicle. We traveled that day and the next some two hundred miles, caught a glimpse of " the silver Avon" and the majestic Severn, "the blue hills" of Malvern, the vale of Evesham, and the rich plains of Gloucester, and assuredly, in all our travels ENGLAND. 171 over the world, we never saw a richer or fairer country. Some- thing, indeed, might be due to our youthful imagination, and the novelty of the scenery through which we passed ; but we have often traveled in England since, and always with fresh delight. Not long ago we passed, after a long absence from the country, by steam -car from Liverpool to Birmingham, and from Birming- ham to London, and the country upon which we gazed, while the light lasted, seemed, if possible, more beautiful than ever. To be sure, it was summer again, or rather, we ought to say, autumn, when England is clad in her richest costume of verdure and trees, and the mellow sunshine sleeps lovingly upon her wooded land- scape. Perhaps the distinguishing peculiarity in the aspect of England is the exuberance of its vegetation, and the luxuriant appearance of the lower and more extensive regions. The central and richer parts of the country are somewhat level, and, in this respect, in- ferior in picturesqueness to Scotland or Switzerland. But even these are made beautiful by the moist and genial climate, and the hand of art and industry. Centuries of time and millions of money have been spent in making England what it is. In no country is so much done by taste and science to render it at once fertile and attractive. Every spot seems cultivated. Trees and flowers every where abound ; nothing can exceed the beauty of its rich and waving harvests. Nor are the cities of England without their attractions. Their great size and splendor cannot fail to excite the admiration of all who visit them. Vast centers of commerce and trade, they liter- ally throb with life and industry. " They are the chosen seats of opulence, art, science, and civilization." We may add, as in all similar cases, " of luxury, poverty, and crime.'" " All the gratifi- cations that wealth can command, or the caprices of taste and fashion require, may there be had in the utmost profusion, at the same time that art and industry are carried in them to the high- est perfection to which they have attained, and are aided by every invention and discovery, however remote the country, or distant the era of then invention." "fr So much for the external aspect of England ; as to the people, they are, generally speaking, of a good, substantial presence, full of energy, intelligence, and enterprise, rather proud and distant, but possessing much generous enthusiasm and kindly feeling, be- ing good fathers and mothers, excellent neighbors, and loyal citizens. Of course there are great diversities among them ; both in the higher and the lower orders of society, grievous errors and vices may be found, but the great body of the people are honest and 172 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. virtuous. The social life of England is among the most genial and delightful in the world. Ten thousand happy homes gladden her hills and valleys. Religion is a predominant element in their character. The Bible, neglected and despised by many in Eng- land as elsewhere, is yet " the book of the people," the great charter of their rights and immunities, as well as the nurse of their piety and virtue. John Bull, indeed, is purse-proud, and es- pecially title-proud. He despises others, often speaking of them as " bores" or " fools," a fault into which even the gifted and generous Carlyle has permitted himself to fall. He is somewhat exacting and even overbearing in his demands, and though pos- sessed of a keen sense of personal honor, is not over-scrupulous as to the rights of others, and will trample them in the dust should they come in his way, or interfere with his plans ; but he is a noble fellow after all, full of heart, full of all high and generous impulses. He loves good eating, and pays great homage to a huge lordly carcass, even if not largely endowed with brain. He is fond of wine and beer, and is guilty sometimes of a sort of boastful profanity ; but he means, as a whole, to be temperate and virtuous, and certainly far excels his Continental neighbors in all qualities of head and heart. In his own opinion, he is su- perior to three or four Italians, and at least half a dozen French- men ! As a critic, John is amazingly lenient to himself, severe upon others, and especially upon Americans. He can scarcely speak of republican institutions with patience, and denounces the en- tire American people as so many " millions of bores." In commerce, agriculture, science, and literature, England has at- tained the highest distinction. Including Scotland and Ireland, her empire, in some sense, encircles the world. The roll of her morning drum is heard in the wilds of Canada and Australia, on the plains of Hindostan, and in the isles of the ocean. Her ships whiten every sea. Her merchants and bankers are princes of the earth. True, her national debt is immense, and her numerous taxes grievous to be borne, especially by the poorer classes ; the former amounting to the huge sum of eight hundred millions of pounds sterling, or about four thousand millions of dollars, to meet the interest on which and the expenses of the government, there is raised by Great Britain a yearly revenue of two hundred and fifty millions of dollars. Yet the wealth of the country is con- stantly increasing. '■ The resources of England are all but boundless, derived not only from her vast possessions in foreign countries, but from con- tinual improvements and discoveries in science and the arts of in- dustry. Her large standing army, her extensive navy, and her ENGLAND. 173 national church, so richly pensioned, are a heavy drawback upon her resources ; and yet England is strong, vigorous, and thriving. Many persons, poorly informed, talk of her as on the verge of bank- ruptcy and dissolution. No mistake can be more absurd. True, the wealth of England is badly distributed, her institutions are enormously expensive, and her poorer classes often suffer terribly Parish Church of Stratford-on-Avon. from the pressure of taxes, excessive competition, graspinc avarice, and defective legislation ; but England, as a whole, is one of the richest countries in the world, and her resources are equal to ajl her wants. Kich especially in the gifts of soul, the literature of Eno-land, the heritage of all who speak the English tongue, is at once 174 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. Vigorous and beautiful. Into this glorious treasure, the myriad- minded Shakspeare, the majestic Milton, the inventive Bacon, the aerial Shelley, the eloquent Coleridge, and the sublime Words- worth have poured their contributions. To this also John Bunyan and John Locke, John Newton and Jeremy Taylor, John Foster and Thomas de Quincey, John Wilson and Thomas Chalmers have added their golden stores. A long race of poets, orators, artists, divines, and statesmen, have adorned the annals of English literature ; and though not, perhaps, equal to the Miltons & and Birth-place of Shakspeare. Shakspeares of an elder day, the literary men of modern Eno-kmd seem not unworthy of their sires. Among the highest distinctions of England is her spirit of Re- ligion, often outward and formal, no doubt, but oftener, we trust, inward and vital. The whole land is beautified and hallowed by the services of Christian worship, by the spirit of holy love and devotion. In that beautiful island, ages upon ages, great and good men have worshiped, whether in the open fields or in the temples of God. The prayers of martyrs and confessors, and the ENGLAND. 175 songs of loving and devout hearts, have ascended from all her hills and vales. " my mother isle !" exclaims the enthusiastic Coleridge, " How shouldst thou prove aught else but dear and holy To me, who from thy lakes and mountain rills, Thy clouds, thy quiet dales, thy rocks and seas, Have drank in all my intellectual life, All sweet sensations, all ennobling thoughts, All adoration of the God in nature, All lovely and all honorable things, Whatever makes this mortal spirit feel The joys and greatness of its future being ! There lives not form nor feeling in my soul Unborrowed from my country. divine And beauteous island ! thou hast been my soul And most magnificent temple, in the which I walk with awe, and sing my stately songs, Loving the God who made me." The character of England, its people, and even its external as- pect, are much modified by its aristocracy, perhaps the best in the world, and as good as an aristocracy can well be, under the in- fluence of wealth, rank, and luxury, but absorbing much of the national resources, and fostering a spirit of pride and ambition throup-h all orders of society ; for in no part of the world is there such an idolatry of wealth and station as in England. And yet the existence of such an aristocracy has its advantage as well as its disadvantages. Much of the refinement and dignity of the country are thence derived, much of its grandeur and power. To understand England, then, one must know something of her aris- tocracy, and their modes of life. That they are proud and lux- urious, and often act as an incubus upon the nation, cannot be doubted. But much also of true virtue and real nobility is found in this class. Among the most beautiful and happy homes of England are thousands belonging to the " nobility". They foster literature and the arts, and often set an example of modesty, humili- ty, and dignity worthy of the highest praise. A glimpse into their interior life, particularly at their country-seats, and the immense influence which they must thence exert, is given in the following extract, condensed, in part, from Howitt and N. P. Willis, as quoted in his " Rural Life," by the former. The scene, as described by Willis, is laid in Scotland, but it will serve also for England, for the aristocracies of the two countries are essentially alike. " Much has been said of the evil effect of the aristocratic habit of spending so much time in the metropolis ; of the vast sums there spent in ostentatious revelry, in equipage and establishments ; 176 THE WOKLD WE LIVE EST. in the dissipations of theaters, operas, routs, and gaming-houses ; and, unquestionably, there is much truth in it. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that this annual assembling together has some advantages. A great degree of knowledge and refinement results from it, amid all the attendant folly and extravagance. They acquire information, compare plans for the improvement of the country, and gain freedom and polish of manners. If they spend large sums in splendid houses and establishments in town, such houses and such establishments become equally necessary to them in the country ; and it is by this means that, instead of old and dreary castles and chateaux, we have such beautiful mansions, so filled with rich paintings and elegant furniture, dispersed all over England. From these places, as centers existing here and there, similar tastes are spread through the less wealthy classes, and the elegances of life flow into the parsonages, cottages, and abodes of persons of less income and less intercourse with society. Multi- tudes, indeed, spend their money very foolishly, and acquire habits of vice, but others come down to their estates, after a season of hurry and excitement, with a fresh feeling for the beauty and re- pose of their country abodes. The possessors of great houses and estates invite a party to spend the recess, or especially the shooting season Avith them. Thus the world of fashion is broken up and scattered from the metropolis into a multitude of lesser circles, and into every corner of the empire. I can conceive nothing which bears on its surface the aspect of the perfection of human society so much as this assembling of a choice party of those who have nothing to do but to enjoy life, in the house of some hospitable wealthy man, in some one of the terrestrial paradises in this kingdom ; in some fine Elizabethan mansion, some splendid baronial castle, as Warwick, Alnwick, or Raby ; or in some rich old abbey, amid woods and parks, or seated on one of our wild coasts ; or amid the mountains of Wales or Scot- land, with all their beautiful scenery, rocks, hanging cliffs, dashing water-falls, rapid rivers, and fairy wildernesses around them. " Prince Puckler Muskau speaks with enthusiasm of the country houses and park scenery of England. His book, indeed, is full of pictures of such country life and scenery. The beautiful dairies which he sometimes found in noblemen's parks delighted him ex- tremely. Thus he speaks of the one at Woburn Abbey : ' The dairy is a prominent and beautiful object. It is a sort of Chinese temple, decorated with a profusion of white marble and colored glasses ; in the center is a fountain, and round the walls hundreds of large dishes and bowls, of Chinese and Japan porcelain, of every form and color, filled with new milk and cream. The consoles ENGLAND. IV 7 upon which these vessels stand are perfect models for Chinese furniture. The windows are of ground glass, with Chinese paint- ings, which shows fantastically enough by the dim light.' " But the testimony of Mr. Willis as an American, and there- fore accustomed to a life and sentiment more allied to our own, is still stronger. His account of his visit to Castle Gordon is a per- fect example of all such scenes. " The immense iron gate surmounted by the Gordon arms ; the handsome and spacious lodges on either side ; the canonically fat porter, in white stockings and gray livery, lifting his hat as he swung open the massive portal, all bespoke the entrance to a noble residence. The road within was edged with velvet sward, and rolled to the smoothness of a terrace-walk ; the winding ave- nue lengthened away with trees of every variety of foliage ; light carriages passed by me driven by gentlemen or ladies ; beautiful blood horses, and keepers with hounds and terriers, gentlemen on foot, idling along the walk, and servants in different liveries hurry- ing to and fro, betokened a scene of busy gayety before me. I had hardly noted these various circumstances, before a sudden curve in the road brought the castle into view, a vast stone pile, with castellated wings ; and in another moment I was at the door, where a dozen lounging and powdered menials were waiting on a party of ladies and gentlemen to their several carriages. It was the moment of the afternoon drive. " The last phaeton dashed away, and my chaise advanced to the door. A handsome boy, in a kind of page's dress, immedi- ately came to the window, addressed me by name, and informed me that his grace was out shooting, but would return to dinner, that my room was ready, and that he was ordered to wait on me. I followed him through a hall lined with statues, deers' horns, and armor, and was ushered into a large chamber looking out on a park, extending, with its lawns and woods, to the edge of the horizon. " ' Who is at the castle ?' I asked, as the boy busied himself in unstrapping my portmanteau. ' 0, a great many, sir,' and he be- gan counting on his fingers a long list of lords and ladies. ' And how many sit down to dinner ?' ' Above ninety, sir, besides the duke and duchess.' And off he tripped, turning back to inform me that the dinner-hour was seven precisely. " It was a mild, bright afternoon, quite warm for the end of an English September, and with a fire in the room, and a soft sun- shine pouring in at the windows. I passed the time till the,sun set looking out on the park. Hill and valley lay between my eye and the Jiorizon ; sheep fed in picturesque flocks, and small 8* THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. fallow-deer grazed near them ; the trees were planted, and the distant forest planted by the hand of taste ; and broad and beau- tiful as was the expanse taken in by the eye, it was evidently one princely possession. A mile from the castle wall the shaven sward extended in a carpet of velvet softness, as bright as emerald, studded by clumps of shrubbery ; and across it bounded occasion- ally a hare, and the pheasants fed undisturbed near the thickets ; or a lady, with flowing riding-dress and flaunting feather, dashed into sight upon her fleet blood-palfrey, and was lost the next mo- ment in the woods ; or a boy put his pony to his mettle up the ascent ; or a game-keeper idled into sight with his gun in the hollow of his arm, and his hounds at his heels. And all this little world of enjoyment, and luxury, and beauty lay in the hand of one man, and was created by his wealth in these northern wilds of Scotland, a day's journey, almost, from the possession of another human being. I never realized so forcibly the splendid results of wealth and primogeniture. " I was sitting by the fire, when a tall white-haired gentleman presented himself, of noble physiognomy, but singularly cordial address, with a broad red ribbon across his breast, and welcomed me most heartily to the castle. The gong sounded at the next moment, and in our way down, he named over his other guests, and prepared me, in a measure, for the introduction which followed. The drawing-room was crowded like a soiree. The duchess, a tall, and very handsome woman, with a smile of the most winning sweetness, received me at the door, and I was presented succes- sively to every person present. Dinner was announced immedi- ately, and we passed through files of servants to the dining-room. It was a large and very lofty hall, supported at the ends by marble columns, within which was stationed a band of music, play- ing delightfully. The walls were lined with full-length family portraits, from old knights in armor to the modern dukes in kilt of the Gordon plaid ; and on the sideboard stood services of gold plate,! the most gorgeously massive and the most beautiful in workmanship I have ever seen. There were, among the vases, several large coursing-cups, won by the duke's hounds, of exquisite shape and ornament. " I have been struck every where, in England, with the beauty of the higher classes, and as I looked around me upon the aristo- cratic company at the table, I thought I had never seen ' Heaven's image double-stamped as man, and noble,' so unequivocally clear. * ; * * The band ceased playing when the ladies left the table ; the gentlemen closed up, conversation assumed a merrier cast, coffee and liqueurs were brought in when the wines began ENGLAND. 179 to be circulated more slowly, and at eleven there was a general move to the drawing-room. Cards, tea, music, filled up the time till twelve, and then the ladies took their departure. I got to bed somewhere about two o'clock ; and thus ended an evening which I had anticipated as stiff and embarrassing, but which is marked in my tablets as one of the most social and kindly I have had the good fortune to record on my travels. " I arose late in the morning, and found the large party already assembled about the breakfast-table — ladies and gentlemen, both dressed with remarkable plainness, quite at their ease, reading the newspaper, or chatting and laughing with one another. " Breakfast in England is a confidential and unceremonious meal, and servants are generally dispensed with. Nothing could be more easy, unceremonious, and affable than the tone of the meal. One after another rose and fell into groups in the windows, or walked up and down the long room, and, with one or two others, I joined the duke at the head of the table, who gave us some in- teresting particulars of the salmon fisheries of the Spey. The privilege of fishing the river within his lands is bought of him at the pretty sum of eight thousand pounds (forty thousand dollars) a year. "The ladies went off, unaccompanied, to their walks in the park and other avocations ; those bound for the covers joined the game-keepers, who were waiting, with their dogs in the leash, at the stables ; and some paired off to the billiard-room. * * * " The routine of Gordon Castle was what each one chose to make it. Between breakfast and lunch, the ladies were generally invisible, and the gentlemen rode or shot, or played billiards, or kept their rooms. At two o'clock a dish of hot game and a pro- fusion of cold meats were set on the small tables in the dining- room, and every body came in for a kind of lounging half-meal, which occupied perhaps an hour. Thence all adjourned to the drawing-room, under the windows of which were drawn up car- riages of all descriptions, with grooms, outriders, footmen, and saddle-horses for gentlemen and ladies. Parties were then made up for driving or riding, and, from a pony-chaise to a phaeton-and- four, there was no class of vehicle which was not at your disposal. In ten minutes the carriages usually were all filled, and away they flew, some to the banks of the Spey or the seaside, some to the drives in the park, and with the delightful consciousness that, speed where you would, the horizon scarce limited the possession of your host, and you were every where at home. The ornamental gates flying open at your approach, miles distant from the castle ; the herds of red-deer trooping away from the sound of wheels in 180 THE WOULD WE LIVE IN. the silent park ; the stately pheasants feeding tamely in the im- mense preserves ; the hares scarcely troubling themselves to get out of the length of the whip ; the stalking game-keepers lifting their hat in the dark recesses of the forest, — there was something in this perpetually reminding you of privileges, which, as a nov- elty, was far from disagreeable. I could not at the time bring myself to feel, what perhaps would be more poetical and repub- lican, that a ride in the wild and unfenced forests of my own country would have been more to my taste. ' ' The second afternoon after my arrival, I took a seat in the carriage with Lord A., and we followed the duchess, who drove herself in a pony-chaise, to visit a school on the estate. Attached to a small Gothic chapel, a five minutes' drive from the castle, stood a building in the same style, appropriated to the instruction of the children of the duke's tenantry. There were a hundred and thirty little creatures, from two years to five or six, and, like all infant-schools in these days of improved education, it was an in- teresting and affecting sight. % * * " The number at the table of Gordon Castle was seldom less than thirty ; but the company was continually varied by depart- ures and arrivals. No sensation was made by either the one or the other. A traveling- carriage dashed up to the door, was dis- burdened of its load, and drove round to the stables, and the ques- tion was seldom asked, ' Who is arrived ?' You are sure to see at dinner — and an addition of half a dozen to the party made no per- ceptible difference in any tiling. Leave-takings were managed in the same quiet way. Adieus were made to the duke and duchess, and to no one else, except he happened to encounter the parting guest upon the staircase, or were more than a common acquaintance. In short, in every way the g&ne (burden) of life seemed weeded out, and if unhappiness or ennui found its way into the castle, it was in- troduced in the sufferer's own bosom. For one, I gave myself up to enjoyment with an abandon I could not resist. With kindness and courtesy in every look, the luxuries and comforts of a regal establishment at my freest disposal — solitude when I pleased, com- pany when I pleased— the whole visible horizon fenced in for the enjoyment of a household, of which I was a temporary portion, and no enemy except time and the gout, I felt as if I had been spirited into some castle of felicity, and had not come by the royal mail-coach at all." This, says Mr. Howitt, is one of the most perfect and graphic descriptions of English aristocratical life in the country which was ever written. It is, indeed, on the highest and broadest scale, and is not to be equaled by every country gentleman ; but in kind ENGLAND. 181 and degree, the same character and spirit extend to all such life. Society in England, the government, the church, the army and the navy, every thing, in fact, is adapted to the state of things which this description implies. The aristocracy, with the bishops of the church, form the House of Lords, the highest legislative body in the country, corresponding somewhat to the United States Senate, while the House of Commons, the real, working legisla- ture, corresponds to the American Congress.* The nobles own large portions of the country, and exert a controlling influence in Church and State. Their property is entailed, consequently can never be alienated, but descends from father to son, through a thousand generations. While the poorer portions of the commu- nity are condensed into heaving, and frequently suffering, masses, these noble lords are prosecuting their amusements on their wide domains, where the poor man dare not shoot a rabbit or snare a hare. Thousands upon thousands of the working classes live upon a shilling a day laboriously earned. Whole families subsist upon eighteen pence a day, and sometimes less. The poor weavers not unfrequently suffer for the want of food, and many an honest man has been compelled to beg his bread from door to door. This, however, is not the condition, universally, of the " great masses," as they are called. Multitudes of the farmers live like * The constitution of England is mixed ; and, upon the whole, favorable to freedom. The aristocratic and kingly elements doubtless exert much in- fluence, but these are checked and modified by the popular will. The great body of the people, who compose the electors, in the end, control the action of government through their representatives. The monarch is the apex or head of the whole, and is supposed to exert an all-controlling power ; but this is a popular mistake, as McCulloch has shown. " The whole executive and administrative functions of government, as well foreign as domestic, are performed in the name of the king. He has the sole power of making war and peace ; and, as incident to that power, the command and disposal of the army, navy, and other forces of the kingdom. He is conservator of the public peace, in which character all civil prosecutions are carried on in his name. He is the head of the judicial system, &c. * * * Substantially, and in fact, however, the power of the crown is comparatively limited. It is a constitutional principle that ' the king can do no wrong ;' but though he be not, his ministers are, held responsible for all illegal or unconstitutional acts committed in his name. It is further indispensable that his ministers should be able to command a majority in the House of Commons. * * He appoints ministers, but they must be confirmed by the representatives of the people." To which may be added, that while it is the prerogative of the king to declare peace and war, it belongs to the " Commons" to vote the supplies ; so that in various ways, they have a veto upon the acts of his majesty. If the people of England, therefore, are poorly governed, they have none to blame but themselves. 182 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. gentlemen, many of whom rent farms of 500 or 1000 acres, and keep their hounds and horses. In the rural districts, the peasantry, though frequently rather poor and ignorant, take much solid com- fort. They dearly love their humble homes and pleasant gardens. Neighborly and kind, full of chat and cheer, generally enjoying English Milkmaid. excellent health, fearing God ?nd keeping his commandments, they spend their lives in peace and joy, and finally sleep in the quiet church -yard among the graves of their fathers. The English are eminently a social people. They love kindly 184 THE WOELD WE LIVE IK. ENGLAND. 185 gatherings and festivals, old customs and old amusements. They keep Christmas and other holidays with infinite relish. While the rich and aristocratic amuse themselves with their appropriate sports, the common people have their gatherings and gambols, rough and riotous sometimes, though generally within the bounds of decency and good temper. It is in their homes, however, and among their children, that the people are seen to most advantage — in their family meetings, or in the house of God. Some, indeed, are neglectful of religion, but the great body of the people go to church somewhere, and multitudes possess a quiet and cheerful piety. Education in England is confined too much to the higher orders. Noble and learned universities, high schools, grammar schools, and boarding schools, free academies for particular classes, and excel- lent foundations for the instruction of orphan children and others, abound. But universal provision is not yet made for the free edu- cation of the people, and hence great multitudes can neither read nor write. And yet the peasantry of England are among the best of their class. Thousands of them have sentiments and aspirations as noble and generous as those of Hampden and Sydney. Their dear homes nestle on hill -side and valley, among clustering roses and honeysuckles, while within gleams the good old Bible with the light of holy love and joy. g In the larger cities the population is more diversified. Wealth and luxury abound side by side with poverty and disease. In London alone, that huge center of good and bad, are something ^ess than seventy or eighty thousand prostitutes, and a yet greater number of thieves ! But such contrasts are seen, to some extent, in all large cities. Liverpool, Manchester, and Birmingham swarm with vicious characters. Yet you can walk unharmed any where, every where, such is the perfection of the police. And while vice abounds in these overgrown cities, both among the high and the low, the rich and the poor, there also virtue and religion, science, art, industry, order, and felicity abound. London, for example, is a great center not only of science and literature for all who speak the English tongue, but of benevolence for the world. If "hells" are there, in which fortune, character, every thing, in a word, that men hold dear, is lost every night, there also innumer- able churches and schools, hospitals and homes, exert their benign influence. While England is an agricultural, it is also a commercial and manufacturing country. Enter her ten thousand factories — with millions and myriads of machines, for spinning, knitting, weaving, washing, dyeing, grinding, and polishing ; travel along her coasts, 186 THE WOKLD WE LIVE EST. studded with harbors and light-houses ; pass among her extensive wharves, with forests of masts, or into some of her gigantic store- houses, and astonishment will seize you at her immense wealth and resources. The capital of Great Britain invested in commerce is estimated at £1,500,000,000, or more than $6,000,000,000. The six articles of cotton, woolen goods, hardware, earthenware, silks, and leather alone give employment to about two millions of per- sons, and amount in value annually to about five hundred millions of dollars.* Her mines of coal, lead, copper, &c, are of more value than all the gold of Mexico and Peru. But the power of England in foreign lands, and particularly in India, is, if possible, still more striking, controlling, as it does, The Eddystone Light-House. a large portion of Asia, and something more than a hundred and twenty millions of people. The East India Company alone, for years, has governed a large portion of the Asiatic continent. " The stockholders of this company have never much exceeded two thousand ; and the capital stock, on which dividends have been paid, at the largest, has been put at £6,000,000. It has been subject, in England, to the unwise management which must always attend a company whose stockholders and directors are constantly changing, and whose agents and field of operations are distant by half the circumference of the globe from the center where measures originate ; and besides this, it has had to encounter the hostility of the whole commercial class of England, formerly shut out, by its monopoly, from the Indian trade, while in India * The whole population of England, including Wales, is about seventeen Bullions. ENGLAISTD. 137 it has contended for existence on a hundred bloody battle-fields, with Dutch and French, and the native monarchies of the East. But, notwithstanding all obstacles, it has expelled the Dutch ; it has annihilated the power of the French in India ; has subdued one native kingdom after another ; its factories have grown into States, and these States into a vast and consolidated empire ; it has maintained a standing army larger than that of any European power except Russia, and varying, at different times, from 150,000 to 280,000 men ; it has conducted sieges not less dreadful than those which drenched the cities of Spain in blood, in the Penin- sular war ; it has stormed imperial cities and fortresses almost beyond number. So incessant have been its wars, that for a hundred years scarcely a day has passed in which the wild beasts of the jungles, or the alarmed inhabitants of the hills, have not fled before the thunder of the British cannon. Its bayonets have St. Paul's Church, London. broken the great power of the wild Mahratta cavalry, of the well- disciplined squadrons of Mysore, and of the fanatic courage of the Sikhs ; it has subdued great and warlike kingdoms, and not only subdued them, but has disposed of their sovereigns, appropriated their revenues, subverted institutions old as India herself, recon- structed its laws and jurisprudence, and over vast regions changed the very tenures by which the soil is held. Its history is full of vast schemes — to-day of conquest, to-morrow of social regener- ation and improvement — of skillful diplomacy, of heroic achieve- ment, of desperate valor, making good all deficiencies of numbers and resources, and of names, world-renowned in statesmanship, and war, and literature, .md religion. This company in England has been composed of merchants and others, who have lived 188 THE WOKLD WE LIVE EN". quietly as good subjects and citizens, unknown and unheard of; yet they have appointed, and, at their pleasure, recalled governors- general who have exercised in India a despotic authority over the fortunes of more than one hundred millions of people, which the monarch of England dare not exercise in his island domain. Be- fore its charter expired in 1833, it had subdued nearly the whole peninsula, from Cape Comorin to the impassable snows of the Himalayah Mountains. And since then, the career of conquest has not paused. The cannon of England have burst open the mysterious gates of China ; she is trying new experiments in civ- ilization among the savages of Borneo ; she has added the Punjaub to her empire, and a thousand miles west of the Indus, reversing the course of Alexander's conquests, penetrating among the wild and warlike tribes of Afghanistan, where she met the fiercest re- sistance, her unwearied battalions have reached the confines' of Persia, and the echoes of her advancing drums have startled the sentinels who at night kept watch at the outpost of Russian power." IEELAND. 189 CHAPTER XIV. IRELAND. Kilkenny Crossing the Channel, we land upon the shores of Ireland, that " gem of the ocean," as her native poets call it, with her pigs and potatoes, her beautiful scenery, and peculiar population. A finer country externally, a richer and more fertile, the sun does not shine upon. And yet how poor, how miserably poor the people! Ireland, however, is not destitute of genius and virtue. Her Currans and Burkes, her Sheils and O'Connells, attest her mental power. But Ireland is poorly governed. Her people are igno- rant and superstitious, improvident and restless. Beggars, the most tattered and torn, the most importunate and whining, except, perhaps, those of Naples and Rome, beset you at every corner. 190 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". Restless politicians, intriguing demagogues, and power-loving priests keep the people in a perpetual ferment. Indeed, the Irish have" many faults ; but they are brave, patient, laborious, kind- hearted, witty, and generous, and doubtless would make a great and a good people, if only educated and enlightened. The educated Irish are a most interesting and polished class. Some of them are ex- ceedingly eloquent, both in public speech and private conversation. We cannot, however, dwell long upon this country. The fol- lowing is the best and briefest account of its condition we have ever seen. It deserves an attentive perusal. " Ireland is 306 miles long, and 200 broad. It contains 42,510 square miles, or 20,808,271 acres ; of which 13,887,711 acres are cultivated; 6,295,735 acres waste ; and 930,825 acres are under water. Off the coast are 196 islands. Placed between Europe and America, Ireland is most favorably situated for trade, fishing, and commerce ; is blessed with a most fertile soil and temperate climate ; has the finest fisheries ; pos- sesses the largest, deepest, and safest harbors, and the greatest number of navigable rivers and lakes, of any country of the same size in the world. According to geologists, Ireland has the largest coal-fields in the British Empire ; one extends throughout Clare, Kerry, Limerick, and Cork; and another, which is 16 miles long and 16 miles broad, lies in Roscommon, Sligo, Leitrim, and Cavan; other coal-fields and mines of less extent are interspersed through the island. The richest iron mines ar-e situated at Arigna, in the county of Leitrim. The finest copper mines are worked in Wick- low, Waterford, and Kerry. Many mines of iron, copper, lead, silver, and some veins of gold present themselves. Ireland con- tains inexhaustible supplies of peat fuel. Marbles of every shade of color are found in Kilkenny, Galway, and Donegal ; and slates of the best quality are quarried in Kerry and Limerick. The population of Ireland, in 1841, amounted to 8,175,124. Ireland contains, besides several large cities, about 140 towns, with a population exceeding 9000 inhabitants, with a large num- ber of smaller towns. The emigration from Ireland to America is immense ; in 20 years (from 1825 to 1845), above 1,256,000 Irish emigrated, mostly for the United States. The exports of Ireland, in 1837, amounted to $85,000,000 ; and are now estimated at $100,000,000 ; which (excepting $20,000,000 worth of linen and some copper and lead ores) chiefly consists of provisions. Ire- land consumes annually above $60,000,000 worth of British man- ufactures. Thus, while Ireland is exporting men by thousands, and food by millions, one-third of her own soil is lying waste ; her SCOTLAND. 191 mines, collieries, and quarries are unworked ; her immense water power is flowing idly ; her ports are empty ; all articles of man- ufacture are imported ; the trade of the world is daily passing her shores ; 5,000,000 of her people are existing on potatoes, and 2,500,000 are declared paupers. What an anomaly !" CHAPTER XV. SCOTLAND, " Here's a health, bonny Scotland, to thee !" Bleak and wild as thou art, a smile of welcome plays upon thy rugged but comely features, to greet the wanderer from afar. " Land of the forest and the rock, Of dark-blue lake and mighty river Of mountains reared aloft, to mock The storm's career, the lightning's shock — My own green land forever." Scotland, once an independent kingdom, nobly defended by the stalwart arms of her sons, is now an appendage, or rather a cor- porate part, of Great Britain. It is a small country, but possessed of very considerable resources. Its surface, for the most part, is rough and mountainous, with beautiful patches of rich arable land along the courses of its streams, and extensive meadows, called carses, as the carse of Falkirk, and the carse of Gowrie. It is of unequal breadth, being much indented with bays and creeks, and stretches some two hundred and eighty miles in length. Cluster- ing around its western and northern coasts are the Hebrides, the Shetland and the Orkney Islands — wild and rocky regions, with rude and primitive inhabitants. In Scotland, a considerable por- tion of the land, especially to the north, is uncultivated, consisting of heathy hills, mountains, and moors, covered with heather and furze. Other portions of the country are fair and fertile, though in many cases made such by the hand of art. Like Switzerland, it is a comparatively poor country, but enriched by the generative powers of mind. Her wealth consists mainly in the clear heads, honest hearts, and brawny arms of her sons. The climate is cold and variable, though milder in winter than that of New England, and in summer cooler, and upon the whole more agreeable, except during the prevalence of dense fogs and long-continued rains. 192 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. The population, chiefly of the Saxon, though partly of the Celtic race, is over two millions and a half, and is gradually in- creasing ; though the people, like those of Switzerland and New- England, with whom they have many affinities, are greatly given to migration, and may be found in every part of the world. Its commerce and manufactures are, for its size, very extensive. Agri- culture and the mechanic arts have been carried to great perfection. The people are inventive and constructive, and some of the most beautiful and powerful machinery the world has ever seen has been made in Scotland. While the people are characteristically cautious and slow, " looking before they leap," to quote one of their favorite proverbs, they leap long and successfully. Nor are they destitute of a pro- found and generous enthusiasm. Ambitious almost to a fault, they aspire to the highest distinctions in art, literature, and science. Few nations have accomplished more, in all these departments. Their literature is the admiration of the civilized world. They have, indeed, no Shakspeare, Milton, or Bacon, those first three in their peculiar spheres of thought, but they have a Scott, a Burns, and a Wilson. Time would fail to enumerate one tithe of the gifted sons of Scotland, whose words have awakened heart-echoes, not only at home, but far beyond the Atlantic, and even the Pacific waves. John Knox and Thomas Chalmers, with a long line of pul- pit orators, are hers. Ramsey, Byron, Campbell, Cunningham, James Hogg, the " Ettrick Shepherd," William Motherwell, and many others "known to fame," adorn her poetic annals. Robert- son, Hume, and Alison, among the historians ; Reid, Mcintosh, Stewart, Brown, Hamilton, in philosophy ; McKenzie, Brougham, Jeffrey, and, though last, not least, Thomas Carlyle, in general literature ; Avith Playfair, Ferguson, and Brewster, James Watt, and Robert Nichol, in the sphere of science — all these, and many more, have made their native land illustrious by their character and genius. Scotland has a fair share of architectural splendors. Some of her palaces and castles are among the most imposing and beauti- ful in Great Britain. Glasgow is a finely built city, with some magnificent edifices, while Edinburgh is among the most attractive cities in the world. Her highest distinction, however, consists in the character of her people, whose spirit of love and fealty to their native land, of reverence for God, and passion for the right, are universally ac- knowledged. Obstinate and wrong-headed at times, characteristi- cally dogmatic, and perhaps a little intolerant, their very faults lean to virtue's side, and go to the support of goodness. Their SCOTLAND. 193 punctiliousness and pride, their dogged adherence to what they conceive to be right, and their vehement mode of defending it, are the rough and thorny bark which defends the precious tree. They are pre-eminently a religious people, with few exceptions, Protestant to the back-bone, occasionally rough and impetuous in the expression of their opinions, but genial and kindly at heart, honest, too, and earnest as their own heathy hills and mountain streams. A profound enthusiasm, a passionate, though not cant- ing or boisterous devotion, a fine sense of the grand and beautiful, mingled with a keen conscientiousness, an ardent love of freedom, and a sincere trust in God, form the great elements of their re- ligious life. Their theology is chiefly Calvinistic, apparently philosophical and dogmatic, but rather less so than popular and practical. * Of cathedrals, old and dim, of masses, chants, and processions, the pomp and circumstance of a magnificent ritual, they have little or none. But of old and glorious memories, solemn temples among the woods and hills, hallowed grave-yards, blessed sacraments, and national enthusiasm, they have abundance. Their religion is a part of the soil. It is indigenous to the coun- try. It grew up among the mountains, was nursed by " wizard streams," and "led forth" with the voice of psalms, among "the green pastures of the wilderness." Somewhat forbidding at first, like the rough aspect of the country, it appears equally pictur- esque and beautiful, when really known and loved. It is the re- ligion not of form, but of substance, of deep inward emotion, not of outward pretension and show. Neither is it a sickly senti- mentalism which lives on poetic musings, and matures only in cloistered shades and moonlight groves ; but it is a healthy, ro- bust principle, which goes forth to do and to suffer the will of Heaven. Its head and heart are sound, and its works praise it in the gate. Beautiful as the visions of fancy, it is yet strong as the everlasting hills among which it was reared. In a word, it is the religion of faith and love, the religion of the old Puritans, of the martyrs and confessors of primitive times. Welling out forever from the unstained fountains of the Word of God, it has marked its course over the fair face of Scotland, with the greenest verdure, the sweetest flowers. Scotland is naturally divided into Highlands and Lowlands. The former includes, besides the various groups of islands on the north and northwest coast, the counties of Argyle, Inverness, Nairn, Ross, Cromarty, Sutherland, and Caithness, with portions * Much of this and what follows is condensed from the author's " Genius of Scotland," to -which he would invite the attention of his readers for a more extended account of the scenery, literature, and religion of Scotland. 9 194 THE WORLD WE LIVE LN". of Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, " Aberdeen awa'," Banff and Elgin, or the more northerly regions of the country, protected and beautified by the mighty range of the Grampians, com- mencing at the southern extremity of Loch Etive, and terminating at the mouth of the Dee on the eastern coast. The Highlands, again, are divided into two unequal portions by the beautiful chain of lochs, or lakes, running through the Glenmore-Nan-Albin, or Great Glen of Caledonia, forming some of the wildest and richest scenery in the world. To the north are the giant mountains of Macdui, Cairngorm, Ben-Aven and Ben-More, while nearer the Lowlands, rise the lofty Ben-Lomond, and the hoary Ben- Awe. Under their shadows gleam the storied lochs, the wild tarns and trosachs, whose picturesque and romantic beauties have been im- mortalized by the pens of Burns, Scott, and Wilson. To the south and east of the Grampian range, and running parallel to them, you discover a chain of lower and more verdant hills, bearing the well-known and poetical names of the Sidlaw, Campsie, and Ochil hills. These are divided by the fertile valleys of the Tay and Forth. Between them and the Grampians lies the low and charming valley of Strathmore. The " silver Tay," one of the finest fivers in Scotland, rises in Breadalbane, expands into Lake Dochart, flows in an easterly direction through the vale of Glendochart, expands again into the long and beautiful Loch Tay, which runs like a belt of silver among the hills, whence issuing, it receives various accessions from other streams, passes on in a southerly direction to Dunkeld, famous for its ancient abbey and lovely scenery, skirts the ancient and delightful city of Perth, be- low which it is joined by its great tributary the Earn, which flows, in serpentine windings, through the rich vale of Strath-Earn, touches the populous and thriving town of Dundee, and gradually widens into the Firth of Tay, whose clear waters mirror the white skiff or magnificent steamer, and imperceptibly mingle with the waves of the Northern Sea. Further north, the rapid Spey, springing from the " braes of Badenoch" near Lochaber, passes tu- multuously through a rough and mountainous country, lingering oc- casionally, as if to rest itself in some deep glen, crosses the ancient province of Moray, famous for its floods, passess Kinrara, "whence, for a few miles, it is attended by a series of landscapes, alike vari- ous, singular, and magnificent," after which it moves, with a mo- notonous aspect and a steady pace, to the sea. Portions of the country through which this river passes are exceedingly sterile and wild. Covered with the birch, the alder, and the pine, varied by rugged rocks and desolate moors, it admirably corresponds to our notions of Caledonia, in her ancient and primitive integrity. SCOTLAND. 195 In the more remote and northern regions of the Highlands, and in most of the Scottish isles, the Gaelic, or Erse, a primitive and energetic tongue, somewhat akin to the Welsh or Irish, is spoken by a majority of the inhabitants. In other parts of Scotland, the English, with a Scottish idiom, is the prevalent speech. The literature of the Gaelic is exceedingly limited, confined chiefly to old ballads, songs, and traditionary stories. The poems of Ossian are doubtless the production of Macpherson, their professed trans- lator, while they probably contain a few translated fragments, and some traditionary facts and conceptions afloat among the High- landers, ingeniously interwoven with the main fabric of the work. The Highlanders are a simple-hearted, primitive race, mostly poor, and imperfectly educated. Those of them that are wealthy and well educated are said to be remarkably acute, courteous, and agreeable. They are clannish and patriotic. The Lowlands of Scotland comprehend the south and south- eastern portions of the country, and though not the grandest and most romantic, are by far the best cultivated, and in some re- spects the most beautiful. Including the level ground on the eastern coast to the south of the Moray Firth, they stretch along the coast through portions of Perthshire, and the old kingdom of Fife, toward the regions bounded on either side by the river and the Firth of Forth, and thence to Kircudbright and the English border, including the principal cities, the most fertile tracts of arable land, the rivers Forth, Clyde, and Tweed, and the range of the Cheviot hills, which extend from the north of England toward the northwest, join the Louther hills in the region of Ettrick and Yarrow, with their "silver streams," pass through the southern part of Ayrshire, and terminate at Loch Ryan, in the Irish Channel. The Clyde is the most important commercial river in Scotland. Taking its origin among the mountains oi the south, not far from the early home of its beautiful and more classic sisters, the Tweed and the Annan, it runs in many capricious windings, in a north- westerly direction, leaps in foaming cascades first at Bonnington, and then at Cora Linn, rushes on through the fine country of Lanarkshire, till, joined by many tributary streams, it passes through the large and flourishing city of Glasgow, bearing upon its bosom the vast commerce and population of the neighboring regions, flows around the walls of old Dumbarton Castle, with its time-worn battlements and glorious memories, in sight, too, of the lofty Ben Lomond, and the beautiful lake which it protects, touches the ancient city of Greenock, expands into the Firth of Clyde, and gradually loses itself amid the picturesque islands which adorn the western coast of Scotland. 196 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN". Were it possible, by placing ourselves upon some lofty elevation, to take in at one glance the whole of this varied landscape of lake, river, and mountain, of tarn, trosach, and moor, with verdant vales and woody slopes between, we should confess that it was one of as rare beauty and wild magnificence. as ever greeted the vision of man. And were our minds steeped in ancient and poetic lore, we should be prepared to appreciate the faithfulness and splendor of Burns's allegorical description of the " Genius of Scotland :" " Green, slender, leaf-clad holly boughs, Were twisted gracefu' round her brows ; I took her for some Scottish Muse, By that same token, And come to stop those reckless vows Would soon be broken. A hair-brained sentimental trace Was strongly marked in her face : A wildly-witty rustic grace Shone full upon her, Her eye e'en turned on empty space, Beamed keen with honor. Her mantle large, of greenish hue, My gazing wonder chiefly drew, Deep lights and shadows mingling, threw A luster grand ; And seemed, to my astonished view, A well-known land! Here rivers in the sea were lost ; There mountains in the skies were tost ; Here tumbling billows marked the coast, With surging foam; There distant shone Art's lofty boast, The lordly dome. By stately tower or palace fair, Or ruins pendent in the air, Bold stems of heroes here and there I could discern ; Some seemed to muse, some seemed to dare With feature stern." Now, imagine the whole of this country studded at no remote intervals with churches and schools, well supported, and well at- tended by young and old. Think of her ancient and able univer- sities, Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. Andrew's, and Aberdeen, including in the last Marischal College and King's College, with an average attendance of from 2500 to 3000 students, with their learned and SCOTLAND. 197 amiable professors, extensive libraries, and fine collections in nat- ural history : think of her innumerable high-schools, private schools, public and private libraries, literary institutes and ancient hospitals, some for the body and some for the mind, and connect the whole with her heroic history, her poetical enthusiasm, her religious faith, her fealty to God and man, and you will have some faint conception of the beauty and glory of Scotland. But the impression would be deepened, could you behold the land, beautified and ennobled by her Sabbath calm, as once in seven days she rests and worships before the Lord. Could you but hear the voice of her church-going bells, and go to the house of God in company with her thoughtful but cheerful population ; could you sit in some " auld warld" kirk, and hear some gray- haired holy man dispense, with deep and tender tones, the word of everlasting life ; could you hear a whole congregation of devout worshipers make the hills ring again with their simple melody ; above all, could you place yourself in some deep shady glen, by the " sweet burnie" as it " wimples" among the waving willows or the yellow broom, or sit down on the green " brae-side," enameled with "gowans," on some sacramental occasion, when thousands are gathered to hear the preaching of the Gospel, and with simple ritual to commemorate the dying love of the Redeemer ! — could you see the devout and happy looks of the aged, and the sweet but reverent aspect of children and youth, as the tones of some earnest preacher thrilled them with emotions of holy gi - atitude in view of the " loving-kindness of the Lord," you would instinctively feel that Scotland, free, Protestant Scotland, was a happy land, and would be prepared to exclaim with the sweet singer of Israel : " Blessed are the people that know the joyful sound : they shall walk, Lord, in the light of thy countenance." Or you might leave this scene, and study the Scottish character with some shepherd-boy on the hills, as he reads God's word upon the green- sward, and meditates on things divine while tending his flocks, far from the house of God, on the Sabbath- day. While in Scotland we have " Tam O'Shanter" and " Souter Johnny," and other " rattling, roaring" characters ; while the "skirl" of the bagpipes keeps tune to the wild dance of the High- land peasant, and many a tavern reeks with the fumes of whisky- punch ; while here and there, as in other lands, folly and vice reveal themselves in " highways and by-ways," we have also the universal presence of good and virtuous influences, of good and virtuous men. Innocent hilarity is mingled with good sense and piety. 198 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. Highland Scene. The scenes of " The Cotter's Saturday Night," one of the sweetest poems in any language, are exact transcripts from real life, as Burns himself intimates. His father was " a godly man," and was wont, morning and evening, to " turn o'er, wi' patriarchal grace, the big ha' Bible," and worship God, with his family. " The cheerfu' supper done, wi' serious face, They round the ingle form a circle wide ; The sire turns o'er wi' patriarchal grace The big ha' Bible, ance his father's pride : His bonnet reverently is laid aside, His lyart haffets* wearing thin and bare : Those strains that once did sweet in Zion glide, He wales a portion with judicious care ; And ' Let us worship God !' he says, with solemn air. They chant their artless notes in simple guise, They tune their hearts, by far their noblest aim ; * Withered cheeks. SCOTLAND. 199 Perhaps Dundee's, wild warbling measures rise, Or plaintive Martyrs worthy of the name, Or noble Elgin beets* the heavenward flame, The sweetest far of Scotia's holy lays. Compared with these Italian trills are tame ; The tickled ears no heartfelt raptures raise, Nae unison hae they with our Creator's praise. * ' # * * Then kneeling down to Heaven's eternal King, The saint, the father, and the husband prays, Hope springs exulting on triumphant wing, That thus they all shall meet in future days : There ever bask in uncreated rays, No more to sigh or shed the bitter tear, Together hymning their Creator's praise, In such society, yet still more dear ; While circling time moves round in an eternal sphere. Compared with this how poor religion's pride, In all the pomp of method and of art, When men display to congregations wide, Devotion's every grace, except the heart! The Power incensed the pageant will desert, The pompous strain, the sacerdotal stole ; But haply, in some cottage far apart, May hear well pleased the language of the soul, And in His book of life the inmates poor enroll." These are the elements of a people's greatness. These are the perennial sources of their truth and loyalty, their freedom and virtue. These guard the domestic graces, these bind the com- monwealth in holy and enduring bands. Better than splendid mausoleums and gorgeous temples ; better than costly altars and a pompous ritual ; better than organ-blasts and rolling incense ; better, by far, than mass and breviary, confessional and priestly absohition ! For, while the most imposing forms of religion are often heartless and dead, these sacred rites of a Christianity pure and practical ever possess a vital power — a power to quicken and save. " From scenes like these auld Scotia's grandeur springs, That makes her loved at home, revered abroad ; Princes and lords are but the breath of kings, ' An honest man's the noblest work of God.' Scotia ! my dear, my native soil ! For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent, * Guides, or fans. 200 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content ! And, oh, may Heaven their simple lives prevent From luxury's contagion, weak and vile ! Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, A virtuous populace may rise the while, And stand a wall of fire around their much-loved isle." As we feel a peculiar interest in Scotland, an interest shared, we believe, by many of our readers, we shall be forgiven if we linger upon it a little longer. Our readers, then, will be good enough to accompany us on a brief tour to its two principal cities, Edinburgh and Glasgow. Edinburgh Castie. Before us lies " Auld Reekie," as its ancient citizens used fondly and familiarly to call it, the far-famed and beautiful " Athens of the North." We will enter the city on the west side, as if we were coming from Glasgow, pass through Prince's-street, with its elegant buildings and fine promenades, skirting that inclosure of walks and shrubbery just under the frowning battlements of the SCOTLAND. 201 Castle, and adorned with the superb statue of Sir Walter Scott, rising rapidly to its completion ; then turn the corner at right angles, cross the North Bridge, enter High-street, and thence plunge down the hill into the old Canongate ; and without waiting to look at " the Heart of Midlothian," or even the beautiful ruins of Holyrood House, at the foot of the hill, let us turn to the right and climb the rocky sides of "Arthur's Seat," with its summit of verdure overlooking the city and the neighboring country. For there, the whole panorama of the city will spread itself before us, surrounded with magnificent scenery, stretching far and wide from the Pentland Hills on the one side to the Firth of Forth on the other, from Stirling Castle on the west to the German Ocean on the east. Here we are, then, on the very highest point of the mountain, with the warm sunshine around us, tempered by the fresh " westlin wind," at once so sweet" and bland. Ay, ay ! this is beautiful ! What a landscape ! How varied, and yet how harmonious ! Not only beautiful exceedingly, but grand and striking. Beneath us is the fine old city — new and old at the same time — lying nearly square, with its lofty buildings and ele- gant monuments, handsome parks and green shrubberies. To the left is the older part of the city, rising gradually from the palace of Holyrood at our feet and crowned by the Castle, which is built upon a granite rock, whose rough sides, terminating ab- ruptly to the north and west, hang over Prince's-street and the lower part of the city. " There watching high the least alarms, Thy rough rude fortress gleams afar ; Like some bold veteran gray in arms, And pierced with many a seamy scar : Thy ponderous wall and massy bar, Grim rising o'er the rugged rock, Have oft withstood assailing war, And oft repelled the invader's shock." — Burns. Before us, and stretching away toward the Forth and the city of Leith, is " the new town," surmounted on this side by the Calton Hill, on which stand the monuments of Dugald Stewart and Ad- miral Nelson, the unfinished Parthenon, and the monument of Robert Burns — beautiful and imposing objects, reminding us of the Acropolis of Athens, and affording fine relief to the long l-anges of smooth and polished buildings beyond. Behind us are the Pentland Hills, with their verdant slopes and historic recollections. To the right lie the city and bay of Leith, " the Pirasus" of Edin- burgh, the long winding shore in the direction of Portobello, and " the dark blue deep" of the ocean, studded with white sails, 9* 202 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. glistening in the summer radiance. To the north, at a distance of a few miles, you see the majestic Firth of Forth, and beyond, " in cultured beauty," the " Kingdom of Fife," with the distant range of the Ochil and Campsie Hills. From this point also you can see, at a distance of some three miles, the gray ruins of Craig- millar Castle, famous in the annals of Scotland as the residence of Queen Mary, and the scene of those secret machinations which ended in the tragedy of Holyrood ; Inch Keith, with its lofty light- house ; the Isle of May, once consecrated to St. Adrian, and on which stands another "star of hope" to the mariner; and old Inchcolm, famous for its ancient convent founded by St. Colomba, one of the patron saints of Scotland. How gloriously light and shade, land and ocean, park and woodland, old castles and hoary ruins, frowning rocks and smiling meadows, mingle and blend in this rare and magnificent landscape ! " Traced like a map the landscape lies, In cultur'd beauty stretching wide ; There Pentland's green acclivities, There ocean, with its azure tide ; There Authur's Seat, and gleaming through Thy southern wing, Dun Edin blue ! While in the orient, hammer's daughters, A distant giant range are seen, North Berwick Law, with cone of green, And Bass amid the waters.'' — Delta.* Here you can easily understand the reason why Edinburgh has been thought to resemble the city of Athens. Mr. Stuart, author of the " Antiquities of Athens," was the first to call attention to this fact, and his opinion has often been confirmed since. Dr. Clarke remarks that the neighborhood of Athens is just the High- lands of Scotland, enriched with the splendid remains of art. Another acute observer states that the distant view of Athens from the ^Egean Sea is extremely like that of Edinburgh from the Firth of Forth, "though," he adds, " certainly the latter is considerably superior." " The resemblance," says J. G. Kohl, the celebrated German traveler, " is indeed very striking. Athens, like Edin- burgh, was a city of hills and valleys, and its Ilissus was probably not much larger than the Water of Leith. Athens, like Edin- burgh, was an inland town, and had its harbor, Pirseus, on the sea-coast. The mountains near Edinburgh very much resemble those near Athens. I have little doubt, however, that Athens is more honored by being compared to Edinburgh, than Edinburgh * Supposed to be Dr. Moir. SCOTLAND. 203 to Athens ; for it is probable that the scenery and position of the Northern are more grand and striking in their beauty than those of the Southern Athens." Let us now descend into the city. We will not linger long in old Holyrood Palace, interesting as it is, nor dwell upon " the stains" of Rizzio's blood in Queen Mary's room, as these have been described a thousand times, and are familiar to every one. Neither will we spend time in gazing upon the spot where once stood that quaint old jail, called " the Heart of Midlothian," made classic by the pen of Scott, in the beautiful story of Jeanie Deans. Neither will we visit the old "Parliament House" and the "Ad- vocates' Library ;" but we will pass right up through High-street, amid those colossal buildings, rising, on either side, to the night of six, seven, and even eight and ten stories, swarming with inhabit- ants ; and dive into one or two of those close, dark wynds, where reside, in countless multitudes, the poorest and most vicious of the people. Here, it must be confessed, are some strange sights and appalling noises. Yet it is not quite so bad as some have repre- sented it. All large cities have their poor and vicious inhabitants, and although those of the Scottish metropolis are tolerably dirty and vastly degraded, they bear no comparison to the lazaroni of Naples and the beggars of Rome. Some of the streets and wynds are narrow enough and vile enough, but they contain, after all, many worthy people, who own a Bible, and read it, too ; and were you only to become thoroughly acquainted Avith them, you would be surprised to find how much of honesty and kindly affection still dwell in their hearts. In ancient times the houses in these very " closes" or " wynds" were inhabited by the nobility and gentry. Hence Gray's Close, Morrison's Close, Stewart's Close, &c. They built their houses in these narrow streets in order to be more secure from the attacks of their enemies, and to be the better able to defend the principal thoroughfares into which they opened. In Blythe's Close may be seen the remains of the palace of the queen-regent, Mary of Guise. In another stand the old houses of the Earls of Gosford and Moray. One of the largest old palaces is now inhabited by beggars and rats. It would be a great improvement if these miserable dwellings could be removed, and replaced by better streets and houses ; a still greater one, if the people could only be induced to abandon the use of whisky, for then they would abandon their hovels as a matter of course. Their besetting sin is the love of strong drink, though this has been gradually diminishing for the last few years throughout Scotland. It is to be hoped that the pious and moral portion of the community will unite in a strong effort to reclaim 204 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. this degraded class of their fellow-townsmen, and that the time will speedily come when the only reproach which rests upon their fair fame shall be wholly obliterated. But let us leave this region, the only unpleasant one in the whole of this fair city, and ascend to the old Castle, where we shall see the Regalia of Scotland, preserved in a little room at the top of the Castle. These regalia consist of the crown of Robert Bruce, the hero of Bannockburn, the scepter of James the Fifth, a sword presented by Pope Julius the Second to James the Sixth, and other articles of inferior note. It is somewhat singular that the regalia should have lain concealed from 1745 to the year 1818. At the time of the Union in 1707 between England and Scotland, they were walled up by some Scottish patriots, in order to prevent their being removed to London. What recollections of the stormy but glorious history of Scot- land cluster around the mind, while gazing at that antique-looking crown which adorned the head of the Bruces and the ill-fated Mary ! The freedom and prosperity now enjoyed by the nation had a gloomy and tempestuous birth. Their very religion, placid and beautiful now, was cradled amid the war of elements and the shock of battle. But, thanks to God, it is all the purer and stronger for its rough and tempestuous youth. Draw near to the edge of that battlement, and look down over the frowning rock. Would it be possible, think you, to storm the Castle from that side ? One would suppose it beyond the power of man. It has been done, however, and the circumstance illus- trates the spirit of hardihood and enterprise which has ever dis- tinguished the people of Scotland. In the year 1313, when the Castle was in the possession of the English, Randolph, earl of Moray, was one day surveying the gigantic rock, when he was accosted by one of his men-at-arms with the question, " Do you think it impracticable, my lord ?" Randolph turned his eyes upon the speaker, a man a little past the prime of life, but of a firm, well-knit figure, and bearing in his keen eye and open forehead marks of intrepidity which had already gained him distinction in the Scottish army. " Do you mean the rock, Francis ?" said the earl : " perhaps not, if we could borrow the wings of our gallant hawks." " There are wings," replied Francis, with a thoughtful smile, " as strong, as buoyant, and as daring. My father was keeper of yonder fortress." " What of that ? You speak in riddles." " I was then young, reckless, high-hearted : I was screwed up in that convent-like castle ; my sweetheart was in the plain below" — SCOTLAND. 205 " Well, what then ?" " 'Sdeath, my lord, can you not imagine that I speak of the wings of love ? Every night I descended that steep at the witch- ing hour, and every morning before the dawn I crept back to my barracks. I constructed a light twelve-foot ladder, by means of which I was able to pass the places that are perpendicular ; and so well, at length, did I become acquainted with the route, that in the darkest and stormiest night, I found my way as easily as when the moonlight enabled me to see my love in the distance waiting for me at the cottage door." " You are a daring, desperate, noble fellow, Francis ! However, your motive is now gone ; your mistress" — " She is dead ; say no more ; but another has taken her place." " Ay, ay, it's the soldier's way. Women will die, or even grow old ; and what are we to do ? Come, who is your mistress now ?" " My Country ! What I have done for love, I can do again for honor ; and what I can accomplish, you, noble Randolph, and many of our comrades, can do far better. Give me thirty picked men, and a twelve-foot ladder, and the fortress is our own!" " The Earl of Moray, whatever his real thoughts of the enter- prise might have been, was not the man to refuse such a chal- lenge. A ladder was provided, and thirty men chosen from the troops ; and in the middle of a dark night, the party, commanded by Randolph himself, and guided by William Francis, set forth on their desperate enterprise. By catching at crag after crag, and digging their fingers into the interstices of the rocks, they succeeded in mounting a consid- erable way ; but the weather was now so thick, they could re- ceive but little assistance from their eyes ; and thus they continued to climb, almost in utter darkness, like men struggling up a preci- pice in the nightmare. They at length reached a shelving table of the cliff, above which the ascent, for ten or twelve feet, was perpendicular ; and having fixed their ladder, the whole party lay down to recover breath. . From this place they could hear the tread and voices of the ' check watches,' or patrol, above ; and, surrounded by the perils of such a moment, it is not wonderful that some illusions may have mingled with their thoughts. They even imagined that they were seen from the battlements, although, being themselves unable to see the warders, this was highly improbable. It became evident, notwithstanding, from the words they caught here and there in the pauses of the night-wind, that the conversation of the English sol- diers above related to a surprise of the Castle ; and at length 206 THE WOULD WE LIVE IN. these appalling words broke like thunder on their ears : ' Stand ! I see you well !' A fragment of the rock was hurled down at the same instant ; and, as rushing from crag to crag, it bounded over their heads, Randolph and his brave followers, in this wild, help- less, and extraordinary situation, felt the damp of mortal terror gathering upon their brow, as they clung, with a death-grip to the precipice. The startled echoes of the rock were at length silent, and so were the voices above. The adventurers paused, listening breath- less ; no sound was heard but the sighing of the wind, and the measured tread of the sentinel who had resumed his walk. The men thought they were in a dream, and no wonder ; for the inci- dent just mentioned, which is related by Barbour, was one of the most singular coincidences that ever occurred. The shout of the sentinel and the missile he had thrown, were merely a boyish freak ; and while listening to the echoes of the rock, he had not the smallest idea that the sounds which gave pleasure to him car- ried terror and almost despair into the hearts of the enemy. The adventurers, half-uncertain whether they were not the victims of some illusion, determined that it was as safe to go on as to turn back ; and pursuing their laborious and dangerous path, they at length reached the- bottom of the wall. This last barrier they scaled by means of their ladder ; and leaping down among the astonished check- watches, they cried their war-cry, and in the midst of answering shouts of ' Treason ! treason ['notwithstanding the desperate resistance of the garrison, captured the Castle of Edinburgh." Sit down here on the edge of this parapet. That huge cannon there is called Mons Meg, from being cast at Mons, in Flanders, and reminds us, somewhat significantly, of the terrible use to which all the arrangements of the castle are applied.* How sin- gular, that men have to be governed and controlled like bull-dogs, that castles and dungeons, halters, and cannon, are necessary to keep them from stealing each other's property, or cutting each other's throats ! Surely mankind have ills enough to bear without turning upon each other like tigers. " Many and sharp the numerous ills, Inwoven with our frame ! More pointed still we make ourselves, Regret, remorse, and shame ; * At present it is used as a barracks for soldiers and a magazine of arms. SCOTLAND. 20 7 And man, whose heaven-erected face The smiles of love adorn, Man's inhumanity to man Makes countless thousands mourn." Burns. But all is quiet now. The tendency of the times is to peace ; and Edinburgh Castle, Mons Meg, and the whole array of cannon bristling over the precipice, are but objects of natural curiosity or of poetical interest. Do you see yonder turreted building, with high-pointed gables and castellated walls, in the Elizabethan style, just beyond the Grass Market? That is George Heriot's Hospital, one of the proudest monuments of the city, and one of the most beautiful symbols of its peaceful prosperity. It was founded by the rich and benevolent George Heriot, jeweler to King James the Sixth, "Jingling Geordie," as he is quaintly termed in the " Fortunes of Nigel." It is of vast extent, as you perceive, and presents a good specimen of the mixed style of architecture prevalent in the days of Queen Mary. The object of this noble institution is the main- tenance and education of poor and fatherless boys, or of boys in indigent circumstances, " freemen's sons of the town of Edin- burgh." Of these, one hundred and eighty receive ample board and education within its walls. By this means they are thoroughly prepared for the active business of life, each receiving at bis dis- missal a Bible, and other useful books, with two suits of clothes chosen by himself. Those going out as apprentices are allowed $50 per annum for five years, and $25 at the termination of their apprenticeship. Boys of superior scholarship are permitted to stay longer in the institution, and are fitted for college. For this purpose they receive $150 per annum, for four years. Connected with this institution are seven free-schools, in the different parishes of the city, for the support of which its surplus funds are applied. In these upward of two thousand children receive a good com- mon-school education. The girls, in addition to the ordinary branches, are taught knitting and sewing. In addition to these provisions for the education of the poor, there are also ten " bursaries," or university scholarships, open to the competition of young men, not connected with the institution. The successful candidates receive $100 per annum for four years. No wonder that Sir Walter Scott felt authorized to put into the mouth of the princely founder of these charities the striking sen- timent : "I think mine own estate and memory, as I shall order it, has a fair chance of outliving those of greater men." Edinburgh abounds in charitable hospitals, and particularly in 208 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. free educational institutions, in the support of which the citizens evince a laudable enthusiasm. Below us, on one side of High-street, you see the fine old Gothic Cathedral of St. Giles. It was founded in the twelfth or thirteenth century, and named after St. Giles, abbot and confessor, and tu- telar saint of Edinburgh in the olden time. The Scottish poet, Gavin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, was some time provost of St. Giles. He translated Virgil into English, the first version of a classic ever made in Britain, and was the author of " The Palace of Honor," from which some have absurdly supposed that John Bunyan borrowed the idea of the " Pilgrim's Progress." This edifice is interesting, chiefly as connecting the past with the pres- ent condition of Scotland, and indicating the mighty transitions through which it has passed. In the fifteenth century, incense ascended from forty different altars within its walls ; now it con- tains three Protestant places of worship. Once it enshrined the relics of St. Giles ; now its cemetery contains the body of John Knox! On the 13th of October, 1643, "the solemn League and Covenant" was sworn to and subscribed within its walls, by the Committee of the Estates of Parliament, the Commission of the Church, and the English Commission. The sacred vessels and relics which it contained, including the arm-bone of the patron saint, were seized by the magistrates of the city, and the proceeds of their sale applied to the repairing of the building. Puritanism has thus often showed itself a rough and tempestuous reformer; nevertheless, it possesses wonderful vitality, and has conferred upon Scotland the blessings of civil and religious liberty. Its outer form is often hard and defective, and its movements irregu- lar and convulsive, but its inner spirit is ever generous and free. Its rudeness and excess none will approve ; its life, energy, and activity all will admire. It came forth, like a thunder-cloud, from the mountains. Its quick lightning-flashes Avent crashing amid the old images of superstition. The atmosphere of spiritual pol- lution was agitated and purified. Upon the parched ground fell gentle and refreshing showers. The sun of freedom began to smile upon hill and valley, and the whole land rejoiced under its placid influence. We will now re-enter High-street, and thence turn at right angles into South Bridge : street, and proceed to the University. It is a large and imposing structure, but fails to produce its proper impression, from the circumstance of being wedged in among such a mass of other buildings. We enter by a magnificent portico on the right, supported by Doric columns twenty-six feet in hight, each formed of a single block of stone, and find o\irselves in a SCOTLAND. 209 spacious quadrangular court, surrounded by the various college edifices. The buildings are of freestone, beautifully polished, and of recent erection, the old buildings, which were unsightly and incommodious, having been taken down to make way for this eleo-ant and spacious structure. The University itself was founded by King James the Sixth, in the year 1582, and has enjoyed un- interrupted prosperity to the present time. The average number of students is from ten to twelve hundred. The Rev. Dr. Lee, one of the most amiable and learned men, is at present principal of the University, and the various chairs are filled by gentlemen of distinguished talent. The students are not resident within the college, but choose their boarding-houses at pleasure in any part of the city. They are not distinguished, as at Glasgow and Ox- ford, by any peculiar badge, are of all ages, and enjoy the liberty of selecting the classes which they attend. Those, however, who take degrees are required to attend a particular course, but this is not done by more than one-half, or at most two-thirds of the stu- dents. The government of the University is not particularly strict. The examinations are limited and imperfect ; and hence it is very possible for a young man to slip through the University without contracting any great tincture of scholarship. It is mainly the talent of the professors, and the high literary enthusiasm they inspire, which sustain the institution. There are thirty- four foun- dations for bursaries or scholarships, the benefit of which is ex- tended to eighty students. The aggregate amount is about fifty dollars a year for each. The annual session lasts from October to May, with an occasional holiday, and a week or two's vacation at Christmas. The rest of the year, which includes most of the summer and autumn, is vacation, which gives the professors an opportunity for rest and preparation, and the students facilities either for private study, or for teaching and other employments. This order prevails in all the other Scottish universities, and is attended with many advantages. But a truce to general remarks. We have not time to visit the Museum, which is quite extensive and admirably arranged, nor the Library, which is distinguished by its ample dimensions and beautiful decorations. Neither can we dwell upon the celebrated men who have encircled this insti- tution with a halo of literary and scientific glory. But we will step into that door in front of us, ascend the stairs, and enter the lecture-room of Professor Wilson, the far-famed " Christopher North," poet and novelist, orator, critic, and philosopher. The young gentlemen have assembled, but the Professor has not yet come in. Good-looking, but noisy fellows, these ! Some of them, you perceive, are very young, others are considerably advanced 210 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. in years. Most of them are well dressed, some poorly so. A few look studious and care-worn, but the majority hearty and joyous. How their clear, loud laugh rings through the hall ! They are from all ranks of society, some being the sons of noble- men, others of farmers and mechanics. Most of tbem, probably, have wherewithal to pay their college expenses, but not a few, you may rely on it, are sorely pinched. The Scots are an ambi- tious, study-loving race, and quite a number of these young men are struggling vip from tbe depths of poverty, and, if they do not die in the effort, will be heard of one of these days, in the pulpit or at the bar. But there comes the Professor, bowing graciously to the stu- dents, while he receives from them a hearty " ruff," as the Scots call their energetic stamping. What a magnificent-looking man ! Over six feet high, broad and brawny, but of elegant proportions, with a clear, frank, joyous-looking face, a few wrinkles only around the eye, in other respects hale and smooth, his fine locks sprinkled with gray, flowing down to his shoulders, and his large lustrous eye beaming with a softened fire. His subject is "the Passions." He commences with freedom and ease, but without any particular energy, makes his distinctions well, but without much precision or force ; for, to tell the honest truth, philosophical analysis is not his particular forte: Still it is good, so far as it goes, and prob- ably appears inferior chiefly by contrast. But he begins to de- scribe. The blood mantles to his .forehead, thrown back with a majestic energy, and his fine eye glows, nay, absolutely burns. And now his impassioned intellect careers as on the wings of the wind, leaping, bounding, dashing, whirling over hill and dale, rises into the clear empyrean, and bathes itself in the beams of the sun. His audience is intent, hushed, absorbed, rapt ! He begins, how- ever, to descend, and 0, how beautifully ! like a falcon from " the lift," or an eagle from the storm-cloud. And now he skims along the surface with bird-like wing, glancing in the sunlight, swiftly and gracefully. How varied and delicate his language, how pro- fuse his images, his allusions' how affecting, and his voice ringing like a bell among the mountains ! At such seasons his style, man- ner, and tone are unequaled. Chaste and exhilarating as the dew of the morning in the vale of Strathmore, yet rich and rare as a golden sunset on the brow of Benlomond. But listen : he returns to his philosophical distinctions — fair, very fair, to be sure, but nothing special, rather clumsy, perhaps, except in regard to his language. True, undoubtedly, but not profound, not deeply philosophical, and to some not particularly interesting. His auditors have time to breathe. You hear an occasional cough, SCOTLAND. 211 or blowing of the nose. A few of the students are diligently- taking notes, but the rest are listless. This will last only a mo- ment, and now that he is approaching the close of his lecture, he will give us something worth hearing. There, again he is out upon the open sea. How finely the sails are set, and with what a majestic sweep the noble vessel rounds the promontory, and anchors itself in the bay ! Taking the steam-cars from Edinburgh, we arrive at Glasgow, a distance of forty-four miles, in a couple of hours. As Edinburgh is the representative of Scottish literature and refinement, Glas- gow is the representative of its commerce and manufactures. It is an immense city, and contains a prodigious number of inhabit- ants. At the period of the Union it had a population of only 12,000, since which time it has doubled this number twelve or thirteen times, and now contains nearly 300,000 inhabitants. It owes this unprecedented increase to its trade, domestic and for- eign, which is almost unparalleled in its extent. There is probably not a single inland town in Great Britain, with the exception of London, which can show such a shipping list. Glasgow has ever been distinguished for its mechanical ingenu- ity, its industry, and enterprise. Its situation, doubtless, is highly favorable, but without an intelligent, ingenious, and active popu- lation, it could never have reached such a bight of prosperity. But it is not our intention to visit this commercial city as tour- ists. There are enough such to describe her agreeable situation and handsome public edifices, her long and elegant streets, her beautiful " green," and magnificent river. At present we shall not fatigue ourselves with visiting the Royal Exchange, the Royal Bank, the Tontine, and the Assembly Rooms. Neither shall we trouble our readers to go with us through Queen-street, St. Vin- cent-street, Greenhill Place, or Woodside Crescent. It might be worth while, however, to look into some of those immense factories, from which rise innumerable huge chimneys, some of which overtop the steeples and towers of the churches, and reach far up into the heavens.* Thousands and thousands of spindles and power-looms, with thousands and thousands of human hands and heads, are moving there from morn to night, and from night to morn. What masses of complicated and beau- tiful machinery ! what prodigious steam-engines, great hearts of power in the centers of little worlds, giving life, energy, and mo- tion to the whole ! Here is a single warehouse, as it is called, for the sale of manufactured o-oods, containing no less than two hund- One of these chimneys is said to be over 400 feet high. 212 THE WORLD WE LIVE EN". red clerks. What piles of silks and shawls, cottons and calicoes ! The productions of Glasgow reach every part of the world. You will find them in India, China, and the United States, in the wilds of Africa and the jungles of Burmah, amid the snows of Labrador and the savannas of Georgia. But let us go down to the Broomielaw, and take a look at the river Clyde. That mile of masts, and those immense steamers plying up and down the river, connect Glasgow with every part of the British Empire and the world. What grand agency has accomplished all this ? Steam ! — steam, under the guidance and control of genius and enterprise. The extended prosperity of Glasgow commenced with the inven- tions of Watt, the greatest mechanical genius of the age, and the first man that constructed a steam-engine of much practical use. Steam has raised all those huge factories which we have been admiring, and keeps their innumerable wheels and pistons, spin- dles and power-looms, in motion. Steam it is which brings untold masses of coal and iron from the bowels of the earth, and converts them into machinery and motive-power. Yonder it comes, rolling and dashing, in a long train of cars and carriages filled with the produce and population of the land. Here it gives life and energy to a cotton-mill with a thousand looms ; there it casts off, from day to day, the myriads of printed sheets which spread intelli- gence through the country. All around us it moves the cranks and pulleys, ropes and wires, wheels and tools, which work such wonders in beating and grinding, cutting and carving, polishing and dyeing. Steam has added thousands, nay, millions to the annual income of Glasgow. It has augmented the resources of Great Britain to such an extent that it saves seventy millions of dollars annually in the matter of motive-power alone ! No pen can describe the additions which it has made in other parts of the world to their manufactures and commerce. It has brought all nations into more intimate relations, and is yet destined, in many respects, to revolutionize the world. Let us go, then, to George's Square, near the center of the city, and look at Chantrey's monument of the man who has done so much to bring about such a change. The Square contains also a fine monument of Sir Walter Scott, in the form of a fluted Doric column, about eighty feet high, surmounted by a colossal statue of " the great Magician of the North." He is represented stand- ing in an easy attitude, with a shepherd's plaid thrown hall around his body. The likeness is' said to be remarkably good. It has that expression of shrewdness, honesty, and good-nature for which he was distinguished, but none of that ideal elevation SCOTLAND. 213 which graces the countenances of Schiller, Goethe, and Shak- speare. Immediately in front of this monument is a beautiful pedestrian statue in bronze, by Flaxman, of Sir John Moore, the subject of Wolfe's exquisite lyric : — " Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corpse to the ramparts we hurried ; Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero we buried." Sir John Moore was a citizen of Glasgow, and his townsmen have erected this statue as expressive of their veneration for his memory. To the right of this monument, in the southwest angle of the Square, you see in bronze, and of colossal magnitude, the noble figure of James Watt. He is represented in a sitting pos- ture, on a circular pedestal of Aberdeen granite. It is considered one of the happiest productions of the distinguished Chantrey. The fine meditative features of the great inventor are strikingly developed. Watt was born in Greenock, on the 19th of January, 1736, but conducted his experiments chiefly in Glasgow. He came thither in 1757, first as a mathematical instrument-maker to the college, and subsequently as an engineer. In early life he gave indications of his peculiar genius by various little mechanical contrivances. At the age of six years, he was occasionally found stretched on the floor, delineating- with chalk the lines of a o-eo- metrical problem. At other times he greatly obliged his young companions by making and repairing their toj^s ; and before he had reached his seventeenth year, he had amused them with the wonders of an electrical machine of his own construction. He had also instructed himself by making experiments on the steam of a tea-kettle. He subsequently stored his mind with the won- ders of physics, chemistry, and medicine. In the University of Glasgow, Watt was employed to fit up the instruments of the Macfarlane Observatory, which gave him an opportunity of becoming acquainted with Adam Smith, Joseph Black, and Robert Simson, names immortal in the scientific annals of Scotland. Here also he formed an intimacy with John Robin- son, then a student at college, and subsequently the celebrated Dr. Robinson, who first called the attention of Watt to the subject of steam-engines, and threw out the idea of applying them to steam- carriages and other purposes. The steam-engine had existed before this time, but it was ex- tremely imperfect, and, moreover, of no great practical use. Hence Mr. Watt was not, properly speaking, the inventor, but the improver of the steam-engine. Still his improvement was equal 214 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. to an invention of the highest order. It made the instrument available for the highest practical purposes. " He found the crazy machines of Savery and Newcomen laboring and creaking at our mine-heads, and occupying the same rank as prime movers with the wind-mill and the water-wheel ; and by a succession of inventions and discoveries, deduced from the most profound chemical knowledge, and applied by the most exquisite mechan- ical skill, he brought the steam-engine to such a degree of per- fection as to stamp it the most precious gift which man ever be- queathed to his race."* Watt had " a sore fight of existence," at least in the early part of his career, and he came near being deprived of the emolument which was his just due as a benefactor of his race. But he event- ually triumphed over all opposition, retired from business, and continued to reside during the rest of his life on his estate at Heathfield Soho. He was exceedingly happy in his domestic re- lations, though called, in 1804, to suffer a painful bereavement in the loss of his youngest son Gregory, who had given high promise of literary and scientific eminence. In 1808 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of France; and in 1814, he was nominated by the Academy of Sciences as one of its eight foreign correspondents. In 1819 his health suffered a rapid de- cline, and he himself felt that this was his last illness. " Resigned himself, he endeavored to make others resigned. He pointed out to his son the topics of consolation which should occupy his mind ; and, expressing his sincere gratitude to Providence for the length of days he had enjoyed, for his exemption from most of the infirm- ities of age, and for the serenity and cheerfulness which marked the close of his life, he expired at Heathfield on the 25th of Au- gust, 1819." He was interred in the parish church of Hands- worth ; and over his tomb his son erected an elegant Gothic chapel, containing a beautiful marble bust by Chantrey. Another bust by the same artist has been placed in one of the halls of Glasgow College. A colossal statue of Carrara marble, procured at great expense by public subscription, graces the recesses of Westminster Abbey. The most useful memorial of Watt, however, exists in Greenock, in the form of a large and handsome building for a public library, erected by his son, in which the citizens have caused to be placed a handsome marble statue, with an inscription from the pen of Lord Jeffrey. Lord Brougham concluded an eloquent speech on the merits of Mr Watt in the following striking terms: — "If * Edinburgh Review. SCOTLAND. 215 in old times the temples of false gods were appropriately filled with the images of men who had carried devastation over the face of the earth, surely our temples cannot be more worthily adorned than with the likenesses of those whose triumphs have been splen- did, indeed, but unattended by sorrow to any — who have achieved victories, not for one country only, but to enlarge the power and increase the happiness of the whole human race." Passing up High-street, we come to an arched gateway, and find ourselves in a quadrangular court, with antique-looking build- ings on each side. Beyond this we come to another quadrangle, also surrounded by buildings of perhaps more recent date. Pass- ing straight on, we reach a handsome edifice of polished freestone, directly in front of us, and standing alone, which is nothing less than the Hunterian Museum. These, then, are the buildings of Glasgow University. Beyond us is the college-green, ornamented with trees, and divided into two parts by a sluggish stream which passes through the center. A number of the students, having laid aside their scarlet gowns, are playing at football, a violent, but delightful and invio-oratino- exercise. The University of Glasgow was founded in 1450, in the time of James the Second. Bishop Turnbull was then in possession of the see, and his successors were appointed chancellors. The his- tory of the institution has been various ; but, generally speaking, it has enjoyed a high degree of prosperity. Of late years the number of students has declined, from what cause we know not. The number, in all the departments, does not exceed a thousand, whereas, in 1824, when the writer was a student in Glasgow, there were from fourteen to fifteen hundred. Well does he re- member the enthusiasm with which they welcomed their popular candidate for rector, Henry Brougham, Esq., M. P., as he was then termed, and the eager interest with which they listened to his inaugural discourse. Sir James Mcintosh, a fine, hearty-look- ing man, with bland, expressive eyes, and two of the sons of Robert Burns, tall, good-looking young men, but with no particular re- semblance to their illustrious father, were present, with others, to grace the occasion. Brougham was in the maturity of his strength, and the heyday of his fame. Tall, muscular, and wiry, with searching visage, dark complexion, keen piercing eyes, ample fore- head, and long outstretched finger, he stood up the very personi- fication of strength and eloquence. But Brougham has been fre- quently described, and we therefore pass him by. The next rector that was chosen was Thomas Campbell, the poet, once a member of the college, and one of its most distinguished ornaments. A 216 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. large portion, if not the whole of the "Pleasures of Hope," was written while he was a student at college. Many distinguished men have been professors in this institution. Among these, Dr. Reid and Dr. Hutcheson, Dr. Simpson and Dr. Moore, Adam Smith, and Professor Sandford, stand pre-eminent. Well does the writer remember the accomplished, but unfortunate Sandford, and the profound enthusiasm for the Greek classics which he inspired in his students. He was a son of the venerable Bishop Sandford, a distinguished graduate of Oxford, and a man of the highest attainments in Greek and English literature. Of small stature, he yet possessed an elegant and commanding form. His pale face, finely chiseled mouth, dark eyes, and marble fore- head are before me now. I hear his clear, musical voice, rolling out, ore rotundo, the resounding periods of Homer, or the ener- getic lines of Eschylus. No man ever recited Greek with sue! enthusiasm and energy. It was a perfect treat to bear him read the odes of Anacreon or the choral hymns of Eschylus ; to say nothing of his elegant translations, or his fine critical remarks. He was created a baronet by the government, and bade fair to be one of the most distinguished and influential literary men in the country. But he was seduced into party politics, was sent as the representative of Glasgow to Parliament, and failed — failed utterly and forever ; for his want of success in the House of Commons preyed upon his spirits, and caused his death. Among the distinguished men now occupying places in this uni- versity we find Mr. Lushington, of Trinity College, Cambridge, professor of Greek, and Dr. Nichol, author of the popular Lec- tures on the Wonders of the Heavens, professor of practical as- tronomy. Mr. Mylne, professor of moral philosophy, and Mr. Buchanan, professor of logic, are acute and learned men. Leaving the college, we ascend High -street, and after reaching the top of the hill, a little to the right, we see before us the "High Kirk," or rather the old cathedral of Glasgow, one of the finest remains of antiquity, surrounded by a vast church-yard, con- taining many rich and ancient monumental tombs, and the mold- ering bones of many by-gone generations. It has a superb crypt, " equaled by none in the kingdom" — once used as a place of worship, but now as a place for burying the dead. The author of Waverley has invested it with additional interest by making it the scene of a striking incident in Rob Roy. The whole edifice has a most commanding appearance. At the northeast end of the cathedral the spot is yet to be seen where bigotry and superstition lighted the fires of religious persecution. There, in the year 1538, Jerome Russel, a member ■ SPAIN. 217 of the convent of Franciscan friars, in Glasgow, a man of consid- erable talents, and John Kennedy, a young man from Ayr, of high family, only about eighteen years of age, were burned for having embraced the doctrines of the infant Reformation. They sustained the terrible ordeal through which they passed to glory with a becoming dignity and fortitude. " This is your hour and power of darkness," said Russel : "now you sit as judges, and we aYe wrongfully condemned, but the day cometh which will clear our innocency, and you shall see your own blindness to your everlast- ing confusion — go on, and fulfill the measure of your iniquity." Is it surprising that the reaction of reform which followed such proceedings should occasionally have gone to unjustifiable lengths, and that the people should have torn down " the rookeries" which sheltered those birds of prey, as the spiritual tyrants of that day might well be termed? Never were a nobler or more heroic set of men than the martyrs and confessors of that trying time ! Knox, Melville, and Wishart might be stern, but they were men of godlike temper and heroic zeal, of whom the world was not worthy. CHAPTER XVI. As roads are poor in Spain, a sure sign of a backward state of civilization, we shall be compelled, like the natives, to make our journey through the country on mules ; and as robberies are fre- quent, even in the neighborhood of Madrid, we must take with us not only some hardy muleteers, but, if possible, an armed escort, or we may stand a fair chance of being shot among the mountains, or, at least, of being stripped of our possessions. Should an escort be too expensive, we must do, as many others, go armed ourselves, or run such ris"k as may befall us. Spain is, in most parts, a beau- tiful and fertile country, though not uniformly so ; many tracts of land being arid and poor. It consists mainly of mountains and valleys, and especially high table-lands, where, even in the hot southern regions, the air is comparatively cool and delicious. Some parts of the country, Valencia and Mercia, for example, en- joy a perpetual spring. The sugar-cane, and other tropical pro- ductions, are found in Andalusia and Granada. In the extreme 10 218 THE WORLD WE LIVE ITST. south, the heats of summer would be intolerable, unless subdued by the cool sea-breeze, which begins to blow at nine in the morn- ing, and continues till five in the evening. The interior of the country is so much elevated, as to be comparatively cool. The two Castiles form a raised plain, nearly two thousand feet in bight. The provinces along the coast of the Mediterranean have been termed the paradise of the kingdom. The sky is " azure and gold ;" the inhabitants of Seville affirm that a day was never known when the sun did not shine upon their city. The olive, the orange, and especially the vine, which grows luxuriantly in all the warmer regions, adorn the landscape. Spain has mines of copper, silver, quicksilver, lead, and gold, which yield handsome returns. Her principal productions are salt, wines, silk, olives, mules, and sheep, immense flocks of which feed on the high plains of the interior. But commerce, agricul- ture, and generally the arts of industry, are in a low condition. The Spaniards, proud and brave, are indolent and unenterprising. The finances of the country are in a wretched state, and the gov- ernment is badly administered. The land is overrun with priests, beggars, and friars, the last being only a species of legalized or spiritual beggars. The ecclesiastics of all classes, including monks and nuns, number about 200,000 ! No less than 32,000 are con- fined in cloisters. The clergy are described by nearly all travel- ers as the most powerful body in Spain, and are said to be " rich, ignorant, and dissolute." They control education, and give tone and character to the great mass of the people. They, retain a strong hold especially upon the poorer classes, to many of whom they distribute from the monasteries daily food and alms. But they take vastly more than they give ; and the entire army of monks and friars, blue, black, and gray, lead a life of indolence and luxury. " I'll give thee, good fellow, a twelvemonth or twain To search Europe through, from Byzantium to Spain ; But ne'er shall you find, should you search till you tire, So happy a man as the barefooted friar. He's expected at noon, and no wight, ere he comes, May profane the great chair, or the porridge of plums ; For the best of the cheer, and the seat at the fire, Is the undenied right of the barefooted friar." Every person in Spain, however poor, pays something to the Church, and what with bulls, indulgences, marriages, absolutions, and christenings, a vast amount of money goes into the capacious pockets of the Catholic clergy. SPAIN. 219 > SPAIN. 221 While Spain abounds with cathedrals, churches, and monaster- ies, some of them absolutely blazing with gems and gold, it has not over one thousand schools for the education of a population of twelve millions! A member of the Cortes in 1839 asserted that all Spain numbered not more than nine hundred schools in all, at which rate not less than 13,333 Spaniards must resort to a single school ! Nominally there are still eight universities, once richly endowed, and numerously attended, but during the changes and revolutions of the country they have been stripped of their en- dowments, and reduced in their character. The army numbers not less than a hundred thousand, th<5ugh the navy is nothing, and the public debt is increasing every year. Freedom and in- dustry, religion (pure and undefiled) and enterprise, go hand in hand, but Spain is nearly destitute of all these, and thence, to use a homely but expressive phrase, is completely " run down at the heel." It is a poor, proud country, without life, energy, or prog- ress. It is well known that Spain has long been the favorite seat of the Roman Catholic faith. Out of Italy, with the single excep- tion, perhaps, of Ireland, no country has been more devoted to the interests of the papal church. The Inquisition was maintained here for ages, in all the plenitude of its power, and rigor of ad- ministration. It was introduced, or rather it attained its highest vigor, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. According to Llo- rente, no fewer than 13,000 individuals, accused of heresy, were publicly burned by the different tribunals of Castile and Aragon ; and 191,413, accused of the same offense, suffered other punish- ments in the brief space between the establishment of the modern Inquisition in 1481 and 1518, only two years after the death of Ferdinand ; since which time the number of victims have been vastly greater. By rack, sword, and fagot, it extinguished the Protestant Reformation ; and not only so, but checked the progress of philosophy and learning. Indeed, it was the deadly foe of every thing like free inquiry, and many a great, many a good man perished, on the simple ground of constructive heresy. The autos da/4 of Spain have excited the horror of the civilized world. " Then, in Religion's sacred name, A holocaust of souls was reared ; Red like a furnace glowed the flame, Black like the night the heavens appeared ; The furies triumphed, and the kingly crown Shone o'er a bigot's glare, a tyrant's frown. First on the heap in fury cast, Perished the Book divinely fair — 222 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. Perished the lore of ages past : Life's light went out with science there. Whelmed in the fiery blast, the blast of helL Souls, Bibles, libraries, together fell. Behold the pageants' vast array, Pavilions, banners, floating free ; Cowls, miters, eager for their prey, Princess, and prelate, and grandee : — The ancient cities all their throngs emit, And high on thrones presiding monarchs sit. They come with music, trump and drum, With solemn* pomp, and thundering zeal ; With fagot, stake, and torch they come — With strangling cord, and flashing steel, To see how far o'er weakness, fear, and pain, Faith's mighty power her votaries can sustain." The intolerance and bigotry of Spain are somewhat abated. The Inquisition has been destroyed, though the spirit of the Inqui- sition yet lingers there, and some progress has been made toward the attainment of religious freedom. Still, Spain must be yet pronounced one of the most superstitious, priest-ridden, and in- tolerant countries in Europe. Many of the cities and 'public buildings of Spain are quite splen- did. Madrid, the capital, stands in the center of the kingdom, in the midst of a high barren plain, surrounded by mountains. It has something over two hundred thousand inhabitants, and pre- sents a fine appearance. Its squares, churches, palaces, bridges, are elegant and imposing. The houses are generally of brick, built around inner courts, with frequent fountains and gardens. Twenty-two miles to the northwest of the city is the Escurial, half-palace and half-monastery, perhaps the most sumptuous and magnificent in the world. "It is situated,'.' says Abbot, " among the wild, somber scenery of the old Castilian mountains, about twenty-two miles from Madrid. This enormous palace, seven hundred and forty feet in length, by five hundred and eighty feet in breadth, was reared by Philip II., in the middle of the sixteenth century, at an expense of about fifty millions of dollars. Philip, austere, gloomy, fanatical, selected this wild and gloomy fastness as the site of his palace, and reared the regal mansion in the form of a gridiron, in commemoration of the instrument of martyrdom of St. Lawrence. The embellishments of more modern kings, and the luxuriant foliage of trees and shrubbery, have now invested even this uncouth order of architecture with a kind of venerable beauty. Four towers at the angles represent the legs of the gridiron. SPAEST. 223 The Spanish description of this structure forms a large quarto volume. It is stated that there are eleven thousand doors. This may be an exaggeration, and yet the enormous edifice, with its cupola, its domes, its towers, its chapel, library, painting gallery, and college, mausoleum, cloisters, regal saloons, apartments for domestics and artisans, its parks, gardens, walks, and fountains, constitute almost a city by itself. A statue of St. Lawrence is over the grand entrance, with a gilt gridiron in his hand. Spacious reservoirs, constructed upon the neighboring mount- ains, collect the water conveyed by aqueducts, to supply ninety- two fountains. A very beautiful road, about a mile in length, fringed with lofty elms and lindens, is the avenue to this magnifi- cent palace ; and a subterranean corridor of equal length, arched with stone, connects the edifice with the neighboring village. Underneath the building is the subterranean chamber called the Pantheon, the burying-place of the royal family. It is a very magnificent apartment, circular in its form, thirty-six feet in diame- ter, its walls incrusted with the most beautiful and highly polished marble. Here repose the moldering remains of the Spanish monarchs, whose bodies lie in marble tombs, one above the other. A long arched stairway, lined with polished marble, beautifully veined, conducts to the mausoleum, far below the surface of the earth. A magnificent chandelier, suspended from the ceiling, lighted upon extraordinary occasions, sheds brilliance upon this grand yet gloomy mansion of the dead. The labor of many years was devoted to the construction of this sepulcher. For nearly three hundred years the domes and towers of this monument of Spanish grandeur and superstition have withstood the storms which have swept the summer and wrecked the win- ter's sky. Many generations of kings, with their accumulated throng of courtiers, have, like ocean tides, ebbed and flowed through these halls. But now the Escurial is but the 'memorial of the past, neglected and forgotten. Two hundred monks, like the spirits of the dead ages, creep noiselessly through its cloisters, and the pensive melody of their matins and vespers floats mourn- fully through their deserted halls. Here have been witnessed scenes of revelry and seenes of fanaticism — the spirit of sincere thought, misguided piety, and the spirit of reckless and heaven- defying crime, such as few earthly abodes have ever exhibited. The fountains still throw up their beautiful jets, but the haughty cavaliers, and the high-born maidens and dames who once thronged them, have disappeared, and the pensive friar, in sackcloth and hempen girdle, sits in solitude upon the moss-grown stone. The blaze of illuminations once gleamed from those windows and cor- 224 THE WORLD WE LIVE LINT. ridors, and night was turned to day as songs and dances resounded through hall, and bower, and grove. Now midnight comes with midnight silence, and solitude and gloom ; and naught is to be seen but here and there the glimmer of some faint taper from the cell where some penitent monk keeps his painful vigils. The jew- elry and the flaunting robes of fashion, and the merry peals which have ushered in the bridal party, have passed away, and now the convent bell but calls the world -renouncing, joyless hearts to the hour of prayer, or tolls the knell, as, in the shades of night, the remains of some departed brother are borne, with twinkling torches and funeral chants, to their burial. And yet how many are there, weary of the world, with crushed hearts and dead hopes, who would gladly find, in these dim cloisters, a refuge from the storms of life ! Here soon, beneath this marble canopy, the body of the helpless Isabella will molder to the dust. May God grant that when the trumpet of the archangel shall awake her from the long sleep of the grave, she may arise to sit on a more exalted throne, and to wear a brighter crown than mortal mind hath ever con- ceived." The principal manufacturing city of Spain is Barcelona, on the shores of the Mediterranean ; but perhaps the most beautiful and attractive of all its cities, with the exception of Granada, is the capital of Andalusia, " the fair Seville," charmingly situated on the Guadalquivir, in the midst of a plain covered with olive and orange groves, hamlets, villages, singular " tulip mania raged throughout this country in the middle of the seven- teenth century, turning the brain of almost every man, woman, and child among the otherwise sober-minded and plodding Dutch. All industry gave way to speculation in tulips. The mania increased rapidly ; prices went up higher every day ; vast fortunes were invested, and Holland became a huge tulip-garden. One author wrote a folio volume of a thousand pages on the subject ! A sin- gle bulb, of the species called viceroy, was sold for a silver drink - ing-cup, a suit of clothes, a complete bed, a thousand pounds of cheese, two tons of butter, four tuns of beer, two hogsheads of wine, twelve fat sheep, eight fat swine, four fat oxen, four lasts of rye, and two lasts of wheat, all valued at 2500 florins. Tulip marts were established in all the cities. Tulip stock was quoted on the exchange like bank stock, and tulip-jobbers every where speculated in the rise and. fall. ' Every body,' says Mackay, ' imagined that the passion for tulips would last forever, and that the wealthy from every part of the world would send to Holland, and pay whatever prices were asked for them. Nobles, citizens, farmers, mechanics, seamen, footmen, maid-servants, even chim- ney-sweeps and old clothes women, dabbled in tulips. People of all grades converted their property into cash, and invested it in flowers. Houses and lands were offered for sale at ruinously low prices, or assigned in payment of bargains made at the tulip mart. Foreigners became smitten with the same frenzy, and money poured into Holland from all directions. The prices of the neces- GERMANY. 243 saries of life rose again by degrees ; houses and lands, horses and carriages, and luxuries of every sort, rose in value with them, and for some months Holland seemed the very ante-chamber of Plutus.' The mania, however, came to an end. The folly ceased. Prices fell. Confidence fled. Defaults of payment grew common. The bulbs remained, but without value. The cry of distress was heard every where. A few had become rich, the many impoverished. Original obscurity settled down upon the temporarily fortunate, and beggary, with its train of demoralization, covered the land. Such was the tulip mania, and its consequences." To the south of Holland, on the Scheldt and the Maese, lies the kingdom of Belgium, which, though Catholic, is becoming more and more liberal under its enlightened statesmen and sensible monarch. The Catholic clergy, indeed, have violently opposed all reform, and endeavored to keep the people in ignorance and subjection, but the liberal party have obtained the victory. Bel- gium is famous for its manufactures, especially of linen and woolen. Brussels, Antwerp, and Bruges, contain some fine old buildings, and many rich paintings, from the pencils of Rubens and Vandyke, of whom their countrymen are justly proud. The amusements are similar to those of Holland, modified by an infusion of the French spirit. The great Flemish kermes, or fairs, anciently sub- servient to commerce, still exist as festivals, at which there is a striking display of grotesque humor, such as we see depicted in the old Flemish paintings. But we will ascend the Rhine, a commonplace liver enough for some distance, though full of life and animation, from its ex- tensive commerce, but becoming more and more attractive as you penetrate into the heart of the country. Indeed, the Rhine, " the glorious Rhine," as they fondly call it, is the great favorite of the Germans. It reminds one of the Connecticut, passing "in glory and in joy" amid its green hills and vales, with here and there high rocks, mountains, and forests. All that the Connecticut wants to make it an exact counterpart of the Rhine is a deeper channel, and on its rocky banks, or green acclivities, at short in- tervals, an abbey, a castle, or a castled wall, covered with the hoary memories of the Middle Ages. Owing to this, and things of a similar character, the Rhine possesses a peculiar charm. Its vine-covered banks and castled crags every where are invested with the glories of poetry and romance. " A blending of all beauties : streams and dells, Fruit, foliage, crag, wood, corn-field, mountain, vine, And chiefless castles, breathing stern farewells From gray but leafy walls, where Ruin greenly dwells. 244 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. The negligently grand, the fruitful bloom Of coming ripeness, the white city's sheen, The rolling stream, the precipice's gloom, The forest's growth, and Gothic walls between, The wild rocks, shaped as they had turrets been, In mockery of man's art ; and these withal A race of faces happy as the scene Whose fertile bounties here extend to all, Still springing o'er thy banks, though empires near frhem fall." We leave Cologne behind us, with its time-worn cathedral, and pass by the craggy Drachenfels, or Dragon Rock, whose precipi- ces shoot up from the river, crowned with an antique ruin, so finely described by Byron : " The castled crag of Drachenfels Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine, "Whose breast of waters broadly swells Between the banks which bear the vine, And hills all rich with blossom'd trees, And fields which promise corn and wine, And scattered cities crowning these, Whose far white walls along them shine, Have strew'd a scene, which I should see With double joy wert thou with me. And peasant girls, with deep-blue eyes, And hands which offer early flowers, Walk smiling o'er this paradise ; Above the frequent feudal towers, Through green leaves lift their walls of gray, And many a rock which steeply towers And noble arch in proud decay, Look o'er this vale of vintage bowers, But one thing want these banks of Rhine — Thy gentle hand to clasp in mine. The river nobly foams and flows, The charm of this enchanted ground, And all its thousand turns disclose Some fresher beauty varying round : The haughtiest breast its wish might bound Through life to dwell delighted here ; Nor could on earth a spot be found To nature and to me so dear, Could thy dear eyes, in following mine, Still sweeten more these banks of Rhine." Not far from this is the ancient city of Bonn, with its well- known university, where the venerable William Schlegel, one of the greatest scholars of Germany, and the translator of Shak- speare into the German tongue, enjoys a green old age. GERMANY. 245 Gliding along, with the sheen of a soft autumnal day shining down upon us, and covering rock, tower, vineyard, and cottage with radiant glory, we reach Coblentz, near the junction of the Moselle and the Rhine, surrounded by a landscape of rare and varied beauty, and guarded by the lofty Ehrenbreitstein, " With her shattered wall Black with the miner's blast, upon her hight Yet shows of what she was, when shell and ball Rebounding idly on her strength did light A tower of victory, from whence the flight Of baffled foes was watch'd along the plain." From Coblentz, the steamer conveys us and her load of lively passengers, mostly Germans, and a sprinkling of Swiss, French, and English, some fifty miles or more, to Mayence, noticing many points of interest on our way, and especially the spot where Blii- cher crossed the Rhine with his army, on New year's night, 1814. It was from the hights above that the view of the Rhine first burst upon the Prussians, and drew forth one simultaneous and exulting cry of triumph. " To the Germans of every age," says one, "this great river has been the object of an affection and reverence scarcely inferior to that with which an Egyptian con- templates the Nile, or the Indian the Ganges. When these brave bands, having achieved the rescue of their native soil, came in sight of this its ancient landscape, the burden of a hundred songs, they knelt and shouted ' the Rhine ! the Rhine ! ' as with the heart and voice of one man. They that were behind rushed on, hearing the cry, in expectation of another battle." Mayence is an old fortified city, lying on the left bank of the Rhine, nearly opposite the junction of the Maine, famous for its ancient cathedral of the tenth century, the first archbishop of which, it is said, was Boniface, an Englishman, who, with eleven other monks of his countrymen, left his native land to preach the Gospel to the barbarous nations of Germany, converting in his mission more than a hundred thousand heathen, and becoming the apostle of Germany ; but this city is famous especially as the cradle of the art of printing. In one of the squares may be seen the superb bronze statue, by Thorswalden, of Guttemberg, or more properly, John Gensfieisch (Goosejlesh), the discoverer or inventor of movable types. We will not at present ascend the Rhine further. We should like to visit Manheim, and, across the country to the right, the beautiful Heidelberg, on the banks of the Neckar, from which, coming back to the Rhine again, we might visit Strasburg and 246 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. Basle, and thence penetrate into the mountains of Switzerland. But this we may do by-and-by. In the mean while we will cross the river from Mayence (or Mentz, as it was anciently spelt), by a bridge of boats, and thence, by a short railroad, gain the free city of Frankfort, famous for its fairs and diets, and peculiarly renowned as the birth-place of the poet Goethe. The house where he was born still stands, and in one of the city halls, I think near the banks of the Maine, he may be seen in marble, a majestic old man, in a sitting posture. Here, also, they show Luther's shoes, hard and solid, "in which," they say, "the im- mortal Reformer walked to the Diet of Worms, bidding calm defi- ance to all the kings, priests, and devils of Christendom. In Frankfort, also, we may visit the " Ariadne" of the gentle and en- thusiastic Dannecker, one of the best sculptors in Germany, whose Christ, combining in a remarkable degree the human and the di- vine, is world-renowned. The model, we believe, is in one of the churches of Stuttgard, on the Neckar, but the statue itself is in St. Petersburg. Dannecker was a true German, simple and etherial, with a soul all aglow Avith devotion. He believed him- self inspired by a divine afflatus to form his statue of the Christ. When he presented a rude clay model to a child, though it had none of the usual accompaniments, the glory, or the crown of thorns, the child instantly exclaimed, " The Redeemer /" The inscription on the pedestal gives the idea which the artist wished to embody in this remarkable statue : Through me to the Father. But we take the Schnellpost (the fast mail-coach, though rather slow than fast) to Leipsic, passing part of the way through the Thuringian forest ; and not failing to visit Eisenach and Erfurt, connected as they are with the memory of Luther, and some of the most thrilling passages in German history. Near the village of Eisenach is a lofty conical hill, green to the top, and overlook- ing the verdant ranges of the Thurino-ian forest. This is the castle of Wartburg, in which Luther found refuge so long, and where he translated a part of the Holy Scriptures. In the castle are shown his room, his table, chair, and inkstand, and other interest- ing memorials of the glorious Reformer. To understand German history and German character, one must understand Luther. The evidences of his genius and moral power meet you every where in her annals and literature. Indeed, Luther, to a great extent, is the genius of the Teutonic people, the real tutelar saint of the German Vaterland. His translation of the Bible, one of the best that was ever made, gave tone and character to the German tongue, and modified the whole character of the German people. In this same Eisenach, a few years ago, GERMAN r. 247 was celebrated the anniversary of Luther's birth. Thousands flocked from all parts of Germany, and some even from Switzer- land, students, clergymen, and civilians. They marched through the streets of Eisenach, singing lofty hymns in honor of the great Reformer ; they ascended the castle of Wartburg, joyfully inspect- ing the memorials of his sojourn there, pronounced eulogies on his memory, and exhorted one another to maintain the honor of their fatherland. House where Luther was born. At Erfurt may be seen, in the church of the Augustines, the altar at which Luther said mass when a German priest, and in the neighboring convent the cell where he wrote and prayed, and found peace in believing ; and the long corridor through which he used to walk, meditating on things divine, after he had found an unexpected copy of the Scriptures. A brave, energetic man was Luther, full of faith and divine energy, occasionally violent and impulsive, and, like other great men, not without errors and failings, but honest, earnest, hearty, jovial even at times, and mas- 248 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. ter of a homely but soul-thrilling- eloquence. At Wittembenr they show his singing-book (Gesang-Buch), for he was fond of music and not only made it, but sung it with all his heart ; and besides this, his capacious beer-cup, in which he drowned his honest thirst and pledged his friends, Jonas, Cruciger, and Melancthon, the Elector of Saxony, and others whom he dearly loved. A true German, that is, as the word originally denotes, a heroic, or fight- ing man, with his great burly figure, bright eye and generous ueart, which never quailed in the cause of truth and duty The House where Luther died. As we pass along, Weimar, capital of the grand duchy of Saxe Weimar, detains us, at least for a few hours, for here lived Goethe, Schiller, and Herder, and hither came all the wits and great men of Germany, to salute these famous poets and scholars. Here also are the graves of Goethe and Schiller, and, we believe, of Wieland, poets of the highest order, who have stamped their genius upon their native land. Goethe was cold, indeed, perhaps skep- tical and selfish, yet a wonderful man, an artist and a thinker of commanding power and exquisite polish. Our favorite, however, GERMANY. 249 is Schiller, the noble-hearted, the generous, the heroic " poet- man." But time presses, and we are wandering through the streets of Leipsic, a large, busy city, surrounded by a magnificent prome- nade, adorned with trees, fountains, and statuary, and famous for its printing-presses, books, and fairs. Never was such a book- making, book-reading people as the Germans. Their fecundity in this line is enormous. But books are types of civilization, and in this respect the Germans may be regarded as the most enlight- ened people in the world. Inferior to the Americans in enterprise, and to the English in practical affairs, they are superior to them both in learning. England, indeed, has gone before Germany in science, and in certain departments of literature ; for Germany has no Newton, no Shakspeare or Milton ; but in solid learning, in the knowledge of languages, in profound and elaborate philosophical, historical, and philological research, Germany has no superior. It is true, the German thinkers, Kant, Schelling, Fichte, and He- gel, have fallen into the grossest extravagances. Their very sub- til ty runs into wild and dangerous speculations; as if, somehow, the German mind was constitutionally misty and transcendental, as if " it were too much even for itself !" After all, the Germans are wonderful thinkers, wonderful writers, and wonderful readers, as their books, on Leipsic book-shelves, or at Leipsic fairs, "thick as the leaves in Vallombrosa," abundantly testify. Their grand difficulty, however, lies in the want of practical good sense. The notions and theories of some of their greatest and best men are visionary and absurd, and alas ! have nearly blotted out the very idea of God, of Christ, and of heaven from the hearts of thousands. Hence it has become a sort of proverb, that " the English have the empire of the sea, the French of the earth, and the Germans of the air !" Upon this point one of their own number has testi- fied as follows : "Many of the learned men in Germany are, indeed, distin- guished for their attainments in literature and science, but in gen- eral only in philology, history, pathology, and other branches of medical science, jurisprudence, mineralogy, and metallurgy • while in nearly all other scientific branches, the learned men of other European countries rival, and, in some points, far excel them. This deficiency is chiefly owing to the unlucky tendency to bibli- olatry (book-idolatry) which much prevails among the German scholars. They are more or less filled with the wrong idea, that all and every knowledge may be acquired from books. There are, indeed, many sciences which must be learned chiefly from printed books ; but, in addition to study, the open book of practical life is 11*. 250 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. indispensable to the attainment of a sound judgment. About eighty years ago it became fashionable to babble after the manner of atheistical philosophers of the Voltaire school, and since that time not only rationalism sprung up in the province of theology, but also other theories and hypotheses of the most nonsensical kind were brought forward in Germany. Thus, for instance, one scholar, named Ballenstadt, pretended that the human race had sprung from a primitive slime or mud, that had been quickened by electric flashes and thunder-claps ; another, of the name of Wagner, has, by a profound study in his closet, discovered that our globe is an animal, whose sweat presents itself in the evapo- ration of the waters, whilst its circulation of the blood makes itself known by the t.ide ! Even in recent times, several German ra- tionalists harbor the opinion, that man is properly nothing else but' a monkey fully developed, and has descended either from the orang-outang in Borneo, or from the Boggo (Pan Africanus) in Guinea !_.*** How far the construction of philosophical systems in Germany has gone may be inferred from the fact, that M. Michelet, professor of philosophy in the University of Berlin, boldly maintains in his works and lectures the following proposition : — ' what we call God, is nothing else but human cul ture in its highest potency !' " It is said that the sublime just borders on the ridiculous ; in the same way, one might conclude, from the aberrations of the German philosophy, that the profound lies on the very brink of the absurd. But we must not leave Leipsic without visiting Schiller's cot- tage, for he long lived in the immediate vicinity, just beyond the city walls, in a charming retreat, of which we borrow the follow- ing description : " Those who have resided for any time in Leipsic, will know how pleasant a walk it is to turn off from the public promenade, and, passing over the bridge at the bead of Frankfurter Strasse, to go through the Rosenthals, to the little village of Gohlis. The Rosenthals is an extensive park, partly natural and partly artificial, covering the southwestern suburbs of the city. It consists simply of well-grown thrifty trees and level green-swards, with here and there openings in the wood to reveal a pleasant landscape, and now and then a rustic seat, to invite a moment's quiet repose. Thus, almost by a step, you are out of the bustling and dusty city, and breathing the pure and healthful atmosphere of nature. From the extent of the woods, the crowd which may enter it with you is soon scattered thinly over its face, and your thoughts need suffer no disturbance if, now and then, you should meet a company GEEMANY. 251 of light-hearted students, pass by a bevy of whispering school- girls, or overtake a feeble white-haired valetudinarian, or even en- counter the brown-cheeked forest-keeper himself, who, with his green frock and short carabine, strides with a swift and free pace through his leafy domain. Here the birds, unterrified by the shot of the hunter, hold their continual revelry ; and here, for the first time, I heard the nightingale sing. Its tone is full and sound, and as clear as the undulating echo of a silver bell. It has con- siderable variety, but its chief chord is a sort of protracted melan- choly peep, which, heard in the haze of the twilight when the bird commences to sing, hightens and falls in with that tender and meditative vein, usually induced upon us at this peaceful hour. After having traversed this pleasant wood, you reach a little bridge, by whose side stands an old mill through whose wheels the water rushes swiftly. A step beyond this is the village of Gohlis, and in a narrow lane of this village, a little removed from the road, stands a dwelling which goes by the name of ' Schiller's cottage.' It is so modest, so humble, that it hardly seems to dare to look over the tall stone fence and lordly gate which mod- ern respect and enthusiasm have erected before it. Its narrow face of rude mortar is covered with a creeping vine, and over two little windows which peep out from under the sharply slanting voof, catching the rays of the evening sun, are written the words ' Schiller's studs.' The gate itself bears this inscription : 'Here dwelt Schiller, and wrote his " Songs of Joy," in the year 1185.' How simple and touching a moral is here ! In poverty, in dis- tress, in want of friends and bread, as yet unrenowned, as yet un- patronized by dukes, and solicited by kings, an exile, a stranger, 'here dwelt Schiller, and wrote his Songs of Joy.' Blessed be the spirit of poetry, which can thus change sorrow into rejoicing. Next to the glorious Hope, whose deep consolation ' passeth all understanding,' this spirit of ideal beauty and happiness, this in- ward power of investing the outward life and its changing circum- stances with hues of light and joy, this is the best gift of God to man. 0, let us not despise the poet. His mission is holy. He teaches us to see fresh beauty in the works and ways of God, to wear the fetters of care more lightly about us, and to find roses in the rockiest path that duty and affliction ever trod." Leipsic has a celebrated university, the oldest in Germany, after 252 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. that of Prague, with some sixty professors, and from 1200 to 1400 students ; hut we have not time to examine it. From Leipsic we journey, through a well -cultivated country, to Dresden, the capital of Saxony, well known for the beauty of its situation, the elegance of its buildings, and the richness of its pic- ture-galleries, all open to the inspection of the public. . Dresden was named by Herder " the German Florence," and it well de- serves the title. It is the residence of many men of learning and talent, among whom are the poets Tieck and Tiedge, the physiolo- gist Carus, the artist Retzch, who has illustrated Goethe's Faust, Vogel, and other artists. The King of Saxony is a Catholic, but the people are Protestants, and, upon the whole, enjoy much sub- stantial happiness. In the public gardens and rural retreats in and around the city, thousands of the people, on a summer even- ing, may be seen, some sitting, others standing, others strolling, others again dancing, and others amusing themselves in various ways under the branches of the green trees. Leaving Saxony, famous for its beautiful sheep, elegant manu- factures, and general intelligence, we pursue our way, through the heart of Germany, in the direction of Berlin, the capital of Prussia. Upon the whole, Germany may be described as a charming country, though somewhat level and monotonous in the central and northern parts. The south is the most picturesque and beau- tiful, especially along the banks of the Rhine, the Neckar, and the Moselle. Saxon Switzerland is spoken of as peculiarly delightful, from the bold and picturesque variety of the scenery. Forests, though gradually diminishing in extent by the demand for wood, here and there darken, while they beautify, the landscape. The Hartz Mountains are famous in song and story. But the country generally is not as attractive as England ; much of it is rather arid and level. Agriculture is in a fair condition. But one misses the pretty cottages and farm-houses of England or of the United States. The peasantry, and even the landlords, live huddled to- gether, in villages or cities. The fields are divided off by trees or other fences into regular squares, or at least with a great appear- ance of uniformity. The roads, however, are pleasantly lined with fruit and forest trees, and many of the villages have a quiet beauty. The most peculiar and attractive feature in the external aspect of Germany is the presence, here and there, in town and country, of mediaeval and other ancient architecture. The hoary past is blended with the youthful present. Old castles cover the slopes of vine-clad hills. Venerable abbeys and magnificent cathedrals, GERMANY. 253 high-roofed houses and castellated walls, mingle with green trees and smiling meadows. Many of the cities have a peculiarly an- tique and romantic air. Their high walls, Gothic churches, rook- haunted belfries, carved fountains, and decorated town-halls, are "redolent" of ancient memories. Thus, Strasburg, though be- longing to France, yet a German city, boasts her lofty and ex- quisitely graceful cathedral, with its wonderful clock, visited by thousands every day of the year, particularly at 12 A. M., when the brazen cock on the top crows three times, loud and clear, in memory of St. Peter's denial of his Master. Enter Heidelberg, and while you are struck with the extreme beauty of its situation, lying as it does in the fair valley of the Neckar, and guarded by 254 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. wood-crowned hills on which the sunshine sleeps lovingly, you are attracted chiefly by the old Ducal Castle, whose frowning bat- tlements overlook the city from their leafy retreat on the sides of the mountain. Erfurt and Eisenach, Eisleben and Wittemberg, Worms and Wurtzburg, all contain monuments, not only of the Middle Ages, but of the times of the Reformation. Every where, graves, monuments, and churches remind us of the stormy times of "long, long ago." The city of Nuremberg is, for this reason, one of the most interesting in Germany. Its whole aspect be- longs to the Middle Ages. Nothing can be conceived more quaint, curious, and poetical. It brings back the days of the ancient burghers, of the guilds and Corporations, the Meistersingers and Minnesingers of a bygone era. Hence the beauty and force of Longfellow's admirable description : " In the valley of the Pegnitz, "where, across broad meadow-lands, Rise the blue Franconian mountains, Nuremberg the ancient stands. Quaint old town of toil and traffic, quaint old town of art and song, Memories haunt thy pointed gables like the rooks that round thee throng ; Memories of the Middle Ages, when the emperors, rough and bold, Had their dwelling in thy Castle, time-defying, centuries old. And thy grave and thrifty burghers boasted in their uncouth rhyme That their great imperial city stretched its hand through every clime. In the court-yard of the Castle, bound with many an iron band, Stands the mighty linden planted by Queen Lunigunde's hand. On the square the oriel window, where, in old heroic days, Sat the poet Melchior, singing Kaiser Maximilian's praise. Every where I see around me rise the wondrous works of art, Fountains wrought with richest sculpture, standing in the common mart; And above cathedral doorways saints and bishops, carved in stone, By a former age commissioned as apostles of our own. * * * * Here, where art was still religion, with a simple, reverent heart, Lived and labored Albrecht Diirer, the evangelist of art. Here, in silence and in sorrow, toiled he still with busy hand ; Like an emigrant he wandered, seeking for the better land. ' Emigrant' is the inscription on the tombstone where he lies : Dead he is not, but departed, for the artist never dies. * * # * Through these streets so broad and stately, these obscure and dismal lanes, "Walked of old the Master-singers, chanting rude poetic rhymes. * * * * * Here Hans Sachs, the cobbler-poet, laureate of the gentle craft, Wisest of the twelve wise masters, in huge folios sung and laughed : But liis house is now an ale-house, with a nicely sanded floor, And a garland in the window, and his face above the door, Painted by some humble artist, as in Adam Puschmann's song, As the old man, gray and dovelike, with his great beard white and long." GERMANY. 255 Wittemberg is full of the reminiscences of Luther, Melancthon, and their friends the Elector of Saxony, and Lucas Cranach the painter ; but Nuremberg every where calls to mind Albrecht Diirer and Hans Sachs, the greatest of the Master-singers. Though the son of a tailor, and by trade a cobbler, Hans Sachs created an era in German poetry, so that even Goethe acknowl- edges his obligations to the poet craftsman. Adam Puschmann, his friend and contemporary, in a song upon his death, describes him as seen in a vision on Christmas eve. "In the midst of the garden stood a fair summer-house, wherein there was a hall paved with marble, with beautiful escutcheons, and figures bold and darincr ; and round about the hall were windows, through which were seen the fruits of the .garden without, and in the middle a round table, covered with green silk, whereat sat an old man, gray and white, and like a dove, and he had a great beard, and read in a great book, with golden clasps." But we are forgetting ourselves, for we are wandering, not in Southern, but in Northern Germany ; and yonder, in a wide plain, stands Berlin, the capital of Prussia, a large and handsome city, differing in no essential particulars from other large Continental cities, and forming a great center for learning, politics, and pleas- ure. It has a population of about 300,000, a considerable portion of whom are military ; a large and well-endowed university, with many learned professors, among whom are Schelling, Neander (just deceased), Hengstenberg, and others, with some eighteen hundred students ; six royal gymnasiums or high schools, with innumerable inferior academies and common schools ; a military seminary with 350 pupils ; an orphan asylum with 1200 children, 700 of whom are boarded out of doors ; forty bridges over the Spree, thirty-five churches, innumerable "gin palaces," and a registered company (of several thousand) licensed prostitutes ! Pass around among the streets and squares, visit the public buildings, and particularly the royal palace, the museum, the opera-house, the royal library, the theaters, the royal academy, the gates and gardens, and you will be struck with the fact that the city is under the domination of military government. Every where, almost, soldiers are stationed with gun and bayonet, to preserve order and keep the peace. Yet the government cannot be called a despotism, and the King of Prussia, though guilty of great indiscretions, cannot be styled a tyrant. The taxes in Prus- sia, and in Germany generally, are low — lower even than in the United States. The people are well educated, ample provision being made for the instruction of the whole community, and all the citizens being compelled to send their children to the common 256 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. schools. The royal family lives upon its private patrimony, de- scended through a long line of ancestors, and does not cost the nation a single penny. His majesty of Prussia is considered, by those who know him, to be a kind, prudent, well-informed man, fi r^"\l ISfc^-P and, in his way, sincerely desiring the welfare of his people. Why, then, the prevailing discontent and restlessness of the na- tion, especially of the common people ? Why the recent revolu- GEEMAITT. 257 tion, crushed by the hoof of military power? Why the banishment of some, the imprisonment of others, and the execution of others ? And why, finally, this universal display of cannon and soldiery ? Simply this — that the government is narrow, timid, and jealous, and the people poor and crowded. They imagine, somehow, that a republic would cure all the ills that flesh is heir to, and fill at once their stomachs and their pockets. The population of Ger- many has wonderfully increased within the last twenty-five years. Competition in agriculture and trade has also increased ; money is scarce, and consequently thousands of the common people are all but starving. Kings and rulers there, as elsewhere, are not over- wise, and perhaps think more of their own comfort and se- curity than of the welfare of the people. Hence exactions and executions on the one side, discontent and revolutions on the other. But the cause of freedom has gained by the late revolutions, though the occasion of much public mischief and many mournful tragedies. A pretty liberal constitution has been conceded by the Prussian government, under which, if generously administered, the people may enjoy a high degree of rational freedom. Berlin, the scene of strife and blood, is now one of apparent peace and gayety ; and if the citizens can only have enough to do and enough to eat, we presume they will be pretty quiet for years to come. CHAPTER XIX. GERMANY CONTINUED. We have arrived at a point where we can say something of the general condition and characteristics of the German people. They number, in all, some forty-two millions, most of these being Ger- mans proper, and about six or seven millions Slavonians, though these generally speak the German tongue. Belonging to different empires, duchies, and so forth, the principal of which are Prussia, Austria, Saxony, Bavaria, and Wirtemberg, and professing dif- ferent religions — those in the South being mostly Catholics, those in the North Protestants — they differ somewhat from each other, yet have many traits in common. The following, from the 258 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". poet Tieck, though somewhat enthusiastic, and giving only the favorable aspects of the German character, marks some of the differences referred to, and is withal a pleasant piece of writing : " I would defend against vulgar jeers and jibes the noble race of Austrians, who, in their fruitful land and enchanting hills, pre- serve unchanged their antique joyousness of heart ; I would praise the warlike and pious Bavarians ; paint the friendly, sensible, in- ventive Suabians, in the garden of their beautiful country ; the animated, gay Franconians, in the romantic, varied scenery of their province, of which Bamberg was formerly the German Rome ; the intelligent dwellers along the banks of the lordly Rhine ; the brave, honest Hessians ; the handsome Thuringians, whose forest-clad mountains still wear the character and aspect' of knightly times ; the low Germans, who resemble the true-hearted Hollander and the energetic Englishman : at every remarkable spot of the land of our fathers would I recall ancient histories. And thus did I think to wander amid all the hills and valleys of our noble country, once so flourishing and so great, watered by the Rhine and the Danube, and the stream of old traditions ; guarded by lofty mountains, frowning castles, and by the brave German heart ; garlanded with green meadows, the abode of love, and confidence, and single-mindedness." The North of Germany differs much from the South — the former is more serious, more thoughtful, and, we think, more virtuous ; the other more gay, vivacious, and pleasure-loving. The dwellers on " the lordly Rhine," the inhabitants of the free cities, such as Frankfort-on-the-Maine and Hamburg-on-the-Elbe, the citizens of Berlin, Bonn, Gottingen, Halle, Heidelberg, Leip- sic, seats of great universities or centers of business, are the most energetic and enterprising. The peasantry generally are quiet and laborious, home-loving and peace-loving. Less intelligent than the dwellers in cities, they know little and care less for the great world around them. The learned men of Germany, the great leaders of thought, as well as the most active politicians, are to be found in the North. Prussia stands highest in education, and in all the means and ap- pliances both of common-school and university instruction. Berlin abounds with men of learning and genius, though Vienna is by no means destitute of these. Most of the distinguished universities are in the North. Books, printing-presses, and newspapers are found there in the greatest abundance. There also trade and commerce chiefly flourish. Poetry and the arts are cultivated every where — perhaps flourish most in the South, or rather in the middle region, though this might be disputed. The leading gekma:nt. 259 GEKMAJ5TY. 261 political powers are Austria and Prussia, the one representing the Catholic, the other the Protestant interest. Prussia is compact, enlightened, and enterprising. Austria, composed of different states and peoples, held together only by the strong hand of military power, though larger in territory and population, is infe- rior in power and resources. What may be the effect of her recent connection with Russia, time only will reveal. We have already spoken of the Germans as an honest, earnest, brave, and, generally speaking, enlightened people. They excel in the arts, in music, sculpture, and painting. Their literature is rich and various. Their commerce also is considerable, though decidedly inferior to that of England and the United States. They are distinguished for mechanical ingenuity, and their manu- factures are extensive and various. Sociable and affectionate, they love pleasant gatherings, festivals, and merry-makings of every kind. They live as much as possible in the open air, and enjoy then* pipe, beer, and friendly chat of an evening. Specula- tive rather than practical, they fall into all sorts of extravagant notions and errors. Religious in their way, many of them pro- foundly so, they cherish, too generally, a spirit of skepticism. The theories of their philosophers have descended among the common people, and the result is the prevalence of atheistic and " radical" notions. It seems to us, however, that they only need the right kind of moral and religious instruction to become an eminently pious, virtuous, and happy people — they are so genial, so earnest and cheerful. Truth is dear to them, often dearer than comfort and life. One thing, however, we observed with a painful interest when traveling in Germany, and that was the exceedingly slender attendance at church, whether Catholic or Protestant. A mere sprinkling of people would be seen at divine service in the morning, while hundreds were setting off for the fields and places of amuse- ment ; and in the afternoon towns and villages would almost empty themselves, and go forth, often to the sound of merry music, to amuse themselves in the country. Such a custom in England or the United States would indicate a total indifference to religious obligations, and would be followed by the most disas- trous results. Doubtless this is the case in Germany also, yet, perhaps, owing to the difference of opinion and association of ideas, not to the extent which one might suppose. Germany abounds in sports, feasts, and festivals. The follow- ing, from Mr. Howitt, who spent several years in the country, will give some idea of these : " The working classes of Germany have not only their out-of- door life of labor, but of pleasure too. In town and country they 282 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. have their dances, balls, and concerts, which will come under the head of their social life ; but in the country they have places of resort, often in common with the more educated classes, but where they alone dance in the open air, and their Kirchweghs or wakes are eagerly attended ; and in the summer, are falling out pretty frequently within the circuit of a few miles, whither they resort in crowds. " The Wolfsbrunnen, about a mile out of Heidelberg, is a place of great popular resort, and may be taken as a specimen of such places, which are to be found all over Germany. It is a little woody glen, running up into the hills from the valleys of the Neckar. The valley of the Neckar is surrounded with fine woody hills, the lower slopes of which are occupied in the national man- ner, with vineyards and corn-slopes, while along the banks of the river lie cottages and villages, with their gardens and orchards about them. A higher road from Heidelberg leads you along the mountain- side, a road said formerly to have been a favorite walk of Schiller's. It takes you past many cottages nestled in their orchards, in little sequestered hollows and green slopes, while above you are hights covered with woods, full of rocks, heath, and bilberry plants. " The Wolfsbrunnen is a brunnen or spring, which is poured out into a fountain, and also with little streams from the hills, supplying a pond, clear as crystal, and various reservoirs for fish, where perhaps one of the most plentiful stocks of fine trout is to be seen in the world. Here tradition says that Jetta, a sorceress, was wont to live, and was torn to pieces by a wolf. You may imagine it, in old times, a dark and shaggy hollow enough for such inhabitants, and such a tragedy, but now it is all that is de- lightful. There is an inn built by the fountain. It is of wood, with outside galleries, so that spectators, on days of particular festivity, can stand in great numbers in them and witness what is going on below, as well as get a very sweet view across the valley of the Neckar. Trees overhang the house and fountain. The pond below is overhung with alders. Fine acacias, chestnuts, and other trees, render the whole scene bowery and silvan ; and under them, and under sheds, stand tables and seats for parties, as in and about all such places, and all the country inns of Germany, and pretty much as in similar places and tea-gardens about Lon- don. Around rise lofty hills and solitary woods. On most days in summer, but especially on Sundays and holidays, people flock hither both from the town and the country. Groups are found sitting at the tables, under the trees and sheds, with wine, beer, and pipes, curds, coffee, and other refreshments. Some are stroll- GEEMA1STT. 263 GERMANY. 265 ing about the private walks in the woodlands ; some are lying on the dry turf of the hill slopes ; and others are looking in admiration at the fish and the fountain, the pools, or the little brook beyond. " And surely to a fishei*'s eye never did a more transporting sight present itself. In the fountain itself you will sometimes see more trout, and such trouts ! than you have seen in your life be- sides. In the depots, in the pool and brook, you see again hun- dreds of noble and beautiful fish floating about in the water, which is so clear that you see the whole pool, in a good light, at a glance, though some parts of it are deep. The first day that I walked there with my two elder boys, they were almost beside themselves with delight. The men were weighing out fish for some distant market. The fountain was filled with trout of six or eight pounds each, such as we had never seen in our lives, for there they are fed to this size. They were shoveled up in a hand- net from the fountain, as a man would shovel stones, weighed in a net hung on a post by the piazza, and were then conveyed in tubs to a cellar near, to be kept fresh for sending off. For half an hour or more, they kept weighing out these beautiful trout, which flounced about in the net in a manner which a fisherman would no doubt think very attractive, though to themselves not very agreeable. I saw them reckon up one lot in chalk on the post to more than a hundred weight, and the whole must have been several hundred weight. " On Tuesday, the 12th of July, was one pf their wakes or kirch- weghs, at the village adjoining, and it was of course a great day at the Brunnen. As we dressed in the morning, we saw crowds of people going out that way ; young people in their best, and musicians with their books and instruments. In the evening we walked thither, and a gay scene it was. All along the way par- ties were going and coming. They were of all classes, but chiefly of those from the tradesmen and their families down to the work- ing classes. All were well dressed ; the young shopmen and mechanics, of course, imitating the students in dress and manner as much as possible ; the young women very well dressed, but all without caps or bonnets, as is the universal custom of those of the ordinary class. They have generally very well-shaped heads of dark glossy hair, which is dressed in a very nice and graceful manner, and nothing can be more pleasing than their appearance, as they thus walk out into the country, having on nothing more than they wear in the house, except a shawl. Many of them are pretty, and all, from their simple and out-of-door habits, have a clear hue, and tone of health and glad-heartedness about them, which is a beauty itself. 12 266 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. " As we approached the Brunnen, we saw a dense crowd there. The sheds and tables were all occupied. There Avere groups of fierce-looking, whiskered, and smoking students ; other groups of families, with their choppin or glass-measure of wine, and bread and butter, or cheese, and sundry cakes, enjoying themselves in quiet as they looked on the gayety around them. The upper out- side galleries of the house were filled with gay spectators. Don- kies were standing ready saddled for such as chose to hire them for the young women returning to the town, and music announced that dancing was going on near. This, we found, was in a large shed close to the inn. Several of the trout reservoirs were planked over to prevent people walking into them, and a throng of gazers surrounded the dancing scene. There was a sort of orchestra at one end, at which twenty couples were waltzing. It would have looked strange in England to see shop-boys and girls, nay, shoe- makers' and tailors' apprentices, joiners, smiths, boots, or any body, waltzing with their smart- dressed girls in the shed at a country wake. It would want but this to put waltzing out of fashion with all the other classes of our countrymen. But Germany is the country of waltzing ; the waltz is the universal and almost only dance of the people, and they could just as well live without to- bacco as it. From the highest saloon in Vienna or Berlin, to the lowest shed in the village, or to the village green, round spin the Germans, and are as happy as if they were in Paradise ; nay, what would Paradise be to them without a long pipe, a tall glass of beer, a smart girl, and a brisk waltz ? The dancing, indeed, here, would not have disgraced a splendid saloon. The dancers were, for the most part, people under the middle size, and had nothing remarkable in their appearance ; but some of the girls were very pretty, and this exercise gave an attractive glow to their naturally fresh cheeks. Here and there was a student in the circle, dancing with some pretty girl of Heidelberg ; and we could not avoid being reminded of Goethe, as he describes himself in his life, mixing in such scenes at Frankfort, with the fair girl destined afterward to figure as Margaret in Faust. Indeed, what writer of Germany has so completely transferred to his works the popular life of his country as Goethe has ? His descriptions, both of the country and its people, come before one continually with a delightful surprise. " The dancing here was not carried to that pitch of mad velocity which you see in the popular cassinos of Vienna, especially at Sperls in the Leopoldstadt, or the Goldene Birne in the Lond- strasse, where the same couples will often dance in an enormous saloon every tour from seven o'clock in the evening to two or GERMANY. 267 three in the morning, at the most amazing rate ; in fact, whirling away like the figures in the hall of Eblis. Different parties here went in, danced moderately for a while, and then went out to the tables near, to rest and refresh. Among these dancers there were occasionally some who could not be seen without a smile. One little fellow especially, in a grayish coat, and with a mass of hair which completely hid his face, who waltzed in a way that would have made even Job in the midst of his potsherds laugh. He stuck out his left elbow, and held out his partner's right hand in the oddest manner, while he spun about like a penny-piece turned on a table, more than a man dancing with a young woman. " We were told that the gayety would be kept up till two or three o'clock in the morning ; and, in fact, we had evidence of it in numbers returning as late as that past our house in full chorus ; but great numbers were retiring at the early hour of eight o'clock ; and it was a beautiful sight to see them in their gay colors stream- ing along the road, which ran between the walnut and other fruit- trees, and between the standing corn, now brightening for the sickle. The students who had been dancing were now saunter- ing back in groups, and a number of handsome girls had also mounted the asses, and came galloping them past us, all laughter and fun. The whole scene was one that might have given a good lesson to the same class in our country on similar occasions. There was no drunkenness, no quarreling ; but the Germans, famous in all ages for drinking, were gay with wine and youth, and yet steering off home in full, though cheerful decorum, to an early bed. " These kirchweghs, or, as they are in many places corrupted to, kervies, or kermes, arrest your attention in every part of the country. As you approach a village, you see a tall pole, like our May-pole, erected in the center of the village, hung with garlands, and hear a hum of music, and the bustle of waltzing feet. The general features of a village during this merry-making I can give, from what we soon afterward witnessed on the other side of the Neckar, at the dorf of Ziegelhausen. A boat went up the river, with a band of musicians gayly playing, and all hung with banners and garlands. Wagon-loads of people, all singing together, were seen advancing on the opposite bank. The ferry-boats were all congregated opposite to the village, with garlands hung on poles at their prows, busy carrying over people. When we got across, we found the whole place alive. Parties were sitting in the orchards under the trees, drinking wine with their friends, and, of course, smoking. All the public houses had banners and gar- lands hanging out from their windows ; their rooms, or temporary 268 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN". booths, erected for the occasion, were decorated with festoons and garlands, and were filled with parties whirling away in their ever- lasting waltz. The street was filled with streams of promenaders, with here and there stalls of toys, gingerbread, &c, as in England at a wake — but how different in themselves ! " Though the same sort of attractions were provided for the children and feast-goers, yet every article was so totally foreign and queer. There were trumpets, and wooden horses, and rat- tles, and swords, and such like, but they would have made the children of England stare at their oddity. Some stalls were cov- ered with drinking-glasses, stained of various bright colors, and with mottoes on them in gilt letters, as, Zum Andenken Freund- schaft — a token of friendship ; cups, and such things. The toys were very odd and very cheap ; hussars on horseback, birds, dolls, &c; not Dutch, as ours are, but German, and of a most primitive German air too. You had a gay toy for nine kreutzers, or three- pence, which would have cost a shilling in England. But the gingerbread stalls would have amused our young folks the most. The gingerbread was all made up into heart-shapes, except a few pieces in the form of little pairs of shoes. These hearts of differ- ent sizes were painted of different colors, and ornamented with a sort of garland-work of some material, to imitate flowers, leaves, and gold. On every heart was printed a verse in German, more remarkable for the variety of the sentiments than for elegance or grammatical correctness. Most of these verses, of course, are ex- pressive of love and friendship, and may be presented to young damsels very significantly. " Every public house, at its kirchwegh, has its cheese-cakes, where people go to eat them to their wine ; and in-doors and out, people are eating, drinking, dancing, playing, and all is music and merriment. Every private house, too, has its feast, its visitors, its merriment. The poorest then make a cake, if they do not make one through the year besides, and the people from the city walk out and fill the houses of their acquaintance, eat and drink with them, and then walk back to supper. Monday and Tuesday are feast days, but the great holiday is the Sunday. On Tuesday they bury the wegh ; that is, all the garlands which had been hung up, with much shouting, and drinking, and singing, and then close the feast. " But we must come to the great and prominent out-of-door life of Germany. It is not in riding, fishing, hunting, or in such pub- lic games as racing, cricketing, rowing, &c. ; but in the enjoy- ment of walking, of public gardens, of coffee and wine-drinking in such places, and, above all, in open-air concerts. The enjoyment GERMANY. 269 of music and social pleasures in the open air, is the grand summer enjoyment of Germany. It is the universal passion from one end of the country to the other. It is the same in every village, in every town, in every capital. Public walks, public music, cafes and cassinos, coffee and wine-drinking, and smoking and knitting under trees, call out the whole population, high and low, great and small, old and young ; and there does not seem a care from Berlin to Strasburg, from Cologne to Pesth. Nay, much as the French live out of doors, the Germans far excel them in this spe- cies of life. All their musical art is called forth, and their great- est masters are employed, to give a charm to this mode of social existence. Every means is adopted to give facility to the enjoy- ment of this taste. The heart of the Germans, too, is bound to the heart of nature with a deeper and holier feeling than that of the French. It is true that they have not that full, and perfect, and permanent country life that we have. The habits and insti- tutions of their country do not allow it ; but they have not the less love of nature than we have, nor do they enjoy it less in their way than we do. Nay, in some respects they enjoy it far more, for they have taken measures to bring the beauty of nature to their very doors, to introduce it into the suburbs and the very heart of their towns, and to unite it to all the charms of art and of social life. " There is one advantage that their towns universally possess over ours ; and that is, in the abundance of public walks, and pub- lic gardens and promenades, where every citizen can wander, or can sit and rejoice with his family and his friends. All round their towns, in general, you find these ample public walks and promenades planted with trees and furnished with seats. The old walls and ramparts, which formerly gave security to the inhabit- ants, are now converted into sources of their highest pleasures, being thus planted and seated, and made scenes of the gayest re- sort, and whence the finest views are obtained over the surround- ing country. The suburbs and neighborhood of all large cities, again, are full of public gardens ; with alleys and extensive wood- land walks, where the people all summer flock out, and find re- freshments at coffee-houses, and bands of music, presided over by the first masters in Germany. The cities being seldom very large, the people thus enjoy a sort of half city, half rural life, but refined and beautified with social and artistical influences, of which ours is too much stripped. The people have in the outskirts of their cities, their vineyards and their summer-houses in them, where they can go with their families and friends. But they have, again, their great public gardens and woodlands all round their 2*70 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. large towns, to ten or a dozen miles' distance. They have similar places of more rustic resort, often on the most beautiful mountain nights, and in mountain valleys, to which they pour out on all Sundays and leisure days, in carriages and by railroads, by thou- sands. Here they have wine, and curds, and often dinners. Here they even come with their families, taking whole troops of children with them ; and there you find them in old orchards, amid castle ruins, under the trees, and, in short, through all the surrounding hills and valleys. They dine in great family groups — the men sitting often in their shirt-sleeves ; the children rolling in the grass ; and the landlords hurrying about, dealing out plates and viands to hungry people, in a broil of what seems hopeless hurry. They afterward smoke their pipes, drink their coffee, and go home at an early hour as happy as this earth can make them. " In every country town and village it is the same. You can go into few, or none of the former, where you will not find public walks and gardens ; and will not hear of charming places, some four, six, or ten miles distant, where all the world goes in the summer, in parties, to walk about, to drink coffee, or pic-nic in the Avoods, and so on. There is not a country inn in a pleasant place, but it has its orchard and its garden fitted up with seats and tables for this simple, rural festivity. There is not a ruin of a castle, or old jager-house, where you do not find walks and seats, and every provision for popular enjoyment. Every where the Germans have seized on all those picturesque points and scenes of rural beauty which afford means of carrying out and cultivating this mingled love of nature and of social pleasure. You come upon seats in wild spots, where you would otherwise never have dreamed of many besides yourself coming, and there you are sure to find that before you lies a beautiful view. " All royal gardens, too, are open, and the people walk in them, and stream around the palaces, passing, in many instances, through their very courts and gateways, just as if they were their own. Nay, the royal and ducal owners walk about among the people with as little ceremony as any of the rest. The Emperor of Aus- tria, or the King of Prussia, does the very same. You may meet them any where ; and little more ceremony is used toward them than is used toward any other individual, simply that of lifting your hat in passing, which is done to all your acquaintance, and is returned as a mark of ordinary salutation. You will see princes sitting in public places with their friends, with a cup of coffee, as unassumingly and as little stared at as any respectable citizen, You may sometimes see a grand-duke come into a country inn, GEEMANY. 271 call for his glass of ale, drink it, pay for it, and go away as un- ceremoniously as yourself. % * * #■ % * " The same open and general enjoyment of scenery extends to all other estates and gardens. The country houses of the nobility and gentry are surrounded on all sides with public and private walks. They have seldom any fences about any thing but their private gardens. The people go and walk every where, and never dream of trespassing, nor are ever told of such a thing. This is one of the great charms of this country. All woods, with the rare exception of a deer park, are thus entirely open and un- fenced. You wander where you will, with the most perfect feel- ing of giving no offense. Here are no warning-boards, no threats of steel-traps or spring-guns. A wisp of straw stuck on a pole, the usual sign in Germany of warning, in vintage-time gives you notice that a private walk, which all the rest of the year is open, is then closed ; or a wisp hung on the bough of a tree in the forest, tells you that the common people are not to cut boughs there, or that young trees are planted, and you are not to tread them down. Every where else, you go where you please, through woods, valleys, meadows, gardens, or fields ; and while property is sacred to the possessor, nature is, as it should be, unrestrictedly yours, and every man's. " In this blessed freedom, and with this simple and thorough life of nature and society, there is no country in the world where social and summer life are more enjoyed than in Germany. You are perpetually invited to join a party to a wood-stroll, to go to some lovely village in the hills or the forest, or to some old farm- house, where you get milk and coffee, and take bread with you, perhaps ; Avhere you find a Tanz-boden, or shed, where the young people can have a dance ; where the old sit, and look on, and smoke, and talk, and knit. Or to some old mill, where you have the same accommodations ; or to some inn, on an eminence over- looking a splendid country, as that of the Rhine or Danube, and where, on the terrace, the whole company will play at those sim- ple games so much liked in Germany, as the black man, the blind cow, and others ; where all, high and low, old and young, run and laugh, and are as merry as so many boys and girls. " But it is in the capitals that this social out-of-door life is car- ried to the greatest extent, as well as to the highest pitch of per- fection. The most celebrated bands, band-masters, and musical composers of Germany, are in daily requisition to give the highest impetus and enchantment to the popular enjoyment. Extensive gardens stretch on all hands, where cassinos rear their heads. 272 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. crescents and colonnades extend themselves, groves and bowery walks with numberless seats offer their friendly shade, fountains splash and sparkle with a graceful and soothing witchcraft, orches- tras, in the shape of open pillared temples, stand aloft for the ac- commodation of musical bands, and throngs of the gayest people of the place make all lively, varied, and unceasingly attractive. At Munich, the English Garden, Tivoli, &c. ; at Dresden, the Grosse Garten, the Linkische Bad ; at Berlin, the Thier Garten, the Winter Garten, and all the neighboring resorts of Charlotteh- burg, of San Souci, of the Pfauen Insel, &c. ; at Prague, the Baumgarten, the Feen and Farber Insel ; at Vienna, the Volks- Garten, in the very heart, of the Vorstadt, and in front of the im- perial palace itself; the Prater, the Augarten, &c, with all the beautiful resorts of Schc'mbrunn, Hitzing, the mountain paradises of Baden, the Briihl, &c, &c. — where Strauss and Lanner, and other leaders, are perpetually performing with their bands during the summer evenings to eager thousands — bear testimony to the universality of this joyous and social out-of-door existence. " There are no people on the face of the earth that all summer long enjoy themselves like the Germans in their gay capitals ; but autumn approaches, and the great climacteric of the year is reached. The whole nation is astir. Not a man or woman can rest long. Every one must fly in quest of change, and pleasure, and health. The whole population is like one huge hive of bees at the point of swarming — there is one vast motion, buzz, and hum. Every soul must have his Herbst-reise, his autumn tour. He must visit the watering-places, and drink, and bathe. He must traverse the Rhine, the Elbe, or the Danube. He must climb the mountains of Switzerland, or the Tyrol. Steamers are every where loaded to sinking ; inns are full to suffocation ; and landlords stand shaking their heads, gabbling German, French, English, Italian, and Russian, and bowing away disconsolate travelers and dusty carriages from their doors. Railway trains are enormous in length ; and a smoking and a talking are going on in them, that are astounding to the stranger. Baden, Baden-Baden, Wisbaden, all the Badens ; Schlangen-Bad, Carlsbad, Wildbad, Alexisbad, all the Bads; Ems, Ischl, Bad-Gastein — every watering-place is full. Meeting in the early morning, and drinking of the sulphur- ous or effervescing water in the Kursaal, or holding a five-o'clock gossip in the warm general baths, men and women together; plunging into hot or cold baths in private, making drives to the neighboring castles and scenery ; sitting for two hours at tables d'hote ; purchasing of nosegays and paying musicians ; the parade, the splendid conversation-house, the ball, the reunion, GEEMANT. 273 the gambling in an evening — and thus it goes at the watering- places. " But every spot of the country which is attractive ; every mountain district, every gay town, every fine stream, is alive with the ever-moving throng of pleasure-tourists. The hights and cas- tles of the Rhine and Danube ; the vales and defiles of the Saxon Switzerland ; the romantic regions of the Saltzburg, the Noric and the Swabian Alps, the Franconian and Thuringian forests, in short, every spot of gayety or beauty receives the temporary hosts of these wanderers. " The Germans travel comparatively little abroad. Some go to Rome, some to Paris, a very few to England ; but through their own Fatherland they circulate like the life-blood in the living- system, and as their enormous stretches of railway are completed, will do so more and more. And in truth, I can say from experi- ence, that a more delightful mode of spending an autumn is to be found in no country. " The Germans retain more of the picturesque and poetical in their festivals, both public and domestic, than we do. They are particularly fond of garlands on all such occasions. Their festive or triumphal arches are beautiful. Their dining-rooms are hung with festoons, and adorned with wreaths of flowers and green boughs, with great poetical feeling and elegance. The birth-days of their princes, or anniversaries of great days in their own lives, are celebrated often in picturesque situations. Sometimes within the court of a fine old ruin of a castle on one of their mountain hights, such as those above the Rhine, the Danube, the Elbe, or the Nectar ; and the walls and approaches are richly decorated with garlands and wreaths. Traces of such a festival we found in the court of Auerbach Castle, on the Bergstrasse, where the an- niversary of the birth-day of the Grand Duke of Hesse Darmstadt had been kept. The rural rostrum of moss and stones yet re- mained, from which the army-chaplain had delivered an oration. The wreaths of oak-leaves on the walls, each of which inclosed the name and date of a battle in which the duke had been en- gaged — some of which, by-the-by, must have been fought against the Fatherland, under the banners of Napoleon — still hung there too. " On private birth-days, such garlands are as much in use. Birth- days are kept more ceremoniously than with us. Your friends come in to congratulate you ; and at dinner your health is drunk with a great touching of glasses. On the wall hangs a lyre, formed of wood or other material, covered with moss, and adorned with leaves and flowers. This is kept from year to year, many of 12* 2*74 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. the flowers being everlastings. On the table, round its central ornament of sugar-work, a temple generally, with a figure or de- vice bearing an appropriate sentiment, burn as many little wax- lights as the years at which the person has arrived. You see this love of the poetical carried into all occasions of social pleasure. In England, we read of wreaths and garlands, but seldom see them. In Germany, the bridal and the funeral garlands are still no fictions. The bride wears, and goes to church in the Braut- Jcranz, or bridal garland, even the poorest ; and the funeral car is richly adorned with wreaths of leaves and flowers. On their graves are, again, hung wreaths, as in the old times of England ; and there grow roses and carnations, and other flowers and shrubs, making the region of decay lovely. There is also, at balls and dancing parties, a great presentation of little bouquets ; and at the tables d'hote, boys or girls come round and offer you bouquets ; and will, if required, bring them to your house through the whole year. " But on no occasion does the sentiment and domestic character of the Germans show itself so strongly in this respect, as at Christ- mas. This is expressly a family festival. In England it used to be so in the olden times, but now it is more a festival of friends. We have in many places still our waits and carol- parties. Parties meet at great houses in the country ; friends exchange visits ; din- ner and dancing parties are made ; and there is great jollity, eat- ing of mince-pies and roast-beef, drinking of wine, and still, in some old houses and rural districts, the burning of the yule-block. But in most of these pleasures the more adult personages are chiefly considered. The children are, in a great measure, excluded from them. The parents and elder brothers and sisters are going out to dine, or to evening parties, or are busy receiving their friends to such at home. The children get mince-pies, but make little or no part of the festivities. This is quite the reverse of the German custom. There, Christmas-eve is the great family festival, to which all, old and young alike, look forward with intense delight. It is strictly a domestic and home festival. It is not so much a time of being visited and visiting as a time in which every family draws round its stove, and celebrates a festival of family affection. Here the children are not so much secondaries as principals. Their happiness is considered most of all ; and in their happiness the gladness of all centers and grows. Accordingly, there is no time in the whole year toward which all, but especially the young and the children, look forward with such eager anticipation. It is a feast of the heart, and is emphatically called, Der Gluckliche Abend, the Happy Evening. GERMANY. 275 " So completely are the pleasures of this evening woven into the German mind from childhood up, that poets in their most beauti- ful verses illustrate the delights of their mature years by reference to them, as Claudius in some admirable lines entitled Taglich zu Singen. ' I thank thee, God, and rejoice myself, like the child over its Christmas- eve gifts, that I live, live ! and that I possess thee, beautiful human counte- nance ! That I can behold the sun, the mountains, the sea, the foliage, and the grass, and at evening can walk beneath the host of stars, and the dear moon ; and that I am then in heart as full of joy and admiration as when we children came and saw what the holy Christ-child had sent us. Amen.' " The very poorest and the very youngest partake as largely in the joy of this evening as any. Servants and all participate in it. For several months, therefore, there are great preparations making among the ladies for it. Each member of the family then makes a present to all the other members ; parents to children and ser- vants, children to their parents, servants to their master and mis- tress, and often to the children, children to them and one another. All those elegant and useful little things which ladies employ themselves in making — in needle-work, in drawing and painting, as ornamented purses, slippers, bracelets, watch-pockets, gloves, dressing up of dolls, articles of warm and ornamental wear, as gay-colored worsted little coats, called Kassaveikas, and cloaks of knotted work, are busily preparing. Bead-work presents itself in a variety of articles, as necklaces, purses, card-cases, cigar-cases, watch-pockets in the form of ladies' slippers, and innumerable other articles of fancy-work. " As all these have to be kept from the knowledge of the party for whom they are intended, till they are laid out on Christmas- eve itself, it is evident that a good deal of management is required. During the two or three months before Christmas, therefore, ladies are full of secrets, which, spite of the proverb, are faith- fully kept. They work when they are alone, or when that person of the family for whom the thing then in hand is intended is not present. They sometimes sit up after the rest are retired, or get up an hour earlier, or take out their work and go and sit with a friend at another house now and then. But, spite of all these contrivances and precautions, there are dangers of continual sur- prises ; and when you enter rather unexpectedly into a room, you see a great bustle and a hiding away of things under sofa- cushions, at the bottom of work-bags and baskets. These little schemes and alarms occasion, as may be supposed, a good deal of merri- ment among those who are in the particular secrets ; and all round have secrets that one or another is not in. 2*76 THE WORLD WE LIVE US - . " All this time, too, there is much considering going on in differ- ent heads as to what presents that are to be purchased, shall be purchased. Fathers and mothers, brothers and sisters, are pick- ing up by reflection, and by what occurs in conversation, ideas of what would be most acceptable or beneficial to the different mem- bers of their domestic circle. And then comes a looking-out for it. At the autumn fairs a great number of thing's are bought with an express reference to Christmas, and till then are stowed away in secret. But for about a month before Christmas the shops are all filled with things for presents. Not merely the toy- shops and shops of fancy wares, but every man who by a possi- bility can turn his shop into a bazar for Weighnachtsgeschenke, or Christmas presents, does. A man that all the rest of the year is a. sieve-maker and seller of turnery ware, suddenly, we observed, had his shop filled with every conceivable article of wood that can form presents. It was as if a magical spell had been exerted, and all his tubs and barrels, and sieves and spigots, were converted into dolls, wooden boxes full of toys, chess-boards, and boards of other games. His tables were covered with boxes full of little toy household things, sets of tea things, sets of kitchen utensils, little dinner-services, whips and hobby-horses, carts, wagons, dolls without end, churches and other buildings in sections for children to put together, and innumerable things of the like kind. The pipe shops are now, especially, crowded with these articles, as they, in a smoking country like Germany, are, of course, favorite presents. Eveiy bit of their windows is filled, till they seem lit- erally built up with them, offering vast variety of meerschaum and porcelain pipe-heads ; the latter with paintings of countless female faces, scenes from recent history and favorite authors, and of favorite spots in the Fatherland. " For about a fortnight before Christmas the stores and markets are filled with preparations. Baskets and stalls full of dressed dolls, from the price of a penny to a florin or more ; various gro- tesque animals of wool, or fur, or wood, intended for lambs, dogs, horses, and various other creatures, to which it would be difficult to attach name or imaginable resemblance. These are made by the peasants or lower class of townspeople, and are sold for the children of such. The children of the common schools and infant schools have all a present given them, be it only a penny doll, or a little handkerchief of a few pence value. Numbers of Christ- mas-trees show themselves for sale: These are principally tops of fir-trees, or boughs straight enough to resemble tops. Much damage is said to be done in the woods at this season by the cut- ting of these tops ; the wood-watchers are particularly on the GEEMANY. 211 alert, and a heavy fine is inflicted on any offenders that are taken in the act. These trees are from six inches high up to ten or twelve feet or more, according to the size of the house, or the finances of the purchaser. They are generally set in a thick board or block of wood, weighted with lead, and on this board is made a garden, paled in with ornamental paling, having at the back generally a house of wood or cardboard. The garden is filled with moss and green sprigs of the fir, and in it stand shepherds, sheep, a dog, a stork, and one or more stags with gilded horns. " This is intended to represent the annunciation of the birth of Christ to the shepherds ; and, accordingly, an angel is seen, sus- pended by a wire from the stem of the tree, as in the act of hov- ering in the air and proclaiming the glad tidings. The shep- herds and animals are made of clay, most grotesque creatures, painted in barbarous style ; the storks adorned with feathers, for tails, stuck into the clay ; and all are propped on little pegs of wood. " The whole is, no doubt, derived from the legends of the Cath- olic Church, and displays pretty much the same degree of art and general appearance as it did ages before the Reformation. '-' As Christmas-eve approaches, and especially for the few days before it, the shops and markets are crowded with purchasers. Christmas-trees are seen moving off in various directions, with their gardens appended, or others without gardens, the families which have purchased these having retained their garden of former years on its block of wood. The day of Christmas-eve itself, the floors of the shops are literally piled with the baskets of country people, which they have set down while they make their little purchases for their children. " The important eve itself arrives. Throughout Germany, in every house, from the palace to the cottage, where there are chil- dren, there stands a Christmas-tree. In the houses of the rich and the well-to-do, there has been much preparation. According to ancient custom, about a fortnight before Christmas, Pelznichel, or Knecht Rupert, has made his visit to the children. This person represents no other than St. Nicholas, as we learn from an old poem. ST. NIKLAS. ' Yater. Es wird aus den zeitungen vernommen Dass der heilige Niklas werde kommen,' &c. Which in simple prose may be rendered thus : Father. — The newspapers say that the holy St. Nicholas will soon he here from Moscow, where he is held in great esteem, and is honored as a 278 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. saint. He is already on the way to visit the tender school-children. To see what the little boys and girls have this year learned in praying, -writ- ing, singing, and reading ; and to see whether they have been pretty good. He has put into his sack beautiful dolls of sugar-work, with which to honor those children who have been good. Child. — Holy St. Nicholas, I pray thee very much to turn into my house too. Bring books, and clothes, and shoes, and many another nice thing. So will I learn well, and be good, as I should be. Amen. St. Nicholas. — God greet you, dear little children. Tou must be obedi- ent to your father and mother, and then shall I give you some beautiful Christmas gifts. But if you are not so, I shall bring the stick and the rod. Amen. "Pelznichel is a man disguised in a fur cap, and otherwise made awful to children by his singular habiliments, being armed with a rod, having a capacious bag or pouch hanging before him, and a large chain thrown round him, whose end being dropped on the ground as he walks, makes to their imaginations a mysterious noise. Sometimes he has a number of little bells hung about him, and thence is called by Richter, in his Fixlein, ' Knecht Ruprecht, with his jingling bells.' His name of Knecht Ruprecht is most likely derived from the idea that he is the servant of the Christ- child, who sends him to prepare for his own arrival on Christmas- eve. He is, in fact, some servant or dependent of the family, who engage him to undertake this office, and furnish him with requi- site information. The children above eight or nine years old are let into the secret, which they faithfully keep. The younger chil- dren, as the time draws on, are often reminded that Christmas is coming, and that Pelznichel will be here, and, according as they are good or bad, will correct or reward them. If they have been bad children, he will use his rod ; if good, he will bring them nuts, and apples, and cakes, from the good Christ-child. AH this they receive as gospel, and with the greatest awe, and it has a strong effect upon them. They have a notion that Pelznichel, or the Christ-child, has his eyes upon them when they are not aware. That Pelznichel is going round the house at night and listening, and if they are naughty is sure to hear them ; or that the Christ- child, with an ubiquitous knowledge, sees all, and tells Pelznichel all about them. They look forward, therefore, with great awe and some anxiety to the appearance of Pelznichel. At length, some days before St. Nicholas's day, the father or mother says, 'Well, children, now be very good, for Pelznichel is coming. He has sent word that he will be here on such an evening at six o'clock.' " On that evening all is expectation, and scarcely is tea away when there comes a ring at the door. All exclaim, ' That must GERMANY. 2*79 foe Pelznichel !' The faces of the children are filled with awful expectation. All stand silent. Presently is heard a distant and mysterious ringing of bells ; a jingling of chains on the stone stairs. It becomes more distinct — it approaches ; there is a heavy accompanying tread. There is a bustle in the passage, as if some matter of great moment was occurring. Voices are heard speaking, and, among them, one deep and strange one. That is Pelznichel. The heavy tread, the ringing bells, the clanking chains, the bustle, and the voices are at the door ; every eye is fixed on it. All are rooted in silent awe. The door opens, and in stalks the strange figure of Pelznichel — the Mumbo Jumbo of Germany, while behind him are the assembled servants of the household, full of curiosity, to witness what he will say and do. He announces that he is sent by the good Christ-child to reward good children, and correct the bad. Every little heart beats with hope or fear. He addresses them by turns, beginning with the eldest. He asks them how they have pursued their studies ; per- haps calls for their books ; pronounces an opinion on their progress, and by what he says gives them intimations that he is aware of their general conduct, and of particular acts, good or evil, which fills them with surprise. If they have quarreled on their way to school ; if they have been ungenerous or revengeful, they are sure to be told of it. He turns to each child in rotation, and adapts his rewards to the age and character of each. The very little ones often propitiate him by addressing him in a little rhyme the moment his eyes are turned upon them, and which the nurse has taught them for the purpose. ' Christ-kindschen komm ; Macli mich fromm ; Das ich zu dir in Himmel komm.' Which is, literally, ' Christ-child, come ; make me good, that I may come to thee in heaven.' The aspect of a little child stand- ing in awe and in faith before Pelznichel, and in the soft, innocent tones of its voice making this simple petition in the truth of its heart, as I have seen it, is one of the most beautiful and affecting things in the world. " Pelznichel talks sternly, and with menacing agitations of his rod, to those who have been stubborn, lazy, or disobedient, and commends those who have been otherwise. He hands the rod to the father, and commands him to use it when necessary, or he vows to come and use it himself. He seldom, however, proceeds on this occasion to any actual chastisement, as it is intended rather as a means of reformation, by instilling a salutary fear ; and he 280 THE WOELD WE LIVE LTST. adds that, on Christmas-eve, Christ-kindschen will come, and ac- cording as they behave, in the mean time, will reward them for good or ill. If for good, they will find many nice things on and under the Christmas-tree ; if on the contrary, he will himself, probably, be ordered to fetch them, and carry them into the woods in the mountains, and there to shut them up in a cave in the rocks, in the cold and darkness, where snakes hiss, owls hoot, toads and salamanders crawl, and fire runs about the ground. He generally ends by dealing out, from his bag, nuts, apples, and little cakes, to each of them, and throwing others on the floor ; while they are busy in scrambling for them he disappears. " In the country Pelznichel goes about on a donkey, and actually often chastises the children of the peasantry. His visit in town or country has mostly a decisive effect. The parents remind the children of what he has said. They congratulate them on the commendations they have received ; they remark on the faults he has related of them, and the fact that they are seen and observed often when they little think of it. They encourage them to begin seriously to correct and improve themselves, and to secure from Christ-kindschen a certain token of approbation of their conduct. The ensuing fortnight is a season of self- watchfulness and pro- bation. " The day arrives. The drawing-room, or, in Germany, the saloon, is closed. Only the person who is intrusted with each one's secret is admitted to it, and has the key. All the young people of the family, in fact, have been previously busy in pre- paring the tree, gilding walnuts and apples, and hanging them upon it ; hanging on it also sundry little cakes, and figures of sugar-work of various colors. This has been the source of great delight to them. The tree has been set in its place, and then the room consigned to the one confidential person, who has laid out, in tasteful array, the presents intended for every person, each in a group by themselves. " As soon as it is dark, and tea is over, the doors of the room are thrown open at the ringing of a bell, and a scene of splendor and beauty is revealed which produces one general exclamation of delight, and strikes, with a charming surprise, a person who has never witnessed such a one before. The whole room is filled with light. Opposite to you soars aloft the Christmas-tree in its fairy- land beauty ; and around extend tables covered with, and hung in front with drapery, often displaying great taste and elegance in its disposal and ornaments ; and on these tables lie the various presents which have so long been secretly making and procuring, It would be difficult to describe either the wonder and admiration GERMANY. 281 of the children, as they gaze on the whole brilliant scene ; on the lovely tree, glittering with golden and silver fruit, seeming at the same time rich with innumerable flowers of various shapes and colors, and irradiated with lights. The mutual surprise and pleas- ure of the different members of the family, as they are shown what presents are there laid for them, and hear from whom each comes ; the course of explanations that goes on ; the sudden rec- ognitions of the cause which has prompted such and such pres- ents from such and such persons ; the pleasant amazement ; the thanks ; the laughter ; the tears of affection that come into the eyes of the different members of the happy family, are more readily imagined than described. " But not only the poor in their cottages have their Christmas- tree ; in schools and other institutions it is set up. A prettier or more affecting sight we have seldom seen than the celebration of Christmas-day in the infant school at Heidelberg. Here, at three o'clock in the afternoon, were the parents and children, the pat- rons and friends of the school, assembled. Upward of eighty little boys and girls, all under six years of age, were seated on low forms in the middle of the school, opposite to the master's desk, in front of which, on a raised platform, stood four tall Christmas-trees, or, as they called them, sugar-trees, decorated with the usual appendages of cakes, apples, &c, and at their feet stood a row of tapers ready to be kindled. " Besides these, were various colored engravings ; an excellent one of Christ Blessing the Little Children ; a kind of erection of straw- woi'k, containing stages, on one of which was a dancing bear, on another a tournament, with knights riding, with candles burning all over it. These figures revolved by means of a perpendicular spindle, having attached to its top a sort of fan, like the ventilator of a window, which was moved by the warm air ascending from the candles. There were many funny little three-legged pots, of true German fashion, set on the platform among the lights, a gift to the children from some one, to amuse them in their school play-hours. " To the right sat the spectators, many ladies and gentlemen of the place ; to the left the parents of the children. The master lit up the tapers on the trees, and the row of them at their feet, and a murmur of delight rose from the little troop of children. The blinds had all been drawn down, to exclude as much of the ex- terior light as possible, and the scene was very bright. The mas- ter read from his desk an address prepared for the occasion ; and after the little scholars had sung a Christmas hymn or two very prettily, they were dismissed, one by one, with their pinafores full 282 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". of toys, good warm articles of clothing, and a quantity of cakes and apples, the former of which had been sent as a Christmas gift to them by a worthy baker. It was pleasant to see the delighted faces of all present ; the eager looks of the parents as their chil- dren came forward to receive their presents ; and how the mothers, as they advanced toward the door, snatched them up, and carried them off, gifts and all together. "Even inmates of the asylums, as if they were at home among their children, are treated to a Christmas-tree, and the brilliance of Christmas-eve. It is the great sacred festival of Germany, and is much more regarded than Sunday. On Sunday, great numbers of shops in most towns are open, things are brought home from different makers as on another day, and ladies sit knitting in company as usual. On Christmas-day nearly all shops are closed, and even ladies refrain from knitting ; and all is solemn and decorous. Two days are made holidays, and the tree is not pulled down till New-Year's day, when the children rifle its treas- ures, and different members of the family frequently keep some particular article from it as a remembrance. The solemnity of Christmas is also further marked, riot only by the increased servi- ces in the churches from Advent to Christmas, but also by balls and other public amusements being laid aside during that period. " Such are the Christmas customs of Germany. . It must be confessed that there is something very amiable, poetical, and beau- tiful in them ; but the English and American mind will not, at the same time, be able to avoid feeling a repugnance to the making so free with the person of Christ, and still more to the delusions that are thus practiced, and falsehoods practically taught to the chil- dren. That this is the Christ-child ; that he brings all these gifts from heaven ; that Pelznichel is sent by him, and so on — the mo- ment a child grows old enough to see through this, he must begin to think that his parents care little for the truth, and be in danger of adopting an idea that he need not much regard it himself. In fact, at a certain age, the parents are obliged to let the children into the secret, and to take them, as it were, into a partnership of imposing on their younger brothers and sisters. This is very bad ; and when the next step to this, in domestic education, is to stuff the young mind with a whole host of Mdrchen, household legends of a similar kind, we must fear that truth cannot be very sacred among them. And is it ? Our experience is, that it is far from being so much so as it should be. Whoever has looked through their literature, must have felt surprised at the freedom with which the heroes of the stories by the most celebrated masters, Goethe, for instance, tell any kind of fib to help them out of GEEMANT. 283 scrapes. Whoever has seen much of private life in Germany, will, we fear, have experienced a similar surprise. Spite of the national boasts of the Deutsche Treue und Deutsche Wahrheit, German faithfulness and truth, this is a fact which merits the most serious attention of a people so proud of their improvements in education ; and it seems wonderful that it has not struck them, that all the essential and beautiful of this Christmas practice will remain independent of these fictions. The tree may still be set up ; the children may still look forward to finding under it pres- ents for the good, and it will be just as delightful to their young hearts that these are the testimonies of parental and household affection, as if they suppose them brought by a Christ-kindschen. If they prize the wonder which such deceptions bring, it is still worth while asking whether that momentary wonder may not be purchased too dear ; that is, by the lasting injury to truthfulness. All that wonder, too, may be imparted by relating to the children at these times, what were the legends and the fancies of their an- cestors, for the imagination is perhaps more delighted with what is presented to it as an ideal of the past, than as an actuality of the present." Before leaving Germany, we should like to speak of " the stu- dent life" there, so peculiar and striking, and to which Mr. Howitt has devoted an entire volume. But we have not the room, and can only say that, while studious in the main, and often making the highest attainments in learning, the members of the different universities are a " hard set of fellows," given to drinking, carous- ing, dueling, and the most outrageous merry-making. Recently, indeed, dueling has been discouraged by the civil governments as well as by the university authorities, but it yet prevails to a con- siderable extent. Students have occasionally, though very rarely of late years, lost their lives in these "jousts of honor;" more generally, however, they get off with a slit nose, a gashed cheek, or a mangled ear. Scars are not unfrequently seen upon the faces of students, as they parade the streets. Their beer-drinking duels or contests, in which they endeavor to outdrink each other, are more common, and followed with less disastrous consequences. Singing, dancing, drinking, smoking, and similar practices, are almost universal among them. Indeed, they may be described, with some honorable exceptions, as a wild, " harum-scarum" set of fellows, yet often generous, freedom -loving, and self-sacrificing ; and it is really surprising how many of them turn out good schol- ars and useful citizens. We cannot, however, omit some account of the wander- ing journeymen, or craftsmen. And here we must have re- 284 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. course to Mr. Howitt's admirable description, as the best we know : " Not less singular nor less conspicuous than the student-life of Germany, is that of the handwerksbursche, or wandering handi- craftsmen. One of the first things on your arrival in the country which strikes your eye, is the number of young men on the roads with knapsacks on their backs, and stout sticks in their hands. They have a wayfaring, but not a mendicant or vagabond look, though, to your surprise, they will often, on the approach of your carriage, off with their caps and run along beside it, to ask for something. Their looks — frequently those of mere boys, often handsome lads, too, well dressed, though in a peculiar pedestrian style — and their good and well-stored knapsacks, do not fail to fill you with curiosity, especially when, without the slightest aspect of shame or of impudence, they solicit you for money, and you learn, on inquiring, that these are the Gesellen, handwerksbursche, or wandering journeymen of Germany ; that this rambling all over the country of such numbers of these young men, in every part and every direction, is not so much a matter of choice as of neces- sity ; that, for three or more years after the expiration of their apprenticeship, they must thus pursue their travels, and on their return must give evidence of having become perfect in their call- ing, by making their meisterstiick, or masterpiece, before they can obtain permission to enter on business for themselves. There is no doubt but that if, instead of all these young men wandering all over the country for the appointed term of three years, during which period much time is lost in the wandering itself, they were sent direct to the few cities where their own craft is most successfully pursued, or were taught enough of the Eng- lish and French languages for common purposes, and were sent at once to London or Paris, they would, in as many months as they now spend years, learn three times as much. They would thus come at one leap to the fountain-heads of that knowledge which they seek, and there speedily make themselves masters of the latest discoveries and improvements. We should then no longer see, as we do with wonder when we first come to Germany, the strange old-fashioned locks, door-handles — actually levers — queer knives and forks, comical pots and kitchen utensils, odd old-world carriages, lumbering eil-wagons, so called, and many other things which throw us back some hundreds of years in the history of mechanical improvement. Their artists, indeed, do not pursue this method ; they sedulously seek to acquaint themselves with the master- works of Greece and Italy, and the effect is in accordance. But in all else the Germans, if left alone, will go on to eternity GERMANY. 285 in the same track. They are like steam-engines set upon a line. They are full of power, and will march on exerting it forever in one course, unless some mighty influence from without breaks irresistibly in upon them and throws them off the rail ; as Bona- parte broke in, and as steam-power is now again breaking in, destined to produce far more wonderful changes among them than did the fiery Corsican. But there are advantages derived from this wandering system of the handicrafts, which may be said to be far more than a justi- fication of it. If much time is lost to their artistical advancement, and if they seldom reach that degree of excellence which an ex- clusive direction of their attention to the capitals of Europe would bring, on the other hand, they see more of their own country than the same class in any part of the world does. They wander, at public cost, through the various states of their common country. They see the vai-ieties of men and manners, of cities and costumes. The beauties of nature are brought under the eye of all that have a feeling for them. They tread the spots celebrated in their his- tory, and calculated to inspire a patriotic sentiment. They are made aware of the greatness and extent of the Fatherland. Gal- leries, works of art, noble specimens of architecture, celebrated ruins, and peculiar institutions are open to their observation ; and many of them, as we shall see, do not neglect to avail themselves of these privileges, and lay up for their future lives a store of the most delightful recollections and subjects of conversation. It is, in fact, in this point of view, rather than as a means of perfecting themselves in their individual arts, that the excellence of the sys- tem, in my opinion, lies ; though at the same time it is not to be denied that it is attended with many dangers and abuses, as it must be, while it lets loose such a swarm of raw and rude youths as must of necessity exist in this class, who, without gathering much good for themselves, are very capable of corrupting those that they circulate among. The handicraft guilds are divided into nine or ten different kinds — i. e., they consist of so many different kinds of handicrafts, or are differently constituted, For instance, there are city and vil- lage handicrafts. The city ones consist of those who folioAv the arts which contribute more particularly to the elegances and lux- uries of life ; and the village ones of such as are there rather tol- erated because such must be had, than regarded with admiration as masters in their calling. Among these are classed the ordinary run of linen- weavers, wheel- wrights, cobblers, tailors, joiners, smiths, tilers, brick-layers, and potters. Then there are limited and unlimited handicrafts. The limited are those where, through 286 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". a privilege granted by the lord of the country, only a certain number of masters in each handicraft are allowed within its bounds, and no one can be there constituted a master by the magistrates, without the consent of the masters of the guild. In the unlimited, where the masters of the guild refuse to admit a young man who has gone through his years of probation, a ma- gistrate, on his proving this, and showing his masterpiece, that he is entitled to it, can compel his admission. There are, again, close and exclusive guilds, which consist of the artisans of fine and delicate crafts. Such are to be found particularly in Niirn- berg, as those of the awl-smiths, black-lead pencil-makers, turners, coppersmiths, bell-founders, gold and silver wire-drawers, &c. These neither send out their youths to study any where else, nor receive the gesellen from any other places, except where the same close guilds exist ; and toward the hand- workers of their trade who belong not to these close guilds, observe none of the usages of the handicraft unions. They make, again, among themselves, distinctions into fine and coarse trades, as among the workers in wood are classed with the latter, carpenters, joiners, coopers, and cart-wrights ; among the workers in iron, smiths ; while fine ones in wood are turners, cabinet-makers, and carvers ; in metals, spur, file, and lock smiths. They have further distinctions between the different branches of a handicraft, be it in works in stone, iron, gold, silver, silk, wool, or what else. So, under the head of workers in leather, are the tanners, the fellmongers, the curriers, saddlers, the shoemakers, and the glovers. There are also hired handicrafts, and retailing handicrafts. The first are such as have no right to sell their own work, and must, therefore, serve a master. The second class have the privilege, if they please, to work on their own account, and' to stand as dealers in the yearly fairs. There are, again, simple and conjoint guilds, i. e., guilds consisting purely of those of one trade, and guilds in which two or more trades are united. But their most essential distinction, so far as it regards the comfort of the gesellen while on their wanderschaft, is into geschenkte and unge- schenkte— -those who give a stipulated allowance to these young men, in case they do not find work in any town. It is a prevail- ing notion that every guild, without exception, by a fixed law, appoints a regular sum to be given to every gesell, which is con- tributed by every master in the trade, in each town where he seeks work and does not find it ; but this is not the case. Some only do this ; others, again, do it not ; and there is a third class, which, though it does not prescribe a fixed sum, ordains that something shall be given, which is done out of the common chest, * GEEMANT. 28*7 Where but little is given, it is the custom of those gesellen who are in work to contribute to assist those who are not ; and where nothing is given, the gesell on his travels depends upon his own resources, and the contributions of his brother workmen who are in employ. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that many of these young men who have to travel, and yet depend in a great degree on their resources, should be compelled sometimes to beg ; or that this being the case with a part of them, should furnish a plea to any or all of the rest to do the same. Every handicraft has its Herberge, or inn, and here the guild has its chest. Here the traveling gesell resorts, and not only finds his home till he can obtain work, or must proceed on his journey, but here he is sought for by masters who want hands. On his arrival he immediately announces himself to the Jungmeis- ter, or handworks-messenger, who gives him any information that he possesses as to those that need hands. He must then go round to the masters, and where they do not happen to be in, the Altgesell, or oldest journeyman in each shop, who acts as fore- man, gives bim an answer. In the herberge the sick are cared for, and there the guild has its meetings. Every guild has its guildmaster, with a handworks- deputy, or assessor, appointed by the magistracy, and other as- sistant masters. It has its Ladenmeister, or treasurer, and its messenger, or Jungmeister, the latest admitted to the guild, who gives notices of these meetings, and is in attendance to execute the commands of the elders. In these meetings the chest is opened which contains the laws and statutes of the guild, its rec- ords, accounts, letters, &c. ; and from this circumstance comes the expression among the handworkers, of whatever is done at these meetings, being done at open chest. These herberges are very curious. From the ceiling depends the insignia of the trade to which it belongs. From that of the shoemakers hangs a wooden boot ; from that of the smith, a horse- shoe ; from that of the coopers, a small barrel ; and so on, adorned with various colored ribbons. In a village herberge, where the various handicrafts use but one house, the insignia of the different trades are suspended over the different tables where the members of the different handicrafts sit. The apprenticeships vary in duration from three to six years ; the shorter periods being generally compensated for by a propor- tionate premium. The general term of the wanderschaft is three years ; but there are handicrafts in which four, and even six years wandering are required. When a youth has served out his ap- 288 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. prenticeship, it is necessary, before he can proceed on his wander- schaft, that his master should declare him free at open chest, that is, before the assembled guild. Formerly, these guilds, or zunfts, were very strict in their requirings before an apprentice could be entered on the rank of gesell. His freedom and respectability must be proved by the certificate of his birth ; and to maintain the honor of the guild, so far was this carried, that illegitimate children, and even the legitimate children of shepherds, bailiffs, watchmen, beadles, and of those parents who had been in a house of correction, were excluded. These absurd proscriptions have been justly done away with. The youth, being made free from his master, demands from the guild a copy of his birth and apprenticeship certificates, which lie in the chest. These must be signed and sealed by the masters of the ziinft ; and besides this, if he shall have worked there as a gesell some time between the expiration of his apprenticeship and his setting out, must be added a printed form of testimony to that effect. All these testimonies are generally copied, not upon sep- arate papers, but into a book called the Wander-book, which it behooves him most carefully to preserve, as no handworker with- out these documents will be employed by any master. If the articles of the ziinft do not expressly require a wander- schaft to be made, it remains at the option of the youths them- selves whether they will make it or not ; but such guilds are very few in number. There are some where the gesells do not wander, but must work as such for a fixed period, and can remain for that time with the master with whom they were apprenticed. The articles of the guild declare expressly whether the gesell shall travel within his own State or beyond it. It is generally required to go beyond it. Some trades, but these are few, decree that the gesell during the period of his wanderschaft shall not return home at all. The sons of masters in some trades had the privilege either of exemption from wandering, or the period was curtailed in duration for them ; but this is stated by Mittermeyer to be now contrary to law. So then the gesell is freed by his guild ; but before he can set out he must obtain one thing more, and that is his passport from the police. In earlier times, the handworkers and artists traveled without a pass or written document, and were furnished with a secret formula, by which they were recognized, called the Hand- worker's Greeting ; but the abuses to which this led, especially in unsettled times, by enabling bad characters thus to overrun the country, induced the emperor, in 1*731, to issue an order for the whole of Germany, that no person whatever should be allowed to GEKMA1ST. 289 travel without a regular passport. The passports of this class, therefore, are very strictly demanded, in order that the police may be able to keep a sharp oversight on them during their whole term of wandering, and so that at any time they may by this means be able to tell where any individual of them is. By this means, too, every youth may be traced by his friends, and the ex- act circumstances in which he is can be ascertained at any given time. Furnished with this wander-book and this passport, and joining himself, if possible, with one or two others, who are setting out on their journeys of probation too, he mounts his knapsack, and takes leave of his friends. With many warnings and good wishes, and much good advice from father and mother, and from those old friends who, in their day, have gone the same wanderschaft, and with his heart full of tender regrets at leaving the spot of birth and youth, and of wonder and expectation of what he is to see ; of the great cities, and strange people, and curious customs ; of the mountains and rivers of which he has heard so much from other gesellen, or from his father and friends, he sets forth. There is a beautiful account in the life of Hans Sachs, the cele- brated shoemaker-poet of Nurnberg, of his thus setting forth. It is thus that we see these youths strolling on in groups, or one by one, from town to town, in every part of Germany. A leathern knapsack on their backs, under the cover of which is gen- erally rolled a cape, to throw over their shoulders in rain ; a hat, often covered with oilskin ; in summer a linen blouse, bound round the waist with a belt ; in the hand a stout stick, and in the mouth, or peeping out of a pocket, a pipe. The dignity of carrying a stick and a pipe in public, or in company, is one to which the youth only arrives on issuing out of his apprenticeship, and taking the rank of a gesell. He has generally a wickerwork-guarded flask hanging by his side from a cord, for brandy or wine in cold weather, and for wine or water in summer. At each end of his knapsack peep the soles of a pair of boots ; and he has often, moreover, attached to his knapsack, a pair of small wheels, by which, when his back is weary of it, he can trail it after him with his stick. You see one, now and then, with a long narrow sack, which, well stuffed, hangs over one shoulder and down his side, like a great horse-collar, but this is rare ; the knapsack is the gen- eral wear. The traveling gesell is advised by the experienced to carry no more articles with him than are absolutely necessary, and this is the most approved stock. Besides the clothes on his back, a Suu- day suit, two shirts, two pair of stockings, a few handkerchiefs 13 290 THE WOELD WE LIVE 1ST. and nightcaps, a pair of scissors, needles and thread, of which he will often have need, and must learn the use of. If these are well packed, he will, says his adviser, have room also for a few books, especially a Bible and a handwork-traveler's pocket-book. There are pocket-books prepared expressly for his use, and excellent ones they are. They contain rules for preserving his health ; an alphabetical list of those cities where each trade is pre-eminently pursued, and where he can best obtain his object ; instructions as to what is demanded of him by the police and magistracy ; an ex- position of the constitution of the guilds or innungs ; the principles of his native language, that he may gradually improve himself in it ; advice in case of illness ; tables of the values of the various moneys and of the weights in different States ; calculations of ex- penses ; admirable tables of routes and distances in every direction, not only through his own country, but to the capitals of neighbor- ing kingdoms ; lists of the steamers, packet-boats, and railways, and every thing that relates to eil-wagons and other conveyances, with their charges ; all that respects sending and receiving of letters, money, and other packets ; trade regulations ; a glossary of foreign words that he will be most likely to fall in with ; accounts of the principal buildings, galleries of art, and remarkable objects in those countries and cities through which he may go ; prognostics of weather ; and finally, miscellaneous notices for entertainment and instruction in solitary hours. When he arrives at a town or village, he knows where to find his proper herberge. Here he finds, most probably, others of his trade, and learns from them or the landlord who are the masters in the town. He shows his wander-book to the landlord, and that becomes security for what he may have during his stay. He has then to present his passport at the police-office, and go round to the masters to seek work. If he find it, his passport must lie at the police-office till he again has to move, and it is amazing in the large cities the crowd of these gesellen that you every day see there, bringing their passports, or fetching them away again, pre- paratory to their depai-ture. At Vienna an officer used generally to be keeping them back from the door, and only letting in a por- tion of the thronging mass from time to time, as they could be attended to. In many States they are not allowed to cross the boundaries, although furnished with all these requisite documents, unless they are each in possession of at least two crowns. When driven to extremity, however, a number of those who travel together will contrive, by standing near each other, to make two crown pieces serve for them all, by dexterously handing them from one to GERMANY. 291 another, and thus in succession showing the same pieces to the officers. If they do not find any master in the place wanting a hand, they announce this to the ziinft-master, who gives them a certifi- cate to that effect ; and after receiving the Zehrpfennig, or sum that is allowed by the guild, they are required, without delay of more than one day, to proceed on their journey. A gesell can receive no pecuniary assistance, who either will not take work in the place where it is to be had ; who has within three months been there and received work or a contribution ; who has not the proper certificates, or who has been employed in the place on this visit. If they receive work, they must deliver up their wander-book, to be kept in the ziinft-chest till their departure. When master or man wishes to separate, either of them must give eight days' notice. If the man works by the piece, he must complete his piece of work before quitting ; if by the week, he can neither leave before the Saturday evening, nor be dismissed by his employer before, without some extraordinary cause ; otherwise, if the mas- ter be in fault, he will be fined ; if the man, his unpaid wages will be forfeited. If the master dismiss the man, the man may obtain work again in the place immediately, if another master have a va- cancy ; if he leave the master, he cannot go to another in the place until he has quitted it for at least fourteen days. If a gesell loiter more than a day in a place, after he has done working, or after he has been round to all the masters, and has obtained no work, or if he have been found begging, he is treated as any other vagabond ; and if his conduct have been bad, and he have left in debt, he is put on what is called the black table, is reported to the police, his disgrace is sent 1 on his journey before him, and no master can employ him without incurring a fine. Such are the regulations under which this great body of young men, in the eye of the law, and urged on by necessity and strict limitations, wanders from state to state, and city to city, for three or more years. When we consider what a swarm of rude and in- experienced youths, many of them, in fact, mere lads, is thus sent abroad into new scenes, and amid new temptations, we cannot think that there is one rule or restriction too many. Spite of all, many a wild scene of fighting Knoten, as these handworkers are in contempt called, with the bauers or peasants, is seen. Many a wild drinking and dancing at wakes and merry-makings. Many a trick is played and carouse is made by the cunning and disorderly. A troop of the lazy and lewd will wander on from place to place, not being over-anxious to get work, or if they get it, soon giving 292 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. notice and going off again. In the summer-time, you see them singing and capering on the highways, or in autumn making very merry under one of those fruit-trees which grow by the waysides from town to town, and whose leaves, battered to the ground, give evidence of their vigorous assaults on the ripe temptations. On the other hand, to the aspiring and deserving these years open up a new world of knowledge and of life ; to those who have a feeling for nature and for art — and there are many among this class — a world of delight. Imagine a youth who has passed his apprentice years in some stupid little town, and under some severe master; amid circumstances and tempers which make a house worse than a prison, and of which the bitterness is only too sure to fall on the innocent apprentice — imagine with what delight he must look forward to the hour which shall set him free, and spread before him a new existence, and new realms and years of novelty, variety, more freedom, and, as he fondly hopes, more good. With what a sense of elastic life must he spring from the doorstead of his cares and oppressions, and stretch the wings of his spirit over that wide and hope-tinted space before him ! It was this peculiar life which gave Goethe the idea of his Wilhelm Meister in his ' Lehrjahre' and his ' Wanderjahre ;' and has furnished to many other German writers topics and ideas that serve eminently to vary their works. And to those, even in these humble classes, who have souls which have faculties and feelings beyond the mere circle of what the Germans call their bread-sci- ences — and to none has the beneficent Creator entirely denied such, any more than he has denied to the dry heath, the com- mon wayside, and the untrodden desert, beauty and the flow- ers which ' blush unseen' there — what a period of enchantment and of rapidly expanding knowledge does this wanderschaft be- come ! In the mountains and woods through which their routes lead them, by the noble rivers which flow through their country, they breathe, as they go from one station to another in the sum- mer, a soul of poetry, and revel in the richest feelings of existence. What moments of deep entrancement, what dreams of fancy and of beauty, do some of these humble wanderers enjoy, as you see them with their knapsacks flung on the flowery turf, and their elbows propped or their heads cushioned upon them, as they lie stretched on the green skirts of one of their beautiful woods, and by the swift waters of a meadow stream ! To many a young wanderer, who, but for this ancient custom, would never have issued from his native town, as to Hans Sachs, such mo- ments no doubt there are, worth a whole life of ordinary existence. Visions of the future come before him in the warmest colors of GEEMANY. 293 anticipated happiness ; and sweetest recollections of woods and green meadows, and harvest scenes full of happy people, and mountain glens, and sunshine and bright waters, and feelings in musical sympathy with them all, cling to him thence to his latest days, making his native land as hallowed to him as his own hearth and existence. If any one think this too poetical to be true, we can only advise him to enter the dwellings of such men as shoemakers, saddlers, or other such handicraft tradesmen, and talk with them and their families, and he will soon convince himself to the contrary. He will find something at once so manly and so friendly, such a do- mestic feeling and such a feeling of nature, as will most agreeably surprise him. We have no doubt whatever that it is this nature- loving and poetical feeling which so universally distinguishes the Germans, even to the commonest class ; which has been by means of these wanderings wonderfully developed in the man, and thence introduced into and diffused through every member of their fami- lies. It is this which sends them forth on all Sundays and holi- days in such crowds into the country to solitary wirthshouses in the woods, into the villages and the hills, to smoke their pipes and drink their coffee in orchards and garden-arbors, all Germany over. It is this which makes them read Goethe, Schiller, Hauff, and such other of their writers as abound in and cherish this spirit. It would have surprised many an Englishman, who has been ac- customed to regard a poor saddler but as a man who reads only his newspaper, and his wife and daughter nothing, to have heard such a family, into whose house we only went to get a strap mended which broke in passing, speaking of the delight with which they read such authors ; to have seen the glow of enthusi- astic pleasure which kindled in the father's eyes as you mentioned places in distant states where he had been in his wander-years ; and to hear them describe the heavenly pleasure it was to them on summer mornings to arise before the sun and ascend the neigh- boring mountains to a tower on their summit, and there to see the sun rise — the wide world below, the clear heavens above ; and then to take breakfast there with some of their friends. ' Oh !' said the wife, ' it was ganz himmlich, himmlich ! — quite heavenly, heavenly ! and it was impossible not to feel a spirit of worship.' The institutions and education which bring such a spirit and such feelings into the heart of the burgher families, are not only a do- mestic, but a national blessing ; and that such spirit and feelings abound in this class in Germany, you will at once discover when you will take the trouble to converse freely and kindly with its members. 294 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". But to return : — It is a genuine pleasure to see the young men in such scenes as we have spoken of ; for there is no fine scenery where you do not meet them, evidently wandering as full of ad- miration and silent delight as the proudest traveler in his easy carriage. There is not an old castle or a battle-scene, famous for its fine location or its associations, where you do not encounter them ; and it is not easy to express the sympathy we felt for two such young men, very interesting and modest in their appearance, whom we crossed more than once on our route from Leipsic to Frankfort. At Eisenach they had ascended the Wartburg, cele- brated as the temporary abode of Luther, when carried off by his friend, the Elector of Saxony, on his return from Worms, in order to secure him from his enemies : as the earlier abode of the Earls of Thuringia, and scene of a celebrated contest of the Minnesing- ers ; and of late as the meeting-place of the Burschenschaft. The castle of the Wartburg is reached only by an ascent of about half an hour. We met these two youths ascending, after having trav- eled from a distant town, as we were descending. Seeing them again the next day, on the road, we asked them how they had been pleased with the castle, and the armory there. They replied that they had not been able to see it, because the door- keeper demanded three groschen, about fourpence, and they had only two between them. It is the same in cities. They visit galleries of art, public works, museums, public gardens, and out-of-door concerts, wherever their small means or the public liberality will admit them ; and if they observe the advice given them by the editors of their pocket-books, and keep a daily journal of what they see, however concise, they must lay up a great mass of information for their future use and reflection. By this national institution an advantage is bestowed on them, which the artisans of other countries do not enjoy, and calculated to enlarge their minds in no ordinary degree. It also affords the skillful and deserving many opportunities of advancing themselves with masters, whose favor they win, and of forming alliances with their families, which insure their future prosperity. On the other hand, the weariness and the disappointments which sensitive and unenterprising natures must encounter cannot be trifling. Long marches in heat and cold, with scanty means, when they meet with but little employ, or belong to penurious guilds, are sharp trials of patience. They have often to put up with the most wretched lodgings and fare, in obscure dorfs ; and if they fall ill there, far from their native home and friends, what a melancholy situation ! If our hearts ache as we walk through the hospitals of large cities, which monks and nuns maintain from AUSTRIA. 295 public contributions, and act in as nurses and comforters — where all is clean and as cheerful as such places can be — how much more would they, if we could behold the wretched lair, in some wretched hamlet, -where the gesell, who has fallen ill by the way, perhaps five hundred miles from his friends, must lie, filled with sad longings toward his home and his family ties, till perhaps death release him ! Well may Hauff assert that many a poor wandering handworker carries a heart more heavy than his pack. But we apprehend now, setting aside the feather-beds and the wretched quarters in many common herberges, that the greatest perils lie in the pleasant wirthshouse, so enticing to the evening pedestrian, and the bright eyes which glance from beneath many a quaint head-dress, in dorfs, and fields, and cities on the way. Many a handsome youth have we seen gayly marching on, with knapsack on back and stick in hand, that would have figured finely as the hero of a romance, and no doubt was the hero of many, during the checkered period of his wanderschaft. Long, however, may the jocund handworker traverse the hills and highways of his native land, giving picturesque variety to its scenes, and gaining knowledge and experience for his future quiet ' and industrious burgher life." CHAPTER XX. AUSTRIA, Though forming a part of the German nation, or rather group of nations, Austria has large possessions in other countries. She controls the destinies of several foreign, and at one time inde- pendent, nations, and her grand policy is to blend them in a per- manent union, subjected to a single, uniform government. Hun- gary, Galicia, Bohemia, part of Poland, the Tyrol, as well as the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom in Italy, comprising the northern and by far the richest portion of the Italian peninsula, all are compelled to yield to the domination of Austria. Thus her pos- sessions are quite extensive, and her population numerous, though diversified. They amount to about 37,000,000. Let us visit Vienna, then, the capital of this large but unwieldy empire — a capital imposing and beautiful, swarming with inhabitants, but as 296 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". gay, giddy, and licentious as any in Europe, essentially German in its general features and population, but mingling other races, costumes, and customs, held together and governed by the strong hand of military force. Vienna is full of theaters, churches, opera-houses, coffee-houses, and "kneipes," a species of gay restaurants, or drinking-places for the common people, thronged from morning to night. " What they want (in Vienna) is to live every minute, to enjoy every minute — and that they do. From the theater they go to the supper — next morning to mass — then to work, every man his own way — then out of one play into another. Wiser they will never be, and never were." The Prater, or public promenade, beyond the city, is the great pleasure-ground of the Viennese, and here their gay character is strikingly revealed. The following de- scription by Zelter, whose words we have just quoted, from his correspondence with Goethe, is the best we have seen. " Mon- day, July 26th. — Yesterday I saw the Prater in its Sunday glory. Four rows of the finest chestnut-trees form three avenues, which begin from the Leopold Stadt, and lead along the side of the Danube a league and a half. The middle one, for carnages, is forty-five feet wide ; the two sides, for walkers, are twenty-four feet. You see several hundred equipages, some of them extremely splendid, and fiacres all in motion in the center ; and at the sides, groups, couples, or solitary walkers, in such pretty confusion, that it is a pleasure to see so many handsome, well-dressed men and women, with the greatest variety of character and countenance, flitting by you like colored shadows. At the sides are coffee- houses and seats, under, the shade of the most beautiful clumps of trees, all exquisitely neat and clean. You sit down. Out of the thicket behind you comes the sound of music. You are now at the opera — now at a ball — now on the. parade. Coffee comes, and cakes with it. A child presents flowers ; a pretty girl offers crystal water ; an old woman tooth-picks : all these are feed with copper kreutzers (pennies), which you are glad to get rid of in so pleasant a way, for they are as heavy as a bad conscience, and weigh your pockets down to your heels. " But these avenues by no means constitute the whole Prater. A second and a third of the same kind extend, like a fan, from the Leopold Stadt to the Danube (it is properly an arm of the Danube). Here is the other pole of the planet ; — here is the real genuine people. The spaces between the trees grow wider as they approach the river, and are filled with places of refreshment, where beer, wine, eatables, and, except coffee, drinkables of all sorts, ice, &c, may be had. (The three coffee-houses, par excel- AUSTEIA. 297 13* AUSTEIA. 299 lence, in the grand avenue, have the exclusive privilege of selling coffee.) These places of refreshment are in such number, and so near together, that you cannot distinguish the customers of one host from those of another, and you run a risk of eating what your neighbor has paid for. " This, then, is the true Vienna. Here, in the midst of all this serving, and sitting, and pouring, and smoking, and carousing, and fiddling, the universal stream and movement flow gayly and com- fortably on. People go or stay, come, speak to one another — it is unbroken quiet and ceaseless motion at the same time. No in- closures, no impediments ; for though the houses are the property of the inhabitants, the ground is the emperor's, and nobody may inclose it. The impression made by this moving scene — tumult I cannot call it — is an easy, gentle forgetfulness. I could not rec- ollect what I had thought or observed, and though I write all this, I can hardly affirm so it is — so it was." Leaving Vienna, let us sail down the broad bosom of the Danube, passing through vast forests, wide meadows, and mount- ain ranges, some of them clad in savage grandeur, and entering the regions of Hungary, make the acquaintance of the Slavonic races, most of whom are restive under the crushing hand of Aus- trian domination, and who, in the recent revolutions, would have thrown it off, but for the intervention of Russia. Here, on broad fields, waving with grain, or covered with cattle and horses, sur- rounded by mountains, and in the regions beyond, much of it cul- tivated, but much of it also wild and wooded, watered by the Danube and its various tributaries, live most of the Slavonic races of the Austrian Empire, under the names of Magyars, Croats, &c. Eastward, are the Latin races, as they are termed (most of them speaking the Latin language), and comprising the Wallachians of Hungary, Transylvania, and the military frontiers. Buda, the capital of Hungary, stands upon the right bank of the Danube, opposite the city of Pesth, famous in the late revo- lutions, forming, indeed, but one city, connected by a bridge of boats. The buildings are large and handsome ; and the popula- tion of both cities amounts to nearly a hundred thousand, the larger portion being resident in Pesth. But we defer, for the present, what we have to say respecting Hungary. In the mean while, we must form some idea of the relations sustained by Austria to its dependent possessions, in order to understand the true position and probable fate of Hun- gary. The emperors of Austria are descendants of the celebrated house of Hapsburg, who, in former times, displayed the greatest energy of character. Recently, however, they have sadly degen- 300 THE WORLD WE LITE LN". erated. In the reign of Francis I., a mild, good-natured man, but without elevation of thought or manly energy, Metternich placed himself in a position to take the reins of government into his own hands. Francis I. was succeeded by the late emperor, Ferdinand I., whose name is scarcely known beyond the bounds of Austria, a man of narrow, trivial, superstitious temper, feeble in body, and equally feeble in mind, in fact, a mere automaton in the hands of Metternich. For the greater portion of the last half century, 'the true King of Austria has been the Prince de Metternich, or, as some of the Germans facetiously, but not inappositely, call him, Prince de Mitter-Nacht — that is, Prince Midnight — a man of giant energy and consummate political genius, but narrow, despotic, and selfish. The principal care of Metternich has been to give to the people of the Austrian dominions much physical prosperity, and to main- tain the existing order. " In this country," says a traveler, " the arms are put to labor, the stomach is well filled, the highways are well guarded, the fields well cultivated ; all would do if the peo- ple would not sometimes take a notion to think !" No liberty of the press ; no independence whatever ; the government keeps the nation under guardianship, and treats men like children who know not how to take care of themselves. A learned German one day reproached M. de Metternich with riot looking out for the future. "After me let the deluge come /" said the diplomatist. The deluge did come, and swept away Prince Metternich and the old Austrian despotism. But he found a quiet retreat in England, and lo ! by the help of the fierce Russians, every thing has been restored. The revolution of Vienna is subdued, and the house of Hapsburg once more occupies the imperial throne. The deluge, it seems, like other deluges, was only temporary, and produced less change than one- could have imagined. Prince de Metternich is back again in Vienna, only another has ostensibly taken his place. His role is pretty much finished, and it would not be well for him to appear at the head of affairs, but his advice, we presume, is deemed as valuable as ever. One of these days he will die, but his spirit, we fear, will not die for many years in Germany. Ferdinand I., too, has resigned, and Francis Joseph, his son, a young man of some capacity, has ascended the throne. A new and modified constitution has been proclaimed, but the principles and usages of the old regime are not essentially changed. Order and subjection reign in Vienna, and as far as may be, in the con- quered provinces. Hungary, torn and bleeding, is still. Lom- bardy, sick at heart, and exhausted with wounds, is prostrate in the dust. Robert Blum is dead. Count Batthyany, one of the AUSTRIA. 301 noblest of the Protestant noblemen of Hungary, is in his grave. Kossuth is in exile, and his followers are either in chains, or rec- reant to the cause of freedom, or scattered over the face of the earth. Austria has her will — for the present, at least ; and her aim, therefore, will be to consolidate her empire at home and abroad. She claims that she has a right to Hungary by gift, and to Lombardy by conquest, and she will maintain her right, if she can. Neither individuals nor nations, ordinarily, are willing to abandon their possessions, however obtained. It is " human na- ture" (not transformed by Christian influences) to " keep what it has, and to get what it can." By flattering the Croats, and promis- ing them immunities, Austria has used them against their natural allies, the Hungarians ; and now it would seem that Austria is nearer than ever the great object of all her policy, which has been to divide and to conquer, and it is possible that the brave Magyars, the savage Croats, the rude, but simple-hearted Tcheques, the Poles of Galicia, and the natives of Transylvania, Illyria, Dalma- tia, and Wallachia, may be forced to blend in one common govern- ment. 302 THE WOELJ> WE LIVE IN". CHAPTER XXI. HUNGARY, Hungarian and Bohemian Costume. Hungary is comprised in the great oval plain or basin watered by the Danube, the Theiss, the Raab, the Leitha, and other trib- utaries of the Danube, surrounded on all sides except the south by lofty mountains, whence the rivers have their sources, and from which they rush to the plain, where the land is so level that their current is scarcely visible. If we include all that are usually styled Hungarians, composed of various Slavic tribes, Slovaks and Magyars, Croats, Germans, and Gipsies, who find their na- HUNGARY. 303 tional home here, the population will amount to eleven or twelve millions. If, however, we confine it to the Magyar races and their dependents, it will be much less. The country is fertile, rich in cattle, and, among the mountains, in various metals, common and precious. The population is properly divided into the nobles and peasantry, the former enlightened and brave, the latter ignorant and rude, and, until recently, under the domination of the former. The Magyars occupy the heart of the country, and number 4,450,000, more than one-half of whom profess the Protestant faith, the others being mostly Catholics. The superiority of the Magyars over their neighbors of other races is one of character ; for though many of them are well educated, the peasantry, as well as the middle classes, are behind the Germans. The hussar jacket, light pantaloons and boots, with a huge-brimmed hat, form the costume of the lower orders. The Hungarian costume, as worn in full dress by the higher classes, is quite imposing, and has been adopted by hussar regiments in various countries. The attila, or frock, and the mente, or long surcoat, trimmed with fur, are often substituted for the dolhnan, or short hussar jacket. The kalpack, or fur cap, with the costly heron's feather, forms the national head-gear ; and on official occasions, the saber is an indispensable addition to a gentleman's attire. The nobles are very numerous, and possess the landed property and influence of the country. Formerly they were free from taxation, and had the right of judging in their own affairs, but both of these high immunities they voluntarily resigned in 1836. Formerly, too, they much oppressed the peasantry ; but recently they have made common cause with them, and had they secured their independ- ence, would have conferred upon them still greater privileges. The Magyars are supposed to be of Asiatic origin. At what time they came into Hungary is not known. Anciently, they went by the general name of Pannonians. About the tenth cen- tury they established themselves on the great plains of the Danube, and its lower tributaries, formerly known as Dacia and Pannonia. Other races inhabited the country, Slavonian, Wallachian, &c, but the conquering Magyars have always been regarded as the ascendent race, much as the Normans were in England for some eight or nine centuries. Indeed, the Magyars are simply the war- rior caste of a former age, and as such, enjoyed certain immunities, and performed certain duties, such as the defense and vindication of the country in the time of war. These nobles formed a National Diet, governed by its own constitution and laws, to which they were elected by the Magyar race, both nobles and peasants. Indeed, Hungary was for centuries a military Republic, having 304 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. for its executive head a President, or rather a limited Monarch, elected by the nobles. Though powerful and brave, the Hunga- rians were severely pressed by the Turks, at that time dominant and victorious, and were finally completely routed by them in 1526, on the field of Mohacz, where their last king, Louis II., was slain, and the royal line extinguished. Ferdinand of Austria claimed to be heir to the throne vacated by the death of his brother-in-law. Though this claim was not recognized, it was felt that a nation sunk in the depths of calamity could not pro- voke another war, hence Ferdinand was elected King of Hungary, but sworn to protect her ancient rights and liberties, and to gov- ern in conformity to her laws. In all respects Hungary was to remain a distinct and independent nation, simply acknowledging allegiance to the house of Hapsburg. The crown was grasped ; the conditions were evaded or violated. In 168V, at the close of the long and triumphant war which broke forever the Turkish power, Leopold II. proceeded to con- summate the grand design of his house, to incorporate Hungary with the Austrian dominions, in which the will of the sovereign should be absolute and unquestioned. This Avas accomplished by treachery, torture, and bloodshed. The poor Hungarians were compelled to submit. Leopold was not only ruler of Austria, as well as Hungary, but emperor of Germany also, and his troops garrisoned every commanding post in the country. The Diet re- fused to acknowledge the hereditary title of the emperor ; but what could they do ? They were compelled to yield, but on con- ditions — conditions which were never observed. Each Austrian monarch in succession swore to observe the constitution, but never hesitated to violate it when his interests were at stake. Usurpations on the one side, with occasional concessions, almost uniformly withdrawn, and endeavors on the other to maintain their hereditary rights, form the subsequent history of the Hun- garian nation in its connection with Austria. Joseph II., after usurping the entire control of the government, and refusing even to call the Diet together, yielded to the ferment which such con- duct raised in Hungary, and once more took a solemn oath to ob- serve the Hungarian constitution, and maintain the ancient inde- pendence of the country. This was in 1*790, or just after the breaking out of the first French revolution. Many changes oc- curred, and the faithless house of Hapsburg deliberately violated all its engagements to Hungary. Gradually a patriotic and reform party, led by Count Batthyany, Kossuth, and other noble spirits, was formed in Hungary, and grew in influence and power. They demanded constitutional gov- HUNGAEY. 305 ernment, the freedom of the press, a responsible ministry at Buda, an annual diet at Pesth, equality, civil and religious, representa- tion on the principle of equality, trial by jury, a national bank, a national guard, and so forth. Under the pressure of circum- stances, these were yielded by the Austrian monarch, trembling for his throne. The patriot Batthyany was instructed to form a Hungarian ministry, and did so. The noble Kossuth and his com- patriots became the legitimate rulers of the nation. But despotism recovered its energies, and instantly retracted its concessions, and as instantly made war upon Hungary. But how was this accomplished ? Hungary was tranquil and happy, and had no thought of a revolt or of a civil war. There was no re- source but to stir up "a war of races." The savage and jealous Croats, duped by their Ban, Jellachich, in the interest of Austria, and governed by the selfish hope of acquiring special privileges by the subjugation of Hungary, were led against their neighbors. The Hungarians, of course, resisted, and outlawed Jellachich, who had been secretly made governor of a part of their territory with- out their consent. The Austrian court was appealed to in this emergency, but temporized as usual, fulminating proclamations against Jellachich, but, of course, did nothing. Jellachich ad- vanced with his Croats into the heart of Hungary, plundering, ravaging, and murdering. At length the Hungarian Diet resolved to repel the outlawed marauder, and levied an army for this pur- pose. But the Austrians threw off the mask, and sent to the as- sistance, not the resistance, of Jellachich ; and the emperor actu- ally addressed him a letter of thanks for his fidelity and attach- ment ! As a final resort, a grand deputation of one hundred and sixty Hungarians, headed by the President of the Diet, made their way to Vienna to know what all this could mean, and to see if war could not, somehow, be averted. They were treated with con- tempt. The deputation returned, and announced to the people that there was no hope but in God and themselves ! The rest is well known. Jellachich was driven back, and the independence of Hungary would have been secured, but for the intervention of the Russian Bear. Blood flowed in torrents, and Hungary fell. The atrocities of the war were enormous. Riot and murder covered the land with desolation and woe. To de- scribe these would require volumes, and would only harrow the feelings. Take the following from the translation of a work by an Austrian officer, lately published in England, entitled " Scenes of the Civil War in Hungary," and from one, learn all. The writer takes up his quarters in a castle. 306 THE WORLD WE LIVE LN". " At tlie tramp of the horses, and the clank of swords, the porch- door opened, and an old man, a kind of steward, followed by servants with great lanterns, came toward us, asking who we were, and what was' our errand. I replied that I was an officer of the Emperor and King, belonging to the army of the Ban ; and requested, in the first place, to be conducted to the master of the mansion. The man obeyed, though with some reluctance, and led me into a spacious hall, which, by the dim light of a lamp, appeared to be a sort of ancestral hall. Large pictures were hung upon the walls, and between them swords, muskets, old armor, and arms of all kinds. " Here the castellan bade me wait, while he went to announce me ; and I availed myself of this moment to take off my cloak, to set my hair to rights a little, to fasten my dolman close about me, to tie my sash properly ; in short, to make myself as smart as I could. The old man presently came back, conducted me along a corridor, and then opened the folding doors of an apartment, whence issued the brilliant light of tapers. " Somewhat dazzled, I entered the apartment, which was most elegantly fitted up, where a tall, handsome lady received me with a polite but proud obeisance. I was just going to introduce my- self, and to apologize for my unbidden visit, when she extended her hand to me with loud exclamations of joy, ' Ah, Baron W. !' " I now recognized her. It was the Countess St , the Milan beauty, the wife of my old comrade, St , who once saved my life in Bologna, and who, after his marriage with the fair Marchesa B , had obtained leave to resign, and retired to his lordship in Hungary ; and I now found myself, without having suspected it, in his mansion. " Being called by his wife, he made his appearance immediately, and cordial was our embrace. He was still, as he ever had been, Magyar, both body and soul ; and told me frankly that he should long since have gone to Kossuth, had he not been restrained by the odious idea of being obliged to fight against his former com- rades ; but he assured me that he would yet do so. " I advised that we should not talk of political matters, but rather think of old times ; and his wife approved the suggestion. By-and-by came his sister, the young Countess Helene, the most beautiful Hungarian female I had ever seen ; and that is saying a great deal. " St gave me his word and honor that we were perfectly safe from any surprise by the enemy, and my men were abun- dantly supplied with wine and meat ; and, while they made them- selves comfortable outside, I found myself in Paradise, between HUNGARY. 307 two beautiful and amiable females, opposite to a friend whom I had not seen for a long time, and before a glass of exquisite tokay. All weariness vanished ; and we joked and laughed half the night, forg-ettincr the war, and Kossuth, and nation.il hatred. " Two days I rested in St 's mansion, as a little respite was highly desirable for both men and horses. The eyes of the Countess Helene began to be dangerous for me ; but upon the earth the soldier has no abiding quarters. On the third morning, with a tear in my eye, I pressed St to my breast, kissed the cheek of his wife and his sister ; the latter plucked a rose-bud for me as a keepsake, my trumpeter sounded ' to horse,' and aAvay we dashed." When next they meet it is under different circumstances : " He had, as we often have said, a serious engagement with the Magyars, in which there were, on both sides, at least ten or twelve thousand men in the fire. On this occasion the enemy again had a numerous and excellent light cavalry, and had the skill to em- ploy it on ground favorable for himself, so that our infantry was repeatedly exposed to the most violent attacks, and had the great- est difficulty to ward them off. " Two squadrons, in particular, of very well organized and equipped Honveds, distinguished themselves by their furious charges on Croatian infantry battalions, and could not, at last, be compelled to retreat but by several discharges of grape, which made dreadful havoc in their ranks. " The leader of this corps', a man of tall, elegant figure, in the rich dress of a magnate, mounted on a superb, spirited, gray stallion, which he managed with great dexterity, was indefatigable in al- ways rallying his men, and leading them back against our infantry. He galloped to and fro with as much unconcern as if the balls whizzing around him were but snow-balls, continually flourishing his glistening blade. " The figure of the rider seemed to be well known to me ; but I could not distinguish his features, as we were drawn up in rear of our column of infantry, at the distance of some hundred paces from him. " Twice he had escaped unhurt the fire of our infantry ; when, as I have already mentioned, some guns, which had meanwhile come up, began to fire with grape. He seemed not to heed the first discharge, for I saw him, still brisk and animated as ever, galloping about at the head of his men. The second must have been directed better ; for, when the smoke cleared off, I could perceive the horse and rider on the ground. " At the same moment we received the signal for charging. 308 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. The ranks of our infantry suddenly opened to let us pass through, and we advanced at full gallop upon the enemy's horse. These, at first, retired precipitately, to get beyond the range of our can- non, then rallied, and drove us back ; we did the same by them ; and so we went on, till at length, as it is usual in Hungary, the whole dissolved into single combats, in which man is engaged, hand to hand, with man. " It was nearly dark, when, with my troop, some of whom were killed, others severely wounded, I reached the main body. Scarcely had we unsaddled, and, tired to death, I was about to stretch my- self by the watch-fire, fed with the ruins of houses which had been pulled down, when an infantry soldier, appointed to hospital duty, came to inform me that an officer of the insurgents, danger- ously wounded and taken prisoner, having heard my name, wished to speak to me. " In spite of weariness, I immediately followed my guide to the hurdle-shed, which was fitted up for a hospital. Dismal was the appearance of this dark, low place, scantily lighted by the hand- lanterns of the surgeons and attendants, who, with their blood- stripped sleeves tucked up high, and with aprons equally bloody, were busily engaged. The wounded lay close to one another upon dirty straw, which, in places, was quite wet and slippery from the blood upon it. Loud and gentle sighs, moans, groans, gnashing of teeth, mingled at times with curses in the Bohemian, Polish, Hungarian, German, and Croatian languages. I was obliged to rally my courage, lest I should be scared back. " In the furthest comer of the long building, on a bed of straw, lay the wounded prisoner who wished to speak to me. How was I shocked when the light of the attendant's lantern fell upon his face, and I recognized Count St ! " On our march through Croatia to Vienna I had passed two days at his mansion ; had seen him in the society of two charming women — his wife and his sister— in the full enjoyment of happi- ness ; and now, in what a state was I doomed to find him ! St : — , a Magyar to the inmost fiber of his heart, had, indeed, then told me that he should take up arms for Kossuth ; but thus to meet him again I was not at all prepared. " Kneeling by the side of my pale friend, whose noble counte- nance bore the evident impress of speedy death, I grasped his cold hand, and asked in what way I could be serviceable to him. ' Thank you for coming,' he replied, in a voice scarcely audible, and this effort manifestly caused him great pain : ' I heard that you were here, and I sent for you. I am dying ; my chest is shattered. When I am dead, take the pocket-book out of my HUNGARY. 309 uniform and send it to my wife, who lives at K ; it contains my will and other papers.' " Here he made a long pause, during which I strove to cheer him. " ' Don't talk thus — 'tis of no use — we part as friends — I have fought for my country —you are faithful to your colors.' " I pressed his hand in silence. " ' Where is your sister Helene ?' I at length asked. " ' With the army,' he answered — ' she is fighting for Hun- gary.' " It was now a considerable time before St could utter a word. He moaned, gently ; and a regimental surgeon, who came to us, significantly made the sign of the cross with his finger. " At length, after a full hour, he suddenly raised himself and said, ' So — now 'tis all over — salute Marie, the name of wife — Marie !' and with that he stretched himself out, his eye-strings broke, and his spirit fled." The tragedy concludes with the fate of the lovely sister of his host, who, like many a Polish victim of the fair sex, had braved danger in her country's cause : " Satisfied on this point, I set out, with my two attendants, on my return to the watch-fire, the tall flame of which flared up cheeringly before us ; when, the moon shining tolerably bright, we perceived a human figure lying at the foot of a tree. " We went nearer ; it was a woman, dressed as a man, in the costume of a Hungarian magnate ; the long hair which fell over her shoulders betrayed her sex. My serassans turned her round, and by the pale moonbeams I recognized Helene, the lovely sister of my friend, St . Inexpressible anguish thrilled me that moment, and I was well-nigh throwing myself upon the corpse. " Forcibly mustering my spirits, I ordered my men to carry the body to the fire. There we examined it more closely, and, with extreme anxiety, I sought to ascertain whether there was any hope left of reviving her. Vain hope ! it was several hours since her spirit had departed ; the ball of one of our riflemen had gone through her heart. From the small red wound the blood was still oozing in single drops, which I carefully caught in my hand- kerchief, to be preserved as a relic. " My only consolation was that the deceased could not have suffered long ; that she must have expired the very moment she was struck. Those pure, noble, still wondrously beautiful fea- tures—on her brow dwelt peace and composure, and the lips almost smiled. There she lay as if in tranquil slumber ; and yet 310 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. those eyes were never more to open — those lips never more to utter noble sentiments or words of kindness. " My hussars were visibly affected, and thought it a pity that one so young and so beautiful should die so early. Many of them, who had been with me on our first march through Hungary, for two days together at St 's mansion, instantly recognized Helene, and doubly lamented her death, because she had shown such kindness to them. " We thawed, by a fire, the ground not far from a maple-tree, and were employed nearly the whole night in digging a large, deep grave with our hand-bills and swords. By the time the first rays of dawn appeared we had finished ; a hussar, who could do carpenter's work, having meanwhile made a simple cross out of the stems of two white maples. " The corpse, in full uniform ; the kolpack, with plume of glis- tening heron's feathers, on the head, the light Turkish saber by her side, was then carefully wrapped in a clean, large blanket, which we had with us, and so deposited in the grave, which we filled up with earth. Then, regardless of caution, I had a full salute fired with pistols over the grave. I have preserved a small gold ring and a lock of her hair for a memorial. When our mel- ancholy business was finished, we moved off after the enemy, who retreated rather hastily. " The tempestuous feeling that filled my heart I am not able to describe. Helene had, as I subsequently learned, served as aid- de-camp to her maternal uncle, who commanded a considerable Magyar corps, and was shot, when acting in that capacity, by our soldiers, in the above-mentioned action." CHAPTER XXII. BOHEMIA AND POLAND. Reascending the Danube, as far as Vienna, we strike off at right angles, and after journeying a hundred and sixty miles, through a fine agricultural country, find ourselves in the ancient city of Prague, the capital of Bohemia, magnificently situated on both sides of the Moldau, having forty-eight churches, several of them antique and beautiful, sixteen monasteries, nineteen syna- gogues — for there are seven or eight thousand Jews resident here, BOHEMIA AND POLAND. 31 1 in addition to a population of about a hundred thousand souls — several elegant palaces, among which are the imperial castle and palace of Wallenstein, a large university, and other public edifices of striking and imposing forms, and in every part, particularly to- ward the river, which is spanned by a superb bridge of sixteen arches, strongly fortified. Its university is one of the oldest and most celebrated in Germany, having a library of a hundred thou- sand volumes, a corps of learned professors, and many students. John Huss, Jerome, usually styled Jerome of Prague, and Jaco- bellus, learned and eloquent divines and reformers of Bohemia, were professors in this university, and served to kindle a flame in their native land which will never be extinguished. Huss and Jerome were both burned at Constance, having been condemned as heretics by a furious papal council, but the spirit of their genius and character lived after them, and has modified the whole aspect of Bohemian history.* Prague is the center of an extensive com- merce and of a wide-spread literary and moral influence, and, as in former times, is still destined to play an important part in the affairs of Germany. It has suffered much from war, change, and revolution, and, we fear, will yet be called to endurance and trial. The country of Bohemia is one of the finest in the world. It resembles an immense concavity or basin, considerably elevated above the level of the sea, surrounded on all sides by lofty mount- ains, rich with various metals, and presenting diversified aspects of grandeur and beauty. The Elbe receives all the waters of this fair valley, and breaking through the Erzegebirge, passes into Sax- ony, whence it pursues its way, through the heart of Northern Germany, to Hamburg and the sea. The land is fertile, free from marshes and all kinds of noxious influences, and the air is pure and bland. Italy itself has not a serener sky. Spring, summer, and winter pass into each other with a delightful variety of tem- perature. The mountain ranges are covered with pines and other trees. In the interior are extensive forests, the haunt of wild an- imals, and the scene of many a strange romance. It forms the most northern and northwestern portion of the Austrian Empire, and has a population of 4,600,000, ingenious, hardy, cheerful, and enterprising. The ancient literature of Bohemia is rich and various, and recently it has been revived. The majority of the inhabitants are of Slavic origin, like the Magyars and others, but intermingled * In the museum at Frankfort is an admirable painting, we think by Lea- sing, of John Huss before the Diet at Constance. The figures an 1 attitudes are very striking. An engraving of this fine painting, we believe, has been published. 312 THE WOKLD WE LIVE EST. with Germans. They are famous for their manufactures, partic- ularly in glass, and, above all, for their noble dispositions and great musical talents. A large proportion of the inhabitants are Protestants, but the Catholics, favored by government, are also numerous and influential. The latter are said to be peculiarly superstitious. In no place is the reverence for relics and images carried further than in Prague. The bridge over the Moldau is lined with an avenue of statues, before which numbers of people may be seen kneeling, and even prostrating themselves, in the most humble postures. The history of Bohemia, from time immemorial, has been one of outrage and wrong, of persecution and oppression. Of Slavic origin, and cherishing the memory of their ancient independence, they sigh for freedom and equal rights. But Austria has kept her foot on the neck of Bohemia, as on that of Hungary. Her method here has been the same as elsewhere — to excite the differ- ent races, German and Slavonic, against each other, and by that means to keep both in quiet subjection. The Protestants, espe- cially from the time of John Huss, have been called to special suffering and trial. Crushed, and all but extinguished under the tyranny of Austrians and Jesuits, it is wonderful that they have survived at all, and especially that they should possess so much vitality and strength. In the beginning of the seventeenth cen- tury, before the thirty years' war, which was a war of religion, there were in Bohemia 732 great and small towns, 34,700 villages or hamlets, and 3,000,000 of souls. After this war there re- mained but 130 towns, 6000 villages, and 780,000 inhabitants! It may be imagined what massacre and burning, what torture and bloodshed, what imprisonment and exile must have preceded such a state of things ! In the year 1630 the whole country presented one scene of ruin, horror, and blood. What was the crime of the Bohemians which brought upon them such fearful punishment ? Adhering to their faith, and, when persecuted, defending it with their life — nothing more ! For this, soldiers and priests devoured the land, and Protestant- ism was banished to the forests and mountains ! The nobles and people that remained embraced the religion of the conquerors. For 250 years this state of things continued. At last a depu- tation of Protestants, emerging from their concealment, found a favorable audience at the court of Joseph II., who granted them leave once more to celebrate their worship, and, though suffering heavy disabilities from the conduct of the dominant priests, they began to prosper. But once more Bohemia has suffered from change and revolu- BOHEMIA AND POLAND. 313 tion ; her hopes of freedom and prosperity have been crushed. The Austrian eagle, with her talons deep in the heart of the na- tion, exults over her prey. Protestantism, of course, bears the brunt of this new and painful reverse. The present position and prospects of Bohemia will be under- stood from the following narrative : " There are in this country two wholly distinct races, the Tcheches, and the Germans. The Tcheches belong to the numer- ous family of Slaves, or Slavonians. They were originally set- tled on the shores of the Black Sea, and came into Bohemia about the middle of the sixteenth century. They were converted to Christianity by the missionaries Methodius and Cyril. Their creeds, their religious observances, were derived from the Greek Church, not the Latin Church, and this explains why, some ages later, they adopted so easily the opinions of John Huss. The Tcheches speak a dialect of the Slavonian language. Those who have studied this idiom affirm that it is full of force, precision, grace, and originality. The Bohemians have long stud- ied literature, the sciences and arts, with the greatest success. They have particularly a taste for mathematics and music. The restorer of modern astronomy, Copernicus, was a Bohemian. At the time of the thirty years' war they reckoned a host of good writers, and had expensive libraries. But Austrians, Italians, Spanish monks, who invaded the country, burnt the books of Bo- hemians as heretics. They searched houses, and seized without ceremony all works of national literature. Some of these fanatical inquisitors boasted of having cast into the fire more than 60,000 volumes. From that moment scientific and literary studies dis- appeared, and the celebrated University of Prague was but the shadow of what it had been. Still, with their surprising elasticity of character, the Tcheches did not sink under so great calamities. They sought in their in- dustry a means of restoring prosperity to their country. They worked rich mines of iron, lead, sulphur, and coal. Their manu- factures of glass are celebrated in all Europe. They established cotton and woolen manufactures. At present the Tcheches com- pose a population of 2,560,000 individuals, and their writers have begun again to cultivate ancient literature. They have poets, his- torians, and antiquarians who enjoy a just renown. By the side of the Tcheches is the Teutonic, or German race, consisting in Bohemia of about 1,000,000 souls. The Germans, as you see, are a minority. Having come later than the Tcheches, they do not constitute the basis of the Bohemian population. But, protected by the emperors, under the influence of the priests, 14 314 THE WOELD WE LITE IN. enjoying the highest offices, and favored in every way by the court of Vienna, they have long ruled over the nation. All pub- he acts must be registered in the German language. The army, the government officers, the courts of justice, all were obliged to employ the idiom of the conqueror, like the Anglo-Saxons under the first successors of William the Conqueror. The poor Tcheches could not preserve their language except in the family circle. Such was the condition of the two races in Bohemia when the revolution of Paris occurred. The oppressed nations leaped for joy, and despots trembled on their old thrones. On the 11th of March a popular assembly was convened at Prague. The hall for meeting was filled to overflowing. Earnest addresses were delivered, and the audience adopted unanimously the draft of a petition containing the following points: 1. Equality of the two races in schools, in courts of justice, and before the government ; 2. Obligation of every magistrate to speak the two languages ; 3. Union of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia under the direction of one common diet, assembled sometimes at Prague, sometimes at Brunn ; 4. An elective national representation ; 5. Publicity of judicial proceedings, liberty of the press, arming of the people, security for personal liberty ; 6. Equality of all religious confes- sions ; 7. Abolition of feudal rights, privileges of nobles, &c. This was a complete list of reforms. In the first moments of en- thusiasm, the petition was covered with thousands of signatures. Germans and Tcheches seemed to have forgotten their long rival- ries, and put their names on the same page. Students, municipal councilors, magistrates, and even many nobles partook of the gen- erous impulse. The petition was carried to Vienna by delegates chosen by all classes of the nation. A popular revolution had just occurred in Vienna, the 14th of March. Prince de Metternich had fled ; the Emperor Ferdinand had no more authority ; the new ministers of state professed the most liberal opinions. They received with much complaisance the delegation from Bohemia, and promised, with some slight reserves, to grant all that the petitioners asked. A splendid feast was given to the delegates on their return to Prague, the 27th of March. The houses were ornamented with the national flag of white and red. The students and the civic guard formed a long file, from the gates of the city to the hotel of the commune. Twelve girls, in white satin robes, walked in the midst of the train ; children, Avith red and white scarfs, bore flow- ers and flags. The carriages of the delegates were crowned with laurels ; after them came the ecclesiastics of all communions, and the academic senate. The bells were rung ; fireworks were dis- BOHEMIA AND POLAND. . 315 played ; the ladies waved their handkerchiefs : all breathed the joy of triumph Vain delusion of people, who believe that sovereigns will yield voluntarily any portion of their power ! In spite of De Metter- nich's fall, and the change of cabinet, the court of Vienna acted with its usual duplicity. Not daring to resist openly the people's enthusiasm, it resorted to artifices to gain time. What difficulty was there in making promises ? Have kings and their ministers ever lacked reasons to violate the most solemn engagements ? The plan of the court of Vienna, as afterward appeared, was this : To awaken and imbitter animosities between the Tcheches and the Germans ; to employ the Tcheches to resist the efforts of the parliament at Frankfort for union, then to set the Germans at variance with the Tcheches ; in a word, to follow strictly the Machiavellian policy, which is, to divide and conquer. An occasion soon offered to carry out this detestable policy. All the German nations had been called upon to choose delegates, who should meet at Frankfort, and try to establish a common constitution, and a uniform organization for the whole empire. The Austrian cabinet, who could not oppose openly the plan of union, sent an invitation to the inhabitants of Bohemia, calling on them to exercise their electoral rights. But at the same time they commissioned secret agents to stir up the hereditary jealousies of the Tcheches. These perfidious emissaries went from town to town, from village to village, saying : ' What ! you, the boasted descendants of Wenceslas and of Ziska; you, members of the great Slavonian race, will you consent to be governed by the babbling professors and the silly pedants of Frankfort ? Have you not been long enough subjected to strangers ? Beware ! the Germans are not your friends. They will impose upon you new taxes, and afterward they will laugh at your credulity ! Let the Bohemian Hon, then, erect his shaggy main, and let the citizens of Frankfort tremble in their frail defenses !' These arts of deception had the desired effect. At Prague, no elector dared appear to vote for deputies to the parliaments of Frankfort. The districts peopled mostly by Germans went to the polls, but the number of deputies at the Central Diet was not more than twelve for all Bohemia. The Austrian ministers had then realized already a part of their plan. The Germans, both in the interior of Bohemia and abroad, were greatly exasperated. They bitterly accused the Tcheches of violating the national union, and of impairing the strength of the Germanic empire, to gratify a silly pride. What had become of the new union and harmony ? Where was the procession of 316 THE WOULD WE LIVE EN". boys and girls of the two races, who, hand in hand, had graced the feast of Prague ? It was all an empty, ridiculous show ! Hatred, envy, and discord had again appeared ! But it was not enough for the cabinet of Vienna to rekindle division between the two races — they must now strike a great blow at the Tcheches. Accordingly, the various tribes of Slavo- nians in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Gallicia, Transylvania, &c, had resolved to hold a preparatory meeting at Prague, early in June. They wished to constitute the Slavonian union, in opposition to the German union. This plan did not suit the Austrian court — for fourteen millions of Slavonians would have a preponderating influence in political affairs. Artifice and perfidy were again em- ployed by Metternich's disciples. . On the 2d of June, nearly three hundred deputies attended at solemn mass in Sprague. There were Slavonians of the north and of the south, Croatians, Servians, Dalmatians, with haughty and savage countenances, the long mustache, and the face bronz- ed by the sun. They wore the ancient national costume, cloaks of white or red velvet, and the people chanted the songs of the Hussite war. From the 2d to the 10th of June the congress held its sessions. The deputies passed three important acts. First, they addressed to the nations of Europe a manifesto, in which they insisted reso- lutely on the rights and independence of the Slavonian nation ; next they prepared a petition to the Emperor of Austria, asking for all the liberties of modern times ; lastly, they resolved to form & federal compact between all the families of their race. This was a gigantic plan. The Slavonians would form a vast confederation, from the shores of the Adriatic to the frontiers of Russia, and la- bor thus for the emancipation of the Poles. What did the court of Vienna do in this extremity? They stirred up the common people by means of secret agents. The Tcheches of Prague, laborers, merchants, and students, took arms on the 12th of June, against the Germans. The latter sought means of defense. Gen. Windisch-Gratz, lieutenant of the Em- peror of Austria, assembled his army and planted cannon in the streets of the city. The Bohemians constructed barricades, after the example of the Parisians. The contest was severe and bloody ; it raged for five days with incredible fury. Many of the deputies of the Tcheches took part in the combat. Gen. Windisch-Gratz sent bombs against the houses of Prague, and burnt whole sec- tions of the city. On the 18th of June the civil war was ended. The Slavonian congress had dispersed, the national committee was dissolved •• the Tcheches were again subdued. BOHEMIA AND POLAND. 317 Thus the Austrian cabinet secured a double advantage. After having opposed the plan of a Germanic union by means of the Tcheches, they had conquered these last by the swords of Ger- mans! At present a judicial inquest is opened, and there will be numerous victims. Unhapp)*- nations, who have to struggle against the cunning and intrigues of courts !" Close to Bohemia lies Moravia, with a numerous and industrious population. Though once independent, like Hungary and Bohe- mia, Moravia belongs to Austria. In this country originated the pious and simple-hearted " Moravian Brethren," famous for their self-denying missions in Africa, Labrador, and Greenland. Hernn- hut, founded by Count Zinzendorf, is a scene of quiet industry, order, cheerfulness, and devotion. Their forms of worship some- what resemble those of the Episcopal Church. They are fond of music, and use it in all their services. Their grave-yard is a place of much rural beauty. The dead are conveyed thither, and laid in their quiet resting-place, to the sound of sacred song. From Bohemia and Moravia we pass to unhappy Poland — Poland no longer, except in name ! This ancient kingdom, con- taining some five millions of inhabitants, and occupying a fine tract of country, rich in corn and other agricultural products, has been utterly absorbed by the three great Powers, as they are called, Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Warsaw, an irregularly built and large commercial city on the banks of the Vistula, is the capital, grotesque in its appearance, from the commingling of the most elegant with the most miserable buildings, and grotesque also from its population, consisting of native Poles, Germans, Jews, Slavonians, Greeks, Frenchmen, and Italians, monks, nuns, nobles, beggars, and merchants, all dressed in their peculiar cos- tumes. The aspect of society resembles a perpetual masquerade : long-bearded Jews, monks in the garb of every order, vailed and shrouded nuns ; bevies of young Polish ladies, in silk mantles of the brightest colors, promenading the broad squares ; the dignified ancient Polish noble, with mustaches, caftan, girdle, saber, and red or yellow boots ; the new generation, equipped to the highest pitch of Parisian dandyism ; with Turks, Greeks, Russians, Ital- ians, Germans, and Frenchmen, in an ever-changing throng ! The Poles belong to the great Slavic race, having an Asiatic cast of countenance, derived, probably, from their Tartar origin. They are well formed and tall, with good features, and often fair complexion. The population of the country is much mixed. Generally they profess the Catholic faith, and, except among the higher classes, are ignorant and fanatical. The nobles are brave and hospitable, impatient of constraint, and ardent for freedom. THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". Fond of show, gayety, and amusement, they are not without the vices of vanity and licentiousness. Every one has heard of the misfortunes of Poland. Partitioned among her enemies three several times, Cracow, one of her most ancient cities, and once the residence of the Polish kings, was left the center of a little republic, free and independent. Situated in a wide plain on the banks of the Vistula, with a serene atmos- phere, a fertile soil, glorious views of distant mountain ranges extending from the Black Sea to the river Danube, superb old buildings and venerable monuments, those, for example, of So- bieski, of Kosciusko, of Poniotowski, of Dembrowski, the most illustrious heroes of Poland ; and in the center of the city the castle built by Casimir the Great, and under whose arches had passed no less than six powerful dynasties, Cracow was the pride of its citizens, and the pride even of Poland far and near. But Cracow, insignificant as a republic, was too much for the jealous eyes of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and that, too, must be anni- hilated ! So that a fourth, and a last time, Poland has been par- titioned and swallowed by these greedy wolves ! CHAPTER XXIII, As we are among the Slavic or Slavonian race, called such, not because they were ever slaves, though some of them even now are in a condition of serfdom, but simply to distinguish them from the German and other races, we will pass into Russia, the princi- pal home of the Northern Slavi, and one of the most powerful empires in the world. The progress of Russia, within a compar- atively short period, in all the elements of political power, has been surprising. Her strength and resources are becoming abso- lutely colossal. By no means restricted to Europe, Russia has extensive possessions in Northern Asia. Should she conquer the Circassians, who vigorously resist her, she may extend her con- quests to Persia, and even to Hindostan. Her entire possessions occupy an area of over eight millions of square miles, and her population, consisting of Russians, Poles, Germans, Greeks, Turks, EUSSIA. 319 EUSSIA. 321 Tartars, Jews, &c, amount to not less than sixty-seven millions ! In Europe alone, Russia has an area of over two millions of square miles, and sixty-two millions of inhabitants. Of these, about forty- eight millions belong to the Slavic race. The external aspect of Russia is distinguished by immense level plains, called steppes, prodigious forests, and large rivers. Much of it is unoccupied and barren, but much of it also is fertile and cultivated. All the products of agriculture are abundant here. Gold, silver, platinum, and other metals are found in the Ural Mountains. The external as well as internal commerce of the country is very considerable. Long canals and railroads, the for- mer chiefly, connect the White, Black, Caspian, and Baltic Seas. Internal commerce is also greatly facilitated by the snow in win- ter, over which sleighs, heavily laden with produce and mer- chandise, travel with rapidity. Great fairs are held in different places, to which crowds of merchants and others are attracted from all parts. In the south the climate is mild and pleasant, in the north cold, in winter intensely so, the wind sweeping vio- lently over the vast level plains, and freezing every thing which it touches. Still, it is not unhealthy in these northern regions, and what with furs and fires, the people contrive to make them- selves comfortable. St. Petersburg, one of the largest and most magnificent cities in the world, is the capital, built at the mouth of the Neva, or Newa, which is here 1200 feet wide, with a population of nearly 500,000 inhabitants.* The streets are from 70 to 150 feet wide, intersected by spacious canals, embanked by massive parapets of stone, and spanned by innumerable handsome bridges. The quays are extensive and superb. Palaces and public buildings, mostly in a style of great magnificence, line the banks of the Neva, and, indeed, adorn the principal streets of the city. In the square opposite the Isaac Bridge stands the colossal equestrian statue of Peter the Great. The huge block of granite which forms its pedestal is upward of 1500 tons weight. Its appearance is grand and striking, having an air of dignity and triumph. Some of the churches are beautiful and imposing. The Kazan Church is of great dimensions, and built of white marble. That of St. Isaac is still more magnificent. Petersburg is the seat of a large and well-endowed university. The imperial library has 300,000 vol- umes. The city is also supplied with literary and scientific insti- tutions, botanical gardens, and cabinets of natural history. In winter, it presents a most animated appearance, for every where * Moscow is sometimes spoken of as the old, or first, capital. 14* 322 THE WOELD WE LITE EST. on the Neva, and the canals which traverse its whole extent, com- pletely frozen over, innumerable skaters flit from point to point, in rapid and exhilarating motions. Sledges, of all shapes and dimen- sions, whirl through the streets, and the frosty atmosphere rings with the crack of the whip and the shout of postillions. Ice mountains also are formed, consisting of inclined planes, high and steep, coated with ice, down which the people descend in cars, 01 on skates, with great velocity ; an amusement of which all are ex cessivelv fond. Statue of Peter the Great. As a general thing, Russia is thinly inhabited, so that traveling is not the most agreeable. The roads are rough, except in winter, when covered with snow ; the inns, if such they may be called, few and far between ; the drowsy station-houses, where post- horses are supplied, are without accommodations ; and the bound- less plains monotonous and wearisome. The traveler must carry with him his bed, provisions, and cooking utensils. The horses EUSSIA. 323 are harnessed to clumsy vehicles, in the shape of landaus, four or five abreast, with a single horse as leader, and perhaps another in the shafts. But they dash along over the frozen ground at a considerable rate, and the travelers may sleep as much as they can, amid mountains of fur. The sledges are of various forms and qualities. Some are plain enough ; others are gaudily Ornamented. Among these are the kibitki, a rude carriage, without springs, ex- cept to the seats, and shaped like a boat ; and the droski, a squat affair, with a hollow center, in which the passenger is scarcely two feet from the ground. In some of these carnages he sits astride, as on a narrow saddle, going so rapidly, sometimes, that the novice is compelled to hold on to the driver's sash. In severe winters, passengers, and even drivers, not unfrequently perish from the cold. What changes the introduction of railroads in Russia will produce we know not, but they must be considerable. The jour- ney from St. Petersburg to Moscow must become a very different thing from what it has been. In 1789, no less than 14,000 per- sons were frozen to death on the road between these two capitals. In Russia, it is no uncommon thing to see a person who has lost an ear or a nose, or other member of his body, by exposure to cold. Limbs are sometimes sacrificed where life escapes. Such, however, is the obtuseness of feeling which intense cold produces, that passengers in the streets of St. Petersburg rely on one another for the friendly warning, that their noses are about to pre- cede them to the tomb ! The population of Russia is highly diversified, and held together only by the iron bands of the government. The Slavonic race, as we have seen, including the Russians, the Poles, and the Cossacks, form the majority. The Cossacks occupy the southern provinces on the Don and the Black Sea. They are rough and warlike. The Finnic race includes the Finns, or natives of Finland, Estho- nians, Laplanders, and other tribes scattered over the country, from the Tornea to the Ural Mountains, generally poor, rude, and simple-hearted. The Tartars, or Turkish race, are scattered over the extensive plains which stretch between the Dniester and the Caucasus, comprising the inhabitants of the former kingdoms of Kazan and Astrachan, and various tribes chiefly under their own government, generally nomadic in their habits, without agriculture and fire-arms, and of course rude and heathenish. To the Mongol race belong the Calmucks, in the southeastern governments, indo- lent and savage. The Samoiedes compose numerous small, rude tribes wandering through the vast wilderness of the northeast- ern coast. In addition to these, Russia contains a considerable number of German colonists, Swedes, in Finland, who hate the 324 THE WORLD WE LIVE IINT. Russians, Jews, Armenians, Gipsies, and other peoples. In the whole empire, there are not less than eighty tribes, differing in re- ligion, language, manners, and usages ; ranging from the lowest point of barbarism, to the highest degree of European refinement. The great majority, however, even of the Russians proper, are in a semi -barbarous, or, which is the same thing, in a semi-civilized condition, degraded in character and manners, and held to bond- age by their hereditary lords. The Russians are divided into three classes — the nobility, citizens, and peasantry. The nobles are distinguished as hereditary, and personal ; the latter being constituted such for life, and consisting of the higher classes of the clergy and citizens, as also the civil and military officers not nobles by birth. The nobles and com- moners are exempted from the poll-tax, though liable to other taxes, and cannot be compelled to enter the army, though many of them enter it voluntarily. By citizens are meant all the free inhabitants of cities and towns engaged in commerce, manufac- tures, and other business, and amounting to near five millions. The peasantry comprise freeholders and serfs ; the former num- bering about 700,000 only, the latter forming the great bulk of the population. Of the serfs, nearly eighteen millions are called peasants of the crown, and may be considered personally free, for that is the design of the emperor respecting them ; while twenty- one millions are absolute bondmen, chiefly on the estates of the nobility, though some of them are mechanics and tradesmen, and even merchants, who may accumulate property ; but both they and their property belong to their boyars, or lords. It is said to be the intention of the Emperor Nicholas, if possible, to emancipate the whole ; but there are many obstacles in the way, and long years must elapse before its accomplishment. They are permitted to work two days in the week on their own account, and thus may acquire sufficient property to purchase their freedom. Hundreds of "them are annually levied as recruits, and the moment they enter the army are free both for themselves and their descendants. The common people, all of them, are liable to conscription. At the bidding of the autocrat, thousands upon thousands can be com- pelled to enter the army, and march, at a moment's warning, to anj 7 part of the empire, or the world. The army is the largest in Europe, numbering at present not less than one million of men in the war department. Some of these are stationed, of course, at distant points in this vast country, but Nicholas can bring into the field, at any time, not less than 800,000 men ! The garrisons in the interior are provided for by the Army of Reserve, or General Reserve, the most of whom are EUSSIA. 325 trained in the military colonies, and number about 400,000. The Russian navy is considerable, though not equal to that of England, the first maritime power in the world. As to the character and habits of the people, the nobles, gener- ally, are well educated, particularly those employed about the court, or in civil and military service ; yet many of them are said to be boorish and ignorant. The Russians have good capacities, particularly for the acquisition of languages, in which they excel, many of them speaking half a dozen foreign tongues. Their man- ners and dress are similar to those of the higher European classes generally. In winter, they wear pelisses and boots of fur. It may be inferred, from their position and circumstances, that the nobles are proud and overbearing, though excessively obsequious to the autocrat, whom all obey ; but their very position of slave- owners must render them fierce and intolerant to all beneath them. They are fond of pomp and show, in many cases rather barbaric than graceful. The middle classes emulate the manners of their superiors. Many of the clergy are ignorant and dissolute. It has been stated, on good authority, that some of them cannot read, and that others often perform religious rites under the influence of strong drink. But as their persons are sacred, the people see little or no incongruity in such cases. The peasantry are rude and ignorant, full of superstition, and given to low and carnal habits. Their common dress is a hat, or cap, with a high crown, a coarse robe reaching to the knee, and girded with a sash, in which the wearer carries his purse, and sometimes his knife, or hatchet, a woolen cloth wrapped round the leg instead of stockings, and on the feet sandals of pliant bark. Their rude houses are made of logs, laid the one upon the other, having but one room for domestic purposes, and, summer and winter, kept intensely warm by means of a red-hot stove. The villages look dirty and dismal. The rich live sumptuously, but the poorer classes eat and drink what they can procure. Their general food is black rye bread, potatoes, salted fish, garlic, mush- rooms, and cucumbers. The common drink is quass, a sort of vinegar, made by mixing flour and water, and letting it stand till it ferments, when the liquor is drawn off for use. Mead is a com- mon drink. .Whisky and brandy are eagerly consumed. The drinking capacities of the people are immense. The Cossacks have good wines and brandy ; and the Calmucks have koumiss, a spirit, like weak brandy, distilled from mare's milk. The prevalent faith of Russia is that of the Greek Church. Jews, Lutherans, Catholics, and others, are permitted, though not without disabilities, to practice then- own religious rites. Nicholas 326 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. is doing all he can to bring these, and all other " heretics," into the unity of the faith, and has even descended to use persecution for this end. The Greek faith differs from the Roman, in denying the supremacy of the Pope, in allowing to the laity the reading of the Scriptures, in permitting the marriage of priests at least once, and in the practice of trine immersion ; but, in most other respects, it resembles the Roman. It will not, indeed, admit of statues in the churches as objects of reverence, but it allows pictures of the saints and Virgin. It resembles the Catholic Church in having the same ideas of ecclesiastical authority, the saving efficacy of the Sacraments, and in the use of splendid rites and shows. It has its patriarchs and patriarchal synod, instead of pope and cardinals, as also archbishops, bishops, and inferior clergy. It has convents and monasteries. Preaching and catechising are little regarded, while fasts and festivals are sedulously observed. The festivals are numerous, and kept with great pomp and rejoicing. Every house has a painting of a saint, or of the Virgin, before which the inmates offer prayers, and perform many superstitious ceremonies. The dead are buried with a paper in the hand, duly signed by the bishop and other dignitaries, as a passport to heaven ! The government is an absolute monarchy. The emperor is " Autocrat of all the Russias." His authority is claimed from God, and is universal in Church and State. He is the supreme king and the supreme pontiff of the nation. All power, secular and sacred, emanates from him. His word is final. Imprison- ment — the knout — exile to Siberia — degradation — death — depend upon his nod. He appoints dignitaries and officers, and all are finally amenable to him. This, however, makes the government exceedingly complicated, and the consequence is great corruption and wrong. In Russia justice is difficult of attainment. It is more uncertain than fortune. A common saying in Russia is : " God is high, and the emperor is far away." Torture is ah ished, and the common punishment is fine, the knout, and bar ment to Siberia. But the knout can torture the quivering f and cut the life out of the body, as effectually as the rack o guillotine."* One word from the emperor — and, without th< * "August 10th, 1*781, I saw two criminals, a man and a woman, suffer the punishment of the knout. They were conducted from the prison by about fifteen hussars and ten soldiers. When they arrived at the place of punishment, the hussars formed themselves into a ring round the whipping- post, the drum beat a minute or two, and then some prayers were re- peated — the populace taking off their hats. The woman was taken first, and, after being roughly stripped to the waist, her hands and feet were bound with cords to a post made for the purpose, a man standing before the RUSSIA. 327 lays of courts and witnesses, the victim of despotic vengeance is seized instantly, in the dead of night it may be, or at table with post to keep the cords tight. A servant attended the executioner, and both were stout men. The servant first marked his ground, and struck the wo- man five times on the back. Every stroke seemed to penetrate deep into the flesh. But his master, thinking him too gentle, pushed him aside, took his place, and gave all the remaining strokes himself, which were evidently more severe. The woman received twenty-five, and the man sixty. I pressed through the hussars, and counted the number as they were chalked on a board. Both seemed but just alive, especially the man, who had yet strength enough to receive a small donation with some signs of gratitude. They were conducted back to prison in a little wagon. I saw the woman in a very weak condition some days after, but could not find the man any more .'" — Howard's Journal. This latter circumstance confirmed Howard's previous suspicion that the knout was in reality the Russian gallows, and that, under cover of a mere whipping, death was sometimes, if not frequently, inflicted ; while Western Europe was abused with idle boasts of the superior clemency of Russian laws. It was, however, useless to think of making any inquiries on the subject among the courtiers of Catherine, or even among the ministers of justice ; so, in order to get further information, he took his own characteris- tic course. Having ascertained the address of the executioner, he got into a coach and drove off to his house. The poor fellow was alarmed at seeing a person having the appearance of a noble and an official enter his humble dwelling ; domiciliary visits from the authorities of St. Petersburg rarely boding good to the host. Howard had calculated upon the man being surprised and thrown off his guard, and now endeavored to increase his confusion by his air, tone, and bearing. The fellow probably remembered seeing him within the lines on the occasion just described, and, of course, supposed him to be a person in authority. Howard expected this. As- suming, therefore, an official tone, he desired the man to answer the ques- tions put to him simply, and without equivocation ; adding, that if his re- plies were found conformable to truth, he had nothing to fear. The execu- tioner meekly declared his readiness to answer any questions that should be put to him. " Can you inflict the knout in such a manner as to occasion death in a very short time ?" " Yes, I can," was the prompt reply. " In how short a time ?" continued Howard. " In a day or two." " Have you ever so inflicted it ?" " I have." " Have you lately ?" added our countryman, going to the point he was very anxious to be satisfied of. " Yes, the last man who was punished by my hands with the knout died of the punishment." Even so ! no wonder that the philanthropist had not been able to find him. " In what manner do you thus render it mortal ?" " By one or two strokes on the sides, which carry off large pieces of the flesh." " Do you receive orders thus to inflict the punishment ?" THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. his wife and children, or in the place of public concourse, amid the festivities of a holiday or a ball, in the very depth of win- ter, and hurried off to the inhospitable Siberia, where he is compelled to change his name, to hunt in the arctic forests, or dig in the dreary mines, with every species of criminal. Nothing is heard of him — nothing can be sent to him. He becomes dead among the living. As the emperor is supreme in the nation, so each proprietor is supreme on his own estate. All act the despot. The serfs are subject to the cudgel of the owner, and this " symbol of sacred authority is seldom at rest." The use of it is universal. It is related, that a gentleman who asked his slave why he always per- sisted in folding a letter with the title inward, received for an- swer : " Please, sir, because you never beat me." The knout is the most common punishment. To be " knouted without mercy," is to have the flesh cut piecemeal off the bones by every stroke of the hard, dried hide. Under this process the victim soon becomes exhausted, 'when an instrument, with iron teeth like a comb, is struck into the forehead, and the marks rubbed with gunpowder, as a perpetual brand of shame. Then a pair of pincers, like curling-irons, are fixed upon the nostrils, cutting or tearing each way. This quickens the man to con- sciousness, in the last stage of exhaustion. The wretched victim may then be put into a cart and conveyed to Siberia ! Russia is intensely proud and ambitious, and, in the opinion of many, means, if possible, directly or indirectly, to subjugate the Eastern nations. Her savage hordes, of great physical energy and thorough training, make good soldiers. Nicholas, though pos- sessing some noble traits, is said to be haunted by a boundless appetite for territorial acquisition. He is supposed to have his eye steadily fixed upon Turkey, and, the moment he can do so with impunity, he will take possession of the Dardanelles, and of Constantinople, the natural center and capital of the world. Aus- tria is under his foot as servant and slave. Prussia is ready to obey his behest. Turkey itself is pledged to assist him in war. When the secret treaty became known, by which this point was gained, the governments of France and England hastened to send their notes protesting against it, and affirming that they would act as if the agreement had never been made, Nicholas proudly replied, that he would act as if the notes had never been written ! "I do." This was the substance of the extraordinary catechism ; and thus were Howard's doubts resolved. EUSSIA. 329 " Let Russia," says a well-informed writer, " obtain possession of the Dardanelles, and she is henceforth not merely invincible, but invulnerable. No power can approach her. The Black Sea becomes the harbor of her empire, into which no foe can possibly penetrate ; its shores become her navy-yard, inaccessible to foreign fleet or army. And this vast Northern power will then press its resistless way down upon the sunny plains of Southern India, till her trading factories supply those vast territories, and till English goods, and finally Englishmen, are crowded out of Asia. The deep solicitude felt by Great Britain upon the subject may be in- ferred from the following extract from the Foreign Quarterly Re- view, the organ of the sentiments of the Court of St. James : — ' The possession of the Dardanelles would give to Russia the means of creating and organizing an almost unlimited marine. It would enable her to prepare in the Black Sea an armament of any extent, without its being possible for any power in Europe to interrupt her proceedings, or even to watch or discover her designs. Our naval officers of the highest authority have declared that an effect- ive blockade of the Dardanelles cannot be maintained throughout the year. Even supposing that we could maintain permanently in those seas a fleet capable of encountering that of Russia, it is obvious that in the event of a war, it would be in the power of Russia to throw the whole weight of her disposable forces on any point in the Mediterranean, without any probability of our being able to prevent it ; and that the power of thus issuing forth with an overwhelming force, at any moment, would enable her to com- mand the Mediterranean Sea for a limited time whenever it might please her so to do. Her whole southern empire would be de- fended by a single impregnable fortress. The road to India would then be open to her, with all Asia at her back. The finest mate- rials in the world, for an army destined to serve in the East, would be at her disposal. Our power to overawe her in Europe would be gone, and by even a demonstration against India, she could augment our national expenditure by many millions annually, and render the government of that country difficult beyond all cal- culation.' " But Russia is surrounded by powerful governments, who jeal- ously watch her progress. The resources of England and France combined would present an insuperable obstacle to her seizure of the Turkish Empire. Even Austria, in such a case, might revolt, and Prussia lend her power in opposition to her dreaded ally. Sweden would instantly attempt to recover her lost possessions annexed to the Russian government, and might bring to the assist- ance of the allied powers a hundred thousand of the best-disci- 330 THE WORLD WE LIVE IX. plined troops in the -world. Poland, and other forced dependen- cies of Russia, would revolt. The impatient Cossacks, the Moldo- Wallachians, the Finns, and the inhabitants of the Baltic provinces, whether German barons or Lettonian boors, would fly to arms to recover their ancient rights and humble their oppressor. Austria, if united with Russia, would be dismembered, while the Hunga- rians, Bohemians, and Moravians would rush to the battle-ground of nations. Moreover, the power of the Czars, however augmented, is but the power of brute force, and of the terrors it inspires. A single reverse would react upon Russia itself, and, by the force of insurrection and revolution, shake it to its inmost center.* * As a proof of this, conspiracies are not infrequent. The following, trans- lated for the New York Tribune, appeared a few years ago : " It appears that the plan of the conspiracy was formed by a very young man, Nicholas Kaschkine, who has the title of honorary councilor on the list of condemned. Betrayed by one of the numerous informers that are kept in large numbers by the Russian police, whenever it suspects any hostile intentions, Kaschkine was arrested, then taken to the cabinet of the Czar, who received him with an unexpected kindness and affability. " ' You are young, M. Kaschkine, and you have another excuse still bet- ter,' said the magnanimous emperor. ' Under color of politics, you have wished, as I conjecture, to satisfy the desire of vengeance, excited by what you consider the unjust condemnation of your father. The power which retains him in Siberia cannot be legitimate in the eye of a good son, and I comprehend the imprudent anger which has placed you in my hands. But I shall not abuse the terrible power which I have over you, and if your re- pentance shall suggest to you confessions which may justify an absolute pardon — if you will disclose the details of the conspiracy, the names of your accomplices, every thing may be forgotten — your future prospects shall not be compromised, your liberty shall be restored to you, and so forth.' " ' Sir,' interrupted M. Kaschkine, ' do not go any further, and, above alL correct your mistake. No desire of vengeance has inspired me with the thought of bringing your dominion to an end. In our family, the condem- nation of my father is regarded as a title of honor. For myself, I do not feel that I can add any thing to the glory with which it has crowned our name, unless I should be able to do something for the annihilation of your race and of your degrading authority.' " There were witnesses to the conversation, who cried out in real or af- fected horror. The emperor alone preserved his sang-froid. ' This young man is mad,' he said. ' It is not a prison, but a hospital that he requires.' " It is, in fact, a mad-house to which Kaschkine has been sent. But of these madmen, thank God, the race is not lost in Russia. It has long been perpetuated, and we even find it as far back as 1825, at the date of the conspiracy to which Mouranieff has given his name. " It is known that, in defiance of the imperial statutes which had abol- ished the punishment of death, it was pronounced against several of the conspirators, and, by a refinement of cruelty, an infamous punishment was chosen for them, and one contrary to the national usages. Those who were put to death were hung. EUSSIA. 331 After all, Russia has reason enough to keep the peace ; and we rejoice to know that many persons, well informed in European affairs, believe that Nicholas, instead of conquest, regards it as higher glory to elevate the character of his people. For this pur- pose he has endeavored to improve the administration of justice, and to promote learning and education. The literature of Russia, though wanting in originality and power, is making commendable progress. Education also, though far behind that of other Euro- pean States, is advancing. Considerable exertions are made by the government to introduce schools, and instruct the lower classes. Several thousand schools have been established among the peas- antry of the crown. Many scientific schools have been instituted. The colleges and universities rival similar institutions in other parts of Europe. Every governmental or provincial capital con- tains a gymnasium ; in those of Irkutsk and Kiachta the Japanese and Chinese languages are taught. Upon the whole, it must be allowed that the Russians are ad- vancing slowly in knowledge, civilization, and refinement. May they have wisdom to take care of themselves, and let their neigh- bors alone ! " Two of them, one a German, the other a Russian — the one a philosopher and skeptic, the other a believer, and tinctured with the mysticism of which the Emperor Alexander gave some specimens, more or less in earnest — ar- riving together at the place of punishment, were hoisted together at the fatal post. The executioner, who was new to his task, had made bad prep- arations. The two ropes broke almost at the same moment. " ' D — d country !' cried out the German, Pestil, ' they don't even know how to hang !' ' Thank God !' gravely responded the mystic Rylieg, ' I shall die twice for our holy cause.' " 3.32 THE WOULD WE LIVE IN. CHAPTER XXIV. SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND DENMARK Royal Palace at Stockholm. "We comprise these countries under one head, because they oc- cupy the ancient Scandinavia, and because their inhabitants are derived from the same stock, and have many traits in common. On this account they all claim an interest in the celebrated men of each, in Thorswalden, in Berzelius, and in Oehlenschlager ; and while they have their little jealousies, their " bickerings and battlings," feel that they belong to the same family, and have much the same interests and aims. When they meet in foreign lands, they clasp each other's hands, and, with kindling glance, exclaim — " We are Scandinavians ! We are brothers !" A pleas- ing little instance of this is related by Hans Christian Andersen, in his "Poet's Bazaar." When he was at Rome, in 1833, all the Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes in that city united, as one family, SWEDEN", NORWAY, AND DENMARK. 333 to keep their Christmas-eve. " "We were," says he, " about fifty- Scandinavians, including seven ladies, who wore wreaths of living roses around their brows : we men had wreaths of ivy. The three nations had subscribed for presents The best prize was a silver cup, with the inscription, 'Christmas-eve in Rome, 1833.' And who won it ? I was the lucky one." Jenny Lind. Sweden and Norway, united under the same government, which is a limited monarchy, somewhat like that of England, have a population of nearly five millions. The country is chiefly agricul- tural, with extensive forests, and some valuable mines of copper, iron, and silver. From Norway and the neighboring countries, came the Northmen, or Normans, who conquered a portion of France, and swayed, for many years, the scepter over England. They are a brave, honest, enterprising race. The same may be said of the Swedes. They are of middle size, with light hair and ruddy complexions. The women have a pleasing appearance, generally with light auburn hair and blue eyes. The celebrated songstress, Jenny Lind, is a fair specimen of her countiywomen. 334 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. The Swedish ladies are qiiiet and pleasant in their manners ; when excited, quite animated and cheerful. The State is com- posed of four orders, nobles, clergy, peasants, and burghers, or citizens of towns, all of whom are represented in the national legis- lative assemblies. The higher classes dress much in the style of the English; though the Swedes have a national costume, ordained by law some sixty years ago : the ladies, however, as in other countries, do pretty much as they please with reference to dress. The coats of the men are close, fastened round the waist with a sash ; the cloak is black, but lined with gay colors. No gentleman is con- sidered in full dress without a sword, and a feather in his hat. Their language is a Germano- Gothic dialect, strong and expres- sive ; to a foreigner rough and guttural, but, to a native, eupho- nious enough. The Swedish tongue is considered, by those ac- quainted with it, quite smooth and poetical. Their literature is rich in songs and lyrics, as also in the department of the drama. The houses of the common people, for the most part, are mere log huts, but more neat and comfortable than those in Russia. The beds are placed, like berths, the one above the other. Their bread is baked twice a year, and is hung around the room, in small loaves on strings, like apples in New England. The people are generally fond of tobacco, and of brandy when they can get it. The peasantry are not as virtuous as one might expect. Their statistics show that crimes are frequent among them, particularly those connected with licentiousness. Still, many of them cherish much manly simplicity, kindness, and generosity of character. Education is universally diffused. The people are fond of reading, and especially of music, for which they possess a natural talent. They are universally distinguished for their hospitality. Patriotic and free, they love their native land, and will endure any thing for its welfare. The mountains"of Dalecarlia have ever been the abode of freedom and virtue. The literature of Sweden is not without high merit. Linnaeus and Berzelius in science, Stagnelius and Tegner in poetry, are an honor to their country. The latter stands first among the modern poets of Sweden, " a man of a grand and gorgeous imagination, and poetic genius of a high order." He is the author of " The Children of the Lord's Supper," so finely translated by Longfel- low, who says : " The modern Skald has written his name in immortal runes ; not on the bark of trees alone, in the ' unspeak- able rural solitudes' of pastoral song, but on the mountains of his native land and the cliffs that overhang the sea, and on the tombs of ancient heroes whose histories are epic poems." Almost all SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND DENMARK. 335 works of merit in foreign European tongues are translated into Swedish, though a majority of these are scientific works. The universities of Upsala and Lund, especially the former, are highly distinguished for 'learning. The finances of Sweden are in a good condition. The country, indeed, is not rich, neither is it poor. The people are contented with little, and probably prefer that little at home to abundance in foreign lands. They are fond of rural sports and out-door rec- reations generally. The Sabbath, after church, is a holiday, and dancing, singing, and all sorts of merry-making, are not considered inconsistent with the character of the day. This, however, as in France and Germany, is one cause of the low condition, not only of religion, but of the morals of the Swedish people. The first days of May and of Midsummer are celebrated as festivals. The young men and women dance around a festooned pole from morn- ing till evening. All ranks dance with great agility and delight. Cards are said to be a general amusement, though the Swedes are not charged with being addicted to gambling as such. To illus- trate the national fondness for cards, it is said that a nobleman, when his dinner hour had arrived without his dinner, went into the kitchen to learn the reason of the delay, when he found all the domestics engaged in a game of cards. He pleasantly admitted the characteristic excuse, that the game had arrived at its critical point, and could not therefore be put off, even for dinner. He himself took the cook's hand and played it, while that domestic performed his duty ! The religion of Sweden is Lutheran, but somewhat cold and formal, having much degenerated from the days of its early vigor and enthusiasm. Religious intolerance has more than once dis- played itself, even recently, and it would seem that Sweden is quite behind the age with reference to the vital question of reli- gious freedom. Still it would be wrong to infer from this that there is no simplicity and depth in the religion of this interesting country. Doubtless it is still the source of all that is highest and best in their character and institutions. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, stands upon seven small rocky islands, beside two peninsulas, and is an attractive city, though, like much of St. Petersburg and Amsterdam, it is built upon piles. It has many picturesque views, formed by number- less granitic rocks rising boldly from the surface of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly dotted with houses, or adorned with gardens and trees. On the central island are some striking buildings, and, among others, the royal palace, near which is a fine bronze statue of the Swedish monarch Gustavus the Third, 336 THE WOELD WE LIVE IIST. on a pedestal of polished porphyritic rock. The city has some- thing less than 100,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnifi- cent buildings, its numberless literary and scientific institutions, its free schools, its extensive commerce, and its deep, capacious harbor, in which a thousand sail might lie safely. The Norwegians resemble the Swedes, in most particulars. They are a hardy, robust, simple-hearted, courageous race. Skating, as in all the Scandinavian countries, is a universal amusement, and even means of travel. Many of their school- masters are itinerant, staying in one place two or three weeks at a time. They have some peculiar customs : a violin, for example, is played at the head of the coffin in funerals, and questions of various kinds are put to the corpse, the best of which is that of asking pardon for offenses or injuries against the deceased during life. The country is governed by a viceroy, and, with reference to finances, legislation, and the administration of justice, is really independent. The press is free, and a spirit of republicanism prevails among the people. Denmark is a lively little country, with a population of less than two millions, but intelligent in a high degree, active and enterprising, full of life, energy, and enthusiasm. The capital, Copenhagen, is one of the finest in Europe, strongly fortified, with a numerous population, and many literary, scientific, and benevo- lent institutions. The royal castle and palace of Christiansborg is a magnificent edifice, with a rich gallery of paintings, and a library of 400,000 volumes. It has a highly distinguished univer- sity, and is the seat of an active and extensive commerce. The Church of Our Lady is adorned with some fine pieces of statuary, by Thorswalden, the pride and glory of Denmark in the depart- ment of the arts. The round tower of Trinity is used as an ob- servatory, and can be ascended by a winding path, in carriages. " There is no lack," says an English traveler, " of in-door gayety in Copenhagen ; but the general aspect of the city, to a foreigner accustomed to the stunning bustle of English towns, is decidedly dull. Partly, this arises from the very little show the shops make, the comparatively small business traffic in the streets, and also from the leisurely habits of the people themselves. The fact is, the Danes have not yet learned to live in a hurry ; but although they are ' slow,' they are steady and sure ; although they are a century behind England in many of the leading improvements of the age, they are more than a century ahead of England in gen- erally diffused plenty and comfort ; and although they do not gallop through life as though for a wager, they know how to en- joy it rationally." Among the peculiarities of Stockholm is that 337 of the watchmen, who, muffled in great-coats and fur caps, go the rounds, chanting a pious or prudential verse at the close of each hour, with cadence deep and guttural, a peculiar but not un- pleasing tone. The following are specimens : EIGHT O'CLOCK. " When darkness blinds the earth And the day declines, That time then us reminds Of death's dark grave ; Shine on us, Jesus sweet, At every step To the grave-place, And grant a blissful death ! nine o'clock. Now the night strides down, And the night rolls forth — Forgive, for Jesu's wounds, Our sins, O mildest God ! Preserve the royal houses, And all men In this land From violence of foes. ten o'clock. If you the time will know, Husband,* girl, and boy, Then it's about the time That one prepares for bed. Commend yourselves to God ; Be prudent and cautious, Take care of lights and fire ; Our clock it has struck ten. eleven o'clock. God our Father us preserve, The great with the small ; His holy angel host A fence around us place ! He himself the town will watch : Our house and home God has in care, Our entire life and soul TWELVE O'CLOCK. 'Twas at the midnight hour Our Saviour he was born, * Wife is understood. 15 338 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. The wide world to console, "Which else would ruined be. Our clock it has struck twelve : With tongue and mouth, Prom the heart's depths, Commend yourselves to God's care. one o'clock. Help us, Jesus dear ! Our cross here in this world Patiently to bear — There is no Savior more.* Our clock it has struck one : Extend to us thy hand, consoling One ! Then the burden becomes light." And so on, in a similar style of touching solemnity and pathos, through the silent night. The following is the last, at 5 o'clock, A.M.: " Jesu, Morning Star ! Our King unto thy care We so willingly commend — Be thou his Sun and Shield ! Our clock it has struck five : Come, thou mild Sun, Prom mercy's pale, Light up our house and home !" The appearance and manners, as well as opinions, religious and political, of the Danes are similar to those of their Swedish neigh- bors. Their country is level and agricultural, though they follow successfully trade and manufactures. In general, the Danes are an enlightened people. Their simplicity, single-heartedness, and enthusiasm are seen in all their productions. Hans Christian An- dersen, in sketching and story-telling, Frederika Bremer, in the domestic novel, and Oehlenschlager, their first and favorite poet, in the drama, are known throughout the literary world. The latter has been styled, with what propriety we are not competent to judge, " the Shakspeare of the North." He died but a short time since, and received at his funeral the highest honors his country could confer. The king, the nobles, the professors and students of the university, and the people generally, followed his remains to the grave, and wept over his tomb. A song, prepared by Hans Christian Andersen, was sung when the throng passed * No other Savior. SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND DENMARK. 339 the birth-place of the poet. Minute-guns were fired ; a large military band played the dead march. The coffin was borne on the shoulders of the royal sailors, preceded by emblematic ban- ners, and followed by a dense mass of gentlemen of all ranks, six deep. The coffin was borne Avithout pall or any other covering, and on its lid were the silver wreaths, lyre, and harp ; but so many evergreen wreaths and "everlasting" flowers had been de- posited by loving hands, that it seemed one mass of foliage. An oration was pronounced at the grave by pastor Grundtvig, a gifted and eloquent preacher, and the body lowered into the tomb amid the stifled sobs and tears of the multitude : a burial worthy of a pure and gifted poet. Of Lapland and the Laplanders we have scarcely room to speak. Primitive and simple, and living upon the plainest fare, they de- pend almost exclusively, both for food and dress, as well as many other conveniences, upon their reindeer, which go wherever they go, and in winter convey them rapidly, in their sledges, over the frozen ground. The most interesting fact in reference to them is, that, through the efforts of the self-denying Moravian missiona- ries, they have almost all been converted to Christianity, and are generally attached to its duties and observances. Great crimes are unknown among them. Simple-hearted and harmless, they find it a comfort and a joy to obey the divine precepts in their most literal import. Their country is mostly cold and barren. In Swedish Lapland, however, there are some valuable mines. Portions of the scenery are wild and sublime, especially when lighted by the bright Arctic moon, or the brilliant coruscations of the aurora borealis. The Laplanders are short of stature, being generally under five feet high, homely, but good-natured. They move, with their herds of reindeer, from place to place, seldom residing in towns. In the brief summer they occupy tents ; in winter rude huts, formed of stones and earth, and covered with turf. They have a few churches and schools, and, upon the whole, are making progress in knowledge and Christian civ- ilization. For an account of Iceland and the Icelanders, who properly belong to Europe, see page 120. 340 THE WORLD WE LIVE IK. CHAPTER XXV. SWITZERLAND. Leaving Denmark, we pass once more into Germany, and as- cend the " exulting and abounding Rhine," as Byron appropri- ately styles it, and rest not till Ave find ourselves in the old town of Basle, capital of the canton Basle, in Switzerland, famous as the burial-place of the learned Erasmus, and of ^Ecolampadius, Protestant pastor or bishop of the place in the days of the Refor- mation, more recently distinguished as the residence of De Wette, one of the most learned of the German critical divines, and for a number of years of the gifted and eloquent Vinet. But we cannot stop here;' so, taking the diligence, we pass through the soft meadows and verdant acclivities of the canton Basle, where we SWITZERLAND. 341 begin, on hill -side and in valley, to see the peculiar houses of the Swiss peasantry. The country has an appearance of agricultural thrift and abundance. On all the green and wooded hills cattle are browsing, while the high-roofed cottages nestle pleasantly among the trees. Finally, crossing the Jura Mountains, we de- scend into the beautiful valley of Lake Leman and the Rhone, protected on all sides by lofty Alpine summits, and adorned with towns and villages, and the most charming wood and water sce- nery. We visit Geneva, which lies charmingly on either bank of the Rhone, whose deep clear waters, reflecting heaven's azure, cut the city into two unequal parts at their outlet from the lake, which spreads, just beyond the city walls, into one of the grand- est and most beautiful expanses in the world, in sight of the Ber- nese Alps, the Jura Mountains, Mount Saleve, with its verdant slopes, and in the distance Mont Blanc lifting its calm, clear, snow-clad summit into the radiant heavens ; the city of John Calvin, of John J. Rousseau, of Madame de Stael, of Voltaire also, for he lived in the immediate neighborhood ; the present res- idence, too, of Merle D'Aubigne, and the scene of many startling changes and revolutions.* Leaving Geneva, we take a steamer, plying constantly on the lake, for Lausanne, capital of the canton Vaud, the city of Beza and Vinet, and long the residence of Gib- * The following, from Bulwer, is worth reading : " It was a warm, clear, and sunny day on which I commenced the voyage of the lake. Looking behind, I gazed on the roofs and spires of Geneva, and forgot the present in the past. What to me was its little community of watchmakers, and its little colony of English ? I saw Charles of Savoy at its gates; I heard the voice of Berthelier invoking liberty, and summon- ing to arms. The struggle past — the scaffold rose — and the patriot became the martyr ! His blood was not spilt in vain. Religion became the resur- rection of freedom. The town is silent ; it is under excommunication. Suddenly a murmur is heard ; it rises — it gathers ; the people are awake — they sweep the streets — the images are broken ! Farel is preaching to the council ! Yet a little while, and the stern soul of Calvin is at work within those walls. The loftiest of the reformers, and the one whose influ- ence has been the world-wide and lasting, is the earliest also of the great tribe of the perseputed the City of the Lake receives within her arms. The benefits he repaid — behold them around ! Wherever property is secure, wherever thought is free, wherever the ancient spirit has been caught, you trace the work of the Reformation, and the inflexible, inquisitive, uncon- querable soul of Calvin ! He foresaw not, it is true, nor designed the effects he has produced. The same sternness of purpose, the same rigidity of conscience that led him to reform, urged him to persecute. The exile of Balsec and the martyrdom of Servetus rest darkly upon his name. But the blessings we owe to the first inquirers compensate their errors. Had Calvin not lived, there would not have been one, but a thousand Servetuses !" 342 THE WORLD WE LIVE IX. bon, magnificently situated on the left bank of the lake, amid embowerino- trees and clustering vines. "We come in sio-ht of numberless charming localities, and an infinite variety of wood, water, and mountain landscape, reminding us of the days of old, with the ever- varying beauty and freshness of nature. Byron lived a long time on the banks of this delightful lake, and has cele- brated its serenity and beauty in some of his finest lines. " Clear, placid Leman ! thy contrasted lake, With the wild world I dwelt in, is a thing Which warns me, with its stillness, to forsake Earth's troubled waters for a purer spring ! This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing To waft me from destruction. Once I loved Torn ocean's roar ; but thy soft murmuring Sounds sweet, as if a sister's voice reproved, That I with stern delights should e'er have been so moved." All around the lake are spots of classic or romantic interest — Vevay, Villeneuve, Meillerie, the Castle of Chillon ; afar off the gleaming of glacier peaks, and, bending over it, a deep blue sky, whose serene hights are mirrored in the bosom of the limpid waters. Leaving Lausanne, with its gray towers, green foliage, and charming society, we pass toward the upper end of the lake, near Villeneuve, where the Rhone, which takes its rise amid Alpine solitudes far away, enters the lake, forming some of the most en- chanting scenery in the world ; we take the road which runs many miles along the banks of the river, and, before many hours, find ourselves entering the very heart of the Swiss mountains, and wandering at will amid snowy peaks, piercing the heavens, vast ice-fields thrown up into sea-like ridges, as if ten thousand mount- ain waves had been instantly congealed, where nothing is heard but the thundering; of the o-laciers, crashing: downwards with hol- low reverberations ; or passing thence over immense masses of splintered rocks, far down into peaceful valleys, amid fresh verdure and flowers ; or sauntering by the brink of dark blue lakes, among the hills, mirroring, in their still bosoms, the rock-ribbed mount- ains ; watching, with dilated spirit, some roaring cataract leaping from the precipice into the boiling abyss, or some rare cascade, with its iris hues, radiant as Eden, pouring in scattered glories from its rocky bed, and bounding like a thing of life amid the umbrage of the dark green woods ; or standing by the spot con- secrated in song and story, where William Tell pierced the apple on his boy's head, or where he shot his arrow deep into the heart of the tyrant Gessler ; or where Arnold of Winkelried grasped SWITZEELAISTD. 343 into his bosom " a sheaf of spears," making way, by his fallen body, for his countrymen to freedom and victory ; or listening, at even- ing's close, to the bells of St. Bernard, or the rush of ten thou- sand streams, uttering their hymn of praise amid the silence of the hills ; or gazing, in the starry night, far up amid pinnacles of ice, glowing with the light of heaven ; or worshiping, at sun- rise, amid the kindling glories of the Jungfrau or the Shrechkhorn, bathed in the rosy light of ascending day ; or standing, in the stillness of a summer's afternoon, listen to the echo of the shep- herd's horn, far resounding' through the hills and vales ; or mingle with the storm, which shrieks through the mountain passes, whirls among the rocks, and makes fierce music amid the pinnacles of eternal ice ; or, it may be, gazing with rapt wonder at closing day, when the atmosphere is hazy, on the burning beauty which bathes the entire summits and sides of the mountains, " far kenned at morn and even," like the glorious light " Of flowers, that with one scarlet gleam Cover a hundred leagues, and seem To set the hills on fire." We linger especially by the " tower and chapel" of William Tell — by Morgarten and Sempach, the scenes where Swiss liberty was born and nurtured, in tears, agony, and blood — where the men of Uri, Unterwald, and Schwytz, the latter leading the way, did battle for their native land, and won for it freedom and eternal renown. "Thither in time of adverse shocks, Of fainting hopes and backward wills, Did mighty Tell repair of old — A hero cast in Nature's mould, Deliverer of the steadfast rocks, And of the ancient hills. He too, of battle martyrs chief! Who, to recall his daunted peers, For victory shaped an open space, By gathering, with a wide embrace, Into his single heart, a sheaf Of fatal Austrian spears." The battle of Morgarten took place in 1315, at which William Tell and Walter Furst are supposed to have been present, that of Sempach in 1386, when Arnold of Winkelried, with a wonderful self-sacrifice, which has no parallel in modern history, gave him- self for his country. " It was the season of harvest, when the sun darted his beams with great ardor. After a short prostration in prayer the Swiss arose ; their numbers were four hundred men 344 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. from Luzerne, nine hundred from Walstetten, and about a hun- dred from Glaris and other places. Uniting now their forces, they precipitated themselves with great impetuosity upon the im- pregnable Austrian phalanx ; but not a man yielded to the shock. The Swiss fell one after another ; numbers lay bleeding on the ground ; their whole force began to waver, when suddenly a voice like thunder exclaimed : ' I will open a passage to freedom ; faith- ful and beloved confederates, protect only my wife and children !' These words of Arnold Struthan of Winkelried, a knight of Un- terwalden, were no sooner uttered, than he seized with both arms as many of the enemies' spears as he was able, buried them in his body and sank to the ground, while the confederates rushed through the breach over his corpse."* " On, on they rushed, with their triumph flushed, Nor "wavered, nor turned them back ; But hand to hand with the men-at-arms They were dealing blow for blow, And knights and nobles were stricken down By the heavy club of the Alpine clown — The despised and insulted foe. On the ruthless foes of their name and race Dire vengeance they took that day ; For insult and wrong, endured for long, And which blood could not wipe away ; For ravaged fields, and for houseless nights, In the depths of the winter's cold ; For plundered home, and for murder'd child — The savage feats of a warfare wild — And for deeds that may not be told. And far and wide from the Sempach's side, The marvelous rumor flew, That the Austrian host had been routed and turned, And scattered the country through. To the anxious watchers in sad Luzerne, At sunset the tidings came ; And the streets were astir with the old and young ; And the gates were opened, and the bells were rung ; And with grateful hosannas, both loud and long, They remembered the God in their even song Who raises the weak and confounds the strong — Praise, praise to his holy name ! And to tranquil Stantz, as the deep'ning shade Drew the stars forth one by one, The news was brought of the victory bought * Zschokke. SWITZERLAND. 345 With the life of her bravest son. There was weeping that night in the peaceful home Of Arnold of Winkelried : But the hour of mourning e'en there was brief When she heard of his glorious deed. The color rushed to her pallid face, And it brightened and beamed with unwonted grace, As she kissed her boys, with a mother's pride, And told them with tears how their father died." Switzerland consists of twenty-two cantons, forming a confedera- tion like that of the United States, for mutual aid and support, and for purposes of general government and legislation, but each canton is independent within its own jurisdiction. Part are Cath- olic, and part are Protestant. The latter are the wealthiest and most powerful. Most of the people speak German, with a patois, about a third, perhaps, French, and a few, in the neighborhood of Italy, Italian. They are brave, ingenious, and enterprising. Their soldiers, however, can be bought for any government, and Swiss regiments may be found in Rome, Naples, and elsewhere. The whole country is carefully cultivated, and portions of it, especially in the valleys, are very fertile. The manufacture of watches, jewelry, music instruments, &c, is carried on to a great extent. Trade is universally free. The literature of Switzerland, particu- larly of the cantons Vaud, Geneva, Basle, and Berne, is highly respectable. It partakes, however, more or less of French and German influences. Indeed, it greatly blends with these, and is often confounded with them. But Beza, Rousseau, De Maistre, Neckar, Madame De Stael, Vinet, Constant, Bonnet, D'Aubigne, all belong to Switzerland. Saussure, Sismondi, and Agassiz are from the neighborhood of Geneva. The government, in most instances, is democratic and popular, but occasionally, in its practical working, aristocratic and conserva- tive. The democratic element, however, is dominant. It has even, as in Geneva and in the canton Vaud, proceeded to ex- tremities. Radicalism in these States, mingled with infidelity and socialism, has persecuted the ministers of Christ, and broken up Churches, whose only fault is their adherence to what they deem truth and duty. Switzerland, alas ! is sadly injured by the blight of atheism. French materialism and German pantheism have rushed into it from every side. The Swiss are a simple-hearted, generous, and, upon the whole, religious race. They love their mountain homes, and are ever prepared to defend them with their lives. They are fond of music, and can be affected to tears, especially in foreign lands, by some of their native airs, particularly the Bans des Vaches. " This 15* 346 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. Rans des Vaches," says Jean Paul Richter, " at once awakened his blooming- childhood, and she arose out of the morning dew, and out of her bower of rosebuds and slumbering flowers, and stepped before him in heavenly beauty, and smiled innocently and with her thousand hopes upon him, and said, ' Look at me, how beau- tiful I am ! we used to play together. I formerly gave thee many things — great riches, gay meadows, and bright gold, and a fair, long paradise behind the mountains ; but now thou hast nothing of all this left — and how paie thou art ! play with me again !' Before which of us has not childhood been a thousand times called up by music ? And to which of vis has she not spoken and asked — 'Are the roses which I gave thee not yet blown ? ' Alas ! blown indeed they are — but, they were pale white roses." . The Swiss are sociable and affectionate, and love rural gather- ings and amusements. But hunting, after all, is the national pas- time among the mountains. They pursue the chamois far up among the rocks. This hardens the frame, and matures the char- acter for higher deeds. They are full of energy and patriotism. After wandering into other countries, as musicians, peddlers, or soldiers, they do not forget their mountain homes, and generally return to them, if within their power. The character of the Swiss, however, is much modified by for- eign influences. Republican and free, their country is the home of refugees and political aliens from all the countries around them. Almost interlocked, both by locality and language, with Germany on the one side, Italy, and especially France, on the other, they naturally adopt German, Italian, and French manners and usages. Geneva, the cantons Basle and Vaud, Neufchatel, and even Zu- rich, are much modified in this way. It is chiefly in the more rural and mountain districts that the true simplicity and energy of the Swiss character displays itself. Then again, part of them are Protestants and part Catholics, which frequently occasions difficulty and strife, and exerts great influence upon character and habits. The Jesuits, though banished, manage the Catholic can- tons, and, as their custom is, keep the people ignorant and super- stitious. On the other hand, the Protestant cantons, though prosperous, are open to endless speculations, and much fatal skepticism. Still it is in these that industry, knowledge, refine- ment, and enterprise are found to flourish. No better or pleas- anter cities can any where be found in Europe than Geneva, Lausanne, Zurich, Luzerne, and Berne. "We are on the Simplon road, that wonderful work of Napoleon, who conquered the Alps, as he conquered the nations. How wonderfully it winds along the mountain precipices, away down, SWITZERLAND. 347 and then far up among the rocks, now gliding over a sunny slope, or along the edge of a snow- crowned summit, then plunging amid dark ravines and forest-trees, till finally, Italy, la belle Italie, ra- diant with sunlight, bursts upon the view. Adieu, then, to Swit- zerland, with her lakes and mountains, and a welcome to Italy, the home of beauty and of song. 34S THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. CHAPTER XXVI, T T 4 T "V '■ Mount Etna. The principal feature of the Italian landscape is beauty. Lying between the blue waves of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, backed by the " sovereign Alps," with their dark forests and glacier peaks, traversed through her whole length by the lofty but beautiful Apennines, with here and there the bare and black- ened summit of an extinct volcano, and crowned, at the bay of Naples, with the smoking cone of Mount Vesuvius, Italy has feat- * The account of Italy is condensed from the Author's " Genius of Italy." ITALY. 349 ures of grandeur and majesty ; but her predominant aspect is that of serene beauty. With a sky of the softest blue, an atmosphere the clearest and blandest in the world, a fertile soil, and a rich garniture of verdure and trees ; gladdened moreover by limpid streams brawling among the hills, or sleeping, in pellucid pools and crystal lakes, in the depths of valleys ; covered with vines and olive-trees, myrtles and aloes, among which the white villa, the trellised cottage, the old church, and the hoary ruin of by-gone days are gleaming ; with here and there some ancient palace, or old tower crowning the summits, or, it may be, some splendid city lying on the waters, like Naples and Venice, or standing on the plain amid surrounding hills, like Florence and Rome, or seen from afar upon a mountain ledge, like Genoa, Gaeta and Amalfi — the whole land presents an aspect of rich and ever- varying beauty. This feature of Italian scenery is often referred to by her poets, with a sort of passionate admiration. It is also frequently speci- fied as the great temptation of her invaders, and one of the causes of her degradation and suffering. Thus Pietro Bembo, in one of his sonnets, exclaims : " Fair land, once loved of Heaven o'er all beside, Which blue waves gird, and lofty mountains screen, Thou clime of fertile fields and sky serene, Whose gay expanse the Apennines divide ! What boots it now that Rome's old warlike pride Left thee of humbled earth and sea the queen ? Nations that served thee then now fierce convene To tear thy locks and strew them o'er the tide." Byron, too, catching the spirit, and indeed using the language of the Italian poets, breaks out in those beautiful and burning lines : " Italia ! Oh, Italia, thou who hast The fatal gift of beauty which became A funeral dower of present woes and past, On thy sweet brow is sorrow ploughed by shame, And annals graved in characters of flame. Oh God ! that thou wert in thy nakedness Less lovely or more powerful, and couldst claim Thy right, and awe the robbers back, who press To shed thy blood and drink the tears of thy distress !" This, however, is but a free and happy translation oi one of Filicaja's odes, commencing thus : " Italia, oh, Italia ! hapless thou Who didst the fatal gift of beauty gain, A dowry fraught with never-ending pain, A seal of sorrow stamped upon thy brow." 350 THE WORLD WE LIVE LN". Alessandro Manzoni, one of the most original and striking writers of modern Italy, makes a similar reference to his native land, in one of the choruses of his " Conte Carmagnola." " O thou devoted land that canst not rear In peace thine offspring ! thou the lost and won, The fair and fatal soil, that dost appear Too narrow still for each contending son ! Receive the stranger in his fierce career, Parting the spoils ! thy chastening has begun ! And wresting from thy kings the guardian sword, Foes whom thou ne'er hadst wronged sit proudly at thy board." But not only is beauty the predominant feature in the physical aspect of Italy, it is the chief element in its language and litera- ture. The language is melody itself, and wonderfully harmonizes with the soft beauty and mellow splendor of the landscape. The very common people speak it with a grace which is irresistible. It seems to warble from the lips of children like the song of early birds. It is ever gliding into poetry and song. Hence the won- derful facility of the Italian Improvisatori. It is indeed capable of the utmost compression and force. The Italian translation of Tacitus occupies less space than the original.* Nothing can ex- ceed the rugged energy of some parts of Dante's Divina Comnie- dia, or the trenchant force of Alfieri's tragedies. Nevertheless, the language is naturally soft and melodious, imaging, in its clear flow, all forms of beauty, and sparkling with the sunny radiance of its native skies. This, however, as some good judges have affirmed, has tended, particularly in the case of inferior writers, to corrupt Italian literature ; so that poverty of thought is often dis- guised " under a melodious redundancy of diction." Hence, too, some of their graver compositions, and especially their specimens of eloquence, are defective in simplicity and force. Some allow- ance, however, must be made for the influence of a sunny clime, and an ardent temperament. What seems flashy and magnilo- quent in northern Europe or America, may be perfectly natural in southern Italy. The soft and luxuriant beauty of their diction, soon palling upon our ear, may possess for them an irresistible and unwearied charm. A sense of harmony, a passionate love of the beautiful, a refined taste and a cultivated ear, seem almost universally diffused among the people. Some of the finest strains of Petrarch, Tasso, and Ariosto, are familiar to multitudes among the lower orders. The gondoliers of Venice were accustomed * Hallam speaks somewhat disparagingly of this translation. Others however, equally capable of judging, accord it high praise. ITALY. 351 formerly to accompany their movements on the water, and reply to each other in the verses of Tasso, through the long summer night. The fine tones of the Tuscan peasants have often been admired. Who has not heard of " The Tuscan's siren tongue, That music in itself, 'whose words are song ?" The boys of Naples, even the lowest lazaroni, are constantly chanting the melodies which are sung in the operas. You hear them during the hours of the night ringing changes on their favor- ite, though somewhat monotonous and melancholy airs. The peasantry in the south of Italy go to market murmuring gay tunes. Ragged and poor, they will listen for hours in the public squares, or in the shadow of some old temple, to the wild poetry of the Improvisatori, with no other refreshment than a glass of cold water. The same sense of beauty is seen in the variety and elegance of their costumes, whose picturesque arrangement often appears as if borrowed from the models of ancient statuary ; in their love of natural scenery and out-door recreations ; in the flowers and other ornaments with which on fete-days they adorn their churches and public buildings ; and in the graceful manner in which the peas- antry cause the grape-vines to hang, in long festoons, about their cottages, and among the trees of their gardens and orchards. In the larger cities you see much squalid misery ; but in the country every thing is picturesque and beautiful. On hill-side and in val- ley, pretty cottages are nestling amid tufted trees, luxuriant vines, and flowers. * Imaginative and impassioned, the Italian writers, especially the poets — and almost all of them are more or less poets — give them- selves up to the full play of their fancy, and revel in the wildest imaginings, the most delicate and brilliant illusions. Even in the horrid scenes of the Inferno, gleams of beauty are ever breaking upon the vision ; and in the description of heaven, Dante loses himself in unutterable splendors. Beatrice, with her cerulean eyes and golden hair, is the symbol of " increate" and everlasting beauty. Light, music, and motion, are the three simple elements in Dante's description of the celestial world, but how wondrously and gorgeously blended in the overpowering glory of its mystic circles. Boccaccio, Ariosto, Pulci, Berni, and Metastasio, are " drunk with beauty." It was as much the beauty of the moon and stars, as their wondrous revolutions, that captivated the heart of Galileo. Machiavelli, cold and subtle as he may be deemed, was a poet, and never enjoyed himself better than among his birds 352 THE WORLD WE LIVE IX and vines. Beauty was the polar star of Petrarch, who strangely mingles the raptures of devotion and of love. It was the dream of Tasso, and gleams, with a supernal glory, through the long and majestic march of the Gerusalemme. Much indeed of the Italian poetry is liable to stern reprehension, on account of its low moral tone, its frivolity and licentiousness ; but its pervading element is beauty, radiant and immortal. The same element is visible in all the productions of their paint- ers and sculptors. The serene beauty of Raphael's Madonnas is absolutely wonderful. Michael Angelo's Moses, and his two statues of Night and Morning, are remarkable for severity and grandeur of expression, but, after all, it is the divine beauty which beams from the whole, which gives them their peculiar charm. Walk through the long corridors of the Vatican, or the magnifi- cent rooms of the Pitti palace, amid a wilderness of sculptures and paintings from the hands of the great masters of ancient and of modern Italy, and the very air seems redolent of beauty. It awes the spirit like a presence and a mystery. In those silent forms it lives forever, imbreathed by the power of genius — a charm and a glory acknowledged alike by the philosopher and the savage. For, " A thing of beauty is a joy forever !" Nothing, it would seem, could be more repulsive than the head of Medusa, environed with snakes ; and yet, in the hands of Leo- nardo da Vinci, it is made attractive, by means of a strange, and, if the term be allowed, a hideous beauty. Shelley has caught the true idea, in one of his most striking, though unfinished poems : " It lieth gazing on the midnight sky, Upon the cloudy mountain peak supine ; Below, far lands are seen tremblingly ; Its horror and its beauty are divine. Upon its lips and eyelids seem to lie Loveliness like a shadow, from which shrine. Fiery and lurid, struggling underneath, The agonies of anguish and of death." Of course we need not say that the music of Italy corresponds to the beauty of her landscape, consisting as it does in elaborate, but intense and ravishing harmony. Who has not heard of Rosini, with his exquisite creations ; and who has not been moved, at the recollection even, of the " Stabat Mater" of Pergolesi, styled the Raffaele of music ; or the " Miserere" of Jomelli, with its strangely sweet and melancholy tones ? We know not but we might be justified in saying that beauty is ITALY. 353 the predominant feature in the religion of Italy ; not, however, "■the beauty of holiness ;" would that it were ! but external beauty, the beauty of form and semblance ; the symbol, it is true, of a higher and divine beauty, but often separated from it by a great gulf, like the body of the dead from the spirit which has taken its flight.. So we find it enshrined in their temples and altars. These, indeed, are often adorned, or rather we ought to say, bedizened, with tinsel and gewgaws, and, what is worse, with tawdry images, mere idols of wood and stone. A rude, barbaric splendor, worthy only of the dark ages, often takes the place of a true and simple beauty. Nay more, both in form and arrangement, their churches, and especially their altars, are more allied to the genius of hea- thenism than of Christianity. After all, the most of their eccle- siastical edifices possess a wonderful charm, from their fine pro- portions and antique air. The cathedral, in Milan, has been styled an epic in stone. "It appears," says one, "like a petrified orien- tal dream." St. Peter's, at Rome, is the very perfection of beauty and grandeur. The majestic dome, and the serene festal air of the interior, strike the most casual observer. Santa Maria Novella, and the ancient church of Santa Croce, in Florence, are distin- guished by a simple and venerable beauty. But some of the old churches in the country, amid umbrageous trees and clustering- vines, are yet more beautiful even than these, blending as they do with the glories of nature, and often hiding a deeper and more heartfelt worship. But we are off in the direction of Milan, and soon find ourselves traversing the rich plains of Lombarcly, so long under the dominion of Austria, and the scene of so many struggles. On every side are innumerable farms and villages, occupied by a poor but indus- trious peasantry. The lands are divided and subdivided to an astonishing extent, and as the peasantry who work them are not the proprietors, and have large taxes to pay to government, while one-half the produce of their little farms goes to their owners, few or none of them acquire property. They merely live and transmit from father to son their scanty heritage of labor. Let it not, however, be supposed that they are an unhappy race. Doubt- less they long for something better, and most of them, with the true Italian spirit, yearn for freedom and national independence, but they toil on with patience and cheerfulness. Their religion would seem to be of a darker and severer character than that of southern Italy. Every where you see hideous crucifixes, with skeleton Christs. The churches have a somber look, and their in- terior is often quite gloomy. The scenery is agreeable but monot- onous, and the villages through which we are passing have a poor 354 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. and squalid look. The proprietors and gentry live in the large cities, while the country is left to the peasantry, priests, and monks. The Lorabardo-Venetian kingdom, as it is called, has been for years one of the most valuable possessions of Austria, and will never be willingly abandoned by that powerful and grasping em- pire. It extends from the Alpine hights, including Carinthia, Tyrol, and the (xrisons, to the banks of the Po ; and thus embraces the whole expanse of northern Italy, except the portions which belong to Sardinia, and one or two of the smaller duchies on the northwest, from the shores of the Adriatic on the one side, to- ward those of the Mediterranean on the other. It is the best watered, and, in agriculture, the richest portion of Italy. This, in connection with various alliances, has enabled Austria to control the whole Italian peninsula. It is true, the resources of the country have been well devel- oped, and even elementary instruction provided for every com- mune ; but the general policy has been despotic and cruel. The inhabitants intensely hate their oppressors and long for indepen- dence. And no wonder, for, under Austrian rule, every Italian is excluded from office, the press is muzzled, and enormous sums are levied from the inhabitants in the shape of taxes. A free word, or. a free act, has entailed instant imprisonment and death. The paternal government is well supplied with dungeons and bayonets, and to maintain its rule will not hesitate to deluge the whole land in blood. But yonder is Milan, "which stands," says Von Raumur, "in a sea of green trees, as Venice in a sea of green waters." It con- tains something more than a hundred and fifty thousand inhabit- ants, and boasts the possession of an extensive commerce, splendid public edifices, and an active, enterprising population. In form it is nearly circular, lying in a vast plain, and surrounded by a slight bastioned wall and broad ramparts adorned with trees. We pass under its lofty arches, guarded by Austrian bayonets, and take possession of apartments near the Duomo, the largest and most beautiful cathedral of Northern Italy, and only inferior in size and splendor to St. Peter's in Rome. Sauntering around the city, we visit the old church of St. Am- brose, where repose the bones of that devout and simple-hearted bishop, an object of adoration to the faithful ; and in whose crypts are to be seen some singular relics, among which an immense bra- zen serpent is conspicuous, claimed to be nothing less than " the serpent in the wilderness !" This will do very well to put along- side of " the top of the well of Samaria," " the lance that pierced ITALY. 355 our Savior's side," and " the vail of Veronica," exhibited in Rome itself! The defaced painting of Leonardo da Vinci also attracts our attention, but it is interesting only as a memorial of what it once was, and of the transcendent genius who painted it ; for it is much injured by time, and has lost nearly all its distinctive traits. The Ambrosian library and the public museum, in which are some fine paintings of the old masters, are not neglected ; but of these we say nothing. For, to tell the honest truth, Milan is interesting to us chiefly on account of its great men, its ancient memories, its generous aspirations, and noble struggles for freedom. Here Beccaria, Monti, and Foscolo wrote and sang. Here especially, Silvio Pellico, Manzoni, Maroncelli and others were associated, not only in friendship, but in the sacred cause of liberty and progress ; and from this place some of them were driven forth to exile and imprisonment. But we must indulge ourselves with one sight — the view from the summit of the cathedral. Ascending by long winding stairs, we find ourselves far above the dust and din of the hot and busy city, amid a forest of pinnacles with sculptured saints and angels, glittering like frostwork in the light of the setting sun — " An aerial host Of figures, human and divine, White as the snows of Apennine Indurated by frost." It is as if a mountain of marble had become vital, and flowered into that " starry zone." But an object of vaster grandeur and more thrilling beauty instantly attracts our attention. Yonder, at the distance of a hundred miles or more, but clearly marked against the sky, are the lofty ranges of the Alps, bathed in mel- low light. How gloriously they lift their calm summits into the heavens, as if they formed a pathway to the throne of God, on which the angels, as in Jacob's dream, might be seen " ascending and descending." The colors change and deepen, now taking a soft, rosy tint, now a rich crimson, and then a brilliant purple. The plains beneath are putting on the " sober livery" of evening, the base of the mountains is itself covered with shadows ; but the light, as if loth to depart, lingers upon their summits, and grows more and more intense among the white glacier peaks. Vast and shadowy, these everlasting mountains seem invested with an awful but delightful serenity, reminding us of the " peace of God which passeth all understanding" — the profound and eternal repose of the spirits of just men made perfect. Gazing on them at this hushed hour, 356 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. " We receive into our soul A something that informs us 'tis an hour Whence we may date henceforward and forever." We should be glad to visit Sardinia, with her beautiful capital, Turin, but must leave it for the more central and southern cities of Italy. We are in Venice. * * * Early in the morning, just as the sun is rising from the blue waves of the Adriatic, w T e ascend the lofty tower of St. Mark, that ancient, Oriental-looking cathedral, whose Byzantine magnificence reminds us of the early glory of the Eepublic, and the blind old Doge Dandolo, who brought back from his Eastern crusade the treasures of Constantinople to adorn the capital. The light begins to cast a deep flush upon the bosom of the deep, and tinge, with purple glories, the distant summits of the Euganean hills. A slight haze, flecked with sunshine, hovers over the city far beneath us. Half in shadow, half in light, gleam the long ranges of streets, old palaces, towers, and churches, threaded by innumerable canals, in which the dark gondolas, loaded with provisions, fruits, and flowers from the country, are seen gliding to and fro, and making their way to the center of the city. Yonder is the magnificent arch of the Rialto, the palace of the Doge, the Giant's Stairs, and beneath, the Bridge of Sighs, over which criminals passed on their way to imprisonment and death ; and the dark, deep dungeons below, where the lonely pris- oner, in the hush of the morning, or the silence of the night, could hear the plashing of the water, and the stroke of the oar above his head. Bridges innumerable span the canals, and every where you see marks of the former wealth and splendor of Venice. But the light deepens, and the whole city glows, like an Oriental dream, in the soft radiance of the flickering suu. " Underneath day's azure eyes, Ocean's nursling, Venice, lies — A peopled labyrinth of walls, Amphitrite's destined halls, Which her hoary sire now paves With his blue and beaming waves. Lo, the sun up-springs behind, Broad, red, radiant, half-reelined On the level quivering line Of the waters crystalline ; And before that chasm of light, As within a furnace bright, Column, tower, and dome, and spue Shine like obelisks of fire."* * Shelley. 358 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. ITALY. 359 But this is the poetical aspect of Venice. Descend into the streets or canals, and pass around from point to point, and every where you will see tokens of decay. Many of the old palaces are deserted, or falling into ruins ; and although much of grandeur and beauty yet remain, it is faded and dim. The city contains a large population, and has considerable commerce, but nothing in comparison to what it once enjoyed, when it was the " Queen of the seas," and " Mistress of a hundred isles." Indeed, it is but the shadow of its former self. Venice boasts a remote antiquity. In the days of Attila, when the Huns and Lombards overran the north of Italy, the poor in- habitants took refuge in the reedy islands of the Adriatic, par- ticularly in the Riva Alto, or Rialto, where they built their rude huts, and ramparts to protect them from their enemies. Silently and imperceptibly rose the city from the sea, occupied by a nu- merous and enterprising population. A small democratic repub- lic, the first in modem Europe, was established, under magistrates called tribunes. In the year 69V, the islands elected their first Doge, or Dux, that is, leader or chief, in the person of Paolucci Anafesto. The tribunes, or the nobility, had the judiciary, the people the legislative, and the Doge the executive power. Gradu- ally Venice increased her commerce, and extended her dominion. The sea was covered with her ships, and the land with her citizens, artisans, and merchants. Venice added to her power and glory, by assisting Alexander Third in humbling the fierce Barbarossa ; in return for which ser- vice, and as a lasting memorial of his esteem, that able but am- bitious pontiff bestowed upon her a ring, with which to espouse the sea, and symbolize the empire which he bestowed upon her over the waters of the globe. This was the origin of the well- known nuptials of Venice with the Adriatic, celebrated each year with great pomp and ceremony, in the Bucentaur. This was the period of her greatest commercial and military glory ; the manners of the people were softened, and the arts began to flourish. At the close of the thirteenth century the East India trade passed from Constantinople to Alexandria ; Genoa, the rival of Venice, possessed herself of the commerce of the Byzantine Em- pire ; and the overreaching nobles of the Venetian Republic de- clared themselves hereditary. Then commenced the subversion of her free institutions ; and although Venice continued to increase in wealth and greatness until the fifteenth century, and gained great advantages over Genoa and the neighboring countries, the seeds of decline were sown in her constitution. From that time . 360 TIIE WORLD WE LIVE DT, she gradually descended from her hig-h and palmy state. The Portuguese discovered a passage by sea to the East Indies ; the Turks, who had become masters of Constantinople, swept every thing before them, and took possession of most of her Oriental con- quests ; while long and harassing wars with the neighboring re- publics exhausted her resources and reduced her wealth. The government of the State was invested in a Council of Ten, and three Inquisitors were chosen, with unlimited powers to cite, im- prison, and punish all suspected persons. For this purpose they made ample use of spies and informers, racks and dungeons. Thousands of citizens disappeared, no one could tell when or how ; and a spirit of fear and suspicion took possession of the public mind. Yet was Venice ever a gay and giddy scene. The citizens gave themselves up to the pursuit of pleasure. Intrigue and de- bauchery went hand in hand with tyranny and fear. " The sea, that emblem of uncertainty, Changed not so fast for many and many an age As this small spot. To-day 'twas full of masks ; And lo ! the madness of the carnival, The monk, the nun, the holy legate masked ! To-morrow came the scaffold and the wheel ; And he died there by torch-light, bound and gagged, Whose name and crime they knew not." And yet, strange to tell, this lasted for many long years ; and the strength, energy, and consistency of the Venetian government were a wonder and mystery to all the States of Europe. Machia- velli is in raptures with it ; and, even now, it inspires, in many minds, a feeling of reverence and awe. Doubtless many of the State councilors and inquisitors were men not only of profound sagacity, but of lofty patriotism. Occasionally they displayed all the resources of genius and virtue. But, generally, they were a proud and ambitious race, who used their tremendous power for purposes of oppression and revenge. The jurisdiction of the Ten was prompt and energetic ; their police, the most perfect in the world ! Neither innocence nor crime, neither power nor cunning could escape them, when bent upon the execution of their plans. A Frenchman of high rank was robbed in Venice, and had complained that the police were vigilant only as spies upon strangers. On leaving the city, his gondola was suddenly stopped. Inquiring the reason, the gondo- liers pointed to a boat with a red flag that had just made them a signal. It arrived, and he was called on board : " You are the Prince de Craon ? Were you not robbed on Friday evening ?" " I was." ITALY. 361 " Of what ?" " Of five hundred ducats." "And where were they?" " In a green purse." "Do you suspect anybody?" " I do : a servant." " Would you know him again ?" " Certainly." The questioner with his foot turned aside an old cloak that lay there, and the prince beheld his purse in the hand of a corpse ! " Take it, and remember, that none set their feet again in a country where they have presumed to doubt the wisdom of the government." But the old Venetian Republic, State Council, and Inquisition, have passed away forever. The government yielded to Napoleon without a blow, and after his downfall, Austria set her foot upon the proud and beautiful city. But the memory of the past burns in the heart of the people. They will never submit to despotism, and must be free once more ; but, alas ! when ? Pass into St. Mark's Place of an evening, and all seems life and pleasure. Gay and various costumes, illuminated coffee-houses, parties of pleasure, joyous conversation, and sprightly music, make the scene like one of fairy-land. Can such a people long for independence? Can they fight for freedom? — have they strength to grasp it, and, above all, to keep it, in the face of glit- tering bayonets, of exile and death ? They have tried, but failed. One of the most delightful days that ever broke upon the world, finds us among the verdant Apennines, on our way to Florence. The eastern sky is " all roseate," while the rest of the heavens is beginning to tremble with the flashing radiance. The summits of the mountains, crowned here and there with the ruins of an old castle, a church, or a convent, are burning in the golden light of opening day, while the vales beneath are reposing in a soft but rapidly vanishing twilight. Now we are rattling along the base of the steep mountain, with a stream on one side, and • a pretty village on the other ; anon, we are climbing some wooded acclivity or rough ascent, from which a wide expanse of hills and vales, trees and streams, exhilarates the eye. At one time we pass a small chapel, with a dark-looking shrine, where kneel a few devo- tees before the sacred relics of some ancient saint, or an image of the Virgin mother, the beautiful goddess of the papal worship ; at another, we descry some pretty cottages nestling among the trees and sheltering vines of the mountain's side ; and just beyond them the remains of an old feudal castle, in which some fierce 16 302 THE WORLD WE LIVE EN". Bolognese or Florentine noble cooped himself in the dark and stormy times of the twelfth century. Look abroad over the face of Nature ; see how attractive it is, how grand and spirit-stirring amid these sublime but beautiful Apennines. Softer and greener than the mountains of Switzer- land, and falling far below them in hight and majesty, they yet possess a grandeur of their own, softening at every step into the most delicate and entrancing beauty. The scattered cottages, poor enough in themselves, but rich in their garniture of trees and vines ; groups of peasantry here and there, poor as their mountain homes, but with picturesque dresses, and in some in- stances fine forms ; orchards and gardens scattered on the hill-sides and in the plains ; in one or two places, broken arches stretching from the mountain to the bottom of the valley — hi others, some monastery or convent, perched on the very summit of the rocky ridge ; frequent flowers and clumps of trees hanging over fount- ains, or dipping their green branches in pellucid pools asleep in the valleys : goats clambering the rough precipice, or balancing themselves upon the toppling edge of a deep ravine ; the shout or song of shepherds echoing far and near amid the stillness of the mountains ; glad voices of children at play in the villages beneath ; and over all, the radiant sky burning like a chrysolite, and bathing the landscape with its ethereal hues ; — all combine to attract our attention, and thrill our hearts with bright and blessed thoughts. Oh, how delightful to turn away from the care and sorrow of earth, the turmoil of politics, and the contests of ambition, to the quiet retreats of Nature, where God and man may meet and com- mune, without distraction and annoyance ! But here, perhaps, it may be well enough to describe our fel- low-travelers ; for their earnest talking has withdrawn us from our reveries. Right opposite sits a tall, military-looking gentleman, with a keen eye and handsome moustache. As Ave learn from conversation, he is a native of Tuscany, and connected with the army, and although rather taller than the Tuscans generally, is a fair representative of his countrymen. His quick, dark eye, pol- ished manners, and vivacious temper, well correspond to the idea which we have formed of their appearance and character. On one side is a well-made, grave, yet cheerful-looking priest from Germany, on his way to the Holy City. He is evidently intelli- gent ; but, as we readily ascertain, bigotedly attached to the Papal Church, with whose doctrines he seems familiar. Sitting beside him is a friar, sandaled and bareheaded, with a shaven crown, and a demure, but rosy, good-natured look. He cons his breviary with remarkable ease and perseverance, but without the ITALY. 363 slightest appearance of devotion ; and now and then ventures a remark, indicating more sense than one would think he possessed. He belongs to the order of Franciscans, many of whom are fat and lazy ; a few lean and ascetic ; and others, and perhaps the greater number, proud and assuming. The Franciscans are, rather more than the other orders, devoted to preaching, but few of them possess much learning or oratorical power. A few are earnest and impassioned speakers, and produce some effect upon their excitable hearers during the season of Lent, the great preach- ing time of the Catholic Church. On this side sits a Lombard merchant from Milan, the finest looking of them all, with a capa- cious forehead, auburn hair, and blue eyes, an expression of firm- ness and serenity about the mouth, a good clear voice, and a com- mon-sense style of talking. Next to him is a little, fiery fellow, in black clothes, and a three-cornered hat, a Jesuit, perhaps, from the Neapolitan States, full of zeal for the holy Catholic, apostolical Church. All these are fair types of their respective countrymen, who have marked peculiarities which distinguish them from one another. This is. especially the case with the Milanese merchant, who reminds us of the fine race who occupy the fertile vales of the Adige and the Po. Descended from the old Ostrogoths and Lombards, they possess considerable energy and worth of char- acter. Not quite so impetuous as some of their southern neigh- bors, particularly the Romans and Neapolitans, the latter of whom have some infusion of Grecian and Moorish blood, the nations of northern Italy have more firmness and consistency of character, and are capable of great effort and endurance. They are the best soldiers in Italy. The Piedmontese on one side and the Venetians on the other, differ somewhat from these ; the former being keen, worldly, and penetrating, and the latter ingenious and pleasure- loving. The Tuscans are versatile and polished, the Romans thoughtful and aspiring, and the Neapolitans impetuous and fickle. But we are getting prosy ; and the diligenza, with its six horses, and huge-booted, black-moustached postillions,, whooping, groan- ing, and spurring, is rattling down hill, and our friend the friar is reading his breviary so earnestly, that we fall back upon our cushioned seat, and let the fresh air of the cool valley which is re- ceiving us blow upon our forehead, and the serene, festal aspect of the landscape steal into our heart. But our friends are getting loquacious, and the subject of their conversation, suggested by the remark of the German canon, on the present condition of Italy, turns upon the Church. All are rigid Catholics, except the Lombard merchant, who, though ob- viously attached to the Church of his fathers, distinguishes be- 364 THE "VVOELD WE LE7E EST. tween its superstitions, and the great spirit of faith and love by which it ought to be animated. But the friar and canon, and especially the Jesuit, defend every thing, and express the greatest horror of liberality, as leading to error and ruin. They confine salvation to the pale of the holy Catholic and apostolic Church, as they call it, and denounce Protestants as heretics and apostates. " But surely," we say, "you do not defend the superstitions of the Church — the pretended miracles, the holy coats, mystic amu- lets and heathen ceremonies, which every candid man in the nine- teenth century must acknowledge as errors and deformities." " Sir," is the quick and somewhat offended reply, " the Church has no superstitions, no pretended miracles, no heathen ceremonies." "Well now, tell us candidly," we rejoin, "do you really be- lieve that actual miracles are performed at the present day in the Papal Church ? Do priests generally believe them ? Do popes, cardinals, and bishops maintain their credibility ?" " Most assuredly they do," is the decisive answer. To confirm this statement, the canon, aided by the Jesuit and friar, goes into a lengthened statement, too prosy and too absurd to be repeated, as to the occurrence of recent miracles in Italy, in one of which the Holy Virgin opened her eyes upon a young devotee who craved her aid ; another, in which she appeared, in glory, to some children on the mountains ; a third, in which she revealed herself to an infidel Jew, who was thereby converted ; and a fourth, in which she delivered a young man from the grasp of robbers and murderers ; how also certain holy women, in an ecstasy, received the stigmata of Christ — sacred wounds inflicted by an invisible hand, and resembling those on our Saviour's cru- cified body. Here we imagine that we discover a smile of derision on the lips of the Tuscan officer, Catholic as he is, and the Milan mer- chant absolutely laughs outright, to the great discomfiture of our priestly companions. To try them upon another point, we ask one question more : " Do you really believe that the Catholic Church is the only true, universal Church, and that all who die in her communion will certainly go to heaven ?" " Undoubtedly," they all respond at once ; and the Jesuit is proceeding to give his reasons, when we cut the discussion short, by exclaiming, in a playful voice — " Well, well ! your view is undoubtedly consistent enough ; but for our part, we rejoice in the sublime and cheering thought, that the true Church consists of all those, in any land, and in any sect or Church, who believe in Jesus Christ, incarnate love and purity, ITALY. 365 ?wl /§p iiv-:;.;:! 1 .' :ii: ji! ilili' i|MiS^Sras 1 s3!IlHi^& ITALY. 367 breathe his spirit, and obey his laws. At all events, we are dis posed to think and act for ourselves in the matter of religion, and willingly take our risk with the myriads of good and holy men, in all Protestant communions, who have blessed the world with their love and zeal." To this our friend from Lombardy nods an emphatic assent ; while the canon, the friar, and the Jesuit enter their protest against it as heretical and dangerous, adding, that there is only one God, one Saviour, one Church, and that said Church can be none other than the holy Catholic Church — a sentiment to which we inwardly assent, but not in the narrow and local sense of priestly assumption and bigotry. But polemics we dislike ; moreover, we have something better in prospect, for we are drawing near the capital of Tuscany. The increasing beauty of the country, the richness of the fields and gardens, the vines hanging in long and luxuriant festoons from the tall trees by the wayside, the smoothness of the roads, and the increase of travel, indicate our approach to a great city. Now we have attained the summit of the mountain ridge which encir- cles the magnificent natural amphitheater in which stands the city of Florence, like Jerusalem of old amid her coronet of mountains ; and all at one'e it flashes upon our sight — palace, dome, and tower blushing like a bride in the warm light of a Tuscan sky. Yonder, towering above the rest of the city, is the cupola of the cathedral, the work of Brunelleschi, and the model upon which Michael Angelo formed the cupola of St. Peter's ; the beautiful Campinille, by Giotto, worthy, as Charles the Fifth declared, to be encased in gold ; and nearer, the Pitti palace, the gardens of the Boboli, and the Arno, " classic stream," on whose banks once wandered the youthful Milton, on his visit to Italy, "framing Ovidian verse," and those other illustrious men, sculptors, paint- ers, and poets, who have shed over Florence and its environs the glory of poetical inspiration. Without crossing the Arno, and entering what may be called the heart of the city, we find a home for the present under the shadow of the Pitti palace, and not far from the Boboli gardens, in whose spacious and cool retreats we shall love to linger, in the hot summer day, or in the still and beautiful twilight, soothed by the noise of falling- fountains, the music of evening bells, or the deep hum of the busy city. Florence, the city of flowers, as the name imports, has ever been a favorite with poets and travelers. And certainly, though not so magnificent as Rome, or so striking as Naples, it has a quiet beauty of its own, which instantly wins our regard. 3G8 THE WORLD WE LIVE LN. " Of all the cities of the earth None is so fair as Florence" — is the enthusiastic expression of the gentle and classic Rogers, "the poet of Italy." "Florence, beneath the sun, Of cities fairest one, Blushes within her bower," is the jet more harmonious and striking language of Shelley. Byron, too, was an enthusiastic admirer of Florence, and has em- balmed its glory in the verses of " Childe Harold." Ugo Foscolo has celebrated its graves, in his poem of "The Sepulchres." Macaulay speaks of " the fair, the happy, the glorious Florence/' as it was in the days of Lorenzo de Medici ; of " the halls which rung with the mirth of Pulci, the cell where twinkled the mid- night lamp of Politian, the statues where the young eye of Michael Angelo glowed with a kindred inspiration, and the gardens in which the young Lorenzo meditated some sparkling song for the May-day dance of the Etrurian virgins." It is obvious that much of the attraction with which Florence is invested, is owing to association of ideas ; to the golden memo- ries of that old heroic time when Dante and Petrarch sang, and a new era of power and splendor dawned upon Italy. " Along the banks where smiling Arno sweeps, Was modern luxury of commerce borne, And buried learning rose, redeemed to a new morn." — Byron. But in addition to its rich memories and hallowed associations, Florence has much in its situation, its pure air, its venerable as- pect, its massive but elegant buildings, its verdant gardens, and its peaceful river spanned with handsome bridges, to inspire ad- miration. Its environs are among the finest in the world. Lying on the banks of the Arno, and stretching gradually to the tops of the mountains which gird it on every side, with green meadows, clustering vines, and clumps of trees ; dotted, in every part, with villas, cottages, convents, and towers ; invested with the warm, rich coloring of an Italian sun ; the whole scene is one of rare and inspiring beauty. It contains the treasures of ancient and of modern art, the Venus de Medici, " Eve of the land which yet is Paradise," the Wrestler, the Niobe, the works of Angelo, Cellini, Baffaele, Titian, Canova, and a host of others ; the tombs of the Medici ; the wonderful statues of Night and Day ; the old Lau- rentian library, containing some rare and curious manuscripts, and ITALY. 369 among other things, a finger of Galileo, preserved in a glass case, and pointing to the stars ; the old church of Santa Maria Novella, adorned with the radiant Madonna of Cimabue ; the bronze gates of the Baptistery, fit, according to Michael Angelo, to be the gates of Paradise ; and above all, Santa Croce, the Westminster of Florence, where repose " Angelo's, Alfieri's bones, and his, The starry Galileo with his woes ; Where Machiavelli's earth returned to whence it rose !" No wonder, then, if to imaginative minds the " Athens of Etru- ria" should possess so many charms ; and that the poets should unite in shedding over it ideal splendors. " Search within, Without ; all is enchantment. Tis the past Contending with the present ; and in turn Each has the mastery." — Rogers. But we do not intend to weary our readers with a minute de- scription of Florence, attractive as the subject is ; for this has been frequently done by others. Neither will we tire their pa- tience with a long catalogue or attempted description of her art- istic treasures. We will not say a word even of the Tribune, the Chapel de Depositi, the squares adorned with equestrian statues, nor of the vast museums of the Pitti palace. All this, and much more, we pass over as familiar to all. For, in good truth, these subjects have been written to perfect inanity by all sorts of tour- ists and sketchers who have seen but little else in their rapid flight through the country. It is the genius of Florence (which in many respects is the genius of Italy) which attracts our atten- tion. Her old heroic history, her spirit of wisdom and refinement, her dreams of glory, her long struggle for freedom, her love of the beautiful, and above all, the magnificent flowering of her poet- ical and artistic genius, possess an interest and a charm of the highest and most ennobling kind. The history of Florence reminds us often of the history of Athens ; and yet' it possesses a deeper interest, from the preva- lence of a new class of influences, and a new form of civilization. In the Tuscan Republic, not only the spirit of Grecian refinement, but also of Gothic strength and Christian virtue, came into con- tact with a thousand opposing obstacles, which resulted from the universal prevalence of ignorance, superstition, and licentiousness. Thus the forms of society and the elements of progress were more striking and energetic, and in their action and results more stu- 16* 370 THE WOKLD WE LIVE EST. pendous and far-reaching. For although Florence herself, as a republic, has passed away, and much of the grandeur and power of Christianity has been vitiated and overborne by those heathen and papal admixtures every where cherished in Italy ; yet the form of civilization wrought out in that land has diffused itself through the European world, and is yet destined to the highest triumphs even in Italy. We can discern in it a vitality which will yet cast off the wrappages of superstition, and emerge as from a tomb, glowing with immortal youth and vigor. So long as Chris- tianity, in its great principles, whether contained in books or insti- tutions, remains in a country, however covered up with the rub- bish of superstition and vice, there is hope for that country. Lying in that crude mass, like the chrysalis in the dust, is an organic life, which, quickened by the sun of liberty, shall yet burst its cerements, and go forth, in celestial beauty, to bless the world. But Florence has seen many dark and stormy changes. She is not now what she was in the days of old, although even then far from realizing the idea of a free or a truly Christian republic. She was born in the middle ages, in tempest and blood ; grew up, like a young giant, amid rapine and war, and held her liberties only by the stern hand of violence and crime. Yet her internal vigor was wonderful, and for a long series of years she maintained her integrity, and developed her resources with a genius and force such as the world has seldom seen. After all, her freedom was short-lived. It was based not upon virtue, but upon force ; upon expediency, "not upon" principle. Gothic feudalism contended with Christian democracy, papal supremacy with republican rule. Hence the constant struggle between the people and the nobles, between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the power of the Emperor and the power of the Pope. Hence also the final supremacy of the Medici, and the loss of Florentine liberty. The early part of the fifteenth century, the age of Lorenzo de Medici, justly styled the Pericles of Florence, was distinguished for wealth and splendor. Florence was the resort of learned men from all parts of Italy and the world ; her merchants were princes and corresponded with kings. Poets, orators, and artists pro- duced, in their highest perfection, the bright creations of their genius and art. The people yet enjoyed a high degree of free- dom ; the Medici professed to ride according to the spirit of the Republic, and claimed to be the guardians of the rights and lib- erties of the citizens. Guicciardini, styled the Tuscan Thucydides, describes the state of Italy at that time, in the following enthusi- astic style : " Restored to supreme peace and tranquillity, culti- vated no less in her most mountainous and sterile places than in ITALY. 371 her plains and more fertile regions, and subject to no other em- pire than her own, not only was she most abundant in inhabitants and wealth, but in the highest degree illustrious by the magnifi- cence of many princes, by the splendor of many most noble and beautiful cities, and by the seat and majesty of religion : she flour- ished with men pre-eminent in the administration of public affairs, and with geniuses skilled in all the sciences, and in every elegant and useful art." But an enfeebled faith and a boundless luxury begot venality and lust. The most shameless profligacy prevailed among the clergy, especially of the higher orders, the most outrageous self- ishness and ambition among the nobles. The common people were violent and disorderly ; the different republics coveted each other's possessions, and thirsted for each other's blood. The spirit of freedom took its flight, and Florence sunk in the gulf of despotism and crime. Deceived and betrayed by her professed friends, especially by Leo the Tenth, and subsequently by Clement the Seventh, she fell under the dominion of a foreign power ; and a long night of oppression and sorrow ensued. This, indeed, was the" state of things over the whole of the Italian peninsula. It was the consummation of papal ambition and imperial lust, in those beautiful cities, once the home of the free and the hope of the world. In the modern partition of Italy, Florence, with Tuscany, fell into the hands of a member of the House of Hapsburg, under whose reign, not over liberal or wise, the country has somewhat prospered. Yet it is poor and heavily taxed. Until recently, lotteries and all sorts of gambling, aided by superstitious usages, have been supported as a source of revenue by the State. But the Grand Duke of Tuscany has had sagacity enough to advance with the spirit of the age. For an Austrian, his course has been fair. To secure himself, he has conceded a liberal constitution. Ostensibly the press is free, and religious toleration is promised to all. But whether the provisions of this constitution will be car- ried out, remains to be seen. The recent revolution has proved a most unfortunate affair. The constitution, for the present, at least, is a dead letter. Proscription and intolerance are the order of the day. Austrian influence is dominant. Freedom has taken her flight from Florence. 372 THE WOELD WE LITE EST. CHAPTER XXVII. •CONTINUED. We have left Tuscany, and entered the States of the Churcfi, and are at once impressed with the poverty-stricken aspect ojf the country. How unlike New England or old England, with its beauty and thrift — how inferior even to the vine-fields of Etrurial and the plains of Lombardy ! Whatever benefits Rome has con- ferred upon other parts of the world, it has been a grievous bur- den to central Italy. The splendor of Rome has impoverished the people. Before us stretches the desolate Campagna, once "the garden of the Lord," now the dreariest and sickliest region in Christen- dom. Encircling the " holy city," as devout Catholics love to call it, itself suffering from internal exhaustion and decay, the Campagna furnishes a sad emblem of the withered and fruitless . condition of the Papal Church. We pass through it as we should pass through a church-yard, with a sort of mournful awe ; for, after all, it is hallowed ground. Here, with their colossal armies, once trod the masters of the world ; and yonder, gleaming in the light of a bright and balmy noon, that strange old city, with its t mighty memories and magnificent ruins. As we approach it, tower, column, and temple, triumphal arch' and hoary ruin rise, distinct and beautiful, before our fixed and half-dreamy gaze. Bewildered with the new and stirring thoughts that rush upon our mind, we scarcely notice the dreary condition of the outskirts of the city, or the lazy, squalid-looking beggars that begin to beleaguer our carriage, with their whining " Carita, Signor! Carita, Signor!" Well, well, it must be so ! The. shadow of Rome, next to Je rusalem the most interesting city in the world, is upon our spirits and we yield to the impression. "'Lone mother of dead empires !' " the Niobe of nations !" J " there she stands, ! :' Childless and crownless in her voiceless woe.' I Yet glorious even in her decay, enshrining all fair forms, all au- gust images, all thrilling associations, quickened moreover into something like new life by the spirit of change and revolution now pervading the nationsv Passing the Porto del Pop\>lo, on the site of the old Flaminian ITALY. 373 'isllHjj; "'iljliiilji^i! jillliiil';! '|!!:i!!! Ifiilp 1 ' ' ITALY. 375 gate, and thence into the Piazza del Popolo, we soon find ourselves in the heart of Rome, still dreaming of the past, and feeling that we are in a city rather of the dead than of the living — " the city that 80 long Reigned absolute, the mistress of the world, The mighty vision that the prophet saw And trembled." It seems strange to be moving, in broad daylight, under the shadow of the Capitoline Hill, to skirt the old Roman Forum, the Tarpeian Rock, and the Mamertine Prison, to gaze upon the Par- thenon, and catch a glimpse of the "yellow Tiber," the Castle of St. Angelo, and the Dome of St. Peter's. " Ah, little thought I, when in school I sat, A schoolboy on his bench, in early dawn, Glowing with Roman story, I should live To tread the Appian — — or climb the Palatine, Long while the seat of Rome !" But it is chiefly as the seat of the early triumphs of Christian- ity, the scene of apostolic toils and holy martyrdoms, that we feel so peculiar an interest in visiting Rome. Here, in the early days of the Church, thousands were converted from heathenism to the religion of the cross, and shed their blood in its defense. Here a terrible struggle went on for ages between paganism and Chris- tianity, when at last Christianity conquered and placed itself upon the throne of the Caesars. But alas ! it was speedily vitiated by false admixtures, and worldly policy. Encircled with pomp and splendor, and forgetting the purity and simplicity of its early days, it grew into a monstrous form of despotism and corruption. True, it was infinitely better than paganism ; it yet possessed some re- deeming features, some sacred elements of purity and power, and, in a barbarous age, exerted over society some controlling and civilizing influence. Notwithstanding its degeneracy, what might, what majesty did it not exhibit ! Overshadowing the earth, and placing its foot on the neck of kings, it formed an object of admiration to the world, " a mystery" enshrined amid the sym- bols of religion and sensual display, inspiring dread and wonder in all beholders. It yet possesses elements of power, and were it only divested of its ultra-montanism, its spirit of bigotry and superstition, its papal hierarchy, and armies of monks, it might yet bless the world. It is not so much Catholicism as Popery — not so much the great body of Catholic worshipers as the spirit of Jesuitism, superstition, and idolatry, which constitutes the Anti- 376 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. christ of Rome. It is difficult, however, if not impossible, to bum the husks and thorns, without at the same time destroying the precious flower which they are intended to guard. The Church of Rome, as an external institution, is tottering to its fall. Its foundations are sapped, and less than a century will see it in the dust. Yet is it even now a vast and mysterious power, fitted to excite the deepest emotions, and well worthy of the profoundest study ; like some huge edifice in the desert, covered with the weeds of ages, and gradually yielding to the might of all-destroy- ing time. Could Rome, indeed, blend with the spirit of the age — could she take into her bosom the life and energy of science and free inquiry — could she exorcise her wretched superstitions, her low fetichism and fanatical spirit — could she place her children under the guidance of the Word and Spirit of God, instead of traditions and hearsays ; above all, could she imbibe the free spirit of an enlarged and devout Protestantism, she might yet be regenerated, and become the center of a new and glorious form of civilization. The problem, however, is all but impossible of solution. The city of Rome contains a population of a hundred and fifty, or, perhaps, in summer time, when strangers abound there, a hundred and seventy thousand ; a goodly portion of whom are priests, monks, nuns, and beggars, who are of all orders, condi- tions, and colors, black, blue, white, and gray, and may be seen at any time of the day, or in any part of the city — some lounging in their scarlet carriages, and others gliding, sandaled and bare- headed, along the streets and avenues. The city may be described as consisting of two parts, the new and the old cities, interlocking, however, at particular points ; still, most of the ruins of the old city lie on one side of the new, and form a distinct portion of the whole. They cover the seven hills, a part of which only is occupied by the modern city, which extends toward the north and west, to a considerable distance beyond the Tiber, and covers other hills which have received new names. The Tiber, a slow and turbid stream, but possessing a beauty of its own, is spanned by several picturesque bridges, two or three of which belonged to the ancient city, reminding us of the days of Horace, who sang its praises to the music of the lyre. The principal is that of St. Angelo, adorned with marble statues, and terminating in the Castle of St. Angelo, once the Mausoleum of Adrian, but now the principal fortress of the city. On the top stands the statue of an angel, sword in hand, and the sides are bristling with cannon. Within are prisons and dungeons, some ITALY. 377 of them formed for ingenious torture. It was in that old castle that Benvenuto Cellini, the famous Florentine goldsmith and sculptor, was confined, by the orders of an ungrateful Pope, and from which he made one of the most miraculous escapes, though nearly killing himself in the attempt. It was there that Bene- detto Fojano suffered a horrid and lingering death by starvation, for the crime of being a too eloquent and popular preacher, and that Ludovico Paschali, a Protestant from Piedmont, was strangled and burned for proclaiming the Gospel in Calabria.* The Castle of St. Angelo has an underground communication to St. Peter's, which has been occasionally used by the Popes in times of danger and emergency. For years it remained closed, but it was reopened some time since by Gregory Sixteenth. Taken as a whole, Rome must be pronounced one of the most magnificent cities in the world. It stands upon a noble site, pos- sesses a great number of superb edifices and majestic views, is adorned with spacious squares and fountains, and contains innu- merable specimens of the most perfect painting, and statuary, both of ancient and of modern times. Every where you meet objects which interest and please the mind. In one place is an immense and beautiful fountain, throwing up jets of virgin water, with a pleasant, gushing sound. In another is a column or an obelisk, brought from Greece or Egypt, or, it may be, dug from the ruins of the ancient city. Here is the Pillar of Trajan, adorned with an image of the apostle Peter, an incongruity, to be sure, but not an unpleasant one. Yonder is that of Antoninus Pius, surmounted by the statue of the apostle Paul. Beyond is the hoary ruin of a heathen temple, transformed into a Christian church. For, be it known, every thing here is lustrated and purified by the Popes, and changed from a pagan to a Christian use. Ascend the stairs of the Capitol, and at the top you meet the colossal statues of Castor and Pollux, standing by their noble steeds ; near them are the trophies of Marcus, and the two col- umns which served to measure the Roman empire, and in the square behind, the celebrated statue of Marcus Aurelius, which Michael Angelo was wont to admire as the very masterpiece of art, saying that the horse did not seem to stand, but to move. * Many other Protestants suffered martyrdom at Rome. The celebrated Florentine nobleman and Protestant, Carnessecchi, -was beheaded and burned at Rome, 1567. Bartolomeo Bartoccio, son of a wealthy citizen of Castello, was condemned to be burnt alive in the same city. With a firm step, he went to the place of execution, and whilst the flames enveloped his body he was heard exclaiming, " Vittoria ! Vittoria !" — Victory ! Vic- tory ! 3 73 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. In the square fronting the palace of the Pope, on Monte Ca- vello, is another superb fountain, guarded by two colossal statues of Alexander the Great and his horses ; the one by Phidias, as is supposed, and the other by Praxiteles, so perfect that the noble animals, for an instant, seem to be alive. Before the church of St. John Lateran is an elegant and lofty obelisk, brought from the Temple of the Sun in Thebes, with its mystic hieroglyphics. An- other of a similar description stands in the area fronting St. Peter's, between two magnificent fountains, whose waters are seen falling and plashing, with a musical sound, in the soft silence which reigns around. Other obelisks, columns, and statues, of an inferior description, are scattered over the city, in the squares and by the fountains. The ruins of the old city, so vast and hoary, intermingling in part with the buildings of the modern one, impai't to the whole a character of peculiar solemnity and grandeur, while the neighbor- ing Campagna, so silent and deserted, and the dark volcanic mountains, which skirt the horizon, greatly highten the effect. But it must be confessed that Rome suffers by a minute in- spection. Many of the buildings, even of the modem city, are mean and going to decay. Most of the streets are' narrow and filthy beyond endurance. Beggars every where abound. You meet them at the corners of every street, and even by the altar of St. Peter's, and in the center of the Coliseum. Nuisances of every description invade churches and palaces, and produce an abominable stench throughout the city. The mass of the people are excessively poor. Vice, and especially licentiousness, is prev- alent, the foundling hospitals being generally well filled with ille- gitimate children ; and, besides, there is such a swarming of priests, such a profusion of paltry images of the Virgin and saints, such evident marks of superstition, ignorance, and vice, that it re- quires an effort to think worthily of the eternal city. The most delightful part of it is that which covers the site of ancient Rome, the Forum, tying among the seven hills, and the venerable ruins around, intermingled with gardens and trees. Next to the ruins and memories of the ancient city, Rome de- rives its principal interest, as a subject of study, from its sacred or ecclesiastical character. It is the seat of the Papal court, the center and focus of Catholic Christendom. Here, then, if any where, the Roman Church must be seen in its perfection. The government and police, as well as religion and morals, are under the control of ecclesiastics ; so that the city is pervaded from its heart to its extremities with the spirit and energy of Catholicism. Indeed, it may be said that the whole is a Church, a temple of ITALY. 379 religion, a sacred shrine in which is deposited the very soul of the papacy. Of this Church all the citizens are members ; every one must go to confession ; every one, some time or other, must par- take of the sacrament, or sacrifice of the mass ; every one must do homage to the Pope and the priesthood, must die in the faith, and be buried in holy ground. Unless excommunicated by the solemn ban of the Church, each citizen of Rome is a child of the papacy, and a member of the " Holy Catholic, Apostolic Church." Many indeed are not particularly strict, at least on ordinary occa- sions, in the observation of the innumerable rites and ceremonies enjoined by their superiors. Others again are infidels and scoffers, but privately, for fear of consequences. Others hate the priests, and especially the monks, with a perfect hatred, and make no great secret of it either. Many would rejoice to see the whole system of ecclesiastical despotism abolished forever. The great mass of the people, and especially the more wealthy and intelli- gent classes, seldom if ever go to church, except on high festival occasions, and even then take only a partial or a political interest in the services. We might, on a Sunday, go through all the churches in Rome, and not find more than four or five thousand worshipers, from among the populace, though these churches are very numerous, and some of them capable of containing from ten to twenty thou- sand persons. The majority in all would be found to be females and poor people. * We have said that all must confess ; but how or where they do so, it is impossible to say ; for only the poorer classes confess at church. The Sabbath is very much of a holi- day, in the secular sense of the term, and the greater portion of the day is spent in visiting, rambling, and other recreations. We are bound, however, to regard the majority of the inhabitants as devout Catholics, for they are so held by their ecclesiastical supe- riors, and form a part of the sacred city. Duly baptized and con- firmed, they live and die in the faith of their fathers. If it is inquired whether they are truly religious, that is another question, which even Pope Pius the Ninth, or Father Ventura, might hesi- tate to answer. They fast and pray during Lent, go to church and crucify the flesh. But they are delighted when they get through it. They precede it with the carnival, and follow it with dancing and revelry ! Pass around among: the convents and churches, amounting in all to four or five hundred, perhaps more ; you find in nearly all the greatest magnificence. Here are innumerable altars and sa- * It is estimated that there are nearly 300 churches in Rome. 380 THE WOULD WE LIVE US'. cred shrines, blazing with gems and gold, consecrated to all the saints in the calendar, to the Virgin Mother, to the twelve Apos- tles, and to the Holy Trinity ; and before which men of all nations and languages may bend, addressing their prayers indiscriminately to saint or angel, to the blessed Virgin, or to God himself. Here also are innumerable priests and confessors, an infinite variety of the most rare and precious relics — bones, arms, legs and skulls, fingers and nails, amulets and charms, rosaries and medals, conse- crated by popes of blessed memory, or other holy men, living and dead. Here also are collected, in the Vatican and in the churches, the most perfect specimens, of painting and statuary, intended more or less for the ornament and service of religion ; images of all forms and ages, apostolic and modern ; images of men and angels, of saints and martyrs, of Christ and God, in wood and stone, in oil-painting and fresco, some august and beautiful, others grotesque and striking, and all venerable and attractive to a de- vout Catholic. Here is the Basilica of St. Peter's, the most mag- nificent church in the world, the work of Michael Angelo, with its glorious cupola, four hundred and fifty feet from the ground, and the whole interior so vast, so beautiful, so harmonious, that it has been likened to "a ceaseless, changeless melody;" here, in this august temple, which is the wonder of every traveler, is " the veritable tomb of St. Peter," forming a small subterranean chapel in the center of the cathedral, with a hundred lamps burning around it, night and day, and surmounted by the bronze canopy of Bernini, richly adorned and supported by four ornate pillars, a hundred and twenty feet in bight; the tombs of popes and princes, with all forms of pagan and Christian beauty, some of them almost nude, guarding the precious dust of kings and priests ; on all sides altars, ornamented with gorgeous paintings and sculp- ture, gold, silver, and precious stones ; and above all, the bronze statue of Jupiter Capitolinus — the apostle Peter, we mean, for the old statue of the heathen god, found in the Capitol, has been lus- trated by the popes, and placed here, with a glory around his head, for the adoration of the faithful ; his sacred toes worn and polished by the rubbings and kissings of innumerable pilgrims. Whatever this statue may be on the score of religion, it is cer- tainly an incongruity on the score of taste. It is only about as large as life, while every thing around it is colossal ; the infant cherubs by the vases which contain the holy water, near the prin- cipal entrance, are of giant size, while the pen in the hand of St. Mark, above the frieze of the cupola, is six feet in length. Never- theless it is the genius of the place, the great object of love and reverence to the devout Catholic. This church is dedicated not ITALY. 381 to the glory of the Supreme Being, but to the glory of Peter, "in honorem principis apostolorum."* St. Peter's may be regarded as a symbol of the Roman Catho- lic faith, vast, venerable, and imposing, but enshrining many heathen forms and superstitions. Relics of the past mingle with embellishments of the present ; pagan images with Christian rites. " The general expression of the place," says Madame de Stael, " perfectly typifies a mixture of obscm-e dogmas and sumptuous ceremonies ; a mine of sad ideas, but such as may be soothingly applied ; severe doctrines capable of mild interpretation ; Christian theology and pagan images ; in fact, the most admirable union of all the majestic splendors which man can give to his worship of the Divinity." Is not this only a gentle and poetical mode of ex- pressing the fact that the religion of Rome, which in another place she says, " weds the ancient and the modern faiths in the mind," is half pagan and idolatrous in its character and worship ? The "majestic splendors" may dazzle a human eye; but alas! they grow pale before the eye of Him from whose face the heavens and the earth flee away. " Richer by far is the heart's adoration, Dearer to God are the prayers of the poor !" In Rome also is the Basilica, or church of St. John Lateran, so called because it is dedicated to St. John, and built upon the site occupied by the Roman Senator Plautius Lateranus ; the mother church of Christendom, because it was given especially to the Bishop of Rome, and founded by the Emperor Constantine. It is in the special diocese of the Pope, is the church in which he most frequently worships, and, in some respects, takes precedence over St. Peter's. It has often been restored and remodeled, is famous also for the five general councils held in it, and is the scene of the coi'onations of the Popes. Its interior is extravagantly rich, though very beautiful, in its decorations. Over the principal en- trance, you read, in large glaring capitals — " Omnium Urbis et Orbis Ecclesiarum Mater et Caput ;" Mother and Head of all Churches in the City and in the World I This church, of course, is rich in wondrous relics. Among these are shown the stone mouth of the well of Samaria, two pillars from Pilate's house, the table on which our Lord partook of the last supper, and a pillar of the temple split by the earthquake at the crucifixion ! ! In his own chapel the Pope keeps the wood of the true cross, the lance which pierced our Saviour's side, and the marvelous vail of Veron- * Inscription on the front of St. Peter's. 382 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. ica, celebrated nearly as much as the Holy Coat of Treves ; for it bears, say the Catholics, the impress of our Saviour's face, trans- ferred to it when applied to wipe away the sweat Avhich gathered on his brow, as he went to crucifixion ! These are shown by his Holiness — yes, by his Holiness — whether he be Gregory Six- teenth, or the enlightened Pius Ninth, on great occasions, such as Holy Week, to the assembled multitudes, who regard them with the same feeling that induced the enthusiastic devotees at Treves, when they saw The Sacred Tunic, to exclaim, Holy Coat, pray for us ! Here also, belonging to the church of St. John Lateran, in a separate building, is the Santa Scala, or holy stair, consisting of twenty-eight marble steps, brought, as the authorities affirm, from Pilate's palace in Jerusalem, and the identical steps up which our Savior walked to Pilate's judgment-hall. The guide who shows it will inform you, with a grave face, that, in places, they are blued or stained by the sweat of his sacred feet. Penitents only are permitted to ascend these steps, and on their knees. They have actually been worn by the attrition of numberless pilgrims, so that the Pope has caused them to be covered with wood. Luther, it will be remembered, when in Rome, wishing to obtain an indulgence, promised by the Pope to any who should ascend on their knees this celebrated staircase, was slowly climbing the steps, which they told him had been miraculously transported from J eru- salem to Rome. But while he was going through this merito- rious service, he thought he heard a voice, like thunder, speak from the depths of his heart — " The just shall live by faith." "These words," says Merle D'Aubigne, " which already on two occasions had struck upon his ear as the voice of an angel of God, resounded instantaneously and powerfully within him. He started up in ter- ror on the steps up which he had been crawling ; he was horrified at himself; and, struck with shame for the degradation to which superstition had debased him, he fled from the scene of his folly. This powerful text had a mysterious influence on the life of Luther. It was a creative word for the Reformer and for the Reformation. It was by means of that word that God said : ' Let there be light, and there was light.' " There is a less sacred ascent, by which strangers may gain the top of the stairs. Here we find a sacred shrine, and a dark-look- ing image of Christ, fronting the entrance from below. Looking into the dimly lighted Sancta Sanctorum, as it is called, we read : " N~on est in Toto Sanctior Orbe Locus ;" There is not in the world a holier place. So sacred is it, that females are not permit- ted to enter ! In this place are gathered (so say the guides) a ITALY. 3 S3 number of most precious relics — a bottle of the Virgin Mother's milk — an exact likeness of Jesus, painted by the Evangelist Luke, and a feather from the wing of the angel Gabriel. Luke, by the way, seems to have been the great painter of the early church. Rome possesses other pictures ascribed to him : at Bologna, a cel- ebrated portrait of the Virgin Mary, surrounded by filagree work, is exhibited as the production of his pencil ! One has to visit Italy, and especially Rome, to satisfy himself that the friar's wondrous catalogue, poured into the ear of the dreaming Boccaccio, was not, after all, such an extravagant fiction ! " A ray, imprimis, of the star that shone To the wise men, a vial full of sounds, The musical chimes of the great bells that hung In Solomon's temple, and though last not least, A feather from the angel Gabriel's wing, Dropt in the Virgin's chamber." In the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, or St. Mary the Greater, the grand object of papal adoration is the cradle of the infant Jesus, which is made the occasion of a solemn religious service on Christ- mas-eve. But the most popular idol in Rome is the Santissimo Bambino — the most Holy Baby ; a miraculous wooden image in the little church which goes by the name of Ara Cceli. Some say that it fell from heaven, like the image of Jupiter, or the sacred stone of Mecca. But others, better informed, affirm that it was carved by a Franciscan monk in Jerusalem, from wood- cut on the Mount of Olives, as a representation of the infant Savior ! Having no paint to color the image, and St. Luke not being at hand, he had recourse to prayer, in which he spent the whole night, and in the morning found that the little image had miraculously become the color of flesh ! This image is exhibited, for adoration, in a presipio (case or closet) prepared for it in the convent of the Ara Cceli, from the feast of the Nativity to that of the Epiphany. It is regarded as a sovereign preservative against all dangers of child- birth ; and, indeed, is peculiarly useful in all cases of disease. It has been stated, on good authority, that the Bambino receives more and better fees than all the medical men of Rome. A stage- coach, as fine as that of a cardinal's, is kept for its transportation from patient to patient. It is ordinarily accompanied, in its visits, by some priests in full canonicals. Thus attended, the Bambino is conveyed through the streets at a slow and stately rate, a rapid motion being regarded as inconsistent with the dignity of the im- age. When it passes, every head is uncovered and every knee bent. Other images may pass, and some heads are bared ; the Pope himself may pass and receive only a salutation ; nay, the con- 384 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. secrated Host, the very body and blood of Christ, may go by, and some may kneel, while others take off their hats ; but if the Bam- bino passes, every one is uncovered or prostrate on the ground, whatever be the state of the streets. But the crowning glory of the Bambino occurs on the festival of the Epiphany, when it is brought to the Capitol, or some such place, and, after a crash of cannon and martial music, it is raised by the hands of some distinguished priest, and the vast multitude fall prostrate in adoration before it, as if it were filled with all the full- ness of the Godhead ! In this sacred city of Rome resides the Pope, the apex of the Catholic cone, the head of the Church, the vicar of God, the true successor of St. Peter, who carries the sword of a kingdom on earth, and the keys of a kingdom in heaven ; the representative of the Son of God, and the fountain of all gracious influences to his militant flock — the embodiment, therefore, of all humility and meek- ness, of all holiness and peace ! You may see him, on some grand holiday, riding in a magnificent coach, which cost some twelve or fifteen thousand dollars, drawn by six superb black horses, at- tended by some four or half a dozen lackeys with appropriate costumes. He himself is dressed in gorgeous robes of silk, with a crown or tiara of gold upon his head, and in his hand, or that of a high officer who precedes him, a staff or crosier of gems and gold. Or you may see him about Christmas, or Corpus Domini, as they call it, borne into St. Peter's Church on the shoulders of men, seated in his chair of state, with his eyes closed, and making continually, as he passes along, the sign of the cross with the two forefingers of his right hand. Two pole-bearers, with splendid fans of ostrich feathers fixed upon the tops of their poles, precede him with a solemn and reverent air. Behind him are the cardi- nals, in red stockings, and long, flowing robes of scarlet silk cov- ered with surplices of the richest lace ; bishops in purple robes, and their attendants in all the colors of the rainbow ; nobles and guards, soldiers and priests, with swords and spears, true crosses, images of saints, and other emblems ; a motley group of monks, gray, white, and black ; and, among other strange devices, eight huge tents, supported by men, emblematical of the eight basilicas, or most eminent churches of Rome ! At last the Pope is seated in state under the grand altar, and after various services the Host is elevated — bells toll, cannons roar, and the vast multitude are prostrate on the floor. If you have time and patience to remain two or three hours, you will see all sorts of changes, maneuvers, and genuflexions, the forty cardinals ITALY. 385 swimming around with their huge trains, proceeding with the utmost gravity, in single file, to kiss the Pope's hand, and some forty or fifty bishops and other clergy following them to kiss the cross upon his slipper, and many others, not admitted to this high honor, kneeling at a respectful distance, waiting for his bene- diction. During this time your head will almost reel with the crossings and counter-crossings, the kneelings and bendings, the covering and uncovering of heads, the lifting and opening of robes, the pulling off or putting on of vestments, the readings from different books, all in Latin, the long and monotonous chant- ings, the embracings of cardinals, the runnings to and fro of the assistants, altar boys and others, and the wavings of censers with burning incense, now to God, now to the Pope, now to the sacred books and vestments, now to St. Peter, and now to the Holy Virgin and the twelve apostles. " What strange idea of the Deity," says Mathews, describing a similar service in the private chapel of the Pope, on Monte Cavallo, "must have first suggested this homage of postures and prostrations ! If a Chinese had been present, he might well have concluded that the Pope was the god of this strange worship ; and, indeed, I doubt whether the thoughts of many on this occasion were elevated nearer to heaven than the Popedom." Connected with the Papal Church there are in Rome forty car- dinals, more or less, quite a number of prelates, archbishops and bishops, many of them noblemen by birth, and all of them noble- men by station. The cardinals live in palaces, and ride about in superb coaches, with well-dressed attendants. .Some of them are learned men — some of them, we hope, are pious, according to their views. That the most of them are courtiers and politicians, ambitious and intriguing, may be doubted any where else, but cer- tainly not in Rome. But let that pass ; such as they are, they form a conclave for the government of the Papal Church, and give law to Christendom. In addition to these, there are in Rome from fifteen to sixteen hundred secular clergy or priests ; monks, from two to three thousand ; nuns, from fourteen to fifteen hundred ; in all, from five to six thousand ecclesiastics, besides innumerable clerical visitors, professors, students, &c, in a population of little more than a hundred and fifty thousand. Looking at the ecclesiastical machinery alone, and admitting its high pretensions to divine authority, one would conclude that Rome must be the holiest place on earth. Well then, is it such ? Let its swarming beggars, its poverty-stricken populace, its un- educated children, its secret infidelity, its boundless superstition, 17 386 THE WOELD WE LIVE IS. its covert treason, its gloomy discontent, its deep licentiousness, answer the question. Instead of traveling to Naples by land, let us go down to the coast, and so reach it by sea. Gliding along the shores of the Mediterranean, after a pleasant sail from Civita Vecchia, at last we catch a glimpse of Vesuvius, covered with a dense mass of clouds. Making a fine curve, we pass the rocky promontories of ITALY. 387 Torrento and Miseno, and enter the bay of Naples, which opens like a vast amphitheater, bounded by the city, and the long ranges of volcanic mountains, which all but encircle it with their black- ened summits. Unfortunately it begins to rain, and the whole surrounding region is enveloped in misty vapor ; a grievous dis- appointment to those who, for days, have been eagerly anticipating one of the most beautiful sights in the world. But we keep our station on the deck of the steamer, and wait patiently till it clears away a little, and then strain our eyes to discover the various points of interest in this celebrated locality. The clouds, however, still hover over the city, and hang, like a hoary crown, upon the head of Mount Vesuvius. A few moments and our highest wishes are gratified ; gratified all the more for being disappointed at first. The clouds suddenly break away, and the sun shines out in full- orbed splendor. The city, with its palaces and castles, its long ranges of stuccoed houses and magnificent churches, lying upon the acclivif^, and crowning the summits of the hill ; the wide sweeping bay, with its barges, boats, and steamers, sparkling in the sunlight ; Mount Vesuvius, towering to the sky, and still cov- ered with its canopy of clouds ; the long ranges of mountain hights sweeping to the right ; — all are flooded with golden radiance, and appear, to our delighted vision, like scenes of fairy-land. " Beautiful ! surpassingly beautiful !" exclaims one of our travel- ing companions, to which we give a ready and enthusiastic re- sponse. The city of Naples lies upon the margin of the bay, in the form of a semicircle, and gradually spreads itself upon the acclivity behind, crowned by the Castle of St. Elmo, which over- looks the whole. The houses and streets rise, the one above the other, interspersed with gardens and trees. Many of the build- ings are large and elegant. The palace on one of the hights, and the Nuovo Castello, with various other buildings in a castel- lated form, are exceedingly striking and picturesque, as seen from the bay, and give to the whole city a most imposing and graceful aspect. The houses are lofty, with innumerable balustrades and other prominences, crowned with hanging gardens filled with flow- ers. Some of them are immense piles ; old palaces, perhaps, with great gateways and quadrangular courts. This is the form of most of the hotels and of the larger dwelling-houses, not only here, but throughout Italy, and to some extent in France. They are huge lumbering affairs, containing a large open court in the center, entered by an arched gateway from the street. At each of these a porter is stationed, and not unfrequently a soldier with a musket on his shoulder. The 388 THE WOULD WE LIVE IN. chambers are large and airy, with iron bedsteads, smooth oaken or tile floors, in some cases of mosaic, scoured clean and bright, and with many little conveniences peculiar to the country. Naples contains a population of not less than three hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants, a circumstance which accounts for the immense crowds in the streets, and the perfect Babel of noises which every where greet the ear. It is surrounded by places and objects of great interest, such as the grotto of Posilipo, Virgil's tomb, Paestum, with its ruins of Grecian architecture, Baia3, and the scenes described in the sixth book of Virgil's ^Eneid, Vesuvius, the disentombed cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, the islands of Ischia and Procida, the Campagna Felice, and many beautiful villages which unite, by their classic associations, the hoary past vvith the youthful present. Besides, the whole neighboring coun- try abounds in the richest and most varied sylvan scenery, while the climate and sky are among the loveliest in the world, vindi- cating, to some extent, the extravagant expression of flhe Neapoli- tans — Visit Naples, and die ! Naples existed in the times of the Greeks, by whom it was called Proserpina, on account of the beauty of the situation, and subsequently Neapolis, as a completely new city was built upon the site of the old. Subsequently possessed by the Romans, it continued to increase in wealth and population. Passing succes- sively under Provencal, Spanish, and Austrian dominion, it has seen many changes, undergone many revolutions. It boasts the possession of the finest bay, and one of the largest collections of classical antiquities in the world, a site of unrivaled beauty, and a population of great quickness and versatility, though not of high character and sterling worth. The government, which embraces that of the two Sicilies, containing a population of about eight millions, is despotic and badly administered, and the whole land, city and country, swarms with priests, monks, and beggars. There is no country in the world perhaps, except Spain, more completely priest-ridden, and none in Avhich is found such a superabundance of idle and worthless inhabitants. Yet the people generally, who have Grecian and Moorish blood in their veins, are remarkably vivacious and cheerful, live upon a trifle, and probably enjoy a fair amount of " material" happiness. It is a land of volcanoes and earthquakes, a fervid and generous clime, in which human nature is apt to become quick and passionate, improvident and wild. Hence the changes in their condition have often been as fierce and startling as the eruptions of Etna or Vesuvius. At times yielding quietly and passively to the most galling despotism, and then startling the world with sudden and bloody revolutions ; ITALY. 389 now shouting for freedom, and anon making the welkin ring with vivas for kingly thrall. Immersed in sensuality, yet possessed of a noble nature, there is no extravagance of good or bad which they may not perpetrate. The language of Goldsmith is as ap- plicable now as it was fifty years ago : " For small the blisa that sense alone bestows, And sensual bliss is all the nation knows. In florid beauty groves and fields appear, Man seems the only growth that dwindles here ; Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; Though poor, luxurious, though submissive, vain ; Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; And e'en in penance planning sins anew." It is on this ground that we are to explain the sudden and ter- rible reaction which followed the late revolution, reminding us of the days of Masienello and the Sicilian Vespers. Naples, at last, appeared on the point of attaining freedom. The feeble but crafty Bourbon, now occupying the throne, seemed fairly subdued ; a constitution, with elements of liberty, though sadly deficient in some of its provisions, was proclaimed, and - the whole land re- joiced in her opening prospects. But instantly the heavens are covered with blackness, the earth shakes, the lightning flashes, and the moral Vesuvius of Naples bursts, in flaming fires, upon the terrified vision. A difficulty occurs between the new Con- sulta or Parliament and his Majesty, respecting the form of the oath to be taken, in support of the constitution and the king. The latter insists upon his rights, and the former demurs. The troops are called out ; barricades are erected. The king seems to yield, but fills the squares and castles with Swiss mercenaries, and excites the populace to revolt against the constitution. A musket is fired by accident from the ranks of the National Guard, who, thinking they are betrayed, immediately commence firing. The Swiss retaliate with a murderous fire, and the artillery pour grape into the barricades. For a moment the lazaroni appear disposed to side with the National Guard ; but, induced by the hope of pillage, take part with the troops, break open for them shops and houses, and excite them, with cries of "Long live the king," to ihe most brutal excesses. Plunging into palaces and private dwellings, these barbarians commit the most fearful atrocities ; children are dashed from the windows, women are violated, fathers, mothers, infants, old men and maidens are cruelly butch- ered in each other's arms ; others are led naked to the slaughter, amid the jeers and insults of the mob and the soldiery, and com- pelled to cry vivas for the king with their dying breath. The 390 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. Royal Guard assassinate two sons of the Marquis Yassatore, in the palace of their father, who immediately goes stark mad, and his palace is enveloped in flames. Two palaces, one the beauti- ful palace of Gravina, are burned. Nearly all the National Guards are cut to pieces, and the survivors are immediately taken and shot, by order of the king. Multitudes, known to entertain liberal opinions, are taken from their houses and executed without a trial. After the struggle, all who are taken with arms in their hands are instantly shot, and many others are carried, bound hand and foot, on board a ship made a temporary prison, and others are thrown into the dungeons and jails of the city. The tri-color every where is torn down, the white Bourbonie flag placed in its stead, and Naples subjected to strict martial law. Thus the old regime returns ; the people submit, and the Jesu- its rejoice. Naples literally swarms with priests. It is said that it contains at least five thousand ecclesiastics of every kind ; others put them at ten thousand, including the nuns and novitiates. Indeed, priests and soldiers seem to be the controlling powers of the place. The lawyers number four thousand, and are a wealthy and highly influential class, having peculiar privileges, and in con- sequence of the extreme length of lawsuits, holding in their hands a large portion of the real estate. The nobles are opulent, and fond of display ; and the king is as complete a despot as ever sat upon the throne. But it is the priests and friars especially which attract the attention of a traveler, for you cannot take a walk of half an hour in any of the principal streets of the city, without meeting forty or fifty of them in their peculiar costume. Multi- tudes of friars, in their brown gowns and black cowls, with gir- dled waists and sandaled feet, may be seen gliding along the streets, particularly in the morning, and collecting from the shops and stalls their daily revenue of charity, in the shape of eatables, money, and other things. Some of the priests are good-looking men. The higher ecclesiastics, especially, have quite a respecta- ble appearance. A very few look ascetic. Some are evidently good-natured, easy, jolly souls, who belong rather to the race of King Cole, than of Saint Anthony ; while the great mass of the lower clergy are gross-looking, lazy, good-for-nothing fellows, who are as much lazaroni and beggars as any of the lowest of the rabble. But there are some good institutions in Naples, and the clergy, and particularly the nuns, are not without their use. Several hos- pitals for the poor and sick are connected with the monasteries, and something is done for the education of orphan children. A ITALY. 391 common-school system, of course, there is none ; and not one-half of all the people can read or write. The ignorance of the mass is immense ; and we cannot, therefore, expect them to be very reli- gious or virtuous. It is a wonder, perhaps, they are not worse. One thing, at least, is in their favor — they are not intemperate. The perfection of the climate, and the vivacious character of the people, supply the place of intoxicating drinks, or they have no money to procure them. Generally speaking, they are good-na- tured, and by no means so suspicious and revengeful as they have been represented. They love music and shows, and live much in the open air. The great body of them have not, and cannot have any just conception of what Christianity is. "Pietro, what do you worship when you go to church ?" " San Gennaro and the Holy Virgin, signor !" " And of all things in the world what do you love the best ?" " To dance the Tarantula, and eat maccaroni." "Well, but you love the service of religion, don't you?" " yes, signor ; but we poor fellows don't know much about it; the priests, you know, manage all that." This is about the amount of the religion of the common people. The educated classes are mostly indifferent or skeptical. But skepticism is a little inconvenient at times, and so it is often kept in the background. The Neapolitans of the cafH — those at least who have seen the world, and pretend to any enlargement of mind — will sometimes talk freely with strangers of the -corruptions of their government and religion, but much of all this is mere smoke, and comes to nothing. The reaction from the late revo- lution, and the universal presence of spies and informers, now seal all lips. 392 THE WOULD WE LIVE IN". CHAPTER XXVIII. GREECE. A comparatively small and rocky countiy, yet central and beautiful, Greece, in former days, commanded the admiration of the civilized world. Her warriors and statesmen, her painters, sculptors, poets, orators, and philosophers have left the impress of their genius upon all the nations of Christendom. As we glide over the Gulf of Lepanto, cast anchor in the Pirseus, gaze upon the sun-gilt hights of the Acropolis, wander amid the ruins of the Areopagus, the Parthenon, and the temple of Theseus, we feel as if we were transported far back among the lofty spirits of by-gone days, the Homers, the Platos, and the Pindars of a classic age. But except her ruins, Greece has few traces of her ancient glory. Here indeed you find the same clear, blue sky, the same brilliant atmosphere, the same rocky hights, whence a broad land- scape of hill and vale, undulating shore, and radiant sea greets the eye ; there, as of old, is Mount Hymettus, with its sunshine and bees, the winding Ilissus, the olive-grove of Academus, " Where the Attic bird Trills her thick warbled note the summer long ;" the same famous battle-fields, Marathon and Thermopylae, around which cluster the dreams of poetry, and the soft memories of other days ; and doubtless this is much, very much to a thought- ful mind, but Greece, the old, classic, heroic Greece, is gone, and we fear gone forever. " Yet are thy skies as blue, thy crags as wild ; Sweet are thy groves, and verdant are thy fields, Thine olive ripe as when Minerva smiled, And still his honied wealth Hymettus yields : There the blithe bee his fragrant fortress builds, The free-born wanderer of thy mountain air ; Apollo still thy long, long summer gilds, Still in his beam Mendelis marbles glare ; Art, Glory, Freedom fail, but Nature still is fair. Where'er we tread, 'tis haunted, holy ground ; No earth of thine is lost in vulgar mold, But one vast realm of wonder spreads around, And all the Muses' tales seem truly told. Till the sense aches with gazing to behold GEEECE. 393 IT GKEECE. 395 The scenes our earliest dreams have dwelt upon ; Each hill and dale, each deepening glen and wold Defies the power which crush'd thy temples gone : A.ge shakes Athena's tower, but spares gray Marathon." TH modern Greeks indeed, though mingled with Slavonic races, are lineally descended from the ancient, and possess their external lineaments, and a few traits of their character. They are ingenious, elastic, and graceful. They possess, too, bravery and subtlety ; echoes of the high virtues of their ancestors. But they are false, fickle, and indolent, obviously a degenerate race, without lofty virtue and generous enterprise. The language they speak is a corruption of the classic Greek, and although they read the productions of their fathers, they make little or no attempt to imitate them. Indeed, an old, peculiar, heroic age once lost, can never be restored. Imitation, even of the ancients, is a confession of weakness ; and a nation, to be any thing, must develop its own peculiar resources. The Greeks generally are good-looking, having fine profiles, bright eyes, and a graceful carriage. Their dress is becoming and picturesque, consisting of gay colors, broidered with silk or gold. A red hat, or cap, with a long blue tassel, falls over the shoulders. They wear a sash and a morocco girdle, in which are carried a knife, powder-flask, pistols, richly ornamented ; gaiters covering the leg to the knee, giving elasticity to the step ; scarlet slippers, ending in a sharp point, complete their costume. The dress among the poorer classes is not always as elaborate as this, but consists chiefly of a colored cap, red or blue vest, and wide trow- sers. The large cities of Greece, or what were once large cities, are little better than good-sized villages. They have few substantial or elegant buildings. Athens itself does not contain twenty really elegant mansions. King Otho's palace is clumsily built. The only things beautiful here are the sunny landscapes, the ruins of the ancient city, the Parthenon, the Propylea, the temple of Theseus, the remains of the Areopagus, &c. Corinth is a pleas- ant place, though vastly inferior to the splendid city of ancient times. The common people, and even those of the middle classes, live in poorly built houses, often without windows and separate apart- ments. The furniture consists of wooden benches, a rickety ta- ble, some broken knives and forks, a large earthen vessel, &c. The Greek peasant does not know what a bed is ; he sleeps on the ground, wrapped in a cloak which he wears during the day. Their toilet demands no great care. They make clean the outside 386 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN". of the cup and the platter, and let the rest take care of itself. The children are suspended in leathern bands attached to the walls. Their houses are ill-arranged, and have no chimneys. Soap is a thing almost unknown in domestic life. Filth and fleas abound, nay, superabound. Some of the old aristocratic families affect a degree of splendor and show, and some of them, by visiting France, Germany, and England, acquire considerable knowledge and refinement. Sev- eral of the teachers in the gymnasia and the university are learned and accomplished men. As a whole, the people are improving somewhat. Intelligence and enterprise are making progress among them. The territory of Greece proper is much curtailed. Part of it is. yet under the dominion of the Turk. Part of it, the Ionian Islands, is virtually under the dominion of England. Its bounda- ries, its civil and its political state, all were arranged by the great European powers. King Otho, a well-meaning and well-educated Bavarian prince, was given them as king. At first he was very unpopular, because he brought his German friends and retainers with him, upon whom he bestowed all the honors and offices of state. This caused a revolution — a peaceful one, it is true — in consequence of which all these foreigners were removed. Otho submitted with a pretty good grace, and he now succeeds better. The queen, who is intelligent and amiable, is quite popular. Greece is divided into three political parties, the English, the French, the Russian. The second of these, the French, or, as it ought now to be called, the native, aims at the elevation of the country, and is said to be the most influential. The Russian is favored by the priests of the Greek faith, who regard the Empe- ror Nicholas as the father and defender of their church, and by the more ignorant among the common people. The intelligent and patriotic Greeks favor the idea of national elevation and in- dependence, which would be lost under Russian domination. The morals of the country, as all travelers confess, are low. Robberies are quite frequent. Lying is confessed, even by the natives, to be a national peculiarity. Their religion, so far as they profess it, is formal and superstitious ; bigoted, too, and intolerant, especially among the priests and the lower orders. The more educated classes are inclined to be tolerant. Convents, some of them rich, abound. The monks are lazy, and given to good eating and drinking, which they seem to regard as the summum bonum of human life. This, and the routine of puerile ceremonies, fill up their days. The monastery of Megaspelion has vast revenues, and in its cellars no less than from 40,000 to 50,000 bottles of GREECE. 397 GEEECE. 399 wine ! A recent traveler asked one of the fathers what they did with so much wine ; but he only shrugged his shoulders and laughed. Every year, at the approach of Easter, confession is practiced, but in a peculiar way. The priest goes into families ; he listens to what each individual thinks proper to confess to him ; then he fixes the price of this according to a tariff; — such a sum for lying ; so much for robbery, and so forth. The following, from an intelligent traveler, is a description of a marriage cere- mony : " It was performed in an Athenian parlor. The relatives and friends stood around the bride and bridegroom. A flask of wine, a loaf of bread, a piece of cloth, and two gilt-paper crowns were placed upon a table. The persons officiating were two papas, a deacon, and a singing child. The priests put on their robes and opened the books. While they read, sometimes the liturgy, some- times the gospels or epistles, they fit or snuffed the torches. Each carried a lighted candle. The two papas read one after the other, and at certain intervals made the sign of the cross, which was repeated by the attendants ; the deacon and singing child uttering a sort of shout. The whole ceremony was performed very rapidly, and with no apparent solemnity. The bride and bridegroom stood motionless. Then a priest took the marriage rings, put them on the gospels to consecrate them, and held them up repeatedly before the face of the bride and bridegroom, making many signs of the cross. Then he put the rings upon their fingers. Next he took the gilt-paper crowns, placed them also on the gos- pels, put them on the head of the bride and bridegroom ; reciting all the while the liturgy in a monotonous voice. The priest poured out wine in a glass, dipped in it two pieces of bread, gave them to the newly married pair, and spread over them a piece of cloth. The bridegroom, the bride, the godfather (for there is a godfather in marriages as well as in baptisms), the father and the mother of the bride made four turns round the table. Lastly, the priest held the Bible for the married pair to kiss. " These complicated ceremonies once had probably a symbolical meaning. Now they are mere idle forms. Bursts of laughter sometimes interrupt the marriage celebration, which has no longer any seriousness or solemnity." With all their faults, the Greeks have some noble traits. They despise meanness, cherish a spirit of dignity and independence, and long for the regeneration of their country. Some of their public men, John Coletti, for example, have exhibited the purest patriotism. The young men who are preparing in the university for active life are said to give high promise of excellence. It is a 400 THE WOKLD WE LIVE IN. curious fact that public executioners cannot be found among the Greeks. The government undertook to bring such functionaries from abroad ; but they were secretly murdered as soon as they arrived. At last, some years ago, two inhabitants of Corfu, hav- ing been condemned to capital punishment, were offered pardon if they would consent to be public executioners. They consented, but, when set at liberty, they fled. Having been seized again by the police, they said, " Let us go ! do you wish to have execu- tioners among the Greeks?" But they were led back to Patras in spite of their entreaties. It is these unhappy persons who, after having killed human beings from ferocity, kill them now from duty. One of the noblest distinctions of modern Greece is her generous effort to establish a system of public instruction, adequate to the wants of the people. This has been accomplished. Every where common schools and gymnasia have been founded, crowned by a superior and well-endowed university in the city of Athens. Some of the schools established by missionaries in the city of Athens have already accomplished much good. Dr. King and the Rev. Mr. Hill, both from the United States, have nobly devoted their energies in this direction. Mr. De Vere, in his "Picturesque Sketches," speaks highly of the school established by Mr. Hill. It has 700 pupils, taken from every class of society. " The poorer classes were gratuitously instructed in reading, writing, and arith- metic, and the girls in needlework likewise. The progress which the children made was very remarkable ; but what particularly pleased me was that air of bright alertness, and good-humored energy, which belonged to them, and which made every task ap- pear a pleasure. The greatest punishment which can be inflicted on an Athenian child is exclusion from school, though but for a day. About seventy of the children belonged to the higher classes, and were instructed in music, drawing, the modern lan- guages, the ancient Greek, and geography. Most of them were, at the moment, reading Herodotus and Homer. I have never seen children approaching them in beauty, and was much struck by their Oriental cast of countenance, their dark complexions, their flashing eyes, and that expression, at once apprehensive and meditative, which is so much more remarkable in children than in those of a mature age. " The singularity of the spectacle was increased by the mingled character of enjoyment and decorum that belonged to it. The dresses of the children, many of which were of the national cos- tume, looked as spotless as their pale radiant faces, and as care- fully arranged as their hair, which was almost always dark, and GKEECE. 401 glistening in its heavy masses. Their gestures were eager at once and graceful, and their demeanor was full of reverence. Never have I seen such brows, and such nobly shaped heads. These are, perhaps, the highest characteristics of Greek beauty ; but they are especially observable in children, and give them a certain rapt and inspired air. As I walked among them, I could hardly help asking, ' Which is to be the future Pindar ? That girl, does she come from Tanagra : does she not boast that Thermodon is clearer than Ilissus ; and is not her name Corinna ?' " This is enthusiastic, but pleasant, and comes upon us like a gleam of sunshine from a distant sky. Greece may yet rise in purity and power. Her position, between the Asiatic and Euro- pean continents, renders such a destiny of inconceivable conse- quence to the whole civilized world. Her extinction or degradation would be an immense calamity. What she wants is a free Bible, a free church, and a free press. 402 THE WOELD WE LIVE LN". CHAPTER XXIX. ASIA. Region of mystery, of " havoc, and splendor ;" fountain of na- tions, whence all of us have sprung ; source of religion, of philos- ophy, and the arts, — Asia lies before us, vast and shadowy, and, to some extent, repulsive ; for Asia, with all her grandeur, is old, decrepit, and superstitious. The vigor of her early prime is lost. Her purity, freshness, and love are withered. A large proportion of her people are yet in a barbarous or semi -barbarous state. Others have fallen from their original civilization, and only one or two can claim any advancement in knowledge and refinement. Most of them are fixed, like mummies, in immovable forms. Sev- eral are feeble and effeminate, debased by indolence and licentious- ness ; and the only ones that are really possessed of any thing ASIA. 403 like strength and capacity are the wilder tribes of the deserts and mountains. And yet how interesting and wonderful is Asia, "elder bom of God," mother of empires, languages, and religions, land of heroes and martyrs, of prophets and apostles ! Here smiled the first Eden, where Jehovah walked in the cool of the day. Here Menu dreamed and Moses uttered oracles of wisdom. Here angels visited the earth on errands of mercy ; and here, es- pecially, walked, in majesty and meekness, the Son of God, the Savior of the world. The resources and population of Asia are immense ; but, except from the inroads of Europeans, Asia is stationary. Religion, sci- ence, the arts, and usages of society, all are at a stand, or falling into decay. Europe, indeed, is repaying, to some extent, what she originally received from Asia. Her missions and schools, her Bibles and books are beginning to be felt ; but whether Asia can ever be resuscitated, except by the infusion of a new and foreign life, has been seriously questioned. Great changes, doubtless, are going on in Hindostan and in China. Brahminism is old and ready to perish. Buddhism is declining rapidly. The Crescent every where pales before the Cross, Indeed, Mohammedanism is old and lifeless. It inspires no enthusiasm, awakens no energy, kindles no zeal. Judaism is all but extinct. In a word, all the old forms of religion and civilization have lost their power. Europe, with its religions and forms of civilization, every where is gaining ground, and changing the aspects of society. In Hindostan alone are eighty thousand nominal Christians, as also many thousands, born in the Brahminic faith, who have renounced all its peculiarities but the name. After all, the people of Asia make little or no progress themselves. If they change, in their views and institutions, it is under European influence. England, Russia, France, slowly ad- vance eastward, by their language, their literature, their religion, their physical powers, their science, their arts, especially the arts of industry, their government and military force ; and the native tribes give way. But can Europe, or will Europe occupy Asia ? The problem is a great one, and cannot be solved here. We simply suggest a few considerations to indicate the position of Asia, and its relations to the rest of the world. All the forms of society may be seen in Asia, from the savage state of the nomadic or wandering hordes to the most effeminate luxury. Freedom, founded on law and the moral and intellectual cultivation of man, alone is wanting. This results from the ab- sence of a pure faith. Priests and conquerors, in whom the selfish and merely human elements predominate, have long decided the political character of the East. Asia, stationary as she is in opin- 404 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. ions, forms, and usages, has undergone innumerable physical rev- olutions. It has been subject, at different times, to the Assyrians, the Medes, Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, Syrians, Parthians, Ara- bians, Mongols, Tartars, Seljooks, Turks, Affghans, &c. Now it is controlled mainly by Russia and England. Its commerce is chiefly in the hands of Europeans. Slavery exists extensively in this continent. The mind, especially, is enslaved. It knows little or nothing of the freedom and vigor of the West. Woman is regarded as the servant and even the slave of man. Nowhere among the nations and tribes of this region, does she hold the station designed for her by nature and Christianity. The prevail- ing governments are despotic ; hence their rigid etiquette, their fatalism, and indolence, combined with superstition, cruelty, and •lust. Some of the wilder tribes, indeed, have an imperfect repub- licanism, combined with patriarchal forms of government. The astronomy and astrology, poetry, theology, morals, laws, and the rude empirical medicine of the Asiatics are mostly confined to the priests, and united with deeply rooted superstition, which leads even to infanticide, to self-sacrifice in the flames, and other forms of murder. Common education is unknown in Asia. The .people, with few exceptions, are ignorant and debased. " The civil, po- litical, and religious condition of the Asiatics proves, that where the free development of the higher powers of man is subject to the restraints of castes, and to the tyranny of priests and despots, and where the adherence to established forms has become a matter of faith, law, and habit, the character of society must degenerate, and the energies of man become palsied. Hence the Asiatic, not- withstanding: the richness of his imagination, never attained the conception of ideal beauty, like the free Greek ; and, for the same reason, the European, whose mental improvement and social ac- tivity have been unimpeded, has shaken off the control which the East formerly exercised over the West, and has obtained dominion over the coasts and territories of his old lord and master. Greece led the way, and after having transformed the obscure symbols of the East to shapes of ideal beauty, shook off the spiritual fetters of priests and oracles, and, at the same time, the temporal yoke which the Persian, Darius, had prepared for Athens and Sparta. After a struggle of fifty years the triumphs of Cimon (in 449 B. C.) first enabled Europe to prescribe laws to the East. Grecian civilization then spread over the whole of Western Asia to India, and even the military despotism which succeeded has not been able to extinguish that light entirely. In later times the Romans and Parthians fought for the possession of the Euphrates, and the Persians, under the Sassanides, attempted to tear the dominion of ASIA. 405 the world from the hand of Rome. Since that period Asia has four times taken up arms against Europe. The nations of upper Asia, driven from the frontiers of China to the Irtish, crowded upon the West. Huns, Avari, Bulgarians, and Magyars succes- sively issued from the Caucasian gates, and from the wilderness of the Ural, to subdue Europe ; besides those latter hordes which were mingled and confounded with each other in Southern Russia and on the Danube. But the rude power of Attila, and of the grandsons of Arpat, was broken in conflict with the Germans. Next the Arabians attacked Constantinople, Italy, and France ; but their fanatical impetuosity was checked by Charles Martel in 732, and the chivalrous valor of the Gothic Christians rescued the peninsula within the Pyrenees. The West then armed itself against the East to recover the holy sepulcher from the Sultan of the Seljooks, and Christian Europe became better acquainted with Asia ; but the sword alone cannot conquer a continent. Upper Asia sent again, under the Mongol, Temudschin (Gen- ghis Khan), her mounted hordes over the world. Again the Germans stayed the destroying flood near Liegnitz. Finally, the Tartars and Ottoman Turks invaded Europe. In 1453 they took the Bosphorus and Greece from the feeble hands of the Eastern Romans. In succeeding times Europe has been defended against Asia, on this side, by Germany." But Asia no longer advances and attacks. Europe alone is aggressive and prosperous. Russia has possession of Northern Asia, while England controls Central and Eastern Asia. All Hindostan yields to her control, and even China and Burmah are compelled to acknowledge her supremacy. The population of Asia is variously estimated, from 300,000,000 to 400,000,000, and even 600,000,000. They are of diverse races and colors, speaking a great variety of languages, and practicing a great variety of customs. They are usually divided into four races — the Caucasian, with fine forms and beautiful complexions, whence most of the Europeans have sprung ; the Mongolian, or Tartar race, including the Turks, Calmucks, Mongolians, and others ; the Malay race, inhabiting Southern Asia and the islands ; and the Ethiopian, or black race. If, however, they were to be classified with reference to color, they might be divided into white, yellow, and black, the two former including the great body of the people. The white races occupy the regions of Western Asia ; the yellow, shading into a deep olive, the rest of the Asiatic continent. In the white race, occasionally gliding into brown, would be included all the Caucasian tribes, the nations of Asiatic Turkey, Arabia, Kurdistan, Persia, Affghanistan, as also the Bucharians, Armenians, Georgians, Turcomans, Usbecks, Kirghis, 406 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. some of the Hindoos, most of the inhabitants of Nepaul and of Ceylon, the Maldives, and some of the tribes of Asiatic Russia. The yellow race would comprehend the principal tribes of Asiatic Russia, the Calmucks, Mongolians, Chinese, Siamese, Burmese, Assamese, Japanese. The Malays, whose complexion is a deep brown or olive, are a mixed race, with an Arabian tinge and cast of countenance. The blacks belong to Malacca, Ceylon, Ando- man, and Nicobar, scattered among other races. Of all these, the Mongolian race is the most numerous, and occupy some of the oldest and richest portions of Asia. The Asiatics again might be divided according to their religions, the principal of which are the Mohammedan, including nearly all the nations of Western Asia, and penetrating still further into the interior of the country, including the Malays and others, recog- nizing one God, and rejecting idolatry, but feeble, sensual, and narrow ; the religion of Lama, which is a literal man-worship, the Lama or God of this superstition being a man, adored, not as the representative of the Deity, but as the Deity himself, and prevail- ing over all the central and eastern portions of Northern Asia ; the religion of Brahma, a monstrous superstition, founded upon pantheism, and consisting of gorgeous and cruel rites, with a cer- tain air of vastness and grandeur, having its head-quarters at Benares, and confined chiefly to the Hindoos ; and Buddhism, which is a system of practical atheism, knowing nothing of the doctrine of the Supreme God and the immortality of the soul, and wor- shiping Bicdh, or Ouadama, an ancient sage, who, by a series of changes, at last arrived at Nighan, absorption or annihilation, for which all Buddhists long as the highest good. Buddhism prevails over the greater part of Asia beyond the Ganges, including China, Burmah, Siam, &c. This last is the religion of the greatest num- ber of the inhabitants, and exerts the widest influence in India. In addition to these, other forms of religious belief prevail to a limited extent in Asia. The Jews cling to the Mosaic ritual ; some of the Persians, including the Parsees of India, are fire or sun worshipers, after the doctrine of Zoroaster ; and many of the Russian Asiatics, including some of the Chinese, Mongols, and others, are addicted to Shamanism, the lowest form of idolatrous worship, conducted by the Shamans or priests, who are also con- jurors, physicians, &c, and adore " lords many, and gods many," in the forms of matter, with rude superstitions and abominable rites. The Armenians in Turke}', and the Nestorians in Persia, are ancient Christian sects sadly degenerated. Asia itself, which is four times larger than Europe, is generally divided into, 1st, Southern Asia, comprehending Natolia, Arme- ASIA. 407 nia, Kurdistan, Syria, Arabia, Persia, Hindostan, Farther India, Siam, Malacca, Annam, Tonquin, Cochin China, Laos, Cambodia, China, Japan ; 2d, Middle or Upjyer Asia, containing Caucasus, Tartary, Bucharia, Mongolia, Tungousia ; 3d, Northern or Russian Asia, from 44° north latitude, containing Kasan, Astrachan, Oren- burg, Kuban, Kabarda, Georgia, Imereta, Siberia, with the Alpine regions of Dauria and Kamtschatka. The center of this conti- nent, probably the oldest ridge of land on the earth, is called Up- per Asia. Here the Bogdo, the majestic summit of the Altai mountains (literally high mountains), forms the central point of all the mountains of Asia. Upper Asia is distinguished for its remarkable and extensive plain, the most elevated on the surface of the earth ; the desert of Kobi, or Shamo, on the northern front- iers of China, dry and waste, visited alternately by scorching winds and chilling storms, even in summer, and affording, besides its deserts, only rivers and lakes, such as the Caspian, the lakes Aral and Bakal, and several lying among the mountains. From the northern and southern declivities of this region, less barren and bare, the first tribes of men set out in all directions, following the course of the rivers, north, east, and west. The sources of all the large rivers of Asia, which must be sought for in the mountains of Upper Asia, are little known. Vast ranges of country stretch in all directions, which still wait to be explored. Huge mountain ramparts, some of them, as in the Himmaleh range, rising to the height of from 25,000 to 2*7,000 feet, covered with verdure and trees far up their lofty sides, and on their sum- mits with eternal snow, inclose remote and secluded valleys, into which the foot of the European traveler has rarely, if ever, pene- trated. From the southern "Alpine girdle" descend the sacred rivers of the Hindoos, the Bramapootra, the Ganges, and the In- dus ; in the east, the rivers Irawaddy, Meinam, Lukian, and Mecon, or Cambodia ; and in the west, the Euphrates and the Tigris, taking their course to the south, and falling into the great gulfs of the Indian Ocean. " Nature has spread over Asia all the treasures of the earth, most abundantly in India ; her bounties are distributed by imper- ceptible gradations through all its three zones. In the torrid zone, whose genial warmth converts the juices of plants to spices, balsam, sugar, and coffee, with which Asia has enriched the West Indies ; the palms (sago, cocoa, date, and umbrella palms) reach a hight of 200 feet, and the white elephant attains a size surpass- ing that of all other quadrupeds. From hence the silk-worm was brought to Europe. This region conceals in its bosom the most b» Q .utiful diamonds, the finest gold, the best tin, &c, whilst the 408 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. waves flow over the finest pearls and corals. The temperate zone has given to Europe the melon, the vine, the orange, and many of its most agreeable garden fruits, as well as the most productive farinaceous grasses, and the most charming flowers, and unites in its productions symmetry with richness, particularly in the west- ern regions. Here the oldest traditions place Paradise ; here he the enchanting Cashmere, and the garden of Damascus ; here blossoms the rose of Jericho, near the cedars of Lebanon. The eastern countries, in the same latitudes, possess the tea shrub and the genuine rhubarb. The camel, the Angora goat, the Thibetan sheep, the pheasant, and the horse, are natives of this zone. In the north blossoms the Alpine flora of Dauria, and from the icy soil grows the dwarf-like Siberian cedar, till at 70°, vegetation mostly ceases. Here lives the smallest of quadrupeds — the shrew mouse of the Yenisey. Sables, ermines, foxes, otters, &c, afford the finest fur. The mineral kingdom furnishes rich ores, rare precious stones, and remarkable fossil remains, as those of the mammoth, in high northern regions." Properly speaking, however, Asia as a whole has no temperate zone interposed between the hot and cold regions, giving a race of men between the savage hordes of the north and the effemi- nate nations of the south, who might hold in check the one and assist to elevate the other. Asia, indeed, has been peopled from the north, but the difference between the natives of the cold and those of the hot climates is great and striking. Hence the south, weak and luxurious, has constantly been conquered by the hardy and savage north. Thus we find the Tartars, Affghans, Mongols, and Mantchous every where conquerors. They have successively subdued China, Persia, and India. A Tartar race now sits upon the throne of China. Such were the ancient Scythians, and such the modern Tartars, hardy and enterprising, but savage and cruel, who twenty times have conquered Asia and Eastern Europe. Such were Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, whose empires em- braced half of the ancient continent. Their power, however, in the north, is all but exhausted. The Calmucks have yielded to Russia, the Affghans to England. The Tartar princes of China have become weak as other men. All Asia is open to the occu- pancy of European power, civilization, and religion. A new era faintly dawns in the center of Oriental civilization. What the re- sult will be, time only will show. But we will look at some of the principal countries in detail, commencing with Turkey, and proceeding southward to Palestine and Arabia, thence to Persia, Hindostan, and China. We shall be obliged to confine our attention to the leading nations, dwelling chiefly upon their grand characteristics and usages. 410 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. TUEKEY. 411 CHAPTER XXX. TURKEY, The large, but ill-assorted, and rapidly decaying empire of Turkey, once so strong and flourishing, lies partly in Europe, and partly in Asia. The Turks, properly speaking, are Asiatic in their character and manners, so that we shall be justified in con- sidering the whole as belonging to the Asiatic world. It covers a large and interesting portion of the globe, particularly in what was anciently called Asia Minor, once the seat of arts, arms, and dominion, but now illustrious chiefly for its magnificent and mourn- ful ruins. The population amounts to somewhere about 15 or 17 millions, though some put it as high as 20 millions, considerably diversified in race and character, though consisting mainly of Turks, who are of Scythian origin, much modified, however, by intermarriages with other nations. The wealthier inhabitants have been accustomed to supply their harems with beautiful women from Circassia, Georgia, and the adjacent countries, a circumstance which has greatly softened the harsh features of the native Os- manlees. But before describing the Turks particularly, let us visit Con- stantinople, the capital of the country, and one of the most strik- ing cities in the world. We will proceed thither through the Hellespont, or Dardanelles (so called from the forts which guard its entrance), about thirty-three miles long, and from a mile to a mile and a half in breadth, one of the most important straits in the world, as it conducts through the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus, to the Black Sea, and thence to the entire Oriental world. The Sea of Marmora is a large body of water, 180 miles in length, and 60 miles in breadth, from the northern shore of which we enter the Bosphorus, a beautiful strait, resembling, it is said, the Hudson river at West Point, about a third of a mile wide, and fifteen miles long, but highly cultivated, and covered with palaces through its entire length. Before us, on a bend of the strait, and crowning the summits of .several hills, rises the fair city, with its mosques and minarets flashing in the clear light of an Oriental sky, and so disposed as to produce a superb panoramic effect. Indeed, the Bosphorus, with its dark blue waves, runs up apparently to the very heart of the city, and incloses it on the 412 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. north, by means of a branch called the Golden Horn, which forms one of the finest harbors in the world. Dark green masses of cypress rise from every part of the shore, and from the grave- yards beyond the city walls, near the tombs of the dead, for every tomb must have a cypress, relieving agreeably the fairy-like brilliancy of the scene. The water is covered with caiques, which with the gorgeous appearance of the Oriental architecture on either shore, the extensive gardens, and the transparent depth of the cloudless atmosphere, gives to the whole an air of peculiar grace and splendor. We feel for the moment as if we were approach- ing a world of enchantment, though instantly roused from our dream by a sudden plunge of a corpse, sewed in a bag, thrown suddenly from one of the caiques just passing us. Perhaps the poor wretch died of the plague, or by the hand of imperial vio- lence ; for such a mode of dispatching an official, or a favorite, is by no means unfrequent in Stamboul. Mysterious Bosphorus ! what magnificence and crime, what glory and shame, hast thou borne upon thy bosom, or hidden in thy depths ! " Venice," says the author of Eothen, " strains out from the steadfast land, and in old times would send forth the chief of the state, to woo and wed the reluctant sea ; but the stormy bride of the Doge is the bow- ing slave of the Sultan — she comes to his feet with the treasures of the world — she bears him from palace to palace — by some un- failing witchcraft she entices the breezes to follow her,* and fan the pale cheek of her lord — she lifts his armed navies to the very g*ates of his garden — she watches the walls of his serail — she sti- fles the intrigues of his ministers — she quiets the scandals of his courts — she extinguishes his rivals, and hushes his naughty wives all one by one — so vast are the wonders of the deep." Yes, wonders and horrors ; for it is no joke to the myriads who have found a grave in these mysterious depths. The charm of Constantinople from the sea, is dissipated by a more intimate acquaintance. It has splendor enough, but com- bined with meanness and filth ; and, ten to one, you will find the plague prevailing in its very center. The palaces and tombs of the Sultan are magnificent, but the interior of the former is sedu- lously guarded. The seraglio of the Sultan, where he keeps his beautiful wives, is a vast inclosure, close on the deep waves of the Bosphorus. Here, in luxurious ease, the delicate descendant of illustrious sires spends his hours of leisure, which are nearly all the hours he has. Some of the mosques, or sacred edifices, are splendid buildings. They have little, however, in their interior to * A breeze is constantly blowing in this direction. TUKKEY. 413 attract attention. The worship, apparently devout, is monoto- nous, and gone through with a lazy formality. The Turks seem to be a race of worshipers, for prayer is one of their most frequent and favorite exercises. Morning and even- ing, at the call of the Muezzin, they prostrate themselves before Allah, the one God, of whom Mohammed claimed to be prophet, and there is certainly something affecting in the act ; but it is formal and cold — a mere ceremony, without reflection or emotion. The Koran promises to the faithful Mussulman a paradise of sen- sual delights ; and every Turk therefore feels bound, as much as possible, to realize his heaven on earth. This is the principal ele- ment of his religion — this the vital ingredient in his character. Hence the true Turk, though possessed of much native energy and even violence of disposition, is a dreamy, indolent, fanatical sensual- ist. He believes in an absolute fatality, and so he lives for nothing, cares for nothing, but personal indulgence. The houses of his neighbors may burn to the ground — his acquaintances may be assassinated, or plunged into the Bosphorus — what cares he, if he has only his tchibouk, or his concubine ! Clinging to ancient cus- toms and dress, averse to effort and change, believing in fate, and anticipating a heaven of sensual delights, he is willing to live and to die a slave. Yet he is proud as Lucifer — proud of his ancestry, of his country, and his name ; holding in sovereign contempt all other people and nations on the face of the earth. True, a change is going on silently in Turkey. The late Sultan commenced a reform among the people, with a view to the intro- duction of European customs, arts, and sciences ; but the great mass of the people dislike it, and it may be questioned whether it will have any other effect than that of hastening the decay of the nation. The present Sultan seems inclined to prosecute the plans of his father, but his success is problematical. In appearance, he is delicate and gentle — almost effeminate ; and, indeed, how can he be otherwise, secluded as he is, and spending most of his time in a harem ? Still, in one or two instances, he has shown some energy. The following is related by Aubrey de Vere, Esq., and illustrates several traits in the Turkish character : — " At the be- ginning of a new reign, the Ulema (the priesthood ?) was resolved, if possible, to prevent the new Sultan from carrying on those reforms which had ever been so distasteful to the Turks, grating at once against their religious associations and pride of race, and which recent events had certainly proved not to be productive of those good results anticipated by Sultan Mahmoud. To attain this object, the muftis adopted the expedient of working on the religious fears of the youthful prince. One day as he was praying, 414 THE WOELD WE LIVE E*. according to his custom, at his father's tomb, he heard a voice from beneath reiterating, in a stifled tone, the words, ' / burn.'' The next time that he prayed there, the same words assailed his ears. ' I burn' was repeated again and again, and no word be- side. He applied to the chief of the Imams to know what this prodigy might mean, and was informed, in reply, that his father, though a great man, had also been, unfortunately, a great re- former, and that, as such, it was too much to be feared that he had a terrible penance to undergo in the other world. The Sultan sent his 'brother-in-law to pray at the same place, and, afterward, several others of his household ; and on each occasion the same portentous words were heard. " One day he announced his intention of going in state to his father's tomb, and was attended thither by a splendid retinue, including the chief doctors of the Mohammedan law. Again, during the devotions, were heard the words, '/ burn,'' and all except the Sultan trembled. Rising from his prayer-carpet, he called in his guards, and commanded them to dig up the pave- ment, and remove the tomb. It was in vain that the muftis inter- posed, objecting to so great a profanation, and uttering .dreadful warnings as to its consequences. The Sultan persisted. The foundations of the tomb were laid bare, and in a cavity skillfully left among them was found — not a burning Sultan, but a dervis ! The young Sultan regarded him for a time fixedly and in silence, and then said, without any further remark, or the slightest expres- sion of anger, ' You burn ! then we must cool you in the Bos- phorus.' In a few minutes more, the dervis was in a bag, and the bag, immediately after, was in the Bosphorus ; while the Sultan rode back to his palace accompanied by his household and his ministers, who ceased not all the way to ejaculate, ' Mushallah ! Allah is great ; there is no god but God, and Mohammed is his prophet.' " In Turkey, woman, much caressed perhaps, is, after all, the slave of man. Shut out from society, she is confined with her sis- ter wives and servants, and is permitted to see no one but her liege lord. When suffered to roam abroad, which is as rare as possible, she must keep herself vailed, and enter into no converse with the other sex. Her education is trivial, and her manners those of a spoiled child. The women of Turkey, however, are represented as amiable and submissive, and it is perhaps well for them that they are ; but as to matronly dignity, good sense, and cultivation, they can lay no claim to them. The Circassian women have fine expressive faces, and, under a different system of training, might develop high qualities of intellect and heart ; but their intelligence TUEKET. 415 resides only in their looks, for beyond their own narrow circle they know nothing. In Turkey, marriages are contracted in very early life, and are mere mercenary affairs. The result of such a custom must be very unfavorable to morals. Two children are betrothed, at a very tender age — sometimes at three or four — and when the engage- ment is completed at mature years, which often occurs pretty early in life, the bride is carried off in procession to the husband's house. Divorces, as might be expected, are very frequent. The following amusing account of a wedding is given by an English resident in Turkey : " When we lived among the Turks, a dapper little fellow, a son of our broker, called one morning upon us with a message, which he delivered in substantial Hebrew : " ' My lord and father makes his submissive obedience to your lordship (whom God protect !), and desires to know if he shall have the honor to kiss your hand at the wedding to-day ?' " ' What wedding, Muchaca ?' " ' Mine, sir.' " ' Yours ! Why, you little villain, how old are you ?' " He raised his hand thrice, being superstitious about repeating numbers. " ' Fifteen ! And how old is your wife that is to be ?' " He counted eleven with his fingers. " ' Why, Chica, what can you possibly do with a wife ? Is she pretty ?' " ' Don't know, excellenza. I never saw her.' " Here's a vile country for you. Boys and girls, who should be in school learning their lessons, getting married without having seen each other — without love, sentiment, vows, protestations, et cetera ! " ' Did you make her any presents ?' " ' yes, sir. The presents went last night. We had a camel load, your lordship ; a band of music, a trunk full of fine silk dresses, embroidered slippers, gold ear-rings, two silver waiters, plenty of oil and sweet cakes, and a dish of kuskisue.' " Shall we go to this Oriental wedding, thought we. Yes, we will go, if it is only to see the bride and groom. It was noon. We ordered the mules to be attached to the chaise, and rode to the comfortable mansion of Signor Solomon Benbanon. The long salle was thronged with men wearing blue turbans and heavy black beards. The little bridegroom, with a pair of wide cotton trowsers and embroidered jacket, and a crimson velvet skull-cap, was seated on an ottoman, gazing attentively around, as if he was 416 THE WOELD WE LIVE US'. not a party to the important ceremony about to take place. After prayers, a canopy was produced, under which the little fellow was placed ; a curtain in front of an alcove was withdrawn, and a bevy of fat women entered, followed by the little bride, who had a white lace vail thrown over her head, no stockings on, with heavy anklets or cinctures of gold, and her tiny feet encased in red morocco slippers, embroidered with gold. The bride stood opposite the groom. He eyed her closely, and she peeped at him through her vail. He tried to look grave, but ever and anon would twitter and laugh. When they gave him the ring to put on her finger, he put it on his own, rubbed it, looked pleased, as if unwilling to give it to her. After the ceremony, they were both seated on an otto- man, and received the congratulations of all present. Pauvre Cito ! they looked like children ready for any sport — blindman's buff, or hunt the slipper — any thing, in short, but being married. " Such are the Oriental customs. 'The married parties did not have the least agency in the matter. They were strangers to each other ; and, after the wedding, the girl went back to her father's house, and the boy played marbles, for we saw him next day sell- ing otto of roses and preserved figs, and sporting with a gang of little loafers not larger than himself. When he was big enough to be able to maintain his wife, we presume he claimed her." • In Constantinople and other Turkish cities are markets for female slaves — a more revolting system of slave-trading than any we know. Young and beautiful Greeks, Circassians, and others, are brought thither, and sold to the highest bidder. A handsome Abyssinian or Georgian will bring from 300 to 400 dollars ! The Turks are grave and quiet, and have comparatively few amusements, at least of an exciting or cheerful character. The baths are the great luxury ; they are frequented as operas and theaters are in Europe. Hours are spent in the bathing-houses. The ladies go to them with their slaves, and indulge in long and trivial gossip. The bazaars of Constantinople are a popular resort. There all the luxuries of the earth seem congregated to tempt the buyer. The merchant sits squat among his goods, asks about double price for every thing he has to sell, makes his exchanges with the utmost composure, and without moving his limbs from their place. The houses are built with an inner court, and are flat upon the top. The palaces of the rich merchants, pashas, and princes are adorned with sumptuous splendor, having rich baths and gardens attached. It is rare that a stranger is admitted to the harem, so that few travelers are competent to describe them. Mr. De Vere, however, was fortunate enough to enjoy this privilege, to a limited TUI1KEY. 419 was that of sisters. In their movements, a striking sympathy was visible, the more remarkable from their rapid transitions from the extreme of alarm to childlike vender, and again to boundless mirth. The favorite was a Circassian, of a dignified, but pliant and graceful carriage, her dark eyes soft and radiant, and her com- plexion of great purity and delicacy, " being tinged with a color unlike that of flower or of fruit, of bud or of berry, but which re- minded one of the vivid and delicate tints which sometimes streak the interior of a shell. Though tall, she seemed light as an em- bodied cloud, and her expression, though pensive, would light up, when merry, with a sort of rapture." They threw off all reserve, being exceedingly delighted with the magician's feats. At every attempt to question them, their looks would seem to say, " You came here to give us pleasure, not to cross-question us." At last he tried a more formidable device — that of an electrical machine ; looking at which two or three times, the mollah asked him whether that, too, was supernatural. " By no means," replied the quick-witted Frenchman, " it is a mere scientific toy ;" turning to his companion and saying, in a low voice, " He has seen it before — probably he has traveled." The ladies were arranged hand in hand, in a circle, and were informed that, if a discovery were not made, each person should receive, at the same moment, a blow from an invisible hand ; that the second time, the admonition would be severer still ; and that the third time, if his warning was still despised, the culprit would drop down dead. This announcement was received with much gravity, but no confession followed. The shock was given, and the lovely circle was speedily dislinked with shrieks and laughter. It was repeated, with the same result ; when the magician made them a long speech, telling them that he had already discovered the secret, and so forth. Still no confession was made. The magician was non- plused, and for a moment seemed downcast. " It will not do," said he, " the ring cannot be recovered, and is probably lost. We cannot fulfill our engagement ; and, indeed, I wish that we were well out of all this." The master of the household stood apart, looking like a thun- der-cloud. The Easterns do not understand a jest, especially in a harem, and are apt to pass instantly from the profoundest repose to the most violent passion. They speak little, " but deliver their souls by action." Our conjurers, therefore, had the fear of the Bosphorus before their eyes, and their situation was by no means enviable. " Do as you see me do," said the one to the other, when, giving the third shock, he advanced to their grim host with 420 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. a radiant countenance, and congratulated him vehemently. " You are a happy man," he said ; " your household has not a flaw in it. Fortunate it was that you sent^for the wise man. I have discov- ered the matter." " What have you discovered ?" " The fate of the ring. It has never been stolen ; your household is trustworthy and virtuous. I know where the ring is, but I should deceive you if I bade you hope ever to see it again. This is a great mys- tery, and the happy consummation surpasses even my hopes. Adieu ! The matter has turned out just as you see. You were born under a lucky star. Happy is the man whose household is trustworthy, and who, when his faith is tried, finds a faithful counselor. I forbid you, henceforth and forever, to distrust any one of your wives." " It would be impossible," says our authority, " to describe the countenance of our Mussulman friend during this harangue. He stood like a tree half in sunshine, half in shade ; gratification strug- gling with displeasure in his countenance, and wonder eclipsing both." But it Avas prudent to leave before the balance was ad- justed, and so they passed to the door. In a moment, the in- stinct of courtesy prevailed, and their host made a sign to one of his retinue. Slaves preceded them with torches, and half the household accompanied them as a guard of honor. Again they traversed the large and straggling house, passed through the gar- den, and entered the carriage, which awaited them beyond the walls. The government of Turkey is an absolute monarchy, or rather, perhaps, theocracy ; for the Sultan is a sort of representative and vicegerent of the Deity. " It is an absolute despotism," says Chateaubriand, " tempered with regicide !" The finances, officers of the court, and government, are all subject to the irresponsible will of the monarch. If his servants offend him, he commands them to be strangled, and thrown into the Bosphorus. The repre- sentatives of the Sultan, the judges, governors, commanders, and so forth, imitate his absolute sway, and do not hesitate to execute their selfish will, whenever they can do so with impunity. They are fond of pomp and show, high-sounding titles, and the slavish deference of the multitude. Some of them have traveled, and possess considerable information. Their manners are occasionally quite dignified and agreeable. Of late years, they treat the " infidel dogs" of Christendom, as they used to call them, with more respect. European dresses have been introduced into the army, and among the government officials ; but the people gener- ally prefer the picturesque costume of their fathers. Most of them, too, are grossly ignorant and fanatical, rejecting all books TUEKEY. 417 extent, of which the following is a pleasant record. A casual acquaintance of his, a sort of conjurer and ventriloquist, of great boldness and ingenuity, much admired in Constantinople, had been applied to, by a wealthy Turk, to assist in the recovery of a ring lost by his favorite wife. He proposed that Mr. De Vere should accompany him as his assistant, resolved, if possible, to make his way into the harem. " We reached at last a gate, which promised little ; but, ere long, we found ourselves in one of those ' high walled gardens, green and old,' which are among the glories of the East. Passing between rows of orange and lemon trees, we reached the house, where we were received by a goodly number of slaves, and conducted, accompanied by our dragoman, through a long suite of apartments. In the last of them stood a tall, handsome, and rather youthful man, in splendid attire, who wel- comed us with a grave courtesy. We took our seats, and were presented, in due form, with long pipes, and with coffee, to me far more acceptable. After a sufficient interval of time had passed for the most meditative and abstracted of men to remember his purpose, our host, reminded of what he had apparently forgotten, by my companion's conjuring robes, an electrical machine, and other instruments of incantation, which the slaves carried from our carriage, civilly inquired when we intended to commence opera- tions. 'What operations?' demanded my companion, with much apparent unconcern. 'The discovery of the ring.' 'Whenever his highness pleased, and it suited the female part of his household to make their appearance,' was the answer. " At this startling proposition, even the Oriental sedateness of our stately host gave way, and he allowed his astonishment and displeasure to become visible. 'Who. ever heard,' he demanded, ' of the wives of a true believer being shown to a stranger, and that stranger an infidel and a Frank ?' As much astonished, in our turn, we demanded, ' when a magician had ever been heard of, who could discover a stolen treasure, without being confronted with the person who had lost, or the person who had appropriated it." After a contest of two hours, our magicians gained the victory, but only through the interposition of a sort of semi-ecclesiastical per- sonage in the family, who declared that being prophets, and not men, an exception might be made in their favor, without violation of the Mussulman law ; not, indeed, to the extent of allowing them to profane the inner sanctuary of the harem with their presence, but so far as to admit them into an apartment adjoining it, where the women would be summoned to attend them. Accordingly, they passed through a long suite of rooms, and at 18* 418 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN". last found themselves in a lofty chamber, fanned by a breeze from the Bosphorus, over which its lattices were suspended, skirted by a low divan, covered with carpets and cushions, and enriched by splendid hangings, through which the light feebly glimmered. Among a confused heap of crimson pillows and orange drapery, at the remote end of the apartment, reclined the mother of the reluctant host. She appeared very aged, and lay there as still as if she had belonged to the vegetable, not the human world. Usually, she was obscured by the smoke of her long pipe ; but when its wreaths grew thin, or floated off, her dark eyes were fixed upon them with an expression half indifferent, and half averse. " Presently a murmur of light feet was heard in an adjoining chamber ; on it moved along the floor of the gallery, and in trooped the company of wives and female slaves. They laughed soft and musically as they entered, but seemed frightened also ; and at once raising their shawls, and drawing down their vails, they glided simultaneously into a semicircle, and stood there with hands folded on their breasts. I sat opposite to them, drinking coffee, and smoking, or pretending to smoke, a pipe eight feet long. At one side stood the mollah, and some male members of the household ; at the other stood the handsome husband, apparently but little contented with the course matters had taken ; and my friend, the magician, moved about among the implements of his art, clad in a black gown, spangled with flame-colored devices, strange enough to strike a bold heart with awe. Beyond the semicircle stood two children, a boy and a girl, holding in their hands twisted rods of barley sugar about a yard long each, which they sucked assidu- ously during the whole time of our visit. There they stood, mute and still as statues, with dark eyes fixed now on us, and now on the extremity of their sugar wands." After going through certain maneuvers and incantations, with which the women were delighted, the magician was asked if he had discovered the guilty party. With the utmost coolness, he replied, " Certainly not ; how could he, while his highness' wives continued vailed ?" This new demand created new confusion, and a new debate. The women appeared to favor the conjurer, and, after a consultation with the mollah and the mother, the husband gave his reluctant consent. In a moment the vails had dropped, and the beauty of many an Eastern nation stood before them revealed. Four were wives, and six^ were slaves. The former were truly beautiful, though in different styles of beauty ; of the latter, two only. All were tall, slender, and dark-eyed, uniting a mystical with a luxurious expression. Their bearing toward each other TUEKET. 423 luxuriously lodged, and every thing is more redolent of Oriental genius than in any other place we have visited. The inhabitants excel in beauty, and especially in clearness and purity of complex- ion. No city is so well supplied with water as Damascus. The Barrada, as it enters the city walls, is artificially divided into six channels, which are made to enrich every house with fountains, and to send life and beauty through all the surrounding vegeta- tion. The streets are narrow but uniformly paved, and have ele- vated walks on both sides for foot passengers. No vehicle of any kind is ever seen, and but few camels or other beasts of burden. The houses are of stone, plastered with a grayish cement ; they are two or three stories in hight, flat-roofed, and their exterior presents only a bare dead wall, relieved here and there by a low unseemly door, and, perhaps, a latticed window. But let us glance at the interior. Coming from the street through an arched passage we find ourselves in an open court, some sixty feet square, flagged with marble set in mosaic. In the center is an elevated reservoir, eight feet by twelve, constantly fed with living water, and shaded by vines, and orange, lemon, and pomegranate trees. The high stone walls which inclose the court are striped with paint in bright tri-colors ; they are indented by spacious matted and divanned alcoves, and pierced with many doors and windows, opening into the various halls and chambers of the house. The principal rooms are planned much like the ancient Greek saloon. The door from the court admits you into a square space some fifteen feet in breadth, paved with marble and inlaid with mother- of-pearl, and having in its center a large perennial marble-inclosed fountain. On three sides of this square, and elevated about two feet above it, are estrades, each nearly as large as the lower area. They are divided from it by arches of beautiful form and work- manship, and are furnished with elegant seats and divans. The windows are either of stained glass, or are festooned with rich curtains. The walls are provided with shelved niches for vases of water, sherbet, and flowers ; and are painted, to a certain hight, in imitation of parti-colored marble, and further up with arabesque tables of flowers, fruits, and emblematic devices. The ceiling, which is at least forty feet above the floor, is paneled and richly pictured in the Eastern style. Every thing is on the most exten- sive scale, an Oriental mansion usually occupying three or four times as much ground as a European. The rent of such a house is only about 1800 piasters, or eighty dollars a year. There are many Jewish families here. The following is a de- scription of the house of one of the richest of these families : Passing from the street through a long vaulted archway, we 424 THE WORLD WE LIVE LN". enter the court, which, as usual, is paved with marble, and orna- mented with fountains and fruit-trees. Here we are received by the family. First, the master of the house, a gentleman about thirty years of age, with keen eyes, light complexion, black beard and mustaches, and attired with a white turban, and a light silk robe, secured by a sash. Next, a young Rebecca of eighteen, with rich brunette complexion, full fair forehead, eyebrows shaven into a perfect circle and colored with kohol, dark, lustrous eyes, and a small yet finely rounded figure. A gay velvet cap, bor- dered with a broad fillet of rose-diamonds, covers her head, and her soft brown hair hangs behind in long braided plaits, each of which is decorated at the extremity by a gold sequin. A green, loose-sleeved silk vest, with its front just open enough to show the silk tunic beneath, reaches down to her waist, which is girded by a beautiful sash. Full trowsers of colored silk, tightly gathered at the ankles, white stockings, and yellow slippers complete her costume. Lastly, the wife of our host, a beautiful lady of some twenty -four years, and an elderly matron, his mother ; both are attired in much the same style as the damsel, but witb^ greater simplicity. We duly make our salaams, and are forthwith ushered into a spacious and elegant saloon. A white linen cushion, lying directly on the floor, borders it on all sides ; on this, according to Eastern usage, we all take, at proper distances, our reclining positions. Such attitudes ! But enough said ! Coffee, sweet- meats, and Turkish pipes are brought, and, through our Arab in- terpreter, we carry on a lively conversation. In due time we take our leave, with all the ceremony Oriental etiquette requires. The Turks consider Damascus as a peculiarly holy city, and re- gard Frank intruders with aversion ; but this feeling is diminishing. There is very little truth or honesty among the people of Damas- cus generally, but more among the Turks than either the Jews or Greeks. In few cities is morality at a lower ebb. Licentiousness abounds every where ; but the Jewish women surpass as much in corruption as in beauty. Among all classes, marriages take place at a very early age, and females are frequently grandmothers at thirty. Yet the population is rather diminishing than increasing. Most illegitimate children are destroyed, and of the others not one out of four survives the mistreatment and neglect of infancy. Few parents have more than one or two children, husbands pre- ferring to spend their means in enjoying themselves, than in sup- porting families. The people pass most of their time smoking in blissful repose in the public gardens, at the coffee-houses, which are built over running streams, and shaded and perfumed by the most beautiful TURKEY. 421 but th« Koran, and cherishing an orthodox horror of printing. Trade, commerce, agriculture — all are in a backward condition. The vigor, enthusiasm, and prosperity of the nation are gone, we fear, forever. The tottering empire of Turkey is preserved only by the political jealousy of the European potentates. Their ex- treme anxiety to preserve "the integrity of the Ottoman empire" — to quote their favorite phrase — proceeds from no love to the Turks, but from regard to their own selfish interests. The Armenians, of whom there are from four to five millions scattered throughout the empire, are nominal Christians, with many superstitions, little religious knowledge, or elevation of character. But a great change for the better has been effected among them, by the efforts, of American missionaries, and the circulation of the Scriptures and other religious books. This, combining with the efforts of the Sultan, Abdul Mejdid, and his more enlightened ministers, to resuscitate the empire, by the introduction of Euro- pean tactics, arts, and sciences, may prepare the way for a religious and moral revolution, and, we hope, transformation in Turkey. For if the European faith, in its simplicity and power, could only be introduced, in connection with other means of civilization, Tur- key might yet be won to the cause of truth, of freedom, and jus- tice. So long, however, as a sensual and effete system of religious belief, like that of Mohammed, which allows polygamy and en- courages sensualism, is retained, with all its peculiarities, in this worn-out kingdom, it will remain stationary among the nations, or, rather, pass more and more rapidly into barbarism and decay. Some of the moral precepts of the Koran are good, and, when rigidly practiced, in ancient times, by the nation, assisted to pre- serve its integrity. The idea, too, of one God is sublime and ele- vating ; but Islamism, with its spirit of formalism and sensuality, contains the elements of its own destruction, and is now producing its legitimate fruits in the acknowledged imbecility of the entire Turkish empire. Turkey boasts the possession of a regular Mohammedan hier- archy, consisting of Imams, and other priests of different grades. The dervises are the monks of Islamism. The most noted of these are the Dancing, and the Shouting or Howling Dervises. The former dance and the others howl with the devoutest energy. The Turkish language is of Tartar origin, and though sonorous, is rough and harsh. Its literature is borrowed chiefly from the Arabian, in which the Koran was written. Indeed, the two lan- guages, as well as literatures, have become remarkably blended. The golden age of Arabic, and consequently of Turkish learning, is passed. Still, the Turks are not without elaborate treatises on 422 THE WORLD WE LIVE ES T . theology, medicine, physics, mathematics, astrology, and so forth. Arabic literature, especially of the middle ages, is rich and various ; though much of it is fanciful and obsolete. Recently newspapers have been introduced into Turkey ; and a few European works have been translated, but they are few and far between. Science and philosophy, in their true sense, may be said scarcely to exist either in Turkey or Arabia. The people are hundreds of years behind Europe. But we must leave Constantinople, and after visiting Smyrna, " infidel Smyrna," as it is called by the Turks, the great commer- cial city of the Greeks, with its motley crowds, and passing hur- riedly through Pergamos, Philadelphia, and other places men- tioned in the Scriptures, in connection with the seven churches of Asia, respecting which the divine predictions have been literally fulfilled, We will prosecute our journey eastward, and entering Syria, penetrate the mountains of Lebanon, with their lofty cedars, occupied partly by the warlike Druses, a wild race, half pagan and half Mohammedan, and the Maronites, a sect of Oriental Chris- tians, addicted to war and other unchristian usages. After this we will cross the country by way of the wilderness east of the Jordan, which rises in the mountains of Lebanon, and make our way to the far-famed and beautiful Damascus, the capital of Syria, and the dwelling-place of many wealthy Jews, as well as Moham- medans, Greeks, and others. Below us is the plain of El Ghota, stretching northward and southward as far as the eye can reach, and bounded on one side by an undulating range of hills, and on the other by the snow- crested ridge of the Anti-Libanus. The plain is but one vast ex- panse of aridity, save where the Barrada shoots through it its flashing waters. In its midst waves a grove twenty miles in circuit, and luxuriant with every tree an Eastern sun can warm into life, from the lowly pomegranate, with its vermilion petals, to the stately palm, with its proudly nodding plumes. The city lies " like a pearl set in emerald," its domes and minarets glistening un- der the noontide sun. Hastening on, we soon pass the city gates, and slowly make our way through streets and bazars, until we finally enter the " street called Straight," of Apostolic memory. Damascus has a population of about 125,000, of which about 12,000 are Syrian Christians, 3000 Jews, and the remainder Mo- hammedans. The city lost, a few years since, quite a fraction of its population by the cholera: no less than 21,000 were swept off in twenty-five days. Here, for the first time, we see genuine Eastern life, uncontaminated by contact with Europeans. The bazars are richer, the people are more picturesquely attired and PALESTINE AND ARABIA. 427 there is the brook Kedron, and yonder the Mount of Olives, and above us the same calm, deep sky which heard our Redeemer's prayer. Entering the city, we wander from point to point, visit the spots assigned by tradition to the principal events in our Sa- vior's closing history, Calvary, and the Holy Sepulcher. These anciently were beyond the city, now they are in the heart of it ; but while this occasions doubt, we do not forget that the city has changed its location somewhat, having actually gathered around these points of interest. But the exact localities, perhaps, are of little consequence. Somewhere on these rocky eminences Jesus Christ, the Savior of men, was crucified and buried. The place is hallowed, and though defiled by absurd superstitions, will ever- more awaken the reverence and affection of all Christian pilgrims. Visitors to Jerusalem will naturally feel themselves attracted toward the site of the ancient temple ; few, however, have ever been permitted to examine the premises, now occupied by the two principal Mohammedan mosques, Omar and Aksa. The fol- lowing letter from Mr. Catherwood, addressed to Mr. Bartlett, gives all the information respecting this interesting subject which could be desired. " Dear Sir — You have asked for some account of my visit to the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, and the ground surrounding it, occupied formerly by the Temple of Solomon. You also request my opinion on several points connected with its topography. I was at Jerusalem in 1833, in company with my friends, Messrs. Bonomi and Arundale ; and having so often looked upon the in- teresting buildings which now occupy this celebrated spot, I felt irresistibly urged to make an attempt to explore them. I had heard, that for merely entering the outer court, without venturing within the mosque, several unfortunate Franks had been put to death ; and you may therefore conceive the attempt was somewhat rash. However, there were many circumstances in my favor. It was the period of the rule of Mehemet Ali in Syria ; and the Governor of Jerusalem, with whom I was on good terms, was a latitudinarian as to Mohammedanism. I had brought with me a strong firman, expressly naming me as an engineer in the service of his highness. I had adopted the usual dress of an Egyptian officer, and was accompanied by a servant possessed of great courage and assurance. This man had strongly urged me to the experiment ; and at last, notwithstanding the remonstrances of my friends, I entered the area one morning with an indifferent air, and proceeded to survey, but not too curiously, the many objects of interest it presents. As I was about to enter into the mosque, 428 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. however, I caught sight of one of the guardian dervises, who are in the habit of conducting pilgrims around it. This man made toward me, in the hope of a better donation than usual. As I was not prepared to go through the requisite ceremonial with this de- vout guide, I thought it prudent to retreat, as if accidentally, from his alarming neighborhood, and quietly left the area, without having attracted the least notice. The success of my first attempt induced me to make a second visit the following day. I determined to take with me my camera lucida, and make a drawing — a proceeding certain to attract the attention of the most indifferent, and expose me to dangerous consequences. The cool assurance of my servant at once befriended and led me on. We entered, and, arranging the camera, I quickly sat down to my work, not without some nervousness, as I perceived the Mussulmen, from time to time, mark me with doubtful looks. However, most of them passed on, deceived by my dress, and the quiet indifference with which I re- garded them. At length some, more fanatic than the rest, began to think all could not be right. They gathered at a distance in groups, suspiciously eyeing me, and comparing notes with one another. A storm was evidently gathering. They approached, broke into sudden clamor, and, surrounding* us, uttered loud curses. Their numbers increased most alarmingly, and, with their numbers, their menacing language and gestures. Escape was hopeless. I was completely surrounded by a mob of two hundred people, who seemed screwing up their courage for a sudden rush upon me. I need not tell you what would have been my fate. Nothing could be better than the conduct of Suleyman, my ser- vant, at this crisis. Affecting vast indignation at the interruption, he threatened to inform the governor, out-hectored the most clam- orous, and, raising his whip, actually commenced a summary attack upon them, and knocked off the cap of one of the holy der- vises. This brought matters to a crisis, and I believe few minutes would have passed ere we had been torn in pieces, when an inci- dent occurred that converted our danger and discomfiture into positive triumph. This was the sudden appearance of the governor on the steps of the platform, accompanied by his usual train. Catching sight of him, the foremost — those who had been disgraced by the blows of Suleyman — rushed tumultuously up to him, de- manding the punishment of the infidel who was profaning the holy precincts, and horsewhipping the true believers. At this the governor drew near ; and as we had often smoked together, and were well acquainted, he saluted me politely ; and supposing it to be beyond the reach of possibility that I could venture to do what I was about without warrant from the Pasha, he at once applied PALESTINE AND AEABIA. 425 fruit-trees. " If, according to the Mohammedan idea, ethereal skies, aromatic airs, luxuriant foliage, delicious fruits, sparkling waters, melodious birds, and beautiful women, make a paradise, Damascus is an earthly elysium." We should be glad to visit other places of renown in Syria, especially those venerable for their ruins. But Palestine and Arabia attract us more powerfully. So leaving Damascus, we pass westward toward the sea of Tiberias, or lake of Genesareth, lying peacefully, like the lake of Geneva, amid a coronet of mountains, over whose summits once trod " the Son of the High- est," accompanied by his chosen disciples. The Jordan issues from the southern extremity of the lake, and pursues a nearly direct course through the valley of the Jordan, till it loses its waters in the dreary depths of the Dead Sea. Passing southward, we travel to " the Holy City," through a beautiful but mountain- ous country, clothed in the luxuriant verdure of " the Judean summer." CHAPTER XXXI. PALESTINE AND ARABIA. The garish sun is dropping behind the hills of Ephraim, when ascending from the village of Bethany, once the residence of Laz- arus and his sisters, Martha and Mary, we gain the summit of the Mount of Olives, and, lo ! Jerusalem, " beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole land," lies before us, bathed in the mellow light of departing day, though the valleys and lower parts of the city are already covered with the shadows of twilight. Yonder tower the magnificent domes of the Mosque of Omar on the hights of Mount Moriah, where formerly stood that glorious temple, to which turned, in the hour of Jewish devotion, so many hearts and eyes. To the left, separated from it by the valley of Tyropoeon, is Mount Zion, formerly the most splendid part of the city, con- taining the. palace of its greatest monarch, but now narrowed by the wall, and containing, as its most remarkable object, the plain building of the Armenian convent. On the northwest is the hill of Akra, the handsomest part of the town. On its crest stands the Latin convent, and on its steep declivity, to the southeast, the Greek convent, adjoining the church of the Holy Sepulcher. As 426 THE WORLD WE LITE EST. a whole, the city has a singular and rather gloomy look, although lighted in its higher portions, and on its domes, minarets, and spires, at this hour of sunset, with the faint radiance of departing day. All is still ; for the city, unlike those which are filled with the tumult of life, sends up no cheerful hum into the busy air. Yet a holy grandeur and solemnity brood over the place, a strange, unworldly fascination, from the august and thrilling recollections with which it is associated. We descend into the valley of Je- Jerusalem. hoshaphat, through which passes the brook Kedron, and where stand the tombs of the prophets, the tomb of Absalom, of Mary, and many others, and find ourselves under the shadow of the old olive-trees in the Garden of Gethsemane, old beyond the memory of man, and if not the identical trees under which our Savior prayed in agony, occupying the same sacred spot. But the olive- tree is exceedingly tenacious of life, and will last, it is affirmed, hundreds of years ; but no matter, the locality is the same, for PALESTINE AND AEABIA. 431 rately carved, although concealed from sight. Under this dome is a remarkable limestone rock ; it occupies, with its irregular form, the greater part of the area beneath, and is surrounded by a gilt iron railing, to keep it from the touch of the numerous pil- grims. It appears to be the natural surface of the rock of Mount Moriah ; in a few places there are marks of chiseling. Over this hangs a time-worn crimson silk canopy. At the southeast corner of this rock there is an excavated chamber, called by the Moham- medans the Noble Cave, to which there is a descent by a flight of stone steps. This chamber is irregular in form, and its superficial area is about six hundred feet, the average night seven feet ; it, derives a peculiar sanctity from having been, successively (accord- ing to Mohammedan tradition), the praying-place of Abraham, David, Solomon, and Jesus ; its surface is quite plain, and in it are a few small altars. In the center of the rocky pavement is a cir- cular slab of marble, which, being struck, returns a hollow sound, clearly showing that there is a well or excavation beneath ; this is called by the Mohammedans Bir Arruah, the Well of Souls, — of the wicked, we must suppose, this being the entrance to the Mohammedan hell. I was gravely informed that this well was opened until about forty years since, and up to that period was frequented by those who were desirous of holding converse with the souls of the departed confined below ; but that a certain widow, who was more than ordinarily curious and com- municative, carried such intelligence from the living to the dead, and from the dead to the living, as to disturb the peace of many families in the city, and cause such commotion below, that the noise getting too outrageous, the well had to be closed to prevent further mischief-making. The corridors of the mosque are airy, light, and elegant, and the sun, streaming through the richly stained glass windows, casts a thousand varied dyes upon the richly decorated walls and marble pavement. In striking con- trast to this is the somber and impressive appearance of the dome ; the eye in vain strives to pierce its gloom, to unravel its maze of rich arabesque ornaments, and read its lengthened inscriptions, drawn from the Koran. In perfect keeping are the groups of pilgrims and devout Mussulmen from all parts of the Mohamme- dan world, from India to Morocco. Their picturesque variety of dress and feature, their deeply devout deportment, as, headed by dervises in green robes and high conical caps, they silently pros- trate themselves in prayer, thankful to have attained the term of their weary pilgrimage, are very striking. One in particular, with whom I conversed, a native of British India, had walked from Calcutta, across Persia and Arabia, employing in the jour- 432 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. ney three long years ; he had been about two months in the Holy City, and was on the point of retracing his steps, satisfied with his title of Hadji, and of being on the road to Paradise. Through- out the mosque are many objects of traditional reverence pertain- ing to Mohammed Ali, the Kaliph Omar, Fatima, and other Mo- hammedan saints, too tedious to enumerate. Suffice it to say, that, after the ' Caaba' at Mecca, the ' Sakhara' (in Jerusalem) is the most venerated place of Mohammedan devotion. Proceeding southward from the platform of the Mosque of Omar, across a paved footway, shaded by venerable cypresses, at the distance of three hundred and fifty feet, we reached the porch of the Mosque El Aksa, which occupies the remaining space of two hundred and eighty feet, extending to the southern wall of the great inclosure. It consists of a nave and six side aisles, of a mixed architecture, the entire breadth being one hundred and eighty feet. The col- umns and piers are very irregular in size, material, and architectu- ral character, some being evidently Roman, and others Saracenic. At the southern extremity is a beautiful dome, under which stands the gallery for the singers, and an elaborately carved pulpit. At- tached to the southwest angle of the building is the Mosque of our Lord, Abu Bekr. This mosque is upward of two hundred feet in length, and fifty-five in breadth. Down the center is a row of eight piers, from which arches cross to the sides. At right angles with this is the Mosque of the Mogrebbins, two hundred feet in length, of no particular character. At the opposite end of the edifice, on the edge of the wall, is the small Mosque of Omar, eighty-five feet in length. Attached to this mosque is one still smaller, called that of the Forty Prophets. The mass of build- ings projecting at the back, beyond the wall of the great inclo- sure, are merely offices connected with the mosque. " The interior of this extensive building, like the Mosque of Omar, abounds in traditionary objects. Its distinguishing peculiarity is a large inclosure for the devotion of Mohammedan women, who are not, on any account, permitted to enter the principal mosque. Like the Mosque of Omar, this also has its well. The entrance to the ancient gateway, existing iinder the mosque, is beneath the archway immediately to the left of the main entrance, by a flight of stone steps. This gateway is apparently of the same age and style as the Golden Gateway ; it is two hundred and eighty feet in length, and by means of steps and an inclined plane, the road- way through it ascends from the southern entrance to the level of the area. " Beneath the dome, at the southeast angle of the Temple wall, conspicuous from all points, is a small subterranean mosque, or PALESTINE AND AEABIA. 429 himself to cool the rage of the mob. ' You see, my friends,' he said, ' that our holy mosque is in a dilapidated state ; and no doubt our lord and master, Mehemet Ali, has sent this effendi to survey it, in order to its complete repair. If we are unable to do these things for ourselves, it is right to employ those who can ; and such being the will of our lord, the Pasha, I require you to disperse, and not incur my displeasure by any further interruption ;' and turning to me, he said, in the hearing of them all, that if any one had the hardihood to disturb me in future, he would deal in a summary manner with him. I did not, of course, think it neces- sary to undeceive the worthy governor, and, gravely thanking him, proceeded with my drawing. All went on quietly after this. " During six weeks, I continued to investigate every part of the mosque and its precincts, introducing my astonished companions as necessary assistants in the work of survey ; but when I heard of the near approach of Ibrahim Pasha, I thought it was time to take leave of Jerusalem. The day after my departure he entered, and, as it happened, several English travelers of distinction entered at the same time. Anxious to see the mosque, they asked per- mission of Ibrahim, whose answer was characteristic of the man, to the purport that they were welcome to go if they liked, but he would not insure their safe return, and that he would not ven- ture to outrage the feelings of the Mussulmen by sending an escort with them. Here he was met with the story of my recent visit. He said it was impossible. The dervises were summoned, the governor was summoned, and an eclaircissement took place which must have been a scene of no small amusement. " It was more than simple curiosity that urged this rash attempt, and its fortunate issue enabled me, with my associates, to make a complete and scientific survey of the mosque, vaults, gateways, and other objects comprised within the extent of the area. These, I hope, at some future period, will be published. In the mean time, I gladly present you with a few brief notes for your intended publication. " The principal entrance- to the area is through the deserted bazar, on its west side. There are also three other entrances on the same side, and two from the north. In going from the gate- way to the mosque, a distance of one hundred and fifty feet, several praying-places of the Mohammedans are passed, with one or two elegant fountains, surmounted by beautiful cupolas, overshadowed with cypress and palm trees. The great platform is, in general, about fifteen or sixteen feet above the area, and is reached by three flights of stairs on the western side, above which are elegant pointed archways, probably of the same age as the mosque. Of 430 THE WOELD "WE LIVE EST. these are also on the north side two, on the south side two, and on the east side one. At various intervals between these are apartments, under and attached to the platform, appropriated to the poorest class of the Mohammedan pilgrims, who are lodged and fed gratuitously from the funds of the mosque. One portion of these is devoted to black pilgrims from Africa. The extensive platform is four hundred and fifty feet from east to west, and five hundred and fifty feet from north to south, paved in part with marble. On it are several elegant praying- places — one especially, said to have been used by Fatima, the daughter of the prophet ; and on the south side, attached to the external parapet, is a sump- tuous and highly wrought pulpit, of the richest materials. On the east side, within a few feet of the mosque, is a building resem- bling a fountain, composed of columns and arches, with a praying- place pointing toward Mecca, and which, according to their tradi- tion, was the judgment-seat of King David. " The great Mosque of Omar, which stands on the platform, is octagonal in form, each side measuring sixty-seven feet. The lower division of the wall is composed of various colored marbles, arranged in elegant and intricate patterns. The remaining portion is pierced with fifty-six pointed windows, filled with the most beautiful stained glass imaginable ; perhaps of greater brilliancy than the finest specimens in our own cathedrals. The piers sepa- rating the windows are externally decorated with glazed tiles of bright colors and various patterns, which is also the case with the circular wall supporting the dome. The double dome, of pecu- liarly elegant form, is covered with lead, surmounted by a tall gilt crescent. Four doors give entrance to the mosque, opposite to the cardinal points. Of these, the southern is the principal, hav- ing a porch supported by marble columns. A narrow corridor, about thirteen feet wide, runs around the entire building inside, having eight piers and sixteen Corinthian marble columns, which, I suppose, have belonged to some ancient Roman buildings. The second corridor, which also runs around the building, is about thirty feet in breadth. The interior diameter of it is ninety-eight feet. The dome is sixty-six feet in diameter, supported by four massive stone piers, and twelve ancient Corinthian marble columns, also supposed to have formed part of the Jewish or Pagan temple formerly existing on the site. " These are connected by arches, from which springs the circu- lar wall supporting the dome ; the interior of the wall, and the dome itself, are ornamented in gilt, in the arabesque style, such as prevails in the Alhambra. This dome, which is of very an- cient date, is composed of wood- work ; portions of it are elabo- PALESTINE AND ARABIA. 433 place of prayer, forming the entrance to the extensive vaults which support the level platform of the mosque above. It may- be presumed that the whole of the eastern side of the platform is so supported, but the only part accessible is immediately beneath the southeast angle. Here are fifteen rows of square pillars, from which spring arches supporting the platform. The spaces between the arches are of irregular dimensions. The roots of the olive-trees above have struck through the arches, and in some in- stances taken root again below. The ground rises rapidly from the southeast toward the north and west, so that the hight of the southern arches is thirty-five feet, while the northern ones are but ten. " The whole substructure appears to me of Roman origin, and in connection with the Golden Gate, and the one beneath the El Aksa, together with the ancient bridge, to have formed a connected plan of foundations and approaches to the great Temple of Herod. " At the southern end of the chapel are four columns, support- ing a small dome, under which is a stone sarcophagus in the Ro- man style of workmanship, called by the Mohammedans, 'the Tomb of our Lord Issa,' or Jesus. This is an object of great veneration to Mohammedans. " I pass on to consider the questions you submit : they may be stated as follows : " 1st. Is the ground occupied by the Mohammedan places of worship, with their inclosures and courts, generally identical with that of the ancient temple, its courts, and porticoes ? " 2d. Is the masonry of large stones in the wall, and the springing stones of an arch in the western wall, at the southwest angle, of higher antiquity than the time of Herod ? " In regard to the first question, I believe all who have written on the subject are of the same opinion, viz., that the two Moham- medan mosques occupy the site of the Temple of Solomon and its courts. It is the only level space of ground, and in all respects corresponds with the scriptural accounts within the city, and those of more recent date. " The extent occupied by the old temple and its courts and porticoes, it appears to me, ought rather to be gathered from cer- tain peculiarities in the ground itself at present existing, than from the account of Josephus, who states that the area of the temple was square, which does not at all agree with the present boundaries. " The lower courses of the masonry of ancient walls exist on the east, south, and west sides of tfc*- freat inclosure for nearly :% 434 THE WOELD WE LIVE EST. its whole length and breadth, and on the north side is distinguished by a wall on the brink of a deep trench, and at the northwest inner angle by the rock being cut perpendicularly to an extent of twenty feet in some parts. "The length of the east wall is 1520 feet, of the south wall, 940 feet, of the west wall, 1617 feet, and of the north, 1020 feet, and the wall stands at right angles only at one point, the southwest corner. Consequently, speaking mathematically, the area of the temple could never have been square : this is suppos- ing always that the old east, south, and southwest walls occupied the direction of the present ones. " The site occupied by the temple was originally called Mount Moriah, and declined steeply from the northwest to the southeast ; and in order to render it applicable for the building of a magnifi- cent temple, it was necessary to cut away a considerable portion of the rock at the northwest, and to raise the ground at the south- east angle. Both of these works still exist, and in perfect preserva- tion. " I consider it likely that the present area corresponds very nearly with the ancient one ; that the fortress and tower of An- tonia stood entirely without the present inclosure ; that the Mosque of Omar occupies the position of the Holy of Holies of Solomon's Temple, and that the Hagara Sakhara was the foundation rock on which it stood. " Such is a brief sketch of the most important objects within the inclosure of the 'Haram,' a spot now impossible to enter, and which my peculiar good fortune enabled me to explore. I pre- sent it in the hope that it may add to the interest of your work. " I remain, dear sir, yours truly, "F. Catherwood." While in Jerusalem, our attention is called to the condition of the Jews, the ancient possessors of the soil, and still the most natural and appropriate inhabitants of Palestine. As this country, however, is poor, the Jews, who are found in the great centers of business, are not attracted hither in any great numbers. Those resident here are generally poor, and without enterprise. Many of them are aged, and a few, members of the different synagogues, or theological schools, are somewhat learned, especially in Rab- binical lore. It is stated, on good authority, that while the Mo- hammedans are diminishing in numbers, the Jews are increasing, in Palestine. i Many come to the country when advanced in life, in order to lay their bones beside the tombs of patriarchs and pro- phets. Jerusalem and its environs, especially, are to them holy PALESTINE AND AEABIA. 435 ground. But the Jews of other countries are more numerous and wealthy. They number, in all, something over six millions : in Poland, one million ; in the Russian empire, two millions ; in Ger- many, seven hundred and fifty thousand ; in the Low Countries, ninety thousand ; in France, seventy-five thousand ; in England, sixty thousand ; in Italy, two hundred thousand ; in North and South America, from one to two hundred thousand ; in the Mo- hammedan States of Europe, Asia, and Africa, three millions ;' in Persia, China, and Hindostan one million. In the Mohammedan countries, the condition of the Jews has, of late, been much improved. The civil disabilities under which they labored for centuries have been removed, by the liberality of the present Sultan. Indeed, the Jews are rising, in wealth, intel- ligence, and influence, in nearly all parts of the world. Many of them are well educated and highly intelligent. They speak sev- eral languages, and evince talent and energy. To a certain extent, they are the bankers of Europe. They have their share of influ- ence in politics and literature. Neander, the great church his- torian, was a Jew. Many other distinguished professors in the German universities are Jews. Marshal Soult was a Jew ; so was Massena (originally Manasseh). Count Arnim of Prussia belongs to the same nation. Some of the great musical composers and singers are Hebrews, or descendants of Hebrews, mingled, perhaps, with German or Slavonian blood. Among these, Rossini, Meyer- beer, and Mendelsohn, are well known. Pasta and Grisi are among " the sweet singers" of the modern Israel. The Herschels, we presume, are of Jewish descent ; and the D 'Israelis, father and son, distinguished in literature and politics, boast their Hebrew origin. But before us roll the waters of the Jordan, which we will cross at the place where the pilgrims, some of them from distant lands, are accustomed to bathe, in memory of our Savior's baptism. Of this interesting locality, the following animated description is given by Lewis Koeppen, a German traveler : " Though the heat was overpowering, we quickened our course, and in an hour and a half reached the ruinous monastery of St. John, situated on the upper banks of the Jordan, due east of Jericho. This large and wealthy convent was built before the sixth century, in commemoration of the place where, according to tradition, our Savior was baptized by St. John. Thousands of pilgrims, through the course of the Middle Ages, repaired to the hallowed spot, and bathed in the Jordan. The convent was then inhabited by Greek Kalogeri. It withstood all the storms and vicissitudes of the crusading wars, but was burned and demolished 436 THE "WORLD WE LIVE IN. by the Miamelukes in the fifteenth century, and now only a few relics of the outer walls are standing on the high brink overlooking the lower valley of the river. We here descended some thirty or forty feet to the outer bank, covered with straggling poplars, wil- lows, tamarisks, and the fragrant rishrash, or vitex agnus castus, more and more condensing as we approached the river, and at last forming a thick and almost impenetrable wood on its margin, where we dismounted. This lower border of the river, according to the observations of Professor Russegffer, lies 1269 Paris feet below the level of the Mediterranean ; and here the Latin pilgrims cele- brate their mass and bathe on the Tuesday of the Holy Week, while the Greeks and Armenians move further down toward the Dead Sea. " The Jordan has here a breadth of from eighty to one hundred feet. Its depth was said to be twelve feet, and the nearest ford lies four miles north above Jericho. The current was silent but rapid, and filled the immediate banks to the very brim. In order to facilitate and secure the access to the river, the nearest trees had been felled, and the trunks laid across, forming a causeway which proved dangerous to pass on horseback, but was commodious for the pilgrims, who might thus fearlessly approach to the edge of the stream. " I felt singularly pleased on finding myself so suddenly reposing in the shade of a fine thick-set forest of high-grown, magnificent trees, of the most refreshing verdure, whose boughs projected far over the river, or bathed in its waters, while I formerly had sup- posed, according to the relations of Chateaubriand, and other trav- elers, that the banks of the Jordan were either sandy and bare, or beset only with reeds and copse. Still the days of Josephus are no more, when beautiful groves of palm-trees ' covered the banks of the holy river, and were the more luxuriant and frugif- erous the nearer they grew to the water.' All the palm -groves are now vanished ; they have suffered the same fate with the cities of the plain, having been thrown down and destroyed during the wars, or neglected during the long abandonment of this unhappy region to the roving and lawless tribes of the desert. In the whole wide plain, only one single palm-tree rears its melancholy crown over the miserable huts of the modern Jericho. " The grove consists of poplars, tamarisks, and many fine south- ern trees, which were unknown to me. Creepers, swinging from one tree to another, formed a dense hedge along the river-side, above which, at the distance of five miles, rose the violet mount- ains of El Belka. This wood-scenery, skirting the borders of the Jordan all along the Ghor, was a remarkable feature, particularly PALESTINE AND ARABIA. 437 interesting to our American friends, as it reminded them of the still more extensive and impenetrable forests on the banks of their native rivers. The picturesque nerium oleander, by the Arabs called dejle, with its rosy flowers embellishing all the valleys and water-courses of the Lebanon, we sought for in vain, though other travelers have seen it higher up the river, toward the Lake of Tiberias. The heavy showers of the preceding days had occa- sioned a transient overflowing of the river, which was still visible by the deep loamy mud covering the dike and the lower parts of the adjoining wood. Through this we waded cautiously to the edge of the stream, and filled our leather buckets in the river. It had a yellow, clayish color, and did not seem very inviting ; but the water was cool and exceedingly refreshing after the sufferings of the day. Our company now dispersed in the wood, and sev- eral pilgrims went deeper into the thicket, to bathe in the river. " When Joshua, at the time of harvest, led the army of the Hebrews across the Jordan, the river was full to its banks, such as we found it now. Whether the passage of the Israelites took place four or five miles higher up at the ford, as some authors have supposed, or at this spot, " right against Jericho," as the Scriptures say, does not diminish the deep interest which the wanderer needs must take near the spot celebrated by an event of so great importance in remote antiquity. The Christian tradition has transferred the baptism of our Savior to this place, though John the Evangelist says that " it was done at Bethabara, beyond Jordan, where John was baptizing." From the earliest times of Christianity, therefore, it has been visited by the pilgrims, and in the seventh century a church was built, and the twelve stones erected, four miles from the river, toward Jericho, on the ruins of the ancient Gilgal, where the Israelites, after their passage, pitched their camp in the land of Canaan." We have not time to stay long by the Dead Sea, which we have reached, interesting as it is, both in itself, and in its associations. How lone and desolate it appears, yet how grand and imposing, surrounded by huge and time-scarred rocks, and possessing a gloomy sublimity, from its solitude and depth ! Here and there, on its bosom, float large masses of bitumen. Its waters are salt and brackish, and of great buoyancy. On the shores are found, in particular places, masses of salt ; and in one spot among the rocks, a high pyramidal column of this material, white and daz- zling, which some call the pillar of Lot's wife. The region around is scathed and scarred, and one can easily conceive that it must have been the scene of tremendous geological convulsions. Where now is the Vale of Siddini, if not submerged beneath these deep, dark 438 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. "waves?* Where are the cities of the plain? and where their guilty and deluded inhabitants ? The wandering Bedouin may be seen occasionally prowling among the rocks ; but even he dreads the place, as one of calamity and fear. ARABIA. But we must pass on. The " waste, howling wilderness" is before us, dry and scorching, the scene of silence and desolation that can be felt. We are traveling through the Wady Mousa, which runs south- ward, as if it had anciently been the channel of the Jordan, barren and dreary ; the hot sun pouring upon us by day, and the calm, brilliant night of the Orient wrapping us in its gorgeous beauty by night. The camel, appropriately styled " the ship of the desert," with attendant Arabs, are our guides through regions which, though barren, seem to be their natural home. Both seem made expressly for the desert ; the descendant of Ishmael, as well as his patient, ever-faithful camel, being the proper tenants of these sandy climes. The camels are the special gift of God to Arabia. The poor creatures are capable of great endurance, and find sustenance on the rough and scanty herbage growing here and there amid the rocks and sands. After visiting Petra, the singular and once beautiful capital of Idumea, or Edom, hewn in lofty walls, pillars, and parapets from the solid rock, but now, in strict conformity with the predictions of the prophet, a lonely ruin, we turn westward, and after crossing the Red Sea, pass into the heart of that unchanging desert, which lies between Egypt and the Red Sea, in which wandered of old * This is decisively confirmed by the testimony of Captain Lynch, of the United States Exploring Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. " The inference from the Bible, that this entire chasm was a plain sunk and ' overwhelmed' by the wrath of God, seems to be sustained by the extraordi- nary character of our soundings. The bottom of the sea consists of two submerged plains, an elevated and a depressed one ; the last averaging thirteen, the former about thirteen hundred, feet below the surface. Through the northern, and largest, and deepest one, in a line corresponding with the bed of the Jordan, is a ravine, which again seems to correspond with the Wady el-Jeib, or ravine within a ravine, at the south end of the sea. * * * * All our observations have impressed us forcibly with the conviction, that the mountains are older than the sea." — '■'■Expedition" pp. 378-880. PALESTINE AND AEABIA. 439 Arabian Scene. PALESTINE AND AEABIA. 441 the children of Israel. After passing under the frowning sum- mits of Sinai, which rise, in desolate grandeur, in the depths of the wilderness, we turn once more to the north, and after travel- ing slowly for several days, find ourselves in the holiest of all the cities of the Mohammedans, the " sun-bright Mecca," with its in- numerable pilgrims, of almost every nation, character, and cos- tume, its ancient, though by no means beautiful or imposing Kaaba, or sacred shrine, inclosing a black stone, the great object of Mo- hammedan devotion. The Kaaba, or Holy House, which occu- pies the center of a more recently constructed temple, lays claim to an - antiquity superior to that even of Islamism itself. It is probably spoken of by Diodorus Siculus, as held in superior sanc- tity by all Arabians. In the second century Maximus Tyrius attributes to the Arabs the worship of a stone ; and this, if not identical with, is yet analogous to the " black stone" of Mecca, the worship of which, as Gibbon remarks, is deeply tainted with its idolatrous origin. The Kaaba, which was all but rebuilt in 1627, after having suffered severe injury from fire, is an oblong, massive structure, eighteen paces in length, fourteen in breadth, and from thirty-five to forty feet in hight, its door being encased with silver, and adorned with gold ornaments. At the northeast cor- ner, near the door, is the celebrated " Black Stone," obligingly brought by the angel Gabriel as his contribution to the building, forming part of a sharp angle of the structure, four or five feet from the ground. It is oval-shaped, seven inches in diameter, of a dark-brown color, somewhat resembling lava, and surrounded by a border of cement and silver, to prevent its being worn away by the kisses and touches of innumerable pilgrims. It is supposed by scientific men to be one of those meteoric stones, composed chiefly of nickel and earthy matter, which have fallen in various parts of the world. Around the building runs a broad marble pavement. The four sides of the Kaaba are covered with a cur- tain of embroidered black silk stuffs, called the Kesona, annually brought from Cairo, at the time of the great pilgrimage, and re- newed with some preposterous and not very decorous ceremonies. The Holy Fountain of Zem-zem, claimed by the Arabians to be the same as that found by Hagar in the wilderness, which sup- plies the city with water for drinking and ablution, its use for other purposes being forbidden, is inclosed in a substantial stone building, with marble basins for ablution, and a room appropriated for pilgrims, who come hither in crowds to drink its mystic, soul- saving waters. Learning, science, and religion, they say, once flourished in this sacred city, but it is now more peculiarly distinguished than any 19* 442 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. other Arabian town for ignorance, intemperance, and irreligion. While the people are well versed in the precepts of the Koran, and ape the manners of the early Mohammedans, they indulge in levity and vice. In this respect " the holy city" is most unholy ; and nothing more strikingly demonstrates the decline of Moham- medan greatness. The Arabians, though preserving wonderfully their ancient manners, and evincing some noble traits, like our American Indians, are, generally speaking, a degraded people. Their ancient glory has passed away. Once the most learned as well as victorious nation in the world, commanding the commerce of the East, and renowned for their accomplishments and virtues, they have fallen into ignorance and imbecility. The Arabs of the towns, however, differ essentially from the Arabs of the wilder- ness. The latter are said to be the only true descendants of Ish- mael, and, in all ages, have preserved their native independence. They occupy the desert, in whose boundless wastes they love to roam, " their hand against every man, and every man's hand against them." They preserve the patriarchal form of govern- ment of chiefs, similar to that which prevailed in the days of Abraham and Ishmael. Their wealth consists in their horses and camels ; we may add, perhaps, their wives, for the latter are rather slaves than companions, every where being " hewers of wood and drawers of water" to their liege lords. The genuine Bedouin Arab has a stately port, especially on horseback, though excessively lank and grim, with sallow com- plexion, dark eyes, and long hair. The older chiefs, with their white hair and flowing beards, are quite venerable in their appear- ance, and command the universal respect of their followers. They live in tents, despising the ease and indolence of cities. Generous and courtly in their manners, they are yet cruel and even malig- nant in their resentments. A single word of implied or expressed contempt, from friend or foe, is often followed by a deadly blow. Family feuds are kept up with steady vengeance. According to the Koran (Chap. II. p. 20), whoever sheds blood owes blood to the family of the slain. A commutation, however, may be made. If this be not accepted, retaliation is then allowed to the injured family. But as this usually exceeds the offense, new cause of hatred and revenge is given, till a single murder, perhaps, " puts blood," in Arabian phrase, between families forever. A slighting expression or sarcasm, however, is sufficient to put blood between two families, and give rise to a long series of revengeful acts. Niebuhr relates that a noble Arab being asked scoffingly if he were the father of the handsome wife of a person named, con- strued the question into a sneer upon his daughter's virtue. PALESTINE AND ARABIA. 443 Being unarmed at the moment, the offender escaped ; and the father spent years in vainly pursuing him, during which, however, he killed both the parents and many relations of the scoffer, his slaves, his cattle, and reduced him to the verge of beggary. The offence was at last commuted by an enormous fine. Robbery is regarded by the Arab as a legitimate and honorable business, as marauding and "cattle lifting" (stealing) used to be by the Highlanders of Scotland. The territory he regards as his own, and every thing on it, or which comes on it, as his lawful prey. His robberies are seldom attended with violence, except in the case of forcible resistance. It is " tribute" simply, he is after, and if that is paid all is well. If the right is recognized, and a bargain duly made, the permission which he then gives to pass through his territory is never violated ; strict faith being one of the best, as deadly revenge is one of the worst traits in his char- acter. Hospitality is one of the chief virtues of the Arabians. This once given, the welfare of his guest becomes his own. He will divide with him his last piece of bread, his last bowl of milk ; nay, he will expose himself to danger and death for the protection of his guest or friend. Respect to parents, reverence for the aged, kindness to the poor, are common virtues among the Arabs ; but hatred of ene- mies, the love of plunder, and of " bucksheesh" (gift-money), es- pecially among the Bedouins, excessive superstition, and contempt for women, are equally common. The Arabian is grave in his demeanor, but lively in his imagi- nation. His language is animated and picturesque. He is fond of j)oetry and song. One of the chief amusements is listening to the recitations or songs of wandering bards, usually in praise of some popular hero, accompanied with the JVebaba, a sort of guitar. Love odes, resembling those of the ancient Provencals or Trouba- dours, are in every mouth. Dancing is reckoned disgraceful to a man, but a woman piques herself on her skill in this " light" art, and trips it off, on the " fantastic toe," with amazing agility. The people generally are fond of public meetings, weddings, and other occasions of a similar character. Marriages and circumcisions (Mohammedan christenings, if the term may be allowed) are occa- sions of festivity. In the desert the latter ceremony is so arranged that all who have families may perform it at the same time, so that it becomes a season of general rejoicing. The inhabitants of the towns and more agricultural districts of Arabia differ considerably from the Bedouins. Some of them are wealthy, and even intelligent. The mass of the people are less 444 THE WOELD WE LIVE EN". virtuous than tne occupants -of the desert. The cultivated spots of Arabia, which is generally rocky, the green oases of the desert, with their wells and palm-trees, and the productive regions of the south, are very fertile and beautiful. The whole population is supposed to amount to about twelve millions ; but the nomadic habits of most of the people make it difficult to estimate their real number. Without reckoning the Bedouin tribes, the number of which can hardly be ascertained, the settled parts of Arabia are divided into a great many independent governments. The Sultan of Turkey and the Pasha of Egypt exert a controlling influence in the country. The holy cities are nominally tinder the protec- tion of the Porte, but the Hedjaz and the desert of Sinai belong to Egypt. Mosques and school-houses are common in all the settled parts of the country, but no provision is made for the edu- cation of females. Owing to its position, the commerce of Arabia is very consid- erable. It is one, however, chiefly of transit. The pilgrimages are made subservient to purposes of trade. With the exception of coffee, and a few other articles of inferior consequence, Arabia has little to export. Great quantities of commodities, however, from foreign countries are brought to Djedda, Mecca, Muscat, the great centers of Arabian trade, partly by caravans, but chiefly by ships, and there sold to the pilgrims and merchants, and by them distributed, by sea or land, as the case may be. The slave-trade is carried on with considerable energy, particularly in Yemen and Muscat. Greek and Syrian female slaves are found for sale in the bazars. Emancipation, however, is quite common, and great numbers, especially of Abyssinian slaves, are incorporated in the families of the Arabs. Free or emancipated Africans, or their descendants, are also common in Arabia, though they have lost nearly all their distinctive features, particularly the woolly hair and thick lips, the dark color and the peculiar form of the head, indicating their origin. Slaves are considered part of the family, and may be appointed to posts of honor and trust. They are educated with the other children, from whom they are distin- guished only by a little different treatment, and the performance of some menial offices. PERSIA. 445 CHAPTER XXXII. Ruins ot Nineveh. Passing over to Suez, at the upper extremity of the Red Sea, we will join the caravan, on the overland route to India, taking Persia on our way. But before entering this ancient country, we will spend a short time at Mosul, on the banks of the Tigris, to look at the explorations of Mr. Layard, on the site of Nineveh, 446 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. the once extensive and gorgeous capital of the Assyrian Empire. In the book of Jonah, Nineveh is spoken of as " an exceeding great city of three days' journey," to which the ruins exposed by Mr. Layard precisely correspond. It is described as having been eighteen miles long, and twelve broad, and sixty miles in circum- ference. Twenty miles is a day's journey in the East, so that the exact measurement is given by Jonah. According to Diodorus Siculus the walls of Nineveh were one hundred feet high, and so thick that three chariots might be driven abreast on them. On the wall rose fifteen hundred towers, each two hundred feet in hight. These walls were built of sun-dried brick, or of a rampart of clay encased with stone. They were built in eight years, by 140,000 men. The population of the city in the time of the prophet Jonah is supposed to have been about 600,000. The kingdom of which it was the capital, occupying the center of the Eastern world, was rich and powerful. But it was idolatrous and vicious ; and Nineveh, the seat of power and splendor, fell under the curse of the Almighty. Hence, according to the prophet, it was to be utterly destroyed, " a desolation, and dry like the wil- derness." " And flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts of the nations, both the cormorant and the bittern, shall lodge in the upper lintels of it ; their voice shall sing in the win- dows ; desolation shall be in the thresholds ; for he shall uncover the cedar work. This is the rejoicing city that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, and there is none beside me : how is she become a desolation, a place for beasts to lie down in !" All this has been literally fulfilled. Nineveh was destroyed in the year 606 before Christ — less than one hundred and fifty years after Rome was founded. Twenty-five centuries has she been desolate — a mere heap of rubbish — almost forgotten except by the reader of the prophecies. Mounds of earth and rubbish cov- ered her magnificent palaces and temples. Wild beasts roamed above her sunken halls, and birds sang in trees which grew above her fretted windows and carved lintels. The camel of the Oriental traveler rested above the spot where her proud kings once sat upon thrones of ivory and gold, the glory and renown of which lay buried under the dust of ages. M. Botta, and especially Mr. Layard, assisted in his researches by the British government, have at last exposed to the light of day the stupendous relics of this gorgeous city ; and every thing thus far discovered confirms the prophetic statements. Part of the city was to be consumed by fire, according to the prophecy of Nahum : " The fire shall devour thy bars — then shall the fire devour thee." The explorations at Khorasabad accordingly have turned up various objects, glazed PERSIA. 447 and charred by the action of fire. Ancient writers inform us, that when the proud and luxurious Sardanapalus, the last king of As- syria, found that there was no hope of victory over the besieging armies which pressed upon his capital, that, gathering all his wealth, his wife, and concubines, into a vast pile of timber, cover- ing four acres, he lay down himself in the place prepared for him, and was consumed by fire, leaving nothing but the crumbling re- mains, exposed, in the nineteenth century, to the examination of the curious. Among the objects discovered are slabs and monuments cov- ered with cuneiform characters ; figures in basso-relievo, some of which are engaged in battle, others carrying victuals for a banquet ; a king standing over a prostrate warrior ; gigantic marble statues of winged creatures ; beings representing the gods of the seasons, bearing in their hands appropriate emblems ; a figure, having a human body, with wings, and the head of an eagle or other raven- ous bird ; a huge lion, splendidly sculptured, with wings and a human head ; a king and his attendants, with bracelets, armlets, and weapons, on which are sculptured the heads of bulls and rams ; figures carrying presents or offerings on trays, such as armlets, bracelets, ear-rings, and so forth ; a figure accompanied by two monkeys held with ropes, representing the captives of a distant conquered nation bringing presents to their conquerors ; a human-headed, winged bull of yellow limestone ; sixteen small copper lions, of different sizes, diminishing in regular series, from a foot in length to about an inch ; with various other figures, rep- resenting castles, towers, battles, warriors, prisoners, lion hunts, as also symbols of power, wisdom, and eternity. More recent ex- plorations have brought to light other wonders, such as the ar- chives of the Assyrian Empire, sculptured on marble tablets, with many rare and curious objects, throwing light upon the character and history of the Assyrians. These immense winged, human-headed and lion-headed animals were connected with the temples, and represented symbolically the attributes of the divinities adored by the Assyrians. " I used to contemplate for hours," says Mr. Layard, " these mysterious emblems, and muse over their intent and history. What more noble forms could have ushered the people into the temple of their gods ? What more sublime images could have been bor- rowed from nature, by men who sought, unaided by the light of revealed religion, to embody their conception of the wisdom, power, and ubiquity of a Supreme Being? They could find no better type of intellect and knowledge than the head of man ; of strength, than the body of the lion ; of rapidity of motion, than 448 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. the wings of the bird. These winged, human-headed lions, were not idle creations, the offspring of mere fancy ; their meaning was written upon them. They had awed and instructed races which flourished three thousand years ago. Through the portals which they guarded, kings, priests, and warriors had borne sacrifices to their altars, long before the wisdom of the East had penetrated to Greece, and had furnished its mythology with symbols long re- cognized by the Assyrian votaries. They may have been buried, and their existence may have been unknown, before the founda- tion of tbe eternal city. For twenty-five centuries they had been hidden from the eyes of man, and they now stood forth once more in their ancient majesty. But how changed was the scene around them ! The luxury and civilization of a mighty nation had given place to the wretchedness and ignorance of a few half-bar- barous tribes. The wealth of temples and the riches of great cities had been succeeded by ruins and shapeless heaps of earth. Above the spacious hall in which they stood, the plough had passed, and the corn now waved." — Layard's Nineveh, Vol. i. pp. 69, 70. Doubtless these mystic and imposing figures represented the abstract qualities of might and wisdom, but whether they pointed to one Supreme Divinity, or to many divinities, is a matter of con- jecture. If the former, their true import was lost as early as the days of the Hebrew prophets, who represent the Assyrians as the most inveterate idolaters. Various monuments on the Assy- rian sculpture, even now, prove that they adored the sun, moon, and stars. If they had any just conception of a Supreme Divin- ity, he was probably regarded only as the first among many, the Jupiter of the Assyrian mythology. The sun was the principal object of worship, originally as the symbol of the Supreme Jeho- vah, but subsequently " in and for itself," as the Baal, Bel, or Belus, whence the Greek term Apollo, or the sun-god. The mag- nificent bull-god, less appropriate and beautiful than the sun, or the Apollo of later times, was probably the symbol of divine power ; but the symbol itself, doubtless, took the place in the worship of the people, as the calf did in Israelitish idolatry, of the true and eternal Divinity. " These be thy gods," said Aaron — " thy Elohim," or God — " these be thy God {symbols of thy God), Israel." In all the tombs and temples of Nineveh are sculptured representations and inscriptions of these divinities — the chambers of idolatrous imagery, seen by Ezekiel in his pro- phetic visions. But we are wandering from our purpose, and we must hasten in our journey to the " far orient." The long mountain ranges of PERSIA. 449 Persia, or rather Iran, as the natives uniformly call it, with its vast arid plains, and, in some of its districts, rose-covered fields, receive us — a country in parts barren and repulsive, in others fer- tile and fair. Like Turkey, Persia is distinguished for the re- mains of ancient splendor, the ruins of large and beautiful cities, like that of Persepolis, for some time the capital of Persia, and the residence of her ancient monarchs. Though possessing some Persian Costume. fine regions, Persia is far from being the fertile and beautiful country which it is generally supposed to be. For, except in the wooded parts, which bear but a small proportion to the rest of the country, its appearance is dreary in the extreme, and lacks almost eveiy thing which gives beauty to an English or American land- 450 THE WOELD WE LIVE EN". scape. " It has no green or grassy slopes, no parks nor inclosures, no hedges nor woods, no magnificent seats, or comfortable-looking cottages, and, excepting in spring, even the portions cultivated round the villages can hardly be distinguished from the brown, arid expanse that every where meets and fatigues the eye of the traveler. And if the reader will further figure to himself towns and villages, consisting mostly of mud houses, partly in a state of decay, and many of them wholly deserted ; roads, if we may so call wretched patbs, wholly impracticable for carriages, and un- safe even for horsemen ; property insecure, and tyranny and rapine every where lords of the ascendant ; he will be able to form a pretty accurate notion of the state of this celebrated country." — Fraser's Persia. Persia has some trade with India, Turkey, Russia, England, &c, in sugar, cashmere shawls, silk, iron, lead, copper, precious stones, &c. The government is an unmitigated, but ever-changing despot- ism. The throne is about as insecure as every thing else in the country. The inhabitants, amounting to ten or twelve millions, chiefly Persians, are of many races, Turks, Arabians, Turcomans, Moguls, Uzbecks, &c. The governors of the different districts, and the chiefs of petty tribes, are rapacious and cunning, though frequently courteous and polished in their manners. They affect state and ceremony, love fine clothes, and indulge in considerable parade and display. In general the Persians are an active, hand- some race, of lively imagination, and quick apprehension. They are not destitute of bravery, though their success in arms has de- pended, as among the Turks and Arabians, upon the character and resources of their leaders. The population is either nomadic or settled, with characteristics peculiar to each. The wandering tribes are wild and rapacious, the settled inhabitants active, versa- tile, selfish, and cunning. The towns-people, the Sheherees, as they are called, are a mingled race of all those who have ever conquered or had intercourse with Persia, grafted on the original stock, Turks, Tartars, Georgians, and Armenians. One remarka- ble class of court- dependents are the royal Gholaums, or body- guards, the confidential and devoted guardians of the monarch's person, whence the name Oholaum, or slave. Usually they are either Georgian captives, or the sons of respectable families. They are employed in secret and confidential services, and are much dreaded by the people, being servile, sensual, and domineering. The nobles of the court are great intriguers, being forced to dis- semble their feelings, and accomplish their objects by treachery. The ministers of state are selected from the Meezars, or men of busi- ness, and though less arrogant than the former, are equally venal. PERSIA. 451 The Persians are Mohammedans of the sect called Schiites, or Sheahs, or of those who look upon Ali, the son-in-law of Moham- med, as his legitimate successor. They believe in a different apostolical succession from that of the Turks, and consequently both look upon each other as schismatics and errorists. The priesthood consists of various orders. They are very numerous and corrupt. Soofeism, another word for sophism, or philosophy, a speculative and modified form of religion, founded upon the an- cient pantheism of India, prevails to some extent. It is either entirely speculative, and thence skeptical, or mystical, and thence fanatical. The former is only a sort of refined Deism, without energy or life, speaking of the Koran with respect, as a book of. good morals ; the other is a religious quietism, or enthusiastic aspiration after the mysteries of divine love, but without laying any stress upon rules or dogmas. The religion of ancient Persia, modified by Zoroaster, or Zer- dusht, which acknowledges in the universe two antagonistical principles, light and darkness, the good and the bad, and wor- ships fire, heat, and light, still lingers to some extent in this country. Fire-worshipers are yet found here and there, but Soofe- ism, a sort of rationalistic mysticism, is likely to destroy all the other forms of belief, and prepare the way, we hope, for some higher and better system of religion. In former times the Persians paid much attention to education and literature. They had many schools and colleges, and some of their literary men became quite distinguished. Even now some attention is paid to literary pursuits. The schools, however, are poor, and the literature of the country meager and superficial. In the sciences they are infinitely behind the Europeans. In poetry, and the lighter forms of literature, they have made some progress. Imaginative and passionate, they abound in lyrics of very considerable beauty. In this department, indeed, they excel all the nations of the East, and possess some poets whose fame has extended beyond the boundaries of their native land. The names of Ferdousi and Saadi are not unknown even in Europe. In the mystical and lyrical strain, Hafez is particularly distin- guished. His mortal remains rest near the city of Shiraz, whose praises he has celebrated, not far from the tomb of Saadi, the moral and didactic poet of Persia, and near his favorite stream, the Roknabad. The tomb is in a small inclosure, whither the people of the place resort to sit under the shade of the old cypresses, recite the odes of their favorite bard, and draw omens from the pages of his works. A people fond of literature in its gentler aspects, cannot be 452 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. altogether degraded. They must possess some elevation and re- finement of character. This is the case with the Persians, who, under more favorable auspices, might become one of the most interesting people in the world. At present, however, they have only some virtues, with many vices ; some knowledge and refine- ment, with much ignorance and superstition. They are active, and even enterprising, and yet fond of luxury and ease. " The same person who with the calcan in his mouth would appear to pass the day in a state of stupor, when roused into action, and mounted on his horse, will ride for nights and days without inter- mission. They are immoderately fond of tobacco and strong drink. The females are luxurious and languishing. They disfig- ure their natural charms by painting their faces, and sometimes also by tattooing their skins of various colors, while constant smoking spoils their teeth and mouths. They are secluded from observation, and in public are so dressed as to show nothing but their sparkling eyes. The Persian is restricted to four wives, but concubinage is permitted to any extent. But few, except the more wealthy, can indulge the expense which a multiplication of wives or concubines involves. Marriages are celebrated with great splendor, and often at ruinous expense. Children are taught to obey their superiors, and revere the aged, one of the most beau- tiful traits of Oriental character. They ' rise up at the hoary head, and honor the face of the old man.' " Before leaving Persia, we must not forget the JVestorians, occu- pying the mountains of Kurdistan, partly under the dominion of the Turkish, and partly under that of the Persian government. They call themselves Syrian, or Chaldean Christians, because they use the ancient Syrian in their religious service. They also possess the New Testament in this language, translated, they maintain, from the original, as early as the second century. On this ground they claim to be the most ancient of the sects, dating back their conversion to Christianity to apostolic times, and to the labors of the Apostle Thomas. Church historians, however, tell us that this ancient sect was formed in the fifth century, by the union of the adherents of Nestorius, who had been excommu- nicated on account of refusing to call the Virgin Mary the Mother of God, and to give up the doctrine of two natures in Christ, though this very doctrine was subsequently received into the creed of " the Orthodox Catholic Church." In the fifth century the Nestorians established their ecclesiastical constitution under the protection of the kings of Persia. The other Christians in Persia joined them in 499, and they gained many adherents in Eastern Asia, where the Christians of St. Thomas also joined PEKSIA. 453 them. In the eleventh century they gained an important acces- sion in the conversion of the Tartar tribes, whose Christian ruler is known in history under the name of Prester John, who re- mained attached to Christianity and the Nestorian faith after hav- ing been reduced by Ghengis Khan under the dominion of the Moguls. Until the wars of Timour, in the fourteenth century, there existed also in Central and Northeastern Asia, Nestorian communities. The Nestorians are supposed to have carried Christianity as far as China, and in early times manifested much religious and mis- sionary zeal. In the western part of China, three thousand miles from Nestoria, a pillar has been discovered, some 1200 years old, covered with Syriac inscriptions, commemorating the triumphs of Christianity in China, through the labors of the Nestorian mission- aries who had visited that country. This noble missionary spirit continued to burn in the heart of this interesting people for centu- ries, until the triumph of Mohammedanism, by presenting the alternative of the Koran or death, gradually reduced the millions of Nestorians to the feeble remnant which now exists, consisting of some 300,000 to 400,000 souls. They have church edifices a thousand years old, and are governed by hereditary patriarchs, with bishops and priests ; and though greatly fallen from their primitive purity, and indulging in many superstitious notions, they maintain the great truths of Christianity, and are a noble, simple- hearted race. Under the labors of American missionaries, a vast and delight- ful change has taken place among the Nestorian churches. A pure gospel has been revived, and many of their priests, recon- verted, are preaching, with much eloquence and success, the sim- ple truths of Christianity. They are fine-looking men, with a Jewish cast of countenance, black hair, and dark eyes. The preachers are said to have an Oriental, figurative style of preaching, which is quite effective among their countrymen. Their influence in Asia must eventually be productive of great good, in the con- version and reformation of the people. Some imagine these Nestorians to be descendants of the lost tribes of Israel ; but of this, the evidence is by no means satisfac- tory, though their blood, as in the case of many Orientals, may be mingled with that of the Jewish race. They have suffered se- verely from the domination of petty chiefs, and, a few years ago, were almost decimated by a bloody massacre. Their prospects, however, are now more bright and cheering. But we must leave these interesting scenes, and journey east- ward. We shall be compelled to leave BeloocMstan on the one 454 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. side, and Afghanistan on the other, and pass immediately into the country of the Hindoos, where the lineaments of character, national usages, and forms of religion, are all of the most fixed and striking character. The Affghans, indeed, lately subdued, under the power of the British government in India, which really controls all this part of the world, are quite an interesting race of people ; wild and savage, but possessing great energy of character ; violent and revengeful, as such people usually are, but, like the North Ameri- can Indians, brave, hospitable, and even generous, within certain limits. All persons, even a man's bitterest enemy, is safe under the protection of an Affghan's roof; but this protection extends not beyond the lands of the village, or, at most, of the tribe ; and it is not uncommon for the stranger, who has benefited by it, and experienced the kindest treatment, to be robbed and plundered, when once beyond its influence. " There is no point in the Aff- ghan character," says Mr. Elphinstone, who has written admirably on the kingdom of Cabul, and some of the neighboring countries, " of which it is more difficult to get a clear idea, than the mixture of sympathy and indifference, of generosity and rapacity, which is observable in their conduct to strangers. So much more do they attend to granting favors than to respecting rights, that the same Affghan who would plunder a traveler of his cloak, if he had one, would give him a cloak if he had none." In this, and several other particulars, they resemble the Arabs. They consist of an aggregation of tribes, some decidedly nomadic, and others more settled and civilized, with considerable diversity of customs, dress, and appearance. Generally, they are Mohammedans, of the Soo- nee persuasion, full of superstition, believing in alchemy, astrology, magic, and so forth. They are intermixed, however, with Par- sees, Hindoos, and Christians, whom they call " people of the book," as deriving their tenets from a written source, which they themselves respect, as Mohammedans, instead of being pagans, as the Hindoos. Soofeism, or free-thinking, is prevailing among the higher classes. Notwithstanding their superstition, tolerance is a national virtue, and the country presents an interesting field foi missionary labor. INDIA. 455 CHAPTER XXXIII. INDIA. The central and most important of the three peninsulas of the Asiatic continent, is India, a region of great extent and untold re- sources, almost touching the equator on the south, and on the north rising into snowy peaks, which pierce the heavens, at an altitude ranging from 15,000 to 27,000 feet, and passing through a climate varying from tropical heat to Arctic cold ; now present- ing vast wastes of barren sand, then fertile regions of exuberant beauty, with large tracts of jungle and forest, haunts of the hyena, the tiger, and the elephant. The Himalayas, or " Seats of Snow," the grandest mountain range in the world, on the north, and the Ghauts, smaller, but equally beautiful, further south, are the sources of its principal streams, the most noted of which is the sacred Ganges. The name of Punjaub, or " Land of Streams," which the natives apply to a small portion of Northern Hindostan, may be regarded as descriptive of one-half of the peninsula. The valley of the Ganges is " the most extensive and luxuriant on the face of the globe," being 400,000 square miles in extent ; the greater part of it susceptible of cultivation, and abounding in the diversified productions of Oriental climes. In the more southern regions, the heat is intolerable. In the north, and especially among the mountains, the climate is cool and invigorating. Excepting some high table-lands, and the mountain ranges, Southern India is level, consisting of immense areas of arid sand and dense jungle, with occasional rocks rising from the plain to the hight of a hun- dred or two hundred feet, " like icebergs in the northern seas." Upon these rocky summits, pagan temples are occasionally erected. Of seasons, there are only two in India — the one hot and dry, the other rainy, produced by the periodical winds called monsoons. The rain falls in torrents for a few weeks, often producing the most violent inundations. Spring, autumn, winter, it has none. Sum- mer pervades the year, the vegetation springing up and blossom- ing every month. The heat is so intense, that nature appears as if it had lost breath ; birds sometimes drop dead in the streets of Calcutta ; travelers pass the day in tents, journeying only by moonlight or starlight. In such a country, vegetation is rank and powerful ; all things, and human beings among the rest, arrive quickly at maturity. Disease and death, especially among foreigners, is rapid and frequent. Insects, annoying, destructive, and poisonous, every where abound, lurking under the mats, and 456 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. often creeping into the beds. Ants (the white species), innumer- able and powerful, though comparatively small, eat up every thing upon which they lay their teeth — clothes, food, books, paper, and furniture. Nothing but stone, iron, or mortar will arrest their progress. Moving, like an army, just beneath the surface, they carry every thing before them. Cobra- capellos lurk among the trees and bushes. Fireflies illumine the night. They glitter among the boughs of the banyan-tree, or dance around the spread- ing tamarind, producing a peculiar but pleasing effect. In India, the rhinoceros and the elephant are numerous, the latter being very large, and, when duly tamed, quite serviceable. Some- times, though not of late years as much as formerly, they are used in hunting the tiger and other wild animals ; but the sport is dangerous. Though a mild and timid animal naturally, the ele- phant, when aroused, exhibits tremendous energy. He receives the tiger on his tusks, tosses him into the air, and tramples him under foot. The cheeta, or Indian panther, is often used in hunting antelopes, and so forth, much as greyhounds are used in Europe in hunting hares. Buffaloes and cows are common in this country. The Indian bull, or Brahminee bull, is a sacred animal, mild and gentle, but troublesome, being a genuine loafer, lounging about the markets and bazars, and eating up whatever suits his fancy. To kill such an animal is an unpardonable offence. The most agile and daring of all the wild animals of India is the Bengal tiger — large, elastic, beautiful, and fierce, bounding upon its prey, with tremendous energy, a distance, it is said, of a hundred feet and more. Snakes and monkeys every where abound. Indeed, India may be said to be the natural home of the monkey tribe. Among other things, advantageous to the propagation of these creatures, is the fact, that they are sacred animals. Gorgeous temples have been erected to their honor, one of which, in the island of Ceylon, when plun- dered by the Portuguese, contained an ape's tooth, encased in pure gold ! In Ahmenabad, are three hospitals for monkeys ! Much of the scenery of India, of course, is repulsive, but large portions are of gorgeous beauty. The majestic teak, the graceful bamboo, and other varieties of palms ; the gorgeous banyan, or In- dian fig-tree ; the beautiful babul-tree, whose flowers emit a de- lightful fragrance, with innumerable flowering shrubs and other plants of tropical splendor, give an air of richness and magnificence to the landscape. Green grass, of course, is burned up by the intense heat. A European soon becomes tired of the monoto- nous brilliancy of the scene. The heat of the sun is oppressive and exhausting, and one longs for the coolness and freshness of north- INDIA. 457 em climes, where the beauty of the landscape, less gorgeous and striking, is more natural and agreeable. Among the Ghauts of India, however, and in some of the high table-lands in their vicinity, the scenery is more like that of Europe, and thither foreigners often repair to invigorate their languid frames, amid the coolness and verdure of the mountains. In one of these mountain ranges there is an immense waterfall, having a depth of 1150 feet — four times deeper than Niagara. In the warmer and more level regions, artificial tanks, filled with water, are universal. The fan and the bath are in constant and daily use. The houses are con- structed of light materials ; if possible, on elevated spots, or where they can catch the sea-breeze, with open windows and verandas, which woo the wandering zephyr. The population of India is estimated at 150,000,000, divided into numerous tribes, speaking different languages, and using dif- ferent customs. Of these, the native Hindoos number about 138,000,000, who, though differing among themselves in appear- ance, manners, and even language, profess the same religion. The Mohammedans, descended from those who, in former times, invaded the country from the west, number about 10,000,000. They are said to be cold, bigoted, and repulsive. Their mosques, with beautiful and aspiring minarets, are to be seen throughout the leading cities and towns of the country. Superior to the Hindoos in energy, they thrive by craft and industry. A third class of Indian population is composed of the mixed descendants of Euro- peans and natives, sometimes called Indo Britains, or Eurasians, said to be indolent and fond of show, but improving in character and condition. They are scattered over the country, to the number of 400,000 or 500,000. The foreign residents amount to some 50,000. India is under the domination of Great Britain, as already stated. Its conquest is one of the most stupendous events of the age. The British never employed a larger force than 37,000 European troops, while the native Hindoo ranks have sometimes numbered over 250,000, paid by the former. With this they have subdued mil- lions, and secured a territory equal in extent to the whole of Europe, exclusive of Russia. " Who, then," asks a Swedish writer, in surprise, " is the conqueror, who the ruler, of this im- mense empire, over which the sun extends so gloriously his glitter- ing rays, that has risen on the continent of Asia as if by enchant- ment, and now emulates in greatness that of Alexander, Nadir Shah, or Tamerlane ? Why, on a little island in another part of the world, in a narrow street, where the rays of the sun are seldom able to penetrate the thick smoke, a company of peaceable mer- chants meet — these are the conquerors of India — these the des- 20 458 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. potic rulers of this splendid empire." Doubtless, much wrong haa been done, in the progress of this vast conquest. Intrigue and oppression have been too often resorted to ; and blood, innocent blood, perhaps, has flowed in torrents. But the country was ripe for revolution. The old despots of India had grown sensual and luxurious, oppressive and cruel. The whole land groaned, and, indeed, yet groans, under the slavery of caste. Woman was de- graded, and religion was one huge, overshadowing despotism of the soul. The rajahs, or petty chiefs, and great men of the coun- try, were tyrants as well as slaves ; and the common people, those especially of the lowest class, were degraded by vice. A loath- some licentiousness in religion and in social life pervaded all ranks of society. It is well that such an organization, hoary with age and iniquity, should be dashed to pieces ; well, that a new and more powerful element of civilization should be introduced, to re- suscitate and reform society. The Hindoos themselves admit that they are now better governed than they ever were before. Life and property are safe. Caste is giving way. Infanticide and widow-burning are abolished. Above all, Christianity is intro- duced, and thousands of the Hindoos have been converted. Brah- minism, with its vast and horrid superstitions, is on the wane. Many who have not yet embraced Christianity have abandoned their idolatry, and are inquiring for the truth. Churches have been formed ; and in Calcutta, not less than 1200 young men, in a single seminary (Dr. Duff's), are receiving a European and Christian education. India is governed by a commission ; and though the rajahs of some of the provinces seem to be independent, and affect the air of free sovereigns, they are all under the control of British power. There are in India quite a number of wild and savage tribes, at once degraded and superstitious, among whom human sacrifices are yet practised. The Bengal Hurkaru mentions a government act to suppress hum,an sacrifices in the hill tracts of Orissa, and then gives a shocking account of the manner in which the victims are pro- cured and slaughtered. Surely " the dark places of the earth are full of the habitations of cruelty." The wild hill-tribes appear to exhibit the remnants of three abo- riginal races — the Koles, the Khunds, and the Saurabs. The Koles prevail chiefly in the northern parts, the Khunds in the middle region, and the Saurabs in the south. Now, it is among the Khunds, the largest and most numerous of these races, that the horrid practice of human sacrifices was found so widely and systematically to prevail. It is to propitiate INDIA. 459 the earth-god — the greatest of the Khund deities — that the san- guinary rite is performed. It is considered necessary that " every farm should share the blood of a human victim at the time when each of the principal crops is laid down, while a harvest oblation is deemed scarcely less necessary than a spring sacrifice ; and it is considered in the last degree desirable that several offerings, ac- cording to the promise of the year, should intervene betwixt them." Besides these regular periodical offerings, there are others con- stantly demanded by special events and circumstances. The prevalence of unusual sickness, the visitation of an epidemic, the ravages of wild beasts, droughts, famines, or, in a word, an ex- traordinary calamity of any kind, whether affecting individuals or the community at large — all, all are believed to call for public ex- piation or atonement with human blood, to avert the supposed wrath of that dread deity, the earth-god. From the 'fluctuating variety of circumstances that may lead to the performance of these bloody sacrifices, it is plainly impossible to form a precise estimate of their annual average. In one small valley, two miles long, and less than three-quarters of a mile in breadth, Captain McPherson reports that he " discovered seven victims, whose immolation was temporarily prevented by the vicin- ity of the British troops, but it was to take place immediately after their departure." One thing, therefore, is very certain, and that is, that the number annually sacrificed must amount to many hun- dreds, and probably even to thousands ; opening up a spectacle of barbarism, in the very heart of the Indo-British dominions, which no humane spirit can contemplate without a thrill of horror. The unhappy victims are known, in the Khund language, under the designation of " Merias." They do not, as Captain McPherson ascertained, consist of native Khunds, but are pi'ovided by a class of Hindoo procurers, called Panwas, who purchase them, without difficulty, upon false pretences, or kidnap them from the poorer classes of Hindoos in the low country, either to the order of the Abbayas, or Khund priests, or upon speculation. When conveyed to the mountains, their price is determined by the demand, varying at from fifty to a hundred lives — i. e., of sheep, cows, fowls, pigs, &c. A few are always, if possible, kept in reserve in each district, to meet sudden demands for atonement. Victims of either sex are equally acceptable to the earth-god — children, whose age pre- cludes a knowledge of their situation, being, for convenience sake, preferred. From the moment the victim is bought, he is regarded as a consecrated being, and treated with all imaginable respect, till the fated hour for immolation arrives. The ceremonies observed on the occasion of a sacrifice are com- 460 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. plicated, and extend over three days, accompanied with drinking, feasting, music, dancing, and obscene riot. We can only refer to the termination of the tragic scene. In the neighborhood of each village or hamlet there is a clump of deep and shadowy forest- trees, kept sacred from the axe, and studiously avoided by the Khund, as haunted ground : this is the chosen place for the sacri- fice — this is the Meria grove. The particular spot of the grove being selected, the victim is, on the third day, conducted to it. As he " must not suffer bonds, nor, on the other hand, exhibit any show of resistance, the bones of his arms, and, if necessary, those of his legs, are now broken in several places. The priest, assisted by others, then takes the branch of a green tree, which is cleft at a distance of several feet down the center. They insert the Meria within the rift, fitting it, in some districts, to his chest, in others to his throat. Cords are next twisted round the open extremity of the stake, which the priest, aided by his assistants, strives with his whole force to close. All preparations being now concluded, about noon the priest gives the signal, by slightly wounding the victim with his axe. Instantly the promiscuous crowd, that ere- while had issued forth with stunning shouts and pealing music, rush with maddening fury upon the sacrifice. Wildly exclaiming, ' We bought you with a price, and no sin rests on us !' they tear his flesh in pieces from the bones ! And thus the horrid rite is consummated ! Each man then bears away his bloody shreds to his fields, and from thence returns straight home. For three days after the sacrifice, the inhabitants of the village which afforded it remain dumb, communicating with each other only by signs, and remaining unvisited by strangers. At the end of this period, a buffalo is slaughtered at the place of sacrifice, when all tongues are loosened." Dr. Sutton, of the Orissa mission, stated, when in this country, that over 600 young persons, mostly kidnapped children, had been rescued from the Khunds by the British government. Every one has heard of the Thugs, a race of religious murder- ers in India. They are called Thugs, or Deceivers, and Phansi- gars, or Stranglers. They are bound together by the ties of su- perstition. The profession is hereditary, and it is supposed that not less than ten thousand of the order are trained to murder from their childhood. They go in gangs of ten to forty, and even two hundred, each gang a different route, and meet at a general place of rendezvous to divide their plunder. A solitary traveler is sure to be strangled, but their highest game is a wealthy caravan of forty or fifty individuals. Here is the way in which they accom- plish their purposes : INDIA. 461 Upon approaching a town, or serai, two or three, known as the soothaes, or " inveiglers," are sent in advance, to ascertain if any travelers are there ; to learn, if possible, the amount of money or merchandise they carry with them, their hours of starting in the morning, or any other particulars that may be of use. If they can, they enter into conversation with them, pretend to be travel- ing to the same place, and propose, for mutual security, to travel with them. This intelligence is duly communicated to the remain- der of the gang. The place usually chosen for the murder is some lonely part of the road in the vicinity of a jungle, and the time, just before dusk v . At given signals, understood only by them- selves, the scouts o the party station themselves in the front, in the rear, and on each side, to guard against surpi'ise. A stran- gler and assistant strangler, called Bhurtote and Shamshea, place themselves, the one on the right, and the other on the left of the vic- tim, without exciting his suspicion. At another signal the noose is twisted, drawn tightly by a strong hand at each extremity, and the traveler, in a few seconds, hurried into eternity. Ten, twelve, twenty, and, in some instances, sixty persons, have been thus dis- patched at the same moment. Should any victim, by a rare chance, escape their hands, he falls into those of the scouts, who are stationed within hearing, who run upon him, and soon over- power him. There is a kind of river Thugs, called Pungoos. They go up and down the rivers in all sorts of disguises, and keep their " in- veiglers" out on the watch in all directions. The captain of the boat is a Thug, who, at the proper time, strikes off into the mid- dle of the stream, gives three raps on deck as the signal for mur- der, when the noose is thrown, and the strangled victim is plunged into the water through a hole always kept open for the purpose. There are regular steps of promotion in the fraternity of Thugs. The initiate is first a scout, then a sexton, then a holder of hands, and lastly a strangler, the hight of the disciple's ambition. The Gooroo, or preceptor, first practises his pupil upon a solitary trav- eler, presenting him the holy knot, or tied handkerchief, as he stands over the sleeping victim, by the side of a holder of hands. The traveler awakes only to be strangled by the experimenting preceptor, for the benefit of the initiate. The following is the legend upon which the Thugs found the origin of their bloody fraternity : They believe that, in the earliest ages of the world, a gigantic demon infested the earth, and devoured mankind as soon as they were created. He was of so tall a stature, that, when he strode through the most unfathomable depths of the great sea, the waves, 462 THE WORLD WE LIVE LIST. even in tempest, could not reach above his middle. His insatiable appetite for human flesh almost unpeopled the world, until Bha- wanee, Kalee, or Davee, the goddess of the Thugs, determined to save mankind by the destruction of the monster. Nerving herself for the encounter, she armed herself with an immense sword, and, meeting with the demon, she ran him through the body. His blood flowed in torrents as he fell dead at her feet ; but from every drop there sprang up another monster, as rapacious and as ter- rible as the first. Again the goddess upraised her massive sword, and hewed down the hellish brood by hundreds ; but the more she slew, the more numerous they became. Every drop of their blood generated a demon ; and, although the goddess endeavored to lap up the blood ere it sprang into life, they increased upon her so. rapidly, that the labor of killing became too great for endurance. The perspiration rolled down her arms in large drops, and she was compelled to think of some other mode of exterminating them. In this emergency, she created two men out of the perspiration of her body, to whom she confided the holy task of delivering the earth from the monsters. To each of the men she gave a hand- kerchief, and showed them how to kill without shedding blood. From her they learned to tie the fatal noose ; and they became, under her tuition, such expert stranglers, that, in a very short space of time, the race of demons became extinct. The Megpunnas are a peculiar branch of the Thugs. They murder travelers, not for their money, but for their children, whom they sell into slavery. They go about taking their wives and children with them as " inveiglers," who are sent in advance for this purpose. The children of those murdered are, if beautiful, sold at Delhi for the most loathsome ends, and, if ill-favored, for servants. The government has been at work since 1826 to extirpate these monsters, but it has not yet succeeded. During the first ten years, 1562 were accused, of whom 328 were hanged, 999 trans- ported, and the rest imprisoned for life or terms of years. It is calculated that, even now, notwithstanding these efforts of govern- ment, at least ten thousand Thugs are yet engaged in murders, and that thirty thousand persons annually become their victims. In addition to the classes of persons already named, one meets in India with Arabs, " the horse-jockeys of the country, shrewd, daring, and unscrupulous ;" Parsees, or fire-worshipers, descend- ants of the original inhabitants of Persia ; Chinese adventur- ers, importers, merchants, and peddlers ; and, at the southern extremity of the country, Jews, who for centuries have main- tained the unity of God, and the peculiar customs of their INDIA. 463 race, amid the universal prevalence of idolatry. These last are divided into ancient, or black, and modern, or white, Jews. There are also some Syrian Christians in this part of India, converts, probably, of the ancient Nestorians. Several hundred missionaries, of various denominations, are laboring, with marked success, in India. Thousands have been converted to the Christian faith, which is destined to a rapid and universal triumph in this interesting country. The Hindoos, to whom we propose principally to direct our at- tention, are of different races, mostly Caucasian or Mongolian, and thence differing somewhat in personal appearance, though possess- ing some leading traits in common. Their complexion is of differ- ent shades, from a jet black to a light brown ; their forms slender and elastic — upon the whole, especially in the females, graceful, as well as agile ; the face oval, with a forehead of ordinary bight, but not lofty or commanding ; the eyes soft, lustrous, and languid, eyebrows well formed, nose and mouth of the Caucasian cast, and the hair long, black, and wiry, though not inclined to curl. The expression is soft and agreeable, with a dash of selfishness and craft, indicating the universal and deep-rooted hypocrisy which prevails among them. They are inferior, in strength and appear- ance, to the European race, having longer and projecting ears, a greater softness of fiber, and less frankness of demeanor. But their fiery climate and long degradation account for their inferiority. The women of the higher classes are said to be somewhat beau- tiful, with graceful forms, hair long and fine, eyes dark and ex- pressive, and skins soft and polished. The women of the lower classes are degraded in form and character, by rough usage and menial service. Corpulency is not unfrequent, produced by the free use of ghee and other oily articles of food, rotundity being considered a beauty by the natives. Many of the common people, particularly the Coolies and palan- quin bearers, are remarkable for their agility and power of endur- ance. They are only inferior to horses, in the rapidity with which they pass over the ground. What they want in strength, they make up by numbers and perseverance. Generally, however, the Hindoos are an easy, pliant, dreamy race, who love rest and rev- ery. Their forms are slender — their energies languid. They yield readily to superior force and authority ; hence their easy subjection by a foreign power. Life, in any form, is sacred to the Hindoos, so that they live exclusively upon vegetables, fruits, &c„ Their faces are all marked, more or less, in lines and circles, with 464 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. a paste made of sandal-wood and cow's manure, to indicate that they are disciples of Brahminism. The direction of the lines dis- tinguishes them as Vishnuvites or Sivites, the two great sects into which the popular faith is divided. This is sacredly renewed every morning, as its absence would subject them to the contempt and persecution of their countrymen. Converts to Christianity, of course, abandon the practice, so that Christians are instantly known by the absence of the sacred mark. Females put it on their fore- head, while the fakeers and other pagan devotees " besmear their whole visible person with the whitened dust." The dress of the Hindoos, suitable to the climate, is not inele- gant. The men are dressed in a loose piece of white cloth, wound, without any kind of buttons or bandages, close about the waist, and falling below the knee, with a second of finer material thrown across the shoulders. The hair is shaved close, with a tuft at the rear of the head, the removal of which is regarded as a peculiarly shameful act. The common people leave the head bare, but the higher classes wear a turban. Sandals turning up at the toes, and open at the heel, are worn to protect the feet. The toes are kept exposed, on account of their utility, the Hindoo using them about as much as his fingers, and, indeed, calling them feet fingers. With these he assists his hand fingers in cutting, carving, holding, wrenching, and so forth ! Gentlemen wear ornaments of finger- rings, ear-drops, a band about the arms, and, after marriage, a small band around the toe. The ladies of Hindostan wear a more showy and graceful dress than the men, consisting of various pieces, the principal of which falls in elegant folds around the body. It is simple and becoming, often of rich materials, and set off with jewels. " Upon each wrist are bracelets of silver, conch-shell, or glass, called bangles, numbeiing from five to twenty. Pendents of gold, of less valu- able material, are suspended from the ear to the shoulder, and hooks through the nose reach to the chin. Bands of silver, of much weight, encircle the arms and ankles. On two or more of the toes is a silver ring, one of which emits a tinkling sound when the wearer is walking. Around the neck are hung strings of large beads, of coral or glass, with collars set with small gems and pre- cious stones. Married ladies wear about the neck the tartt, which is either a band of gold richly chased, or a silk network entwined with silver cord. This is put on at the bridal ceremony, and is not removed till the husband's death. The long black hair, neatly combed, and made glossy with oil, is rolled up in a tasteful man- ner, and placed a little in the rear of the left ear. The face is daily covered with a solution of saffron in water, which produces INDIA. 465 the effect of concealing the lady's age. The eyelashes are ex- tended by means of a little paint, and the teeth reddened by a masticatory common in the country. An India lady's jewels are called " her joys," and large sums are annually expended by hus- bands and fathers in their purchase.* Children have but the slightest clothing till their fifth or sixth year, though often decorated with jewels. These tempt the cupidity of robbers, who sometimes mutilate the bodies of sleeping females and children to gain possession of these valuable trinkets. But an Indian female would rather be destitute of virtue than of orna- ments. CHAPTER XXXIV. INDIA, CONTINUED. In this chapter, we will continue our account of the Hindoos, and add some notices of India beyond the Ganges. The Hindoos are by no means a barbarous people. In ancient times especially, they made considerable progress in the arts, and in some departments of science, mingled, indeed, with much ex- travagance and superstition. Many of their sages were familiar with arithmetic, geometry, and even algebra. They indulged in subtle and elaborate speculations on the nature of things, though constantly losing themselves in the abyss of pantheism. Their religion, indeed, is founded upon this idea. They recognize the unity and identity of the universe ; but not distinguishing God from his works, they deify the whole. Hence, to them the uni- verse, external as well as internal, is God, and worthy, therefore, of supreme worship. Their primal and universal deity is Brahm, who is simply being or essence, without intelligence, will, love, consciousness, or purpose. The term is in the neuter gender, in- dicating the negative mode of his existence, and to be distinguished from Brahma, the first god of the Hindoo triad. He is thus, like the god of Hegel and the German pantheists, a boundless abstrac- tion, an infinite negative — that is, an infinite nothing ! * Ward. 20* 466 THE WOKLD "WE LIVE IS. Missionary Preaching to the Natives. From Brahm come the incarnations of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the creator, the preserver, and the destroyer of all. The generation, history, productions, and exploits of these dei- ties, are represented by the most extravagant, and even licentious symbols, allegories, and fables. Brahma is the creator, and is usually represented as a man ■with four faces, riding on a swan, and holding in one of his four hands a portion of the Vedas, or sacred books ; one is raised, as if for protection, and another de- . clined, as bestowing a gift. He is reputed originally to have had five heads, one of which has been lost ; in what way, his biogra- phers differ in opinion. At any rate, it was a cause of degra- dation. He has but one temple in the land, and is little wor- shiped. Vishnu is figured as a blue man, riding on a skate, holding in his hands a war-club, conch-shells, a weapon called chakra, and a INDIA. 467 water-lily. He is the pervader and preserver, and has had sev- eral incarnations, as for example, those of a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a man-monster, a dwarf, a giant, a white horse, &c, in which ca- pacities he performed wonderful exploits, some of which are gro- tesque enough, and by no means virtuous. Siva is the destroyer, and appears as a silver-colored man, with five heads, and eight hands, in six of which are severally a skull and other objects. In his forehead is a third eye, with " perpendicular corners," ear-rings of snakes, and a collar of skulls. Siva drowns and remodels the earth, being reproducer as well as destroyer. One form in which Siva is worshiped is as the lingum, a licentious figure, exposed to public view the country over ! Siva, in this besotted land, is a great favorite, having many worshipers. One of his consorts is the sanguinary Kalee, greatly feared, and worshiped with obscene and bloody rites. Kalee is the very demon of vengeance, and is represented with horrid aspect, standing with one foot upon the chest of her husband, whom she has thrown down in a fit of anger, her blood-covered tongue hanging out of her mouth, adorned with skulls, and the hands of her enemies suspended from her girdle. The blood of a tiger delights her for ten years, of a human being for one thousand years. She loves to see her votaries hack and hew their persons ; their blood is a pleasant offering. She is the especial friend of thieves and murderers, who invoke her aid in deeds of violence. The swinging festival, in which a devotee is swung round upon a pole, from which he hangs suspended by the skin of his back, is intended to propitiate her favor. Of course she is pleased with infanticide, " passing through the fire," and death under the cars of Juggernaut. No deity in India is more sedulously and more generally worshiped than this Moloch of the Hindoo faith. As Brahmnism is founded upon pantheism, all things become objects of worship. The Hindoo Triad has given origin to innu- merable gods. They are numbered by millions and millions ; in- deed, they may be said to be infinite. Men and monkeys, the priests and the temples, the sun, moon, and stars, the earth, the rivers, the sea, the winds, the seasons, the rainbow, all are gods. The banyan-tree, the margosa, and other trees and herbs are favorite deities. The Shalagrama, a black schistous stone, is wor- shiped as a god. The Hindoos say that one of the wives of their god Vishnu was metamorphosed into a plant, and that Vishnu to show his affection for her, himself took the form of the black stone, in order to keep by her side. From that time they have worshiped the Shalagrama. Few usages of the Hindoo worship are better known than the 468 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. worship of Juggernaut, the hideous idol under whose feet the Hindo devotee formerly cast himself, and was crushed to death. This, as well as the Suttee, or burning of widows on the funeral pile of their husbands, has been suppressed by the government ; but the festival itself is still kept up. The literature of the Hindoos corresponds to a great extent to their religious system and usages. Their sacred books are very numerous, and not only so, but excessively voluminous, giving, as Sir William Jones suggests, the idea of immensity. The princi- pal are the Veds, Puranas, and Institutes of Menu. The first, ac- cording to the Hindoos, issued directly from the mouth of Brah- ma, at the time of creation, in an entire state, and spread all over the world by his ten sons, the rishis or prophets. They are four — Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Athurwana, containing accounts of astron- omy, astrology, natural philosophy, divination, history of creation, religious and moral duties, hymns to the Supreme Being, to the sun, stars, elements ; rites, fasts, purifications, penances, pilgrim- ages, sacrifices, prayers, incantations. They were probably writ- ten at different times, but collected and arranged by the famous penitent Vyasa, in the fourteenth century B.C. They are written in an ancient form of Sanscrit, which is understood only by the more learned of the Brahmins. They are forbidden to any caste but the Brahmins, who, however, may read them, with certain precautions to the Kshatriyas, the second caste. Then there are Upa- Veds, or secondary Veds, derived from the four original Veds. They treat of the theory and practice of medi- cine, music, archery, architecture, and sixty-four mechanical arts. The Vedangas, or bodies of learning, treating of grammar, astron- omy, mathematics, signification of difficult words in the Veds, ceremonies, &c. The Puranas, eighteen in number, were written, it is supposed, between the eighth and sixteenth centuries, A. D., in Sanscrit, but few are translated into the vernacular languages, and those that are, are in the high poetic dialect. They treat of cosmogony, chronology, geography, astronomy, history and ex- ploits of the gods, goddesses, heroes, &c, nature of the soul, and method of obtaining salvation. They are the chief source whence the Hindoos derive their notions of religion. The Institutes of Menu, a work of high authority, contain a code of laws founded on the Veds, and are supposed to have been written in the ninth century B. C. There are also the Aga- mas, Tantras, and Muntras, highly metaphysical works. There are also the Ramayana and Mahabharat, the two great classica epics of India, believed to be of divine origin. The former re- counts the exploits of Vishnu, incarnate in the person of Rama, INDIA. 469 who invaded Ceylon with his army of monkeys ; the latter those of Vishnu in the form of Krishna. The four Veds form eleven folio volumes. Ramayana contains 100,000 stanzas, of four lines each, Mahabharat four times that number, and the Puranas two millions of lines. The following is a brief abstract of their system of geography and astronomy. There are three worlds — heaven above, earth be- low, and ether between. The number of worlds, however, is commonly put at fourteen — seven inferior, or below our world, and seven superior, including our own as the first. This is described to be circular or flat, like the flower of the water-lily, in which the petals project beyond each other. The habitable part con- sists of seven circular islands, or continents, each surrounded by a different ocean. The seven seas are those of salt water, sugar- cane juice, wine, ghee, curds, milk, and fresh water. Beyond this last ocean is an uninhabited country of pure gold, 'more extensive than all the islands, with their oceans, and surrounded by a wall of very high mountains. The central island, which we inhabit, called Jambu-dwipa, is several hundred thousand miles in diame- ter, and the surrounding sea is of the same breadth. The second is double the diameter of the first, and so the sea. Each of the others is double the diameter of the preceding. The diameter of the earth is several hundred thousand millions of miles, more than the distance between the earth and the sun. In the center of Jamba- dwip is Mount Meru (Himalaya), in the form of an in- verted pyramid, the highest of mountains, several hundred thou- sand miles high. " Its hight is 84,000 yojanas,* and its depth 16,000 below the surface of the earth. Its diameter at the sum- mit is 32,000 yojanas, and at its base 16,000." Its summit is surmounted by three cones, and on the highest of these are three golden peaks, on which reside the Hindoo Triad. At the base are four lofty hills, on each of which grows a mango-tree, several thousand miles high, and bearing fruit many hundred cubits large. The second superior world lies between us and the sun, which is said to be only a few hundred thousand miles. The third is the space between the sun and the polar star. In this are the stars and planets. The moon is placed beyond the sun as far as the sun is from the earth. Next come the stars Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Ursa-Major, and the Pole-star, which is * A yojana is 8 miles. Diameter of Meru then is 128,000 miles at the base. Hight 672,000 — three times the distance of the moon from the earth. 470 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. 27,000,000 miles from the earth. The remaining four worlds beyond the Pole-star rise one above the other. In the seventh, or highest, is the residence of Brahma. Besides the seven planets known from the remotest antiquity, there are two invisible dragons, Raku and Kethu, which by seiz- ing and devouring the sun and moon, produce eclipses. The most ancient division of the ecliptic was into 28, afterward 27 parts, similar to the lunar mansions of the Arabs, each 13° 20', to each of which was assigned its proper deity. Afterward the zodiac and ecliptic were divided into signs and degrees the same as ours. The year of the Hindoos is 365 days, 15 of their hours, 31 minutes, 14 seconds. Day, reckoned from sunrise to sunrise, con- tains 60 hours, and divided into 8 parts of 7-| hours each. Brah- mins are acquainted with the sun-dial, and use it for drawing meridians, fixing the sites of pagodas, and learning the latitude of towns by a comparison of the length of the shadow with the bight of the instrument on the day of the equinox. Eclipses are calculated with tolerable accuracy, according to tables and rules formed at a very remote period, and which evi- dently required a knowledge of geometry and arithmetic. The following is a view of their Chronology. There are four yugs or ages : the first was the age of innocence or truth, and embraces 1,728,000 years ; the second, 1,296,000 ; the third, 864,000 ; and the last, 432,000. These are the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages. We live in the last, or ICali-jng, age of misery. A great age, Maha-yug, is equal to these four — 4,320,000 of mortals. A solar year is equivalent to a day and night of the gods : 360 such days and nights, or 360 solar years, constitute a " year of the gods;" 12,000 years of the gods form " an age of the gods," or " divine age," or " great age," which is equal to 4,320,000 of men. Seventy-one Maha-yugs constitute a period called Manwantara, during which one Menu, with his pos- terity of sons and grandsons, ruled the earth. There are fourteen Menus, and fourteen Manwantaras. These fourteen Manwantaras are equal to 1000 Maha-yugs, or one Kalpa, or 4,320,000,000 solar years. This is the day of Brahma. The Hindoos have many works not only on Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, Geography, and Law, but on Grammar, Poetry, Music, Medicine, Arithmetic, &c, chiefly in the Sanscrit. Their arithmeti- cal operations are numerous, ingenious, ajid difficult. Units are divided into a great number of fractions ; the most common of which are into 100 parts, and those differ according to the things num- bered. Thus there are fractions for money, weight, measures, &c. INDIA. 471 These sciences were cultivated by the Brahmins ages ago. But the learning of the modern Hindoos is very limited. The astron- omy of the ancients has degenerated into astrology, and is con- fined almost exclusively to the calculation of eclipses, while some of the sciences formerly cultivated are now forgotten. Though the knowledge of the Sanscrit, and of the sciences con- tamed in it, has been mostly confined to the Brahmins, there have been men of. learning from the lower castes. Most of the learned men of the Tamil and Teloogoo people have been of the Soodra caste. The histoiy of the Hindoos is lost in the mists of antiquity. Their own annals, and especially their chronology, as may be seen at a glance, are false and fabulous. The Sanscrit, one of the most perfect languages in existence, has long ceased to be spoken, though retained in their sacred literature. It is probably the pa- rent of their various tongues, not less than eighteen of which are in use in the different parts of the peninsula. Sir "William Jones speaks of the Sanscrit as " of wonderful structure, more perfect than Greek, more copious than Latin, and more exquisitely per- fect than either," in which opinion Oriental scholars generally agree. This fact indicates the high cultivation of ancient India, the mother of nations, of languages, of philosophy, and religion. The present races which people Hindostan, must be vastly de- generated. The Hindoos are divided into four castes, or classes, who have no communication with each other, and remain fixed in immovable forms, a classification based upon their religion, and intertwined with it as warp and woof. The first are the Brahmins, the priests and teachers of the people, who claim to have sprung from the head of Brahma ; the next are the Kshatiras, including all engaged in civil and military affairs, who sprang from the arm of Brahma ; the third are the Veeshas, who sprang from the thig hs, and whose business is to provide the necessaries of life, as farmers, merchants, &c, whilst the fourth, and last, are the Soodras, the offspring of Brahma's feet, including those engaged in servile pursuits. In addition to these, there are the Pariahs, or Pariars, the out- casts of Hindostan, with whom even the Soodras disdain to have the remotest intercourse. They are the refuse of society, and doomed to destruction. These castes will neither eat, drink, nor sleep together. They regard the touch of one belonging to an inferior caste as contami- nation. They will not sit on the same place, or use the same thing. " I once saw a high caste Hindoo," says one, " dash an 472 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. earthen jar of milk upon the ground, and break it to atoms, merely because the shadow of a Pariah had fallen upon it as he passed." If they were dying they would lend each other no assistance. They would not give one dying of hunger or thirst a crust of bread or a cup of water ! Woman in India is degraded into the condition of a slave. The birth of a daughter is regarded as a calamity. The supreme duty of woman, according to the Shastres, is absolute obedience — first to her father, then to her husband, and in old age, to her sons/ She has no choice as to her marriage. She is not to mention her husband's name ; not to eat with him at table ; not to be seen walking with him ; not to be inquired after by guests ; and never to be taught even the rudiments of knowledge. Handsome women do not know the letters of the alphabet. "A woman," say their sacred books, " is not allowed to go out of the house without the consent of her husband ; nor to laugh without a vail over her face ; nor to stand at the door ; nor to look out at the window. She is like a heifer on the plain, that still longs for fresh grass. Envy, deceit, infidelity, violence, and viciousness are all hers. She was made for servitude to her husband. She has no fitness for his equal companionship." The Brahmins are excessively proud, and demand from their followers divine worship. Some of them are acute and learned in their way, but the majority spend their time in dreamy indolence. The Hindoos believe in the transmigration of souls, which the Brahmins sedulously teach. It is related that a Hindoo, of a re- flecting mind, lay upon his death-bed. As he saw himself about to plunge into the dread abyss, he cried out, " What will become of me ?" " Oh," said a Brahmin, " you will inhabit another body." "And where," said he, "shall I go then?" "Into another," was the reply. " And where then ?" " Into another, and an- other, and thus on through millions^of years." Darting along this immense period, as if it were only an instant, he cried, "And where shall I go then ?" But there was no reply ; and the poor heathen died with the inquiry upon his lips. A spirit of skepticism and of inquiry begins to pervade the Hin- doo mind. Some have abandoned the chief peculiarities of the Brahminic faith, and others have become Christians. " Ah ! this is what I want," cried one of them, throwing away his Shastres, as he listened to the Gospel. God speed the day when the power of caste shall be broken forever, and a pure faith cheer the heart and guide the steps of man and woman, " walking together," as equals and companions, in the paths of holiness and peace. But we must bid adieu to Hindostan, and crossing the Bay of INDIA. 473 Bengal, enter the mouth of the Irrawaddy and ascend through the long and fertile valley in which lie Burmah, the scene of the labors of Judson, Boardman, and other heroic men and women, and the country of the Karens, a primitive people, who are turn- ing by hundreds to the Christian faith, and thence among the hill tribes, from which we will cross to the valley of the Brahmapootra, in which lies Assam, one of the most beautiful regions in this part of the world, encircled, particularly on the north, by hills, and occu- pied by an interesting race of Hindoos, many of whom have been converted to Christianity. Most of these countries is, either in whole or in part, under the control of the British government. The Burmans, however, are yet, to some extent, independent. They are followers of Buddh, or Gaudama, and are exceedingly proud and bigoted. Their government is a despotism, and their religion a system of infidelity, which denies a supreme and eternal God, and leads to nigban, or annihilation, as the last hope of the weary soul. All have heard of the labors and heroic sacrifices of Mr. Judson, in the golden Ava, and other parts of the Burman Empire. Long years he labored successfully in this interesting field, translated the whole Bible into the Burman tongue, and had nearly com- pleted a dictionary of the language, when he closed his labors at sea, whither he had gone for the benefit of his health, and was buried in the depths of the ocean. His noble and heroic wife, the first Mrs. Judson, sleeps on the banks of the Salwen, under the shadow of the hopia-tree. 474 THE WORLD WE LIVE LW. CHAPTER XXV Except Russia, China is the most extensive empire in the world ; in population, however, far outnumbering Russia and even Hin- dostan. It stretches from the eighteenth to the fifty-second parallel of latitude, and from the one hundred and forty-third to the seven- tieth meridian of longitude ; its boundaries are those of nature only, having on the north a frontier of 3000 miles, on the Pacific one of 2000, and stretching to the north and west beyond Persia to a limit as yet unknown. The entire coast-line of China is 3350 miles, and the circuit of its domains 12,550. It comprises about one- third of the continent of Asia, and nearly one-tenth of the habit- able part of the globe. The name China is to be traced probably to Tsin, or Chin, the chieftain of a family which gained complete sway previous to the period of the Christian era. The country and its inhabitants are known to the Malays, Hindoos, and other Asiatic nations only by the name of Tin, Chin, Sin, Sinoe, — whence we find it in Isa. xlix. 12, spoken of as " the land of Sinim," that being the plural of Sin. The Chinese themselves do not designate their country by any of the names given to it by foreigners, but call it the " Middle King- dom," " the Middle Flowery Kingdom," " the Black Haired Race," "Tang-jin," or "Men of Tang," "Han-jin," or "Sons of Han," and so forth. They suppose themselves to occupy about the cen- ter of the world, and to be among the most cultivated and polished of all nations. China is divided into three parts, the eighteen provinces, or China proper, Manchuria, and the colonial posses- sions. The Chinese are to be found in great numbers beyond their own domains, in Siam, Assam, and even in Persia. By the most recent authorities their whole number is estimated at three hundred millions.* The larger proportion of the country is culti- vated, being every where covered with a dense and industrious population. It is diversified by mountains, lakes, rivers, and canals. Among: its great works are the Chinese Wall and the Grand Canal. The wall is estimated at 1250 miles in length, * Some, however, have maintained that all the statistics upon this sub- ject are uncertain, and suggest one-half this number as the probable popu- lation of China. Gutzlaff and Williams put it at three hundred and seventy millions. CHINA. 475 CHINA. 411 " topping the precipices and scaling the crags." In some places it is a mere bank of earth ; in others a mass of substantial masonry. The eastern part, which is the more substantial, is twenty-five feet thick at the bottom and fifteen at the top, faced with ma- sonry, and from fifteen to thirty feet high. Brick towers occur at intervals along the course of it, about forty feet in hight, forty feet square at the base and thirty at the top. The Grand Canal forms an almost complete water communica- tion between Peking and Canton, carrying the advantages of ac- cess by water to nearly all the large towns lying between them. Some conception of the vastness of the work may be formed from the fact, that in A. D. 1375, Sing Li, one of the emperors, em- ployed upon one portion of it 300,000 men for seven months. It coincides with some of the rivers along its course, and adopts their channels for considerable distances. The canal is 650 miles in length, nearly twice the length of the Erie Canal in New York. The locks are formed of thick planks sliding in grooves cut in stone buttresses. China, though chiefly an agricultural country, has extensive manufactures and commerce, and, while covered with a numerous population in all the rural districts, has a great number of large cities. Some of these contain from five hundred thousand to a million of inhabitants. Of these perhaps Canton is the best known. By visiting this city we shall get an idea of the crowded population and the external aspects of Chinese city life. This city, as also Amoy, Foo-Choo-Foo, Shanghai, and Ningpo, are accessible to foreigners, being the five open ports ceded to the use of foreign commerce. The appearance of the river going up to Canton is picturesque and striking. On the hights rise a number of garrisoned forts. The soldiers in their military attire present themselves as we pass. Near these forts beautiful banyan-trees are generally grown, a practice said to arise from the superstition of the soldiers, who believe that beneath their shelter they become musket-proof. Other hights are surmounted by towering pagodas, places of Buddhist worship. On the acclivities and summits cultivation is every where visible. Houses of the peasantry peep out at inter- vals, and water-wheels, used in irrigation, add to the picturesque appearance of the scene. Lining the banks are numerous boats, floating or stationary, used for the rearing of ducks and fowls, in which their owners, with their wives, families, and connections, spend their lives. These boats are from thirty to forty feet in length, surmounted with a roof made of bamboo, and thatched with paddy (rice) 478 THE WORLD WE LIVE EST. straw, under which the rowers sit upon stools, eight inches in hight. The ducks are guided on the water by whip and voice. At night they come tumbling in at the crack of the owner's whip, which they greatly dread. The wife takes her part in the busi- ness of the boat, generally standing at the stem, moving a very long oar, which works on an iron pivot, and both steers and pro- pels the boat, with a singular motion of her head and wrists. In one corner is always seen their household Joss, or god, with joss- sticks constantly burning before him. Joss is a jolly-looking god, with a " pot belly," round cheeks, and grinning mouth, generally of small dimensions, and stained black. Night and morning they " chin-chin" Joss, honoring him by beating gongs, and burning paper offerings. The wife, as she guides the boat, may frequently be seen with an infant tied to her back, while other children of various ages are playing about the boat. The younger have gourds attached to their backs, as life-buoys, lest they should fall overboard. But they often let the little fellows take their chance, even when they fall overboard, as they have the notion that a person rescued from drowning will inevitably injure his preserver. Some of the boats have vegetable gardens suspended from their sides. In the center of the boat is a small tank, in which they keep and fatten their fish. At night they sleep under their thatched roof upon mats, with such pillows of rattan, wood, or other material they find most convenient. Ascending the river the scenery is beautifully diversified. The atmosphere is loaded with the fragrance of orange groves and bananas. Mandarin, or police boats, with ten or twenty oars on each side, increase in number, the rowers dressed in gayly painted bamboo caps of a conical form. From the masts float long silken streamers or flags, with the names of the owners blazoned in golden letters. Little boats with fruit, and here and there a huge Chinese junk, with its gayly painted stern and weighty mat-sails, diversify the scene. On the prow is painted an enormous eye, — that it may see where it is going ! Yonder are moored various fishing boats, furnished with aquatic birds trained to catch fish by diving. Round the neck of these birds rings are fastened, to keep them from swallowing the fish. Junks of great variety, and some of much splendor, meet us as we advance, with cabins upon cab- ins, producing a singular effect. As we approach Canton the river is so crowded with water-craft, of all shapes and sizes, cross- ing and recrossing each other, that we almost despair of forcing a passage. On each side boats are moored, in which families have their permanent abode, some with their fronts handsomely carved and gayly painted. On their decks or flat roofs you see the in- CHINA. 479 mates sitting and smoking amid painted flower-pots tastefully- arranged. Among the most gayly decorated of these are the boats called " flower boats" — sinks of prostitution and iniquity ; for, alas ! the Chinese, with all their order and thrift, like the heathen nations generally, are greatly addicted to vicious practices. Boats innumerable, and devoted to all sorts of purposes, some be- longing to mandarins, others to artisans, others to traders, some filled with flowers, others with fruits, and others with tea or food, are wedged together in one solid mass, apparently impenetrable, as far as the eye can reach, while the air is filled with the deafen- ing sound of gongs and wind instruments, mingled with the yelling, screaming, shouting, chattering, and clamor of hundreds of thou- sands of busy tongues, presenting a scene to the European or American traveler the most novel and astounding. At last we are in Canton, a perfect wilderness of long narrow streets, with here and there a huge pagoda, a temple, or other public edifice, Many of these streets are crowded with shops and stores, open in front, and filled with innumerable articles of traffic, among which you sometimes see singular specimens of live stock, puppy dogs yelping in bamboo cages, kittens mewing, rats squeak- ing, fowls chucking, and pigs grunting ; and not only so, but fish swimming, with earth-worms and slugs variously disposed in tubs and other vessels. Yonder is a barber with his iron tweezers, and near him another is plaiting the tail (queue), cleaning the ears, shaving the head and face of a customer, which operation he fin- ishes by a good thumping of his back, and cracking of his joints. Hard by are venders of cooked food, with enormous red umbrellas, dealers in sweetmeats, and all sorts of nick-nacks. Stalls for books, and others for drugs, and a thousand things besides, line the streets. Fortune-tellers, dice-players, and jugglers ply their skill ; the air is filled with a perfect Babel of sounds. Other streets are filled with stores of different descriptions, some of them being quite splendid. The stores in New and Old China street are filled with one mass of gaudily painted carved work. The houses generally are small and low, the upper part always latticed and painted green. The interiors of the stores are neatly fitted up, and the goods are tastefully set out. The inter- mixture of various-colored paper, pendent inscriptions, and varie- gated lanterns have a grotesque effect. Beggars stand at the doors of all the stores, knocking two pieces of bamboo till they receive alms. Different streets are appropriated to different trades. In one street, for example, are gathered all the tailors, in another all the carpenters, in another all the shoemakers, and so on. 480 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. " The most showy and attractive of all the shops," says a lively writer, in the Dublin Review, " are those of the lantern venders. There hang all varieties, from the large silken lanterns, three and four feet high, decorated with fringe of gold and silver, and painted with variegated colors, which are used in the residences of the mandarins, and cost about one hundred and fifty dollars, to the common small horn and paper lanterns used by coolies, which cost no more than one-sixteenth of a dollar. The mode of making the horn lanterns is very ingenious. The horns of bullocks and goats are cut into remarkably thin slices, which, by means of heat and pressure, are joined together, and formed into various shapes — round, square, hexagon, octagon, and some even resembling an hour-glass. These are variously painted, and covered with a species of net- work. To the top is attached a folding triangle, which forms, when closed, a handle for convenience of carriage, and when expanded a stand, from whose summit hangs the lan- tern : these vary in price and size. It is usual for servants to carry before their masters large lanterns, either of horn or of highly varnished paper, with his name and title painted on them in large characters. At the Feast of Lanterns, which takes place at the early part of the Chinese year, these lantern-^hops have a very gay and diversified appearance, and their proprietors reap a rich harvest, as it is customary at this feast for parents to make presents of lanterns to their children, and for inferiors to act simi- larly to their superiors, which are expensive in proportion to the means of the donor. Some of these are made to represent birds, beasts, and fish, and others have movable figures on their sides. In fact this feast is somewhat similar to the fete of the New Year in France, lanterns being given instead of bon-bons. At night all these lanterns are lighted up and hung on the exterior of their houses, and the illumination thus created is far superior to any ever witnessed in Europe. The streets are crowded, and each person takes as much pride in the expensive and showy appear- ance of lanterns hung outside his house, as the members of clubs, &c, in London do in the brilliancy of their illuminations on birth- nights. They exhibit a surprising degree of ingenuity in the me- chanical construction of some of their lanterns, which are formed with moving figures, intended to represent the actions of life. But of all I have seen, one which was presented to me was the most perfect and beautiful. This was of a hexagon form, about two feet and a half high and five feet in circumference. On its respective sides were moving figures, representing a Chinaman fishing with a rod, which moved up and down, with a fish hang- ing at the end of the line ; John Bull dancing, and in the act of CHINA. 481 21 CHINA. 483 v pouring out a bottle of porter into a goblet, all the limbs being in motion ; a tiger in the act of jumping upon a man, who evinced, from the motion of his limbs, and his head turning toward the beast, great terror ; a sanpan (a kind of boat) filled with fruit and vegetables, sculled by a boatwoman, with that peculiar motion of her arms and feet used in sculling ; a Chinaman in the act of rais- ing food to his mouth with chop-sticks ; and lastly, a sportsman taking aim at a bird, which was perpetually fluttering in the air ; while Tartar horsemen, in their tiger-skin uniforms, and lances or spears couched, chased each other around the lantern. The cos- tumes, figures, and appurtenances were accurately portrayed ac- cording to life and nature : the figures continued in motion as the lamps burned. The lamps were composed of several small saucers filled with oil, to feed small wicks lying at their sides. The revo- lution of the horsemen was effected by a sort of smoke- jack, to which they were attached by long human hairs ; an inner frame- work revolved by the same means, and moved the pegs to which the various figures of the lantern were fastened. The framework of this lantern was composed of bamboo, which was covered with silk, and the bottom was decorated with an embroidered silken fringe. I considered it as a perfect 'masterpiece of mechanical skill in its way." In some of the streets of Canton may be seen stores filled with the richest and most beautifully ornamented porcelain, others with lackered work, silver-ware, and so forth. One whole street is devoted to birds, of which the Chinese are very fond, often paying a hundred dollars for some peculiar favorite. Canton is surrounded by walls, from twenty-five to forty feet high. There are several gates in the walls, shut at night and constantly guarded by soldiers. Besides two large pagodas, there are one hundred and twenty-four temples, pavilions, halls and other religious edifices in the city. The people are not devout, but excessively superstitious. They will sometimes chide their gods, nay, cuff their ears, when angry with them for supposed neglect or injury. But every where images abound. Throughout the city are seen little gilded shrines and huge demoniac images. Priests, with sleepy eyes, saunter in the sun or lounge about the temples. The Honam Joss House, so called, a Buddhist temple, has attached to it one hundred and seventy-five priests, only a portion of whom can read. The temple of " Glorious Filial Duty'' has two hundred priests, who are supported by a glebe of 3500 acres of land. The number of priests in Canton is said to exceed two thousand, nine-tenths of whom are Buddhists. The temples, sometimes striking in their exterior, after all are cheerless abodes. 484 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. The areas in front are filled with throngs of idlers, beggars, and small traders, who are occasionally driven off to make way • for some fantastic theatrical performance by the priests. The hall of the temple, occupied by a gloomy idol, is lighted only in front, adorned by an altar, drum, and bells. The inner cells are inhabited by men about as stupid as their idols, miserable beings, who, having abandoned society, here spend an idle and wretched life. In Canton is the celebrated Kung-Yuen, or Hall of Literary Examination, containing several thousand cells, for the examina- tion of students who assemble at the examination held in it. The city contains four prisons, for hither are brought all capital offences in the province for trial. The foreign factories or warehouses, on the western side of Canton, are the most showy buildings in the city. The term hong in Chinese signifies a series or succession, and is applied to the merchants, because their warehouses contain a succession of apartments. Most of the trades and manufactures of Canton have reference to foreign commerce. Fifty thousand persons are supposed to be engaged in weaving cloth, including the embroiderers ; besides which are 7000 barbers, and 4000 shoe- makers, " licensed to shave the crowns and shoe the soles of their fellow-citizens." Ningpo, another large and flourishing city, is important on ac- count of its foreign relations. It is situated at the junction of three streams, a few miles from the ocean. Here and in Canton, Shanghai, and,- we believe, Macao, have been established several Protestant missions from England and the United States. Ningpo lies in a magnificent plain, forming an amphitheater, stretching one side some twelve to eighteen miles to the base of the mount- ains, and on the other to the verge of the ocean. On the land side you see canals and Avater-courses, fields and farm-houses, pleas- ant cottages, family residences, hamlets, and villages, with tombs, monasteries, and temples. Toward the ocean the country is plain as it descends to the shore, but the river is alive with boats, and its banks are studded with ice-houses. Public buildings and temples, some dedicated to one god and some to another, adom the interior of the city. Lagoons furnish aquatic amusements. The most striking building in the city is " The Heaven- Conferred Pagoda," or Tower of Ningpo, a vast and somber edifice, supposed to be over a thousand years old. The most elegantly furnished building in the city is a temple dedicated to the popular goddess, Ma Tsupu (Queen of Heaven). The lanterns and scrolls hanging from the ceiling, and other ornaments, inscriptions, and figures on the walls, external and internal, give it a peculiar and attractive CHINA. 485 appearance. The population is supposed to reach from a quarter to half a million. Nanking, one of the largest of the Chinese cities, is celebrated abroad for its lofty and elegant Porcelain Tower, called by the Chinese the " Recompensing Favor Monastery," composed of the richest materials, well proportioned, and brilliantly gilded. The summit is reached by a spiral staircase, two hundred and sixty feet high. The whole consists of nine equal stories, decreasing gradually to the top. The outer surface is covered with porce- lain slabs, green, red, yellow, white, and other colors. At every story is a 5 projecting roof, covered with green tiles, and a bell projecting from each corner. The saloons are more gaudy than elegant, and full of riches, in which are placed many gilded im- ages. It was nineteen years in building, and is more than four hundred years old. Nanking is also celebrated for its manufac- ture of satin, crape, &c, and is much renowned for the scholar- ship of its literary men. Shanghai, the seat of several foreign missions, is a large place, of considerable commerce and trade, but poorly built, with nar- row, dirty streets. All the great cities of China are pretty much alike ; but Peking, the capital, which has a population variously estimated from one to two millions, has some very broad streets, running between op- posite gates in the divisions of the city to which they respectively belong. The other streets, however, are narrow and close, like those of Canton. At the four points where the great streets in- tersect each other, are singular -looking erections, resembling tri- umphal arches, built of stone or wood, with a large central gate- way, and a smaller one on each side, roofed and richly gilded. These are monuments of the great men that have deserved well of their country. In the northern part of the city are the palaces of the empe- rors, with their imposing titles, though far inferior to European palaces in magnificence. Within the royal precincts is a temple to which the emperor comes to revere the manes of his ancestors, and obtain from them blessings. These constitute one of three inclosures in this part of the city. A second inclosure is called " the August City" — about six miles in circumference. This comprises several idol-temples, a depository of military stores, ex- tensive public granaries, and a military seminary. It has also an artificial mountain, in the centre of an extensive park. A third inclosure is called " the Imperial City," and contains the offices of the six tribunals of the empire. The Russian Mission, the temple of Yung ho Kung, or of " eternal peace," the largest and 486 THE WOELD WE LIVE EN". most sacred edifice in the city, having in it an institution for the instruction of lamas (god-priests), for the service of .Thibet. Here also is the National College, in which is concentrated all the learning and literature of China. All the literati of the empire, all the colleges and principal schools, are subordinate to this establishment, which nominates examiners of the compositions re- quired of candidates for civil offices. Manchoo, Chinese, and Russian literature meets here with equal attention, and all religions are sanctioned within its precincts. A majority of the inhabitants are dependent, more or less, on the court. Peking is the great emporium of printing, and the principal seat of the book-trade. But let us pass into the country. Every spot, you perceive, is cultivated. The hills are terraced, and covered with various pro- ductions to their summits. The houses, generally made of bam- boo, are light and airy, to catch the breeze, for the climate is in- tensely hot. Fruit-trees of every tropical variety abound. The productions are various. Rice, sugar, silk, tea, fruits — every thing in a word, which a fine country and an ingenious people can culti- vate. Rice is the staff of life, and tea the great article of com- merce. The finest qualities, from their high price, and demand among the richer classes, are not exported. The finest is worth its weight in silver. The orange plantations are beautiful, filling the air with fraorance. The bamboo-tree, the leading tree of the country, is applied to numberless uses. Cotton grows freely in many parts of the country. The tea-plant grows wild in China, to the hight of two or three feet, and bears a white fragrant flower ; when cultivated it attains the hight of four or five feet. It is planted in rows, and weeded with the greatest care. The greater the care bestowed upon the plant, the finer is the quality of the tea. There are many varieties, much depending upon the nature of the soil. They have more than one hundred descrip- tions of the tea-plant. It is a mistake that the green tea is made by drying upon copper, as copper is never used for drying it. But black teas are often made green by coloring matter, which is very easily discovered by chewing a few leaves, or breathing upon a handful, when the green hue will soon disappear. This poor green tea is known as " Canton green." The green teas are a different species from the black altogether. The finest sorts of tea which are drunk by the mandarins and emperor, are cultivated with as much care as we bestow upon exotics. The younger the leaves are when gathered, the finer is the quality of the tea. The coarser kinds of tea, which are used by the poor, are the old leaves, which have been gathered without any preparation. CHINA. 487 The Chinese are essentially an agricultural people. They have wisely established laws for the protection and encouragement of agriculture. The emperor himself does not think it unworthy of his dignity, once every year, at the agricultural festival, to descend from his throne clad as a husbandman, to set the laudable exam- ple to his subjects of tilling the earth ; his family and courtiers, dressed in the same style, attending him on the occasion. The appointed day having been previously announced by authority throughout the empire, the emperor goes forth and ploughs a par- ticular field, and every farmer throughout the empire simultane- ously turns up the earth. The produce of the field ploughed by the emperor is preserved with great care, being regarded as far superior to any other. Neglected lands are forfeited, so that in China, not a spot of uncultivated land, except what is absolutely barren, can be seen. The ground is fertile and productive, but locusts often pass in devouring bands, and eat up the whole. What was a garden before them, is left behind them a wilderness. China is not without the precious metals. Iron, copper, silver, and even gold, are found in some of her mountains.* The climate is insufferably hot in the dry season ; in winter quite cold. The rainy season is a perfect deluge. Their modes of irrigation are ingenious. The paddy corn is thrashed out sometimes by bam- boo flails, and sometimes by the tread of oxen. Rice is applied to innumerable uses. They not only eat it and distill it, but make it into ornaments. The straw thatches their houses, and out of it they construct coarse mats and paper. The husks are carefully collected, and being mixed with a greasy substance, are formed into cakes to feed the pigs. The rice itself is pounded into a paste, out of which, hardened in the fire, they make bottles and vases. In a word, every spot of ground, and every production of the earth in China is turned to some use. They extract a fine oil from the kernels of apricots, and a beautiful black dye from acorn cups. The finest scarlet coloring matter is extracted from the cactus. Paper is made from the rind of a species of syca- more-tree. Indeed, paper and printing existed in China before they were known in Europe. Paints and dyes superior to any thing known in the western world, are used by their artists, who, though destitute of ideality and invention in the higher depart- ments of art, have great ingenuity, and remarkable power of imi- tation. * The Chinese make little use of their iron mines, as they do not under- stand the manufacture of iron. 488 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. CHAPTER XXXVI. CHINA, CONTINUED WITH NOTICES OF SIAM AND JAPAN. The Chinese are the most enlightened, and we may add, com- pared with others,, the most virtuous of all the pagan nations. Their religion, though idolatrous, is free from human sacrifices and obscene symbols. Of general geography, chronology, astron- omy, and history, they know comparatively nothing.* Yet they have innumerable books, and extensive libraries. Indeed, they may be styled a literary people, making literary attainments the stepping-stone and indispensable prerequisite to civil office. The government is a despotism ; but all offices are open to the enter- prising. The laws are tolerably well administered. Punishments, though generally severe and degrading, may be commuted by fines, &c. Instances have been known in which individuals were hired to suffer death in the stead of others. Bribes and evasions are common enough, and riots and revolutions are not unknown, but a high degree of order and quiet prevails through the land. The origin of the people is lost in the twilight of the past. Their own chronology is false and preposterous ; their early history a fable and a dream. They are of the Mongol race. Their appear- ance is peculiar. In stature they are short, though there are ex- ceptions to this rule, rather " round," and in old age inclining to obesity ; their faces oval, with prominent cheek-bones, black, an- gular eyes, resembling those of the pig, complexion yellow, or yellowish brown, hair black and wiry, a tuft of which only is left upon the head, the rest of the head, with the face, being kept, in the case of males, perfectly smooth. The hair is plaited into a tail, which hangs down the back nearly to the heels. When short, they piece it out with black silk braid, ingeniously plaited into the hair. The expression of the face, upon the whole, is intelligent, though by no means handsome. The women are below the mid- dle size, not well formed, their complexions a little more delicate, but the same as that of the men, though without any intelligence of expression. Their dress, among the lower orders, varies little from that of the men. Every where they are regarded as slaves. * We ought to state here that " Murray's Encyclopedia of Geography" has just been translated and published by one of their great men. They begin to learn a little of the world around them. CHINA. 489 Untaught, in a nation attaching great value to learning, their minds are vacant and dull. The Chinese writers uniformly speak of women with contempt. The clothing of the lower class of men consists of very wide, loose trowsers, and a jacket made of highly glazed calico, of native manufacture. The higher classes are more sumptuously attired, wearing long silken robes, reaching to their feet (those of the mandarins being more or less embroid- ered, according to their rank), silk trowsers, and black satin boots, with felt soles, three inches thick, and pointed, turned-up toes. In winter they wear half a dozen garments, of various sorts, all wadded ; robe, spencers, and velvet tippets, thickly wadded with cotton, and lined with fur, with a velvet stock round their necks, about two inches high. In summer the mandarins wear a conical cap of exceedingly fine white straw, with a splendid tassel, and surmounted with a button denoting their rank ; in winter, a black satin cap, with a turned-up brim. The Chinese change their summer dress simultaneously, at the order of the emperor. The fan and umbrella are in constant use among the Chinese. Nothing is done without a fan. Your tailor takes your orders, fanning himself all the time ; your servants at dinner will hand you a plate with one hand, and fan themselves with the other. The women of all classes are fond of trinkets, wearing as many armlets, bracelets, &c, as they can afford ; yet gold is never used by them for this purpose. The dress of the upper classes is nearly as handsome as that of the mandarins : every part of the dress, however, must be of a different color. The great object of the ladies is to put on as many colors, and as much embroidery as possible. The shoes have heels about an inch high, and the uppers are embroidered with silver and gold tinsel, &c. Instead of stockings, red and black cloth is bound round the foot and leg. Like the men, they wear under their jackets a silken girdle, to which is invariably attached an embroidered bag, which contains their pipe and tobacco ! They uniformly carry a handsome fan. The beau ideal of female beauty, among the Chinese, consists in feet deformed and " compressed into a mass three inches in length," bandaged up from infancy in bindings, never unwound till womanhood (one may imagine their odor) ; a fleshless figure ; a dingy, yellow complexion, plastered with white cosmetic ; high cheek-bones ; remarkably small piggish eyes, with penciled eye- brows, meeting over the nose ; low brow, with oblong ears ; coarse black hair, anointed with pork fat, until it stands on end, then drawn up from the face to the top of the head, where it is dressed in a high top-knot, in which are stuck, perpendicularly, silver pins, and occasionally flowers. 21* 490 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN. Marriage is a matter of traffic or agreement among the parents. Children are taught to revere their parents, and it is affirmed that the Chinese enjoy considerable domestic comfort. The poor are omnivorous, devouring every thing edible ; but the rich are dainty in their food, and indulge themselves in all sorts of nice and luxu- rious eating. The modern emperors of China are of the Manchoo, sometimes, though perhaps erroneously, called the Tartar, dynasty. Their reign is firm and despotic. The government is conducted by a system of universal espionage. Every officer is a spy upon another. The army is numerous, but readily yields to the supe- rior force of European soldiers. The great men of the empire are distinguished for their pride and love of show. They hold the common people in the greatest contempt. There are in China three chief systems of religion — those of Confucius, Laotse, and Buddh, or Buddha. The former is for the more learned, being, in fact, rather a moral code than a religious creed. The second differs from this but little, and there is no difficulty in holding the views of both. The Buddhist religion is for the least educated classes. There is no state religion in the empire. The emperor is a Buddhist, or follower of Fo ; but he is also a follower of Confucius. China is tolerant of all religions. The early Catholic priests were extremely well received ; their learning and science were highly esteemed ; their teachings were allowed; members even of the royal family were converted to their doctrines ; and there was a good prospect that the empire would be converted to Christianity. But the priests divided into two parties — the early Jesuits forbidding, and the others allowing, the Chinese to pay worship to their ancestors. The Pope issued his bull, and decided the controversy. The disturbance came to the knowledge of the emperor, who, indignant at this presump- tion, banished all the priests, and prohibited the people from em- bracing Christianity, on pain of death. His wrath did not subside until the negotiation with the French and Americans, the latter of whom, by the seventeenth article of the treaty, are allowed to establish hospitals, cemeteries, and churches, in any of the five free ports. The manner in which this permission was granted was highly gratifying. Kwang, the present lieutenant-governor of the Kwang provinces, was present at one of the many conferences which were had upon the subject of the treaty. The American interpreters, Drs. Parker and Bridg- man, were also present with the American functionaries. When they came to this item of the treaty, Kwang turned to Dr. Parker, whom he well knew, and who enjoys, in an extraordinary degree, CHINA. 491 the regard and respect of the Chinese, both officers and people, and said, with a courteous smile, " Certainly, churches and hospi- tals, if you please." The Buddhist is the religion of the lowest and uneducated classes, who demand visible and tangible objects of worship. Their tem- ples, like the Catholic churches in Macao, have decorations, pic- tures, &c. They worship the virgin mother, make prayers for the dead, have nuns and monks, and petition for every thing, from deliverance of their friends from purgatory, to a handsome wife or a rich husband. Beside every shop is an idol of the god of wealth ; and every house has a god of longevity, to which devout and daily prayers are, offered. Most of them are utterly ignorant of the existence even of a future state. The religion of Confucius, if, indeed, it deserve the name of re- ligion, is, after all, a system of dry and lifeless rationalism. Prop- erly speaking, it has no religious doctrines, no supreme and eter- nal God, no heaven, no immortality. Confucius said little or nothing upon these subjects. A few ethical and prudential maxims would comprise his entire moral code. He left the whole domain of " the invisible and the eternal" in the profoundest darkness. It would seem, indeed, that the Chinese, while superstitious enough, have no conception of a spiritual religion. Literally, they may be said to be without Cod, and without hope of immortality. Confucius, not God, is the object of worship to all the followers of this illustrious sage. There are in China about 2000 temples dedicated to his honor. At one period of Chinese history, the image of Confucius was placed in his temple, and worshiped ; but this resembled Buddhism too much to please the learned, and, for several centuries, they have contained his tablet only. ' To this the faithful direct their devotions. That part of the tablet on which Chinese characters are gilded is about a yard long ; the rest in proportion. The characters signify — " Divine throne or seat of the most HOLT teacher Confucius." Twice a year, in spring and autumn, a little before dawn, all the mandarins, dressed in the most gorgeous style, assemble at the temple of Confucius, to pay him divine honors, by prayers, prostrations, and sacrifices of oxen or hogs before the tablet. At the same time, candles are kept burning, and odoriferous incense rises from the vessel in the cen- ter of the altar. Buddhism, as already stated, is the most prevalent form of wor- ship among the great mass of the people, and a more puerile and degrading system of faith can scarcely be imagined. Lamaism, the lowest form of man- worship, flourishes in some parts of the empire. Indeed, the Chinese have many forms and objects of 492 THE WOELD WE LIVE IN. adoration. Decided remains of Sabianism, or the worship of the heavenly bodies, are found among them : the worship of the moon, for example, is general in China, and dates from remote times. The worship of ancestors is practiced by all the Chinese, learned or unlearned. But one of the most popular deities is Miss Ling, the " queen of heaven." The following account of this Chinese goddess is from the pen of Dr. Macgowan : " Between six and seven hundred years ago, the Chinese say, there was on the Fakien coast a family named Ling, consisting of the parents, two sons, and two daughters. Mr. Ling, who was a fisherman, was once overtaken by a violent storm. He jmlled hard for the shore, aided by his sons, but the wind and waves over- powered their little bark, and it was swamped. " At this very moment, Mrs. Ling observed the youngest daugh- ter asleep at her spinning-wheel, and unhappily called out to her so sharply, that she instantly awoke. She then told her mother that she had seen her father and brothers in the midst of the sea, struggling for existence, and in her vision had caught a brother in each arm, and her father in her teeth ; but, as she was roused from her sleep, her mouth opened, and the head of the family dropped out, and was lost. " All this was confirmed by the brothers, who returned soon after, and reported that an arm had upheld each of them until they got to a place of safety, while their father was drowned. " From that period, until her death, Miss Ling enjoyed a high reputation in all those parts, as a deliverer in storms at sea, and in pestilence on shore. This girl began her operations at the age of fourteen, and died single at thirty. The particulars of her death are not given, but it is stated that a temple was immediately erected to her memory by the people of her native place. " After her death, she heard the cries of all who were in dis- tress at sea, and soon became so popular with sailors, that no boat would put from shore without her image. Among the numerous cases narrated of her miraculous aid to mariners in distress, is the following : " An imperial ambassador, who was on his way to Corea, met with boisterous weather at first, and afterward encountered a ty- phoon. His whole fleet, which consisted of eight vessels, was wrecked, except the one in which he sailed. He attributed his deliverance to the efficacy of his prayers to the goddess. " On his return, he reported his adventures to the emperor, whereupon that ' son of heaven' conferred a flattering title on the rising deity, and caused a temple to be erected for her worship. CHINA. 493 As lier reputation increased, new honors and more imposing names were given her by the emperor, until about one hundred and twenty-five years ago, the emperor, Young Ching, conferred the title of ' Queen of Heaven,' which she has since been permitted to enjoy. The name was borrowed from the Roman Catholics, who style the Virgin Mary the queen of heaven. " In the history of Ningpo, there are several superstitious stories about the ' queen of heaven,' and one of them is connected with the origin of a splendid temple erected for her worship. The founder of this establishment was a sea-captain, to whom the goddess appeared in a storm. She was seen on the mainmast, and, when the skipper made vows of costly sacrifices to her lady- ship, she saved the junk. The present temple is said to have cost one hundred thousand dollars. There is another in this city not less expensive. Indeed, the coasts, rivers, and lakes of China are dotted with costly buildings erected in honor of the fisherman's daughter. " Before sailing, it is common for sailors to treat her to a play, when she is taken to a choice seat, and invited to witness the exhi- bition got up expressly to please her, and to secure for them a prosperous voyage." Though the higher classes affect to despise the superstitions of the vulgar, the greatest scholars and statesmen, as well as sailors, unite in the worship. We have already said that the Chinese may be termed a literary people. Certainly, they have many books, among which are lexi- cons, annals, histories, moral sayings, stories, novels, poetry, bal- lads,