w HUMAN EACTORl I Class y^S a Book- - /V e J Copyright]^" COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/humanfactorinworOOhart THE HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT THE HUMAI^ FACTOR IN WORKS MAl^AGEMEI^T BY JAMES HARTNESS, M.E. MEMBER AMERICAN SOCIETY MECHANICAL ENGINEERS INSTITUTION OP MECHANICAL ENGINEERS FELLOW AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, ETC. McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY 239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK 6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E.G. 1912 Copyright, 1912, by James Hartness k'^'' ^\^ THB-PLIMPTON'PRESS'NOBWOOD-MASS'U-S-A gC!.A316623 FOREWORD This book is an attempt to set forth some of the most essential principles of industrial economics. Special emphasis is laid on the proper use of the human being, especially as regards modes of emplojonent of mind and body. Particular attention is given to those modes of use that are the most favorable to the com- fort and success, not only of the man in the office or works, but to the success of the organ- ization, or industry, or nation. Emphasis is also given to the value of habit, both as a pres- ent means and as one by which progress can most easily be made. In reaching the conclusion of any book touching subjects so varied as this, there is a feeling of the incompleteness of the treat- ment. This must always be so. We can do no more than contribute our mite, vi FOREWORD and it is better to make our contribution now than to wait till a larger sum is in hand. There may seem to be a lamentable lack of direct examples which might illustrate the application of the theory, doctrine, or law set forth; but since such examples will readily come to mind to any one who has caught the spirit of the book, this lack may not be really objectionable. The main purpose has been to build up a standard of measure by which all ideas for management may be measured: one that will measure an ordinary suggestion for change that may come up diu*ing the day, or one that serves equally well in determining the real character of some of the greater poli- cies or systems of management. In other words, the purpose has been to contribute more to a true mental poise of mind than to add one jot or tittle to the excellent schemes of management that may be set forth in other works. CONTENTS Foreword PART I CHAPTER I The Value of Habit 3 Success Depends More on the Man than the Plan — Systems are a MeanSj not the End Sought — Progress from Invention — Selling the Product — Habit — New Habits Can be EstabHshed — Organization Eflaciency — Objections to SpeciaUza- tion — Value of Habit in the Industries — Fol- lowing the Habit Grooves — Human Inertia — Human WeKare and Industrial Success — Building on Habit — Unfavorable Conditions Must be Changed — Different Kinds of Men — Fitting the Pegs to the Holes — Specialization — Misuse of Energy when Specialization is not Practised — Mind and Body must both be Considered — Dissi- pation of Energies. CHAPTER II The Inertia of Habit 43 Giving Inertia Its Proper Value — Building on Old Ideas and Habits — Control of Progressive Energy — Considering the Individual — A Tired Body Dulls the Brain — Division of Work — Working in Strange Surroundings, [vii] viii CONTENTS CHAPTER III The Different Views of Industrial Organization 58 The Manager's View — The Value of a Market — Improvements often Bring Trouble — Progress must Continue — Capacity for New Ideas — Money not the Only Dividend. CHAPTER IV Increasing the Assimilating Capacity .... 70 Selection of Equipment — Labor Cost not the Only Consideration — Output per Dollar Invested — Fundamental Principles. PART II CHAPTER V Some Non-Technical Phases of Machine Design 81 Natural Fitness — Repeated Thinking — Con- centrating Attention — Interest must be Awak- ened, not Forced — EstabUshing Useful Ruts — Problems to Consider — ^ Designing by the Square Foot — Invention should not Mix with Detail — The Hero of the Evaser — The Toughened IdeaHst — Conforming to Economic Conditions — Get- ting Back to Nature — Technical View Insufficient — Easiest Way to Improve — Avoid Obscure Parts — Getting Out of the Rut ~ The True Value of a Business — Physical Condition of Worker — All Men are Human Beings — ControlUng the Mind — Cooperation Necessary for Success. CONTENTS ix PART III CHAPTER VI Machine Building for Profit 119 Good Results with Moderate Effort — Unim- portant Details — Seeing One Thing at a Time — The Spell of Environment — Financial Hazard — Conditions that Effect the Hazard — Value of Spe- cialization — Ambition Mania — Lack of Confi- dence in Product — Confidence in Existing Things — The Workers Help Bring Success — Progress with Full Knowledge of Facts — Largest Profit per Dollar Invested — Cost of the Product — Tying up Capital in Stock in Process of Con- struction. PART I THE VALUE OF HABIT THE HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT THE VALUE OF HABIT rjlHE value of habit is understood when we -*■ realize that it is the way by which man thinks and acts most efficiently. This kind of habit is usually designated as the usual custom, mode, or practice. It is the product of repetition of either a mental process or an act, or both. There may be either a complete or partial independence or interaction of the mind and body in the acqui- sition of habit. The ideal and most progressive process of habit-building starts from a mental stimulus.^^ But a very efficient habit condition may be established by mere repetition such as is fre- quently enforced by environment in the busi- ness or manufacturing world. Under such conditions even a certain kind of mental habit may be built up by routine clerical 4 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT work in which the man has Httle or no interest. These conditions do not awaken that inter- ested attention that is so essential to the higher type of mental processes, but they actually form a very efficient habit, and it operates without serious hindrance to the wandering of the thoughts to other subjects. As a classical example of this kind of func- tioning of mind and body we may cite Thomas Edison's account, in his biography, of the telegraphers at Nashville receiving their first intimation of the assassination of President Lincoln from the cries of the newsboys in the street, notwithstanding that the message had been transmitted to the local paper through that office. The whole subject is not exhaustively treated, only a Hne of thought being presented with the hope that this principle of the force of habit and its real economic value may be given a more careful consideration in all plans for betterment, progress, and profit. For it may be the missing link that seems to be needed to connect some of the present systems of management to the industrial world as it is. THE VALUE OF HABIT 5 Subdivision of Work or Specialization The whole treatment is in harmony with this idea, and to this end it emphasizes the im- portance of speciahzation. It is hoped too that it clearly demonstrates that economic success is dependent on the most complete subdivision of work and the greatest number of repe- titions of thought and action by each individ- ual up to the extent of his mental and bodily comfort. The extent of comfortable repeti- tion varies greatly in different people. It is at its lowest ebb in the Jack of all trades and in the restless, rapid thinker. Its highest development is found in nearly all who have contributed notably to the progress of the world. It may be strengthened or lessened by popular opinion or by environment, but it is finally the gauge to which the number of repetitions should go. \ Repetition forms habit and is absolutely necessary for success in this world today. It will be even more so in the future, for a shiftless wandering of the mind or body should never be tolerated. While repetition work has been condemned by many, it is not in itself 6 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT W degrading. On the contrary, it is the best means for developing concentration. This in the business man, inventor, or works manager, calls for continuity of thought along a given line. It will not tolerate a wandering mind, no matter how strenuous it may be, working by the desultory process. It says that men shall not be mental tramps, but that they shall keep their thoughts on their home work. In the factory it demands that every man's mind and body should have the most efficient use. The most complete subdivision of work must be made, to the end that each division may be readily understood, and that in this division and classification of tasks there may be a place for every man, and that every man should be in his own place. Repetition Need not be Degrading This is not a doctrine that degrades. It is one that simplifies the processes within the reach of the greatest number, and by repeti- tion of operations each man may easily become most efficient at his particular work. And last but not least, it clearly demonstrates THE VALUE OF HABIT 7 the inexorable law of the ultimate supremacy of the largest organization in a given industry, and in turn of the commercial or industrial supremacy of a state or nation that favors and fosters such organizations. It is not necessary for it to have special trade relations. It is only necessary for it to carry to the most complete subdivision of all of the various mental and physical tasks, so as to get the great results that accrue from repetition of processes. There is a way under some conditions of work to get this advantage of repetition of processes in comparatively small organizations. But whether the organization is small or large, the economic advantages go to the one in which each operation has the most favorable number of repetitions by the individual. Mere size of an organization, then, does not give it strength. A large organization may be very weak if each officer and workman is required to know about and perform a great variety of operations. But such dissipation is fast passing out of practice. The large organ- izations are specializing, and in so far as they do this they will succeed. 8 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT Under the heading of '^Some Non-Technical Phases of Machine Design '' will be found an effort to show the most efficient uses of an inventor's or designer's energies, by indicating what should be considered as essentials in machine design, and how an inventor should work. Although this title implies an appli- cation to a restricted field of industry, it is of far wider application, the concrete examples only furnishing a means of illustration. It is given in its original form as a lecture dehvered before the Stevens Engineering Soci- ety, composed of students of the Stevens Institute of Technology. It is hoped that it will be of value not only to the machine designer and inventor, but to those who have to direct or cooperate with them. Success Depends More on the Man THAN ^ THE PlAN In the industrial world we are confronted by the instability of things. There is a fluc- tuation in the fortune of each industry, each organization and, unfortunately, of each mor- tal. We know of no plan that can infallibly control either the ebb or flow of fortune. THE VALUE OF HABIT 9 There are men who have been uniformly successful in all of the undertakings in which they have engaged, but whether they can give to others their plan or not, we know that they never do. It is doubtful if any complete scheme can be formulated, the variants and the combinations are so new and so numerous. Perhaps we should not insist on the explorer teUing us how he got there. His business is to get there. He may have taken instructions from some one who never did and never could get there, or he may have made his own plan, but in either case his success was doubtless due to the way he carried out the plan. In other words, his success was the outcome of either his own methods or his own interpre- tation of another^s scheme, so that there is no prospect of our being able to sail by rule. The industrial sea is not fully charted. There is still a need for the navigator to sail ''guess and lead'^ and ''luck and log." The hardest workers and the most strenuous thinkers seem to be as unfortunate as those who take life less seriously. But, while these facts are true, it is not unreasonable to believe that we are truly 10 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT progressing toward a better control of the eco- nomic condition. For, great as has been the increase in intricacy of business relations and the complication of mechanical devices, there has also been a marked advance along lines of analysis of economic elements, with a tabu- lation and deduction that have brought much of the industrial problems within the reach of the ordinary mind. This advance has not been made any too soon. In fact, it has been tardy in arriving, but it is now here and it is now being carried forward by some of the best industrialists in the land. Systems are a Means, not the End Sought It must not be thought, however, that anal- ysis, tabulation, and simple deduction are the beginning and end of industrial science. They are only the scheme for coordinating the vari- ous forces. This process is so purely statisti- cal that it must not be mistaken for a major means. It is rather a minor means for coor- dinating the principal means. It tends to give a wholesome counterbalance for an over- visionary scheme of management, but in its function of coordinating all other forces, it THE VALUE OF HABIT 11 must itself be subjected to whatever modi- fication is necessary to make it fit into and use the real forces. In trying to solve the problems we naturally turn to observing all kinds of organizations. We find that they all bear evidence of imper- fection. Even the most successful are sel- dom found to be wholly free from economic blemishes. There may be either an indifference to the appeals of the advocate of this or that system of betterment, or a tendency to follow some one branch of improvement with more or less neglect of other opportunities. The neglect is not due to an actual undervaluation of the importance of the other elements, but because the enthusiasm over one element robs the others of the force that is necessary to carry them forward. The mere mental acceptance of the true valuation of each of the other elements does not bring any real valuable help. The enthu- siastic push of some one mortal is necessary back of each scheme of betterment. This should be facilitated by a subdivision of the duties of management. The head con- 12 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT trol, however, should try to keep a general view of the whole and see to it that there is a harmonious pull of all of these forces. Just now we have many who have taken strong interest in the ^'Scientific Management." This system improves the efficiency of an organ- ization by giving to each worker a thorough direction for the performance of his duties. Among other features it keeps an accurate record of the time required to perform each operation, and uses this as a basis to estimating time required to perform other similar or nearly similar operations. It is a methodical scheme of intelligent direction of work, and it depends for its success more on correct direction of operation than on the workman's natural ability and inclination to devise his own methods. This is not set forth as an accurate statement of the ^'Scientific Management, '^ but it is in brief an impression that has been gained by observation and study of this most valuable plan. The system doubtless is intended to include the use of every means for progress, but in practice it seems to lay emphasis on the best use of the present means, rather than the invention of new and wonderful machin- THE VALUE OF HABIT 13 ery. ''The best use of the present means" is a poHcy that should be given first place in all schemes of industrial management. It is the most economically sound principle that can be set forth. It meets the present needs. It is not a barrier to progress by invention, and if in- telligently carried forward it need not run vio- lently against the force of habit of the workers. If the present use is not as efficient as it should be, the ''Scientific Management'' plan provides for a direction of the workers along other modes of use. It usually makes shght changes in the means, but it gains its great- est results by giving the workers instructions that help them to make more efficient use of their energies and the present means. The reason that it has not had more universal suc- cess is doubtless due to the inertia of habit of both the workers and the management, and it is to this phase that the present discussion aims to direct attention. Progeess from Invention Before taking up this phase of the question, let us briefly glance at some of the other forces which we must consider. 14 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT One of the other forces that makes for the more efficient use of capital and labor is that which aims to improve the means. This is strongly contended for by the in- ventor, and when it is considered wholly by itself it is one of the most fascinating of all schemes. It seems from the inventor's and promoter's standpoint to be the only royal road to suc- cess for it does not depend on increasing the physical effort of the man. Surely we know that it has a host of advo- cates. Nearly every industriahst is ready to use a new invention that is offered for the pur- pose of reducing cost of production or increas- ing the quality of output. So fascinating is this phase that it has led more than one over-enterprising management to misfortune. We know that it is a force that has been most potent in progress, and in some respects must still be given a most careful consideration in connection with any plan of management, but yet it is not the only one of the elements to be considered. Selling the Product Among other schemes for industrial success may be included all that affect the sale or THE VALUE OF HABIT 15 demand for the product of the plant. An enthusiastic commercial spirit is by some considered a most vital element. From the commercial standpoint the market require- ments and demands must be met. These are so important and so complicated that it is difficult for one whose mind is filled with them to clearly see the economic conditions of the manufacturing side of the business. For instance, the great need of ultra-special- ization does not seem apparent, and sometimes the force of inertia of habit in the works is underrated. The problems of business-getting are so involved that there is no chance to clearly see the importance of the purely man- ufacturing need. The many other forces that affect the suc- cess will readily come to mind, although they will differ shghtly in the various organizations and industries. Onte more force is the momentum of prac- tice, or inertia of habit or custom, or just plain '^ habit." And this is to be the central theme of this discussion. All of the forces must be considered, and the policy adopted must be a rational coordination of them all, 16 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT but they seem to focus on the force of habit, which is too often overlooked. Habit The sense in which the word '^habif is used in the present discussion means the condition of body or mind, or both, which has been estabhshed by repetition of an act or mental process, or both. It may be strengthened or weakened by persistent purpose, but never- theless mostly depends for its strength on the frequency and number of repetitions. Its importance in the industrial world is that it is the condition of mind and body by which a man acts with greatest precision, ease, comfort, and efficiency. It is a condition that must not be carelessly disturbed, for there is found to be a deep-rooted antipathy to abrupt change. Skill, dexterity, facility in performance of work is due to acquired habit. This is also true of all kinds of work in the business office and the workshop. This fact alone shows the value of habit in an industrial organiza- tion, especially when we realize that habit is a disposition as well as an aptitude to do THE VALUE OF HABIT 17 work. The practice brings an involuntary- tendency to continue, and with it an ease and rehabihty of performance. The mental habits are special qualities that have been acquired by the same process of repetition. The successful man in the com- mercial world, the inventor's domain, the financier's realm^ or any other branch of men- tal work, is one who has acquired habit of thought along Hues of special value in his own particular field. There are undoubtedly men born to each of these callings who would be unable to qualify for any other, but these cases are so rare that for our present discus- sion they may be disregarded. New Habits can be Established There are also those who during the early and most impressionable years have been subjected to an environment that has estab- lished habits of thought or action of a kind unfavorable to the existence of a more desir- able kind. Both of these kinds are somewhat handi- capped in trying to take on other kinds of habit of mind or b#dy, but since habit may be 18 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT built up by mere repetition, there is a chance to make over many of these men. In case of a man having a dishking for the only work at which he can obtain a livelihood, whether it is due to inborn traits or traits ac- quired from environment, it is a long, hard fight. But continued practise will win, and in many of these cases it will even drag the mind along to a less antagonistic attitude. The ideal and easiest way to acquire habits of industry is to have the mind lead off in desiring such work. Although either process makes for skill and other evidences of habit, the quickest, easiest way, the one that attains the highest efficiency, is one that is acquired by an eager, earnest, persistent mind which maintains an interest and concentration of attention to the subject. It is not within our present scope to go back to the most impressionable age of child or man, for that should antedate the time of his enter- ing the industrial world, but this habit problem cannot be understood without due allowance for the condition in which men are found in the industries. This includes, as stated, the inborn characteristics and those that have THE VALUE OF HABIT 19 been acquired, especially from environment, during the impressionable years. After passing the most impressionable stage, man acquires his habits of work almost wholly under force of circumstances. Generally, how- ever, his work habits never become of great strength if he has previously acquired a group of habits of mind and body that combat the acquisition of habits of work. That this may become merely a habit of action is not denied, but that it may, under favorable conditions, become a powerful enemy to the adverse mental habit must also be ad- mitted. It is this condition on which we must depend and build if we are to obtain success in the industrial world. Organization Efficiency Efficiency of the organization as a whole depends on the coordination of its various elements, and since the men in the organization constitute the most important part of all its elements, we must see to it that there is the most perfect coordination of their movements. When a man is on entirely new work and is not acting along habit hues, there is no pos- 20 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT sible way of determining in advance how or when his task will be accomplished. Hence there is no possibility of coordinating his work with the work of others. But when all are following a fixed routine, the coordination becomes possible, and then we actually have an organization working on habit lines, built, of course, on the habit processes of the individ- ual men in that organization. Since efficiency depends on strength of habit, we are led to selecting methods that tend toward the greatest habit building and strength- ening processes. This, like every other road of investigation of the elements that affect industrial success, leads us directly to the choice of policy that favors the most complete subdivision of operations. This subdivision must be carried as far as possible, so as to give each worker the advantage of the skill and the effi- ciency of action that is only to be acquired by repetition. It also leads us to specialization which concentrates the largest possible organi- zation to the smallest possible range of work. The ultimate supremacy of an organization managed by this policy is assured, not merely because it limits the field of endeavor of each THE VALUE OF HABIT 21 worker, but because it also limits the range of duties of each officer. This results ulti- mately in each one becoming highly efficient and well informed in that part of the work. The "all-round man" cannot successfully com- pete with the specialist. Objections to Specialization The objections to the scheme of ultra- specialization are usually born of anxiety over the unfitness of a specialist for other work and his great handicap in finding work in times of depression or general industrial disorganiza- tion. This argument against speciaHzation is equally potent for the individual and the industrial plant, and it frequently deters the management from transforming their estab- lishment into one devoted to a limited range of work. To wave it aside as irrelevant would be unwise, but to let it hinder us from travel- ing the road that offers greatest opportunities would be a serious mistake. Value of Habit in the Industkies At the present time there seems to be no chance of success on other avenues. The 22 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT assurance, the ability, the absolute control of the situation, comes only to the man or corporation or nation that is strongly fortified by useful habits. The power of habit in the industries is one of the most clearly demonstrated facts in this world. Its value there in solving problems has been proven many times, and yet it is almost wholly ignored by many of our most energetic disciples in the Efficiency crusade. The only men who make a stand for the value of habit are men who are considered non- progressive. Since they belong mostly to the silent majority, their views should be most carefully considered. Most of us who have given careful thought to these problems have felt that almost any method of work may be changed over com- pletely by an appeal to the intellectual ^ide of men. And we are well warranted in this opinion. But there is reason to believe that we have frequently underestimated the force of the intelligent energy that must be expended to offset the current of habit or custom. It is a mere physical task to change the course of a river, but to change the habit of THE VALUE OF HABIT 23 thought and action requires a long tnne and the use of the subtlest agencies. We can introduce new methods of conducting business and of manufacture, but in doing so we must keep in mind the force of habit of thought and action of the mortal man, as he is found in the directors' room and in the various positions throughout the plant. So deeply grooved are these habit ruts that a letter written in business seldom contains evidence of real fresh thought on the subject. Each letter is made up of phrases that have been uttered a thousand times, and each state- men\t made is the product of thought of other days. It is the result of the writer's mental attitude, which in turn is the product of his past experience. One letter of fresh matter written each month requires more energy than a month's output of two or three hun- dred per day of the routine type. Following the Habit Grooves When real new matter is put into letters or into operations, it is at the cost of either mental energy or cash, or both, and if one new letter is written without expenditure of 24 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT mental energy, it is very sure to involve cost in cash later. It is the same, only to a greater degree, in the various operations through a manufac- turing plant. Each workman as well as each officer follows naturally and most comfortably in a habit groove of both thought and action. If this statement seems to imply that a change is to be advised, then the text has been mis- leading, for no such purpose has been intended. On the contrary, the condition set forth is the natural one, and it is the one that should be followed, if an economic success is to be attained. Of course, something will be said later about schemes of progress which may be carried forward, but these schemes must all conform to nature as it is seen in the real life of the industrial world. They must not be the product of abnormally optimistic mortals who fail to recognize the normal condition under which the real normal man works. This should not antagonize the man that wants every mortal to have a joy in his work that comes from use of the brain. There is to be no scheme set forth that will hinder the brain-work, but it will minimize the stultify- THE VALUE OF HABIT 25 ing effect of inefficient use of brain. The new work, the new thought, the improvement in methods and the invention of new means should all go forward, but in conformity with natural law. The joy in the work should not involve financial disaster for a nation, an indus- try, or a workman. That would be the joy of a fooFs paradise. The joy of the work should be had in taking progressive steps in natural ways. When a business is conducted or work done contrary to this principle, it goes contrary to nature, and it is generally unprofitable and unsatisfactory to the investor, to the officers, to the workman, and to the users of the product. Human Inertia If we wish to arrest a large fly-wheel which is running at a high speed, we know that we may shut off the motive power and then care- fully apply a brake or some other form of resistance. We know that an instantaneous stopping of its motion is impossible, and that shorter methods invite disaster. A fast mov- ing express-train cannot be arrested in- stantly, and it is equally impossible to instantly 26 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT get the same train from a standstill to full speed. In industries we have frequently seen the evidence of inertia when an attempt is made to change over the method of work. This inertia that resists our efforts to change the velocity of a moving object, or to move an object that is in the state of rest, is usually considered as a property of the purely phys- ical matter and not wholly applicable to liv- ing creatures. The principle as it applies to an inanimate mass can be readily demonstrated anywhere and any time, and that the proof is always quickly given and in a way that is seldom subject to misinterpretation. But, while the case is not so obvious in its application to industrial work, its effect cannot be doubted by any one who takes a bird's-eye view of the various workings in this industrial world. The evidence of the effect of inertia of the mind and habits of the human being, taken singly or in groups, is just as surely written in the records of industry as any fact in physics if we look at the matter clearly. THE VALUE OF HABIT 27 Human Welfare and Industrial Success The plan that gains the greatest real benefit for each mortal is the one that in turn brings the greatest success to each industry and nation, and, if it is universally apphed, to the world in general. The line of action should be one that takes into consideration the inertia of the human being, as to habit of both thought and action. There should be a constant effort to improve conditions, but the progressive work should be prosecuted in keeping with the laws of inertia. It should be an effort of the intelligent kind, — one that takes into consideration that all men are not equally sensitive to suggestion, — that all men are not born to rule or to dream of lofty schemes. It should recognize that some are happiest with a wholesome kind of work, work that gives their bodies the needed exer- cise and is sufficiently fatiguing to bring on a desire to go home and get the pleasure of rest; that some are happier at clerical work; that others find their greatest pleasure in the skilful control of a machine or instrument, 28 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT while still others gain most in the study of intricate mechanism. All of these should be equally considered. And last but not least, the greatest thought should be given for the man who does not spend much time in trying to solve all the problems, but who, nevertheless, is the most important element to consider on account of his representing the greatest number of men. He is the one for whom the thinkers should think, and when they think for him they should not think that he thinks as they think. He does not think that way at all. His view is from another standpoint. It may be a truer view of the real world; surely it is the one held by the greatest number. The weKare of all men, from the Napoleons of industry to the newest recruit into the work, should be so considered that each man should have the best work for which his endowment and general characteristics fit him. We lift up a man when we take a worker whose greatest achievement has been to ineffi- ciently handle a shovel and by patience teach him to do a better work; one by which he creates more value, — and one in which he can THE VALUE OF HABIT 29 obtain a better wage for himself and family. If his brain is not made to guide a nation, this work may not be so degrading as it may seem. The work for each should be the highest type available for him. One of the greatest crimes against this or any other mortal is to make him discontented with his natural place in this world. Building on Habit The natural and most efficient scheme of conducting business is to build on habit. We see evidences of this on every hand. The spe- cialist is superior to the Jack of all trades. This fact has been known for centuries, but never before have conditions existed which have so forcefully demonstrated it. It applies to the business and commercial side of the industries as much as it does to the manufac- turing side. The skill of the workman is due to his con- tinual application to his own particular work. A lathe hand cannot turn out his best day's work without his own lathe and his own tools, his own bench and work arid gen'eral surround- ings. Give him another lathe of even the same 30 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT '^make/' and it may be days before he at- tains his previous record. Change his work frequently, and you have reduced his output. This condition goes through all kinds of work in manufactory and office. There are two general objections to the ultra- specialization plan. One is wholly commer- cial and the other is wholly humanitarian. They are both fundamentally wrong. The commercial view seems to show that special- ization involves a high cost of selling, and that it is impossible to obtain a sufficient volume of one kind of work to make it prac- ticable, and the humanitarian thinks that it degrades the worker to restrict the range of his operations. Neither of these views takes in the whole subject, and either one may lead to an erro- neous conclusion. We will devote most of our space to discuss the practical and economic side of the question. But since the mind naturally shrinks from any conclusion that is not humanitarian, let us first clear away the fallacy that specialization in itself is degrading to the workers. THE VALUE OF HABIT 31 Place fob Every Man, Every Man in his Place Specialization seems to be the line along which we have made our progress. And yet we sometimes feel that it must be against the welfare of the race when we see unfortunate cases of misplaced men, men who are tied by circumstances to work that seems to hold them down to a lower standard than their natural one. But these cases of misfits are not repre- sentative of the vast majority. The majority of men in the industrial world are in vastly better positions than were their ancestors. Unfavorable Conditions Must Be Changed We know that hard physical labor does not produce the clearest mentality; that over- strenuous manual effort seems to lower the per- ceptive powers; that even monotonous light work is a real drudgery, whether it is the use of a pen or of light instruments, and that all such work may be detrimental to the mind, either by hindering its development or by actually damp- ening its ambition. Furthermore, nerve-rack- ing environment may be detrimental to both mind and body. 32 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT These and many other conditions exist and are most unfortunate, but there has never been a time when there was less of the adverse conditions, and it is probable that the natural evolution of things will reduce many of these. These conditions are not necessarily an accom- paniment of specialization. They are only the temporary maladjustment that has always gone along with human progress. There is a way to greatly minimize these unfortunate conditions that is not against the interest of the business or the individuals in it. And this is the only way that we should take. It only involves the use of our brains in seeing to it that each man^s work in the world is the best that is available for him. And when he is in that position, see to it that he is given every facility for improvement of which he is capable. In order to make this clearer, let us see' what are the principal elements in this problem. Different Kinds of Men We know there are all kinds of minds and all kinds of bodies. Some need plenty of exer- cise: others are most efficient and nearest THE VALUE OF HABIT 33 normal when leading a very quiet life. The man who from a lofty position in this world feels a desire to lift up every one into a more strenuous Hfe is like the boy who gave his grandmother a trumpet and drum for a Christmas present. He thinks others want what he wants, but this is not the case. There are men who lead the happiest lives in other ways. Their natural work — the work in which they most efficiently use their energies and in which they get the best devel- opment of mind and body — may not be in scrambUng after some world-recognized laurel, or even laboring to impress their neighbors of their great importance on earth. Their lives are best lived in their natural pursuit of comfortable existence. There are many men on earth who do not want their brains racked with perplexing prob- lems; men who are willing and glad to do any work that is wholesome, providing they can get a good livelihood; men whose minds are not idle, even when doing the so-called monot- onous work. There are others who, though qualified for higher positions, are perforce of circumstances 34 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT loyally performing their duties in order to keep a necessary income; men who, even under such circimastances, are using their surplus mental energy in the better performance of the duties of their work and in study, work, or pleasure out of work hours. In many cases the position toward which an extra ambition might push them would render them, by its exaction of strenuous work and worry, wholly unfit to lead a comfortable existence. Many a worker who at some time has had responsibihties thrust upon him knows that the real ^' peace of mind that is dearer than air* takes flight when the burden of responsibiUty is taken on. Such workers have found that study at home in the evening is not to be enjoyed by a man who comes home with brain already tired out by duties of the day. Such contentment is not understood by one who is built by nature to thrive in an environment of responsibility. He thinks this contented fellow-man is lazy. He does not know that there is little or no laziness in this world of the kind that that term usually implies. THE VALUE OF HABIT 35 Both the so-called lazy and energetic are alike following nature's law. The former may- need an extra stimulation or force of circum- stances to induce him to take the amount of work and exercise that is best for his mind and body, while the over-energetic man may require a treatment of an extremely different kind in order to hold him down to the greatest performance of which he is capable without loss of mental poise. Both extremes are on the earth, and there should be a way by which each might be placed where his pecu- liar characteristics will render the best results to himself. Fitting the Pegs to the Holes In the industrial world all kinds of mortals should find their natural places. And with the natural evolution which will doubtless soon force the human mind to take up this prob- lem of proper position for each mortal, there will be a great improvement in the conditions of the worker in the industrial establishment. But it is needless to hope to attain anything like contentment and comfort as long as there is an irrational raving about the debasing 36 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT effect of industrial work. The most ordinary operations may be performed by men who are not quahfied to do better work and who without this work would be idle. In the same way, all of the various po- sitions in an industrial establishment should be filled. In each position there should be a man who is in the best place in the world, for him. This digression is not long enough to fully state the case, but it is hoped that with what follows it will serve to allay any anxiety regard- ing the welfare of the worker in the industry which tends toward the economic state of specialization. Specialization Specialization divides the work into vari- ous classes so as to have all of one kind of op- erations performed in one place. It tends to reduce the range of operations performed by each man. For instance, when a man's work is limited to watching a tack-making machine, we find that his mind and body fit into the condi- tions. This soon results in a more perfect comprehension of the intricate mechanism of THE VALUE OF HABIT 37 the machine and in acquiring a wonderful skill in making the necessary adjustments. He then becomes most efficient in producing a large output of tacks. He does this work easily; in fact, it is safe to say that efficiency and comfort go together. This same man would be a very unsatisfac- tory workman if required to change from one kind of machine to another every day, with no chance of running the same kind twice in a lifetime. To those who have seen and perhaps felt the joy that comes to a worker as he invades new fields or encounters new problems in his own field, there is something repugnant about the scheme of specialization which limits each mortal to the work in which he has acquired skill and in which his mind and body seem to act automatically. There may be pleasure in rambling through the world of work, but it is too much Hke the pleasure that comes from dreaming or build- ing of air-castles. It is a misuse of our powers. It gives a peculiar pleasure to some beings, particularly those who have exceptionally 38 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT active minds, but these same mortals would better serve themselves and their families by a more efficient scheme. Misuse of Energy when Specialization is NOT Practised In such dissipation of energies there has been wasted something that is of greatest value. The individual has had the pleasure of working very hard, but at the end of the week or year or life it is clearly apparent that the plan of work has been faulty. It has gone contrary to the most efficient scheme, and the awaken- ing from the dream has not been pleasant. We do a great wrong to men when we direct or restrict them to performing their work inefficiently. Congenial labor is, we know, one of the greatest blessings in this world. It is a greater blessing to the worker than to any one else, but it should be rightly directed by those in positions to direct. If it is allowed to be expended in effort that goes contrary to all natural laws there is an irreparable loss to the world, to the industry, and to the man. The drone is of more use to the world than the man who misdirects labor. THE VALUE OF HABIT 39 Specialization, when it works as it should,, takes into consideration not only man's effi- ciency when acting along lines of habit, but it gives every aid to making the methods fit the requirements of mind and body. The mind requires food for thought along the best line of which it is capable of thinking. It should make a constant effort to fully comprehend the work, with a view of fitting for progress to the next better position, or if that is wholly distasteful or hopeless, then it should have some wholesome line of agreeable thought. Mind and Body Must Both Be Consideked The mind should not be allowed to wander, for wander it will if it is not directed. It should be furnished with some interest, either in the form of study that is taken up out of working hours, and which can be permitted to occupy the mind while work of the habit kind is being done, or, if it is not a study, there should be some wholesome interest or pleasure. Music to some furnishes this need. Music heard in the home or elsewhere will sometimes occupy the mind during working hours when 40 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT the work is of a monotonous character. In some instances music has been provided during a certain part of the day, just for this need of workers who are employed in an occupation that in itself furnishes no mental nourishment. Readers are also employed in some places for the same purpose. But these extreme cases do not represent the vast majority. They apply only to the needs of the mind of those engaged in a work in which they can awaken no interest. Nearly all kinds of work offer a chance for the aver- age man to get interested directly in the work itself. Such an interest soon bears fruit in the results as well as in the comfort of the worker, and it is this phase on which we must depend for making specialization comfortable and prof- itable to the worker. It is this phase that is wholly overlooked by those mentioned above who have seen or felt the joy of work that comes to one who rambles into a new field. They fail to see that the same kind of mental pleas- ure may be obtained while working along the natural and efficient lines of habit, and that in one case they have had pleasure at great expense of wasted energy, and in the other THE VALUE OF HABIT 41 case they may have made a true progress for themselves and others by moving along the natural way. Dissipation of Energies This tendency to dissipate energies by wan- dering into other fields is not confined to the worker; it is a most common tendency of business men. A manager of an industrial estabhshment has to continually combat his tendency to divert the energies of the organiza- tion along new fines. He knows from past experience how dearly bought is each new method that is introduced into his organiza- tion. He knows, for example, that it would make all of his men tardy at the plant in the morning if at the hour of arising he has issued a request for each man to dress by carefully thinking out each move. He knows that the day's work would never be well done if he asked each one to think before acting. We all know that the man who thinks just before he speaks and who does not give you something that has been at least vaguely for- mulated long ago is one who talks nonsense. The only spontaneous kind of talk is one that 42 HUMAN MCTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT is tricky. It is generally in the humorous line, and frequently makes an impression that was never intended or anticipated by the utterer. The really useful talk and work is the result of wholesome habit. II THE INERTIA OF HABIT rpHE application of a policy of management -*• based on the efficiency of habit is com- paratively easy. In fact, it may seem to be too easy to be progressive. There is no fact in natm-e that is more read- ily demonstrated than the inertia of habit. This inertia, which constitutes a positive resist- ance to a quick change may, when properly used, serve to accomplish the greatest results. If inertia alone has full sway, there is no chance for change, but we know that there are many other elements to consider. In the affairs of mortals we have been giv- ing too great weight to the importance of other influences. This is partly due to our false idea of the grandeur of man's estate. It will not lessen this grandeur to own up to some of our limitations. On the contrary, there is reason to believe that if we are truly great we will not only admit the facts, but we will use the data to plot out the best course 44 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT to pursue, and then we will actually travel along that course. Giving Inertia its Proper Value The important point for us to decide is the value to give this element of inertia, when we are deciding poHcies of management of affairs that come under our control. In all teaching, from the kindergarten up, we take full cogni- zance of this principle of inertia. In engineer- ing we bow low to it. In fact, we actually bow low to it in all things, although at times it is more in defeat than in gracious courtesy. There is in some men a constant desire to advance by attaining greater skill, knowledge, and efficiency. This desire becomes a strong purpose, and it may change the course of the mortal, just as the attraction of the sun or of some other body may cause the planet to devi- ate from the straight course. We know that these other influences are very potent in con- trolling affairs in this world. In fact, they are so potent that they have been given the whole credit or blame for the resulting condition. It is our present purpose to show that inertia has the greatest control under the circumstances THE INERTIA OF HABIT 45 of every-day life, and that the effect of other conditions is comparatively small. There may be instances of the boy at the plow quitting the work in the middle of the furrow to take up a great life work. We know of men changing from bad to good habits, and unfortunately from good to bad, almost instantly. We know that great changes in processes of manufacturing have been success- fully made within a very short time, but all these examples are comparatively rare, and every one of them, if analyzed thoroughly, will show that an immense bottled energy of strong purpose was released to produce the change. Such cases when viewed with our human eyes seem to be the normal and only natu- ral way to progress. Surely, great advances effected by revolutions in social, political, and other habits of thought have on the surface ap- peared to be the result of a quick change due to the master-mind or wilful purpose of man. But the efficient use of this valuable energy is more desirable. It should be used in con- formity with nature^s laws, just the same as we propose to use the energies of those who are not goaded on by some great purpose. 46 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT Building on Old Ideas and Habits In considering ways and means for efficient management of industrial organizations, it is not necessary to commence at the begin- ning of each plant. The method of deahng with the problems of existing plants is also applicable to new organizations, for a new organization is only new in a limited sense. It uses men of experience. It uses existing machines and implements. It follows exist- ing methods of conducting business and in the general management of its affairs. Even the so-called new method which may be the center around which the so-called new business is built contains very httle that is new. The newest things in the ordinary indus- trial world contain many old and well-known elements. The very use of a so-called new method or machine as a center around which to build an organization is in itself so old that it is a confirmed habit with us to be lured on to investing in such things by the statement that some new process or means is to be employed. A really new thing that calls for wholly THE INERTIA OF HABIT 47 new ways and new means for manufacture is almost inconceivable. The nearer we approach to newness in the industrial world the thinner becomes the ice on which we are moving. Therefore, let us know that when we advise following habit lines in all moves in manage- ment of an existing organization we imply that the same course should be taken in estab- lishing a nev/ company or organization. In both cases we should employ existing ways and means, experienced men, and well-tried implements. Both old and new should be conducted along the usual line in conformity with the state of the art, the habits of the workers, and other conditions indigenous to the locality. Any scheme of going contrary to the existing customs and usage must be entered into with full knowledge of the great need of patience, force, and courage to offset the barrier of inertia. Control of Progressive Energy Progressive energy is so valuable that it needs no rating at this time. We have had its value stated so often that it is actually over- rated in the average mind. Not that it has 48 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT been overvalued, but that the reiteration has obscured the importance of other quaUties. There should be a greater appreciation of the value of energies that are wholly employed in accomplishing results by old means and methods. Progressive energy, when it is kept within certain bounds, is a prime asset of an industrial organization. It is like a wholesome amount of labor to man; it may be drawn upon with- out loss, and its use actually strengthens its source. But when it is not wisely kept in control it only annoys and interferes with real progress and real accomplishment of results. The only way to get work done is to let the worker move along habit lines. The only way to progress efficiently is to make the new ways and means lead off gradually from those in use. The progressive man who actually directs work along such lines is the most valuable to the world. The one who ignores the ^'moment of inertia'' is a disturber, whether he is a director or a "hewer of wood and carrier of water." THE INERTIA OF HABIT 49 The man who is doing the real work in the world is not the so-called progressive. He is one who points out newer or better methods which may be easily established by a gradual exchange of old habits for new ones. The conservative may at times seem to have a real aversion to change of any kind, and the reason of this aversion may be found by a httle thoughtful study of the psychology of the case. If we do not get it by study, just let us go back in our own memory and think of some time when we have been burdened down with either strenuous physical strain or a combination of mental and physical burden, or just plain worry. And, while trudging along under this burden, think of the time when a most excellent mortal, with good intentions but httle knowledge of the real way to help another, came forth and told us our method of working was absolutely wrong, and how he then started in to tell us, by short or long drawn out impartial talk, just what we ought to do. If our memory records that we smiled sweetly and graciously thanked our reformer, it is evidence that our memory is either one of the most desirable kind, or that we were at 50 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT that time and are probably still the most wonderful of mortals. It is more probable, however, that we were not in the mood to receive the choice bits of knowledge, and if we made reply it did not reflect our best selves. A thousand examples might be given, but one more may suffice. Considering the Individual Foremen and others who have direct charge of workers know that even the best-natured man should not be directed contrary to his habit method when he is under stress. In fact, it is not well to try any new thought on a physically tired man. This same worker, under conditions of rested mind and body, might be a so-called progressive. Suppose we take two men exactly alike in all respects, with exactly the same knowledge of work to be done, and let them together undertake to dig a ditch, or repair or adjust an intricate machine, or any other kind of work. Let one of the men get in an awkward position to shovel earth or pull a wrench and become a trifle fatigued either by the physical strain or THE INERTIA OF HABIT 51 the worry of the work, and let the other take a less strenuous part in the undertaking. We will then find that one has been changed into a progressive and the other into a conserva- tive. The one who is tired from the strenu- ous part of the work cannot see why the other should suggest digging around a boul- der instead of lifting it out of the ditch bodily, or why it may not be necessary to dismantle the whole machine in order to discover the fault. He cannot tolerate any suggestion of a new method of working. It is actually easier for him to do the work by the more laborious but '^habit" method. Remember both of these men were the same in every respect, both energetic and neither one lazy (if, indeed, there is such a thing, but that is another story). Remember, too, that we can change them from day to day, putting first one and then the other in the physically strenuous position, and as often as we have changed their positions we have changed their point of view and they become alternately progressive and conservative. The brain of the man shoveling in the ditch does not work as well as his brother's standing 52 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT on the bank. The worker does not want to be disturbed. You hurt him if you insist on his working his brain while his body is under stress. And this is one of the fundamental points for the director of work to take into consideration. A Tired Body Dulls the Brain It is not necessary to assume that the worker has an inferior brain, and in fact we should not do so. It is only necessary to know that you must not try to extract a full measure of energy from the mind when you are already taking it from the body. I am well aware that there is a possibility of developing both mind and body, and that some well-informed men think that the con- dition mentioned obtains only when there is an excess of stress of jmanual or mental labor. I have no intention to discuss the fine points of the question. I am only stating facts that have been observed thousands of times, when there has not been a severe burden of either kind of work. This fact will show us that it is not natural for the worker to be interested in the pro- THE INERTIA OF HABIT 53 gressive schemes for betterment of methods of work or management of business. That his most natural attitude is antagonistic to any- thing that is unwisely and thoughtlessly sprung on him, and that this attitude is not necessa- rily due to his mental or physical make-up. It would be there just the same if all men were made exactly alike in all respects. It is the result of the work he is doing. Bearing this state of affairs in mind, it behooves the progressive man to approach the problem of applying his theories in a very careful manner. He must reahze that the men in various parts of the work are under stress of every day's requirements that makes it very difficult to intelligently take up any new scheme of procedure. Many an ideal doctrine is a beautiful thing in theory, but of little value if its introduction require an immense but unavailable energy to put it into practise. He must realize that it is the doing of work that counts and that the men who are doing things must not be annoyed. All plans for betterment must conform to the assimilating power of the men and must not cut off their 54 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT food in time of change. In other words, the new plans should be so matched on to the old methods that the change to the new will not interrupt the production. We have seen that the most efficient way to use man's energies is to allow him to follow habit lines of thought and action, and that the highest efficiency is reached when these habits are habits of concentration of attention and are restricted to the smallest variety of work. The wandering habits, whether of the dreamer, the tramp, or the Jack of all trades, are not of the efficient kind. Concentration of attention to a given subject brings its reward, if the subject is not too ponderous for the brain to weigh. The Division op Work The division of work into separate opera- tions makes it possible to divide the subject into relatively small sub-problems. This divi- sion of the subject itself brings it within the capacity of lesser brains and makes it very much easier for a brain of greater power. In other words, the subdivision of work makes THE INERTIA OF ^HABIT 55 places in which all mental equipments may be used. It is of no benefit to any one to keep the problems difficult by making each man think out a process for accomplishing each one of a great variety of operations, when the work may be so divided that it is only necessary for him to think of just one little part of the whole. And we should not befog the issue by saying that this is degrading. Some of the greatest scientists that the world has known have concentrated attention to the smallest conceivable part of this world, pieces so small that the microscope alone revealed them to the eye. There is a chance for a thinking mind in most of these places that have grown out of this process of finest subdivision of work. The hardship comes only when the mind cannot get interested in the work. In many cases this is undoubtedly due to a misfit, but in most cases it seems to be due to a false notion that there is nothing there of interest. The subdivision of work must go on. If hindered in any one plant or industry or nation more than in others, the result will be a loss 56 HUMAN FACTORS IN WORK MANAGEMENT to that one, and on the other hand, the one that carries it to the most efficient point will become the most powerful. This subdivision develops greatest dexter- ity and skill, as well as the keenest compre- hension of the ways and means of attaining a given end. And this dexterity of operation is more easily carried on than is the fumbling uncertainty of the work of the more primitive type. WoKKiNG IN Strange Surroundings For example, we may take the inefficiency of a plumber in a strange house. So inefficient is his work under such conditions that we charge it all up to laziness or wilful disposition to run up a big expense. But, as a matter of fact, plumbers are actually human beings, made of the same clay out of which has also been modeled the more highly efficient worker and thinker in other fields. The real differ- ence is that he is called upon to work in all kinds of places, no two of them alike, and no two problems exactly the same. He must think and work under the most unsuitable con- ditions. His work gives us an extreme example THE INERTIA OF HABIT 57 of the way in which all of the mechanical oper- ations were originally carried on, and we can see clearly that it is very inefficient. We should not lessen the weight of this example by introduction of the statement that the plumber is seldom under the direct super- vision of a foreman or some one who knows how the work should be done. For even this phase, when carefully considered, is found to also indicate that the subdivision gets its greatest results from the better supervision made possible by the subdivision, not only of the work of the workers, but the work of the directors of the work. In the case of the plumber, a very wise man indeed is needed to give him instructions about how his work should be done in a strange place. It is exceedingly difficult to direct work even in a factory, if each workman must do a variety of kinds of work. Therefore, it will be seen that the subdivision of work operates favorably in control and direction of work as well as in the execution. Ill THE DIFFERENT VIEWS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION T A T'E will next consider the views of vari- ^ ^ ous members of an industrial organiza- tion. No two of the members will be found who have exactly the same viewpoint. The inventor, the business man, the financier, the works manager, and others, all have their own viewpoint and the resulting mental attitude. Let us begin with the inventor's viewpoint. The inventor, from his point of view, sees the great need and opportunity to improve the design of the machine being manufac- tured. He sees that the big machines are nothing but enlarged editions of the early and smaller ones. He knows that with a change of size there should be a change of design. He knows that although a granite rock weighing a few tons will not be kept suspended in air by a heavy wind, a small part of the same rock will be carried away by a breeze, and may be kept suspended by a very slight current of THE DIFFERENT VIEWS 59 air. He knows that the small particle of gran- ite has a greater superficial area in proportion to its weight. He sees on every hand that a change of dimensions frequently entails a change of design. He also sees the opportunity to effect a great saving by building the large machine for its special service, and not on the exact lines of the smallest model. The failure of the management to adopt his plans seems nothing less than unreason- ableness to the inventor, for Uke other mortals he is a trifle slow at grasping the fact that no two beings have exactly the same point of view or the same quality of sight. Another inventor sees a chance to make further improvements in the small machine, and he is disturbed because there is a ban on changes. He feels that the mechanical suc- cess of his previous work should be a sufficient guarantee of the economic advantage of the last proposed plan. If an attempt is made to show him that the ban on changes is absolutely necessary from an economic point of view, it is found that the reasoning does not get the same reaction 60 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT in his mind as in that of the manager. To him the great advance of the new scheme fully warrants the temporary expense. The efficiency engineer is also strenuously urging the complete adoption of this or that particular scheme. He knows they are good, and while all may agree with him in principle, considerations of habit make others want to adopt these methods only as fast as they can be assimilated. They know that the inertia of the human mind and body must be reck- oned with. In some cases they may wish to leave a trifle more freedom of movement than is absolutely necessary for the work, in order to give the worker a more natural experience. For there can be no doubt that a certain free- dom of mind and body is essential to normal health and to the happiness of man. In the old-fashioned scheme of working, the average man's work involved a trip to the blacksmith shop, the emery-wheel, and the stock-room, where he could exchange items of news and jokes with others. His trip there gave his mind and muscles a restful change, and although it consumed time, it kept his mind and body nearly normal. THE DIFFERENT VIEWS 61 The Manager's View The important duty of weighing up these various views devolves on the management, and its action should be in accordance with the complete and corrected view. It must consider the subject from all of a top viewpoint, and must then act. The manager keeps in mind that the machines must be built, purchased, and used by human beings, so he carefully studies their peculiar- ities. He knows that change of thought or habit requires time. In looking over the history of one of the companies engaged in machine building, we find that the cost of the labor has been lowered to about one fifth of the original. In view of this and the fact that a very slight change in model sometimes involves a temporary increase in the cost of labor threefold or more, we see good reason for reluctance in making changes, even though we know that two or three years later the labor cost may drop as low as that previous to the change in model. The inventor, the promoter, the salesman, and the oversanguine manager do not always foresee such things. 62 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT The manager sees the enthusiasm with which the seUing organization hails the new model. He realizes that they know the faults of the previous type, and he also knows that no one knows the faults of the new, but he lets it go. Some enthusiasm must be had, even if it be dearly purchased. He knows there will be many a troublesome delay due to the newness, even if the whole scheme proves very much better than the previous type. This manager knows that his business success rests on the facility with which the machines are satisfactorily built, the readiness of the buyers, and, last but not least, the facility with which the product is used. The facility with which the product will be used is to his mind almost beyond overestimation. The Value of a Market In estimating the value of an industrial establishment it is customary to guess at the value of its market. In the machine building industry it is based on the satisfactory or profitable use to which the product is put. This satisfac- tory use depends largely on the number of THE DIFFERENT VIEWS 63 men who can and who wish to operate the machine. This may not always be apparent, for the particular machines are usually purchased at the direction of some of the head officers. On the surface, it would seem that the availability of good operators had little or nothing to do with the case. A closer investigation, however, brings out the fact that it has very much to do with it, for machines will not be in demand for which operators are not available. It is not necessary that an experienced oper- ator should be waiting in each plant for each machine that is purchased, but it is necessary that each machine installed be set to work satisfactorily in a reasonably short time. For a failure to be satisfactorily used bars further purchases by all who may have known about the case. The facility with which a new man may be instructed depends, of course, on the simplic- ity of the machine and the extent of the gen- eral education regarding it in the minds of the foreman and various workers who are in posi- tion to affect its output. And furthermore, a machine which has the name of giving sat- 64 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT isfaction is given a little more patient effort in starting and in breaking in a new operator. But the real basis of the value of the market for the product of a machinery building com- pany depends on the facility with which its product may be used, and this should be one of the elements kept in mind by the man- ager of a machine manufacturing plant in deciding on improvements and changes in his product. He should always remember the human characteristic in the user. Improvements Often Bring Trouble Improvements or changes should not be made that are not readily assimilated by the maker, the seller, and the user. Changes that require effort to digest may be whole- some in their stimulation of receptive facul- ties of an individual and an organization, and they may be full of glory, but they are not to be indulged in too freely. Changes that are in the direction of simplic- ity and actual betterment by avoiding some excessively objectionable feature should be tolerated, but the manager knows from past experience that each new improvement is THE DIFFERENT VIEWS 65 full of trouble to the maker and to the user, and that a new thing is not a profitable thing till it is an old thing. When it is an old thing its faults are all known, and then the sanguine inventor and the selling organization generally puncture the profits by inducing the manage- ment to take the next step forward. There is neither an intent in this to belittle the work of the enterprising optimist nor to advise stagnation in machine design. A cer- tain amount of progress must be made in nearly all industrial estabUshments at this time. The fullest possible comprehension of this problem of human inertia, in matters of change and progress, should be in the mind of every officer of an organization. Every workman and foreman having a desire to make sugges- tions on helpful lines should get this fact firmly in mind and measure every new plan by it. Progress Must Continue But, you ask, is there to be no progress in the industrial world? Will the progressive ones die out and only the ultra-conservative survive? Is there to be no word in favor of 66 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT progress in at least some of the departments of industrial organizations? Should not some words be said right here setting forth the advantages of invention? You have doubtless anticipated the answers to each of these, for you know that no rational being would in these days advise throttling invention or blockading progress. We know that the fittest for surviving will be the inteUigently progressive and that there should be a gradual progressive change in every department. Invention must play its part in the really desirable advance, but so much has been said about the wonderful economic advantages of this and that scheme of management, and this or that invention, and so little has been said on the inertia problem, that there seems to be a need of a few words on the latter, to strike the true balance. Capacity for New Ideas The assimilating capacity of the industrial world is the real gauge of the progress which should be indulged in. This capacity to take in new ideas and to work by new methods is THE DIFFERENT VIEWS 67 not the same in all beings, and it is not the same in all organizations. There are ways by which it may be measurably increased. New views are more readily digestible if pre- sented by enthusiastic advocates, as this stim- ulates an interest. Any attempt to forcibly inject new ideas only results in indigestion. The assimilating capacity of an industrial organization can be greatly increased by any scheme that awakens an interest. The con- trolhng poHcies should include advance in efficiency and generally in the quality of work turned out, but this advance should not involve a break in the output. It should be based on a knowledge of the whole business. In other words, it should not only pay in the long run, but if possible it should pay from the moment it goes into effect. Money Not the Only Dividend The major poHcies of management that should be known to the inventor are those which have been adopted to make the business ''pay." Not necessarily to pay in dollars and cents today, but to pay in every sense, and in the long run, in dollars and in other things. 68 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT It cannot pay in dollars if the other things are missing. By other things are meant good organization built on best conditions of mind and body for each of the beings included in the organization. On such things the stability of the organization depends. No matter how much the manager of a busi- ness may wish to run it for other things exclu- sively, or for dollars exclusively, he will find that one is not attained without the other. He is forced to run a business for the dollar if he wishes to make an ideal organization for each member of the human family included in it. And vice versa, he must work toward best conditions for all the workers if he wishes to protect the capital invested by making a stable and fairly long-lived organization. This statement is inserted here to clear away doubts as to the real value or necessity of '^making a business pay,'^ and to make it clear that no thought is to be tolerated of any scheme of management adverse to the real interest of the workers. The men selected for each of the various positions should be men who are fitted to fill these very positions. This does not mean THE DIFFERENT VIEWS 69 mere physical and mfental fitness; it means each position should be filled by one who wants it, one who knows he is "better off'' in it than in any other place he can find. Dissat- isfied men are burdens. It is better to have each position filled by a man who is barely competent to fill it than to have it filled by a man who should have a much better position. Of course, this is the ideal, and all moves should be made in this direction whenever it is possible. As a rule, it is easier to find men on this basis than to find men who are bigger than the office. This scheme leads to more promotions in the organization and has a stim- ulating effect on all concerned. IV INCREASING THE ASSIMILATING CAPACITY T^ rE have said that all changes should be ^ ^ of the digestible kind, and the feeding process should not be a stuffing process; that the ingestion should not exceed the digestion. We have also briefly mentioned the impor- tance of keeping the digestion tuned up to the best speed by having the organization in a condition to most readily take in changes. That we must make some allowance for inertia of thought and habit in all mortals goes without saying, but the exact amount to be allowed is very difficult to estimate. Successful management depends on the degree with which a man can estimate the re- ceptivity of other beings with whom he deals. This knowledge of receptivity should include the thought and action of men all the way from the unskilled worker to the directors, and also that of all men in other organizations in any way affected by his organization. INCREASING THE ASSIMILATING CAPACITY 71 Just as food is more digestible if agreeable to the palate, so this receptivity or assimilat- ing power may be increased by presenting new ideas and methods in agreeable form. A full realization of the effect of this inertia of thought and habit makes the great efficiency of specialization more comprehendable. It is this human side that is the key, and if we do not act in full accord with it we will probably be working against a great handicap. The inertia works two ways. It hurts a progressive man just as much to be tied to a work that requires no brainwork as it hurts a sleepy member to be disturbed by progressive talk. Selection of Equipment In the organization, the selection of methods of working should always be on the side of those that faciUtate progress. In the selec- tion of machinery, some thought of possible changes should be allowed consideration. By this statement I have no intention to drag in contested theories or any particular interest, but I do want to show that the hope 72 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT of progress is greatly increased by use of methods that favor it. Inertia rightly used, then, is for ultimate progress, and not against it. Specialization is also actually for prog- ress, when that speciahzation is progressively constructing a given machine. Some years ago the builders of a certain type of machinery found there were many du- pHcate pieces to be made that came within the working range of a certain variety of special machines. They figured the saving in net cost of labor of machining these pieces could be reduced from 75 per cent to 90 per cent by the introduction of these machines. But they were embarrassed at the conflicting opin- ions regarding the advantages of the various machines in the general class called special. The machines which would save 75 per cent of the labor cost almost as much as the machine that would save 90 per cent. On a further investigation, they found that for a given out- put the machines that would save 90 per cent would cost, with their first equipment of special accessories, from three to four times as much as the other, but that constituted no barrier. The directors voted to introduce the machines INCREASING THE ASSIMILATING CAPACITY 73 which would effect the greatest reduction in labor cost. But let us see what has been the result. Labor Cost Not the Only Consideration They found that the introduction of these machines required running work through in larger lots. The larger lots required bigger storerooms for parts. The machines, which were more or less self-operating, effected their saving not by pushing the cutters to their full limit, but by so reducing their cutting speed and feeds that one man could oversee a number of machines; for in the regular order of work the operator seldom happens to be at the right machine in time of trouble. Three times the number of buildings were required to give the required floor space. As years passed, it was also found that making stock in larger quantities resulted in having a lot of obsolete stock on hand. It was not clearly shown in the annual statement, because it appeared as a large inventory. It was not charged off, because it might be used in the future. There was also inventoried at full 74 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT value a lot of obsolete accessories in the tool- room, besides a number of machines that were limping along trying to make use of tools that were designed for other work. It was found that unbearable delays followed the change of design. The average time for a lot of special tools was about six months. Six months seemed a long time to be handicapped with this inflex- ible, inadaptable equipment. The extra stock, the buildings, the first cost of machines and first tools, the accumulative cost due to new tools, the upkeep of the regu- lar tools, all seemed bad enough without the added handicap of a barrier to progress of an inadaptable equipment. Output per Dollar Invested Of course, no one could have foreseen a few years ago that the high-speed steels would so change the scheme of cutting metals that it is advisable to have a man watching every cutting tool and every expensive machine tool in order to get the biggest output per dollar invested in it, and no one knew ten years ago that form tools are not often the best for turning INCREASING THE ASSIMILATING CAPACITY 75 off metal. All this has transpired within a few years, but every one should know that capital invested in a business must be put where it will do the most good, where it will bring the largest percentage of return. If it is not so placed, the business is sure to be throttled. If it takes ten times as much capital to get a given output, and the net result does not increase the security of the investment or the profit per dollar invested, it is evidence of poor management. The inadaptability of an equipment might be tolerated by the average optimistic man- ager because he feels that he must win under the present conditions. He knows that the problem is perplexing without the addition of probable future needs. Fundamental Principles Our progress and present position in the industrial world is due in a large meagre to our conformity with the great fundamental principles of industrial economics. Our present standing should not make us unmindful of the new conditions, conditions incident to greater complexity of both mechan- 76 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT ism and industrial life. The conditions are best understood from the human side, after we have made ample deduction for our own aberration of view. In the foregoing I have stated the impor- tance of best understanding of our fellow-man, and that it results in conclusion that he is really a good fellow, fairly disposed as we are. I have shown that we all do not possess the same views. I have shown the power of habit and how it makes for stability and progress. I have shown the effect of inertia of mind and body of ourselves and others. I have had in mind that inertia was the property of an object to continue at rest or motion, without change, and that progress might be made by intelligently working to overcome the inertia of stagnation, i If we will all continue to work as we have worked in the past, we will continue near the head of the procession. Just now we are observing a very progressive spirit in other countries. I think we were and are leaders in many respects. I believe we can continue to INCREASING THE ASSIMILATING CAPACITY 77 gain, but if we do, it must be along the lines of intelligent specialization, progressively spe- cializing in each line of manufacture of a given machine. It will not be contrary to laws of habit and of inertia. PART II SOME NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF MACHINE DESIGN SOME NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF MACHINE DESIGN THE following chapter is given in its original form as a lecture to the Engineering Soci- ety of the Stevens Institute of Technology. Its value in furnishing a side-light on the subject of habit, to which the preceding chap- ters have been more directly apphcable, hes in its emphasis on the importance of the in- ventor (or designer, if you prefer) having clearly before him at all times the effect of habit methods of thought and action both in himself and in all others. These modes must be con- served and combated in himself when build- ing up favorable mental states. He must build on habit in order to have his mind con- tinue in its application to a chosen subject, and he must combat any tendency to follow habit lines of thought that have been estab- Ushed by observation of the older forms or methods. His inventions must be of a kind that will be readily made, sold, and used by 82 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT men whose habits of thought and action he cannot readily change. This should be of value not only to the designer, but also to those who direct or co- operate with him. Natural Fitness One of the first questions that arises in the mind of one who intends to undertake machine design is, what constitutes natural fitness for it. There seems to be no positive basis on which to determine in advance a natural fit- ness for this work, but there are certain tem- peramental characteristics that undoubtedly have much to do with the success. The temperament should be one favorable to continuity of thought along a given line, as well as one that will by nature take an intense interest in the subject. If these characteristics are missing, it may be due more to the distracting interests that in these days crowd in upon the mind, than to a lack of natural aptitude. The absorbing interest, however, is essential, and it may be developed by conforming to well-known prin- ciples of orthodox psychology. Self-torture NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 83 or hard driving is not nearly as helpful as a strong inner purpose to keep the chosen sub- ject in the real center of conscious thought. The subject that comes to mind when there is a lull in the outside demands on the atten- tion, or one that is insistent on taking posses- sion of the mind, even when other matters are objectively more in evidence, — that sub- ject is the one that holds the center of the inner attention. That is the controlling idea or purpose. Ordinarily, it is some diversion; occasionally, the haunting bugbear of some unfinished work or obUgation. If the mind is dominated by such ideas or any other than the real problem in hand, the individual is seri- ously handicapped. When a problem of machine design is under- taken, the mind must make it the real center of attraction. To one having an average en- dowment for such work, this is not a difficult task, but to get the best results it should be rightly undertaken. Repeated Thinking A chosen subject is brought, with some lasting effect, to the center of attraction by 84 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT repeatedly bringing it into the mind at the moments of lull in the pressure of other affairs. The astronomers wait for the moment of best seeing, and the designer must wait for the actual psychological moment. The best seeing condition for the astronomer is due in a small measure to his own physical condition, and in a large measure to atmos- pheric conditions, but the most opportune time for clear-headed vision of the designer is due mostly to his own physical and mental condition. Probably no two men have their minds equally affected by their environment or their physical condition, but the fact that there is a most favorable time and condition for such thought and work should continually be borne in mind. Without this a man with natural endowment may try his wings at flight at an inopportune time, and if he fails he may be firmly convinced that he was never made for flying. This undoubtedly applies equally well to other kinds of work. It may not be strictly true of a perfectly normal man (if there be such a creature), but it is truly appHcable NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 85 to many workers in this and similar kinds of work. This phase is mentioned in order to make clear, not only how a designer should work, but the thought that should be kept upper- most in the mind of one who is trying to do this work. The physical condition is more or less de- pendent on the mood, and to a great extent the mood is dependent on the condition of the body. The strenuous gait is seldom the best, and, of course, the extremely indifferent one is of Httle value. The best for the average man is one born of a quiet environment, with mind and body in a fairly restful condition, or still better, in a rested and fresh condition. Concentrating Attention The quiet end of the day is almost as good for clear thinking as the early morning, espe- cially if the day has not been overstrenuous and the activities have been gradually tapered off. There are many instances that would seem to show that the strenuous gait is the best, but nearly all of these evidences are ques- tionable. When finally simmered down, the 86 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT good work done under high pressure is fre- quently due to latent ideas that were the product of quiet thinking. The mood and the dominant idea may be predicated as necessary. As already stated, the habit of thought most favorable for the persistence of a single group of ideas is attained by the practice of switch- ing the attention back to the desired subject. This should be done at the opportune time. The subject should not be habitually forced on a tired mind. It should not be taken in as a painful duty, but it should be made the one thing of interest. Really valuable results can only come along the line of the dominant thought. All other work lacks directness. It follows precedent to an unnecessary extent. Interest Must be. Awakened, Not Forced Another way of saying all this is that the designer must get interested in the particular problem, and he must have an interest that crowds out all other thoughts, even thoughts of similar work. It is useless, however, to say, '^get interested in the work," unless we suggest a way to awaken interest. Surely, NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 87 we know that interest does not come at mere bidding, and that it cannot be forced by hard work. But it can be induced by an easy proc- ess in a normal being, providing he has not already too firmly estabhshed a set of habit thoughts of another kind. The normal being, by persistent intention, can establish the desired thought habits by returning the preferred group of ideas to mind. Interest is awakened by this comparatively easy process, and when a genuine interest exists, the actual work follows as a natural result, and it is a pleasure instead of a drudgery. This is not intended as preaching in any sense; but only to bring to mind facts known to all, with the view of implanting these facts in the mind of the machine designer. Some designers have done excellent work with no thought of psychological problems. But in this more strenuous age it seems best to take advantage of every aid to the desired end. The intricacy of mechanism has reached such a state that new designers are almost overwhelmed with the mere thought of trying to comprehend the existing machines. But 88 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT with the advance of the world of machinery there has been a better comprehension of the working of the 'thinking machine/' and we must take advantage of this knowledge in order to win out. It is particularly needful now to study its most efficient use. We are getting to the point where mental energy saving methods should be used. It is not necessary to go beyond the bounds of orthodox science for schemes for getting the best results from a given mind. We have known for centuries that men tend to habits of thought as well as action, — that thought habits are like ruts, and these are encountered wherever the mind travels, and these ruts bring the mind back to a certain central group or community of groups of ideas. Establishing Useful Ruts The real secret of success is in establishing ruts of a useful kind, ruts with switches that may be operated by the mind at will, or that work automatically when the mind would otherwise wander. Since even fleeting thoughts are germs of acts, it takes no great effort or self-torture if NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 89 we will but understand the processes and smoke out the undesirable germs, and allow and encourage the growth of the preferred groups of thoughts. This may be called a lazy man's way of doing things, but it is the way to conserve the mental and physical energy, and it gets results. In saying that the problems of the work in hand should come automatically and agree- ably into the mind when there is a lull in the impression being made by other things, it is not the intention to convey the meaning that one must have no other aim and ambition. The mind is constantly receiving messages through the senses. These are fired at a rapid rate. The human mind automatically selects from these messages those that fit into the habit of thought. The habit of thought should be formed in accord with one's best interest. It is forming right thought habit that is essential to the machine designer. This is best accompUshed by the already mentioned scheme of diverting the attention from distracting impressions and returning it to its proper channel. 90 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT Although it goes without saying that this should be done in the strenuous hours of work, the really efficient and easiest way is to do this thought diverting at the lull — the quiet — the moment when all kinds of fleeting thoughts travel through the mind. One easy way to build up this habit is to begin by displacing annoying thoughts with thoughts of work problems, and after a time it becomes easy to cut out every other thought. Problems to Consider In taking up the problems of design of a machine, there will be found an almost endless number of elements to consider. The strictly mechanical problem of the best machine for the purpose never stands alone. What is the measure of the best machine? How much can be spent on its design and con- struction? How much work is to be done? An endless variety of questions at once crowd into the mind for answer. It is doubtful if all the elements could ever be tabulated in any form that would be a positive guide in shaping the final result, but in a general way the designer should make a NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 91 fairly good guess at the kind of standard toward which he should work. There are, doubtless, men capable of carefully weighing the almost infinite number of vari- ants, but such men usually lack the intuitive scheme of work, on which the inventive side of a designer depends. For the ordinary mortal the best process of working is to keep a vague picture of the whole requirement in mind while concentrat- ing on some one phase. When the inventive qualities are to be called into use, the economic side, the business side, the manufacturing, the selhng, the personal profit in cash or glory, all these must be abso- lutely crowded out of the center of the mental picture. Even fleeting thoughts of other ele- ments seem to prevent the inventive function- ing of the mind. In like manner the problems of manufac- turing, selling, patents, business organization, must each be given a separate consideration. The interval between taking up the various questions should be as wide as possible. The mind seems to require a previous notice of days or weeks or more in order to take up 92 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT any one of these problems, at least, with any hope of success. Designing by the Square Foot The ordinary work of machine design, in which well-known parts are grouped to accom- plish a given end, without much thought of attaining anything approaching the best, — such designing is like painting a fence, so many square feet of paper should be covered per day. But the real higher type of work cannot be measured in this way. It requires the fore- thought, the close application, the keen interest, and the comfortable idea building. Designing by the square foot is, however, a good preparation, and many a good brain has been developed by such work. The importance of designing a machine to meet all the conditions necessary to success from a mechanical and business standpoint is fully recognized by every one. But the grouping of the ideas in the mind while work- ing out the various phases must not be ham- pered by the bewildering picture of all of these problems, each demanding consideration at every move. The phase in hand must have NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 93 the concentrated attention and the best con- ditions for its solution. The harmonizing is an after-process which must be worked out by a series of compromises after the various component elements have been almost independently considered. Invention Should Not Mix with Detail In working out the mechanical schemes no energy should be wasted in trying to make the sketches correct in proportion. The very functioning of the brain along the draftsman's line shifts it away from the inventive mood. The exact drawing frequently shows the neces- sity of change in general scheme, but that is only one of the after-steps. The fundamental idea is the starting-point, and must be sketched out as fully as possible without losing the very frail thread of thought. A clear view of the scheme is not to be obtained on demand. The schemer must wait in patience, as the astronomer waits for steady air, and, like the astronomer, he must have every facility in shipshape. The clear view is only clear to the watching eye. The coast-wise skipper in making a fog- 94 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT bound harbor will see a buoy through a sHght shift in fog, while a landsman might look in vain. The wanderer in the happy dreamland of mechanical scheming must not be looking for complete drawings, specifications, and working model of the invention he wishes to bring into the breathless and waiting world. He must be looking through the mist of the thickened senses as the skipper looks through the fog. The buoy and the scheme may be never so faintly shown, but yet with sufficient clear- ness to give a positive guide for the course. Inventive schemes cannot be forced by stren- uous effort. Such effort may result in slight refinements of a given type, but never would have invented the DeLaval or Tesla turbine. It is not my purpose to belittle the great work that has been done in improving existing machines, for this, after all, is the real great work that must be done. It is the work to which the world owes its greatest debt for progress in material wealth. Furthermore, it is a phase that must be considered in connec- tion with every invention before that inven- tion can become of value to any one. But NON-TECHNIGAL PHASES OF DESIGN 95 just now we must consider how the inventor must work while dreaming out the fundamen- tal ideas of a mechanical scheme. The clear view of a mechanical scheme is more likely to come after a good night's rest, particularly if the schemer has retired with the problem in mind. There are times when invention comes under severe stress, hard physical work, and mental anxiety, but the most usual time is after a sleep which refreshed mind and body. After this the inventor brings his scheme to the drafting board, to patent office, to the factory, and to the market, and in each case he encounters barriers. The Hero of the Eraser The drafting board may show that no such arrangement of parts can ever be made, that the whole scheme must be altered to make it practical. A real hero is required for the work of juggling the elements of a drafting board. He must have patient endurance and sufficient strength of character to use the eraser heroic- ally, for the eraser is mightier than the pencil in the drafting-room. There are a thousand 96 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT valiant knights armed with pencils to one stalwart pusher of the eraser. In the drafting-room the work of harmoniz- ing must go on; compromises must be made between the ideal scheme of the dreamer and the requirements of the manufacturing and selling departments. Next to the noble knight of the eraser comes the ideaUst who has been toughened by experi- ence in the cold world. The idealist aims to design and construct a perfect machine. He is encouraged in his work by seeing a little clearer each day, month, and year of the time spent in the right kind of application to his work. He knows that the work of last year is faulty, that this year's work seems nearly perfect, excepting for a certain slight change that has just entered his mind. He cannot think of allowing any machine to be made without this later improve- ment. He is inchned to the optimistic view, his memory works best on the good work of the past, and is extremely poor in holding afresh the view of previous mistakes. NON-TECHNIGAL PHASES OF DESIGN 97 The Toughened Idealist The toughened ideaHst may not look or act like an ideahst, but in reality his idealism is one of the practically-wise construction. He allows his memory to hold all that is helpful of the past, both of the blunders or successes. The dreamer who has been toughened by experience is one who lets his rational brain have control. He ranks next to the stalwart knight of the eraser, because he has the cour- age to arrest the endless tinkering of design in order to get something done. He will not let the family freeze while he is thinking up some grand scheme of sawing and spHtting wood by magic. A most cursory glance at the machinery in use in the world will show that the work has been done by imperfect machines. A study of the design of any machine brings out the innumerable shortcomings. If we see a machine that seems perfect, it is perfectly safe to set it down in black and white that we do not fully comprehend it. It is safe to say that the only perfect machine is the new model that is to be tried very soon. 98 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT With these facts in mind it does not require very much courage to go ahead with an im- perfect design, but unfortunately these thoughts will not stay in the mind of the average mortal. They are crowded out by the flood of ideas for still further betterment. That is why it is just to give high rank to the man who had courage to go ahead and build, even when he realized the faults of a design. Perhaps one of the aids to this action is the knowledge that the apparent opportunity to improve a design may only be apparent. In reality the change is only a change, and is no betterment, a very common outcome of such ideas. The knowledge of the great array of failures of such ^^improvements'' is wholesome and helpful to bear in mind. CONFOKMING TO ECONOMIC CONDITIONS In designing the parts of a machine, the need of trimming here and there, of giving up this or that ideal form just to get things to- gether, must be seen and done unflinchingly. And in the same way the whole scheme must be made to conform to the economic conditions. If the machine under consideration is like NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 99 a machine tool, and is to be offered for sale, then the manufacturing, seUing, and use must be taken into account. In machine-tool de- sign a wholly new invention is an exceedingly- rare thing, and a successful new machine is still more rare. We must remember our own tendency to follow precedent, and we must make an effort to see the problem in its natural form without being misled by the solutions evolved by others. Getting Back to Natuke This scheme of getting back to nature — of weighing up the elements unhampered by precedence — is the one most helpful in orig- inal work. Designers strive to get out of the ruts of habit of design. They try to avoid making a railway carriage like a horse-drawn vehicle. They eliminate the unnecessary elements of previous designs. They try to make the best piece of mechanism for the purpose under consideration, and even if they are wholly successful in this respect, they may after all be doomed to disappointment if they have failed to take into consideration that others 100 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT cannot be easily changed over to the new idea. It is one thing for an inventor to get himself out of a rut, and still another to get others out. This knowledge of the force of habit of man should therefore be used in two ways: — First, when the designer is trying to make the most natural machine for the purpose. Then he must overcome his own tendency to follow precedent. Second, when considering the kind of a machine that can be easily made, sold, and used, he must give due consideration to the inertia of others, for their inertia he cannot hope to quickly change. Reformers in this world generally have a hard time whenever they underestimate the inertia of men's minds and bodies. A designer of machinery, by close application to his tasks, should bbtain a clearer view than it is possible for others to possess, of the way a machine should be designed, made, and used. It is not necessary to assume he has a better brain. An ordinary mind applied to a given subject sees it more clearly than an abler mind which has not considered the subject with the right interest. NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 101 Technical View Insufficient But whether the clear view of the designer is due to pecuHar fitness for seeing such things, or to proper apphcation, the fact remains that this clear view of the technical side is insufficient in itself. The man with the clear view must also reahze that others do not get the same view. He must know that the mind automatically takes in things of interest to it and wards off others. Even when the indi- vidual apparently tries to comprehend some- thing in which he has no special interest, it only results in a superficial mental impres- sion, one that has no appreciable effect on the actions. This failure of mankind in general to grasp the advantages of a new mechanism as it appears on paper is only a sUght part of the troublesto be encountered by a progressive designer. He has to contend with habits of thought and action of all the human beings affected by the new machine. This includes the entire group of men in the manufacturing plant in which the machine must be made, the business 102 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT organization both in this plant and the one in which it is to be used, and, after all this, the greatest obstacle of this kind is to be met in the man who uses the machine. For it is in his hands that a machine must prove its value. When we consider the inertia of mind and body, it is truly marvelous that there has been any progress in machine design. In fact, if the machine-building trade were in retrogres- sion, with only a few new men being taken in there would be little or no excuse for mak- ing machine tools of new design. The older workers would get along about as well without the improved machines. This is not said in a spirit of faultfinding. It is a great fact that we should grasp if we are to design machinery successfully. It is difficult for the man of sanguine temper- ament to really accept this view, and it is also hard for one who is continually searching for knowledge. But it must be appreciated, and all work must conform to this principle, if it is to be pushed forward along the lines of easiest progress. ^ Accepting this view is no barrier to progress. NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 103 It will not ultimately delay the work of a reformer if he is induced to act in accordance with this principle. It only prevents a wreck. Easiest Way to Impeove Inventions of complete novelty and of great economic value have attained success going in opposition to this principle of conformity to the habit of the world. But the easiest way is to direct improvements and inventions along lines that are the most readily assimilated by the minds of the beings to be considered, and this may be said to be one of the master-keys to economic success. The work of building the first model of a new machine may be under the direct super- vision of the inventor, and if only one machine is to be made, the inventor can follow it wherever it is used. By patience and industry he may instruct some one in the use of it, but in these days there is no chance for a great economic success in making just one machine, or in fact any machine for which there is not a large market. Hence, we will confine our attention to machines made in such large 104 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT quantities that the complete supervision of manufacture, sale, and use is beyond the capac- ity of one person. For all such machinery the design must more or less conform to the thought and habits of work of all concerned. Some of the most direct designs have failed to meet with suc- cess just because the inventor did things in an unusual way. The unusual way is a blind way, and is difficult to find. In some instances it amounts to no way at all, for it is never used. Avoid Obscure Parts If a radical change in design is to be made, the new machine should be one that will be the most readily understood. Obscure parts or unusual means should be avoided. If moving parts must be covered, some way should be provided .for convenient observa- tion. It is the obscure departure that is the most troublesome, and it is the obvious thing that offers the least resistance to progress. There is a chance to progress by obvious devices, and such progress is enjoyed by all, from the makers to the users. It stimulates their weak but wholesome appetite for progress NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 105 without the economic loss usually entailed by new things. The real new thing requires thought in its construction, its sale, and its use. Whatever requires thought delays action. If we were required to think out each move of foot or hand, or even tongue, the motion of these members would be greatly reduced. Business is transacted and work is done in the most economical way when it is the result of experience and habit. Thinking, of course, goes on more or less according to the kind of work and the kind of man, but in many cases it is, after all, only ''habit" thinking that really goes on without much conscious effort. The delay in progress of business and work which is caused by the need of the real brain- work that is required by new things, is one of the most important points to grasp and keep in mind in making any change in a machine or in bringing out something comparatively novel. Getting Out of the Rut We have said that an inventor's success depends on his getting out of the rut of thought 106 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT and practice. That his endeavor must be to make a machine that fits the economic and prac- tical needs. That he must remember that his invention must be truly great if he can neg- lect the fact that others will not get out of the rut without a rather severe jolt. In fact, he must consider that the success of his work depends more on the readiness with which it will be understood and used than on its merits as an ideal piece of mechanism. If the inventor gets his cue from the business head of an organization for building machin- ery, or from any of the members of the com- mercial side of the business, it may be a cue that indicates the great need of something distinctly novel, something radically different, and with more ''talking points" in its favor. This is not always the case, but there is generally more optiniism among the pushers of a business organization than in the actual workers or users of the machines. But the designer should keep in mind the real needs and the real obstacles to success. The favorable features in machine design are: directness of mechanism for the purpose; its simphcity and its efficiency; its adaptabil- NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 107 ity to the habit of thought and action of makers and users. The obstacles to its success are any of the features it may have that cannot be readily comprehended by those who are to build, sell, buy, and use these devices. It is of Uttle value for real success for a machine to be one that is readily understood by a draftsman or manager, or that it is one that may be made to perform wonders in the hands of a skilled expert. The real economic success depends on the number of machines that will be used. The number of machines that will be used depends on the readiness with which the real workers take hold and manipulate the machine. To get a true conception of the value of a machine, it is necessary to look at the showing of a business engaged in its manufacture. In estimating the value of a machine-building business for this purpose it is customary to speak of its ''good- will.'' The True Value of a Business All have recognized that a ''going" business has a value that differs from a dead one, the same as a live horse is of greater value than a 108 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT dead one, but it has been a trifle difficult to locate this value. The inventory that contains no item equivalent to life may not reflect the true value. The real value may be greater than that which would be indicated by the assets. As a matter of fact, the inventory is usually made to reach a figure which will tally with the earning power. The earning power of a machine business is largely due to the vol- ume of business on each machine. The orders for a given machine may be coming in, respond- ing to an aggressive campaign of advertising or missionary work. But as helpful as these are, they are relatively small compared with the effect of a host of workers who know how to operate the particular machine and who want to do so, as well as the number of men who have a half-knowledge and a whole-size desire to learn this trade of operating a given machine. This extra value is due to the fact that this increase in volume of business establishes a repetition of thought and work, and this is its real foundation of success. If a machine is one that is to be operated by a human being, it must be built to conform not only to habits of mind and body, but also NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 109 to his mental and physical make-up. The man who remarked, while standing in line waiting at a box-office, that he would rather walk ten miles than stand five, expressed an important fact that we should keep in mind in designing machines. The human being must neither be unduly restricted in his free- dom of action nor overtaxed with hard work. Physical Condition of Worker If the use of the machine induces either an adverse mental attitude or physical condition of the worker, it will sooner or later be adverse to the economic success of the machine. We have indicated some of the problems and have suggested the well-known method of mental control for this purpose. A keen ob- server of men and machinery may not require as much of the so-called practical experience; another may need many years of actual work. The practical experience in the various departments of machine construction, its sale and its use, is undoubtedly almost absolutely necessary for the average man in this work. Its value is primarily to give an opportu- nity to see things in actual operation. The no HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT shop affords an opportunity to see how a ma- chine stands up to its work, where it is weak, and a thousand and one points that can best be seen in actual operation. But there is still another phase that is comprehended more readily by the practical experience, and this applies to the various departments of business as well as to the works. It is the knowledge of the men and their mental make-up and attitude. A keen observer soon reaHzes that successful life in the machinery world will not come easily to any one who lacks a good understanding of others in the field. All Men Are Human Beings One of the first things we learn in the works or office is that all men are really human beings. The second one is that the meanest one is only so because of certain physical or mental conditions that are the direct result of natural law. Usually it is not necessary to drag in heredity, for we find ample cause in his environ- ment, within our range of vision. As a rule, a good understanding of men in- sures a wholesome regard for them, while fail- NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 111 ure to understand the other fellow (or the equivalent, the failure of the other fellow to understand us) may bring out many things that make us feel that he is not one whose feelings or interests should be considered. To any one that has had experience in the shop and a fairly well-rounded business and financial experience in this particular field of work, the other fellow is invariably a good fellow whenever there is a chance for a fairly complete understanding. If we can accept this statement tentatively, and follow it up by a determined purpose to actually feel it, then we have obtained some- thing by the royal process that would have othen\dse required much time and perhaps some unpleasant experiences. This knowledge is essential to success in designing machinery. True, many have been successful with a very different attitude, but engineers of the future must see to it that as many of the phases are as favorable as can be made so. Regarding the absorption of the knowledge of working mechanism in the works, this is greatly facilitated by a wholesome relation- 112 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT ship with the workers, and it is greatly handi- capped without it. Therefore, it is one of the cardinal points for the machine designer to get thoroughly acquainted with other men in the work so as to know their likes and dislikes, as well as the mechanical needs. CONTKOLLING THE MiND The mind acquires the clearest observation by the scheme already mentioned for creating interest, viz., by repeatedly bringing it back to the subject whenever it is found wandering. The truest view for this purpose is one that results from an attempt to discover the most natural lines for accomplishing the purpose for which the machine is wanted. It should not be born of precedent. It should not fol- low the Hues of thought of other designers. Another very fruitful scheme of working is to hunt for obsolete features in existing machines, features that were required in other days but have no use now. Such things are frequently found in machines, and they are there just because some designer has followed blindly. All designers follow more or less. We NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 113 have shown the great need of following the set habits of users, but we should make a dis- tinct attempt to get back to nature; that is, to see just what is best for the purpose, and to get the most direct and natural means. If this is too much of a task, just hunt for the obsolete features. Above all things, we must not try to follow another^s work. We too often follow unwittingly and to our misfortune even when we try to keep out of the rut. Machine designers who have done original work will tell us that it is easier to do good work by striking out on new lines than it is to follow the work of others, or even to tinker over some of their own inventions of other years. It takes more of a mind to take up the work of another and change it than to start out in some original scheme. The machine builder knows that the success of any machine depends on the clear-sightedness of his designer and the oneness of purpose of all the heads of all the departments devoted to the construction, sale, and oversight of the running machines in the hands of the users. And last but not least, in these days of su- premacy of specialization, he knows that 114 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT success comes only to the largest group of men organized for this particular kind of work. Cooperation Necessary for Success He knows that a given machine must have a group of men devoting their best thought and energies to bring its greatest success. This group may be a separate organization, operating as a separate company, or it may be a part of a large organization devoted to a variety of purposes. But if it is a part of a large organization, it must have an absolutely independent organization with the free manage- ment of business, and it must be unhampered in the control of its construction, sale, and direction of its use. The men engaged in production, in the busi- ness, or in the operation should have no other work. And as already stated, this group of men should be larger than any other group devoted to a competing machine. Workmen must not be changed from one class of work to another, excepting for pro- motion, and business men should not be expected to know all about two or three ma- chines of unlike characteristics. NON-TECHNICAL PHASES OF DESIGN 115 Improvements should be sparingly made. Any improvement that requires a change in construction or operation may be disastrous financially. This may all seem extremely pessimistic. But it is only seemingly so. Experience shows it to be the true view. If it is true, then the machine designer should know it. A mere knowledge of mechanism is insufficient for him. A large business expe- rience cannot be purchased, and his success should not be contingent on the business ability of another. He should know how a machine should be designed, and should not depend too heavily on the views of the busi- ness men who have not a clear knowledge of the technical problem. Perhaps some of you may feel that there are many other problems to be encountered before you will meet these which I have set forth. But we should remember that the mind holds some of such impressions a very long time. It holds them below the threshold of conscious thought, and under ideal working conditions it brings them above it when they are needed. If you have caught my meaning you will 116 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT not be weakened in enthusiasm for new work, but you will be protected in a measure against some of the reaction due to disappointment. There is a great field for earnest workers, and it is easy to become one by working on the lines set forth. PART III MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT T VI MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT HE navigator in preparing for a voyage carefully examines each of his instru- ments. He must know the present error of his chronometer and its rate of change, and its general rehability as indicated by its past record. He must also know errors in his com- passes for each point, and he should have the fullest information regarding the degree of reUabihty of every other means on which his success depends; and, last but not least, he must accurately determine his starting-point or point of departure. In taking up the subject before us we will do well to follow his example. In doing so, our task will be to examine two principal elements: one, the means on which we depend for interpreting the information that is available; and the other, the source and character of the information. The means may be considered analogous to the navigator's instruments, and is no less 120 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT a thing than the brain or mental machinery; and the information is simply the world about us as seen in the existing things, such as machin- ery, methods, popular notions, textbooks, etc., all of which may be classed as environ- ments, and may be considered as analogous to the charts and other pubHcations of our worthy example. Like the mariner, we must determine the degree of reliability of all these sources of infor- mation and our means for interpreting observed facts. When we have ascertained this we will know what allowance to make from the '^observed" to get the actual facts. With this knowledge we will be able to accurately determine both our starting-point and best course. The importance of considering our own minds will be seen when we realize that every new fact taken in must in a measure conform to the previous ideas. If some of these old ideas are erroneous, the mind must be more or less ready to discard them. It is very difficult to dislodge deep-seated convictions. Contra- dictory ideas are not assimilated. Only one of them is actually accepted. Even when to MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 121 the objective reasoning they seem false, they frequently continue to control our actions. Since we are loaded with the popular ideas which we have absorbed from our environment, it will be well for us to begin by critically exam- ining our environment and the process by which ideas have been taken in. This may enable us to put out some of the erroneous views, and perhaps more firmly fix the true ideas; thereby preparing the mind for a more ready acceptance of what otherwise would be barred out as contradictory. We shall not go deeply into the psychology of the subject, as it will not be necessary to go contrary to or beyond the well-known facts. We shall not try to locate the man or refer to him as the ego or inner man. We shall simply say that we know that we can use our brains to think on any subject, and we can use our senses to collect information regarding any chosen subject. Our senses and mental faculties can be directed to consider one element in a business, and for the moment be unmindful of the many other elements. In other words, we can to a 122 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT certain extent manage our mental processes. Just as a horse can be managed, so may we manage our brains. A driver may carefully control the expenditure of energy and the course traveled, or he may throw the reins over the dash and allow the horse to go his own gait and route. In the same way we may manage or mismanage our brains. Good Results with Moderate Effort A faster pace will not be advocated, for the present gait is overstrenuous. We hope, how- ever, to point out a way by which good results may be obtained with moderate effort. If, in the past, the brain has been found want- ing, we should not lose confidence in its reli- ability until we have seen how it has been managed. Under some conditions its interpretations are absolutely correct; in fact, under all condi- tions that would be called fair in testing other kinds of mechanism. Unfortunately, these conditions have not always existed. Opinions regarding impor- tant matters have been formed when accurate mentation has been impossible. MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 123 Our mental processes are infallible when the problem is simple, and may be correct when complex, providing sufficient time is allowed for reliable operation. Two plus two equals four to every normal adult's mind. We agree on such simple sums and many more difficult, but we begin to have ''opinions" when we undertake problems in which there are too many elements for us to 'Hake in" and weigh. Although there is a great difference between the capacities of the various minds for mathe- matical and other problems, each mind has its natural limit or capacity. This capacity should be known, for the mind cannot be trusted beyond this normal working limit. When the thinking machine is pushed beyond its normal capacity, it is untrustworthy. The faulty action would not be of great conse- quence, if we would disregard the conclusions which it has reached under such conditions. But unfortunately we go on cHnging to these opinions, "set notions," and "convictions," just the same as if the process had been infallible. These opinions constitute our viewpoint 124 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT or knowledge, and we govern ourselves accord- ingly in the management of our affairs. Just as we possess the '^ fixed opinions," '^set notions/' etc., regarding the greater problems of hfe, so we possess a milhon of set notions regarding the best form of machinery and best methods of conducting a manufac- turing business. Many of these notions have been acquired without careful thought. They have just been absorbed from our experience and environ- ment. In some cases we may have assumed that some one has previously given the matter proper consideration, and that the existing conditions are the result of their conclusions. As a matter of fact, many of the conditions now existing in the machine shop are the result of allowing old practices to continue after conditions have changed, and this has taken place without the attention of any one. There is no desire to behttle the opinions of others. In fact, we must depend on others for most of our opinions. But there are so many things that have been apparently left to '^ others'' by everybody, that it is well for us to do some independent thinking, especially MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 125 on our own immediate problems. To cast a glance at least at some of our notions, just to see if they bear proof of having been thought- fully produced or unthinkingly allowed to take form. Unimpoetant Details We can neither regulate the complexity of our environment nor the number of problems which we must settle within a given time. But we can improve the conditions very much by avoiding overconcentration on unimportant details. The brain's best time and energy should be reserved for our own immediate problems; it should not be hampered by details of others. The various officers of an industrial organiza- tion should know the ins and outs of the thinking machine on which they depend for guidance. With such knowledge each brain will give the greatest results, and without such knowledge the best brain may be untrust- worthy. One of the important characteristics of the mind is its tendency to lose sight of every- thing except the subject in mind. One danger 126 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT is dodged by jumping into another which we have not seen. Both dangers were plainly in sight to any one who had not concentrated on one of them. In the regular every-day business life, we seem to have ample time to consider each problem. But in reality our great length of time is offset by a greater number of elements to consider, and a more profound effect of long -continued teaching or molding of our environment. For years engineers have concentrated ener- gies on the steam-engine of the reciprocating type. The master-minds have made important improvements in the design, and many have given up their entire existence to the science of analyzing the effects of each variation in conditions of working the steam. Our textbooks, our teaching, our observation, all concentrated our attention on this type. For some reason Gustav deLaval, followed by C. A. Parsons and Nikola Tesla, broke away from this spell, and we have the steam tur- bine engine. These individuals are endowed with master-minds, but the task of producing the turbines was probably no greater than the MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 127 task of others in improving the reciprocating type. In one case a great step has been taken. In the other, we have an example of men of un- doubted abihty laboring hard for entire life- times with relatively small gain. This example applies to more than the inventors' world. It has many parallels in the cold business management of a manu- factory or one of its departments. Business management requires the same kind of reason- ing and getting away from the spell of environ- ment. But this phase we shall consider later under another head. The point to be brought out here is the effect of the spell of environment in magnify- ing the importance of existing views and methods, and the deceptive part this trusty brain plays in binding us to unnecessarily hard work. Seeing One Thing at a Time The tendency of the mind to see only one thing at a time is at once most valuable and most menacing. It is valuable because it en- ables us to forget all but one subject when we wish to concentrate our energies. It is most 128 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT menacing when this concentration is continued too long, to the neglect of other subjects. One example of the unreliability of the nor- mal mind is its proneness to accept as true almost any statement that is repeatedly ut- tered. Advertisers know this. We rebel when they overwork the method, but nevertheless the main fact is true; we are swayed by reit- erated statements. This peculiarity of the mind to be influ- enced by repeatedly uttered thoughts is only an example of the many ways in which our environment affects our views. Our political and social views usually con- form to those of our family or section of the country and world. We generally accept as good and right almost any long-existing con- dition of affairs. Of course, we may dissent more or less, but the normal man does not get very far away from the effects of his environment. Another characteristic of the mind is its inclination to concentrate on some apparently self-selected subject of the most trivial nature. This concentration may not be consciously entered into; it may not appear to be intense, MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 129 but it partially or wholly inhibits the view of other subjects. It usually magnifies the sub- ject in mind and makes all others appear very small or of little consequence. All this may seem very trivial and of Httle significance to the man in the works or office, but it is not trivial. If the principle is under- stood and used it will reduce the effort re- quired for a given result. All will assent to the importance of the sub- ject. Some may agree with the statements, but it must be borne in mind that no good results will come from simply agreeing. In fact, there seems to be good reason for behev- ing that the mere mental acceptance of a truth does not constitute useful knowledge. The mental acceptance undoubtedly precedes the full, useful assimilation of the facts, but it does not produce a change in the actions until it is fully assimilated. The unsuccessful may appear to knoiv as much or more than the suc- cessful—the difference is, their knowledge is not the genuine article. They may say they know this or that truth, but their actions prove they do not beheve what they say they know. 130 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT In the succeeding pages an effort will be made to indicate some of the important points to be considered. There will be no attempt to tell anything new. The main object is to urge action along Unes that are known to all to be the best. The Spell or Envikonment We can get a bird's-eye view of our field by imagining a viewpoint of an entire stranger. If we, as a stranger, should enter any of our representative industrial plants, we should do so with a profoundly respectful mental atti- tude. We would undoubtedly show a full appreciation of the fact that the workshop has been a means for betterment of all the con- ditions of life. We would know that the print- ing-presses, the machinery for agriculture, our looms, and, in fact, everything that is a machine, or the product of a machine, is the direct produce of the workshop; without which there would be no printing, no machine-made cloth, no machine-formed wood, no mechanical means for transportation; in fact, none of the mate- rial things that have made the last century a record breaker. MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 131 With such knowledge, our respectful, yea, worshipful attitude would seem most fitting. It is not for us to say one word to detract from the credit due to these makers of machin- ery. Even in seeing the results of their labor accredited to others, we know that it is so well marked with the real builder's name that they can continue their work of making history, apparently disregarding the fact that the world's laurels go to others. Our profound admiration for these workers would not be lessened by our knowledge that they deal with ideals only when they are prac- tical; that ''heaven-born inventors" have no chance for success if lacking in earthly knowl- edge; that the engineer deals in material things, and must make things ''go." The engineer may have his ideals, but they must stand the test of reduction to practice. In the works the material and practical tests are applied to every ideal. No beautiful theory can live without some other character- istic than beauty. As a stranger we might be interested to know the prime motive which estabHshed the busi- ness. By inquiry we might find several rea- 132 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT sons: Man's natural industry — his desire to make a machine of some kind, or to build up a large business for the glory of it, or from some altruistic motives. It is even possible, yea, probable, that we would discover the rul- ing incentive to be the desire for the so-called worldly gain. But whatever might have been the motive, we would know that it could not succeed without correct economic management. The bird's-eye view then would reveal the importance of the economic side; that in order to carry out any plan based on any of the vari- ous incentives, the problem of profit and loss must not take second place. It would seem childish to make such common- place statements if the facts before us were not so full of proof that many of the officers, foremen, and workmen, as well as owners, sometimes forget this important fact. It is neither necessary nor desirable that every one should take an active part in the general management of the business. But since various workmen, foremen, and officers are the real authorities who decide the charac- ter of the equipment of a plant and the general methods of work, it is necessary, from the profit- MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 133 and-loss side of the question, that all should know something more about this question than is generally known. Financial Hazard The money invested in a business is secure if the management is active on the best lines for the time. But the best plan of manage- ment cannot be obtained from history. The vast store of data of correct practice of former times will not serve the purpose. A record of the practice of even the last decade is inadequate, for rules of the game are con- tinually changing. The investment in an industrial plant and business is not wholly protected by fire-proof buildings and ultra-conservative management. The security must be protected by conducting the business on profitable lines. Safeguarding the money tied up in machin- ery equipment and buildings is important, but should not lessen the consideration of elements which have to do with the expense of operating. A plant and business is useless when not in motion, and when under headway requires money. Money must be poured into it steadily 134 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT to an amount which, every year, generally equals the total capital in the business. Much time and energy have been consumed in careful consideration of the cost of the plant, but not enough thought has been given to the money tied up in the business in other ways. Conditions That Affect the Hazard The hazard of investment is enhanced be- cause the investors are inclined to be over- sanguine in starting in or in considering any new move. Frequently the investors do not understand the practical side. The practical men do not understand the financial, and even when finan- cial and practical men combine, the combina- tion of their knowledge is not perfect. There are many important elements omitted. There is always a feeling that now we have arrived at a time when it will pay well to go deeply into greatest refinement in shading the last mill of the last cent on labor cost of this or that piece, by the introduction of some marvelous line of machine tools. This is a case where Hope triumphs over Experience; MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 135 for surely the world is not yet finished. There are a few changes that must yet be made. All the machines have not yet reached the last stage of perfection! If we stake our faith on this or that as a ^'sure thing," we may discover some fine morning that our ''sure thing" is a back number. Of course, we know that under some condi- tions we can continue to make and sell a thing that is a back number many years, providing we keep up our organized work for new busi- ness. But this period should be used in get- ting ready for a change; it should not be frittered away in attempting to retain the old. Much time is required to get out a new prod- uct or to modify the old. Perhaps it is the beneficent law of nature that people are slow to reject back numbers. Surely it has saved many a wreck in the past among builders of machinery, although it has undoubtedly been rather disastrous for the users of the back numbers, and equally bene- ficial to any of their competitors who may have been nonusers of said back numbers. Dangers also lurk in pessimism, whether it 136 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT relates to the character of product or per- manency of the market. When we are oversanguine we are incKned to forget what we have been taught by experience. Experience has taught us that the only per- fect machine is the one we do not fully know. The ''perfect'' machine may be the one that is to be tried next week, or one that has been running a few weeks or months or years. The optimist thinks it is his own machine, and the pessunist that it is the machine built by his competitors. The kind of forgetfulness that produces the optimist is preferable to that which pro- duces the pessimist, but neither produces the true view. If m the past we have found it desu-able to make changes in product or in our method of manufacture, it i^ probable that we will have a reason for doing so again. The ''perfect" machine will be found want- ing in some respects, and alterations will be necessary; therefore, the business will be more secure if all moves are made with this fact in mind. MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 137 Value of Specialization We find two extreme types of men in the optimist and pessimist. Either one is better than the man who vacillates between these extremes. Over confidence in one's own product is not wholly bad, and, if it induces an adher- ence to that one thing to the exclusion of other schemes, it may bring good results even if the scheme is more or less faulty. A faultily designed machine, well made, may be better than a poorly made machine of good design. It takes practice to produce good work, and the sticking to it gives the practice. In the pessimist we have one who is ever ready to lose faith as soon as he discovers faults. The wavering faith in any one machine generally results in the addition of one after another and the retention of all. This proceed- ing dissipates the attention, and no one machine receives the development that comes from undi- vided attention. But whether the lack of constancy tends toward a variety of types or an unnecessary 138 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT increase in number of sizes of a given machine, it is invariably excused by the assertion that there is not enough business in a lesser num- ber. This statement is frequently made, when it is common knowledge that there are from six to fifty makers who are making the same range. This tendency to increase the number of machines manufactured is sometimes due to the readiness with which the average man accepts a new machine as better than the old. He knows the faults of the old, and he does not know all the faults of the new. Money invested in a machinery building plant is not very safe if there is a tendency to squander the energies over too many problems. The manufacture of a great variety of machines in response to a demand by the selling organization is a relic of other days. Our notions about methods for selling must be changed over to fit the modern scheme. And they must be kept up to date. There are some very successful large com- panies which turn out a large variety of prod- MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 139 uct, but even the large companies are trying to reduce their Hne of machinery, and to ^^speciahze.'^ Their success will depend on whether they lead or follow in efficient special- ization. The survival of the fittest will eliminate all, excepting specialists or groups of specialists. The largest plants may continue, by concen- trating a battery of specialists on both the business and mechanical side of each subject, the necessary degree of subdivision. This depends on the competition, for the combined force on one given machine must be the largest in order to be the most efficient. The great variety or full line of machines seems to be a necessity from the mercantile point of view, but it is a woeful handicap to progress and profit to the manufacturing plant. The market conditions must be met, but it is best to know the disastrous effect of making just one more size or another line. The entire cost of conducting a machine- building business can usually be lowered by simply continuing along with the same men. This applies to the entire organization, from the workmen to the salesmen. 140 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT Careful changes should be made from time to time, to keep up a wholesome spirit of progress. Men should be advanced from position to position as the opportunities afford and their endowments allow. Others unfortunately must be dropped from the organization; but both the advancements and the weeding out must be carefully considered. Ambition Mania Advancements cannot be made to meet the requirements of this age of overstimulated ambition. We preach that every boy born in this country may stand an equal chance for every position from the Presidency down. Young men are told to study and qualify for great things. This is good kind of preach- ing — it is the kind that should be heeded, — but in some instances it is taken into the mind as meaning that every one is endowed with the abiHty to fill this or that great position. Then the ambition becomes the predominat- ing idea, and the work of preparation is sec- ondary. Then the individual fails to measure up his own quahfications. Then he becomes MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 141 obsessed with an idea of his fitness for things greater than nature ever intended. Thus he gets beyond a condition of usefulness to an organization, and must be dropped out with the disgruntled. It is one of the tragedies of hfe that we should try to prevent, but should never disregard. Ambition should exist, but it should not be the sole qualification for promotion. The management's chief business should be to take men as they are found on earth; mold them as much as possible, and place each one where he will accompHsh the best results for both the organization and the individual. Barring the disgruntled, the uncongenial, and the habitually inattentive, almost all men may be and should be profitably employed, the prime requisite being reasonably close attention to business. The thoughts must not habitually wander away from the work. Intrigue disappears when the management quits looking for it, and assures everybody, by the general method of conducting the business, that there will be no chance to oust this or 142 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT that man. That each man will be retained in his place if he will but give reasonable applica- tion to the general interest of the organization and the particular work of his office. The management does not ''manage" if it perpetually changes its men. It should bol- ster up the man who lacks self-confidence; it should puncture false ambitions, and it should use men as they are found in the organization. It should not be inclined to ''go back on" a man who has blundered or who has been found lacking in understanding. It should not be over-ready to embrace a stranger just because his faults are not known. The financial hazard of a business enter- prise is greatly minimized by using men as they are found, and properly placing them at work or in offices for which they are quahfied. Lack of Confidence in Product What has been said regarding the optimist, the pessimist, and the vacillating man, from the designing and manufacturing point of view of a machine business, appHes with equal force to the business organization. The business is pushed forward by men who MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 143 have confidence in the project and in the prod- uct. If these men lose their faith in their own business, they not only lose their useful- ness as pushers and managers, but they be- come drags on the industry, and remain so until restored to normality. The hazard of investment is greatly increased by such con- ditions. Instances without number have been ob- served in which men who have been success- ful have become unsuccessful through loss of confidence due to acquiring the ''dangerous half-knowledge.'' The man who has acquired the dangerous half-knowledge should take a postgraduate course in some institution where men are treated by all the most powerful agencies known to science. There may be no institu- tions of this kind in existence, but the great need will doubtless bring the estabhshment of many.. The men who have lost faith in their own machinery should be told that no company can survive the effects of weak-kneed advo- cates. Any company is better for a certain amount of aggressive competition. Any com- 144 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT pany can stand more or less opposition from Its friends the enemy, but no company can contmue to exist under the bhghting effects of the men who have lost this confidence in them or their product. The postgraduate course for restoration of the near^wise man should include educational means of all kinds. The means should be especially adapted to the need of each student or patient. There might be a phonograph in each room, which should work all night and all day. This machine should repeat over and over a few short sentences like the following: ''The only perfect machine is the one you do not know.'' ''Study the machines offered by your com- petitors, just to get the same degree^of knowl- edge of the ^other' machines — not for the purpose of slandering or even mentioning — but just to restore your confidence in the relative value of your own machine.'' "Don't try to get back your belief that your own machine is perfect — that has gone forever — only look at the other machines and learn that your own is the best." MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 145 This kind of confidence will not be exuberant, but it will have marked efl&ciency in the cold gray world in which you are to again try your strength. Confidence in Existing Things The new confidence acquired by this treat- ment is born of a knowledge of the superior- ity of existing things — things that may not be perfect but are nevertheless best. This treatment will forcibly impress on the mind that every machine requires a complete organization, which combines and includes the inventor, the business managers, the manu- facturing ofiicers, and last, but not least, the men who do things, the workers in every depart- ment. And this extends to every detail of the work necessary for the construction, shipment, and operation of the product. The inventor may have had almost complete knowledge regarding the best way to make each part, just how each fit should be made, and just how the machine should be operated under each combination of conditions. But it is far more probable that the inventor never had all this wonderful knowledge. 146 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT If he knew all this, it would be of value pro- viding he had some perfect way of impart- ing his knowledge to each individual worker. We know, however, that this is impossible, even with the most thoroughly organized companies. It takes years to get each piece made as it should be made, even with no change of de- sign, and this is not accomphshed by any other process than continuous practice, which is only acquired by actually making these pieces. The quality and speed of production increases with this experience, and are not acquired without it. The art of assembling and operation of the machine is developed in the same way. There are other means that facihtate, but nothing that takes the place of practice. The knowledge of the machine must not be only in the inventor's head. It is not even enough to have it thoroughly known by all the officers, including foremen. It must be patiently transmitted to the real workers. A wonderful invention is only of material value when it has been in active use long enough for many men to have acquired knowledge MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 147 regarding it and skill in production of its vari- ous parts, assembling and operating. It may have a prospective value, and that may be something salable, but the point to be made clear is, that real material value of an invention is not realized till it is used. To have it used requires more than the inventor^s vision, and more than the drawings and speci- fications. The invention must be given form and use. A machine is a combination of the original idea with many subsequent ideas which have been added to it by continuous application. These subsequent ideas are supphed by the men who do things, who make and use the machine. These ideas do not show in the general de- sign, but they are there in fact. They represent ideas as to proper fit of this or that part, of the advantage of easing this or that bearing at this or that place. They represent the accumulation of the ideas regard- ing proper tension for each adjustment, and thousands of other points that may or may not have been anticipated by the inventor, points that probably could never have been known by any other process than that worked out by 148 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT actual thought combined with experience in the construction and use of the invention. The Workeks Help Bring Success The inventor, the officers, and mayhap the foreman, taken all together, do not and can- not make a successful machine or business without this supplemental work or ideas that come from actual work of all workers. This new kind of knowledge should not take away a man's courage; on the contrary, it should give him a true sense of value of exist- ing, ^^going'' things. With this knowledge he can confidently and earnestly push a machine that is the product of a good organization. He will know the great value of much experience and practise of each of the many men in the organization. He will neither kill the busi- ness by half-hearted indorsement, nor increase the hazard of investment by urging this or that modification. Nor will he advocate this or that machine being added to a line that is already too great. The invention, the general organization, the proper direction of the business, are essential to success. But without that organization MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 149 which is only obtained by actual, thoughtful experience of the men who do things, all the knowledge and industry of the leaders are utterly useless. This knowledge produces a new kind of con- fidence that has greater faith in the existing and running things than in the claims for some- thing that has not had the development of practice. It is the confidence that knows that the right fundamental ideas and the policy of ^^ sticking to one thing" will accom- plish the best results. This is not a doctrine of optimism that holds there is no inferior machine. The '^best" implies the existence of the inferior. In nearly all lines there are many grades from the best to the worst, but the loss of faith in the rela- tive value of a machine is most commonly due to a lack of full knowledge of the other types, and it is this kind of loss of courage, confidence, or whatever it may be, that this chapter is intended to offset. Progress with Full Knowledge of Facts New schemes or new inventions may be full of promise^ but cannot be realized without the 150 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT various elements which include the man and his persistent industry in organizing as well as inventing — in manufacturing and selling as well as promoting. Belief in the superiority of existing things is not a barrier to real progress. It is not a submission to the spell of environment. It is simply an appreciation of an important fact. Progress should be made subject to this fore- knowledge. The spell of environment that should be exorcised away is not the spirit of progress — it is the group of fundamentally erroneous ideas regarding values of various methods of manufacture, general conduct of business, and principles of machine design. Here are a few of the errors: '' Anything new' must be good." "Tinker & Change Machine Tool Company are bringing out a new model. It's a wonder worker.'' [Said company seldom make two lots alike.] "Experience in manufacture and use of a new machine is of value, but not essential to its success." MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 151 "The talk of profit of a business should be in whispers. It is against the welfare of the workers.'' [As if good wages or salaries could be paid by an unprofitable enterprise.] "The idea that specialization of the pro- cesses for producing machines is harmful to the machinist trade because it tends to simplify and make less difficult the production of cer- tain kinds of work." [As if it were to the advantage of the machinist to be forced to work with poor implements, when in other plants, cities, and countries good tools are being furnished to each man — tools which enable each man to do the best work of which he is capable in the most favorable circumstances — methods of specialization which take the ordinary work away from the extra good work- man and supply him with high-class work only, making his return the greatest, and mak- ing it possible to pay him good wages. As if it were possible to pay good wages when good men are required to do medium work, and all men on account of inferior tools are handicapped in their production. As if these questions of profit were not of vital interest to every worker and officer, as well as owners.] 152 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT The group of persisting erroneous ideas regarding machine design is so large and so strong that a summary would fail to serve any good purpose. Therefore, no attempt will be made here to even outline these ideas. It is hoped that each reader will make an effort to get back to nature in surveying the field. Largest Profit per Dollar Invested One of the most satisfactory policies of man- agement is that which tends toward getting the best return or profit per dollar of investment. We shall not refer to the quality of the pro- duct, the design, or any other elements which affect the good name and standing of the business, for it goes without saying that no business can be maintained where these are disregarded. The point to be brought out here is that, these things being equal, the best scheme of management for profit is one that puts the capital where it will do the most good. The above statement is one with which all will agree, but strangely enough there has been a tendency to tie up capital in ways that actu- ally throttle the output of the entire business. MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 153 Furthermore, this is frequently done by in- creasing the portion of the investment that is irrevocably tied to the existing product, thus not only reducing the earning power of each dollar invested, but also increasing the hazard by tying the capital to the present product, which soon may be unsuited to the market demand. One of the most common errors in this respect is the one that regards the reduc- tion of the labor cost as the paramount con- sideration. Reduction in labor cost has been the war- cry. The pay-roll has been talked about so much that it has seemed to become the whole thing. A man who declares that the labor cost per piece is not the most important ele- ment is at once branded as an advocate of old-fashioned methods. It is needless to give assurance that there is no intention to disregard the labor cost The net cost per piece is a very important element, but it should neither eclipse the question of profit per dollar invested, nor the risk of the capital tied up. What is the gain if the means for reduction 154 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT of the net labor cost reduces the profit more than the saving in labor? If doing so results in an actual loss of profit, why is it done? We can readily see that the overhopeful managers may disregard the risk of the money invested, but we cannot see why the relative importance, or rather unimportance, of the labor cost should be so disregarded. The machine tools in a plant usually deter- mine its character. This character is not one that can be quickly changed, but every addition to the equipment does change it for better or worse. Usually the installation of a new machine is hailed as a progressive move, just because the new machine works better than the old, but its effect may be very bad. It may be changing the character of the plant adversely to the interests of all concerned. Therefore, the controlling spirit should see to it that each move is made on a basis that is economically sound. It is in these changes that the scheme of management has a chance to make a great difference in the earning power of the entire business. If too large a proportion of the total avail- MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 155 able capital is tied up in the machine equip- ment, the business is handicapped. There is a right amount which bears a certain relation to the total required to carry on the enterprise. With a given amount of capital for machine equipment, the output of the plant will be seriously throttled if the net cost of labor per piece machined is allowed to become the con- trolling element. Cost of the Pkoduct The practice of disregarding the profit, when considering changes in machine equip- ment, is the natural outgrowth of the sepa- ration of the mechanical and the business departments. The changes in the equipment are usually determined by the mechanical department, and this is done with particular regard for the quality of work and the cost per piece. The relation between the profit and the net labor cost is not considered. The cost of the product of the average machinery-building plant may be divided into three nearly equal parts: the material, the labor, and the burden; or, in four equal 156 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT parts, if a reasonable interest charge is made for the use of the capital invested. The material is the iron, steel, and other material that enters into the construction of the machine, and it is taken in the condition in which it usually comes to the machine shop. The burden includes all expenses and sal- aries necessary for the maintenance of the business. About one-half the amount paid for labor goes to the mon who run the machine tools, and the other half is paid to workmen who do the other work, such as handwork, assem- bling, transporting, etc. Therefore, the cost of machining is either one-sixth or one-eighth of the total cost. On top of the net cost of the product there should be a profit. If it is not there, the sooner something happens the better. If it is there, then it is proportioned to the volume of the output. Therefore, both the size of the out- put and the labor cost should be kept in mind. The size of the profit per unit of output is not generally known to the mechanical depart- ments. But even if it is not known, there is no reason for their being uninformed as to the MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 157 importance of large output for cost of the plant. Tying up Capital in Stock in Process of Construction The amount of capital tied up in raw mate- rial, supplies, stock in process, and finished product should not be greater than that which is necessary to get the greatest output per dollar of investment. In the machinery-building world there is no such thing as a steady, long-lived demand for any machine. Hence the proposition to build a locomotive or an automobile or print- ing-press by methods employed in watch or sewing-machine manufacture is entirely ill- timed at least. For this reason the stock in process must not necessarily be considered insufficient if it appears to be on the hand-to-mouth plan. The dividing line between excessive and insufficient stock must be drawn in each individual case. Raw material should be purchased in reason- able quantities, with due regard to the price which varies with quantities, but there should always be a regard for the amount of capital 158 HUMAN FACTOR IN WORKS MANAGEMENT used for this purpose. Any excess represents just that much extra capital unnecessarily risked in the business. There should be a constant supply of mate- rial throughout the entire work. The stock in process should flow through the plant in a rapid but thin stream. The quantity should be no greater than absolutely necessary to insure a steady supply for all of the workers, including the assembling and selling workers. An excessive stock of this or that piece, or of all pieces, means that much capital idle, and it also tends to slackness of management. Frequently it is the outcome of carelessness. A plant will run almost without manage- ment if given latitude in the amount of stock carried in raw material, in work in process, and in finished product. No great care need be taken in purchase of material or in putting in the shop orders. All that is needed is to just hurry forward the stock that ''happens'' to be ''out," and at the same time allow the accumulation of the unneeded stock to go on unchecked. And it is no uncommon sight to see this all going on under the same management. MACHINE BUILDING FOR PROFIT 159 Immense storerooms for keeping finished stock are shown with pride, unmindful of the fact that every dollar's worth of unneces- sary stock on the shelves in the stock-room, every dollar's vs^orth of unnecessary work in the plant, represents idle money and faulty management. If this money is to be retained in the busi- ness, the system should be changed so that the money will be put where it will bring the best return. The excessive stock in process is sometimes an outcome of blind progressiveness — the blindness that fails to see that there is as much money tied up in stock in process and in finished product as there is in the entire machinery equipment. An adaptable equipment facilitates keeping down the amount tied up in stock in process. The modern plant should take advantage of these modern methods and machines which tend toward profitable use of capital. Such machines are highly developed and true to the controlling ideal of adaptability and largest output per dollar of investment. JUL 23 1912 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: Aug. 2003 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 111 Thnmenn Dart- ni-i\*£i