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 Object-Teaching; 
 
 OR, 
 
 WORDS AND THINGS. 
 
 / 
 
 BY 
 
 T. G. ROOPER, Esq.., M.A., 
 
 INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND ; 
 AUTHOR OF "a POT OF GREEN FEATHERS." 
 
 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO ; 
 
 E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 
 
 1894. 
 
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 V 
 
 ■,V\^ 
 
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 Published by special permission of the author, who has written a preface 
 and added topic headings and questions for the student. This edition is one- 
 half the price of another edition which has not its advantages. 
 
 A STUDY IN APPERCEPTION. 
 
 or "A Pot of Green Feathers,'' by Mr. Rooper, a very valuable little book of 
 the same size and price. It discusses the menial operations by which wc 
 acquire knowledge. 
 
 Copyright, 1894, by 
 
 L. KELLOGG & CO., 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 I HAVE attempted in the following pages to introduce 
 English readers to a group of German thinkers who 
 have worked out theoretically and practically the bear- 
 ing of certain important philosophic principles on prac- 
 tical education. 
 
 Many experienced parents and teachers hold that the 
 training of young children is far better conducted in 
 the absence of leading principles to guide it. They 
 point out that there is no reason to suppose that the 
 most successful teachers have been students of philoso- 
 phy, and they infer that a study of philosophic princi- 
 ples is of no consequence to a teacher. 
 
 It appears to me, however, that they who argue thus 
 mistake the function of philosophy. German writers 
 on education have not sought to reveal some new and 
 untried methods of teaching, but rather to study the 
 causes of success where success has been attained. After 
 making due allowance for the magic influence of genius 
 in a great teacher (which of course dies with him except 
 for its indirect effects), it is still possible to ascertain how 
 he actually taught with the view of finding out as much 
 as may be of the secret of his success. Such research is 
 worth while, because even if it appear after all that the 
 
 3 ^ 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 great man^s influence on his pupils was really a kind of 
 magic or legerdemain, and as such inimitable, neverthe- 
 less it is interesting to know how the trick was done. 
 
 Few, however, will really doubt that it is possible to 
 disentangle a few leading principles which lie at the 
 basis of successful teaching. It does not, of course, 
 follow that because a teacher is acquainted with these 
 principles he will be able to apply them with effect, but 
 the knowledge will certainly aid him in his difficult 
 task. Teachers, like poets, are ^^born, not made;" but 
 A^hereas no one is a poet on compulsion, all parents are 
 compelled to be teachers, and a vast number of others 
 besides parents must undertake the training of children 
 without being especially endov/ed by nature with a 
 genius for education. 
 
 The reason why one teacher can keep up the attention 
 of a class in a lesson on Greek irregular verbs while 
 another sees the attention of his class wandering in the 
 midst of a lesson on Hannibal and the Eomans appears 
 to be thought by some an insoluble mystery and by 
 others a mystery not worth solving. For myself, I 
 believe that the studies of German writers on education 
 help to solve such mysteries, and I hold that in the 
 interest of childhood they are worth solving. My hope 
 is that the following brief lecture may direct the atten- 
 tion of others engaged in teaching to an inexhaustible 
 gold-mine of educational philosophy in which I have 
 dug with great profit to myself. 
 
 T. G. RooPER. 
 
 *'The Elms," High Harrogate, 
 
 LONDON; March 15, 1894, 
 
OBJECT TEACHING, OR WORDS AND 
 THINGS. 
 
 *'Her eyes are open; 
 Aye, but their sense is shut. " — BJiakespeare. 
 
 On" a particular occasion during the recent visit of 
 the Empress of Germany to London it became the duty 
 of the reporters of the public journals to describe Her 
 Imperial Majesty^s dress. Subsequently the Glole col- 
 lected the descriptions of the costume as they were given 
 by different reporters, to this effect: 
 
 The Times stated that the Empress was in ^^gold 
 brocade/^ while, according to the Daily JVetvs, she wore 
 a "sumptuous white-silk dress/^ The Standard ylao^^- 
 ever, took another view: " The Empress wore something 
 which we trust it is not vulgar to call light mauve/^ 
 On the other hand, the Daily Chronicle was hardly in 
 accord with any of the others: "To us it seemed almost 
 a sea-green, and yet there was now a cream and now an 
 ivory sheen to it/^ 
 
 The Pot of Green Feathers. — 'Eo wonder that the 
 Glole asks emphatically, " What did the Empress wear ? ^' 
 This incident seems to me another illustration of what 
 I tried to explain in a brief paper, which I named, " The 
 
 5 
 
OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 Pot of Green Feathers/^ I tried to prove in that paper 
 that we do not, as common-sense is apt to suppose, learn 
 directly from an object that lies before us nearly as 
 much as we seem to do. I showed that the mind of the 
 beholder, with its existing stock of ideas, adds to the 
 impressions which it receives from the object as much 
 or more than it actually receives from them. Many 
 impressions which seem to enter the mind directly from 
 the object really make their way in only mediately, as 
 the result of inferences and combinations made by the 
 mind itself. Something is supplied by the object and 
 something else is supplied by the mind. 
 
 The consequence is that our knowledge of an object 
 is not, as it seems to be, entirely determined by the 
 object, and the statement that "the senses are the gate- 
 ways of knowledge ^^ must be accepted as one which 
 conveys only a partial truth. " What,^^ says somebody, 
 " can I not believe my own senses ? '^ " Certainly,^^ I 
 reply, " but only if you carefully distinguished between 
 the actual gifts of the senses and your inferences from 
 those gifts.^^ The process of interpreting impressions 
 was popularly explained in the aforementioned paper, 
 but those who wish to see the question much more 
 philosophically treated should read Mr. Stout^s article 
 on Apperception in a recent number of Mind. I pro- 
 pose in my present paper to assume a knowledge of 
 this process, and to proceed a little further in the appli- 
 cation of psychological principles to educational practice. 
 My intention is to explain what I know of Object Teach- 
 ing — that kind of teaching which ought to be the foun- 
 dation of all learning, however abstract and advanced. 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. 
 
 ' Object Teaching not Information Giving. — Object 
 Teaching has so much in common with other kinds of 
 teaching, especially with language lessons and informa- 
 tion lessons, that it is frequently confused with them. 
 The distinction between them is, however, of the utmost 
 importance, and the true nature of Object Teaching can 
 hardly be made clear without drawing the distinction. 
 
 Its Eelation to Language Teaching. — My first point, 
 therefore, will be to show what Object Teaching has in 
 comxmon with language teaching, or in other terms, the 
 relation of Words to Things. 
 
 The Process of Apprehension is from the vague " Whole^^ 
 to a " Whole '' made definite by a Knowledge of its Parts. 
 — If an object be presented to our eyes for the first time 
 we cannot at once obtain a clear vision of all its separate 
 parts and qualities. By fixing our attention we become 
 aware of a number of different parts and qualities, which 
 we make out one after the other in more or less rapid 
 succession; but the mental image of the object which 
 we obtain in this way is far from clear or well defined. 
 The object as it is first viewed by the inner vision is like 
 a mass of hills in a sea of mist. Just as the numberless 
 summits are there massed together into one ill-defined 
 elevation of land, so the parts and qualities of the objects 
 are massed together into a vague multitude about which 
 we can say little that is precise. 
 
 There must be Analysis. — The process of arriving at 
 definition and precision is one of analysis. Out of the 
 confused mass of impressions, first one emerges into 
 clearness, and then another, until the division of the 
 whole is as complete as our mind can make it. The 
 
8 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 process of analysis of an unfamiliar object is far from 
 easy, because each separate quality and part exists in the 
 object as a portion of an undiyided whole. 
 
 Example. — A piece of lump-sugar, for instance, is to 
 a young child a composite whole which he cannot ana- 
 lyze for himself. Older persons can say that it is white, 
 hard, sweet, sparkling, and crystalline; but we cannot 
 present to the child the whiteness, or the hardness, or 
 any of the other qualities as separate objects outside and 
 independent of the lump. We can only place beside 
 the sugar other white things, such as salt, milk, fat, 
 cotton, and direct attention to the quality which they 
 have in common, namely, whiteness. In this way only 
 we can guide the child to make for itself the mental 
 effort which is needed for reaching the abstract concep- 
 tion whiteness, and if we wish to lead him to the con- 
 ception of hardness, sweetness, and the rest, we must 
 proceed in the same way. 
 
 1. Words Aid the Analysis of an Object.— The process 
 seems to prove that language is practically essential for 
 success in such acquisition of knowledge, and the truth 
 is, as we shall see more and more clearly in the sequel, 
 that apart from " words ^^ there are for human science no 
 '' things,^^ because the analysis of a whole into its parts 
 can proceed but a very little way without words. When 
 we take notice of the various parts and qualities of an 
 object, and give each a name successively, what is there 
 to fix these parts in the mind as complements of one 
 whole, but the name which we give to the whole object ? 
 Essential as the word is for analysis, it is quite as 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS, 
 
 necessary for synthesis — that is, for reuniting in thought 
 what our thought has separated. 
 
 2. They Assist to Separate the Object from the ^^Ego/^ 
 — There is another mental process which the word 
 greatly assists. In the presence of a new object, if it is 
 sufficiently startling in its nature, we forget ourselves 
 and are lost in the object. Self-consciousness vanishes. 
 We can no longer say " That is an object, and this is I.^^ 
 We are in that strange condition of mind which super- 
 venes when we witness a fine soliloquy well acted on the 
 stage — say, Hamlet^s ^^To be or not to be,^^ or a love 
 scene. If the actors are really successful, the scene 
 before us does not seem to be going on in our presence. 
 The thought of ourselves as present would be a dis- 
 agreeable feeling of intrusion. 
 
 Examples. — In certain states of mind the inner and 
 outer are blended into one. When .the consciousness of 
 the distinction between the " I ^^ and the " not \y^ that 
 is, between the " I ^^ and the object, begins to arise, it is 
 language which defines and renders permanent the dis- 
 tinction. Disturbed by a sudden peal of thunder in the 
 night, we wake in a confused state of mind till the word 
 '' thunder " occurs to us, and seems to extricate us from 
 the feeling of '' not knowing our own selves.^^ 
 
 3. Speech is an Outward Expression of the Eesult of an 
 Inward Mental Process. — In this way it comes about that 
 speech may be regarded as an act of deliverance for the 
 understanding. When from amidst the whirl of sensa- 
 tions which crowd in upon it, or from the overpowering 
 effect produced by a single group of impressions, the 
 mind has obtained mastery over itself and reduced 
 
10 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 confusion to order, there arises a feeling of triumph 
 which finds expression for itself by means of words, and 
 often by gestures as well. The internal sense of victory 
 reacts upon the body, and the body reflects the feeling 
 of the mind. The reaction of the mind on the bodily 
 organism causes the utterance of the word, and now 
 there are present in the consciousness two things — the 
 object known and the utterance of the sound or the 
 name of the object. 
 
 Object and Word become Associated. — These two are 
 intimately associated, and so strong is the association 
 that afterwards one alone, if both are not present, calls 
 the other into consciousness. I see, for instance, a lake 
 before me, and I cry " Windermere.^^ Or I read of 
 Windermere in a book, and I think at once of my men- 
 tal image of the lake; I see a view of the lake in my 
 mind^s eye. 
 
 When Words are Significant. — This association occurs 
 where the knowledge of the object and of the name of 
 the object have been associated in acquisition. Where 
 word and object are thus associated the word is in a 
 special way the mark or indication or sign of the object, 
 and such words are significant words in a special sense 
 of the word significant. The utterance of them is 
 weighted with a mental reproduction of the thing signi- 
 fied, and it is by no means so rapidly or so easily made 
 as the utterance of a word that reproduces no mental 
 image, and is a mere sound. If words were more sig- 
 nificant in this sense than they are to most people, 
 orators would use fewer of them; for i-eally significant 
 words, inasmuch as they thus carry weight, pass much 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. H 
 
 more slowly through the mind than the others which 
 are as empty ships that float lightly and sail quickly^ 
 owing to the absence of cargo. 
 
 4. The Word Mediates.— The word then mediates 
 between the mind and the object. The object is with- 
 out us, and the knowledge of the object is within us. 
 BetAveen the inner and the outer, that is, between the 
 object and our knowledge of the object, comes the word 
 as a support to the mind in mastering the object. By 
 means of the word the mind can set itself opposite to 
 the object, and separate itself from it more completely 
 than during the actual contemplation which precedes 
 recognition of an object. 
 
 Double Katiire of the Word. — The spoken word is well 
 suited for mediating between mind and object, because 
 of its double nature. It is on the one hand physical 
 and outward, being the product of the bodily organism; 
 and on the other hand inward and immaterial, because 
 it is called into being by the mind, and expresses an 
 inward impression. Inasmuch as the nature of the 
 spoken word is inward, it is related to inward impres- 
 sions; but inasmuch as its nature is also outward, being 
 a physical thing, it helps the mind to present to itself its 
 inward impressions as outward objects. 
 
 Pleasure in Gaining a Word for an Object. — Every one 
 may notice that as soon as a young child has once recog- 
 nized and named a particular object (no matter whether 
 he invents a name for himself or imitates his mother), 
 he loves to keep on repeating the name as often as he 
 sees the object. The pleasure of recognition is marked 
 by the utterance of the word. 
 
12 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 5. Names serve as Points around which to Group 
 Knowledge. — Hov/ever long we regard an object, we do 
 not take in all that can be known about it, but only so 
 much of it as we ourselves are able to comprehend. A 
 name, in the same way, does not indicate all the quali- 
 ties of a thing, but only the most prominent. The baby 
 child calls his dog '' bow-wow ; ^'"* that is to say, one single 
 lively impression, that of barking, is named and taken to 
 represent a large collection of impressions. A number 
 of separate impressions are by means of the word " bow- 
 wow ^^ converted into a concise whole, and in place of 
 several separate items of observations made successively 
 and often at long intervals, we now have in the word or 
 name a brief summary of them recalling the whole. 
 
 The word which thus summarizes for us Avhat we 
 know of an object serves as a fixed point around which 
 we can group all else which we may afterwards learn 
 about the object. 
 
 Example. — The child hears the dog bark, and sees it 
 run, jump, pursue, catch flies, and worry the cat, and 
 the name dog in the end calls up all these qualities. 
 Then inasmuch as the child sees other dogs behaving 
 like his own, he uses the name dog to describe the 
 whole fused mass of similar impressions, and "dog^^ 
 becomes a class name. Every fresh impression about a 
 dog which the child acquires is associated with the name 
 " dog,^^ which thus collects a wider and fuller meaning. 
 The word then may be regarded as a net spread by the 
 mind to catch the results of new observations and retain 
 them. 
 
 Another Example.— The word '^mountain/' for in- 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. 13 
 
 stance, remains the same, although after seeing the 
 Lake Mountains in England, the mountains of Central 
 Europe, and the Swiss Mountains, my conception of 
 the thiug changes very considerably. 
 
 Original Meaning often Lost. — Words in this way lose 
 something of their original meaning. "Wolf^ meant 
 originally " the tearer,^^ and '^ mouse '^ meant "the thief. ^^ 
 " Lady ^^ meant (perhaps) " bread-kneader.^^ Who thinks 
 of such meanings now ? Thus it is clear that the cur- 
 rent meaning of a word often depends upon the connec- 
 tion in which it is used at the time, and not upon its 
 etymology, as is amusingly shown in the little invitation 
 and acceptance of two French ladies which I read lately 
 in a French comic paper : " Voulez yous five-o^ docker 
 chez mois ? '' " Avec plaisir. Mais a quelle heure ? ^^ * 
 
 Recapitulation. — The word then, briefly to resume its 
 uses, aids us to analyze an object into its component 
 parts. We look at a dog and see it sometimes running, 
 sometimes sleeping, sometimes black, but in every 
 different case we see the dog as a whole. Our eyes do 
 not divide for us the thing dog, and the action running. 
 It is by use of the word dog that we are able to separate 
 in thought the object dog from its various properties 
 and activities. The more searching and varied our 
 observations, and the more we increase our knowledge 
 of these properties of an object, the richer becomes the 
 significance of the word, and the more refined and defi- 
 nite becomes our knowledge of the thing. 
 
 ^ '' Will you take five-o'clock tea with me ? " '* With pleasure. 
 But at what hour ? " 
 
14 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 Conclusion. All good Object Lessons are also good 
 Language Lessons. — By use of the word again, we can 
 group together many different but similar impressions. 
 We call many shades of green — apple, emerald, sage, 
 and grass — all green. Words help us to restore to 
 consciousness at pleasure past impressions of objects, 
 and make it possible for us to recall particular impres- 
 sions out of a cumbrous or perhaps ill-defined mass. 
 Words give us a mastery over our stores of past impres- 
 sions which we should not possess if the whole of every 
 object had to be recalled every time we wished to speak 
 of it, instead of so much of it as is sufficient for our 
 immediate purpose. By words we can study the prop- 
 erties of things independently of things themselves, and 
 by words we can arrive at the conception of general ideas 
 and enter into the domain of science. Without words 
 we can look at objects and know them as animals do, 
 but we can have little or no science. Object teaching 
 should bring us into ever closer touch with objects; but 
 to effect this contact the right use of the right words is 
 indispensable. 
 
 The Importance of Formal Grammar in Elementary 
 Education has been Overestimated. — But you may say, 
 " If you insist so much on the importance of language, 
 why do you attach so little importance to formal gram- 
 mar as a class subject ? ^^ My answer is, that there is 
 a wide difference between learning a foreign language 
 and learning your mother tongue. Grammar lessons 
 in connection with his mother tongue are commenced 
 long after the child has learnt to talk and read it. The 
 function of the grammarian in dealing with the gram- 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. IS 
 
 mar of his own tongue is to take the language as he 
 finds it used^ and note its agreement with or variation 
 from the laws which govern human speech; and, as far 
 as possible, to explain discrepancies. 
 
 Formal Grammar of Little Value so long as only the 
 Mother Tongue is Studied. — It seems, however, that this 
 study is hardly possible until the student has learnt 
 some other language besides his own with which he 
 may compare its usages. Those will speak the purest 
 English who converse with people whose diction and 
 pronunciation are sound and clear, and whose vocabu- 
 lary is ample and correctly used. Following rules of 
 grammar when you are acquainted only with your 
 mother tongue leads to as many mistakes as it cures. 
 For instance, the rule that adverbs and not adjectives 
 modify verbs, as ^^I write badly,^^ not ^^I write bad,^^ 
 leads students to say " I feel badly ^^ when they do not 
 mean to complain of their power of feeling, but to 
 describe their own physical condition. A describing 
 and not a modifying word is, therefore, wanted. They 
 ought to say, "I feel bad,^^ "1 feel sick." "You look 
 sad" again has a different meaning from "You look 
 sadly." 
 
 Every Child should Learn a Foreign Language. — 
 Command of English, therefore, is gained by constant 
 practice, by attending to the corrections of some one 
 who has a good acquaintance with the current use of it, 
 and by reading well-written books. To learn enough of 
 grammar to parse " he would have written^^ is a lengthy 
 process, and the time which it requires may more use- 
 fully be spent in different studies. I have noticed in 
 
l6 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 looking over papers in grammar and composition, that 
 a sound knowledge of grammar is quite consistent with, 
 undeveloped powers of writing and understanding plain 
 English. To bring it so far as to distinguish the parts 
 of speech and to analyze sentences hardly deserves to be 
 called learning grammar; but so much probably every 
 child would learn in the lessons on composition. I 
 think, however, that every child ought to learn some 
 foreign language, and then the study of formal grammar 
 becomes much more useful. 
 
 The Study of Objects Fundamental. — The study of 
 objects is the forming correct impressions from objects 
 which are actually presented to the senses; and though 
 it is the lowest stage of intellectual development, it is 
 the foundation. Man shares this study with animals, 
 but it is the base of his whole mental superstructure. 
 The mind has no ready-made knowledge of things and 
 no innate ideas or conceptions. At the most it has apt- 
 ness for acquiring them. Step by step, by daily contact 
 with the outer world, by action and reaction of itself 
 on objects and of objects on itself, by the reception of 
 impressions and by the elaboration of them through in- 
 ternal processes, the mind wins its laborious way to that 
 degree of intellectual, moral, and spiritual elevation of 
 which it is capable. 
 
 Importance of Correct Impressions. — The main busi- 
 ness of the Object Teacher is to enable the learner to 
 form correct impressions, and there is no more impor- 
 tant branch of instruction. Like the reporters, we look 
 at a lady's dress. We then shut our eyes and try to re- 
 call what we saw. We have in our mind a mental im- 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. 1/ 
 
 age of the dress. Similar mental images are the start- 
 ing-point of all knowledge. If the impression first 
 received is wanting in clearness and precision, if the 
 mind cannot assimilate the impression, or if it cannot 
 express in words what the impression is, as in the case 
 of the same reporters, the mental image will not be an 
 improvement npon the impressions on w^hich it is based, 
 but will be full of confusion and obscurity. 
 
 Trained Attention the First Eequisite. — A clear 
 mental image can only be formed by trained attention 
 to impressions from objects, by which the parts and 
 characteristics are carefully grasped and impressions 
 nearly alike clearly distinguished from impressions 
 really alike. Vague, obscure, and shifting impressions 
 of an object will never help us to know it rightly, how- 
 ever frequently they are made. Four reporters take 
 note of a dress and are at variance in describing its 
 color. 
 
 Names which recall Inexact Mental Pictures lead 
 to Inexact Reasoning. — Another reason for the need of 
 trained attention to impressions is to be found in the 
 fact that our mental image of a particular object, when 
 provided with a name, soon passes from being particu- 
 lar and individual, and supplies us with a conception of 
 a class. 
 
 At first we name a particular animal dog. We after- 
 wards think of all kinds of dogs under the name dog. 
 Any particular dog which we note is seen in connection 
 with many special characteristics, such as size, color, 
 action, and the like; whereas our general conception of 
 " dog '' only retains the most general impressions. The 
 
1 8 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 content of the class name — the name dog as applied to 
 all individual dogs — must needs be much more vague 
 and indefinite than the same name when applied to a 
 particular dog which we are looking at. 
 
 Our general notions, therefore, although based on 
 impressions from objects, can never be as clear and full 
 and free from vagueness as the result of the original 
 studies of particular objects upon which they are based. 
 How important, therefore, that the study of such im- 
 pressions of individual objects should be as exact as it 
 admits of being made; for otherwise our conceptions 
 are like a copy of an ill-drawn picture, which besides 
 suffering from the defects of all copies has this addi- 
 tional disadvantage, that it exaggerates the original im- 
 perfection of the first picture. 
 
 Good Object Teaching Leads to (1) Accurate Percep- 
 tion and (2) Accurate Description. — The trained use of 
 the senses is necessary not only to the man of science, 
 whose pursuits are wholly based on the study of objects, 
 but to the artist, who needs a vivid and accurate percep- 
 tion of all the parts and relations of the objects which 
 he represents, and even to the ordinary artisan, if he is 
 to introduce into his work any original thought or de- 
 sign. By the early training of the senses a man may 
 learn to look out for what is new in objects, and to find 
 it where the less carefully trained sees only what is 
 familiar. The link between the inner world of the 
 mind and objects, or the outer world, is speech. Speech 
 is a spiritual hand for grasping objects by the mind. 
 By words we fix in our minds our own impressions, and 
 by words we communicate them to other people. Words 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS, IQ 
 
 express the relation of our consciousness to objects, and 
 we mostly comprehend objects as words present them to 
 our minds. Want of language, want of words filled 
 with clear, definite meaning, is the greatest hindrance to 
 culture. 
 
 Object teaching, then, should, in connection with 
 language teaching, form the children's conceptions, and 
 supply them with a good store of significant words, to- 
 gether with a knowledge of the right way to apply 
 them. Object teaching places children closely in con- 
 tact with nature and human nature, the two sources of 
 human knowledge and moral experience. There is a 
 knowledge of words which is really a knowledge of 
 things. Object teaching is the reconciliation of the old 
 antithesis between them. 
 
 METHOD OF OBJECT TEACHIISra. 
 
 1. Divide the Object into Parts. — Haying described 
 the end and aim of Object Teaching I now come to its 
 method. The key to the art of training the senses is 
 analysis. An object presented to a child for the first 
 time gives him a confused sense of impressions. The 
 child must be shown how to divide this whole into con- 
 venient parts in an orderly manner. His attention 
 must be directed first to one part and then to another, 
 and afterwards the bearing of one part on another must 
 be carefully worked out. 
 
 2. Reunite the Parts into the Whole.— After this 
 analysis or study of detail the object must be again 
 studied as a whole. It should never, after being thus 
 
20 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 pulled to pieces, be left in fragments as it were, but the 
 careful division of the separate parts should be followed 
 by a reconstruction of them into the original whole. 
 Such an attentive study of an object must replace the 
 hasty, fugitive, and unstable glance which usually satis- 
 fies a child. In studying an object it should not be 
 forgotten that in nature things are not separate and 
 independent existences; the attention must not be so 
 wholly confined to the object and its parts as to allow 
 the child to forget its relation to other things. Let the 
 child see what part the object plays in its usual sur- 
 roundings, and dwell upon its material, its origin, its 
 use, its hurtfulness, its opposites, and its resemblances. 
 
 The Aim of Object Teaching is to furnish the Child 
 with a Method of aeq^uiring Knowledge for Himself. — 
 Even children can study a particular object thoroughly 
 up to a certain point, and the habit thus acquired ex- 
 tends itself to objects which are not treated of by the 
 teacher in school. In fact the right sort of object 
 teaching develops a faculty of study which is of in- 
 finitely more consequence than the actual information 
 obtained. The faculty which is developed is of uni- 
 versal application, while the knowledge of the object 
 studied in developing it is necessarily limited and re- 
 stricted. If I have studied with attention a very few of 
 the manifestations of the eJffects of gravity and have 
 really assimilated them, I am able to study other forces 
 with greater ease. The use I can make of my knowl- 
 edge depends not so much on what I can write down in 
 an examination — often a cumbrous and superfluous 
 store — as upon the way in which I have been taught. 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. 21 
 
 Object Teaching demands Time. — Teaching of this 
 kind cannot be a hasty process. Time is needed for the 
 mind to play freely over the object, and time is needed 
 for recapitulation. After each part or characteristic 
 has been considered separately, it should be again re- 
 considered in relation to the whole. As there are three 
 characteristics of good powers of observation which the 
 detailed analysis of an object tends to promote — namely, 
 speed in responding to impressions, infallibility in in- 
 terpreting them, and exhaustiveness in examining their 
 origin; so there are three advantages which recapitula- 
 tion secures — namely, vividness of the mental image, 
 strength and mental hold upon it, and versatility in 
 employing it. 
 
 Test the Growth of the Child's Knowledge of an Ob- 
 ject by his Power of Expressing it by Drawing and 
 Modelling. — Necessarily, therefore, in true Object Teach- 
 ing the object must be kept frequently and long under 
 the child^s notice, and his memory must be checked by 
 repeated comparison of his mental image with the 
 actual object. 
 
 Hence drawing — that best external evidence of the 
 inner mental image — or modelling, should be resorted 
 to as early as possible. Even a very young child would 
 early learn to reproduce from memory the shape of a 
 particular ivy leaf, and then match the drawing or 
 model with the original. The temptation of the teacher 
 is to trust to the child^s memory, which is usually a 
 perfect lumber-room of confused and inaccurate impres- 
 sions. The object should be withdrawn from sight bit 
 by bit while it is being studied. Where it is proved 
 
-^ OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 that the child has a vague or inaccurate notion of any 
 part, let that vagueness be cleared away by fresh refer- 
 ence to the object. In this way the carrying power of 
 the memory is surely, if slowly, increased. One of the 
 ablest specimens of Object Teaching in its elementary 
 stage is printed in Mrs. SewelFs Life, and I can give no 
 better illustration of my meaning. 
 
 A2sr EXAMPLE OF OBJECT TEACHING. 
 
 A little boy— M^e will say about four years old, runs 
 from the garden to his mother. 
 
 ^'Oh! mother, do come and look at this beautiful 
 thing on the rose4ree; I want to know what it is.'' 
 
 "I am busy now, Charles; tell me what it is like 
 What color is it?'' 
 
 " Eed, I think." 
 
 " Oh, I suppose it is a ladybird." 
 
 '' Oh no, it is a great deal bigger than a ladybird." 
 
 " Well, perhaps it is a tiger-moth, that has two red 
 wings. Look, like this "—and the mother slightly 
 sketches the tiger-moth on the slate. 
 
 " Oh no, it is not at all like that." 
 
 ''Is it this color?" 
 
 " No, it is not so red as that." 
 
 '' Perhaps it is the color of this mahogany chair ? " 
 
 " No, not just like that." 
 
 "Perhaps like this nut?" 
 
 " Yes, it is very much like that." 
 
 " AVell, this is light brown, not red. But what shape 
 is this beautiful creature ? " 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. 23 
 
 " Oh, I think it is round/' 
 
 The mother draws a round figure on the slate. *^Is 
 it like this ?^^ 
 
 " No, not so round/' 
 
 The mother makes a long thing in the form of a long 
 caterpillar. 
 
 " No, it is not so long.'' 
 
 The mother then draws an oval. 
 
 " Yes, it is very much like that/^ 
 
 " And has it no feet ? " 
 
 " I think it has some feet." 
 
 ^^How many? I suppose two feet like the birds. 
 Are they like these?" 
 
 ^^ Oh no ! I am sure they are not like those." 
 
 " You had better go and look at it again, and come 
 and tell me." 
 
 " Mother, it has six legs,'^ 
 
 The mother draws two on one side and four on the 
 other, ^as that right?" 
 
 " No, it has three on each side." 
 
 The mother corrects it. " Is that right ? *^ 
 
 " Yes, that is really right." 
 
 ^^You will see by this example," said Mrs. Sewell, 
 ^^how much of accurate observation this lesson will 
 have taught the child. Children will never weary of 
 this sort of instruction, and it is impossible to calculate 
 how much the child v/ill gain; very soon he will en- 
 deavor to guide his mother's fingers to the correct form, 
 and next endeavor to form the figure himself. The 
 value of the habit of accurate observation is not to be 
 told. In this way a child obtains the power of using 
 
24 OBJECT TEACH IISTG, 
 
 his own mind, and he learns the value of correct lan- 
 guage and description. 
 
 " Had the mother simply complied with the child^s re- 
 ) quest, and gone into the garden and said ' That is a 
 stag-beetle/ the subject would have been closed and the 
 child^s interest quenched. Had a servant been with the 
 child she probably would leave the question thus, * Oh, 
 that^s a nasty beetle; don^t touch it or it will kill you 
 with those great nippers; come away from it.^ Then 
 the child would not only have its interest quenched, 
 but would be taught to fear a harmless insect, and the 
 creature would become an object of disgust.^^ 
 
 The Difference between Object Lessons and Informa- 
 tion Lessons. — If then Object Teaching be what I have 
 attempted to describe it, the instruction must commence 
 with an object or specimen. To talk to the children 
 about things not seen during the lesson is not Object 
 Teaching. Again, a conversation about all kinds of 
 things in a superficial way is certainly a valuable lesson 
 for a certain purpose. It conveys general information 
 and corrects a tendency to pedantry, which is the beset- 
 ting sin of all school work, but it is not Object Teach- 
 ing. Talking over many things is not the same in 
 effect as talking of nothing, but it is practice in con- 
 versation, the use of words, mustering ideas, quickness 
 in recalling past impressions, and grammar, rather than 
 training the powers of observation and attention or lay- 
 ing the foundation of knowledge by developing the 
 faculties which we possess for attaining knowledge. 
 
 Object Teaching must Train the Senses. — Nothing 
 should be called an object lesson which does not im- 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. ^5 
 
 prove the senses of the child and make him able, of 
 himself, to advance in the true path of acquiring 
 knowledge. The information conveyed in chats and 
 lectures ends with the passive reception of it. The 
 child is suffarcinated with facts like the Strasburg 
 geese, but the facts are not imparted in such a way as 
 to form the starting-point of further learning or to lay 
 the foundation of a method of observation and research. 
 
 In concluding this brief account of the theory of 
 Object Teaching, I ask, What is the aim of Object 
 Teaching? Is it talk ? Is it the mastery of language ? 
 Is it the mustering of ideas ? Is it conveying general 
 information ? All these kinds of instruction are needed, 
 but they are not properly Object Teaching. This begins 
 with a keen, many-sided, and accurate observation of a 
 familiar specimen. 
 
 A Specimen Lesson. — You may now fairly challenge 
 me to give some concrete instance of what I consider 
 good Object Teaching. " These are very fair phi- 
 losophies of yours, no doubt,^^ it may be urged, " but 
 ] unless you reduce your theories to practice, how can we 
 be sure that they are not like the proverbial horse which 
 is a very good steed in the stable but an arrant jade on 
 the journey ? ^^ 
 
 After some consideration I have chosen as the subject 
 of my lesson the common duck, not that I mean to 
 make up one adapted only for infants, for I intend it 
 for children over ten years, but because of its familiarity 
 and the ease of procuring a specimen. Of course the 
 compilation is intended to take up much more than one 
 
26 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 lesson time, and I can only give j^ou the matter of the 
 lesson, as it would take too long to show the method. 
 
 A Lesson on the Duck. — In a lesson on the duck 1 
 should avoid commencing with its Latin name {Anas 
 loschus), its ornithological classification, and its history 
 under domestication, and I should prefer to take first 
 of all what we see of it ourselves. The children must 
 be made to visit a pond, where there are ducks very 
 frequently — the first time with their teacher, and after- 
 wards by themselves; and the points which I state as 
 facts should be gained by questioning the class^ after 
 they have been to the pond and watched the ducks. A 
 live duck should also be brought into school from time 
 to time. 
 
 The Duck's Body. — Where does the duck live ? 
 Mostly in the water, even in winter. If we swam about 
 in water which was nearly freezing we should be starved 
 with cold. What is the difference between us and the 
 duck ? The duck has feathers and we are without such 
 covering; and further, the legs and feet of the duck are 
 not made like ours. They do not contain so much 
 blood. Compared with ours they are less fleshy, and 
 expose less blood to the surface where it gets chilled by 
 air or water. 
 
 Now let us examine the duck^s clothing of feathers. 
 On the sunny side of a pond we can pick them up in 
 numbers. Are they all of the same size ? No, some are 
 smaller than others. Let us examine a large feather. 
 It consists of two parts, a firm stem which at one end is 
 inserted into the skin, and at a certain distance above 
 the end branches spread out on two opposite sides. We 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. ^7 
 
 call the stem the quill^ and make pens of them, as 
 goose-quills and crow-quills. Note that in the larger 
 the branches cling to each other closely. In the smaller 
 they are separate and fluffy. Which are softer ? Which 
 do we make beds of ? The difference we mark by a 
 name. The small feathers we call down. 
 
 Now look at the duck^s body. Which feathers are 
 outside ? We cannot see the down until we pluck off 
 the feathers. The down clings close to the body; and 
 notice the lower and inner part of some of the large 
 feathers is also downy. Thus the duck has undercloth- 
 ing as well as a dress to wear. These two coats keep it 
 warm even in cold water. (The difference between the 
 circulation and the breathing in birds and mammals 
 should be introduced when the children are more ad- 
 vanced.) 
 
 Now look under the duck^s skin. There is a layer of 
 yellow fat. (What people live on fat and smear them- 
 selves with fat ? Why ?) So the duck is kept doubly 
 wajrm. 
 
 Does the water soak the duck^s feathers as it swims? 
 Any lady who has a feather in her hat fears the rain 
 will spoil it, and so it does. The water hardly wets a 
 duck^s feathers. Note how it slides off a duck^s back 
 in drops like peas. How is this ? 
 
 First look at the arrangement of the outer and larger 
 feathers. They lie close pressed together and overlap 
 each other like tiles on a roof, off which the water flows 
 from one to the other without getting between them, 
 and the outer feathers protect the downy inner ones. 
 If the wind is blowing and the rain falling, the duck 
 
28 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 swims to meet the wind, and the penthouse of feathers 
 is so arranged as to haye its free and weaker end turned 
 away from the wind. We see how easily the water 
 drops off the feathers, but if you look at the tiles of a 
 roof you will see that they get wet in a storm though 
 the people beneath remain dry. 
 
 Do the duck^s feathers themselves get wet ? Try. 
 Take a feather which has recently been dropped by a 
 duck, and wet the upper side of it. It keeps dry like 
 oiled silk. The reason is that it lias been oiled. Where 
 does the oil come from ? Is it exuded from all over the 
 ducVs body ? If this were so the down would be oiled, 
 which lies nearest the body. But the down, unlike the 
 larger feathers, does get wet if you put it in water, as 
 you see, and so the source of the oil cannot be in the 
 general surface of the skin. 
 
 Now watch the duck on a sunny day, either when it 
 is sitting on a sunny bank or when it is floating about 
 on the calm surface of the water. Sometimes it is sleep- 
 ing with its head under its wing. Sometimes it works 
 its bill about, now moving it in the feathers near the tail, 
 and now, as it were, smoothing down the other feathers 
 of its body. The duck has a wart-like excrescence near 
 the root of its tail, and this body secretes oil, which the 
 duck, by use of its bill, smears over the feathers to make 
 them waterproof. 
 
 Now watch the duck on the pond. When a dog 
 swims it sinks all its body in the water as far as its 
 neck, and so does a horse, and so does a man, and what 
 is more, all of these never cease moving their limbs, in 
 order to keep their heads above water. The duck swims 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. 2g 
 
 on the surface of the water more like a cork, and can 
 float without moving a muscle. Now what makes a 
 cork swim so lightly ? Look at it. A cork is full of 
 holes, and the holes are full of air. Look how lightly a 
 bladder full of air floats. Is the duck full of air ? 
 
 Let us examine a duck more closely, and look inside 
 it as well as outside. First compare the flight feathers 
 of the wing, the tail feathers, and the covering feathers. 
 
 Then examine a wing and see how many joints it has, 
 and how it unfolds and is folded, and note how the 
 feathers lie. 
 
 Then remove a wing and spread it out on a board for 
 better study, and name the kinds of feathers on it. 
 
 Then with a sharp knife, cut delicately through the 
 skin over the breastbone, and fold it back and fasten it. 
 Show the strong and thick muscles. Why does a bird 
 want such strong muscles ? 
 
 Then cut through the breastbone, or separate the 
 breastbone and the ribs to show the hollow of the breast. 
 Show the thin tissues in which air is collected. 
 
 Clean the upper bone of a wing, and show a small 
 hole in it near the shoulder. 
 
 Saw through a bone lengthways and across. Show 
 thafc it is hollow and that the hole in the bone admits 
 air from the air-spaces above found, so that the duck^s 
 bones are flUed with air. 
 
 The appearance and position of the lungs can be con- 
 trasted with those of a rabbit or any other mammal. 
 Any one who has to clean and truss a chicken for roast- 
 ing will not be shocked at dissecting a duck. The com- 
 paratively solid bone of a mammal can be contrasted 
 
30 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 with those of a bird. Besides the air in the breastbones 
 the quills of the feathers are full of air, and the close- 
 packed outer feathers keep much air beneath them in 
 among the down. No wonder, then, the duck swims on 
 the surface of the water, while the dog, when he swims, 
 has only his head out. 
 
 Now look at the shape of the body. Apart from head 
 and neck it is oval, but not a perfect oval. It is some- 
 what flattened. That is, it is wider from right to left 
 than it is deep from below to the top of its back. This 
 flattening makes it rest more securely on the water than 
 it would if its body were perfectly oval. 
 
 The Duck's Movements. — Notice how the duck swims. 
 It moves its feet alternately, exactly as in walking on 
 the land. Its feet have skin between the toes. Ex- 
 amine a foot. With its outstretched broad surface it 
 fans the water. Compare the foot of a hen. Which is 
 best for swimming ? The feet push out backward and 
 the body moves forward. Have you watched men 
 rowing a boat ? If the body moves forward when the 
 feet are moving backward what happens when the feet 
 are pulled in again ? Does not the body move back- 
 ward ? Watch the feet. When they are pushed back, 
 the toes spread out and make, with the skin between 
 them, a broad surface. When they are pulled in, the 
 toes draw together and curl up a little, just as happens 
 when the duck lifts its foot in walking on dry land. 
 Thus the foot presents as little surface as possible to the 
 water when it is being drawn in again. 
 
 You will notice that the toes do not bend quite in 
 the same way as our fingers do. Our fingers we bend 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS, 31 
 
 at our pleasure, but the duck's toes bend of themselves, 
 and the skin folds up between them. As soon as they 
 meet the resistance of the water in swimming, the toes 
 and skin between them are spread out by the pressure 
 of the water. 
 
 Now notice the position of the feet on the legs. The 
 feet are set inwards, and are less conyenient for walking 
 on land. Compare a hen and a duck when they walk. 
 The duck waddles. Watch the duck swim. The right 
 foot in striking out backward pushes the body forward 
 towards the left. The left foot similarly pushes the 
 body forward towards the right again. Thus the body 
 moves forward in a straight line, although neither foot 
 pushes it quite straight forward. 
 
 Lay two books of one size flat on a table. Push them 
 forward by shoving the end corners alternately, but 
 push one book in a diagonal direction each time, and 
 the other in a perpendicular direction. Contrast the 
 movements of the two books. Which miction makes the 
 book move more easily forward ? If the duck's feet . 
 were so set on, that each stroke in swimming were made 
 exactly in a straight line backwards, would its progress 
 be as easy as now, when the stroke is made sideways ? 
 
 The legs of the duck are short. As it swims you see 
 only its feet. The part of the leg which is inside the 
 skin is stout. The free part is thin and sinewy. Take 
 a flat ruler and move it through the v/ater broadside, 
 first holding it by one end so that nearly all the ruler is 
 in the water, and then holding it by the middle so that 
 only a third of the ruler is in the water. In the second 
 
32 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 case the ruler is moved more easily. Which case does 
 the duck^s leg resemble? 
 
 Examine the muscle of the duck^s leg; its strength, 
 size, color, and attachment. The muscle of the foot. 
 Look at the position of the legs. They are set on to- 
 wards the hinder end of the body. Some water-birds 
 have their legs set on more in the middle, like the moor- 
 hen. On the contrary, the grebe has its legs set on still 
 further back than a duck, and when it wants to stand it 
 has to set its body nearly vertical or upright in conse- 
 quence. 
 
 This position may be again illustrated by holding a 
 book between the finger and thumb (a) horizontally and 
 (5) near one end. The duck walks uneasily on land: 
 of course because its build is contrived for its aquatic 
 habits — look at its feathers, its toes, the length and posi- 
 tion of its feet! The hen^s legs look quite different. 
 They are longer and more flexible. The toes are longer, 
 being without a web. Much more of the legs is outside 
 the skin. You can see a joint more than you can see in 
 the duck. 
 
 Compare, however, a duck^s leg and a hen^s leg after 
 separating both from the body. Show the skeleton of 
 the two legs and compare them and contrast the upper 
 joint of the duck^s leg and the hen^s drumstick. 
 
 If you hold a small book between your finger and 
 thumb and make it walk along the table on the tips of 
 them, the book moves more easily when you grasp it in 
 the middle than when you grasp it near the end. Of 
 course this can be explained by reference to mechanics if 
 it is. thought desirable. The centre of gravity should be 
 
OR WORDS AAu THINGS, 33 
 
 in a vertical line with the centre of support, or at any 
 rate it must not be outside of it. The connection 
 between this principle and the oval shape of the birdie 
 body can be shown, and similarly in regard to the 
 bend of the legs. But even without this a parallel 
 instance leads to thoughtful observation of nature, 
 and this leads on presently to a more accurate and 
 quantitative study. It is possible to compare the 
 foot of the coot or grebe, which has a fringe of web on 
 each side of the toe, as an intermediate form between a 
 hen and a duck. 
 
 The Duck's Food. — What does the duck do on the 
 pond ? It seeks food. Watch how it plunges its head 
 under water and searches among the water- weeds or in 
 the mud. Its name comes from this action. To duck 
 is to dip the head. Besides weeds, the duck eats snails, 
 fish, frogs, eggs, and spawn, caddis-worms, beetles, and 
 the like. 
 
 See how long it holds its head under water without 
 taking breath. Eemember how much air it has in its 
 body. Watch the duck raise its head from the water 
 with its prey in its bill. It swallows the food but lets 
 the water flow away. The duck does not want to swal- 
 low too much water. You can watch the duck drink. 
 It only swallows a few drops while stretching out its 
 head and neck. 
 
 We men can take a good mouthful of water. Why 
 cannot the duck ? Look at the duck^s bill ? There 
 are no lips like ours. Inside its mouth you see chan- 
 nels and grooves crossing from side to side, and the free 
 ends form a fringe or strainer. The edges of the 
 
34 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 tongue have a similar fringe. These serve two pur- 
 poses. They help to hold the prey firm in the beak and 
 they help to strain the water run off it. 
 
 How can the duck find its prey in the weeds ? True, 
 as it has eyes, it, like us, can see under water, but poking 
 about in the mud it soon makes the water thick. 
 
 Compare the hen^s beak with the duck^s. The hen^s 
 is pointed and hornlike. The duck^s is broad and more 
 like a skin. Now we will cut the skin from base to 
 point down the middle. Then we will make another 
 cut in the left side across so as to divide it into an 
 upper and an under section. Now we will turn back to 
 the lower section. There you will see a great number 
 of nerves. 
 
 We men have many nerves under the skin at the tips 
 of our fingers, and by the means of them we can tell in 
 the dark whether we are touching a piece of bread or a 
 stone. The duck uses its bill as we do our fingers, only 
 far more cleverly. The blind men, however, see with 
 their fingers. 
 
 Look at the tongue of the duck; see how thick and 
 fleshy it is, not dry like some birds\ That helps it to 
 get its food. Now, then, we have seen how well adapted 
 the duck^s feet and legs are for living much on the 
 water. We now see how well its bill is constructed for 
 the same purpose. What can you remember about its 
 covering in this connection ? 
 
 Comparison with Other Birds. — I have no space to 
 continue about nesting and brooding, and hatching, or 
 the development of the chick. After treating of all of 
 these, it would be desirable to introduce the conception 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS, 35 
 
 of classification. By comparing the duck with geese 
 and swans, and contrasting them with sparrows and 
 robins, storks and cranes, you can show the difference 
 between swimming-birds and waders and perchers. 
 
 Saturday Expeditions. — A study like this can most 
 readily be made in the country, where the children can 
 visit a pond frequently and watch the ducks and note 
 their habits; but most towns possess parks with lakes 
 on which ducks swim about. Occasional expeditions 
 on summer evenings or Saturdays, for the purpose of 
 investigating natural objects in their surroundings, 
 would be well-spent time. 
 
 Too Much Science and Too Little. — If every detail 
 that is dwelt upon is illustrated by presenting it to the 
 eye of the children, and in many cases to the touch, 
 such a lesson is not like a compendium of scientific 
 facts which is learned by heart. On the contrary, the 
 object is presented as much as possible as it lives and 
 moves in- its natural surroundings. It is not a mummi- 
 fied specimen out of a museum, from which all the grace 
 and beauty of life and warmth and motion have been 
 abstracted. A girl taught on this principle is not likely 
 to commence a theme on her Mother with the remark, 
 " Mother is the female parent of the child,^^ where there 
 is too much science. Neither would a boy when asked 
 to describe an ordinary hen^s egg answer, " An egg is an 
 oblong white object with a shell composed of graveV^ 
 where there is too little science. 
 
 Again, the talk about the duck has not passed into a 
 geiveral information lesson. We have not discussed 
 duck-shooting, decoys, and the like, neither have we 
 
36 OBJECT TEACHING. 
 
 gone into the " culinary ^^ preparation of the duck, all 
 of which might be usefully dealt with in their place. 
 It has been an object lesson within the meaning of that 
 term, as I have described it in my lecture. 
 
 I have been reading the second report of the com- 
 mittee of the British Association on present methods 
 of teaching chemistry, and I appreciate very keenly the 
 excellence of the pamphlet. What there is said of 
 chemistry is true of science. " The most/^ it is written, 
 ^^ that can be properly aimed at in teaching chemistry 
 (I should prefer to extend the statement and say 
 science) in elementary schools is the training of the 
 faculties of observation and of orderly thinking, and 
 the stimulation of the instinct of inquiry, which is the 
 possession of every uneducated child. By restricting 
 the teaching to common things this can easily be done, 
 and so an interest aroused both in the phenomena of 
 nature and in those involved in industrial operations.''^ 
 
 What the report says of books on chemistry is true of 
 books on other sciences. We need more books for in- 
 struction that may show how chemistry and other sub- 
 jects may be approached naturally and logically from a 
 study of common things and of every-day phenomena. 
 
 Home Teachers the Best. — The British Association 
 Report recommends the peripatetic system of teaching 
 science as the only one at present practical, because a 
 high standard of scientific knowledge is absolutely 
 necessary for the proper educative teaching of the most 
 elementary chemistry. I incline to think myself that, 
 where possible, it is better that all instruction should 
 be given by some member of the school staff. I think 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS, 37 
 
 that a good organizing teacher, who can direct, advise, 
 and encourage the class teachers in different schools in 
 a district, would produce in the end more and better re- 
 sults than a peripatetic teacher, because the latter can 
 never know at all intimately the number of individual 
 scholars whom he will have to address, and can know 
 little of the contents of their minds or how to get hold 
 of them. 
 
 The kind of science teaching in elementary schools 
 in Germany and Switzerland is well described in this 
 report, where it is stated to be of the most simple and 
 general character as distinguished from the systematic 
 instruction for technical purposes, Avhich begins in poly- 
 technics and higher schools. The higher teaching de- 
 mands as its basis that the elementary science lessons 
 shall not merely have given information, but that it 
 shall have developed intelligence, that it shall have been 
 rational and thorough, and that it shall have been given 
 by good teachers. I do nqt myself know of any peri- 
 patetic teachers in Berlin, but I met with teachers in 
 large schools whose duty consisted entirely in teaching 
 and superintending the teaching of science, just as one 
 teacher often deals with needlework in England. No 
 doubt in country districts the peripatetic system is at 
 present often the only possible one, and also in towns 
 where the schools are small or not large enough to oc- 
 cupy the whole of the time of a science teacher. 
 
 The Method more Important than the Subject. — How- 
 ever taught, science in its elementary stage must be of 
 the nature of object teaching. The subject may consist 
 of a connected series of object lessons in a particular 
 
38 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 study, such as many teachers are now devising in 
 domestic economy, physiology, mechanics, and physics, 
 or the field of inquiry may be more general, or the 
 teaching may be applied to history or social science; 
 but the real worth of this study of objects is not the 
 quantity of ground covered and information imparted, 
 but the quality and method of instruction. The obser- 
 vations must be made or verified by the scholars them- 
 selves, who are thus trained to use and trust their own 
 senses and powers of inference instead of repeating 
 other people^s descriptions or accounts in books. 
 
 This kind of object teaching is an antidote to the 
 degradation of learning, which we all know and deplore, 
 but can never wholly escape. After a full and living 
 description of an object the teacher writes down a few 
 of the salient points in his development, which of course 
 prove of immense value first to the examinee and after- 
 wards to the examiner. The next step is that, in order 
 to save time, the full account is omitted in teaching, 
 and the dry bones of the skeleton are studied exclusively 
 by the student as his sole weapon of defence against 
 the examiner, and he abandons all hope of taking any 
 interest in his studies except as means to a pass. It 
 only remains for me to express my obligations in writ- 
 ing this paper to two German authors — Karl Eichter, 
 whose excellent treatise on Object Teaching has been 
 the principal source for the first part of it; and 
 Friedrich Junge, whose book, called "The Village 
 Pond,^^ has supplied me with materials for the second 
 part. 
 
OR WORDS AND THINGS. 39 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. How far is it true to say that the senses are the gate- 
 ways of knowledge ? 
 
 2. Is the study of things rightly opposed to the study of 
 words ? 
 
 3. What is meant by saying that an object must be studied 
 by analysis ? 
 
 4. How does speech aid in the process of analyzing an 
 object ? 
 
 5. In what way may speech be regarded as the outward 
 expression of an inward mental process ? 
 
 6. What kind of use of words renders them ^* significant " 
 to the speaker ? 
 
 7. *'The word has a double nature." Explain what this 
 double nature is. 
 
 8. Show that a name is a summary of our knowledge of an 
 object. 
 
 9. What light does this study of words throw upon the 
 evolution of the meaning of words ? 
 
 10. Eecapitulate the uses of the word in studying an object. 
 
 11. Why are good object lessons also good language lessons ? 
 
 12. Why is it desirable that every one should learn a second 
 language besides his mother tongue ? 
 
 13. Show the importance of getting correct impressions 
 from objects. 
 
 14. How may inexact impressions lead to inexact reasoning ? 
 
 15. *'Want of words filled with clear definite meaning is 
 the greatest hindrance to culture." Illustrate this. 
 
 16. In object lessons why is the method of instruction more 
 important that the amount of information ? 
 
40 OBJECT TEACHING, 
 
 17. Show that object teaching demands time and cannot be 
 a hasty process. 
 
 18. How may drawing and modelling assist object teaching ? 
 
 19. What is the difference between object teaching and 
 information lessons ? 
 
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 lished, and so cheap that it can be afforded by every pupil. 
 Club rates, 25 cents. 
 
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 Samples of all the papers 25 cents* 
 
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Best Books for Teachers, 
 
 OjASSIFIED JjISX VNDFIt STJBJMCTS. 
 
 To aid teachers to procure the books best suited to their purpose, we 
 give below a list of our publications classified uuder subjects. The di\'lsion 
 is sometimes a difficult one to make, so that we £:ave in many cases placed 
 the same book ui.der several cities; for instance, Currie's Early Education 
 appears under Principles and Practice of Education, and also 
 Primary Education. Recent books are starred, thus * 
 
 HISTOEY OF EDUCATION, GREAT EDU- ^^^^^^ Pr?cYto Ma^ii 
 CATORS, ETC. * Teachers Extra 
 
 ♦Allen's Historic Outlines of Education, - - paper .15 pd. 
 
 Autobiography of Froebel, - - - - cl. .50 .40 ,05 
 
 ♦Browninsr's Aspects of Education Best edition. cloth .25 .20 .03 
 
 " Educational Theories. Best edition. cl. .50 .-40 .05 
 
 *Kellogg's Life of Pestalozzi, ~ - - _ paper ,15 pd. 
 
 *Lang's Comenius, -._.____ paper .15 pd. 
 
 * " Basedow, ------- paper .15 pd. 
 
 * ** Rousseau and his "Emile" - _ _ paper .15 pd. 
 
 * " Horace Mann, ------ paper .15 pd. 
 
 * " Great Teachers of Four Centuries, - cl. .25 .20 .03 
 ♦Phelns' Life of David P. Page, - - - - paper .15 pd. 
 Quick's Educational Reformers, Best edition, - cl. 1.00 .80 .08 
 ♦Reinb^«;t'5 History of Education, . - - cl. .25 .«0 .03 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 
 
 Allen s Mmd Studies for Young Teachers, - cl. .50 .40 .06 
 
 Allen's Temperament in Education, - - - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 Perez's First Three Years of Childhood. Best edition, cl. 1.50 1.30 .10 
 
 Rooper '9 Apperception, Best edition, - - cl. .25 .20 .03 
 
 Welch's Teachers* Psychology, - - - - cl. 1.25 1.00 .10 
 
 " Talks on Psychoiosry, - - - - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 PEINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 
 
 Carter's Artificial Stupidity in School, - - paper .15 pd. 
 
 Huntington's Unconscious Tuition, - - - paper .15 pd. 
 
 Payne's Lectures on Science and Art of Education, cl. 1.00 .80 .08 
 
 ♦Reinhart's Principles of Education, - - - cl. .25 .20 .03 
 
 ♦Spencer's Education. Best edition. - - - cl. 1.00 .80 .10 
 
 ♦BTall (a. S.) Contents of Children's Minds, - cL .25 .20 3 
 
 Tate's Philosophy of Education. Best edition. - cl. 1.50 1.20 ,10 
 
 ♦Teachers' Manual Series, 22 nos. ready, each, paper .16 pd. 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION 
 
 Currie's Early Education, ----- cl. 1.25 1.00 .08 
 
 Fitch's Art of Questioning, ----- paper .15 pd 
 
 " Art of Securing Attention - - _ paper .15 pd. 
 
 " Lectures on Teaching, ----- cl. 1.25 1.00 pd. 
 
 Hughes' Mistakes in Teaching. Best edition. - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 ** Securing and Retaining Attention, Best ed. cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 ♦Parker's Talks on Pedagogy, ^ead?/ JVov. '93. cl. 1.50 1.20 .12 
 
 " Talks on Teaching, - - - - cl. 1.25 1.00 .09 
 
 " Practical Teacher, ----- cl. 1.50 1.20 .U 
 
 Quick's How to Train tbe Memory, - - - naper .15 pd. 
 
 ♦Reinhart's Principles of Education, - - cl. .16 pd. 
 
 * *' Civics m Education, - - - - cl. .25 .20 .03 
 Southwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching, - - cl. .75 .60 .05 
 Yonge's Practical Work in School, - - - paper .16 pd. 
 
 METHODS AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ♦Augsburg's Easy Drawings for Geog. Class, - paper .50 .40 .05 
 
 " Easy Things to Draw, - - - paper .30 .24 .03 
 
 Calkins' Ear and Voice Training, - - - cl. .50 .40 .06 
 
 Dewey's How to Teach Manners, _ - _ cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 Gladstone's Object Teaching, - - - - paper .15 pd. 
 
 Hughes' How to Keep Order, - - - _ paper .15 pd. 
 
 Johnson's Education by Doing, - - _ cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
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 *' Geography by Map Drawing. - - cl. .50 ^O .05 
 
 ** School Maua<8rement, - - - - cl. .75 .«o .Oft 
 
McMurry'g How to CoDduct the Recitation, - paper .15 pd 
 
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 Seeley'sGrube Method Teaching A litltmetic, cl. l.CO .SO .07 
 
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 " Home Made Apparatus, - - - cl. .60 .40 .05 
 
 PRIMAEY AND KINDERGARTEN 
 
 Calkins* Ear and Voice Training, - - ~ cl. .50 .40 J^ 
 
 Currie's Early Education, ----- cl. 1.25 1.00 .08 
 
 Gladstone's Object Teaching-, - - - - paper .16 pd. 
 
 Autobiography of Froebel, - - -. - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 Hoffman's Kmdergarten Gifts, - - - - paper .16 pd. 
 
 Johnson's Education by Doing, - - - - cl. .50 .40 .06, 
 
 Parker's Talks on Teaching, - - - _ cl. 1.25 l.CO .09i 
 
 Patridge's Qumcy Methods, - _ - - cl. 1.75 1.40 .13 
 
 Seeley's Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic, dL. 1.00 .80 .07 
 
 '* Grube Idea in Primary Arithmetic, - cl. .30 .84 ,03 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING 
 
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 Love's Industrial Education, - - - - cl. 1.50 1.20 .12 
 
 ♦Upham's Fifty Lessons in Woodworking, - cl. .50 .40 06 
 
 QUESTION BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Analytical Question Series. Geography, - - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 C". S. History, - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 " " Grammar, - - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 N. r. State Examination Questions, - - - cl. 1.00 .80 .08 
 
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 PHYSICAL EDUCATION and SCHOOL HYGIENE 
 
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 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 ♦Blaikie On Self Culture, ----- cl. .25 .30 .03 
 
 Fitch's Improvement in Education, - - - paper .15 pd. 
 
 Gardner's Town and Country School Buildings, cl. 3.50 3.00 .13 
 
 Lubbock's Best 100 Books, ----- paper .«0 pd. 
 
 Pooler's N. Y. School Law, ----- cl. .30 .34 .03 
 
 ^Walsh's Great Rulers of the World, - - - cl. .50 .40 .05 
 
 Wilhelm's Student's Calendar, - - - - paper .30 .34 .03 
 
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 Reception Day Series, 6 Nos. (Set $1.40 postpaid.) Each. .30 .34 .08 
 
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 ♦Best Primary Songs, new ------- .16 pd. 
 
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 ** Standard " Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) Price on application. 
 
 " Man Wonderlul " Manikin, _ - - - 5.00 pd. 
 Standard Blackboard Stencils, 500 different nos., 
 
 from 5 to 50 cents each. Send for special catalogue. 
 
 '* Unique" Pencil Sharpener, - - - - 1.60 ,10 
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 ^^ 100 page classified, illustrated, descriptive Catalogue of the above 
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 — — - — — — ■ . ■ 
 
 Hughes ^Mistakes in Teaching. 
 
 By James J. Hughes, Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada. 
 Cloth, 16mo, 115 pp. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; 
 by mail, 5 cents extra. 
 
 Thousands of copies of the old 
 edition have been sold. The new 
 edition is worth double the old; 
 the material has been increased, 
 restated, and greatly improved. 
 Two new and important Chapters 
 have been added on ''Mistakes in 
 Aims," and ''Mistakes in Moral 
 Training." Mr. Hughes says in hia 
 preface: "In issuing a revised edi* 
 tion of this book, it seems fitting to 
 acknowledge gratefully the hearty 
 appreciation that has been accorded 
 it by American teachers. Realiz- 
 ing as I do that its very large sale 
 . indicates that it has been of service 
 to many of my fellow-teachers, I 
 I have recognized the duty of enlarg- 
 ing and revising it so as to make it 
 still more helpful in preventing 
 James L. Hughes, Inspector of the common mistakes in teaching 
 Schools, Toronto, Canada. ^^^ training. " 
 
 This is one of the six books recommended by the N. Y. State 
 Department to teachers preparing for examination for State cer- 
 tificates. 
 
 CAUTION. 
 
 Our new authorized copyright edition, entirely rewritten by 
 iJie autJwr, is the only one to buy. It is beautifully printed arid 
 handsomely bound. Get no other. 
 
 CONTENTS OF OUR NEW EDITION. 
 
 Chap. I. 7 Mistakes in Aim. 
 Chap. II. 21 Mistakes in School Management. 
 Chap. III. 24 Mistakes in Discipline. 
 Chap. IV. 27 Mistakes in Method. 
 Chap. V. 13 Mistakes in Moral Training. 
 Chaps, L and F. a/re entirely n^w. 
 
SEND ALL ORDERS TO 
 
 E. L. KELLOGG & CO., ]^EW YORK & CHICAGO. 
 
 QuickCs Educational Reformers. 
 
 By Rev. Robert Herbert Quick, M.A., of Trinity College, Cambridjce, 
 England. Bound in plain, but elegant cloth binding. 16mo, about 350 pp. 
 $1.00; to teachers^ 80 cts.; by mail, 10 cts. extra. 
 
 This book supplies information that is contained in no other single 
 volume, touching the progress of education in its earliest stages after 
 the revival of learning. It is the work of a practical teacher, who 
 supplements his sketches of famous educationists with some well- 
 considered observations, that deserve the attention of all who are in- 
 terested in that subject. Beginning with Roger Ascham, it gives an 
 account of the lives and schemes of most of the great thinkers and 
 workers in the educational field, down to Herbert Spencer, with the 
 addition of a valuable appendix of thoughts and suggestions on teach- 
 ing. The list includes the names of Montaigne, Ratich, Milton, Come- 
 nius, Locke, Rousseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, and Jacotot. in th« 
 lives and thoughts of these eminent men is presented the whole phi- 
 losophy of education, as developed in the progress of modern times. 
 
 Contents : 1. Schools of the Jesuits; 2. Aschara, Montaigne, Ratich, 
 Milton; 3. Comenius; 4. Locke; 5. Rousseau's Emile; 6. Basedow and 
 the Philanthropin ; 7. Pestalozzi ; 8. Jacotot ; 9. Herbert Spencer ; 
 10. Thoughts and Suggestions about Teaching Children ; 11. Some Re- 
 marks about Moral and Religious Education ; 12. Appendix. 
 
 Augsburg s Easy Things to Draw. 
 
 By D. R. Augsburg, Director of Drawing in the Keystone Normal School, 
 Kutztown, Pa. Quarto, durable and elegant cardboard cover, 80 pp., 
 with 31 pages of plates, containing over 200 dLfferent figures. Price, 30 
 cents; to teachers^ 24: cents; by mail, 4 cents extra. 
 This book is not designed to present a system of drawing. It Is a 
 collection of drawings made in the simplest possible way, and so con- 
 structed that any one may reproduce them. Its design is to furnish a 
 hand-book containing drawings, as w^ould be needed for the school- 
 room for object lessons, drawing lessons, busy work. This collection 
 may be used in connection with any system of drawing, as it contains 
 examples suitable for practice. It may also be used alone, as a means 
 of learning the art of drawing. As will be seen from the above the 
 idea of this book is new and novel. Those who have seen it are de- 
 lighted with it as it so exactly fills a want. Our list of Black-board 
 Stencils is in the same line. 
 
 Graded Examination Questions. 
 
 For N. Y. State, from Sept. '87 to Sept. '89, with ansvjers complete. First, 
 Second, and Third Grades. Cloth, 12mo. 219 pp. Price, $1.00; to 
 teachers, 80 cents; by mail, 8 cents extra. 
 
 This volume contains the Uniform Graded Examination Questions, 
 issued to the School Commissioners of the State by the Dept. of Public 
 Instruction, commencing Sept. '87, and ending Aug. 13 and 14, 1 889. 
 The answers are also given. These questions have been adopted by 
 all the school commissioners of the State; the test in each county thus 
 becomes uniform. These questions are being used very largely in 
 many other States, that pattern after New York, and will therefore be 
 of far more than local interest. Our edition is the best in arrange^ 
 ment, print, binding, and has an excellent contents and index. 
 
SEND ALL ORDERS TO 
 
 E. Z. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 33 
 
 Reception Day. 6 ^os. 
 
 A collection of fresh and original dialogues, recitations, decla- 
 mations, and short pieces for practical use in Public and 
 Private Schools. Bound in handsome new paper cover, 160 
 pages each, printed on laid paper. Price, 30 cents each; t6 
 teachers y 24 cents; by mail, 3 cents extra. 
 The exercises in these books bear upon education; have a rela- 
 tion to the school-room. 
 
 1. The dialogues, recitations, and declamations gathered in 
 
 this volume being fresh, short, 
 ^^ and easy to be comprehended, are 
 F^^'i'-- l^i/l^yl^ "^"^11 fitted for the average scholars 
 ^^ '"'' -''^ ^^ ^1 of our schools. 
 
 2. They have mainly been used 
 by teachers for actual school 
 exercises. 
 
 3. They cover a different ground 
 ; from the speeches of Demosthenes 
 : and Cicero — which are unfitted 
 
 for boys of twelve to sixteen 
 I years of age. 
 
 4. They have some practical in- 
 '■ terest for those who use them. 
 
 5. There is not a vicious sen- 
 tence uttered. In some dialogue 
 
 \ books profanity is found, or dis- 
 ; obedience to parents encouraged, 
 ; or lying laughed at. Let teachers 
 I look out for this. 
 
 6. There is something for the 
 youngest pupils. 
 
 7. ''Memorial Day Exercises" for Bryant, Garfield, Lincoln, 
 etc., will be found. 
 
 8. Several Tree Planting exercises are included. 
 
 9. The exercises have relation to the school-room, and bear 
 upon education. 
 
 10. An important point is the freshness of these pieces. Most 
 of them were written expressly for this collection, and can be 
 found nowhere else. 
 
 Boston Journal of Education.— " It is of practical value." 
 Detroit Free Press.—" Suitable for public and private schools." 
 Western Ed. Journal,—*' A series of very good selections.'* 
 
 New Cover. 
 
SBNB ALL ORDERS TO 
 
 34: E. L, KELLOGG & CO., NEW YOBK & CHICAGO. 
 WHAT EACH NUMBER CONTAINS. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 Is a Bpecially fine number. One dia- 
 logue in it, called " Work Conquers," 
 for 11 girls and 6 boys, has been given 
 hundreds of times, and is alone worth 
 the price of the book. Then there 
 are 21 other dialogues. 
 29 Recitations. 
 14 Declamations. 
 17 Pieces for the Primary Class. 
 
 No. 2 Contains 
 
 29 Recitations. 
 12 Declamations. 
 
 17 Dialogues. 
 
 24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 
 
 And for Class Exercise as follows: 
 
 The Bird's Party. 
 
 Indian Names. 
 
 Valedictory. 
 
 Washington's Birthday. 
 
 Garfield Memorial Day. 
 
 Grant- 
 
 Whittier " " 
 
 Sigourney " " 
 
 No. 3 Contains 
 
 Fewer of the longer pieces and more 
 of the shorter, as follows : 
 
 18 Declamations. 
 
 21 Recitations. 
 
 22 Dialogues. 
 
 24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 
 A Christmas Ex:ercise. 
 Opening Piece, and 
 An Historical Celebration. 
 
 No. 4- Contains 
 
 Campbell Memorial Day. 
 
 Longfellow " '* 
 
 Michael Angelo " *' 
 Shakespeare " " 
 Washington " " 
 Christmas Exercise. 
 Arbor Day " 
 New Planting '* 
 Thanksgiving '* 
 Value of Knowledge Exercise. 
 Also 8 other Dialogues. 
 21 Recitations. 
 
 23 Declamations. 
 
 No. 5 Contains 
 
 Browning Memorial Day. 
 Autumn Exercise. 
 Bryant Memorial Day. 
 New Planting Exercise. 
 Christmas Exercise. 
 A Concert Exercise. 
 
 24 Other Dialogues. 
 16 Declamations, and 
 36 Recitations. 
 
 No. 6 Contains 
 
 Spring; a flower exercise for very 
 
 young pupils. 
 Emerson Memorial Day. 
 New Year's Day Exercise. 
 Holmes' Memorial Day. 
 Fourth of July Exercise. 
 Shakespeare Memorial Day. 
 Washington's Birthday Exercise. 
 Also 6 other Dialogues. 
 6 Declamations. 
 41 Recitations. 
 
 15 Recitations for the Primary Class. 
 And 4 Songs. 
 
 Our Reception Day Series is not sold largely by booksellers, 
 who, if they do not keep it, try to have you buy something else 
 gimilar, but not so good. Therefore send direct to the publishers, 
 by mail, the price as above, in stamps or postal notes, and your 
 order will be filled at once. Discount for quantities. 
 
 SPECIAL OFFER. 
 
 If ordered at one time, we will send postpaid the entire 
 8 Nos. for $1.40. Note the reduction. 
 

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 KEJLLO&G i& CO., NEW TOBK & OmCAGO, 
 
 4i 
 
 Song Treasures. 
 
 THE PRIOE HAS BEEN 
 GREATLY REDUCED. 
 
 Compiled by Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Jour- 
 NAL. Beautiful and durable postal-card manilla cover> 
 printed in two colors, 64 pp. Price, 15 cents each; to teachers, 
 12 cents; by mail, 2 cents extra. 30th thousand. Write for 
 our special tsrms to scJwolsfor quantities. Special k/rmsfor use 
 at Teachers' Institutes. 
 This is a most ^ 
 valuable col- 
 lection of mu- 
 s i G for air' 
 schools and in- 
 stitutes. 
 
 1. Most of I 
 the pieces have 
 been selected ' 
 by the teachers 
 as favorites in | 
 t h e schools. 
 They are the 
 ones the pupils 
 love to sing. 
 It contains 
 nearly 100' 
 pieces. 
 
 2. All the pieces " have a ring to them ;" they are easily 
 learned, and will not be forgotten. 
 
 3. The themes and words are appropriate for young people. 
 In these respects the work will be found to possess unusual merit. 
 Nature, the Flowers, the Seasons, the Home, our Duties, our 
 Creator, are entuned with beautiful music. 
 
 4. Great ideas may find an entrance into the mind through 
 music. Aspirations for the good, the beautiful, and the true are 
 presented here in a musical form. 
 
 5. Many of the words have been written especially for the 
 book. One piece, ''The Voice Within Us,'' p. 57, is worth the 
 price of the book. 
 
 6. The titles here given show the teacher what we mean ; 
 
 Ask the Children, Beauty Everywhere, Be in Time, Cheerfulness, 
 OhTtstmas Bells, Days of Summer Glory, The Dearest Spot, Evening Song, 
 €r«ntle Words, Going to School, Hold up the Right Hand, I Love the Merry, 
 Sterry Sunshine, Kind Deeds, Over in the Meadows, Our Happy School, 
 Scatter the Germs of the Beautiful, Time to Walk, The Jolly Workers, Th^ 
 Teaebw'B Lile, Ti?ibut« to Whifetier, etc., etc. 
 
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