iltimlm:--:-:M-':: . #6= ^^ Book sR^ Copyright )^°_ COBfRIGHT DEPOSnV OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY BY V. A. RENOUF, B.A. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL ECONOiMY AT THE PEI YANG UNIVERSITY, TIENTSIN WITH MAPS. AND ILLUSTRATIONS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1909 All rights reserved ^'%\ .?^- Copyright, 1909, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1909. • Norfajooti ^9res3: Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. LiBRARY of CONGRESS Two Cooies Received TO MY WIFE WHOSE INTEREST AND ACTIVE HELP HAVE FURTHERED THE WORK AT EVERY STEP, THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED PREFACE The present book was written to meet the special wants of a new and rapidly increasing class of students in the East. Amono- the Western studies which are being introduced into the schools of China, history- will always hold an important place. It is only through a study of general history, and especially of Western history, that an Eastern student can learn to understand the place of his own country among the nations of the world. The new movement towards constitutional government makes a study of Western institutions doubly necessary. While there is no lack of admirable text-books on general history, there is yet not one among them which fills the requirements of the average Eastern student. He is usually a mature young man, who has passed through a course of training in the language and literature of his own country. He does not want a text-book for schoolboys. On the other hand, he is nearly always a beginner in English. Involved sentences, high-flown metaphors, allusions to Greek mythology or to Bible passages, are all stumbling blocks which may at times prove insur- mountable even for the native teacher. Simplicity viii PREFACE of style will be greeted with the same feeling of relief as that which arises in the heart of the Western schoolboy when he meets with an easy passage in his Latin author. Aside from the method of treatment and presenta- tion, the point of view in this book differs widely from the one naturally taken in a text-book for English or American students. The purely intellectual and artistic side of Graeco-Roman history must needs be neglected. It is a subject too strange to the Eastern mind to make a summary treatment profitable. The religious struggles of the Reformation in Europe present a strife of dogmas which have no- more interest to the Asiatic than the sects of Japanese Buddhism have to the European. Hence one short chapter contains the whole Era of the Protestant Reformation. On the other hand, all those events which have tended to connect the East and the West have received the fullest treatment possible in so short a book. A far larger proportion of space than usual is assigned to the history of Islam, and to the Mongol and Turkish conquests. Since the book is intended primarily for Chinese students, it may be urged that the half chapter on ancient Chinese history and institutions is superfluous. But apart from the hope that the book may be found useful also outside of China, the passage was inserted, after long reflection, purposely for the perusal of the Chinese. They can profit from it in two ways : First, by seeing what proportion their own history bears to universal history ; and secondly, by observing for a moment some familiar facts from that wholly objective PREFACE ix point of view which a man can rarely attain in regard to his own country. The book aims to relate in the simplest possible language the grand outlines of the world's history. The dominant force in the modern world is that complex historical compound called * Western Civiliza- tion.' The history of that Western Civilization must therefore occupy the greatest part of any modern General History, no matter whether it is intended for Asiatic or for European students. In condensing the history of the West into so small a compass, much had to be omitted which another writer might consider of importance. The student can judge how meagre the history is, when he learns that the passages on Eastern history are treated proportionally just as fully as most periods of the West. An Elementary History like the present, then, always represents a small selection from an immense range of facts. The reader has a right to ask by what principles the author was guided in making his selection, I tried to do the following ; First, to show the continuity of history, or, in other words, to make the reader see that the present has grown out of the past. Secondly, to emphasize those events and institu- tions a knowledge of which is most useful to persons interested in public reforms in the East. Thirdly, to show the value of high ideals of truth, and the advan- tage of liberal institutions. Under this third heading I confess to a personal bias, I believe, however, that the book is free from religious or racial prejudice. For the convenience of beginners parts of the text are printed in smaller type. These passages X PREFACE can be omitted without breaking the continuity of the narrative. They are integral parts of the book, and should be carefully studied by classes able to master the whole. A compilation like the present must necessarily be based on the authoritative works of many historians, rather than on original sources. The list of authors to whom I am indebted for information is too long for enumeration. I have derived much help from a recent American compilation entitled The Historians' History of the World, published in twenty-five octavo volumes by the Outlook Company of New York. When my own library, combined with the young historical library of the Pei Yang University, proved insufficient for my needs, I was often enabled to find in that work of reference authorities and even sources to set me right. In the difficult work of selection I was often guided by the admirably condensed articles in the German Encyclopedia of Brockhaus. It was only after having been for three years engaged in teaching historical classes at the Pei Yang University, that I felt qualified to write a text- book like the present. Its shortcomings are sure to be many, but it was certainly composed with the greatest care. Before publication I used it in teaching a class of Normal Students preparing to act as teachers in the Government Middle Schools of Chihli Province. The needs of these very schools called for the earliest possible publication of the book. I am distressed that I could not have the work ready sooner; yet haste would surely have increased its faults. PREFACE xi May it prove a source of interest and enlightenment for many ! In conclusion I beg to thank the publishers for their generosity in furnishing maps and illustrations out of their large stock, thus making it possible to fix a sale price considerably lower than is usual for books which are equally well printed and fitted out. I also thank my colleagues, Professors Th. T. Read and W. A. Seavey, for their valuable help in reading the proof sheets. Pei Yang University, Tientsin, China, December isf, 1907. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The thorough revision of this book has not led to any great changes. I have received valuable criticism and suo-orestions from friends at home and from fellow- workers in the field of Western education in the East, and take this opportunity of thanking them. My special thanks are due to two of my former teachers, Professor J. M. Vincent of the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, and Professor Edward Channing, of Harvard University. I am under equal obligations to Presi- dent F. L. Hawks Pott, D.D., of St. John's Univer- sity, Shanghai. V. A. R. Marc/i, 1909. CONTENTS PAGE tiST OF Maps - . , xvii .Suggestions to Teachers - - - - - . - - xix .Introduction : The Relation of History to other Branches of Learning ------- i PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER I. Egypt - . . ^ .; - . _ \ , . ._ . 9 ' TI. Babylonia and Assyria - - ■ - - - . - 19 III. The Jews and the Phoenicians A. The Jews -----..- 30 B. The Phoenicians 35 IV. The Persians - 39 V. The Ancient Oriental Countries Introduction - - - 46 I. India - -' ^- -"" '- - - - - ' 47 II. China --------- 54 III. Japan - . . 57 VI. Greek History to the Persian Wars - - - 71 VII. The Persian Wars and the Age of Pericles - - 88 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE VIII. The Mutual Destruction of the Greek States, AND THEIR CONQUEST BY PHILIP OF MACEDON - I05 IX. Hellenic Civilization ir8 X. Alexander the Great and his Successors - - 125 XI. History of Rome to the First Punic War - - 133 XII. From the First Punic War to the Destruction OF Carthage 145 XIII. The Decay of the Roman Republic, and the Growth of One-Man Power 155 XIV. The Roman Empire ------- 172 XV. Some Important Topics in Roman History - - 182 PART 11. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY Introduction - - -188 XVI. Germanic History to the Death of Charlemagne 189 XVII. Mohammed and the Spread of Islam - - - 201 XVIII. European History from the Treaty of Verdun TO the Close of the Crusades - - - . 210 XIX. The Mongol Conquests and the Ottoman Empire 225 XX. General View of Europe to the Close of the Middle Ages - - 237 CONTENTS XV PART III. MODERN HISTORY SECTION I. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION CHAPTER PAGE XXI. The Period of Discovery; Portuguese and Spanish Colonies - 251 XXII. The Era of the Protestant Reformation - 257 XXIII. A Century of Religious Conflict - - - 267 XXIV. A Century of English History Introduction 283 A. The Reign of Elizabeth - . . . _ 283 B. The First Period of Stuart Rule - - - 289 C. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate - - 295 XXV. The Height and the Decline of the French Monarchy - - - 298 XXVI. The Rise of Prussia - 310 XXVII. The Rise of Modern Russia 318 XXVIII. English and American History from the Restoration to the Foundation of the United States ..--.-. 326 SECTION II. FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION UNTIL RECENT TIMES XXIX. The French Revolution 339 XXX. The Napoleonic Era ..---. 352 XXXI. The Material and Intellectual Progress of the World since the Eighteenth Century 366 b xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XX^II. Recent History of France, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, and the Scandinavian Countries - . . 382 XXXIII. The Unification of Germany and of Italy - 394 XXXIV. Russia and the Balkans in: the Nineteenth Century - 402 XXXV. The ' British- Empire, and the Colonial Ex- pansion of Europe - - - - -. - 421 . XXXVI. The American Countries during the Nine- ■' ' teenth Century- - - - . ' . . 445 XXXVII. The Transformation of the Far East - - 455 Appendix , ;: /, ^ :,;..._ , : ._ I. Suggestive Questions and Exercises; - -- - - 477 II. Comparative Chronological Table of a few Great Periods Index and Events 435 ■ - - - - - - - - - - 487 LIST OF MAPS PAGE Ancient Egypt -- lo Lydia, Media, and Babylonia - - - - - - 21 Persian Empire at its Greatest Extent - - - - 40 Ancient China and Japan 55 China under the T'ang Dynasty - - - - - - 65 Greece .-.. 70 Marathon ..90 Battle of Salamis 96 The Campaigns and the Empire of Alexander the Great 127 Italy before the Growth of the Roman Empire - - 135 The Mediterranean Lands at the beginning of the Second Punic War 149 The Empire of Julius Caesar 165 The Roman Empire under Trajan 177 Europe during the Reign of Charles the Great - - 198 Mohammedan Empire at its Greatest Extent - - - 208 Europe in the time of Otto I. - - - - . -217 The Mongol Empire ----.... 224 Ottoman Empire under Suleiman I. - - - - - 233 xviii LIST OF MAPS PAGE Western Europe about 1460 - - - . - 1. - 236 Europe at the close of the 30 Years' War - - - 285 Europe after the Treaty of Utrecht . - . . 307 Russian Territorial Development 324 The Colonies of North America ------ 337 Manchurian Campaign 411 Modern China and Japan - - - - , , . 417 India and the Indo-Chinese Peninsula . , - « 433 Louisiana Purchase --..-»-.- 447 Union and Confederate States - - - - - - 451 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Classes with only a " fair knowledge " of English should follow the shorter course indicated by the large type. They can probably master it in one year (two semesters), having four hours of history per week, besides study hours. Classes knowing English well enough to have no trouble with con- structions, and little trouble with the vocabulary, can follow the full text during the same period. In most cases the best plan will be this : Take the shorter course in the first year, and study the book as a whole in the second year of historical work. If possible, the study of history should be taken up after geography. For most classes the study of this book will also be an exercise in English. To ensure a complete understanding, every student should translate the text into his native tongue. A brief text-book of history or geography can be made alive only by the voice of the teacher. He should, if possible, amplify and illustrate the text by short discourses in the native idiom. For this purpose his knowledge must exceed considerably the information given in the text-book. A small historical library should be in every teacher's hands, and its acquisition is urgently recommended to the school authorities. The following books will be found helpful : I. Very Elementary: Colby's Outlines of General History. XX SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS II. Elementary: Myers' Ancient History; Myers' Mediaeval and Modern History. III. Advanced: J. H. Breasted, A History of Egypt; R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria ; W. W. Hunter, Brief History of the Indian Peoples; J. B. Bury, History of Greece ; H. F. Pelham, Outlines of Roman His- tory ; E. Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages ; E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe ; J. V. Duruy, History of France; S. R. Gardiner, A Student's History of England; C. A. Fyffe, History of Modern Europe; W. Mueller, Political History of Recent Times ; Ch. Seignobos, Political History of Contemporary Europe ; E. Channing, A Student's History of the United States; J. R. Seeley, The Expansion of England (on the English empire). Fuller bibliographies will be found in most of these works. Should any teacher be so fortunate as to obtain funds for a larger historical library, he would find in C. K. Adams' Manual of Historical Literature a trustworthy description of the principal authorities on all fields of history. With the aid of this manual he could select the titles for a larger library. The best nucleus of a school library is a good up-to-date Cyclopedia, such as the Britannica, or Chambers's, or the Century. The Encyclopedia Britannica stands perhaps first ; but it is more expensive, and its articles are often so long and technical as to discourage a person not having perfect command of English. Much might be said about methods of teaching history ; but the topic is so large that I dare not go beyond a few hints. It is well to combine geographical and historical instruc- tion, i.e. to refer to historical events connected with places in geography, and to point out how geographical features have influenced the course of history. Students who show special aptitude should be encouraged to read in books other than the text-book. Such students will benefit themselves and their fellow-students by giving reports on special topics to the class. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xxi Perhaps the best way to stimulate the students' imagination, and to make the history alive in their minds, is to draw comparisons with events or institutions already familiar to them through the history of their native country. A striking example is that of early patriarchal institutions in the West, which can be paralleled by existing laws and customs in China. Most Western teachers now discourage students from memorizing the text-book. It is not considered a proof of real knowledge, if the students are able to reproduce verbatim the words of the book. They should rather be able to render facts and ideas in their own language. Learning by heart easily becomes mechanical, and those who depend on it are likely to remember their lessons by sound and sight only. They will profit more by using their logical sense in tracing the causal connections of facts, and by trying to see, in their imagination, real people and places rather than mere names. Such, in brief, is the paedagogical theory which underlies the objection against too much memorizing. The theory needs considerable modification, when applied to students in the East. By training in the study of their classical literatures as well as by heredity, most of them have a more tenacious technical memory than the average European or American students. Hence memorizing is less of an effort for them. On the other hand, several reasons combine to make the modern Western method of historical instruction im- practicable. The language difficulty experienced by beginners in English puts a wider course of reading out of their reach, and ties them down to a more laborious study of the text- book. Their inability to express themselves readily in' English on a wide range of subjects also obliges them to fall back on quoting the text literally, instead of using their own language. I am therefore actually led to recommending that many or even most parts of the text be learned by heart. But the teacher should steadily guard against the xxii SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS danger of thoughtless memorizing. The expression of in- dividual opinion and the training of the judgment should be encouraged at every step. The questions and exercises which appear at the end of the book are largely formulated with these ends in view. As for the historical imagination, it is most easily aroused by the study of pictures. Every teacher is recommended to make a collection of photographs, pictures from magazines, and other illustrative material bearing on history. A small show case with glass doors, in which pictures can be exhibited for several days, is a useful adjunct of the class room. In conclusion, I will touch on the question of learning dates. These should be memorized by all students. It is well to bring as many events as possible into relation with a memorized date. For this purpose the table at the end of the book will be found useful. The few students who have a ready memory for dates can be encouraged to remember most or all of them ; but the majority of the class should not be burdened with more than are necessary for a correct general perspective of the centuries. OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY GENERAL HISTORY INTRODUCTION THE RELATION OF HISTORY TO OTHER BRANCHES OF LEARNING What History is. — History is an ordered account of the growth of human societies. It treats principally of political events, and must tell also about many other things which have influenced the progress of nations. Religion, science, art, literature, education, and commerce are important in the history of every country. The Limits of History. — History does not go far back into the early development of mankind. Man has existed on the earth for about a hundred thousand years.^ Our most ancient historical information reaches back to a time about six thousand years ago. In other words, history is able to treat of only about the last seventeenth of the whole story of man. Within this last historical period are also many gaps, which can never be filled. As regards both ancient ^ This is the period estimated by Haeckel. Like all other estimates, it does not claim to be exact. G.H. A 2 GENERAL HISTORY and mediaeval history, what we do not know is much more tlian what we do know\ The Sources of History. — Historians get their know- ledge from w^'itten documents, from inscriptions, and from various sources of information left by departed people in their buildings and graves. For modern history, there is an enormous mass of state papers, treaties, reports, newspapers, and books, and the his- torian's main difficulty lies in selecting the important parts from the bewildering wealth of his material. Documents may be written on different kinds of paper, on stone, wood, or metal. Inscriptions may be found on rocks, on the walls of tombs, or on coins. No history of any country can be written unless its people have left some such record of their activities. Again, if the records of a later period are scanty, or unreliable, then the history of that period must also be imperfect. Prehistoric Times. — The times, of which no definite records have been left, are called the prehistoric times. It should always be borne in mind, that they are incomparably longer than the recent period called the historic one. The study of mankind before the historic period is called prehistoric archaeology. Prehistoric men left utensils, weapons, bones of killed animals, and other remains in the caves where they used to dwell. There these things, and sometimes also the bones of their former owners, remained under the soil, until the modern archaeologists dug them up again. Large tribes of those ancient savages built their villages over the water of lakes. The traces of such settlements have been discovered and carefully INTRODUCTION 3 searched. Enough is now known, so that the books on prehistoric archaeology form quite a Httle library. Races of Mankind. — The commonest division of mankind is according to the color of the skin. Thus three great types are distinguished : The Black Race, the Yellow or Mongolian (often called Turanian) Race, and the White or European Race. But this division, like many others, cannot be strictly applied, and it is easy to find people, for example, whose skin is not yellow, although they are accounted Mongolians. The study of human races is called Ethnology. The most difficult problem of ethnology is just this of distinguishing the different races of man, and determining their points of difference. Broadly speaking, the three above-mentioned types have existed since the earliest historic times, and each has retained its peculiarities unchanged to the present day. The Black Race. — Most of the members of this race, called negroes, have Africa for their original home. Being an inferior race, they have largely been used as slaves by the stronger and cleverer members of the higher races. Ancient Egyp- tian monuments show captive black slaves. In the United States eight million negroes are now living as free citizens, all of them former slaves or negro. descendants of slaves once imported like cattle from Africa. The Yellow Race. — The Yellow Race is spread over 4 GENERAL HISTORY Eastern, Northern, and Inner Asia. Its most impor- tant branch are the Chinese^ the first people of the world in point of numbers, and through their con- tinuous national history. Universal respect and admiration is extended in modern times to the Japanese. They have shown a remarkable ability for learning; the advantages of Western civilization, which has quickly lifted them to the first place in the East. Until recently they had shared with other Mongolian peoples a strong conservatism, which even amounted to hostility against innovation. The lack of progress among both Chinese and Japanese during several centuries was due to their geographical isolation from the West. The same reason accounts for the many contrasts in the manners and customs between Eastern and Western nations. From the beginning of history until modern times the two civilizations have developed quite independently of each other. A third branch of the Yellow Race, feared for its nomadic and warlike habits, are the Mongols of Inner Asia. Their cruel conquests have extended from China to the borders of Germany. They were only destroyers, and founded no permanent states of their own. Their present condition of wandering herds- men is about the same as it was two thousand years ago. Other important Mongolian peoples are the Koreans, Manckus, Tibetans, Annamites, 2SiA Btcrmese, The Lapps, Finns, and Basques in Europe repre- sent the remnants of an ancient Turanian population, ' INTRODUCTION 5 which was replaced by members of the White Race. The Magyars (Hungarians) and the Turks are Mon- golian peoples, who conquered their present homes from the European inhabitants. The White Race. — The White Race embraces all those nations whose history is the story of Western civilization. Their exact origin is unknown. In his- toric times they have lived in Europe and around the Mediterranean. From there they have conquered the continents of America and Australia, and extended their dominion over all parts of the world, where barbarous or weak popula- tions were unable to resist the new masters. According to differences of lan- guage, the White Race has been white man. divided into three groups, called the Hamitic, the Semitic, and the Aryan. The Hamitic group contains the ancient Egyptians as its most famous members. The Semites occupied principally the south-western part of Asia. The Babylonians and Assyrians ruled over large empires from the Gulf of Persia to the Mediterranean. The Arabs had the oases and arid pastures of Arabia for their home. There they led wild and free lives, protected from stronger neighbors by the barren deserts, until the teaching of Moham- med led them over half the world in a career of conquest, ^\i^ Jews or Hebrews were a small people who influenced the world by their religious teaching. Christ was a Jew, and the Christian beliefs rest 6 GENERAL HISTORY chiefly on the great rehgious classic of the Hebrews, the Bible. Mohammedanism is also derived from the Jewish belief in one God. The Phoenicians were the great trading nation of antiquity. Excepting the Arabs, all the Semitic peoples had ended their na- tional history two thousand years ago. The A7yans adopted most of the civilization developed by the Semites, and made it a part of all that learning, culture, and power, which is called modern Western civilization. First on this great path of progress were the Greeks. They attained in course of a ' few centuries a stage of culture, which in some respects has not been equalled again since their decline. The Romans, by their wonderful conquests, spread orderly government and the arts of peace around the whole Mediterranean, over Western Europe, and into Britain. After a period of disorder and intellectual decline, the Germanic races became the leaders in the renewed progress, which is now transforming the ancient civilizations of Asia. The principal members of the Germanic race are the Germ^ans, the Scandinavians (Danes, Swedes, Norwegians), and the English. The people who now speak languages descended from the Roman (Latin) tongue, are commonly called the Romance or Latin nations. Among these Italy, France, and Spain stand first. Two more branches of the Aryan stock are distinguished in Europe : the Celts and the Slavs. The first embrace of modern peoples only the Scotch, the Irish, and the Welsh in England, and the Bretons in northern France. The leading Slavic people are the Russians and the Poles, INTRODUCTION 7 The Relation of History to Geography. — Human beings, like all living things, are strongly influenced by the places where they live. A farmer working on his fields gets an appearance and character different from a sailor or from a nomadic herdsman. In the same way whole nations are affected by the soil and the climate of the countries inhabited by them. So great is this influence that branches of the same parent race have become quite different from each other after having wandered to different countries. It is profitable always to bear this in mind during the study of geography, and to try to understand just how geographical conditions have helped to determine the history of various countries. It follows, on the other hand, that the student of history must first have a fair knowledge of physical geography. Chronology. — The science of measuring time and of fixing historical dates is called chronology. (In Greek, chronos = \\vc\.^) The divisions of time into years, months, and days are determined by the relative motions of the stars, sun, moon, and earth. With astronomical chronology as a basis, different peoples have practised different methods of fixing the time of historical events. Several national and religious chronologies will be mentioned further on. The modern chronology of the European nations is evidently destined to become the prevailing one throughout the world, as it everywhere accompanies the advance of Western ideas. It is practical, and is the only one in which scholars have reduced the important dates of all nations to one common system. Modern Western chronology is based on the Julian calendar, which was arranged by the order of Julius Caesar in 45 b.c, and which was reformed 8 - GENERAL HISTORY in 1582 A.D. by Pope Gregory, whence it is now called the Gregorian Calendar. The time since the birth of Jesus Christ is called the Christian Era, and all dates are referred to the year i, viz. the birth-year of Christ. Dates before Christ are indicated by the abbreviation B.C., meaning 'before Christ,' or by a.c, which stands for the Latin 'ante Christum' ( = before Christ). Dates after Christ are marked a.d., which is an abbreviation of the Latin ' Anno Domini,' meaning ' in the year of the Lord' (Jesus Christ). PART L ANCIENT HISTORY 4000 B.C. TO 375 A.D. CHAPTER I EGYPT The Fitness of Egypt for an Early Seat of Civilization. — A review of Egyptian geography will convince the student that no other country of equal size is better suited to provide homes for a farming population. The annual Nile floods enrich the soil, and the warm climate favours the growth of many kinds of crops. Natural conditions in Egypt have not changed in any way since the earliest recorded times. Although so favoured In many respects, the Nile valley never yielded its fruit without hard and intelligent work on the part of its inhabitants. The lack of rain always obliged the people to bring the Nile water on to the fields by irrigation. Irrigation on a large scale requires steady and Intelligent labour. It cannot succeed without the help of an orderly government, which must maintain the canals, keep the dams in repair, and watch that the farmers of one district do not ruin the fields of a lower 30 35 M E L ITERRANEAN SEA ■?■ • ^^LlUii^—^ '- ^ ^GoJXjOU Jenusalern;; " " '"'":- ""-,„■ 'Igi^'^^rV^Wf'^^^'''^* (\''= i^ ^? 30 ''"■■„, '■'■>'■•' ^N^M^, ;■>"'..-?'''''■•"'■■■*"'■■'"% ^3 i .■■'' f ff > "'-•■■'"_ ]P|^^^'' , ■ ' f\ \^ i 'f :?> i. Moeos /PJ^i-> i^\ \ ?'""""• _^.,,,-4 r ^ '■■'-' ••'»* i H 5,.. '"!, ..„# ■,,.. Ai f «> ifS /'.'ii ';v\ t "'& 1 n af r-* ij ks'-" "t/\\ I ^*'^,, :' 4 < C^ «i \ V \ •"■"•* \< l " T r- "'=(Ct.> "•'•■?";,;S \ \ ^'"SCi ^\* V / v,^ ^Ss.«s • . Sv "^ ■Ia_ jl 'v^--'''^ X '<*• ^^ .• Ci c/> n^l ''"'■*' i- -v^ ^ ft \^ «-i 4Vi , ^d- \ '=!4 S, t^ 03 ^ \ ■3 5 =S„^ r/C <% V\ ^ ROYAL TOM BK^ % =■'■..-.-■'% ^ cn The liesO/"-"--. , '^'"-'■"\-^, {S> -^ ^ 25 ^ *s^. ^rt ''-J \ 'Jy / )c-% ^'/,v > ?C lit' ' \ ' '^'"h/'""C v. First Cat.Z'MlP^U?3- ^ ANCIENT „fc ?*J } EGYPT S 4^ \ Scale of Miles ^ ""V}S"'-~'«! tf 50 50 iM 4^^^ 't *ro Jlf^^ ' \h ..^ t'\ ' ?'"\*^^ •i';^"" '"'" '*""'-"vi:-i > '' t?? '^ fOf -^-fCS-r-E.,,,,. . T H I ■" fel Second Cataract'Mp-' '' '"""'•-»'".,^^""•-'| 30 E-ast of Greenwich Scanford's Geo^' Estab^, London, EGYPT II district by careless use of the water. This need of work and co-operation, coupled with the natural advantages, led to the very early rise of civilization in Egypt. The First Dynasty. — The beginnings of Egyptian history are unknown. They must date back before 5000 B.C., or seven thousand years, ago. Menes was the first Pharaoh (Egyptian title of king), and founder of the first dynasty, about 3000 b.c. He united the many smaller states of Egypt under one government, and built the capital city of Memphis, near the head of the Delta. Into this earliest period, of the history of which nothing definite is known, falls the construction of the great Sphinx near Memphis. This enormous statue, the oldest work of art in existence, is hewn out of the solid rock in form of a crouching lion with a human head. It was a representation of the sun god. The Pyramid Builders. — No other line of kings has left such strikins^ monuments as the Fourth Dynasty, whose rulers built the biggest pyramids near Memphis. Cheops erected the Great Pyramid, a mountain of brick and stone rising, in exact geometrical lines, to a height of four hundred and fifty feet. These perfect engineering works show that Egyptian learning had already reached maturity at a period when barbarism held sway over the whole of Europe. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties (about 1650 to 1300 B.C.). — Eight more dynasties had passed away when nomadic invaders from Syria occupied the Delta, and gradually extended their dominion 12 ANCIENT HISTORY over the whole valley. The foreign rulers were called the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. Although barbarians at first, they soon adopted Egyptian ways. Five hundred years of Hyksos supremacy were violently ended by the revolt of the native prince Amosis, who drove out the • foreigners, and founded the eighteenth dynasty. This and the following dynasty mark the period of Egypt's greatest power. The commands of the Pharaohs were obeyed from the Sahara to the Euphrates. Most noted among many illustrious kings are Seti I. and Rameses II. of the nineteenth dynasty. Seti began to build a canal from the Red Sea to the Nile, an undertaking which was just as important for Egyptian trade and sea power, as the Panama Canal will be for the United States. The canal was finished by Rameses. Clear traces of it can still be seen, not far from the Suez Canal. Rameses spent most of his glorious reign of sixty-seven years in military campaigns and in the erection of great public works. A number of gigantic portrait statues, and the well-preserved ruins of large temples, the walls of which are covered with pictures and inscrip- tions, still attest the energy of Rameses the Great. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty. — The last notable dy- nasty was the twenty-sixth, founded by Psamme- tichus I. (663 B.C.). He drove out the Assyrians, who had made Egypt one of their provinces. Psamme- tichus I. was the first Pharaoh who encouraged foreigners to settle in the country. A colony of Greeks settled in the Delta, and Greek students got knowledge from the Egyptian priests. In this EGYPT 13 way the inventions of Egypt spread to the other Mediterranean countries. Neclio II., the son of Psammetichus, continued his father's poHcy. His wise government, however, strengthened the country only for a while. The Egyptian people had reached the limit of their development, and could not profit The Great Pyramid, and Sphinx. much from the liberal measures of the last o-reat o Pharaohs. New and vigorous nations rose in place of the old. First the Babylonians, and later the Persians, held Egypt as a subject province. Alex- ander the Great brought the country under Greek supremacy, and during the first century after Christ the Romans embodied the land of the Pharaohs in their empire. No native ruler has since then held sway over Egypt. 14 ANCIENT HISTORY Religion, Customs, and Arts. — The Egyptians were very religious. Religion ruled the life of the nation, from the Pharaoh to the beggar. One-third of the land was sacred as property of the temples. The houses were built of mud, while the temples were reared with stone. The temple of Karnak in upper Egypt, near the ancient Thebes, is considered to have been the finest and largest religious structure built in antiquity. Many of its huge columns still overawe modern visitors of the ruins. Every district in Egypt had its local gods, but some of them were worshipped all over the country. Chief among these were Ra, the sun god, and Osiris, who represented the benefits of the Nile. Together with Osiris, his wife Isis, and their son Horus were commonly adored. The Egyptians, like many other peoples, felt the need of giving to their gods, who represented powers of nature or abstract qualities (like the sun, the moon, fertility, health), some visible shape. So they made statues of them, mostly looking like people with the heads of animals. Often they believed that gods actually lived in real animals. Hence arose the curious custom of Animal Worship. Cats, dogs, and crocodiles were considered to be holy. The soul of Osiris was said to reside in a bull, called Apis. The Apis was worshipped in his own fine temple. On his death the soul of Osiris went into a bull calf just then born. (Compare the belief of Lamaism : When a Living Buddha dies, the soul of Buddha enters a child born at that moment. The Dalai Lama of Lassa is considered as the highest Living Buddha.) EGYPT 15 Transmigration of Souls, Resurrection, Embalming, and Tombs. — All Egyptians firmly believed that their souls would be punished or rewarded, after the decease of the body, for the bad or good deeds done on earth. Good souls became the friends of Osiris. Bad souls had to wander through the bodies of animals. The greater the crime the low^er were the animals (like pigs, vultures) through which the soul had to pass. After many thousand years of this punishment the soul might again become human. After an immensely long time all souls would return to their human bodies. This is called the doctrine of the Resurrection, and is found in many later religions (viz. Christianity and Mohammedanism). In order that the soul might find its old body on the day of resurrection, the Egyptians preserved the bodies with medicines. The process is called embalming, and em- balm.ed corpses are called Mtunmies. Many thousands of mummies have been found. Those of Seti I. and Rameses II. can now be seen in the museum at Cairo. The faces are well preserved, in spite of the more than three thousand years which have passed since the decease of these monarchs. The departed souls — so the Egyptians believed — might sometimes come back to the graves where the bodies rested. To please the souls, great labour was spent in building tombs. The rocky hills west of the Nile, especially near the ancient Thebes, contain numberless tombs tunnelled deeply into the ground. The walls are generally covered with pic- tures and inscriptions, describing the life of the i6 ANCIENT HISTORY deceased. Through these pictures modern scholars have learned all about the manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians. The Pyramids also were the tombs of their builders. Glass, Paper. — Four thousand years ago the Egyptians knew all the secrets of glass-making. They excelled in the manufacture of imitation gems, an art which has not been equalled again until recently in Europe. The chief Egyptian writing material was made from a kind of grass which grew near the edge of the Nile. The Greeks had two names for this: 'hx^X. papyrus (hence English 'paper'), and secondly byblos (hence English Bible = book). Papyrus was expensive ; therefore many cheaper writing materials, such as wooden tablets, leather, or pieces of broken pottery, were also used. Egyptian Writing. — Egyptian writing, like the Chi- nese, began as picture-writing. The names of things were expressed by simple drawings of them. The Egyptians also resembled the Chinese in taking great pride in their writing, which was indeed quite beautiful. For inscriptions they continued the use of the old picture-writing, called Hieroglyphics {Jiiero^ sacred, ^/y////(r = carved writing). In documents and for business abbreviated forms gradually replaced the hieroglyphical, because they could be written much faster. Art and Science. — The Egyptians were very fond of painting and sculpture. In the dry climate of the country many works of art have been preserved to the present day ; especially paintings in tombs are often as fresh as if they had been recently finished by the artists. The conservatism of the Egyptians is best illustrated by their art : it had already reached perfection under the Pyramid Kings, and made almost no progress during the following two thousand EGYPT 17 years. The scientific attainments of the Egyptians are commonly over-estimated. Their strongly religious habits and their superstitions prevented the rise of that spirit of inquiry which has given birth to modern science. They preferred to keep some useless practice, because it had been handed down from their ancestors, rather than to try to find out some better way. Hence medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, and other branches of learning stayed at the same low level since time out of memory. To dissect a human body was a dreadful crime. So Egyptian doctors never acquired a correct knowledge of anatomy. They could treat diseases only according to traditional instructions, and if their treatment was not successful, magic rites were employed. In astronomy they distinguished planets from fixed stars, divided the heavens into constellations, and determined approximately the length of the year. But their calendar was confused, and they had no proper chronology. For this reason it is impossible to find out the correct dates in Egyptian history. Position of Women. — Egyptian women had equal rights, before the law, with their husbands. They could own pro- perty in their own names, and care for it independently. A prince of the Fifth Dynasty said in a collection of moral precepts : " If thou art wise, then care well for thy home, love thy wife, honour her, care for her body, fulfil her wishes, as long as thou livest ; for she is a boon, which does honour to its master." In no other ancient country were women so well treated, nor was their claim to equal rights again fully revived until quite modern times in the leading ' Western countries. Egypt's Place in History. — Egypt shares with Babylonia the honour of having laid the foundations of Western civilization. It is difficult to tell precisely what are the laws and customs which have come down to modern times from the Egyptians, but it is certain that the Phoenicians and the Greeks learned a great deal through their intercourse with them. The Greeks long looked up to the Egyptian priests G.H. B i8 ANCIENT HISTORY as the masters of the deepest learning. It is no shame to the Egyptians that they could not keep pace with the young strength of Greece and Rome, but remained stationary and sank, to become the vassals of progressive states. Nations, like individuals, have certain natural endowments, the limits of which they cannot overstep. If they make good use of these endowments, and so add something to the general progress of the human race, they must be counted among the benefactors of the race. And the first in the list of those great peoples who have helped the world forward are the Egyptians. CHAPTER II BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA The Tigris and Euphrates Valley. — Flanked by the Syrian and Arabian deserts on the one hand, and by the Armenian hioh lands and the Zasfros mountains on the other, lies a vast river valley which bears many resemblances to Egypt. The climate is similar, except that the eastern valley has an annual rainy season. The soil is alluvial, and is also Hooded and enriched by the regular overflows of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Here also artificial irrig-ation had to prepare the way for agriculture. ' With canals and ditches properly controlled, the country was of un- rivalled fertility. Without them— as it now lies under Turkish misrule — it has sunk mostly into sandy waste and feverish swamps. In ancient times the lower part of this valley was called Babylonia, from the great city of Babylon. The name Chaldaea is often given to the same region, because the people of the first Babylonian empire are distinguished as Chaldaeans. The region lying above Babylon and between the rivers, mostly dry steppe, was called Mesopotamia (Afeso = middle, potam = river), which term is generally applied also to the 20 ANCIENT HISTORY whole river valley. The upper country, stretching from the Tigris over the hills and into the mountains, was known as Assyria. The Three Great Monarchies. — Three ereat monarchies arose in this country. They were not, however, quite distinct, but had, in many ways, a continuous history. The rulers were first in the south, durinof the lonof period called the First Babylonian or Chaldaean empire. Then the Assyrians in the north-west became the ruling people, until Babylon again asserted its supremacy. The Old Babylonian Empire (about 4000-1300 e.g.). — The origin of Babylonian history is unknown. Uncertain information reaches back to about 4000 B.C. At that remote time Chaldaea was divided into a number of independent city states. Sargoii /., king of the city Agade, first consolidated the whole country under his rule, and extended his dominions to the Mediterranean. Hammurabi, king of all Babylonia about 2200 B.C., is famous on account of his laws. An almost complete code of these, inscribed on a large stone monument, has been found by modern excavators. The code of Hammurabi is the oldest document of its kind known, and is of extraordinary value for the study of early institutions. A few centuries later Babylonian emigrants settled in the hill-country known' as Assyria. For a long time they remained subject to the southern govern- ment. But gradually the Assyrians grew more in- dependent, until finally they in turn became masters of the Mesopotamian peoples. 22 ANCIENT HISTORY The Assyrian Empire (1300 to 606). — The Assyrians were cruel and warlike. Their supremacy was based entirely on military strength. Their kings were .fighters, and spent most of their reigns in subduing or harassing the countries from Media to Egypt, and from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. The Assyrian capital was the splendid and strong Nineveh on the Tigris. Like various other nations whose main pursuit was war, the Assyrians had little original culture. In religion they had their own god, Ashur, but otherwise their beliefs were about the same as those of the Babylonians. Their literature, art, and general knowledge were all borrowed from Chaldaean models. Sargon was the first of the Assyrian kings to make war on the Pharaoh. The Egyptian king was forced to pay tribute, as were also the Arabians, and even the people of Cyprus, one of the large islands in the Eastern Mediterranean. When the Jews revolted against Sargon's authority, he destroyed half of their country, and carried most of the people away as captives, assigning them new homes in Assyria. Under A shur-bani-pal Assyria reached the height of her power. The province of Egypt regained its independence under Psammetichus I., the founder of the twenty-sixth dynasty. But this local reverse of the Assyrian arms was more than made good in other regions. Practically all of Western Asia, from the plateau of Iran to the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, acknowledged Ashur-bani-pal as its overlord. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 23 The Sudden Downfall of Assyria. — The cruel oppres- sion of the Assyrian kings made their yoke doubly hateful to their numerous subjects. Revolts con- stantly broke out in all parts of the empire, and it only needed a brief reverse of fortune to bring the might of Assyria to ruin. Not long after Ashur- bani-pal's reign the governor of Babylon made an alliance with Cyaxares, the king of the Medes, with the object of overthrowing the Assyrian supremacy. Saracus, the last king of Assyria, was unable to with- stand his united enemies. In 606 Nineveh was taken by storm after a long siege. Saracus set fire to his palace, and burned himself and his family, rather than fall into the hands of the conquerors. With Nineveh the whole empire fell to pieces, and the very memory of it was soon lost from the minds of the people. For over two thousand years even the sites of Nineveh and other splendid cities were for- gotten, and next to nothing was known about their history. The New Babylonian Empire (606-538). — Although the New Babylonian empire lasted for less than a century, it left a deep impression on neiorhborino- nations throuo^h its power and wealth. The fame of later Babylon was established mainly by the energy of one king, Nebi'ichadnezzar. Durinof a remark- able reign of nearly sixty years, this monarch again united a great part of Western Asia under one rule. An Egyptian army led by the Pharaoh Necho was utterly defeated near Nebuchadnezzar. 24 ANCIENT HISTORY the Euphrates river, Syria was occupied, and the Jewish king was forced to acknowledge the Baby- lonian suzerainty. The successor of Necho persuaded the Jews and the Phoenicians to join him in a renewed struggle against Babylonia. Jerusalem and Tyre, the capitals of the allies, suffered cruelly during the ensuing war. The Jewish king was killed, and most of his subjects were transplanted to Babylonia to prevent further revolts. Having also conquered the Phoenician cities, Nebuchadnezzar contented himself with humbling the pride of Egypt, which was now too weak to menace the peace of the Babylonian empire again. Though forced to march on many campaigns, Nebuchadnezzar took his chief delight in promoting the material welfare and the religion of his country. The inscriptions left by him show him to have been a truly paternal and pious prince. He says, for example : " Marduk Lord, the first of gods, thou mighty prince, thou hast created me, thou hast committed to me royal dominion over the multitude of the people, I love thy majesty as my precious life. Save thy city of Babylon. ... I am the king, the Restorer, who delights thy heart, the zealous ruler, the restorer of all thy cities." Temples which had lain in ruins for many hundred years were restored by Nebuchadnezzar, and new buildings in all parts of Babylonia attested the king's energy and piety. His main care was bestowed on the capital. Besides erecting fine temples and palaces, he girdled the city with vast fortifications. The outermost wall embraced a large arable district, which could largely support the city population during a long siege. Babylon became the greatest trading centre of the BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 25 ancient world. Its wealth led to a luxury and a licence which have given to the name Babylon the proverbial meaning" of an immoral city. The successors of Nebuchadnezzar were unworthy of their mighty ancestor. Their weak rule lost them the respect of the people, and when Cyrus the Great approached Babylon as a conqueror, its inhabitants gladly hailed him as their new sovereign (538). Thereafter the history of Mesopotamia was merged in that of the larger Persian empire. Babylonian Excavations. — The study of Babylonian antiquities, called Assyriology, is the most modern branch of historical learning. Except the information afforded in the Old Testament, and by some Greek historians, which does not give a correct idea of the Babylonians, nothing was known about these people until the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1842 the English scholar Layard began to search the mounds in Mesopotamia, which many travellers had mistaken for natural hills. His labours were at once richly rewarded. He uncovered the ruins of buildings, filled with sculptures and inscrip- tions, which had lain forgotten for over two thousand years. Since then numerous expeditions of scholars have been sent by various governments and universi- ties of Europe and America. They have unearthed the treasures of ancient art and literature, by means of which an invaluable chapter in the history of man has been written anew. Cuneiform Writing. — The Babylonian system of writing originated from picture writing. But, unlike the Egyptians, the Babylonians early abandoned the 26 ANCIENT HISTORY clumsier system for a more practical form. The letters were engraved on stone or brick, or more commonly they were written on soft clay tablets, which were afterwards baked. The writing was done with a style ending in a little sharp triangle, and the letters all had the shape of a wedge. (Ci^nei-/o7^m = wedge-(orm.) The size and position of the wedge determined its meaning. To save space on the heavy material, the letters often were written very minutely, so that they could only be read with a magnifying glass. The cuneiform system of writing spread with Babylonian culture all over •^uiP iis.i'if a>-ia^ >'iii5 u =^1 lis itr 22^ 4S ^m Ffe >-^>- Liiilh h TIT*^\ Cuneiform Inscription. Western Asia. Cuneiform despatches to the Pharaoh have been found in Egypt, proving that Babylonian was the rulino- lano-ua^e of that time, somewhat as Enoflish is now the dominant lanouao-e. The Persians continued to use the cuneiform system until the fourth century B.C. Libraries. — The knowledge of reading and writing was quite general among the Babylonian people. Books were numerous. About 180,000 texts have been found so far, although only a small fraction of the ancient city sites has been explored. Regular libraries were established in many cities. The most famous is the Royal Library at Nineveh, which was discovered by Layard. The books were methodically catalogued, and the people were allowed to read them. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 27 Religion. — The literature preserved on the day- books is mostly religious. Religion played almost as great a part in ancient Mesopotamia as it did in the Nile valley. While the separate districts had their local gods and superstitions, the gods of lead- ing cities, above all, those of Babylon, rose to national influence. Victorious kings made the spreading Of their religious cult their special care. Ashur, who has been mentioned as the principal deity of Nineveh, differed chiefly in name from Marduk, the city god of Babylon. These and lesser gods were all thought to be very human. They were born, lived, loved, fought, and even died, like the people on the earth. Their divinity was displayed chiefly by superior power and wisdom. Local gods were generally called Bel ( = Lord), in addition to their other names. Thus Bel Nippur was the Lord of the city of Nippur. Later Bel became also the title of a separate divinity, whose worship centered in Babylon. The Phoe- nicians, whose religion was much like that of Babylon, called the Lord ' Baal.' Hence the term Baal wor- ship is applied to all the Semitic religions of Western Asia, which differed from the Jewish belief Through the Old Testament, Baal worship has come to have the contemptible meaning of a debased cult. Babylonian Law. — Next to religious texts, different kinds of legal documents form the greatest proportion of the cuneiform tablets. The Babylonians had a minutely developed system of law, and were very careful in its observance. No marriasre and no busi- ness transaction was valid without a written contract, sealed by both parties. The Code of Hammurabi 28 ANCIENT HISTORY formed the groundwork of Babylonian legislation until the fall of the empire. The king claimed that its laws were dictated to him by a god. A few extracts from it will serve best to illustrate the condition of Babylonian society: "Clause 21. If any one has broken a hole in a house, he shall be killed and buried in front of that hole. Clause 55. If any one opens his irrigation canals to let in water, but is careless and the water floods the field of his neighbor, he shall measure out grain to the latter in proportion to the yield of the neigh- boring field. Clause 195. If a son has struck his father, his hands shall be cut off. Clause 196. If a person destroys the eye of a free-born man, his eye shall be destro3^ed. Clause 200. If a man knocks out the teeth of a man who is his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out." Architecture. — The Babylonian and Assyrian kings, like the Pharaohs, liked to show their power and resources by erecting great buildings. Their struc- tures excelled in size rather than in beauty and durability. The chief building material was sun-dried brick, which could not long resist the wash of the heavy annual rains. Most curious were the Tower Temples, which consisted of big solid terraces rising in pyramidal shape high above the plains. The Temple of the Seven Spheres, near Babylon, consisted of seven such terraces. Each was faced with glazed brick of a different color, and was sacred to one of the planets. The topmost and smallest one was covered with gold plates, and sacred to the sun. The royal palaces were very extensive, but simple in structure. Their walls were sumptuously decorated with paintings, and the gates were guarded by huge statues of winded bulls with human heads. None of BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 29 these buildings lasted very long. At present they look like hills of earth in the Mesopotamian plain, but below the protective covering the walls, pave- ments, sculptures, and inscriptions have remained untouched until the scientific inquirers of Europe brought them back to licrht. Science. — The Babylonians made some attempts at a methodical study of zoology, botany, and geography. These appear quite childish, however, beside the cor- responding modern sciences. In astronomy they were more successful. The Chaldaean astronomers in the reign of Sargon I. were already able to foretell eclipses. It is unlikely that astronomy was cultivated entirely for its own sake. The Babylonians had full faith in astrology, that old superstition, which credits the stars with the power to decide human destiny. Astronomical observations were conducted chiefly for the sake of telling fortunes through astrology. CHAPTER III THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS A. THE JEWS The Religious Aspect of Jewish History. — Jewish history stands out as a most peculiar and unique chapter in the records of humanity. The Jews were an insignificant race, small in numbers and in political influence, and during their short nationa.1 career quite overshadowed by the mighty empires to the north and south of them. And yet they have directed to a large extent the religious and intellectual development of the world. The direct influence of Egypt and Babylonia on later western nations is trifling compared with the hold which Hebrew thought and teaching has over their minds. Jewish heroes and prophets are more familiar to the average Frenchman, Englishman, or German, than are the great men of his own country. Western art and literature are permeated with images and sayings taken from the Hebrew classics. Perhaps it is no exaggeration to claim that the Jews have as large a share in the shaping of European civilization as the Greeks and Romans together. This must seem almost inexplicable to the student, when he also learns that the Jews made no inventions nor dis- coveries ; that they were not gifted artists or philosophers like the Greeks, not great warriors or law-makers, like the Romans, not enterprising merchants, like their neighbors, the Phoenicians. The Jews owq their high place in history entirely to their pure devotion to one religious ideal, the THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 31 worship of a single supreme God. Their inner develop- ment is bound up with the striving to attain and preserve a lofty monotheism, a religion which shone high above the polytheism of the surrounding peoples. Their religious enthusiasm did not take the form of missionary teaching among other people, but they jealously preserved their creed among themselves. This exclusiveness was reversed by the divinest of all the Jewish teachers, Jesus Christ. He added to the older doctrines of his forerunners the command : " Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you." He told his disciples to preach the new doctrines in all countries, and so Christianity was spread over Western Asia and the shores of the Mediterranean, until finally all Pagan creeds in the West were overthrown by the followers of Christ. Except for the teaching of Jesus Christ, Judaism would have remained a narrow though lofty doctrine, confined to a small and unfortunate race, and of interest only to the special religious inquirer. Christ's message of human brotherhood before God carried the religious traditions of the Jews into every household of the West. The Bible. — The limits of this book forbid more than a passing mention of the Jewish and Christian doctrines. But the student should bear in mind that a real understanding- of Western thouo-ht without an insight into these doctrines is impossible. An English- man might as well try to understand the customs and morals of China, without knowing anything about Confucius. The principal doctrines of Christianity are contained in the Bible, also called the Holy Scriptures. The older and larger part of the Scriptures, the 0/d Testament, embraces about three-fourths of the whole Bible. It Is divided Into thirty-nine books of different 32 ANCIENT HISTORY length, and of widely different contents. The first one, Genesis, deals with the orio-in and early history of the Hebrew race, and is mostly mythical. The following books tell about the misfortunes of the Jews in Egypt, their miraculous delivery from bondage by the law-giver Moses, and their migration to the land promised by the God Yahveh.^ They also contain detailed moral and relio-ious laws and reo^ulations. After these Books of Moses come several books which are mainly historical. The book of Psalms contains songs in praise of God, that of Proverbs is a collection of wise and popular sayings. Most of the remaining books are ascribed to oreat relisfious reformers and teachers, called the ' Prophets, ' of whom Isaiah was the most notable. The Old Testament was written in the Hebrew lanofuaoe. It was not col- lected at one time, but grew together gradually out of elements differing widely in authorship. The Jews believed the whole Old Testament to be the word of God, inspired by Him directly in His holy prophets. The New Testament was written in Greek some time after the death of Christ. It does not form part of the Jewish Scriptures, but is accepted only by the Christians. Its principal contents are : First, the four Gospels, or histories of Christ, which record also his teaching ; secondly, the ' Epistles ' of the apostle ^ Paul to various Christian communities. In these ' This is the Hebrew name ; in English it is rendered as 'Jehovah.' "'A-pos'tle' originally meant a 'messenger.' The twelve disciples of Christ were called the apostles, and the same title was given to other famous teachers of early Christianity. THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 33 letters the Christian doctrines were further developed and explained. The Country of the Jews lies in the western part of Syria, As a whole it is called Palestine or ' Holy- Land,' but formerly the northern part was distinguished as Is7^ael, with the capital Samaria, and the southern as Jiidah, with the capital Jerusalem. Most of Palestine is arid, and only fit for pasture. Parallel with the coast run two mountain ranges, the Lebanon and Antilebanon, which in ancient times were covered with valuable timber. The Jordan river runs through the fruitful valley between these mountains into the Dead Sea, a strongly saline lake lying 1 300 feet below ocean level. The original inhabitants of this country were the Canaanites, and the Holy Land is often referred to by its older name Canaan. The Early History of the Jews cannot be exactly determined, and has led to many controversies among Western scholars. Formerly the stories of Genesis and Exodus, the first two books of the Bible, were generally accepted as exact truth. According to them the founder of the race was Abraham, who wandered from Chaldaea to Syria. Joseph, one of his descend- ants, rose to be a leading official at the Egyptian court, and helped the Jews to settle in Egypt. Later Pharaohs oppressed them, until they were delivered by the law-giver Moses, who led them toward Canaan. After many miracles, and after having wandered for forty years in the desert, the ' children of Israel ' finally began the actual conquest of Canaan. Every detail of this wonderful story is implanted in the memories of Western school children. Modern historical criticism G.H. c 34 ANCIENT HISTORY must reject most of it as mythical. Neither Baby- lonian nor Egyptian inscriptions have so far furnished the contemporary evidence needed to sift fact from fable. Two !Points of View. — Besides the historical point of view, briefly indicated above, there is the theological point of view, the followers of which are perhaps still more numerous. lyTheos = (jodi\ hence theology = study of religion.) Conser- vative theologians claim that every word of the Bible must be believed as divine truth, and that doubt is wrong. Liberal theologians give natural explanations for the miracles, but otherwise uphold the reliability of the first Books of Moses. A full agreement between historians and theologians has not yet been found ; hence the student may hear or read statements opposed to the critical conclusion of the preceding paragraph. National History. — The conquest of Canaan was followed by a period of inner dissension, until Saul^ during- the eleventh century B.C., succeeded in uniting the tribes into one kingdom. The national unity did not last lone. King- David for a while lifted his people to the first place in Syria, but under his son Solomon signs of decay already were visible. Solomon (about looo B.C.) was famous for the splendour of his court and for his wisdom. The saying, 'As wise as Solomon,' is still current. Even at this time the Hebrew kingdom was very small. On the east were hostile Syrian tribes, while the sea-coast was under Phoenician control. The royal palace of Solomon and the famous temple at Jerusalem were largely built by Phoenician artisans. Soon after the death of the wise king, hostile parties split the country into two parts, henceforth distinguished as the kingdoms of Israel and of Judah. The Assyrian Sargon destroyed THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 35 Samaria, the capital of Israel, in 722. Most of the population was deported, and its place taken by foreign colonists. The kingdom of Judah, though in constant danger from Assyrians and Egyptians, con- tinued to enjoy a national existence until 586 B.C., when Nebuchadnezzar led the people off into Baby- lonian captivity. Since then Palestine has always been a dependency or province of the successive powers ruling over Western Asia. Scattering of the Jews. — Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian empire, allowed the exiled Jews to return home, and to rebuild their national temple in Jerusalem. Under the Roman dominion, during the first and second century after Christ, the Jews rose in obstinate revolt against the Roman governors. The Romans had not been cruel to them, but wished them, like all other Roman subjects, to conform to the state religion. This the Jews refused to do, as they could not, according to their faith, worship any other god besides their own. Thus the religious enthusiasm of the people brought about their destruction. Jerusalem was twice destroyed, and the Jews were scattered all over the Western World. They have never again possessed any country of their own, but lived as strangers in all countries. In modern times most states have orranted to them full rights of citizenship. B. THE PHOENICIANS The Land and the People. — Phoenicia was the ancient name of a coast strip of Syria about two hundred miles in length, and from three to seventeen miles in 36 ANCIENT HISTORY width. The little country was most favourably situated between the Lebanon mountains and the Mediterranean. The soil was of great fertility, but could of course nourish only a small population on its limited area. The coast was rocky and broken, affording- by its many bays and islands numerous safe harbours. To these local advantages for ocean trade was added the central position of the country between Egypt and Mesopotamia, which made Phoenicia the natural emporium^ for exchanges between those ancient seats of civilization. The Phoenicians made the fullest use of their oppor- tunities since the earliest recorded times. They were the famous trading nation of antiquity. Commerce and industry were their sole aim and pursuit. In all other matters they were content to copy their neigh- bors. Being of Semitic race, they had a language similar to the Babylonian. From the Babylonians also they took over their religion and most of their culture, in so far as it was not based on Egyptian models. When the Jews conquered Palestine, the Phoenicians were already in possession of the coast, and were called Canaanites by the former. Phoenician History. — The Phoenicians never formed a single nation. Each city with its adjoining farm lands constituted a little state for itself. The most powerful city was at times recognized as ruling over all the others, without, however, interfering in their internal affairs. This leadership fell first to Sidon, and later to Tyi^e. The Phoenicians had no interest ^ Em-por-ium, a town with much commerce ; the commercial centre of a country. THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 37 in history, and left no literature or other historic records. What little is known about them is gleaned from the records of the various nations which came in contact with them. The Old Testament mentions Hiram, king of Tyre, who made a league with Solomon, and sent him Phoenician artisans and materials for constructing the temple in Jerusalem. The Phoenicians did not value political independence, but submitted quite readily to foreign masters, pro- vided that their trade was not injured. Hence Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian records refer to them as tributaries of these respective powers at different times. Later they fell under Persian, then under Greek, and finally under Roman authority. Their sea power had been almost destroyed before the days of Alexander the Great. Phoenician Trade. — The Phoenician merchants pene- trated by sea and land to all parts of the Western world, where there was any profit to be made. Their caravans went to Assyria, Arabia, and Egypt. They traded with India in the East, with Spain, Britain, and even the Baltic coast in the West. Wherever they went, they established trading posts for local centres of exchano-e. As their vessels were small, they also needed many harbors for refuge and rest on distant voyages. Cyprus, the Black Sea coast, Malta, Sicily, and Spain were all occupied before 1000 B.C. The Phoenicians . never tried to conquer these places, but only settled for trade. When they engaged in war, it was for the protection of commerce. Silver from Spain, tin from Britain, gold, ivory, and spices from the East, various manufactures from 38 ANCIENT HISTORY Egypt and Babylon, were their principal staples. Most profitable of all was the slave trade. In early times many slaves were stolen by piracy and kid- napping. Later the Phoenician slave dealers followed in the train of Assyrian or Babylonian armies, and bought for next to nothing the captives, whom they sold at hioh fio-ures on the slave markets. o o The Phoenicians as Carriers of Civilization. — The great historic merit of the Phoenicians lies in this, that they carried with their wares the arts and inven- tions of Egypt and Mesopotamia. While selling the products of those countries in Greece and Italy, they could not help teaching the buyers many new ideas at the same time. Most valuable was their dissemi- nation of alphabetical writing. It is not yet certain whether the Phoenicians borrowed the alphabet from Egypt or from Babylonia. In any case, they used it for their accounts, and so taught it to the Greeks. Through the latter it has been handed on, with slight changes, to the later European countries. CHAPTER IV THE PERSIANS The Home of the Persians is the high table-land of Iran. In prehistoric times they had migrated from some other part of Eurasia, where they had been connected with tribes of the same Aryan racQ and language. The approximate date of their con- quest of Iran cannot be determined. They arrived there as nomads, and had not yet assumed the habits of a long settled race, when they suddenly rose to be the rulers of Western Asia. The centre of the Iranian table-land is an immense salty desert, unfit to support any kind of life. On all sides of the plateau are wild mountain ranges, interspersed with dry steppes and fruitful valleys. There lived the first Aryans who founded an empire in the West, the people who produced Zoroaster and Cyrus the Great. Zoroaster. — That the early Persians were a people of superior character, is proved by the rise among them of Zoroastrianism. This system of religion and philosophy is ascribed to the sage Zoroaster, who lived about looo B.C. He saw all about him the striking contrast between good and evil things : between the blooming valleys and the deadly desert, THE PERSIANS 43 between health and disease, between virtue and vice, between orderly government and the anarchy of ravaoine nomads. These observations led him to teach that the world was governed by two forces. The good god of light he called Ormzizd, and the evil eod of darkness Akriman. The latter created all evil passions, poisonous animals, and the various destructive forces of nature, and fought with them against the good creations of Ormuzd. The duty of every man was to aid in the overthrow of the evil god by practising virtue, and by laboring in every possible way to promote the welfare of man- kind. Agriculture was sacred, because every foot of land reclaimed from wilderness extended the dominion of Ormuzd. After a lonor struo-o-le, so Zoroaster taught, evil would be finally overthrown, and good would rule over all the world. Much of this system had grown up among the Persians before Zoroaster, but he reformed and expanded the old teachings, somewhat as Confucius based his doctrines on the sayings of the ancient sages. The Persians kept Zoroastrianism as their religion until the middle of the seventh century a.d., when it was driven out by the Mohammedans. The adherents of Zoroaster, who fled before the Moham- medans to India, and there kept the faith almost unchanged to the present day, are called Parsees. Cyrus the Great. — During the later years of the Assyrian empire (before 600 B.C.) the Medes, under King Cyaxares, were masters in Iran, and the Per- sians were their chief vassals. An alliance with Babylonia, and the resulting destruction of Nineveh, 42 ANCIENT HISTORY divided the control of Western Asia between the Medes and the Babylonians. Only the western half of Asia Minor formed the independent kingdom of Lydia. This state was rapidly growing in wealth and power at the same time, while the Median empire was expanding over Iran, and while Nebuchadnezzar was seizing the rest of Western Asia. Lydia reached the height of its prosperity under Croesus, a king of such fabulous wealth that his name still stands as a synonym for an immensely rich man. His capital was Sardis, the principal city in Asia Minor. Among his subjects were also the Greeks settled along the Aegaean coast of Asia Minor. When Lydia was annexed to the Persian empire, these Greeks became Persian subjects, an event which proved to be of momentous consequence for both parties. Only fifty years after the fall of Nineveh, the dominion of the Medes was suddenly overthrown by the Persian king Cyrtcs. Having humbled the Median king, this great general quickly brought the neighboring countries under Persian authority, and frightened the rulers of Lydia and Babylonia by his conquests. The boundary between Lydia and the new Persian dominions was formed by the river Halys, which flows from the middle of Asia Minor into the Black Sea. Croesus struck the first blow in a struggle which seemed inevitable, by leading an army over the Halys. But the superior generalship of Cyrus quickly ended the campaign. Lydia was incorporated in the Persian empire, and Sardis henceforth was the seat of a Persian governor. At the close of Baby- lonian history it has already been mentioned that THE PERSIANS 43 Mesopotamia also fell under the rule of Cyrus. In the East his conquests included modern Afghanistan. Cyrus well deserved to be called the "Great." His victories were not stained by Assyrian cruelty. He was a kind and just ruler. He allowed the Jews to return to their home country, and to conduct religious services in their restored temple at Jerusalem. All accounts agree in regarding him as the best and most fatherly of the many despotic kings who have reigned over Western Asia. Darius I. — After the death of Cyrus the Great, the Persian empire continued for three hundred years, until 330 B.C. It produced one more truly great man, Darms /., who was king during forty years before and after 500 B.C. When Darius ascended the throne, the vast empire was shaken by rebellions in every quarter. These the king quelled promptly and energetically. Then he led an army into India, and made a Persian province of the Punjab. Some years later he crossed the Hellespont and the lower Danube, and penetrated far into what is now Southern Russia. There lived the nomadic Scythians, fierce barbarians, who had long been a terror to the countries south of them by their cruel invasions. Though Darius could not force these horsemen to battle, because they kept retreating before him, he yet inspired them with a fear of Persian power. On the return march he left a general in Europe, who subjected Thrace, s. country not far north of Greece. Persian Government, — Darius is best known for his Organization of the Persian Government. Until 44 ANCIENT HISTORY his time, conquered countries kept their own local administration, and were only watched by garrisons of soldiers. Whenever a governor of a province felt strong enough, he would stop sending tribute, and declare himself independent. Hence arose the numerous rebellions and the sudden changes of government. A strong and ready army was the only guarantee of permanent rule. Darius ended this state of disorder by some wise innovations. He appointed three high officials for every pro- vince : a general, a governor, called satrap, and a secretary. All three were personally responsible to the king. The general commanded the provincial forces, but depended on the satrap for the pay of the soldiers. The secretary was also a kind of spy, who reported to the Great King at once if his col- leagues seemed to plan any treachery. On receipt of an order from the king, they could be put to death without trial. A province was called a satrapyy and the form of government is referred to as satrapal. The system was a step forward, but still very faulty, if compared with modern government. There was no proper taxation. Each satrap sent large annual payments in money or in kind {i.e. horses, catde, cereals, etc.) to the Great King. The heavy expenses of the three high officers and their retinues were also pressed out of the people of the province. No official had any salary, but was assigned some district or city from which he could " squeeze " his own revenue. The two and a half centuries following the death THE PERSIANS 45 of Darius proved the value of his reforms. His successors grew steadily weaker and lazier through luxury. The kings were regarded like gods, and no one was given access to their persons except by permission of officers called their 'eyes and ears.' The most degenerating institution was the royal harem. It brouo-ht eunuchs and favorite wives o into undue power, so that important state affairs were decided by petty palace intrigues. The later kings, who preferred the pleasures of their palace to the arduous duties of efficient government, gradu- ally became the tools of court favorites. Before Darius, such a condition would have led to a prompt fall of the empire. But his system held the wide realm together, long after it had become corrupt in all its members. Alexander the Great found the seemingly mighty Persia an easy prey for his small Greek army. CHAPTER V THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES Introduction. — The ancient Western world was grouped around the Mediterranean. Whatever Africa and Europe boasted of civiHzation was to be found within easy reach of that sea. A hnk with the East was afforded by the countries which enjoyed sea or land communication with India, viz. by Egypt, Phoenicia, the Mesopotamian countries, and Persia. The bold traders who crossed the Indian Ocean in quest of silk stuffs, spices, ivory, and other eastern merchandize, also brought back glowing tales of Indian riches. Compared with later times, however, the Indian trade was insignificant, and until the fourth century before Christ India remained a fabulous country to most of the Mediterranean peoples. Ancient Indian history took a course apart from that of the West. India was a world apart, shut off both from its western and its eastern neighbors by huge mountain barriers and by dangerous seas. The countries east of India remained quite unknown to the ancient West until the time of the Roman Empire. For travellers who could barely brave the journey to India, the far greater distances and dangers of a voyage to China were insurmountable. The civilization radiating out from the basin of the Huang Ho (Yellow River) had for centuries taken root throughout eastern Asia, before even an echo of Greece or Rome reached China. Even between India and China there was little intercourse. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 47 In ancient times, therefore, history ran in three sepa- rate channels : the Mediterranean, the Indian, and the Far Eastern. The narrative in this book will show how the three streams gradually approached one another until they united in modern times into the vast current of the world's history. The unification of the modern world is almost entirely the work of the Mediterranean and Germanic races. To their history the present book must be chiefly devoted, while the eastern peoples can be included only in so far as is indispensable for an understanding of the modern world. I. INDIA. Indian Geography cannot be treated here, but should be reviewed by every student who wishes to gain an elementary grasp of the country's history. The chief determining factors for the history of the people are : (i) The barrier of the Himalaya Mountains and their outrunners. Passes in the north-east and north- west have allowed invaders to descend on the country. Notably through the Khaibar Pass and other routes from Afghanistan into the Punjab hosts of Aryans, Turks, and Mongols have at various times overrun the Indian plains. (2) The fertile plain watered by the Indus and its tributaries on the western, the Ganges on the northern and eastern side of the country. Here have always lain the wonderful cities which were the fountain heads of civilization amid a teemine farming population. (3) The three-cornered table-land known as the Deccan, comprising most of the southern peninsula. 48 ANCIENT HISTORY Its mountains have protected the ancient native population against invading enemies. (4) The Hot Climate. — The tropical or subtropical heat reiofnino- in most of India has tended to enervate the inhabitants. Invadino- races coming; from the cooler mountain regions lost their original fighting qualities in the hothouse air of the plains. Hence they had less power of resistance against fresh enemies cominsf centuries later. The Original Inhabitants of India. — In prehistoric times struggles for the soil of India went on between various dark-skinned races. Many of them were naked savages who lived as hunters in the forests. Others had made some advance toward civilization, practised agriculture and built walled cities. Remnants of these ancient races are still found in the remoter mountain valleys of the Deccan and of the Himalayas. So numerous, in fact, are the tribes encountered in India that it has aptly been called a huge ethnological museum. A scientific study of their languages has proved them to belong to three stocks. First, the Tibeto-Burman tribes are found along the slopes of the Himalayas. Secondly, the Kolarians live chiefly in the mountains of the north-eastern Deccan. Thirdly, the Dravidians possess the southern half of the Deccan. The Aryan Conquest of India. — At some period before 2000 B.C. white-skinned invaders from the north-west entered the Punjab, and gradually made themselves masters of all Northern India. These Aryans came from the same old home, somewhere in Western Asia or in Europe, whence the ancestors of the Greeks, THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 49 Romans, and Teutons had started on their careers of conquest. They had the same large eyes and prominent noses as their Western cousins. Even to-day the Aryan Hindus, though browned by many centuries of exposure to a burning sun, still have the features of Western Europeans rather than of Mongolians or of neoroid races. Common Origin of European and Indian Languages and Religions. — The kinship of Indians and Europeans is also traceable in their literature and religion. Many common words are almost identical in Latin or German on the one hand, and in Indian speech on the other. Sanskrit, the ancient literary language of the Indian Aryans, bears a close resemblance to the chief European languages. The gods worshipped by the early Indians differed little from the divinities of the Greeks and Romans. In India and on the Mediterranean alike the original religion was a nature worship, in which the heaven, the sea, the clouds, the fire, and other natural phenomena were adored as personal beings. The Sanskrit word ' deva ' (the shining one), mean- ing a god, is found again in the Latin ' deus ' (god) and in the English ' Divin-ity.' The Vedas. — Our knowledge of the prehistoric Aryans is based on a collection of religious and legendary poems called the Vedas. The oldest of these, the Rig-Veda, was composed about 1400 b.c, while the Aryans were still fighting with the dark-skinned aborigines. Aside from their literary beauty, the Vedas reveal much about the language, the religion, the customs, and laws of the ancient Indians. Rise of the Four Castes. — Some centuries after the Aryan conquest there arose that caste system which has characterized India to the present day. The G.H. D- 50 ANCIENT HISTORY families who knew all the Vedic hymns by heart became a hereditary priestly class, known as the Brahmans. Those who exchanged the once honor- able work of farming for a purely military life formed the warrior caste, called Rajputs or Kshattrias. The free Aryan farmers formed a third caste by the name of Vaisyas, while the subject non-Aryan tribes, obliged to work as serfs for the ruling race, were the despised caste of the Sudras. The Brahmans. — From Vedic times until the present day the Brahmans have stood at the head of Indian society as its intellectual and spiritual leaders. A wonderful treasury of literature, philosophy, and religion has been given by them to India, and has from there influenced the religions of half the world. The Brahmans at an early time reached a level of intelligence at which they could no longer believe in the many gods of the Vedic nature worship. Long thought convinced them that there was only one god- head, the creator of all things seen in this world. They did not conceive the divinity as a personal being, but rather as a principle, or first cause, which could be seen at work everywhere in the universe. This principle they called Brahma, whence their relio'ion bears the name Brahmanism. Its believers had a very high standard of moral conduct. For the mass of the common people Brahmanism was too difficult to understand, and the priests did not disturb the popular belief in many gods. Life of Buddha.— During the sixth century before Christ a number of religious reformers tried to im- prove Brahmanism. The most successful of all these THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 51 teachers was Gmitama Bttddha, the founder of Buddhism. This reHgion flourished in India side by side with the older Brahmanism for over a thousand years. Although most of India was lost to it about a thousand years ago, Buddhism still has more believers than any other religion in the world. Gautama was the only son of the king ruling over the state of Kapilavastu. He was thoughtfully in- clined from boyhood, but proved himself a brave warrior in his youth. As a man of thirty he gave up all the splendors and enjoyments of his princely position, left his wife and son, and hid as a poor begging monk in a wild cave. During six years of solitude in the forest he sought for a doctrine which could bring happiness to mankind. Like most of the earnest Brahman hermits, he tried to gain religious merit by fasting and by undergoing bodily discomfort and pain. At last he found the right way, and went forth to teach his new faith. Thereafter he was called Buddha, meaning 'The Enlightened.' He preached to the people in many parts of India until his eightieth year. When he again entered his fathers royal palace, he came as a wandering preacher in faded robes, with a begging bowl in his hand. His own wife became one of the first Buddhist nuns. He is said to have died under a fig tree — the spot is still sacred to all Buddhists — in the year 543 b.c. Buddha's Doctrine. — Like his predecessors, Buddha taught that human life must be full of sorrow and pain, and that we should strive to get ri.d of its miseries. But he taught a new way of gaining happi- ness. He discouraged the practice of self-torture 52 ANCIENT HISTORY followed by the Brahman hermits. He told his followers that perfection could be gained by leading a good life, rather than by sacrifices to the gods. His doctrine was above all one of love and mercy. The poor Sudras, the outcasts who were excluded from the benefits of Brahmanism, were welcomed by Buddha with the same loving kindness as the proud Brahmans. The hia-hest state man can reach, according- to Buddha, is one of perfect rest. It can be attained only if the soul leaves the earth and all its cares behind, and grows one with the great soul of the universe. This state of eternal rest or unconscious- ness is called Nirvana. Like many other high religious conceptions, it cannot be clearly explained, beino- more a matter of feelino- than of thouo-ht. The three great duties of every person who hopes to attain Nirvana are : control over self, kindness to other men, and reverence for the life of all living creatures. Buddhism has no personal God who rules the world, and rewards and punishes men, like the God of the Christians or Mohammedans, The Spread of Buddhism. — The religion of Buddha was soon corrupted by all sorts of ceremonies and even idolatries which appealed to the ignorant masses, for whom the pure doctrine was too lofty. About 250 B.C. the Indian king Asoka called together a great Council for the reform of the faith. The tenets of Asoka, often called Southern Buddhism, are still observed by the inhabitants of Ceylon and Burma. Another famous council was held about 40 a.d. by the Indian king Kanishka, who belonged to a dynasty THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 53 of Tibetan origin. Kanishka's revision of the sacred books forms the Northern Canon of Buddhism. A.D, 65 the Chinese emperor Ming-ti sent ambas- sadors to India to inquire into the Buddhist faith. They returned with some priests, under whose guid- ance the new religion was established in the capital. Since the rule of the Yuan dynasty, in the thirteenth century, Chinese Buddhism has split into two sects, the worshippers of /^9 ( = Buddha) and the Lamaists. Lamaism has its home in Tibet, where the Buddhist faith was introduced during the seventh century. It has a well-organized Church under the headship of the Dalai Lama in Lassa, a spiritual ruler whose office is closely analogous to that of the Pope in Rome. The ceremonies of Lamaism, which also resemble those of the Roman Church, have nothing to do with the teaching of Buddha, but are of later growth. The Mongol tribes of Inner Asia are zealous supporters of Lamaism. Their conversion has had far-reaching political conse- quences, in that it has softened their former warHke spirit. So long as nearly every Mongol family supports in idleness a Lama monk, no modern Jengis Khan is likely to threaten the world. From China Buddhism also spread to Korea, and, in the sixth century A.D., to Japan. The Greeks in India (327 to 161 b.c). — In 327 b.c. Alexander the Great marched into India (see ch. x.). He made alliances with native princes, founded cities, and left Greek garrisons. Some of Alexander's suc- cessors kept up relations with Indian rulers, but the Greek influence was not strons: enoutrh to leave a permanent mark on the country. 54 , ANCIENT HISTORY II. CHINA. Chinese Geography shows such a variety of soil and climate, that even the most rudimentary outline of it would far exceed the limits of this book. China enjoys the finest natural waterways in the world, great arteries of trade, which have been extended by canals. The easy interchange of products between the north and the south on the one hand, and between the coast provinces and the interior on the other, made China practically a self-sufficing country. She had little need of foreig-n o-oods. But the main reason for China's isolation lay in the high mountain ranges and vast deserts which fence off her western and northern frontiers. The long coast line, so open to attack from modern fleets, had no enemies to fear before the Portuguese found the sea way to the Far East. To sum up : the geographical conditions of China were such as, first, to favor the growth of a great civilized nation, and secondly, to isolate that nation from other civilized peoples living farther west. The Chinese People lived in the middle valley of the Yellow River nearly five thousand years ago. Whether they were aborigines or invaders from the north-west is uncertain, though the former theory is probably correct. By force of arms, and through their superiority in all the arts of peace, the Chinese gradually annexed all the territories occupied by the surrounding native races. The latter, related by race to the Chinese, were finally absorbed by inter- marriage. The similarity of the conquering and the conquered races explains why the present population 56 ANCIENT HISTORY of China is so remarkably uniform in appearance throughout that vast empire. In this respect, China is the exact opposite of India, and several small European states can show a greater diversity of population than the Middle Kingdom, which counts 400 million inhabitants, or about the same number as all Europe. The Earliest History of China is preceded by a mythical and a half-mythical period, when rulers of heroic strength and wonderful virtue are said to have per- formed miraculous labors for the benefit of mankind. Reliable historical information can be extracted from the annals of the Shu-ckino- reachino- back to 2300 B.C. At that period China was a feudal state occupying approximately the territory of present China north of the Yangtse river. A well-organized government and an extensive knowledge of agricul- ture, silk growing, and mining, prove that many centuries of development must already have been passed. The feudal system was perfected by Wtt TVajig, the founder of the CAow Dynasty (b.c. 1122-249). Wu Wanof is still famous through his work for the welfare of the people. He founded schools through- out his dominions, and established infirmaries for the aged, proofs of a humane statesmanship which cannot at this early period be paralleled in any other part of the world. But the independent authority given to the great feudal lords tended to make them dis- obedient to their royal master. Like the later kings of mediaeval Germany, the rulers of the Chow Dynasty gradually lost all control over the turbulent THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 57 nobility, and the country was thrown into a chronic state of civil war. Confucius. — The troubles springing from internal misrule have often led to the rise of reformers who tried by their teaching to bring back better times. Such a reformer was Confucius (Kung Fu-tze). He was born in the year 551 B.C., in the feudal state of Lu, in the present province of Shantung. He says himself that at fifteen his mind was set on learn- ing, and at thirty he stood firm in his convictions. In his twenty-second year he began his career as a teacher. In 501 the Duke of Lu made Confucius governor of a town, and soon afterwards the whole government of Lu was conducted for three months according to his counsel. Of this period it is said : " Dishonesty and dissoluteness were ashamed and hid their heads. Loyalty and good faith became the characteristics of men, and chastity and docility those of the women." A neighboring ruler, jealous of the prosperity of Lu, corrupted the duke by a present of beautiful courtesans and fine horses. The counsels of Confucius were no longer wanted, and he went away to wander about in many states, followed everywhere by a band of devoted disciples. When he was about sixty-five, he once described himself by saying : "I am a man who in his eager pursuit of knowledge forgets his food, and in the joy of its attainment forgets his sorrows, and who does not perceive that old age is coming on." The last years of the sage were spent in his native state of Lu, in study and literary labors. The CJiun Cliiu (Spring and Autumn Annals), the only classic written by himself, 58 ANCIENT HISTORY which was a history of Lu from 722-481 B.C., was pro- bably written at this time. The Master died in 479 B.C. Confucius was, as he said, ' a transmitter and not a maker.' He sought to guide his fellow-men by holding up to them the wisdom and the virtue of the ancients. His teaching was purely ethical and practical, confined to the daily life of man as a member of the state and of the family. He spoke little of God, and he avoided talking about the supernatural. For this reason it is often said that he cannot be called a religious teacher, but only a moral philosopher, and that Confucianism is a system of morality rather than a religion. Influence of Confucianism. — Among the virtues demanded by the Confucian ethics, propriety, rever- ence for tradition, and filial piety are the most important. These precepts have moulded Chinese society for more than two thousand years. No other reformer has held such absolute sway over a great part of humanity for such a long period. To the influence of Confucius must be ascribed the unparalleled length of existence enjoyed by the Chinese state. Pure family relations, dutiful be- havior of children towards parents, and respect for authority, have all worked together to preserve the ancient Chinese polity. On the other hand, the dis- like of innovations prevented progress, so that the state of Chinese society described by Arabian travellers a thousand years ago is almost identical with its present condition. Chinese Literature after Confucius. — Among the fol- lowers of Confucius the most renowned is Mencius (Meng-tze), a moral philosopher who lived from 372 to 289 B.C. His writings rank next to those THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 59 of the Great Sage among the Classics on which Chinese education is based. Excepting Buddhistic influences from India, Chinese literature is a purely native product. It is by far the most voluminous of all oriental literatures, being especially rich and reliable in the field of history and geography. The early invention of printing (about 600 A.D.), made cheap books accessible to all save the poorest. The most valued treasures of Chinese literature are the Five Classics and the Four Books. The first of the Five Classics is the Shu Ching^ or Book of History, consisting of ancient documents which were collected and edited by Confucius. The Sliih Ching, or Book of Odes, was also preserved by the Great Sage. It is specially valuable for the insight it gives into the manners and customs of the Chinese before Confucius. Next comes the / Ching, or Book of Changes, containing a curious system of philosophy, which has always been highly esteemed by native scholars, although no one can really understand it. It is followed by the Li Chi, or Book of Rites, and lastly by the above-mentioned Spring and Autumn Annals. The Four Books begin with the Lun Yu, or Confucian Analects, in which the Master's disciples have preserved many details of his teaching and of his personality. Here is found the Golden Rule, " What you would not others should do unto you, do not unto them." Five hundred years later Christ formulated the same rule positively : " As you would that men should do to you, do you also to them likewise." After the Analects comes the Book of Mencius, the ' Second Holy One,' whose genius brought about the final triumph of Confucianism. Chinese Religions. — The oldest religion was aizcestor worship, which still forms the foundation of national 6o ANCIENT HISTORY religious life. Together with it went in earliest times a well-defined nature ivo7'ship. In this the Heaven (T'ien or Shang-ti) was the highest divinity, followed by Earth (Ti). From these two all other things orio-inated. Amono- a host of lesser divinities, the five sacred mountains and four sacred streams were most venerated. There was no priestly caste. In the sixth century B.C. two new religions arose. Taoism, based on the teaching of the philosopher Lao-tze, was originally a high but mystical faith. Through mixture with the old nature worship, with Buddhistic rites, and with all sorts of priestly fraud, it degenerated into a wild medley of superstitions. Confucianism, the orthodox faith, is a system of moral philosophy, which has received a religious stamp through adopting ancestor worship, and through the veneration of Confucius. Buddhism spread slowly before the fourth century B.C. Having adopted many old religious practices, until little of the original faith of Buddha was left, it became the prevailing religion among the masses. Foundation of the United Chinese Empire by Shih Hwang-ti (b.c. 246-221). — The Chow Dynasty, and with it the feudal system, lasted for nearly nine centuries. It was a period rich in great men, among whom Lao-tze, Confucius, and Mencius were pre- eminent. So long, however, as the 'Middle Kingdom' of the Chow rulers was surrounded by rival feudal principalities, the political strength of the people was wasted by internal feuds. Only by union could the country attain its highest national development. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 6i The task of welding the feudal states into a single nation was completed by the renowned Chung or Skill Hwang-ti, second ruler of the T sin Dynasty. He had the genius of a statesman and of- a general, and he knew how to make use of able men for his purpose of becoming sole ruler of China. He had a will power which could rise to acts of savage cruelty against those who opposed him. Chung wished to break with the past, and to remodel the whole government. He abolished the fiefs, and divided the empire into thirty-six provinces, ruled each by three officials directly responsible to him. The governor or viceroy, the general, and the treasurer, who at the present day are the heads of the provincial admini- stration, correspond closely to the officials created by Shih-Hwang-ti. The Persian government, as instituted by Darius, had a similar arrangement. Instead of the title 'Wang' (King), Chung assumed that of Hwang-ti (Sovereign and Divine Ruler). The Great Wall. — To check the invasions of the Huns, the emperor ordered the building of the Great Wall. Parts of this remarkable structure had already been reared by princes of the northern border, and were now joined into one continuous fortification, nearly 2000 miles in length. The Great Wall is the largest building in the world. But it did not prevent the Huns from continuing their invasions. The Burning of the Classics. — Shih Hwang-ti was strongly opposed by the conservative literati, who advocated a return to the old feudal regime. They constantly quoted the Classics in support of their policy. To silence the voice of the past, the emperor ordered that all classical books, and notably the 62 ANCIENT HISTORY works of Confucius, should be burned. The bar- barous order was enforced with the utmost rigor. Fortunately many scholars knew the Classics by heart, so that the books could later be re-written from memory. Shih Hwang-ti's name has deservedly been despised by all Chinese scholars. But his misdeeds cannot T..E On W ALL Oi Cr.INA. rob him of the merit of having been the true founder of united China. As such he ranks among the greatest builders of empire in all history. The Han Dynasty (b.c. 206- a.d. 25) and the Later Han Dynasty (a.d. 25-221). — Under the weak suc- cessor of Shih Hwang-ti the empire fell again into disorder. But the union was quickly re-established by Liu- Pang, known by the dynastic title Kau Ti, as the founder of the Han Dynasty. The fruits of union were now reaped by a vast extension of sovereignty to the south and west. The constant THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 63 attacks of the Hiungnu (Huns) finally induced the imperial generals to attack the barbarians in their own territory. Chinese armies invaded Central Asia, and by their victories extended the boundaries of the empire to the shores of the Caspian Sea. Chinese colonists were settled in the north-western border lands, and proved a better barrier against the nomads than the Great Wall. The period of the Han Dynasty was one of general prosperity and of intellectual activity. In memory of that glorious time the Chinese still like to call them- selves ' Men of Han.' The T'ang^ Dynasty (a.d. 618-908). — During the four centuries after the Han Dynasty China suffered from internal wars and foreio^n invasions. The Huns finally conquered the northern parts of China, and set up a kingdom of their own, called Wei, which lasted from A.D. 386 to 534. A new era of prosperity came to China with the T'ang Dynasty. Wells Williams^ says : " During the two hundred and eighty-seven years they held the throne China was probably the most civilized country on earth ; the darkest days of the West, when Europe was wrapped in the ignorance and degradation of the Middle Ages, formed the brightest era of the East. They exercised a humanizing effect on all the surrounding countries, and led their inhabitants to see the benefits and understand the management of a government where the laws were above the officers." The second emperor of this family, known by the title of Tai-tsung (Our Exalted Ancestor), will ever 'Author of an excellent work on China, entitled The Middle Kingdom. 64 ANCIENT HISTORY be reverenced for his wisdom and humanity. He encouraged learning, spread education, and caused historical records to be drawn up with the greatest care. He made personal tours through the provinces to see the condition of the people, and drew up an improved code of laws. Though he preferred the quiet life of a scholar, he also won glory by his prowess and his generalship. The Turkish tribes of Central Asia were subjugated, and the confines of the empire were again extended to the Persian border and the Caspian Sea. The conquest of Corea, begun by Tai-tsung, was completed by his successor. Ambas- sadors from Indian states, from Persia, and from the Byzantine emperor Theodosius, came to Tai-tsung's court to express the friendship of their sovereigns. The Contrast between Chinese and European History. — The close of the Tang Dynasty brings us to the tenth century a.d., far Into the period reckoned as the Middle Ages of Western history. For China the history of a thousand years ago must be considered as modern. Since the overthrow of feudalism, about two thousand one hundred years ago, China has not experienced any deep-seated changes which can be compared to the transformation of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. Modern and mediaeval European conditions are so different that they can hardly be compared. Chinese conditions in the nine- teenth and the ninth century are so much alike that it would be difficult to find many points of difference. The Government of China. — The Chinese state is ordered somewhat like a great family. The Emperor is considered as the father and mother of his subjects, and has over them G.H. 66 ANCIEiNT HISTORY the absolute authority which the father used to wield in the families of many ancient countries. He is the law-giver, the judge, and the high priest of the nation. Just as the head of a family sacrifices to the ancestors in the name of all its members, so the Emperor brings a yearly sacrifice to Heaven in the name of the whole nation. A government of this kind is called 2i patriarchal monarchy (/«//'= father, archal = ruling). The earliest governments of Greece, Rome, Judaea, and other countries were patriarchal monarchies. Nowhere else has this ancient institution been preserved so long and with so little change as in China. In practice, of course, the Emperor cannot personally regulate the affairs of 400 million subjects. As early as 2000 years B.C., there was a strictly graded hierarchy of officials to carry on the royal government. The officials are appointed directly or in- directly by the Emperor, and owe their first appointment to a thorough knowledge of the Classics, the candidates being selected by regular literary examinations.^ Liberties of the People. — While the Chinese government is nominally an absolutism, it is far from being a despotism like that of most Oriental countries. Public opinion is respected by the officials. In purely local affairs the people enjoy a large measure o-f self-government. The heads of the families in a village elect their own headman. He guides all the corporate business of the community, settles disputes between the families, and represents the village in its dealings with the imperial officials. There is no European country, save England, in which the individual is so little interfered with by the government as in China. The Chinese Family. — The unit of Chinese society is the family rather than the single citizen. The family is the basis of the state. The rules of filial piety and of brotherly helpfulness regulate minutely the relations of the family members towards each other. All owe strict obedience to the head of the family. He has the same 'patria potestas' (in Latin, fatherly authority) which was exercised by the father ^ The reforms mentioned in the last chapter have changed the system. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 67 in earliest Rome, where he could even punish the disobedient son with death. There is, in fact, the closest resemblance between early Roman and present Chinese family law. It is mainly through the strict conservation of the family system that the Chinese state has preserved itself unchanged until the present day. Besides its admirable features, the system also has some serious drawbacks. The duty of the older toward the younger generation is little touched upon. The ethics of the family support the past, but do not help the rising generation, on whom the future depends. An industrious younger brother frequently must give up his earnings to support in idleness a crowd of older relatives. Hence the forces of conservatism have always been stronger in China than in any other country of mediaeval or modern times. The Superiority of Chinese Civilization. — The civiliza- tion of China was carried into Korea, Japan, and the states of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. What the Far East possesses in arts, literature, and philosophy is almost w^holly, directly or indirectly, the product of the Chinese genius. In two respects Chinese civiliza- tion stands superior to any other. First, in the number of people that have lived under it ; secondly, in the length of its existence. The Greek civilization of the fourth century b.c. has lived on to the present day only as one of several elements in modern Western civilization, while the Chinese civilization of the same period has continued unbroken and almost unchano-ed to the beo^inninaf of the twentieth century. III. JAPAN. The Country and the People. — Japan, called Nippon in the native tongue, consists of a chain of islands, 68 ANCIENT HISTORY large and small, stretching- from Kamchatka in the cold north to Taiwan (Formosa) in the South China Sea. The large, central group of islands, which con- stitutes Japan proper, has all the natural advantages required for the growth of a powerful, sea-faring nation. Japanese mariners sailed their ships to all the coasts of Eastern and Southern Asia. The sea protected Japan from the Tartar invasions, from which the neighboring China had to suffer. What the Great Wall could not effectively do for China, the ocean did freely for Japan. The Japanese are of Mongolian race, and seem more closely related to the Coreans than to the Chinese. They came originally from the Asiatic continent and supplanted barbarous aborigines, of whom the hairy Ainus in the northern island of Yesso are descendants. The Japanese are distinguished -above all other Asiatics by their facility in adopting and imitating foreign ideas and inventions. The Beginnings of Japanese History. — Jimmu Tenno, the first Mikado or emperor, is said to have conquered the southern part of the largest island in the year 660 B.C. He is still worshipped as the ancestor of the ruling dynasty, and Japanese chronology begins with the year of his accession. Japanese history before the Christian era is largely mixed with fable. More reliable ground is reached with the third cen- tury after Christ. At that period the empress Jingu led an expedition into Corea, and the southern part of the peninsula became tributary to Japan. Introduction of Chinese Civilization and of Buddhism. — The Corean expedition opened a new era for Japan. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 69 The Coreans stood wholly under the influence of the neighboring Chinese civilization, and they soon com- municated the industries, arts, and literature of China to their overlords. The Chinese Classics became an essential part of Japanese learning. In architecture, painting, and letters, the Japanese im- proved on their models and developed a truly national art and literature. Buddhism was introduced from China in the middle of the sixth century, and spread rapidly over the whole country. 3prnue-| mJO|^ CHAPTER VI GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS The Geography of Greece, and its Influence on History. — Greece proper is the southern, narrow part of the Balkan peninsula. Though it is very small, mountain barriers divide it into many districts. As most of the mountains were hard to cross, each district began its local development separately from the others. In consequence many little states grew up, but no united nation was ever formed. The coast of Greece is deeply indented by many bays, containing good har- bors. Numerous islands lie both in the Ionian Sea on the west, and in the A e mean Sea on the east. The Aegaean archipelago connects with the west shore of Asia Minor, which is similar to Greece proper, and was also settled by Greeks. Navigation and trade arose naturally among people so well situated. The climate of Greece was very agreeable, the soil was mostly fertile, and the scenery beautiful. Altogether, Greece was a country well fitted by nature to become the home of a progressive race. The following geographical names are of import- ance : Northern Greece lay between the Cambimian Motnitains on the north and a line drawn from the 72 ANCIENT HISTORY Ambracian Gulf to the Malian Gulf on the south. To the north, near the sea, was Mount Olympus^ believed to be the home of the Greek gods. The only good road into central Greece led through the pass of Thermopylae^ a narrow passage between steep mountains and the Malian Gulf. Central Greece reached to the Corinthian Gulf and the Isthmus of Corinth. It included the district of Attica, with the capital Athens. Almost in the exact centre of central Greece lay Delphi, which the Greeks con- sidered to be the centre of the earth. Further east, in the district of Boeotia, was the city of Thebes. The isthmus of Corinth got its name from a wealthy commercial city situated there. Southern Greece, generally called the Peloponnesus, had Sparta in the district of Laconia for its leading city. Opposite the coast of Attica and Boeotia lay the long island of Euboea, called Negropont on modern maps. The most celebrated island in the Aegaean was Delos, a sacred place. Of the numerous Greek cities in Asia Minor, Ephesus and Miletus were most notable. Beginnings of Greece. — The Greeks were not the first inhabitants of the country named after them. They entered from the north or north-east, and gradually took possession of the coast of Asia Minor, the Aegaean islands, and the European mainland. The oldest descriptions of Greek society are found in the poems of Homer, dating back to some time before looo B.C. At that period the Greeks were still a rough people, but with many pleasing qualities. They engaged in agriculture, kept flocks of sheep and cattle, and enjoyed hunting or war. Trade over GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 73 sea had begun, but went hand in hand with piracy. The government was a monarchy, in which the king stood over the tribe just as a father watches over the family. Public business was transacted by the king and the Elders of the noble families, either in the royal house, or in an open place near it, where all the freemen could listen. The elders could give their advice, but the king finally decided all mat- ters personally. The common freemen were not allowed to join in discussion, but they showed their assent by shoutinsf and their dis- sent by silence. The king was commander- 1 . /- 1 . Homer. in-chiei durmg war, and had to fight at the head of the citizen soldiers. He also was the high priest, who sacrificed to the gods in the name of his people. Love of Liberty. — The Greeks shared with most Aryan races a love for personal liberty. This is evident in the earliest times. Though the kings claimed to be descended from gods, they were not themselves considered divine, like the Pharaohs and the Babylonian despots. Their mode of life differed little from that of the free citizens. They were not secluded, could be approached by 74 ANCIENT HISTORY anyone, and even took part in common field work. They had no such arbitrary power as the eastern monarchs. All the freemen considered that they had a personal interest in the government, in which, as above told, they actually took some part. In most of the Greek states the freemen gradually increased their own power, and diminished that of the king, until the government became an actual rule by the people or democracy (^^;;^<9^ = people; cracy = xvX^). Under such a rule no man was master, but the people managed their own affairs. City States. — A Greek state consisted of a walled city and the rural district surrounding it. Usually it had a separate sea-port, unless the city itself was situated directly on the coast. Ancient Greece was made up of hundreds of such little indepen- dent states. The citizens of every one were jealous of their own rights, and very patriotic. But their patriotism was strictly local. They cared nothing for the welfare of neighboring states. On the con- trary, if a city grew so powerful as to threaten the independence of its neighbors, these often combined against it, and tried by war to ruin the power of the sister state, rather than to be dominated by it. Excessive Individualism. — The tendency to give the greatest possible amount of liberty to every single person is called 'individualism.' As already pointed out, the Greeks were almost the opposite of the Asiatics in this respect. Under the despotic governments of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the indivi- dual subject had no voice in public affairs. He GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 75 could in no way assert his own will as against that of the all-powerful king. In most of the Greek city states, every citizen could come to the front, if only his talents were sufficient. Individual ability counted far more than inherited privilege. But in some respects Greek individualism went too far. Under every orderly government, the single persons must give up some rights for the benefit of the whole community. If all followed their private interests only, confusion would reign at once. In Greece it happened too often that able men preferred their private interests to those of the state. In the same way, the single states never could subordinate their local ambitions and hatreds to the welfare of the Greek nation. The Greeks were strong" enough, if they had only united, to found a world-empire extending from Spain to India. But their excessive individualism misled them, and they ruined each other in petty wars, caused by local pride and jealousy. Dorians and lonians. — The Greeks were divided into several large branches, which differed somewhat in their language and customs. The leading branches were the Dorians and the lonians. The individual- ism above described was best developed among the lonians. Most of their states were democratic. The freedom of life and of work in the Ionian states largely accounts for the high perfection reached there in many branches of art and learning. The greatest Ionian city was Athens. The Dorians were a less gifted race : they were slower to learn and more conservative, but had more respect for authority. 76 ANCIENT HISTORY They generally preferred an aristocratic government {aristo = noble). Sparta was the dominant Dorian state. The Age of the Tyrants (650-500 B.C.). — Most Greek governments beo-an as monarchies. The nobles, who formed at first an advisory council, gradually took away the king's authority, and got the government entirely into their own hands. Their rule was then called an oligarchy {plig—2i few, rtir^/^jK = government), or an aristocracy. Very commonly their rule gradually grew more arbitrary and oppressive. Taxes were paid by the common people, but public offices could be held only by nobles. In lawsuits, tried before the oligarchical magistrate, the poor man could not get justice, while the rich noble usually won his case. Naturally the common people grumbled at such oppression, and were ready to revolt at the first favorable moment. For this purpose they were often aided and led by some ambitious noble, who overthrew the oligarchy with the help of the people. And then, instead of establishing a democracy, the leader kept all power himself, and became sole ruler. Such a ruler was termed a tyrant. Of the many tyrants in Greek history, Pisisti^attcs of Athens and his sons are best known. Their story will be briefly told below. Few tyrannies lasted more than three generations. Then the tyrants were killed or exiled by the people, who could not bear the idea of having a single man as their absolute master. Greek Colonization. — The changes in government just described were generally accompanied by violent GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 77 party struggles. The leaders of the defeated party- did not wish to submit to the new rule, or they were exiled. In either case they had to look for a new home. Thus party strife led to the founding of many colonies. Other causes led to the same result : among them over-population and love of adventure were most prominent. The colonists transplanted their religion and customs to their new homes, and thus Greek civilization was carried to most of the shores of the whole Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Southern Italy, up to the bay of Naples, was fringed with Greek colonies. Tarentum, which has survived in the modern Taranto, was once the richest Greek city in Italy. In Sicily the colony of Syi^acuse attained great fame and power. The westernmost Greek settlement was that of Massilia, the modern Marseilles. Among the colonies to the north, Byzantium is the most interesting. Its name was changed to Constmitinople by the Roman emperor Constantine. The Greek colonies were politically independent from their mother cities. But they formed centres of Greek culture all over the PTeater part of the Western world, as it was then known. All those countries and cities together, where the Greek language was spoken, were called Hellas. Hellas, then, was not a single continuous country, but was widely scattered, like the modern British empire. Early History and Institutions of Sparta. — The Spartans have been mentioned as the leading Dorian people. They entered the Peloponnesus from the north, about iioo B.C., and gradually conquered 78 ANCIENT HISTORY the southern part of it. By the sixth century B.C., they stood at the head of all the states in the Peloponnesus, and were recognized as the first military power in the whole of Hellas. Three Classes. — The district of which Sparta was the capital, was called Laconia, and its inhabitants were also known as Lacedaemonians. They were divided into three classes : the Spartans, the Perioeci, and the Helots. The first were descendants of the Dorian conquerors. They were few in number, only about one fourth of the Perioeci, and one twelfth of the lowest class. Only the Spartans were counted as citizens. They owned the best land, but left its tillage mostly to the Jower classes. Their own life was like that of soldiers in camp : they prepared and drilled for war, when they were not actually eno-aoed in it. The Perioeci were free to till their land, but had to pay tribute and render military service to the Spartans. The Helots were slaves, owned by the state, and distributed among the Spartan families. The Constitution and Laws of Sparta are ascribed to Lycurgus (about 8co B.C.). Two kings acted as generals, high priests, and judges. Their authority was very limited, the government being in fact a kind of republic, in which the aristocracy had most of the power in its hands. The Council of Elders consisted of twenty-eight life members over sixty years of age. In this council all public measures were discussed before they were laid before the Popular Asse77tbly, which gave the final decisions. All Spartans over thirty years old belonged to the GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 79 assembly. They were not allowed to discuss the business in hand, but only showed their opinion by shouting or by silence. The Education and the Customs of the Spartans all served one purpose : to rear a race of strong and brave soldiers. Soon after birth, the babies were brought before the Council for inspection. Weakly ones were taken from the mothers and killed. At the age of seven the boys entered a public training school, where they were drilled in all kinds of military and gymnastic exercises. The education of their minds was entirely neglected. Music was taught, because the Spartans rightly believed that it raised the courage of the soldiers. In order to accustom the boys to pain and hardship, they were often beaten without cause, and were obliged to sleep on hard beds, with very little clothing. Their food was bad, and barely enough to satisfy hunger. The teachers liked it, if the boys stole additional food wherever they could find it, because in war time soldiers also were often obliged to search for hidden supplies. But if a boy was caught stealing, he got a terrible beating for having been so clumsy. The Spartans remained until old age under a severe military discipline. The men could not live with their families, but ate and slept together, like soldiers in camp. The education of the girls aimed at developing strong and healthy mothers. They also had to practise gymnastics, and contested in public dances and foot races. The married women, how- ever, enjoyed much freedom, and exercised some influence over public affairs. 8o ANCIENT HISTORY Results of the Spartan System. — Since the aim of Lycurgus was to make a nation of soldiers, his institutions must be considered excellent of their kind. The Spartans were, in fact, for several cen- turies, the best and most feared soldiers in Greece. But nothing- else can be said in favor of the Spartan training. Of all the invaluable progress made by the Greeks, for the benefit of the whole later world, nothing is due to Sparta. While Athens rose to a height of culture, which is still admired by posterity, Sparta remained a big village of straw and mud, sheltering a semi-savage population. To the rest of Greece their military power did far more harm than good. They had no benefit from it themselves, because their whole lives were spent in the slavery of a military camp. The failure of the Spartan institutions to accomplish any worthy results helps to prove that man must seek superiority through rational cultivation of his mind rather than through brute strength. Early History and Institutions of Athens. — The early ofovernment of Athens was like that of the Homeric times, outlined above. The internal history of the state shows first the gradual diminution of the royal power, and the growth of an aristocracy. This in turn had to yield to the demands of the common freeman for participation in the government. Step by step the power of the people increased, until they had practically the whole government in their hands. Thanks to the writings of several Greek historians, the development can be traced with sufificient clear- ness. For the student of governmental institutions, GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 8i the political growth of Athens is more instructive than any other part of her history. Therefore special stress will be laid on it here. From Monarchy to Aristocracy. — The last hereditary king of Athens was Codrus, who reigned shortly before the year looo B.C. The legend said that Codrus died a heroic death in battle against the Spartans, laying down his life to save his country. Because no king could equal his goodness, the Athen- ians wished to have no more kings. Hence the son of Codrus received the title Arckon, which meant ruler. For three centuries the archons were chosen for life, from the family of Codrus. Then their tenure of office was limited to ten years, and soon they were selected from any one of the noble families. During these changes the authority of the archon had been steadily lessened, while the council of nobles increased its power. Finally, in 682 b.c, the last traces of the ancient monarchy vanished. Nine archons were now chosen annually from among the nobles. One of them retained the name ' kinp^- archon,' but his functions were merely those of a high priest. There was also a presiding archon, after whom the year was named, and a military archon. The other six were judges. To prevent any archon from assuming undue power, they were constantly watched by a council called the Areopagus, which annually chose the new archons. The outgoing magistrates became members of the Areopagus. Discontent of the People : Insurrection of Cylon. — The nobles conducted the government in a selfish manner, disregarding the interests of the great majority of G.H. F 82 ANCIENT HISTORY the citizens. There were no published laws, and the magistrates often decided cases to favor their friends rather than to grant justice. The common people had special cause for complaint on account of the harsh law of debt, which provided that a debtor or his family could be sold for the benefit of the creditor. The hardships of military service, and bad crops, brought many poor men into debt, when it clearly was only their misfortune and not their fault. Yet the nobles upheld the bad law, and threatened to reduce a great part of the people to slavery. An ambitious nobleman, named Cylon, made use of the popular discontent in an attempt to overthrow the aristocracy. From his father-in-law, who was tyrant over a neighboring state, he got a band of soldiers, and with them seized the Acropolis. {Acros = h\g\\; polls = c\iy \ name of a fortified hill in the middle of Athens.) Cylon might have succeeded, had he won the favor of the populace. But he did not consider it worth while to please the masses, aiming only at power for himself. When the archons be- sieged Cylon on the Acropolis, the people did not lift a finger to help him, and he had to flee for his life. His friends were put to death, in spite of a promise to respect their lives. This happened about 630 B.C. The Code of Draco (62 1 b.c). — This breach of promise and the execution of the conspirators cast much dis- credit on the government. It weakened the position of the nobles, so that they were obliged to yield to some of the popular demands for reform. Arbi- trary legal decisions were stopped by the writing GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 83 and publication of laws. The task of drawing up the code was performed by the archon Draco, His code, however, did little to better the condition of the people. The law of debt remained unchanged, and many other laws were so severe, that later Athenians referred to the code as having been written with blood rather than with ink. Since then severe laws are often called ' Draconian.' Solon. — The contrast between rich and poor steadily grew sharper, and the bitterness of the people more dangerous, until a bloody revolution was imminent. To avert the danger, the nobles asked the wisest man of their number to make a thorough reform of the laws, and of the constitution of the state. The right man for the crisis was found in Solon, who has ever since been regarded as the founder of the new Athens, and as one of the great sages of Greece. About his personality little is known. He was of noble birth, and had distinguished himself as a warrior and poet. His patriotism had won the confidence of all parties. Abolished the Harsh Laws of Debt. — Solon's first care was to relieve the lower classes of their unjust burdens by cancelling all outstanding debts. Further- more, he ordered that debtors should no longer be sold as slaves by their creditors. Constitutional Reforms (594 b.c.).— Solon made land the basis of political rights. He divided the popula- tion of Attica into foitr classes, according to their income in corn, oil, or wine. The first class had annual crops amounting to at least five hundred measures of grain. In the second place came the 84 ANCIENT HISTORY three hundred bushel^ men, in the third the two hundred. All those having still smaller incomes fell under the fourth class, called thetes. Only members of the first class, who also belonged to the nobility, were eligible to the archonships. Minor offices could be held by any one of the first three classes. The magistrates were elected by a Popular Assembly, in which every citizen, including the thetes, had a vote. This assembly could also pass new laws, though it was not allowed to originate them. It could only decide on business which had first been prepared in the Senate of Four Hundred, a body which was elected annually from among the three higher classes. Solon retained the Areopagus as a board for the general supervision of the govern- ment. It watched over the behavior of magistrates, and had an oversight over the morals of the citizens. The nobles could have been well satisfied with Solon's constitution, because the archonships and the areopagus remained wholly in their hands. The lowest class, on the other hand, no longer needed to fear oppression, because every citizen could vote in the assembly. To protect the common people from partisan judgments, Solon also made a new law court, called the Heliaea, to which citizens from all classes were chosen annually as judges. Any man who thought that the archons had judged his case unjustly could appeal to this popular court. Tyranny at Athens (560-511 b.c). — Although Solon had done his best to please all parties, discontent did 1 Bushel, an English measure of corn. The Greek measure had a dififerent name, of course. GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 85 not stop. The nobles longed for their former .power, and the lower classes wished to get still more rights. The quarrel reached almost the stage of civil war. A young noble, nephew of Solon, by the name of Pisistratus, placed himself at the head of the people's party. Through their aid he gained control of the government, and made himself absolute ruler. The nobles drove him out twice, but he finally established his power so firmly that he could later transmit it to his sons, Hippias and Hipparckus. Pisistratus did not abolish the Solonian constitution. He only took care that all the high magistrates were always chosen from among his relatives or friends. His rule was mild and just, and brought prosperity to Athens. His sons followed his example, until Hipparchus was murdered by a young nobleman, whose sister the tyrant had insulted. Hippias was now filled with suspicion and fear for his own life. He put many citizens to death, and roused the indignation of the Athenians by his hard rule. In the rebellion which naturally soon followed, Hippias succeeded in escaping to Asia Minor, where he settled as a dependent of the Persian king. The Reforms of Cleisthenes (509 e.g.). — The fall of the tyranny was the signal for renewed civil strife. Aristocracy and democracy each fought for the upper hand. The people got an able leader in Cleisthenes, a noble who drove the aristocratic faction out of the city. He then carried out a number of reforms, which increased the power of the people still further. The changes which Cleisthenes made in the constitu- tion were based on the work of Solon. Only members 86 ANCIENT HISTORY of the first property class could become archons, but they no longer needed to be of noble birth. The Senate was increased in membership to five hundred, fifty elected annually from each of the ten tribes into which Attica was now divided. The most radical step taken by Cleisthenes was giving the franchise (right to vote) to all free citizens of Attica, in- cluding many who had recently been slaves. The member- ship of the Public Assembly was thereby so much increased that this body became the strongest part of the government. The Ecclesia — so the assembly was called — dealt with every kind of public business. It elected magistrates, and judged them at the end of their term of office. It controlled taxation and government expenditure, decided on war or peace, and concluded treaties or alliances with other states. Any citizen could mount the speaker's platform and address the assembly. Hence public oratory was developed to a high point of excellence. Bad speakers were hissed down by the hearers, while favorite orators exercised great influence. The Athenians soon grew very proud of their right of free speech, which they considered the best gift of political freedom. The powers of the Heliaea, the popular court organized by Solon, were largely increased. To prevent bribery of the judges, an intricate system of selecting them shortly before the trial was devised. Ostracism. — Cleisthenes had himself been a witness of the tyranny of Pisistratus and Hippias ; he had also learned the dangers of civil w^ar. To ensure the young democracy against these tv^o dangers, he introduced a curious safeguard, the so-called Ostracism. If any one statesman grew so powerful as to threaten the constitution, or if two party leaders endangered the public peace by their disagreement, then the dangerous man could be removed by banish- GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 87 ment. Six thousand votes cast against one name meant a decree of honorable exile for ten years. The votes were secret, and were written on pieces of shell. (In Greek, os^racoji = shell, hence the name.) No disgrace was attached to ostracism : on the con- trary, it was a recognition that the person ostracized enjoyed the highest political standing. On their return from exile several statesmen immediately assumed the leadership in public affairs. This method of settling party strife remained in use for nearly a century, but was not often called for. The institutions of Cleisthenes had a stimulating effect on the growth and progress of Athens. The citizens took great pride in their state. Under the influence of liberty and justice, which gave an equal chance for advancement to all, every kind of work and enterprise flourished. The Spartans were jealous of the prosperity of their rival, and even led a large army against Athens, with the intention of over- throwing the democracy. The Athenians seemed lost before their superior enemies. Luckily the allies of Sparta got angry about the injustice of the attack, and obliged the Spartans to retreat without fighting. CHAPTER VII THE PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES Events Leading up to the Persian Wars. — In the chapter on Persian history it has been told how Darius I. led an expedition into Southern Russia, and how one of his generals annexed a considerable part of the Balkan peninsula to the Persian empire. The conquest of Lydia had already made Persian subjects of the Greeks living in the coast cities of Asia Minor. It seemed to depend only on the pleasure of the Great King whether Greece proper should also be added to his vast dominions. His armies had hitherto proved invincible, and his financial resources were practically unlimited. That the litde Greek states would be able to offer any effective resistance asfainst Persian attack seemed impossible. Revolt of the Asiatic Greeks; Submission of Mace- donia. — In the year 500 B.C. the Greeks of Asia Minor tried by a sudden revolt to shake off the Persian yoke. Athens sent help to her sister cities, and their joint forces burned Sardis, the residence of the Western Satrap. Darius I. at once punished the rebels, and restored order in Asia Minor. He PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 89 also determined to revenge the insult offered by the Athenians. He sent the general Mardonius with a large army and a fleet to conquer Greece, and to destroy Athens. Mardonius received the submission of Macedonia, a kingdom extending to the northern boundary of Greece. But his further progress was stopped by a storm, which destroyed the fleet when it tried to pass the dangerous pro- montory of Mount Athos. Second Expedition. — A few years later, in 490 b.c, Darius commanded two of his best generals to carry out the punishment he had sworn to inflict on Athens. Led by Hippias, the exiled tyrant, they sailed across the Aeoaean in an immense fleet, bearinsf over 100,000 soldiers. After conquering several islands they landed near Marathon, on the east coast of Attica. Athens had a force of 10,000 men to oppose to the enemy. The Spartans promised aid, but delayed on account of some religious ceremonies. Only the citizens oi Plataea, a little town of southern Boeotia, proved their courage and their friendship for Athens by coming in full force, 1000 men strong, to share the dangers of the Persian attack. Battle of Marathon (490 b.c). — The Athenians and Plataeans took their position on a range of hills overlooking the plain of Marathon. For over a week neither side wished to attack. At last a favorable chance came for the Greeks. The Persians were in disorder, embarking part of their soldiers on the ships, when the Athenian commander, Milti- ades, gave the order to advance at a run. The 9° ANCIENT HISTORY Greek heavy armed soldiers struck the Persian ranks before they were properly formed. The Persians could not withstand the assault. They fled to their ships, leaving many dead, and most of their war stores in the hands of the victors. The Persian generals did not give up their plans at once, but tried to sail to Athens before the defending Engrhsh Miles J_ Stadia II alUrCrBoutaUsc 3° army could return from Marathon. Miltiades, however, was informed of their movements by watchers on the hills, and led the soldiers back to Athens by a forced march. When the Persians approached the harbor, they found the victors of Marathon ready to prevent a landing. The soldiers of the Great King had so little desire for a second encounter with the hardy Athenian infantry that they ingloriously sailed back home at once. What the Battle of Marathon means in History. — Measured by the number of soldiers engaged, the battle PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 91 of Marathon was a very small affair. For the Athenians it meant a wonderful victory in a sudden struggle for their very existence. The Persians considered it as a little reverse, for which they hoped to make up by and by. Later historians, who can estimate what the battle of Marathon means for Western civilization as a whole, count it among the decisive battles of the world. A Persian victory would have ended Athenian freedom. The advances made by Athens in so many fields of learning and art, could not have been made under the arbitrary rule of a Persian satrap. A defeat, therefore, would have dwarfed or even ended the development of Greek culture, and so would have robbed later ages of some of the finest elements in their civilization. The Fame and Sudden Fall of Miltiades. — Miltiades, whose advice had secured the victory, became at once the most famous man in Greece. The Athenians praised him to the sky as the greatest hero who had ever lived. Their confidence in the savior of the country was unbounded. But the glory of Miltiades w,as cut short in a shameful way. His sudden elevation completely turned his head. He asked the Ecclesia to grant him the use of a fleet and army for a secret expedition, which would bring great profit to Athens. When the people granted the command, he employed the armament for an attack on one of the Greek island cities, against which he had a private grudge. The expedition failed completely, and Miltiades sailed back to Athens severely wounded and as a disgraced man, a traitor to the trust of his people. He was barely saved from being condemned to death before the Heliaea. Shortly afterwards he died of his wound. Expansion of the Athenian Navy. — After the battle of Marathon most Athenians believed that the Persians w^ould not attack them a second time. There was one statesman, however, who felt sure that Darius would take a terrible revenoe for the 92 ANCIENT HISTORY defeat. This was Themistocles, a clever politician and ardent patriot, a man whose genius marked him above all others of his time. He urged the Athenians to prepare with all their might for the comino- conflict. Above all he wanted them to build a strong navy. This essential part of his policy was opposed by Aristides, the leader of the conservative party. He and his supporters wished to keep Athens a land power. They were all land owners, and feared to lose poli- tical influence by the growth of the navy, which was manned largely by thetes. As the two policies could in no way be reconciled, ostracism was called for, to decide between the two opponents. The vote went against Aris- tides, and Themistocles remained sole leader of Athenian affairs. By his advice the harbor of Piraeus was strongly fortified, while the navy was completely remodelled, and soon raised to the first rank in Greece. The Persians prepare a Third Expedition against Greece. — Darius prepared to wipe out the disgrace of Marathon by an immense expedition, which he Themistocles. PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 93 himself meant to lead into Greece. His plan was cut short by his death. His son Xerxes, though personally timid and indolent, yielded to the advice of his counsellors, who promised him great glory from the campaign. He gave orders to collect the largest army ever gathered by an Eastern monarch. Soldiers from all parts of the vast empire marched to Sardis, where the army assembled. Negroes, Egyptians, Indians, and many other races and tribes swelled the forces to over a million men. The ofatherinof was brilliant and interestino;-, but it was not an army in the proper sense of that term. The soldiers spoke many languages, and carried many different kinds of weapons. Hence the various parts of the army could not co-operate properly, and confusion reigned instead of order. The pro- visioning of such an immense host also caused ofreat trouble. Stores of food were collected in advance along the intended route of invasion. A fleet of over 1300 vessels was supplied by the Phoenicians and by the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Phoenician architects also were commanded to build two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont. Xerxes remembered the destruction of Mardonius' fleet at Mount Athos. To avoid the dangerous cape, he had a ship canal dug across the lowest part of the penin- sula back of it. Plans of the Greeks. — The selfishness of the Greek states was more dangerous to them than the hosts of the Great King. In spite of the terrible danger they did not combine for a united defence of the country. A few of the cities openly preferred sub- 94 ANCIENT HISTORY mission to the risk of destruction. Before opening the campaign, Xerxes sent envoys to Greece, to demand earth and water, the symbols of submission to Persian rule. The Athenians and Spartans killed the envoys by throwing them into pits and wells, saying, " Help yourselves to earth and water." After this insult, no mercy could be expected from Xerxes. Themistocles called a congress of the Greek states at Corinth, to discuss measures of defence. Most of the cities of Hellas, except those already under Persian rule, were represented at this gathering. The deliberations proved clearly how little national patriotism the Greeks possessed. Thebes preferred the Persian yoke, out of hatred for Athens. In some other states the aristocratic party urged submission, because the Persian king would suppress all demo- cratic orovernments. Sparta and most of her Peloponnesian confederates were for armed resistance, but they also thought more of their own safety, than of the liberty of all Greece. They wished to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth, and there defy the Persian army, leaving all northern and central Greece to the mercy of the invaders. The Athenians ably pointed out the folly of this plan. They said that all the states north of the Isthmus would thus be forced to submit, and their soldiers would at once be lost for the defence. Battle of Thermopylae (480 e.g.). — The delegates finally decided to make a stand at the pass of IVier- 7nopylae. ( Thermos = hot, as in thermometer ; pylae = gates ; named from some hot springs near the pass.) Here was a narrow road between the Malian gulf PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 95 and a steep spur of the mountains, which afforded the only good passage from northern into central Greece. A force of 6000 heavy armed infantry, com- manded by the Spartan king Leonidas, was at once entrusted with the defence of this pass. Leonidas easily held his own against the Persian host. It already seemed as though Xerxes would have to end his southward march at Thermopylae, when a Greek traitor offered for gold to show a secret pass across the mountains. Over this by-way Xerxes sent some of his picked men during the night, and next morning their advance guard appeared in the rear of the pass. Leonidas at once ordered the bulk of his little army to retreat. He himself, with three hundred Spartan citizens, chose death in the pass. Their honor as Spartans demanded that they should obey to the last the order to defend the position. The heroism of Leonidas and his little band made a deep impression on the Persians. Such devotion to duty and such bravery had never been encountered by them. Many of their own soldiers had been driven into the battle with whips. The troops of Xerxes hereafter regarded the Greeks as superior to themselves, and began to be afraid of them. Thus the heroic death of the Spartans helped the Greeks to win the succeeding battles of the war. Battle of Salamis (480 b.c). — The Persian army met with no further resistance in central Greece. The people of Attica deserted their country. The old men, women, and children were taken across to the Peloponnesus, while the fighting men took to the 96 ANCIENT HISTORY ships. Xerxes ordered Athens to be totally destroyed, in revenge for the attack on Sardis twenty years before. The whole Greek fleet was assembled at the Island of Salamis, not far from the Piraeus. Even now, after most of Greece had fallen a prey to the enemy, the generals from different states still quarrelled about 1! alKerCrBoutatlsc. their plans. Themistocles, however, saved the Greeks from destruction, by bringing on a naval encounter with the Persians. At night he sent a secret mes- senger to Xerxes, tellin^ him that the Greek fleet would disperse next day, and that by a sudden attack early in the morning he could destroy the whole Greek naval power at one blow. Xerxes followed this advice. On a hill near Athens overlooking the sea, he sat on a throne, surrounded by all his court, to watch the downfall of Greece. PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 97 His high hopes were broken by the most spec- tacular defeat recorded in history. The Great King helplessly looked down from his throne, while the Greek sailors and soldiers destroyed nearly half of his fleet. The rest tied in confusion from the scene of batde. Even then the remaining Persian ships still out- numbered those of Greece. But Xerxes had lost all courage, and retreated hastily to the safety of his Asiatic dominions. He left the veteran General Mardonius, with the flower of the Persian army, to complete the conquest of Greece. Fourth Expedition of the Persians against Greece; Battle of Plataea (479 e.g.). — When Mardonius marched south in the following spring, the Spartans again thought only of their own safety. They allowed Athens to be destroyed a second time. Mardonius had promised to make Athens the leading state in Greece, if she would acknowledge the Persian sove- reignty. The Athenians threatened to_ accept this offer, if the Peloponnesians would not aid them aoainst Mardonius. This threat at last overcame the Spartan selfishness. A large army of Peloponnesians, commanded by the Spartan king Pausanias, joined the Athenians. In the battle of Plataea Mar- donius fell, and nearly his whole army was put to the sword. After this crushing defeat no Persian army ever set foot in Greece again. The Greeks take the Offensive against the Persians. — In the same year a Greek fleet sailed to Asia Minor and destroyed a large Persian fleet near the promontory of Mycale. This was the first victory G.H. G 98 ANCIENT HISTORY in the offensive war which the Greeks, led by Athens, kept up against Persia for the next forty years. The Persian king lost all his European territory, and had to give up his sovereignty over the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Disgrace of Pausanias and Themistocles. — At first Pausanias was chief general in the attacks on Persia. He had com- manded at Plataea, and since then regarded himself as the greatest man on earth. His behavior towards other people grew arrogant and insolent. Driven by his foolish ambi- tion, he corresponded with the Persian king, by whose help he wished to become tyrant of all Greece. One of his messengers denounced him to the Spartan government, and he was put to death as a traitor. The letter of Pausanias also cast a suspicion of treason on the Athenian Themi- stocles. Themistocles had long been known as a very unscrupulous person. He gave and received bribes, and abused his political influence for his private gain. But his extraordinary ability as a politician was of great service to Athens. After the defeat of Mardonius the Spartans wanted to prevent the Athenians from building a wall round the city. Sparta's whole pride lay in her military pre-eminence, and she feared that Athens might grow too strong. Themi- stocles by a clever lie deceived the Spartans, so that the wall could be finished, and Athens was saved from any further interference. Fortunately for Themistocles, he had recently been ostracised, when the charges against him reached Athens. He was condemned to death, but escaped to Persia. The Persian king received him as a friend, and gave him the revenues of three cities for life. Aristides the Just. — Political morality was at a low level among the Greeks. The lives of Pausanias and Themi- stocles afford only prominent examples of a spirit which had many followers. It is pleasant, therefore, to record the name of one statesman who was famous for his honesty and justice. PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 99 Aristides, long the rival of Themistocles, now became the leader in Athenian affairs. His reputa- tion for fairness and incorruptibility was of the greatest value to his mother city. He won con- fidence everywhere, and so made the states look to Athens as their natural leader. The Delian Confederacy. — A few years after the battle of Mycale most of the Greek states around the Aegaean formed a confederacy, for the purpose of attacking the Persians more methodically and vigorously. Athens was the political head of the league. The meeting place and the treasury were established on the sacred island of Delos, after which the confederacy was named. The smaller states made annual contributions in money, while the larger ones furnished ships. Aristides was chosen to determine what share of money or ships each state should o-ive. The Delian Confederacy becomes an Athenian Empire. — After some years many confederates who had given ships preferred to give money, like the smaller states, letting Athens build the ships. Presently the Athenians transferred the treasury from Delos to Athens, on the plea that the funds would be safer under their immediate care. But they used much of the money for raising fine buildings in their own city, instead of devoting: all to the war against Persia. The allies complained that Athens was robbing them, and many declared that they would leave the con- federacy and make no further payments. Thereupon the Athenians sent their strong fleet against them, punished them severely, and forced them to pay loo ANCIENT HISTORY increased contributions. In this manner the formerly- free members of the Delian league became tributaries of Athens, and the league itself was changed into an Athenian maritime empire. Sparta after the Persian Wars. — The Spartan govern- ment had grown still more aristocratic since the early times of Lycurgus. There had long existed, beside the Senate of Elders and the two kings, five officers called overseers or Epkors. These Ephors gradually increased their power, until they controlled the whole government, and even the kings had to obey their commands. Thus the development of the Spartan constitution was just the reverse of what took place at Athens. To the dislike of the Ephors against the Athenian democracy was added an ever-increasing jealousy. Sparta still enjoyed her reputation as the leading land power in Greece, but Athens now stood without a rival at the head of maritime Hellas, and also extended her power by land in central Greece. A number of Boeotian cities expelled the aristocrats, set up democracies, and joined the Athenian alliance. Alarmed at the progress of Athenian power, the Spartans joined the Thebans in a war against Athens, which lasted over ten years. At last the Athenians were beaten, and had to give up all further hope of acquiring dominion on land. Thebes again took her old place as the leading state in Boeotia, and re- established aristocratic governments in the neighboring cities. The Age of Pericles. — In Athenian history the time between the Persian invasions and the Peloponnesian PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES loi war is generally called the Age of Pericles, after the o-reat statesman who then took the lead in Athenian affairs. Pericles came of a noble Athenian family, many members of which had already won distinction. He had the very best education, and continued always to perfect himself in the knowledge and the arts which are helpful to a statesman. As an orator he easily stood first in his time. He was also a good general and a far-sighted politician. With his natural gifts he combined a true love for his city, untiring energy, and a lofty view of his duties. He never stooped to low intrigue ; nor did he attempt to benefit himself or to hurt his private enemies by his influence. For more than a generation Pericles was the uncrowned ruler of Athens. Yet he never was elected archon. He held the oftice of generaP for his tribe, and sometimes was elected to some minor positions. His power depended entirely on his influence over the people in the Ecclesia. The Athenians admired and respected him for his noble character, and followed his advice, because they ^Each of the ten tribes of Attica annually elected a general. Pericles. I02 ANCIENT HISTORY recoo-nized that he was the wisest man amonor them. Never in any country has there been a more inspiring ruler than Pericles : king of men without force or hereditary right, but only through the unchanging greatness of his personality. Pericles wished to make the democracy of Athens as perfect a government as possible. He knew that a good education of all the citizens is the foundation of a popular government. Beside the debates in the Ecclesia, and the legal discussions in the Heliaea, the theatres were the principal schools for the grown- up Athenians. The plays performed there dealt mostly with Greek history, or with problems in morals and religion. Their authors were the most famous writers of the day. Indeed, the plays of Euripides and others still rank among the finest works of literature. For these performances Pericles gave free tickets to the people. In order that poor citizens could also take part in public affairs, he paid them for their attendance at the Ecclesia, and paid them for performing public duties. Pericles also gave festivals to the people at public expense, because he wanted all citizens to have the same chance of en- joying themselves, just as they all shared the same duties of government, and the same dangers in war. If the condition of a society can be rightly estimated by the number of great men produced in it, then Athens in the Periclean ao-e must be called the most highly civilized community in the world's history. Never before or since then has so much o-enius been gathered at one place within such a short period. In the long list of famous names we find the sculptor PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 103 Phidias, the historian Herodotus, the philosopher Socrates. Most of these great men were personal friends of Pericles, and owed much to his advice. Pericles proved the power and glory of his city to the world by erecting costly and beautiful public buildings. The Acropolis was covered with splendid temples. Here was built the Parthenon, or temple Euripides. to the goddess Athena, a majestic structure of white marble. In the Parthenon Phidias made a colossal statue of Athena out of gold and ivory. Many parts of the temple were decorated with marble statuary by Phidias and his pupils. Some of their work is still preserved, and is studied by modern artists as the most excellent of its kind. The age of Pericles was the golden time of Athens. But the glory of that wonderful city was just as short- lived as it was brilliant. The weaknesses of the I04 ANCIENT HISTORY democracy, which were still held under control by- Pericles, brought about its swift ruin after his death. In one way that great statesman had himself planted the seed of destruction. It was a fatal mistake to provide free feasts for the people. They soon became idle and luxurious, and began to despise manual labor. Common men, who had little judgment and were easily led astray by bad counsellors, henceforth formed the majority of the Public Assembly. The govern- ment became unsteady, and engaged in some reckless enterprises, which finally led to its downfall. How this came about will be told in the following chapter. CHAPTER VIII THE MUTUAL DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES, AND THEIR CONQUEST BY PHILIP OF MACEDON. Causes of the Peloponnesian War. — The political rivalry between Athens and Sparta led to the famous struggle known as the Peloponnesian War, which lasted from 431-404 B.C. The underlying cause for this war has already been mentioned ; it was the inability of the Greeks to look beyond the interests of each individual state, and to form a national union. The need for some kind of political union led to the system of leaderships, called hegemonies by the Greeks. Smaller states formed alliances with some strong state, which they regarded as their political leader. Thus Thebes had the hege- mony in Boeotia, Sparta in the Peloponnesus, Athens over the island states. Sparta and Athens both aspired to the hegemony of all Greece, and this alone was enough cause for war. Another bitter enemy of Athens was Corinth, once the leading maritime power of Greece. The growth of Athenian trade had been largely at the expense of the Corinthians, who saw themselves losing in wealth and influence through the gains of their proud com- io6 ANCIENT HISTORY petitor. The Tkebans had always hated Athens, and gladly took every opportunity to damage her. Athens also counted many enemies among the subject states of the Delian Confederacy, who were eager to break away from their bondage. The war was precipitated by a quarrel between Athens and Corinth, in which the latter was worsted. The Corinthians then complained to the Spartans, and the Spartan assembly, backed by all the states of the Peloponnesus, declared for war. Power of Athens and Sparta compared. — Athens was well protected behind strong walls, which extended down to the sea, and embraced the fortified harbor of Piraeus. Her navy was irresistible. Beside her numerous subjects of the Delian confederacy, she had a number of strong allies. Of the inland states, Plataea especially was her firm friend. More valuable than many ships and soldiers was the wise guidance of Pericles. Sparta had at her disposal the overwhelming land forces of the Peloponnesus, against which the Athenian army could not dare to take the field. The Thebans were valuable allies, because they con- stantly threatened Attica from the north. Corinth furnished the greater part of the Peloponnesian fleet. Altogether, the opponents were evenly matched, Athens having just as great an advantage at sea as Sparta had on land. The Peloponnesian War to the Peace of Nicias (431- 421 B.C.). — During the first five years of the war the Peloponnesians annually invaded Attica, ravaging the fields and destroying the villages right up to the walls THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES 107 of Athens. At the advice of Pericles the Athenians did not risk a decisive battle against the superior land forces of the enemy. They retaliated by landing on the Peloponnesus and destroying all property within easy reach of the coast. More dreadful for Athens than the Spartan attacks was a plague, which killed a great part of the population, including Pericles, 429 B.C. The loss of his calm guidance was the severest blow which could befall Athens. The constant warfare hardened the hearts of the opponents, and led them to cruel reprisals. The Spartans took Plataea after a long siege, in which the defenders fought with desperate valor. The city was razed to the ground, and the whole garrison put to death. When the Spartan generals captured a ship of the enemy, they always threw the whole crew over- board. The Athenians were equally relentless in their punishment of Mytilene, the leading city on the island of Lesbos, which had revolted from the Delian league. At the instigation of Cleon, the Ecclesia voted to kill all Mytilenean men, and to sell the women and children as slaves. Next day the counsels of more prudent men induced the Ecclesia to repeal the bloody sentence : a swift ship was despatched with orders to execute only the aristocrats, more than a thousand in number. After ten years of fighting neither side had gained any decided advantage. In 421 b.c. the Athenian Nicias was able to conclude a peace for fifty years. The conditions of the treaty, however, were not strictly observed by either side, and within three years the war broke out afresh. io8 ANCIENT HISTORY Decline of the Athenian Democracy. — The affair of Mytilene shows how rash and fickle the Athenian people became, after they lost their great leader Pericles. He had always restrained them from sudden bursts of anger or recklessness, and encouraged them in times of depression. None of his successors had the powerful personality needed for such a control of the multitude. Most of them rather sought public favor by proposing such measures as would at the moment please the people. At the same time they placed their personal advancement above the welfare of the state. To them it was an advantage that the lower classes formed the majority of the assembly, because the ignorant masses are led by blind passion or enthusiasm rather than by calm reason. The democracy thus degenerated to a mob rule under the direction of demagogtces ((^. ell. heard of the king's martyrdom. His son, Charles II., was proclaimed as king of Scotland. The new Commonwealth was thus threatened from two sides, while the English royalists were ready to join any 296 MODERN HISTORY forces which Charles II. miorht bringf into Enoflando Cromwell's energy rose with the danger. He speedily- crushed the Irish rebellion, and annihilated the Scotch army of Charles II. in the battle of Worcester. The young prince escaped to France, where he was hospit- ably received at the court of Louis XIV. The military successes of the Commonwealth were all due to the efficiency of the army and to the able leadership of Cromwell, The Parliament, on the other hand, was quite unable to cope with the task of government. Its members were lacking in patriotism, and open to bribery. In 1658 Cromwell personally charged the members with injustice and selfishness, and closed his angry address with the words, " It is not fit you should sit here any longer." A body of soldiers drove the members out, and Crom- well locked the doors of the house. With the forcible dissolution of the Long Parliament the last constitu- tional authority was swept away. Cromwell called a new Parliament, composed entirely of the most religious and upright Puritans. This assembly, generally called the ' Little Parlia- 77ient,' intended to do its best, and did really carry through some minor reforms ; but its members had not the practical ability required to direct the govern- ment. Rather than see a renewal of civil war and anarchy, they determined to give full political power to Cromwell, the one man who could maintain order. The Protectorate (1653-1659). — Under the title of * Lord Protector of the Commonwealth,' Oliver Cromwell exercised a sort of dictatorship over England. He did not seek power for himself, but A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY 297 accepted it and used it well when circumstances forced it on him. He convoked several parliaments, hoping to restore a representative form of govern- ment. They were all inefficient, however, and Cromwell had to continue his dictatorship. Under his firm administration the peace was kept at home, while he enforced the respect of foreign govern- ments abroad. Had he possessed a son approaching him in ability, he could have founded a new dynasty. The title of king was actually offered to Crom- well a year before his death. His son, Richard Cromwell, succeeded him as Lord Protector in 1659 weak and inefficient Charles II. But Richard proved He abdicated after a few months' rule, leaving an open field for a disastrous quarrel between the army and the Parliament. Restoration of Charles II. — Most Englishmen dreaded a renewal of civil strife, and were heartily glad when Charles H. issued a proclamation promising to pardon all revolutionists, if he were recalled to the throne. In May, 1660, the king landed at Dover, and was received .with the greatest enthusiasm. The 'Restora- tion^ as his return was called, showed that the people still favored monarchy, provided that it did not assume the form of tyranny. CHAPTER XXV THE HEIGHT AND THE DECLINE OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY Louis XIII. and Richelieu. — Louis XIII., the son of Henry IV., was a child of nine years when he came to the throne in 1610. At first his mother, Mary de Medici, acted as regent. In 1614 the young king was declared to be of age, but he never in all his life became energfetic enough to be an independent ruler. The character of his reign depended wholly on the character of his advisers. Fortunately for the French monarchy, the king fell under the influence of a highly gifted statesman, the Cardinal Rickelieit. From 1624 until 1642 this remarkable man was the virtual ruler of France. He devoted all his energies to the uplifting of the royal power. Towards this end he worked by two methods : First, all opposition to the throne within France was to be crushed ; secondly, the foreign rivals of France were to be weakened. Political Power of the Nobles broken. — While carrying out his task of making the monarchy supreme in France, Richelieu did away with the dangerous remnants of independence which many nobles still THE FRENCH MONARCHY 299 inherited from feudal times. The most formidable opposition he met with from the Huguenots. They wished to break away from the royal government, and to establish a Protestant republic. Their principal stronghold was the city of La Rockelle, in Western France. Richelieu destroyed La Rochelle after an arduous siege, which he personally brought to a successful end. The Huguenots were allowed to continue the practice of their religion, but their revolutionary schemes were broken up. Richelieu's Foreign Policy was equally successful. Though he did not live to enjoy the humbling of the House of Hapsburg in the treaty of Westphalia, yet the French gains were entirely the result of Richelieu's work. He raised France to the first position among the European states. Administration of Mazarin. — Richelieu's successor, Cardinal Mazarin, held the post of chief minister when Louis XIII. passed away. All through the minority of Louis XIV., who was a child of five on his accession, Mazarin guided the French govern- ment. He followed the lines laid down by Richelieu in every particular, and with similar success. Personal Government of Louis XIV. — When Mazarin died, Louis XIV. decided to be his own prime minister. No state paper of the slightest importance was to take effect unless he had personally seen and signed it. He kept his resolution and centred in himself all powers of government, working with ability and great industry. In Louis XIV. the doctrine of the ' Divine Ri^ht of King^s ' found its foremost representative. He regarded himself as 300 MODERN HISTORY more than human, and demanded from his courtiers personal attentions and flatteries which amounted almost to worship. The whole nobility of France was drawn to the splendid court at Versailles^ near Louis XIV. Pans, to live there in idle splendor as the king's pensioners. The great palace and the surrounding gardens at Versailles still bear witness to the extrava- gance of the court. The cost of this one palace — THE FRENCH MONARCHY 301 Louis had several others — is estimated at a hundred milHon gold dollars. This fabulous expenditure was designed as the outward symbol of royal dignity. Louis best summed up his estimate of himself and his power in the famous saying, '/ am the State.' Colbert. — During the first half of Louis' reign, the French monarchy attained the highest point of its inner prosperity and outward power. This was due not so much to the king himself, as to the devoted labor of several able ministers, among whom Colbert stands first. As a statesman Colbert was the equal of Cardinal Richelieu ; but the former s name is less famous because he kept his merits quiet, giving all the credit for his successes to the king. As a merchant's son, Colbert had early acquired an insight into industry, commerce, and finance, fields in which he distinguished himself as a minister. By intro- ducing a strict system of accounts, he increased the public revenues, while actually lessening the taxes. He encouraged industries at home, stimulated foreign trade, and expanded the French navy, until it stood first in Europe. Colonization was furthered in Canada and elsewhere ; Louisiana was explored, and two great trading companies to the East and the West Indies were chartered. At Colbert's death, France possessed the greatest colonial empire in the world. Colbert's ambition was never for himself, but for the king's glory, and still more for the welfare of the people. Therefore he was bitterly disappointed when his best work was undone by the king's foreign policy. Tremendous wars exhausted the revenues. 302 MODERN HISTORY and forced Colbert to provide new means by ruinous taxation. Louis XIV. 's Foreign Policy; His War with Holland. — Louis XIV.'s ambition drove him into four wars of conquest, which, by their waste of men and money, were ruinous for France. The second war was against Holland, in revenge for an alliance which that country had made with Sweden and England, and by which Louis had been prevented from con- quering the Spanish Netherlands. Before opening the campaign, Louis isolated the Dutch RepubHc by the payment of heavy bribes to the Swedish and English kings. Charles II., the restored Stuart ruler, disgraced himself in the eyes of Parliament and of the people by his understanding with Louis. The States- General alone were helpless before the French invading force. They were ready to buy peace with one-third of their land ; but the French made such humiliating demands that the Dutch renewed the war with the courage of despair. They found an able leader in William of Orange, a descendant of William the Silent. Like his great ancestor, this younger prince of Orange succeeded more by patience and persistency than by victories in the field. The Dutch again called in the ocean against their enemies by cutting the dykes and flooding large tracts of country. Spain and Germany sided with Holland against France, with the result that Louis largely lost the fruits of his earlier victories, By the Treaty of Nimwegen (1678) Holland secured very favorable terms, her territory remaining almost intact. Spain, however, had to give up some lands, which to-day still remain a part of Northern France. Arrogance of Louis XIV. — During the years follow- ing the Dutch war, Louis XIV. was by far the most powerful sovereign in Europe. He behaved arro- THE FRENCH MONARCHY 303 gantly towards the neighboring states, especially towards Germany and Italy. When he had seized and fortified the big city of Strassburg in German Alsace, and otherwise insulted his weaker neighbors, the principal sovereigns joined in an alliance against him. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). — The French Huguenots were no longer politically danger- ous, but they disliked absolutism, and were thus regarded as natural enemies of the monarchy. Louis XIV. was a strict Catholic, and had a passion for uniformity in every department of administration. He resolved to do away with Protestantism, and ordered a systematic persecution of all Huguenots who refused to become Catholics. In the so-called ' Dragonades ' rough soldiers (dragoons) were quar- tered in the Huguenot families, whose lives they made miserable. As a final measure the Edict of Nantes, which had afforded religious liberty to the Protestants, was revoked. No Protestant could there- after exercise his religion in France. More than 200,000 of the best citizens left their homes with their families, rather than submit to such indig- nities. France thereby lost the most intelligent and industrious part of her population. The Protestant states and the English colonies in America received the fugitives with open arms. The Huguenot emigrants formed a most valuable part of the popu- lation of the future United States. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes was a bigoted, unstatesman-like measure. It was a political blunder so harmful to France, that one can question whether Louis XIV. 304 MODERN HISTORY deserves the epithet ' the Great' bestowed on him by admir- ing contemporaries. All Protestant states became his enemies, and joined into a league with the Catholic sove- reigns of Spain and Germany, who wanted to get revenge for his robberies of land. The War of the Palatinate (1689- 1697). — War soon broke out between France and the ' Grand Alliance ' of European states, because Louis XIV. wished to seize the Palatinate, a fine German principality adjoining Alsace. The French commander tried to break resistance by turning the country into a desert. 100,000 innocent people were made home- less by this barbarity. When Louis finally made peace, by the Treaty of Ryswick, he had to give up most of the lands he had seized since the peace of Nimwegen. He agreed to these advantageous terms, because he wished to save his strength for the more important struggle that was sure to arise on account of the Spanish succession. The Spanish Succession. — King Charles IL of Spain had no child. All European governments were inter- ested to see who should succeed to the Spanish throne. They all adhered to a principle of inter- national politics, which has largely shaped European history during the last centuries, and which is usually summed up in the phrase, ' The Balance of Power.' It implied that no one state should become so powerful as to menace the safety of the other states. There were two candidates for the Spanish suc- cession : the one, Philip of Anjou, was the second grandson of Louis XIV.; the other. Archduke Charles of the Hapsburg line, was the son of the Emperor Leopold of Germany. The Spanish sovereignty at this time included the Spanish Netherlands and a considerable part of Italy. If Philip were to inherit these dominions, the French power would dominate THE FRENCH MONARCHY 30s Europe. When Charles II. finally made a will naming Philip of Anjou as his heir, the European states at once joined to form a grand alliance against France. The War of the Spanish Succession (i 701-17 14). — The allies had two great generals in their service, the English Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy. These two won a succession of victories, all notable in military history, of which the battle of Blenheim ( 1 704) is most famous. Louis at last was ready to make peace on terms most favorable to the allies. They ex- pected to humble him still lower and con- tinued the war. But the whole aspect of affairs changed by the deaths of the emperor Leopold and of his older son. The Austrian claimant, Charles of Haps- burg, thereby became emperor of Germany. Had he now succeeded to the Spanish throne, he would have revived the great Hapsburg empire of Charles v., and his power would have overshadowed the rest of Europe. England had no desire to build up a Hapsburg empire, and made peace with France. By the Treaty of Utrecht (17 13) Philip of Anjou G.H. U Marlborough. 3o6 MODERN HISTORY was recognized as king of Spain, on condition that the kino-dom should never be united with France. o Austria gained the Spanish Netherlands, Sicily, and parts of Italy. The duchy of Savoy in North-western Italy was strengthened by the island of Sardinia. England profited most by the war. She got Gib- raltar from Spain, while France ceded Nova Scotia, and recognized Entjland's riohts in Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay Territory. Influence of French Culture on Europe. — Louis XIV. failed in his schemes of European conquest, and ruined his own country by the terrible drain of men and money. When he died France had already begun to sink from the undisputed pre-eminence which she held during the early part of his reign. But in other ways the French of the eighteenth century attained to a domination over Europe, which lasted well into the nineteenth century. They were con- sidered as masters and models in literature, and in all matters pertaining to dress, manners, and all the refinements of life. French became the polite language of the educated people throughout Europe. The rulers of the German states imitated the court of the ' Grand Monarch ' at Versailles, built French palaces, practised French politeness, and indulged in French vices. Even at the present day French is still the leading language spoken at the courts and in the diplomatic circles of Europe. Among the writers who made the re'iQ-n of Louis XIV. the classical period of French literature three dramatists are pre-eminent. They are Corneille, Racine, and Moliere. 3o8 MODERN HISTORY The Mississippi Bubble. — Louis XV. was the great-grandson of Louis XIV. He came to the throne as a boy of five. During the regency of the Duke of Orleans the financial administration fell into the hands of a Scotchman named John Law. He established a national bank, and offered to extinguish the huge national debt left by Louis XIV. (about 3,000,000,000 francs). For this purpose he issued a paper currency, which had no real value, because the bank could not pay in good money even a small fraction of the notes issued. To make the bank notes popular Law founded a company for the exploiting of the American colonies. Shares in the ' Mississippi Company ' were sold to investors more cheaply for bank notes than for coin. By various tricks Law made the people believe that the Mississippi Company was earning large profits. Every one was anxious to buy shares, with the result that their value became very high. The government felt rich, and the whole nation fell into a fever of money making. When the in- evitable crash came, and the fraud was detected, the shares and the paper money alike became worthless. Thousands of people were impoverished, and the government was more deeply in debt than before. The whole transaction was called the ' Mississippi Bubble' because, like an inflated soap bubble, it looked glittering and perfect until it burst into nothingness. Decline of France under Louis XV. — Louis XV. was a lazy, pleasure-loving king. He fell under the con- trol of mistresses, among whom Madame de Pompadour was most notorious. She concluded foreign alliances, made and unmade ministers and generals, and threw the whole administration into a hopeless muddle of favoritism and corruption. In the Seven Years' War France sided with her old rival Austria against Prussia (see the following chapter). The issue of the war was most unfortunate for France. . The THE FRENCH MONARCHY 309 defeats inflicted 011 her armies by Frederick the Great put an end to her prestige in Europe. More serious still was the loss of Canada, many West India Islands, and most of India, to England. French sea power was destroyed for a time. England stepped into the heritage of Spain, Portugal, and France as the ruler of a colonial world empire. Louis XV. was unmoved by these national disasters. He and his court foresaw that their course would ultimately lead to ruin. They did not care what would happen to their successors, so long as they could enjoy themselves. 'After us the deluge,' said Madame de Pompadour. And the deluge really did come under the following reign. King, queen, and nobles were then all swept to the same ruin by the terrible French revolution. CHAPTER XXVI THE RISE OF PRUSSIA Early History of Pf-ussia. — The History of Prussia is almost the same as the history of the Hohenzollern family. The Hohenzollern were powerful lords in the tenth century. During the fifteenth century a Hohenzollern became elector of Brandenburg, the country in which the capital city Berlin is now situated. Prussia was then a country to the north-east of Brandenburg, inhabited by Slavic people. After the Crusades it had been conquered by the Teutonic Knights, who forced the natives to accept Christianity. In the sixteenth century the knights elected a prince of Brandenburg as their commander, thus preparing the union of the two countries. During and after the Thirty Years' War the double ruler of Brandenburg and Prussia was in a dangerous position. His lands were contiguous to powerful states, whose sovereigns were always ready and eager to prey on their weaker neighbors. Sweden con- trolled the Baltic, and had a foothold in Northern Germany. The king of Poland was the feudal suzerain of the Prussian Duke. Poland was then THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 311 much stronger than Brandenburg, and the PoHsh king would gladly have converted his nominal suze- rainty over Prussia into actual sovereignty. A succession of able princes made out of such weak and exposed territories the closely-knit monarchy of modern Prussia, the leading military state in Europe. From the Electorate to the Kingship. — Frederick William, called the Great Elector (1640- 1688), gained some territory by the Peace of Westphalia. He adroitly used a war between Sweden and Poland to benefit himself at the expense of the belligerent powers. He encouraged French Huguenots, who had fled from their homes, to settle in his country. Their skill was welcome for his aim of encouraeine industry and trade. He also began to abolish such feudal privileges of the nobles as interfered with the efficiency of the central government. The chief aim of the Great Elector's successor, Frederick III., was to get the royal title. This dignity lay in the gift of the German emperor. He was little likely to raise up a rival for Austria by bestowing- the name of kino- on the ruler of Bran- denburg. Frederick succeeded, however, in placing the emperor under an obligation by helping him in the War of the Spanish Succession. With the im- perial consent thus secured, Frederick was crowned king of Prussia in 1701. As king he styled himself Frederick I. Frederick William I. — This ruler, the second kino- of Prussia, has often been ridiculed for his oddities. His ruling passion was economy. Compared with the extravagance of Louis XIV. it looked like stinginess 312 MODERN HISTORY With a hatred of laziness he joined a fiery temper. He used to walk about the streets of Berlin with a cane, and if he met any idler, whether man or woman, he sent that person to work with a sound beating. The peculiarities of Frederick William were only exaggerations of his fine qualities as a ruler. By his economies he could maintain a model army of 70,000 men, and store up a large reserve in his treasury. He encouraged industry and frugality among his subjects, and so increased the general wealth of the country. His government was absolute, but it was a truly paternal absolutism. Frederick the Great (1740- 1786). — Frederick Wil- liam's son, so famous in history as Frederick the Great, had a gentler disposition and more varied talents than his father. The difference in character, combined with an obstinacy of purpose which both had in common, led to a total estrangement between father and son. As a young man, Frederick even tried to escape from his father's tyranny by flight. The escape was prevented, and Frederick's companion and friend was executed in punishment for the offence. Frederick witnessed the execution from his prison window. For a while he feared lest the enraged king might decree death for him also. In his riper years the crown prince got a better understanding of his father's merits. He took an active share in the administration, and completed his military edu- cation by serving through a campaign under Prince Eugene of Savoy. Frederick William's death found his successor prepared to carry on the government with undiminished efficiency. THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 113 War of the Austrian Succession. — Frederick wished to employ the army trained by his father for enlarging the Prussian boundaries. An opportunity came soon after his accession, when the emperor Charles VI. died without leaving a son. By an agreement called the Pragmatic Sanction the European sovereigns Frederick the Great. recoenized Charles' daughter Maria Theresa as rightful queen over the Hapsburg dominions. In disregard of the Pragmatic Sanction Frederick threw an army into Silesia, a rich Austrian province adjoining Brandenburg (1740). The Austrian forces were defeated. The Prussian robbery roused the greed of other powers. Spain, France, Bavaria, Savoy, and Saxony joined in the 'War of the 314 MODERN HISTORY Austrian Succession,' all hoping to profit by the spoliation of the defenceless queen. Frederick with- drew from the war when Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to him (1742). England and Holland ranged themselves on the Austrian side, and helped the queen to gain a decisive advantage. By the Austrian successes Frederick was obliged to enter the field again in defence of his newly won province. In the Second Silesian War he again proved his military superiority, and forced Maria Theresa to leave him master of Silesia (1745). Meanwhile the general European conflict extended to the colonies, where that struggle between the French and English began, which was to end with the loss to France of her colonial possessions. But that result came later. The War of the Austrian Succession was closed by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which recognized Maria Theresa as Austrian Queen, and her husband Francis I. as German Emperor. No power save Prussia drew any advantage from the eight years' war. Frederick as an Administrator. — As an administrator in time of peace, Frederick showed an ability and industry which of itself placed him foremost among the rulers of the eighteenth century. He is so often mentioned as one of the world's greatest generals, that his purely peaceful labors, which extended over thirty-five years in a reign of forty-six years, are easily overlooked. Like his father, he supervised personally all the details of government, working with superhuman energy. He regarded his royal calling as a sacred duty, and made the public welfare THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 315 the aim of all his actions. He called himself 'the first servant of the State' At the close of the Seven Years' War his treasury still showed a surplus of thirty million dollars. (Compare the debt left by Louis XIV.) These funds were used for the re- building at the orovernment's expense of ruined villages and for helping new settlers in devastated districts. The draining of marshes, the building of canals, the improvement of agriculture, trade, and industry, all were furthered by the king. The Seven Years' War (1756- 1763). — Maria Theresa brought about an alliance between Austria, France, Russia, and Saxony, for the purpose of crushing the rising power of Prussia. Except Saxony, all of the allies singly had more territory and resources than the Prussian king. With most of Europe leaoued ao^ainst him, Frederick seemed doomed at the outset. England helped him for a while ; other- wise he stood alone. Durino- the war Frederick astonished all Europe by his military genius. Of the battle of Leiithen (1757) Napoleon Bonaparte said, "It alone would have sufficed to make Frederick immortal." The kinp"'s fortitude in time of danger was equally admirable. Twice his case seemed hope- less, but he still held his enemies at bay. At the moment of supreme danger a. new emperor came to the Russian throne, and withdrew at once from the contest, out of admiration for the heroic king. In the following year financial exhaustion forced the Austrian court to make peace. By the treaty of Hubertusburg Silesia remained with Prussia. Com- pared with the cost of the war — 850,000 men perished 3i6 MODERN HISTORY in it — its results were quite negative, and most of the participants gained nothing to balance their losses. Prussia established her position as the equal of Austria in Germany, and as the first military power in Europe. The Anglo-French Phase of the Seven Years' War. — Before the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe the French and English governments had already renewed their struggle for supremacy in North America. The French planned to shut the English settlers out from the Mississippi valley and the lands to the west by building a chain of forts from the lower Mississippi to Canada. In India also French and English trading interests came into conflict. Under the vigorous government of William Pitt, King George IL's prime minister, Canada and the West India Islands were taken from the French. Thereafter the supremacy of the English race in America was undisputed. In India the French had several trading stations, of which Pondicherry was the biggest. The English East India Company had established its trading stations at Madras, near Pondicherry, at Bombay, and at Calcutta. The French were about to make further conquests under the able guidance of governor Diipleix, when their home government ruined the enterprise by misman- WiLLiAM Pitt. THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 317 agement. The East India Company found a leader of genius in Robert Clive. He imitated and improved the methods of Dupleix, and won for his employers the practical monopoly of the Indian trade. For the world's history since then the English gains in America and India have proved far more significant than the terrible seven years' struggle in Europe. Robert Clive first distin- guished himself by capturing Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic. The native ruler of this state was allied with the French, and Clive's suc- cess, followed by other vic- tories caused the downfall of Dupleix. In 1756 Siraj-ud-Daula, the nawab of Bengal, deter- mined to drive the English out of his dominions. Having been defeated by a small force of English under Clive, he allied himself with the French, and prepared for a decisive battle. Clive marched inland from Calcutta with a force of three thousand, of whom one third were Europeans. The nawab had fifty thousand men, and five times as many cannon as the English. But Siraj-ud-Daula was a timid despot, while Clive was, as Pitt called him, ' a heaven-born general.' The nawab's army was dispersed in the famous battle of Plassey. By placing a nawab of his own choice upon the throne, Clive made the East India Company actual rulers of Bengal (1757). CHAPTER XXVII THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA The Conquest of Siberia. — In 1613 the new dynasty of the Romanoffs ascended the Russian throne. The early rulers of this dynasty did little worthy of note. They were not strong enough to assert themselves against their Western neighbors, Turkey, Poland, and Sweden. In the East, however, no vigorous state intervened to stop the expansion of Russian authority across Asia. Small bands of Cossack explorers and adventurers conquered all of Asia north of the Chinese empire and up to Bering Strait. In 1643 an exploring expedition descended the Amur river to the sea of Ochotsk. The important trading town of Irkutsk near lake Baikal became Russian in 1652. The Russians were twice repulsed from the Amur by the energetic Manchu government of China. In 1689 the two empires made the treaty of Nerchinsk, which left the whole Amur region in Chinese hands. For nearly two hundred years this treaty stopped any further expansion of Russia in the Far East. Peter the Great (1689- 1725). — Russia at this time was a purely Asiatic power. Though the physical boundary of Europe is placed along the Ural THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 319 mountains, political and social Europe stopped at the Russian frontiers. The Muscovites were Eastern rather than Western in dress, manners, and institutions. Since Ivan the Terrible, Western reforms had been attempted on a small .scale by several rulers The first one to lift Russia to a political equality v^ith the European powers was Peter the Great. Peter the Great. Peter assumed the government as a youth of seventeen. Through foreign merchants settled in Moscow he had acquired some Western learning and had developed a keen interest in ship-building. He grew convinced that the proper development of Russia required many reforms according to Western models, and above all a command of the sea. With remarkable energy and persistency Peter followed this double aim throutrhout his reig^n. 320 MODERN HISTORY Peter's Self-Education. — In 1696 Peter took the fortified harbor of Azof at the head of the Black Sea from the Turks. The experience of the two expeditions needed for this conquest convinced him that his people had first of alt to learn how to build and sail ships. He determined to begin the national education with himself. He travelled to Holland and worked there in disguise as a ship's carpenter. In the docks of the East India Company at Amsterdam he assisted in the building of a frigate, doing his share of work like any ordinary laborer. Meanwhile he also inspected factories, schools, and hospitals, attended lectures on medicine ; in short, absorbed everything that seemed to him worthy of imitation in his own realm. He continued his studies in England, and planned to travel to Italy, but was recalled by a revolt of the imperial guards. Before returning home he engaged foreign artisans, artists, and military officers. Western Reforms. — Peter's first measure in Moscow was the strict punishment of the rebellious guards or Strelitzes. They were broken up and replaced by an army after the European pattern. The Russians all wore long beards. To cut the beard was considered a sacrileoe, almost like muti- latino- the bodv. The national costume was a lono-, loose robe, with long sleeves coming down over the hands. Peter argued that a man with a trailing gown and sleeved hands could not be an efficient worker. The beard he regarded as the symbol of conservatism. By imperial decree the Russians were now com- manded to shave and to cut off their long skirts and THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 321 sleeves. Barbers and tailors were stationed at the gates of Moscow, ready to * civilize ' all passers-by who had not already obeyed the imperial order. Peter himself trimmed off the beards and sleeves of some nobles who obstinately clung to the old fashion. Only a few more of Peter's reforms can here be mentioned. He stopped, so far as possible, the oriental seclusion of the women. He built roads and canals, opened mines, struck a new coinage, and started a postal service. While retaining and even strengthening autocracy in the central government, he established a certain measure of self-oovernment by the people in their local affairs. War with Sweden. — At Peter's accession, Sweden was the leading power in Northern Europe. She controlled the Baltic, and shut Russia off from naval communication with the West. Only from Archangel on the White Sea a diminutive trade could be carried on during the summer months around the North Cape. In 1697 Charles XII. came to the Swedish throne. As he was young and inexperienced, the states adjoining the Baltic took the opportunity to put an end to the Swedish supremacy over that sea. Peter the Great joined in an alliance with the kings of Poland and Denmark against Charles XH. Campaigns of Charles XII. — The young Swedish king had a genius for warfare which quickly broke up the plans of the allies. He defeated the Danes, marched northward against Russia, and routed the superior forces of Peter at Narva (1700). Peter comforted his officers by remarking : " The Swedes G,H. X 322 MODERN HISTORY will have the advantage of us for some time, but they will teach us at last how to beat them." Charles led his small army into Poland, defeated the king, and placed one of his allies on the Polish throne. All Europe watched his victories with astonishment and admiration. Foundation of St. Petersburg ; Defeat of Charles XII. — Meanwhile Peter occupied the Swedish territory on the Gulf of Finland. In the marshes at the mouth of the river Neva he built his new capital of St. Petersburg, his * window to the West.' The difficulties of laying out the city were almost insur- mountable, but Peter succeeded by extraordinary measures. The whole land had first to be filled up, and the buildings had to be raised on wooden piles driven into the swamp. In 1708 Charles XII. led his army into Russia. Believing himself to be invincible, he rashly marched into the interior, far away from his base. Peter, who had improved his army since the defeat at Narva, scattered the Swedish forces at Pitltowa (1709). Sweden never recovered from the blow. The adventurous Swedish king spent some years in Turkey, where he brought about a campaign against Peter, which resulted in the temporary loss of Azof. After his death during a war with Norway, his reck- lessness had left nothing but losses for his country. By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Russia gained the eastern shore of the Baltic. From now on maritime trade and free communication with Western Europe were secured for Russia. She was now a European as well as an Asiatic power. THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 323 Cruelty of Peter the Great, — Peter had an iron will and a terrible temper. With his own hand he executed some of the revolted Strelitzes. The obstinate members of the con- servative party he treated with merciless severity. Torture and wholesale deportation to Siberia impressed his will on all who obstructed his reforms. When his own son Alexis joined the opposition, he had him tortured to death. In a letter sent to Alexis before his trial the emperor had written: " Since I do not spare my own life for the good of my country and the prosperity of my people, why should I spare yours ? " Though Peter's cruelty was a fault in his character, its ultimate effect was wholesome for Russia. It was only by sheer force that the unwilling Russians could be dragged towards a higher and freer civilization. Catherine II. ( 1 763- 1 796). — Most of Peter's successors continued his policy. The ablest ruler after him was Catherine II., vi^ho v^^as for Russia what Queen Elizabeth was for England. An English historian places her even above Elizabeth, calling her ' the greatest woman, probably, who ever sat on a throne.' While carrying on internal reforms along the lines laid down by Peter the Great, she vastly increased her territories by successful wars and diplomacy. After the death of Frederick the Great she alone dominated international politics in Europe. Territorial Expansion ; Partition of Poland. — Cathe- rine II., urged by her favorite minister Potemkin, waged successful wars of conquest against Turkey. She acquired most of the northern coast of the Black Sea, and pushed the Russian frontiers far into the Caucasus. The kingdom of Poland suffered from constant disorder arising out of the arrogance of the feudal THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 325 nobility. The Polish king could not assert his authority, and the nobles could not agree on united action. The consequent weakness of the country was so tempting to the neighboring states, that they finally agreed to divide it up among themselves. The first partition grew out of a secret treaty agreed on be- tween Catherine II., Frederick the Great, and Maria Theresa. The Polish patriots under the lead of the heroic Kosciusko made desperate attempts to recover their land and their liberty. Their uprisings were crushed, and Poland was blotted from the map by the second and third partitions. Since then the Poles have made many unsuccessful attempts to regain their nationality from their Russian, Prussian, and Austrian masters. CHAPTER XXVIII ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE FOUNDATION OF THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY OF EARLY AMERICAN HISTORY The First White Settlements. — On May 13, 1907, President Roosevelt welcomed guests from most states of the globe at the opening of the Jamestown tri- centennial exhibition. Just three hundred years earlier the first permanent English settlement was founded on the same spot (1607). By 1624 the colony of Virginia numbered 2000 inhabitants. In 1620 a small band of devout Puritans, usually called the ' PilgiHms,' who had left England to escape religious persecution, founded Plymouth, the first settlement in New England. A larger influx of Puritans began in 1629 under the religious tyranny of Archbishop Laud in England. Boston was founded in 1630. The spirit of the colonists is illustrated by the foundation in 1636 of Harvard College, the first collegiate institution in America. The Dtttch established trading posts along the coast between Virginia and New England. They derived ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 327 their claim to American territory from the discoveries of Henry Hudson, an English navigator in Dutch employ, who was the first to sail up the river named after him. A Dutch merchant bought Manhattan Island, on which New York City now stands, from the Indians for the nominal price of twenty-four dollars. The settlement there founded was called N'ew Amstei'dam. A sharp rivalry between the Dutch and the English set in at once. The French first settled in Nova Scotia, and in 1608 at Qtcebec, on the St. Lawrence River. The rivalry between France and England was settled for a while by the treaty of St. Germain, in 1632, which left Canada and Nova Scotia in French possession. Principal Events until the Revolution of 1688. — Under charters granted by the English king several other colonies were started along the Atlantic seaboard. To the north of Viroinia the EnoHsh Lord Balti- more established the colony of Maryland, with the capital Baltimore. Pennsylvania was named after its founder, William Penn, a prominent Quaker. The Quakers were a devout sect of Christians, who led very simple lives, and considered war to be wrong. Their refusal to serve as soldiers often brouoht them into conflict with the authorities. Pennsylvania became for them a place of refuge from persecution. The name of its chief city, Philadelphia, signified the * city of brotherly love.' Pennsylvania was first settled in 1682. Nearly twenty years earlier the Dutch government had been forced to give up New Amsterdam to the English. Charles II. granted the country to his 328 MODERN HISTORY brother, James, Duke of York. The settlements in the Hudson valley were henceforth called New York. Most of the Dutch settlers remained. As will be told below, the last English Stuarts attempted to recover the arbitrary power wielded so disastrously by James I. and Charles I. The Eno'lish colonies felt the weight of the royal dis- pleasure far more than the liberals in the mother country. The of self- en- joyed until then by the colonists were revoked, and a royal governor ruled according to the king's pleasure. The 'Stuart Tyranny in New England' was ended the moment news of the revolution at home reached Boston. William and Mary were joyously proclaimed as sove- reigns, and the old privileges were again asserted. rights p-overnment o William Penn. Reign of Charles II. — Charles II. inclined to the despotism which was the heritage of all Stuarts. But he was careful not to go to extremes, remembering ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 329 the fate of his father. While officially adhering to the Church of England, the king was at heart a Catholic, and would have liked to favor Catholics in the orovernment. A suspicion that Charles planned to overthrow the established Church bred sfreat excitement in Parliament. A law passed in 1673 shut out from office all men not conformino^ to the State religion. The struggle between king and Parliament led to the formation of two political parties, the ' Whigs' and the ' Tories' The Tories were conservative supporters of the king. The Whigs constituted what in modern politics is called the progressive or liberal party. They stood for constitutional liberty, and favored the people rather than the king. Towards the close of the reiijn the Whig^s went too far in their attacks on the royal prerogative. Popular sympathy sided with the king, and the Tories secured a majority in Parliament. The result was that Charles II. succeeded in re-establishine an absolutism resembling that of the earlier Stuarts. The Revolution of 1688. — When Charles II.'s brother came to the throne as James II., he ruled from the start as an absolute monarch. By the ' Declaration of hidulgence ' he tried to annul the law against Non- conformists, and actually appointed Roman Catholics to important offices. The whole nation, excepting the Catholics, was indio-nant at the kinsr's disregard of the law of the land. When a son was born to James, and the people feared lest his Catholic rule might be continued, they decided to be rid of him altogether. William of Orange, the Dutch 330 MODERN HISTORY Stadtholder, who had James' daughter Mary as wife, was secredy invited to take the throne. In 1688 WilHam of Orange landed in England. James II. found himself deserted and fled to France. A newly called Parliament declared that it was 'incon- sistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a Popish prince.' Wil- liam and Mary were hailed as joint sovereigns. The Bill of Rights (1689). — William owed his throne to the will of the people, expressed through Parlia- ment. In the first year of his reign he assented to the Bill of Rights, a declaration of the ' true, ancient, and indubitable rights of the people of this realm.' This bill was a continuation and complement of the Magna Charta (12 15) and the Petition of Right (1628), It guaranteed freedom of speech and debate in Parliament, and forbade the keeping of an army in time of peace, save by consent of Parliament. From now on the dependence of the English kings on Parliament was assured. Enmity between England and France. — The Stuart kinos all had been orood friends of the French monarchs. With William of Orange, the most determined foe of Louis XIV. ascended the English throne. The Dutch had been the greatest sufferers from the aofsressions of the 'Grand Monarch,' and William at once ranged his new realm against the arch-enemy of his fatherland. In the great European wars of the century that followed England almost invariably fought against France. Queen Anne. — William and Mary left no heirs for the throne. The son and the grandson of James II., ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 331 known as the 'Pretenders,' both attempted to become kinofs of E no-land, but were shut out from the sue- cession, because they were Catholics. Princess Anne of the Stuart family, being of the Protestant faith, was quietly recognized as queen in 1702. Her reign was the glorious period of Marlborough, who carried the fame of the English arms over Europe in the War of the Spanish Succession. In home politics there was con- stant rivalry between the Whigs and the Tories. A new feat- ure of political life was the employment of able authors for party controversy. Most of the writings of that period had a political bearing. Accession of the Hanoverian Dynasty. — After queen Anne's death, in 17 14, the nearest Pro- testant heir to the English throne was the elector of Hanover, George I. Until 1837 the English kings remained also rulers of Hanover. George I. (1714- 1727) never learned to speak English, and preserved throughout his life his native German manners and customs. Naturally he was not popular with his Eng- lish subjects. As he could not understand the public affairs of his new realm, the government fell wholly into the hands of ministers responsible to Parliament. George II. (1727- 1760) spoke English, but did not try to assert himself so as to weaken the ministerial rule. From 1721 until 1742 the administration was guided by Sir Robert Walpole. He was a clever Sir Robert Walpoi.e. 332 MODERN HISTORY politician and an able financier. Under his ministry- England enjoyed twenty years of peace and material prosperity. But he set a bad example to his sub- ordinates by his cynical immorality. Systematic cor- ruption and bribery were his methods for assuring his majority in Parliament. George III. (1760- 1820). — The third of the 'Four Georges' was English by birth and education. Unlike his father and his grandfather, he took the leading part in the govern- ment. His mother had said to him, ' George, be a king,' and a king in the old Stuart or Tudor sense he aimed to be. He tried to exalt his own position by diminishing the power of Parliament. He re- vived the system of bribery of Robert Walpole, which William Pitt had wisely discouraged. By bestowing on his supporters titles, pensions, and offices, the king kept up a strong royalist party in Parliament. Unfortunately for Eng- land Georo-e HI. was narrow-minded and obstinate. He caused the defeat of the British arms and the loss of the American colonies. No Taxation without Representation. — King George HI. and his supporters in Parliament wished to pay the soldiers employed for the defence of the colonies by taxing colonial trade. The colonists were violently George HI. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 333 opposed to any tax voted by the English Parliament, because they had no representatives in that body. They maintained that taxation without representation was unconstitutional. With this principle of law all Englishmen agreed. But the advocates of the tax argued that colonial interests were represented in Parliament throuoh certain Enolish members, even though the colonies sent no members to represent them directly. For a while the home government respected the feelings of the colonies. But George III. and his ministers provoked war by enforcing a tax on tea. The American Revolution. — The thirteen colonies were no match against the veteran army and the overwhelming navy of the English government. Two circumstances combined, how- ever, to give final victory and independence to the colonies, success was due to the energy and devotion of General George Washington. Secondly, the assist- ance given by the French government, which finally declared war on England, diverted the British navy, and brought about the decisive defeat of the Ena;lish at Yorktown, 1 7 8 1 . Declaration of Independence. — The colonies all sent deleofates to a congress which first met at Phila- delphia in 1774. On July 4, 1776, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, by which all Washington. First and foremost 334 MODERN HISTORY governmental connection with England was formally- renounced. July 4 has since then been celebrated as the birthday of the American nation. The declaration of Independence briefly summed up the political beliefs held by most of the Americans, and justified the revolt against British authority by enumerating the abuses of the government. The political doctrines set forth in the Declaration were not confined to America. They were, on the contrary, of English and French origin, being mainly based on the political writings of the English philo- sopher, John Locke. These doctrines were the forerunners of revolution in France as well as in America. A quotation from the Declaration of Independence will therefore help to explain why absolutism was overthrown on two continents. After a brief preamble the document continues : " We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government. . . . But when a long train of abuses and usurpations . . . evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new Guards for their future security." The First Great Americans. — The young American republic was fortunate in having among its founders a number of eminent men. Two of them are indeed counted among the great men of all ages. They are George Washington and Benjamin Franklin. Washington, now revered by all Americans as the ' Father of his Country,' was a wealthy planter in Virginia. He had gained some military experi- ence during the English and French war, and was chosen as ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 335 commander-in-chief of the American forces. In the face of a superior enemy, with undiscipHned soldiers, and with half-hearted support from the Congress at Philadelphia, Washington gained victories where only ruin seemed possible. His true greatness lay less in his skill as a general, than in the steadfastness and nobility of his character. After the revolution his grateful fellow-country- men honored him by electing him unanimously as the first President of the Union. Franklin was born in Boston as the fifteenth child of a tallow chandler. His father could not afford to keep him at school, and apprenticed him to an elder brother, a printer. Having quarrelled with his brother, who was an unjust master, Franklin made his way to Philadelphia. When he 336 MODERN HISTORY landed there he was penniless. By untiring industry as a printer and newspaper writer he made himself a wealthy man. Meanwhile he had also risen to be the most influential citizen of Philadelphia. His eye was always on the public welfare. He started the first public library, organized the militia and the fire brigade, introduced pave- ments and street lamps. His early international renown rested on his scientific work. He first proved that lightning is an electric discharge, by flying a kite just before a thunderstorm, and so leading an electric current from the upper atmosphere to the ground. During the revolution he was American minister in Paris. The respect and admira- tion which the French felt for Franklin made it easy for him to win France as an ally against Britain. When past eighty years old, he was one of the most active members of the convention which drew up the Constitution of the United States. Few lives are so well fitted as his to be studied by young men who wish to advance themselves by honest industry and by true service to their fellow-men. The Treaty of Paris (1783). — The American Revolu- tion was ended by the treaty of Paris. Great Britain acknov^Iedged American independence, and agreed to other favorable terms. The boundaries of the new nation were fixed along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes in the north, and along the Mis- sissippi in the west. Spain kept the country of Florida to the south, from the Atlantic to the mouth of the Mississippi. Adoption of the American Constitution. — The Con- federation under which the war with England had been carried on proved unequal to the task of governing thirteen independent states. Jealousies and quarrels arose among the states, and it looked as though they could not enjoy the fruits of their ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 337 newly won liberty. Disunion would have placed the Americans at the mercy of their first European enemy^ The free growth of the young nation was assured by the adoption of a federal constitution in 1788. Broadly speaking, the single states gave up to the central government all powers needed for the common G.H. 338 MODERN HISTORY welfare, retaining full rio^hts of self-sfovernment in all local affairs. The constitution provided for a legisla- ture of two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. Executive power was vested in a President, to be chosen anew every four years, A Supreme Court received jurisdiction over all cases which could not be settled in the state courts. The Constitution afforded a sound basis for the Union, henceforth styled the ' United States of America.' A new capital was presently laid out by the first President, Washington, whose name the city still commemorates. SECTION II FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION UNTIL RECENT TIMES CHAPTER XXIX THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Introductory. — The French Revolution has a place in politi- cal history similar to that which the Reformation holds in religious history. As the latter was a revolt against the spiritual oppression of the Church, so the former was a terrible uprising against the abuses of a tyrannical monarchy. The French Revolution overthrew the governments based on the ' Divine Right of Kings,' and blazed the way for the rise of popular constitutional governments, depending wholly or in part on the * consent of the governed.' The ideas of popular rights, to which the old French monarchy was sacrificed, have been accepted nearly all over Europe, have recently been adopted in Japan, and have proved their invasion of China by the wide-spread demand for a parliamentary government in that most conservative empire. Causes of the French Revolution. — Several causes of the revolution have already been indicated in earlier parts of this book. They will here be summed up in connection v^ith other important causes. (i) The kings had destroyed the ancient privileges 340 MODERN HISTORY of the people, and had centred all authority in their own persons. Louis XV. was useless and vicious, while his successor, Louis XVL, was equally useless^ though amiable and well intentioned. (2) The high nobility and the upper clergy lived in luxury and idleness at the expense of the people. The feudal nobles no longer bore their former burden of military service, but retained their mediaeval pri- vileges. They paid almost no taxes, and embittered the peasants by many vexatious impositions. Most hateful were the hunting laws, which forbade the farmers to touch any wild animal, while the lords rode over the crops in pursuit of game. (3) The lower and middle classes had made great ad- vances in wealth and intelligence. The French peasants were better off than those of the other continental countries, where the mediaeval serfdom was as yet hardly modified. Yet their lot was very hard, compared with what the poorest farmer demands as his rights nowadays. The immense burden of taxation fell chiefly on the peasantry. The pleasures and privileges of the nobles were insults and burdens to the peasants. And the French peasants during the eighteenth century were no longer so dull that they could not understand the injustice of their position. The more they longed for reform the more passionate did their hatred of the nobility grow. The middle classes, called in France the ' bourgeoisie,* were chiefly manufacturers and traders. The bulk of the working officials was also drawn from their ranks, so that they fully understood the rottenness of the administration. The enormous public debt fell heavily on the middle class capitalists, the chief subscribers to government loans. They foresaw that the State would be unable to repay them the vast sums borrowed from them, and they justly held the government responsible for its financial management. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 341 (4) The eighteenth century was an age of free inquiry and bold criticism. All branches of learning and all institutions were regarded in the new light of Reason. The learned world inclined to disregard all beliefs and traditions which were not in harmony with reason. In the field of religion and politics this intellectual movement produced a revolu- tionary literature, which set up new theories of the rights of man and the duties of government. While rulers still clung to the ' Divine Right of Kings,' their subjects were taught that government rested on the consent of the governed, and that an oppressed people had the right to revolt against their oppressors. Voltaire, a philosopher of great learning and genius, was also a brilliant and witty writer. He did more than any one man before his time to undermine the old beliefs and traditions. The books of J. J. Rousseaii were discussed in the high society of Paris as well as in the village gathering of peasants. They taught that all men were equal, and that artificial class distinctions were evil. Men, according to Rousseau, should return to a state of nature, where none are rich and none are poor, and where no one has the power to oppress his fellow men. (5) The example of the American Revolution en- couraged men to hope that a similar event w^ould bring free institutions to the French people. (6) Famines v^ere of common occurrence in single districts, and drove the already discontented people to open riots. During the political crisis of 1788 and 1789 famine was wide-spread. Starvation maddened the great mob of Paris, and its fury gave to the Revolution that ghastly aspect which makes all other popular upheavals in modern Europe look tame beside it. Meetingf of the States-General (1789). — King Louis XVI. tried his best to better the condition of his 342 MODERN HISTORY people and to reduce the public debt. One of his ministers, Turgot, proposed wise reforms, but failed because the seltish upper classes refused to bear their just part of the public burdens. As a last resource the king called a meeting of the States-General. This was a council representing three classes, the nobility, the clergy, and the commons. The last- named class, called the Third Estate, had not been summoned since the year 1614. According to an old rule each estate voted as a united body. The nobles and the clergy by their two voices could prevent the middle class with its one vote from making any reform. After some violent debates the third estate simply proceeded to do business without the two others. By a revolutionary measure they declared themselves to be the proper representatives of the nation under the new name of National Assembly. Many members of the nobility and the clergy ultimately joined this new law-making body. Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789).— The Bastille was a fortress in Paris, which was used as a prison for political offenders. Hundreds of innocent men had been shut up in its dark cells, merely because some person with influence at court had wished to put them out of the way. The people rightly looked upon the Bastille as an embodiment of tyranny. A frenzied mob seized the arms in a public armory and attacked the Bastille. Its garrison was murdered, the prisoners were set free, and the fortress was razed to the ground amidst the delirious rejoicings of the populace. Liberal men throughout Europe welcomed the event as the beg^inningf of a freer ap-e. The THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 343 people had triumphantly asserted their rights ; des- potism had been dealt a mortal blow. For the future course of the Revolution the first victory of the mob had terrible consequences. The lower classes now felt conscious of their power, and were soon impelled to further acts of violence. The King is brought to Paris. — Within three months after the fall of the Bastille the Paris populace demanded that the king should come to the capital. There were rumors that he was plotting to use the army against the revolutionists. Impelled by hatred and hunger, and by that aimless excitement which always makes an ignorant mob dangerous, an immense host marched from Paris to Versailles. Marie Antoinette, the queen, had by her pride enflamed the anger of the lower classes. A dirty crowd stormed the palace at Versailles, intending to kill the royal family. Lafayette, the leader of the National Guard, barely saved their lives. The mob brought the king and his whole family triumphantly to Paris. The National Assembly presently was also obliged to meet in Paris instead of Versailles. Henceforth the mob exerted a steadily increasing pressure on the deliberations. Fear of mob violence sealed the lips of moderate members, while the extreme radicals were encouraged by the applause of the masses. Work of the National Assembly. — The National Assembly broke completely with the past, and set up new institu- tions based on the teachings of Rousseau and other theorists. On August 4, 1789, all titles and privileges of nobility were abolished. The whole social order of France was thus upset by a single resolution. The 344 MODERN HISTORY Assembly worked out a nezv constitution, making the government a limited monarchy, in which most of the power rested in a Legislative Assembly of one chamber. The old provinces were abolished, and the country was newly divided into departments named after the rivers and mountains. Emigration of the Nobles and Attempted Flight of the King.— Meanwhile the peasants had risen in many provinces, had killed the nobles, and burned their castles. Thousands of nobles fled over the borders and sought help against their democratic countrymen at the foreign courts. The three great Eastern powers, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, were too much preoccupied with the division of Poland to pay earnest attention to French affairs. But the absolute rulers of Europe all felt alarmed at the uprising of democracy in France, because they feared lest their own subjects might be fired to revolution by the French example. In no case could war be declared against the revolutionists so long as the king was virtually a prisoner in the hands of the excitable Paris mob. Plots to effect the escape of the royal family were constantly planned, and finally the flight beyond the Rhine was actually undertaken. By promptness the king and queen could easily have reached their friends, who expected them with a cavalry escort. Invaluable hours were wasted, however, and the royal family were arrested in a village half way from the borders. Hereafter the king was closely guarded. Many people declared that his attempted flight was equivalent to an THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 345 abdication of the throne, while a large party also regarded him as a traitor against his own country. The king him- self was completely intimidated, and soon after took the oath to adhere to the new constitution, which stripped him of nearly all prerogatives. The Declaration of Pillnitz, and the Battle of Valmy. — In August, 1 79 1, the Prussian King, Frederick William II., together with the Austrian Emperor, issued a declaration from Pillnitz, in which they threatened to take steps against the French revolu- tionists. The latter were incensed by the foreign interference in the internal affairs of France, and forced Louis to declare war. In the ensuing cam- paigns the raw French recruits were at first beaten. But their enthusiasm for the cause of liberty soon checked the progress of the allied Prussian and Austrian armies. The former were stopped by a severe cannonade at P^a/mj/ (September, 1792). The commanding Prussian general, who had at first despised the French armies, ordered an ignominious retreat. Such was the beo-rnnino- of those wars between Europe and revolutionary France, by which ultimately a French military usurper, Napoleon, was to become dictator of Europe. Influence of Foreign Intervention on the Progress of the Revolution. — The Legislative Assembly provided by the new constitution met in October, 1791. Under the excitement caused by the declaration of Pillnitz a majority of democrats was elected. The mem- bers of the moderate democratic party were called Girondists, while the radical republicans were termed Mountainists, because their seats in the assembly 346 MODERN HISTORY hall were high up. Danton, Robespierre, and Marat were the leaders of the Mountainists. The king still had the right to suspend laws, which he thought bad, by a veto. When he vetoed some violent decrees of the Legislative Assembly, the Girdonists incited an armed mob to attack the royal palace, and to demand that the veto should be abolished. The king and his family were shortly afterwards imprisoned in an ancient building known as the Temple. Thus the last remnant of the royal authority was destroyed. Meanwhile the French armies in the field had been defeated, and the Prussians were on the march towards Paris. Danton, at the time Minister of Justice, determined to terrify the royalists and the foreign allies by ordering the wholesale execution of churchmen and aristocrats confined in the Paris prisons. About one thousand people were killed in these ' September massacres.' Declaration of the Republic; Execution of Louis XVI. — The Legislative Assembly dissolved itself on September 21, 1792, and its place was at once taken by the National Convention. This body on the same day declared France to be a Republic. When the French generals followed up the victory of Valmy by the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) and of some principalities along the Rhine, the Convention decided to extend the Revolution into the other European countries. They spread copies of a decree promising ' fraternity and assistance to all peoples who desire their liberty.' This promise THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 347 was really dangerous for the neighboring governments, because many people were anxious to follow the French example, and to shake off the bonds of absolutism and of feudal oppression. Liberal men everywhere felt sympathy for the revolution. But the sympathy gave place to fear and disgust when the National Convention had the king tried as a traitor and executed by the guillotine^ (Jan. 2i> 1793)- The execution was both a crime and a political blunder. It increased that horror of the revolution which its foreign friends had already begun to feel after the September massacres. Coalition against France. — In England especially public opinion now urged the government into war with France. Such a war was also necessary for purely political reasons, because the threatened French conquest of Holland was a menace to English trade and sea-power. Under the great prime minister William Pitt, the younger, England carried on war by sea and land, and formed one European coalition after another for the purpose of forcing France back within its original boundaries. The first coalition, embracing Holland, Spain, Austria, Prussia, and many lesser states, opened the war in 1793 by invading France from three sides. The French armies were beaten. The Committee of Public Safety. — The National Convention met the danger with incredible energy and enthusiasm. The Girondists, who quarrelled with the radical Mountamists, were arrested by order ^ An engine for the swift and painless decapitation of criminals, named after Dr. Guillotin, who advocated its general use. 348 MODERN HISTORY of an armed mob that invaded the Assembly hall. The Mountainists, now left in sole control, organized a secret 'Committee of Public Safety' which wielded absolute power over the country. The government, William Pitt. though still a republic in name, was thereby changed to an oligarchy. Robespierre was the head of the committee. Its ablest member was Carnof, perhaps the greatest war minister in history. He raised and organized immense armies, appointed generals, and planned campaigns. Within THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 3-49 a year he cleared France of its foreign enemies, and laid the mihtary basis for the later glorious victories of Napoleon. The Reign of Terror (June, 1793, to July, 1794). — The Committee's method of enforcing obedience to its orders was simple and terrible. Whoever showed signs of disloyalty or disobedience was put to death. Executions by the guillotine became a daily spectacle enjoyed by the viler portion of the Paris mob. In July, 1794, the number of daily decapitations in Paris rose to 196. The Queen, Marie Antoinette, and twenty-one Girondist leaders were among the victims. A patriotic young woman, named Charlotte Corday, hoped that she might stop the Terror by killing one of its chief advo- cates. She made her way to the rooms of Marat, and stabbed him to death. But here, as always, assassination proved no remedy. On the contrary, Marat's colleagues revenged his assassination by increased cruelty. There is no space here to give a clear account of those stirring times. New men and new ideas, some truly great, others visionary or fanatic, followed one another in bewil- dering swiftness. It was during the Reign of Terror that the old calendar was abolished together with the Christian religion. The whole social order in all its aspects was to be started on a new basis. Among the sensible reforms was the metric system of weights and measures, which has survived Marie Antoinette. 350 MODERN HISTORY to the present day, and promises to become the universal standard throughout the civiUzed world. Fall of Robespierre; End of the Terror. — By having his opponents in the Convention, notably Danton, brought to the guillotine, Robespierre made himself dictator. He declared that he wished to establish an ideal government based on brotherly love, liberty, and equality. He denounced atheism, the denial of God's existence, as immoral, and led the Convention to pass a decree establishing the worship of the * Supreme Being' as the national cult. All opposition was punished with death. In six weeks 1366 people were executed. At last Robespierre's own associates beean to fear lest his ambition mi^ht send them also to the guillotine. They suddenly turned against him, and denounced him in the Convention as a traitor. Next day Robespierre's head fell under the same knife which had for over three months been the symbol and instrument of his rule. By his death the reign of Terror was ended. The mass of the French citizens was tired of the constant excite- ment which had been kept up by the revolutionary agitators. They wished to return to a quiet and normal life. Formation of the Directory (1795). — The Convention now drew up a new constitution, by which the executive power was vested in a Directory of five members. The legislative body was to consist of two houses, while the three former legislatures of the revolution had been single houses. The franchise (right to vote), which in 1793 had been based on universal suffrage, was now restricted to citizens THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 351 paying a certain amount of taxes. This and other measures angered the Paris mob. On October 5 an armed rabble advanced to attack the assembly hall where the Convention sat. But a firm young artillery officer met the mob with grape shot. Before his well aimed cannon they fled in dismay. This officer was the first man who understood how mob rule could be beaten down. His name was Napoleon Bonaparte. CHAPTER XXX THE NAPOLEONIC ERA Early Life of Napoleon. — Napoleon was born in 1769 at Ajaccio, the capital of Corsica. He was the second son of the patrician family of Bonaparte. During his boyhood, Corsica was conquered by the French, and the Bonapartes thus became French subjects. Napoleon showed unusual ability as a student at the military school at Brienne. In 1793, when the port of Toulon allied itself with the English against the revolutionary government, Napoleon was an artillery officer in the army sent to punish the city. By his plans, which were accepted by the commanding generals, the city was soon forced to surrender. Though only twenty-four years of age, he had now made a reputation. During the following year he served as a general of artillery, and won influence amono- leadincr members of the orovernment. Napoleon's First Italian Campaign (1796- 1797). — Under the Directory Napoleon was entrusted with the supreme command of the army sent against the Austrians in Italy. The older generals were at first distrustful and jealous of their young commandant. But they soon learned to THE NAPOLEOmC ERA 353 admire him as a genius in the art of war. Napoleon always knew how to win the enthusiastic devotion of his soldiers. His ability to make stirring addresses was shown in his first proclamation : " Soldiers, you are ill fed and almost naked. The government owes you much, but can do nothing for you. Your patience and your courage do you honor, but procure you neither glory nor profit. I am about to lead you into the most fertile plains of the world : there you will find great cities and rich provinces ; there you will win honor, glory, and riches. Soldiers of the army of Italy, will you lack courage?" The ensuing campaign wds the most remarkable fought on Italian soil since the days of Hannibal. The Austrians were out-generalled and beaten at every point. In the spring of 1797 Bonaparte marched close to Vienna, the Austrian capital, and forced the emperor to make peace. By the treaty of Cainpo Formio the Austrian Netherlands were ceded to France, and the Rhine was accepted as the eastern boundary of the republic. Northern Italy was converted into two new states, modelled after the French pattern, called the Cisalpine and the Ligurian Republics. The Egyptian Expedition (1798- 1799). — After the humiliation of Austria, England remained the one great enemy of the French Republic. Napoleon con- ceived the adventurous scheme of attacking England in India, the source of so much English wealth and power. Since the English fleet controlled the ocean, the expedition had to go overland. Egypt was to be the base for a further advance to the East. The Directors gladly assented to Napoleon's plans, because they feared him as a political rival at home. G.H. Z 354 MODERN HISTORY Together with his picked army, Napoleon took a number of scholars, who were to study the ancient monuments of the East. The fleet luckily escaped the British squadron cruising in the Mediterranean, and landed safely in Egypt. Lower Egypt was con- quered with slight losses to the French. But the successes of Napoleon came to naught through the British superiority at sea. Admiral Nelson attacked the French fleet, which was anchored in Abukir bay, and destroyed it completely. This celebrated naval battle of the Nile cut off the communications between Egypt and France. Later on, after Napoleon had returned to France, the army was entirely destroyed. Napoleon becomes First Consul. — During Napoleon's absence the Directory got into difficulties. England formed the Second Coalition of European states aeainst France. The French orenerals were beaten, Italy was lost, and the republic itself was in danger of a foreign invasion. At home also the Directors had great trouble with the royalists and the extreme republicans. When Napoleon heard of these troubles, he deter- mined to seize the government himself. Leaving his army behind, he hastened back to Paris. His immense popularity made it easy for him to over- throw the Directory, and draw up the new constitution of the year 1 799, By this the executive power was vested in three consuls chosen for ten years. Napo- leon as First Consul had practically sole and absolute power, his two colleagues being merely the instru- ments of his will. When the people were asked to THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 355 ratify the constitution, over three milHon voted for it, and only 1500 voted against it. Defeat of the Second Coalition. — As soon as internal affairs were settled, Napoleon prepared to retrieve the military losses suffered during his absence. By secrecy and promptness he succeeded in leading an •army across the Alps without the knowledge of the Austrian general campaigning in the western Po valley. The Austrians were taken by surprise. In the battle of Marengo they were completely defeated, so that Italy was regained at one blow. Austria was glad to make peace on the same terms as those given by the treaty of Campo Formio. England also signed a treaty of peace at Amiens (1802), by which she restored to France most of the conquests made since the be^inninsf of the war. Napoleon's Peace Works. — Napoleon's government showed that he also possessed genius as a statesman and administrator. Prosperity and order soon re- turned to France. In all his reforms Napoleon worked with an energy and rapidity which seemed almost superhuman. The most beneficial reform was his new code of laws, called the Code Napoleon. It was prepared by the most eminent French jurists, and represented a summary of the legal reforms introduced during the revolution. It was largely based on old French and Roman law. . Under the name of ' Code Civil ' it still forms the existing law of France, while several other countries, such as the Argentine Republic, Mexico, and Italy, follow the code more or less closely in their laws. During his confinement at St. Helena, Napoleon once said : *' My true glory is not that I have gained forty battles ; Waterloo will efface the memory of those victories. But 356 MODERN HISTORY that which nothing can efface, which will live for ever, is my civil code." Napoleon Crowns himself Emperor. — The First Consul aimed at making his rule permanent and hereditary. In 1802 he v^as made consul for life, and in 1804 he put the question to the French nation, whether it wanted him to bear the title of Emperor. Nearly all the citi- zens voted in favor of havinof the re- public converted into an empire. \apoleon assumed the crown amid ceremonies imitat- '^'1 ing closely the C( ironation of Char- It Qiagne. The Em- peror's power was practically that of a military dictator. His sudden rise could not have come about if the French people had really been ripe for a democratic government. That Napoleon had aimed at monarchy from the start, appears from the following remark made by him in 1799 : "... a republic ... is a chimera with which the French are infatuated, but which will pass away in time like all the others. What they want is glory and the satisfaction of their vanity ; as for libert}', of that they have no concep- tion. . . . The nation must have a head, a head which is rendered illustrious by glory." THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 357 Renewal of European War. — Napoleon might have enjoyed the fruits of his victories in peace if he could have checked his ambition. But he constantly inter- fered in the affairs of other states, and planned the foundation of a French colonial empire embracing India and parts of America. England was forced to renew the war in self-defence. Russia, Austria, and Sweden joined England in the Third Coalition' (1805). Napoleon made gigantic preparations for an invasion of England. TrocTps and transport vessels were held in readiness at Boulogne. Had the English relaxed their vigilance over the Channel for a day, they might have been lost. The danger vanished by the famous victory of admiral Nelson over the combined French and Spanish fleets off cape Trafalgar^ near Gibraltar (1805). Nelson's order : " England expects every man to do his duty," will never be forgotten. The heroic admiral fell in the thick of the fight. After Trafalgar the British were absolute lords of the sea. In the land campaign Napoleon was more brilliant than ever. By his rapid marches he captured 30,000 Austrians at Ulm, on the Upper Danube. The French soldiers remarked that the Emperor made war no longer with their arms, but with their legs. At Austerlitz, near Vienna, the Austrians and Russians were completely beaten. Prussia was over- thrown, and the French armies marched triumphantly through Berlin. The Russians still continued the war, and fought with the utmost bitterness at Eylau {February, 1807). ^ ^^^ months later they also 358 MODERN HISTORY suffered a decisive defeat at Friedland. Moved pardy by admiration for Napoleon's genius, the Czar Alexander I. concluded the peace of Tilsit (1807). The two arbiters of continental Europe met on a raft anchored in the middle of the Niemen river, between the two armies. The Peace of Tilsit. — At Tilsit Napoleon proposed that he and the Russian Czar should practically divide Europe between them. Prussia was deprived THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 359 of nearly half her dominions. Sweden and Turkey were to be partly incorporated in Russia. In fact Finland was taken from Sweden shortly afterwards. The countries west of Russia which did not form part of Napoleon's empire were either ruled by his relatives or forced into alliance with him. His youngest brother Jerome was king of Westphalia, formerly western Prussia. Louis Bonaparte was king of Holland. Napoleon himself assumed the kingship over Italy, and appointed his stepson Eugene Beau- harnais as viceroy. Joseph Bonaparte, the oldest brother, received the royal crown of Naples. The princes of Western Germany were joined into the ' Confederation of the Rhine,' under Napoleon's protectorate. By these changes the old German Empire was dissolved. Francis I. therefore abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, and assumed the new title of ' Emperor of Austria.' The Continental System. — Great Britain alone refused to bow down before the new Caesar of Europe. Since Napoleon could not reach her with his armies, he determined to cripple her trade. From Berlin he issued a decree forbidding all states of Europe to have any communication with England. British ships and British goods entering any continental harbor were confiscated. The measure caused great distress to the laborers, manufacturers, and shippers of England. But it was felt with equal severity by the European people. Prices of imported goods rose above the means of all but the rich. Trade was ruined every- where. Russia especially had been dependent on 360 MODERN HISTORY English supplies of cloth and other manufactures, and the discomfort caused by the continental system soon made the French alliance unpopular. Meanwhile it was impossible for Napoleon to guard the whole coast of Europe, The English organized a vast smuggling service, and continued secretly to import great quantities of goods. The Peninsular War in Spain {1808-1812). — In 1808 Napoleon interfered in the affairs of Spain and Portugal, because these countries continued to open their ports to British traders. Joseph Bonaparte, king of Naples, was now made king of Spain, and the crown of Naples went to Murat, the Emperor's brother-in-law. The Spaniards, who have always been a proud and patriotic people, at once rebelled against the French kingr. Their resistance was more danoerous than any yet encountered by Napoleon, because most of the population took up arms. When one province was pacified the struggle was renewed in another. The Portuguese and Spanish patriots got help from a British army under the Duke of Wellington. The French generals were slowly but surely forced back and driven across the Pyrenees. The Spanish war cost France a great deal of blood and treasure, and undermined Napoleon's prestige in Europe. The news of the British successes in the peninsula encouraged the other enemies of Napoleon, and so led to his final defeat. The Eussian Expedition (18 12). — Beside the hardships imposed by the continental system, the Czar had several reasons for repenting of his agreement with Napoleon. The latter would not allow the annexation of Turkey to Russia. THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 361 He also insulted Alexander by asking for the hand of a Russian princess, and then suddenly marrying ^ the arch- duchess Maria Louisa of Austria, before the Czar had even sent a reply. The grrowino- bitterness of Russia led to a declaration of war in 18 12. Napoleon had the resources of nearly all Western Europe at his disposal. He equipped an army of nearly half a million men, one-third of whom was drawn from France. In June the 'Grand Army' crossed the Niemen river and invaded Russia. The Russian generals wisely avoided a pitched battle with the invincible strategist, and retreated eastward before the invaders, denuding the country of supplies on their march. At Borodino, not far from Moscow, they tried to stop Napoleon's progress. After terrible fighting they were beaten, but retreated in good order. Napoleon entered the ancient capital of Moscow as conqueror, and expected shortly to dictate the terms of peace to Alexander. The inhabitants of Moscow had all fled from their homes, and the Grand Army had not yet settled in the deserted city, when fires broke out in many places. Three days later nine- tenths of the city lay in ashes. Napoleon now made a fatal mistake. He waited in the ruined city for five weeks, always hoping that the Czar would ask for peace. Not until October 19 did he order the ^ Napoleon's first wife, Josephine, was the daughter of the French general Beauharnais. She bore him no son, and he was anxious to make his throne hereditary. His vanity also prompted him to seek a marriage alHance with one of the old royal houses. He had himself divorced from Josephine, and married a daughter of the Austrian Emperor. By her he had a son, who received the title ' King of Rome.' 362 MODERN HISTORY retreat. That year the winter set in much earlier than usual. The army was overtaken by snow and bitterly cold weather. The Russian soldiers, who were accustomed to the cold, harassed the starving French divisions on all sides, so that the retreat was turned into an endless battle. 250,000 men were slain, starved, or frozen, while 130,000 were taken prisoners. A woeful remnant of 17,000 was all of the Grand Army that escaped from this most awful campaign in European history. Abdication of Napoleon (18 14), — During the past six years the Prussian administration had been thoroughly reformed in all its branches. Many social improvements of the French revolution were introduced, and the army was remodelled along the lines learned from Napoleon. The new social freedom and the hatred of the French masters combined to arouse an intense German patriotism. The Prussian nation only waited for the first opportunity to drive out its oppressors. When the destruction of the Grand Army became known in Germany, the Prussian king was forced by his people to declare war against Napoleon. The latter raised another large army in France, an army consisting largely of half-grown youths, the manhood of the country already having been sacrificed in scores of battles all over Europe. After several bitterly contested engagements had been fought in Saxony, the Austrians also joined the allies against Napoleon. During three days a series of battles was fought around the city of Leipzig, and the French were surrounded and crushed by superior numbers. The allied armies followed Napoleon across the Rhine, and at the same time the British and Spanish forces THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 363 crossed the Pyrenees. Napoleon was ready to fight on to the very last ; but his own generals disobeyed. He had to abdicate, and suffer himself to be hurried to the* little island of Elba. There he was allowed to rule as a petty sovereign, surrounded by a few faithful adherents. The Hundred Days and Waterloo (181 5). — The Bourbon prince Louis XVIII., brother of the late king Louis XVI., was set as kinor over France by the allies. He was a, dull man, to whom the saying, 'The Bourbons learn noth- ino- and forg-et noth- ing,' was well applied. He and his court tried to set France back to the condition before the revolution. The people were soon dis- satisfied, and longed ., for the return of the ^ Napoleonic rule. Napoleon was informed about the state of public feeling in France. He escaped from Elba with a small following and landed on the south coast of France. Everywhere his old soldiers went over to him. The Bourbons had to flee, while the emperor entered Paris amid the acclamation of the multitude. The allies at once declared Napoleon as ' an enemy and disturber of the peace of the world.' Duke of Wellington. 364 MODERN HISTORY While their forces hastened towards France, Napoleon with his accustomed energy and swiftness raised a new army. He first defeated the Prussians, and then attacked the English army under the Duke of Wellington, which held a strong position on the heights of Waterloo, not far from Brussels. The troops on both sides fought all day with incredible bravery. Towards evening Napoleon thought he had the victory. But the Prussian army of General Blucher appeared on his flank at the last moment. The imperial army was annihilated (June 18, 18 15). A number of circumstances combined to decide this most momentous battle in modern history. In the morning the ground was soft from rain, and Napoleon could not move his cannon into good positions until late in the afternoon. Thus a shower of rain can be said to have caused the downfall of the Corsican giant. Wellington and Blucher deserve equal glory for their share in the victory. Wel- lington was called the 'Iron Duke' for the inflexible determination with which he held his ground against the deadly charges of the French cavalry. Blucher performed a wonderful march with a beaten army, and turned the threatened defeat of the English into a decisive victory. Last Years of Napoleon (181 5-1 821). — After the battle of Waterloo Napoleon gave himself up as prisoner on board a British man of war. His further presence in or near Europe was thought to endanger the world's peace. He was therefore exiled to the little island of St. Helena, in the middle of the Southern Atlantic. During his exile he composed historical memoirs. Estimate of Napoleon. — Napoleon was the greatest military genius and the greatest administrator of modern times. But THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 365 his almost superhuman talents and energy were mostly used for selfish ends. His personal ambition could find no limits in its aggressions on Europe, and so brought about his final downfall. From all the confusion and bloodshed caused by him there emerged in the end some lasting good. By his conquests ideas of social justice and liberal administration were spread throughout Europe. When the sovereigns reconstructed Europe in 1 8 1 5 they would have liked to re-establish despotic institutions, but found that Napoleon's regime had already rooted liberalism in the minds of the people. In Germany and Italy Napoleon had extinguished numerous small and badly governed states. He had shown the people of these countries the advantages of political unity. Thenceforward they never ceased to aspire to national union. In other words, Napoleon hastened the building up of modern Germany and Italy. As for France, she got from Napoleon lasting glory and a short-lived imperial sway. But she paid dearly for her conquests with the blood of her people. And Napoleon's fall left France with a territory smaller than that owned before the revolution. CHAPTER XXXI THE MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS OF THE WORLD SINCE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Introduction. — Before continuing our study of modern times, we must stop to consider certain phases of development outside of the field of purely political history. The actions of kings and statesmen have always been largely determined for them by the circumstances of their subjects. The greater the ignorance and the poverty of the people was, the more absolute and oppressive could be the rule of the government. Men who have to struggle hard all their lives to get enough food and clothing, take no interest in public affairs. Daily hardships tire their bodies and enfeeble their minds. They quietly bear the burdens which seem to be a natural part of their existence. Since the close of the eighteenth century the common people of Europe have demanded and received an ever- increasing share in the management of government. The principle of popular rights has come into force since the French Revolution, that terrible protest against the exclusive rule of the privileged classes. We have learned above that the Revolution was preceded by free philosophical inquiry, and by a more general spread of intelligence among the French people. The successive revolutions and reforms of the nineteenth century were similarly conditioned by an PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 367 advance in knowledge. The fundamental reasons for modern political and social changes lie in the remarkable intellectual and material progress which distinguishes the last hundred years from all other periods of history. This chapter will therefore deal briefly with the most notable inventions, discoveries, and social improvements of recent times. The Progress of Science. — Science is the foundation on which all modern inventions rest. Chemists and physicists prepared that body of knowledge which led to the invention of steam engines and of thousands of improved manufacturing methods. Bio- logists and zoologists, the students of plant and animal life, made most of the discoveries through which medical skill has been so much increased, for the benefit of mankind. The development of modern science dates from Sir Francis Bacon, the founder of the inductive method (about 1600). After his time knowledge expanded slowly but steadily. In the second half of the eighteenth century Europe already counted a large number of scientific men. The German philosopher Kant and the French mathematician and astronomer Laplace are the intellectual giants of that time. In France a group of scholars under the leadership of Dide7^ot published a work of twenty- eight volumes on the whole body of existing human knowledge (i 751-1772). This publication they called the Encyclopedia, whence the name of Encyclopedists is usually given to its authors. Napoleon encouraged scientific men, although he tried to prevent the spread of political intelligence among the people. He once said: "The true con- 368 MODERN HISTORY quests, the only conquests which cost no regrets, are those achieved over ignorance." After the close of the Napoleonic era every field of science was cultivated with ever-increasing ardor. The enthusiastic labors of many devoted seekers for truth g-ave mankind a control over natural forces, such as few people had dreamed of. Through science man truly became the master of nature. It is difficult to pick out the most eminent names, where so many are great. Judged by the blessings given to their fellow-men, the two chemists Liebig and Pasteur should perhaps be placed first. The German Liebig (1803- 1873) may, through his nume- rous discoveries and inventions, be called the father of organic chemistry. When a Paris newspaper organized a popular vote to determine who was the greatest Frenchman of the nineteenth century, the first place was given to Pasteur. The man who has most profoundly influenced succeeding thought is the Englishman Charles Darwin. After many years of study, and after a voyage round the world, devoted to research in zoology, botany, and geology, Darwin pub- lished in 1859 his Origin of Species. In this book he confirmed and enlarged the old theory that existing plants and animals have gradually developed from lower forms, and probably all spring from some one primitive form. The process is called evolution. Darwin's theory was more bitterly contested than any idea ever published before. But now his views are accepted by nearly the whole scientific world. The conception of evolution has been found to explain the growth of all things whatsoever. It has brought a new era, not only for natural sciences, but also for history, law, philosophy, and education. PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 369 The Moral Aspect of Pure Science. — The succeeding para- graphs will mention some of the concrete results of scientific work, and of their application to practical life. A word should first be said of the intellectual and moral value of pure science. The men who devote themselves wholly to the search for scientific truth are following the loftiest purpose attainable by man. Their work has already done more to raise mankind to a higher level than the conquerors or legislators or religious teachers could do in a thousand years. Their fame, which should outshine that of Mohammed or Napoleon, is still small, because the nature of their work cannot be understood by the majority of men. Their example makes it clear to an ever-increas- ing proportion of mankind, that truth is the highest and safest moral ideal. The Invention of Steam Engines. — In 1769 the Englishman James Watt invented the first steam engine. He found thereby a convenient way of usino- natural forces — heat converted into motion — to do work which had before been done by man power. The steam engine was rapidly perfected and combined with other machines for manufacturino- purposes. Most notable among these were two English inventions, the spinning jenny of Hargreaves (1767), and the power loom of Cartwright (1785). With primitive methods, using the hand spindle, one person could spin one thread at a time. With improved spinning machines driven by water or steam powder, one operator could soon control the spinning of twelve thousand threads. The Factory System. — So long as primitive hand labor was used, most artisans worked at home. Very little capital was needed for these ' domestic indus- tries/ where only small amounts of raw materials 370 MODERN HISTORY were bought at a time. Machines were expensive, and their use called for large amounts of raw materials. Hence wealthy men started 'factories,' in which they employed workmen for wages. Soon a James Watt. single employer had hundreds of workmen in his pay, and dependent on his management. Factories multiplied in places where coal and iron were close at hand. In districts like ' that of Lancashire in England, which used to be sparsely inhabited, popu- lous cities quickly grew up. Many thousands of people who had formerly lived in the open country, PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 371 were suddenly crowded into the new industrial centres. The machine-made goods could be sold more cheaply than the goods made in the old-fashioned way. Hence, all those people who continued in their domestic manufacture had to lower the prices of their products, and suffered want. Especially among the weavers the transition period from the old to the factory system brought terrible suffering. English Industrial and Commercial Supremacy. — The 'industrial revolution,' as it is usually called, happened first in England. While the wars between France and the other powers retarded the growth of manu- factures in continental Europe, England became the workshop of the world. English cloth and iron ware became indispensable to the Russian peasant, the American pioneer, and the Indian prince. The in- dustrial and commercial supremacy of England lasted until the second half of the nineteenth century, but is now closely disputed by the United States, Germany, and France. Railways. — Roadways of parallel wooden rails have been used since ancient times. Iron rails for running tramcars drawn by horses were first employed at some Welsh mines, to bring coal to the sea. In 1804 Trevethick constructed the first steam loco- motive for use in drawing these tramcars. Ten years later, in 18 14, G. Stephenson built an improved locomotive, but still failed to impress the public with the value of his invention. He continued to perfect the engine, and in 1825 he constructed a locomotive which could draw a heavy train at the speed of eleven 37 2 MODERN HISTORY miles an hour. Five years later his 'Rocket,' built for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, attained a speed of thirty-five miles an hour. This success provoked a fever of railway construction throughout England. By 1840 all the principal cities of the island were connected by rail. The principal European countries and America quickly followed England's example. The great railways which in the United States and Canada have been built across the continent, have been more efficient as builders of empire than any army in the world's history. The surplus popu- lation of Europe has been distributed over territories which recently were an unbroken wilderness. Thriving cities and smiling farmlands have arisen with magic swiftness in the old haunts of wild beasts. Effects of Railway Construction. — With the railway came a new era for all nations. The transportation of goods became cheap, rapid, and reliable. The surplus of the farm, the ore of the mine, the product of the factory, could all be distributed easily through- out the country. The poor man's food was cheapened, and local famines became a horror of the past. Books and newspapers could reach every hamlet ; education was spread more widely and efficiently than ever before. The former discomforts and dangers of foreign travel disappeared ; men could now easily visit other nations, and discover that the strangers also have many superior qualities. Racial prejudice, one of the worst children of ignorance, met in the railway its sworn enemy. Steam Navigation. — In 1807 the first steamboat, built by the American Robert Fulton, made its trial trip on the Hudson River. Fulton also constructed PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 373 the first steamer that crossed the Atlantic Ocean, in 1 8 19. His voyage from Savannah to Liverpool took twenty-six days. The fast liners of the leading- English and German steamship companies now cross the Atlantic in five days. The effect of cheap and rapid ocean transport has nowhere been farther reaching than in the Far East. China and Japan were brought within a month's journey of Europe. The giant steamers that exchanged the raw products of Asia for the manufactures of Europe, imported also the new ideas from the West, which soon were to transform the ancient Eastern institutions from their very foundations. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 linked India and the Far East still closer to Europe. The Asiatic traffic was again directed through its historic channels, and old Mediterranean ports like Genoa entered on a new period of prosperity. Electric Telegraphs and Telephones.- -The most wonderful of all the new inventions was the electric telegraph {tele = far ; graph = write). Experiments were made with it early in the nineteenth century, but its general use dates from the invention by the American Morse of a practical apparatus for send- ing and receiving messages (1844). After several failures, involving immense labor and pecuniary losses, telegraphic cables were also laid on the bottom of the ocean, connecting England with America. Now electric messages can be conveyed to all parts of the globe. In 1896 the Italian Marconi patented a system of wireless telegraphy. ' Marconi- 374 MODERN HISTORY grams ' are now constantly flashed through the ether between Enoland and America. Vessels exchanofe messaofes with land stations and with one another while speeding through mid-ocean. Telephones came into general use after the American Bell hQ.d invented in 1877 the perfected instrument named after him. Wireless telephony, already adopted by the American navy, is the last wonder of science made sub- servient to the uses of warfare (1907). More rem^arkable even than the preceding, though of a less important character, is the recent invention of telephotography, by which photographic likenesses can be transmitted over an ordinary telegraph wire (1907). All these inventions tend to bind the nations together into one large family. Peking is now nearer to Paris than London was a century ago. Penny Postage and the Universal Postal Union. — Until the beginning of the nineteenth century it was diffi- cult to send letters from one part of the world to another. Even within the single countries postage was very expensive, and only larger cities had regular postal connections. In 1830 it still cost over a shilling to send a letter from London to Ireland. In 1837 the English parliament adopted a uniform postage of one penny per letter, and the English example was soon followed by every civilized state. Under the old system every Englishman sent on the average four letters per year. In 1900 the average reached 56 per head of the total population, or the incredible number of 2324 million letters sent in one year. On the suggestion of Germany twenty-two countries joined into a 'Universal Postal Union' in 1874. PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 375 At the second postal congress of 1878 countries representing- 750 million inhabitants were membe/s of the Union. All the civilized world is now embraced by it, and forms for postal purposes a single country. It costs far less now to send a letter from Tokio to Berlin, than it cost seventy years ago to send it from Paris to Marseilles. Correspond- ence between the different countries has increased a hundredfold. The Growth of the Newspaper Press. — The first daily paper appeared in London in 1702. It is no accident that the public press began its modern growth in England. 1 702 is the last year of the reign of William and Mary, who had in 1689 signed the Declaration of Rights. Political liberty, which includes the right of free speech and of a free press, has always been the nurse of vigorous public opinion. In the Greek democracies, which had no knowledoe of printing, liberty went hand in hand with the perfection of public oratory. Under modern condi- tions the freedom or oppression of the press is a faithful reflex of the liberality or despotism of the government. In the United States, where the republican institu- tions have always bred a general interest in public affairs, 20,156 newspapers and journals were published in 1902. Autocratic Russia, on the other hand, counted in 1900 826 newspapers. Quite remarkable is the difference between the one and first daily paper published in absolutist France in 1777, and the thousand political papers and journals which suddenly sprang into existence during the revolution. 376 MODERN HISTORY The press is the most powerful and influential educational agency. The great modern newspapers bring telegraphic news from all parts of the world, and explain to their readers all items that are difficult to understand. The newspaper writers claim to voice the opinions of their readers in open criticism of all sorts of public events. They also shape to a large extent the public opinion which is expressed by the votes of the citizens in their choice of representatives and elective officials. From the political point of view, in fact, the press may be called a larger parliament of the nations. The Hastening- of Historical Development. — Steam engines, railways, huge ocean liners, telegraphs, the postal system, and the newspaper press : these six are the chief makers of the modern era. In combina- tion they have hastened historical development to a speed which would have been incredible a century ago. Reforms and transformations which would formerly have taken hundreds of years, are now begun and completed within the lifetime of a genera- tion. Among the most remarkable of these recent swift changes are the remodelling along western lines of Japan, the partition and industrial exploitation of Africa, and the settlement of the American and Canadian West. All these events will be more fully mentioned later on. Progress of Education and of Humanitarian Enter- prises. — Modern Western civilization is sometimes blamed for being too exclusively devoted to material ends. Wealth and power are said to be its only goal. That such an opinion is not wholly justified will be seen from the progress that has been made in general education and morality. PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 377 Popular Education. — Before the French Revolution more than half of the population of Europe was illiterate. Frederick the Great introduced compulsory elementary education in Prussia (1763); but some time passed before his wise example was widely imi- tated. At the present day it would be difficult to find in Germany a young man or woman unable to read and write. In most other western countries illiterate persons are also rare. The spread of education has made the lives of the people freer and more interesting. Superstition, which has lain so heavily on mankind, is giving place to enlightenment. Religious intolerance, that scourge of Europe, has nearly everywhere been banished by broader and humaner views. The growth of political intelligence has fitted the people for participation in liberal, constitutional governments. Experi- ence has, moreover, shown that the educated, intelligent workman has a much greater productive capacity than the illiterate one. The money spent on popular education is therefore returned to the state with large profits through the increase in general prosperity. The Abolition of Slavery. — Slavery has existed since the most ancient times in all parts of the world, where labor was needed for agriculture or industries. We have heard of the Phoenician slave trade, and of the cruel treatment of slaves under the later Roman republic. Christianity taught kindness to slaves, but did not forbid slavery as an institu- tion. The slave trade with captives of war, especially Saracens, flourished throughout the Middle Ages, Rome being one of the principal markets. By the thirteenth century, however, slavery was given up, and the slaves were gradually turned into serfs. That this change was due rather to economic convenience than to kindness is proved by the development of the African slave trade after the discovery of America. It must not be 378 MODERN HISTORY thought, however, that the white people first taught the cruel practice to the blacks. The Portuguese found that slavery and slave raids were regularly practised among the negro tribes. During the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries Portugal, Spain, and England all engaged in the African slave trade. In the treaty of Utrecht (1713) England stipulated that British merchants should have the right to import 144,000 negro slaves during forty years into the Spanish colonies. Towards the close of the eighteenth century some members of the English parliament began to denounce the slave trade as cruel and barbarous. They gained adherents, and were able to pass laws to protect the slaves from excessive cruelty. In 1808 England passed an act for the abolition of the English slave trade. During the following years other states were requested to take steps against the evils of slavery. The British people gave the noblest proof of their kind and disinterested feeling about the slave question in 1833. In that year parliament passed a law commanding the emancipation of all slaves throughout the British colonies. 639,000 slaves were restored to freedom. The government paid twenty million pounds out of the public funds to the former slave owners. The slaves In the French colonies were emancipated in 1848, and six years later slavery was abolished for all times in all countries under French jurisdiction. The terrible civil war fought In America on account of the slavery question will be mentioned further on. Since Africa has fallen under European control, PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 379 the interested powers have entered into agreements by which the slave trade has been abolished in all parts of that continent. The Red Cross Association. — In ancient and mediaeval times warfare was apt to be more cruel than it need necessarily be. Not only were captives killed, or maltreated, or sold into slavery, but the wounded soldiers of their own army received only rudimentary medical aid. Since the sixteenth century private societies were formed in several European countries for the purpose of helping the wounded after battles. In modern times sympathy for suffering fellow-creatures has become a more general trait. Men have learned to understand that war is a struggle between nations or governments rather than between individuals. So long as war cannot be wholly abolished, one should at least try to diminish the suffering which private people have to undergo in the service of their state. With this end in view an international convention met at Geneva in 1864. By the Geneva Convention all the participating governments bound themselves to allow the services of nurses and doctors on the field during battle. All attendants, as well as their wagons, tents, etc., are distinguished by a white badge or flag bearing a red cross. They are neutral and inviolable, and help the wounded of both sides. The various local associations for aid to the wounded have united into the International Red Cross Association. The orati- tude of many thousand men, who under old conditions would have perished miserably on the battle-field, is the finest tribute to the humaner spirit of modern civilization. Progress of Medical Skill and of Sanitation. — The prevention and the cure of disease have been marvel- 38o MODERN HISTORY lously perfected by scientific discoveries. Humanity has been made healthier, stronger, and happier wherever modern physicians have been able to extend the blessinors of their work. The first notable medical discovery of modern times was vaccination as a preventive measure against small-pox. Variolation, i.e. the artificial inoculation with human small- pox, was known in antiquity and is still (in 1908) practised in China. It was brought to Europe from Turkey in 17 18. Variolation is dangerous, because the inoculated patient can infect others with small-pox. Sometimes he may himself become so ill as to die. In 1796 the English physician Edward Jenner found out that people could be inoculated with virus from a cow having the cow-pox. The 'vaccine' (Latin vacca = cow) produced only a little pustule on the patient, and made him immune against small-pox. Since Jenner's time, vaccination has been rendered absolutely safe and sure. It has proved to be the grandest and most beneficial discovery of medicine. Small-pox epidemics used to sweep off tens of thousands per year in single European countries. In the German empire, which has compulsory vaccination, 15 people died of small-pox in 1898, out of a total population of 53,753,140. The sanitation of cities has been taken up metho- dically since 1850. The recently constructed works for pure water supply and for sewage disposal in many cases exceed the famous old Roman aqueducts in size and in the difficulty of construction. By various preventive measures, especially by enforcing the strictest cleanliness of towns, the advanced states have rendered impossible those epidemics of plague and cholera, which used to depopulate Europe. The Historical Importance of Medical Progress. — The influence on history of all this medical progress is PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 381 profound, though it cannot be directly measured. It adds to the efficiency of men in all kinds of employ- ments. It does away with those interruptions of public enterprise which used to be caused by epidemics. The nations are made wealthier and surer of their aims. What is meant by sureness of aim is strikingly illustrated by the work on the Panama Canal. It was started by a French company, some time after the successful construction of the Suez Canal. But the French attempt ended in failure, chiefly on account of the deadly climate of the Isthmus of Panama. Fevers and dysentery killed the men by the hundreds. When the United States government undertook to build the canal, it first sent a commission of experts to improve the sanitary conditions. The success of this commission stands at the beginning of the twentieth century as a triumphal monument to the victories of medical science. Fevers and dysentery have been almost banished from the canal zone. The engineers can proceed to join the oceans, with the certainty that no epidemic will delay or stop their plans. CHAPTER XXXII RECENT HISTORY OF FRANCE, SPAIN, SWITZERLAND, BELGIUM, HOLLAND, AND THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES Introduction. — The governments that had over- thrown Napoleon beheved that they had at the same time put an end to the liberal institutions of the revolutionary period. They agreed to support the divine right of kings, and to suppress all agitation for popular rights. But the ideas of the French revolution had already spread among the people, and no power on earth could obliterate them. As the people advanced in education and political intelli- gence, they finally forced the governments to grant constitutional rule. The period between 1815 and 1848 is accordingly filled with a struggle between the progressive people and the reactionary governments. I. FRANCE Bourbon Reaction and the July Revolution (1815- 1830). — After Waterloo Louis XVIII. was again restored to the French throne. He ruled accord- ing to the wishes of the extreme aristocrats and clericalists. FRANCE 383 Not only were republicans persecuted in France, but an army was sent across the Pyrenees to help the wicked king Ferdinand VII. in overthrowing the Spanish con- stitution, which he had already sworn to uphold. Perhaps the worst blunder of the royalists was the execution of Marshal Ney, the most popular of the Napoleonic generals. He had received the title ' the bravest of the brave ' for his heroic conduct during the Russian campaign. Louis XIII. was succeeded in 1824 by his brother Charles X., who was guided by the clerical party. When a liberal majority was elected to the legis- lative chamber, the king tried to uphold his despotic system by declaring the elections to be illegal, and by suppressing all liberal newspapers. The Paris populace rose in revolt (July, 1830), and after three days' street fighting the king had to leave the country. Reign of Louis Philippe I. (1830-1848). — The new king was usually called ' le roi bourgeois ' or ' middle class king,' because he owed his throne to the support of the well to-do middle class. He belonged to the younger branch of the Bourbon family. Since the first revolution he had earned his living as a teacher in Switzerland, and had travelled in America and Europe. He had dropped the family pride, and was willing to rule as a constitutional monarch. The peasants and artisans hated Louis Philippe, because he favored only the wealthier people. During the later years of his reign several attempts were made on his life. Fear of assassination led him to enact repressive laws, so that his rule grew steadily more unpopular. In February, 1848, the Paris mob rose in arms and demanded a republic. The king fled to England under the assumed name of ' Mr. Smith.' 3 84 MODERN HISTORY The French revolutions of 1830 and 1848 were the signals for liberal risings all over Europe. The Second Republic (i 848-1 851). — Louis Napoleon, nephew of the great emperor, was chosen as presi- dent of the new republic. He was not a sincere republican, but aimed at a renewal of the ' Caesarism ' of his uncle. From the start he employed every kind of political trickery to win personal adherents. Napoleonists were placed in all the prominent offices, and the army was won over by systematic corruption. The Coup d'Etat of 1851, and the Establishment of the Second Empire. — By a carefully arranged plan the republican leaders were suddenly arrested at night. All resistance was put down by force, and Louis Napoleon was made President for ten years. A con- spiracy of this kind, resulting in a change of govern- ment, is called a * coup d'etat ' (stroke of state), a French term which has come into international usag-e. A year later Napoleon asked the French people, through a popular vote, whether they wished him to assume the imperial title. Nearly eight million votes were cast in the affirmative. He accordingly had himself crowned as Napoleon HL, Emperor of the French.^ The third Napoleon was a man of considerable ability. He gave France eighteen years of internal peace. Agriculture and industries flourished, many railways were built, and the outward splendor of the empire was maintained by costly public works. Paris was entirely ^The son of Napoleon I., to whom the title Napoleon II. would have fallen, died as a young man in Austria. FRANCE 385 reconstructed at enormous cost, and was made into the most beautiful capital of the modern world. Napoleon's successful expeditions to Russia and Italy, which will be described in their proper places, for a while raised France to the first place among the great powers. Paris became the political centre of Europe. But in the second half of his reign Louis Napoleon com- mitted a number of blunders in his foreign policy, and finally brought about the terrible disaster of the Franco-Prussian war. In course of years his whole administration was pervaded with dishonest practices, and especially the army became rotten with corruption. Causes of the Franco- Prussian War. — N apoleon III. was constantly out- witted in diplomacy by the Prussian minister Bisma7'-ck. After the war between Austria and Prussia (1866), which will be described in the following chapter, Napoleon realized that the German states under Prussian leadership were rising to be a power equal to France, if not superior to her. He demanded that Prussia should give up to France some terri- tory along the Rhine, as a compensation for the Prussian gains in Germany. Bismarck knew that the French army at the time was not ready for war, and refused Napoleon's demand. Many Frenchmen G.H. 2 B Bismarck. 386 MODERN HISTORY were very jealous of Prussia, and were ready to begin war on the first pretext. In 1870 the Spanish throne was offered to a prince of Hohenzollern, and he accepted. As the Prussian king William was the head of the house of Hohen- zollern, the French feared lest Spain might now be closely allied to Germany. The French government requested that the prince should withdraw, and the Prussian king complied with its wishes. But now the French ambassador in Germany was instructed to demand from the king of Prussia a declaration that no Hohenzollern prince should ever again come forward as a candidate for the Spanish throne. No one expected that the Prussian government would submit to such a dictation of its future policy. The refusal naturally given by King William was considered by the hot-heads in France to be cause for war. The majority of the French people did not want war, and Napoleon himself was wavering. But Bismarck, who knew that a conflict was inevitable, wished to strike while the German army was at its highest efficiency. He published a description of the interview between King William and the French ambassador, in which it seemed as though the latter had been insulted. The French chambers at once voted for war. The minister for war stated that ' all was ready, even to the last button on the soldiers' gaiters.' First Phase of the Franco-Prussian War. — When war was declared (1870), the Prussian general staff already had a complete plan of mobilization. Every detail of the advance to the Rhine had been worked out under the guidance of Field- Marshal Moltke, one of the greatest strategists of all times. Within a fortnioht nearly four hundred thousand men were thrown across the frontier. On the French side the whole campaign was mis- managed from the very start. FRANCE 387 Corruption and embezzlement of state funds, which had grown into a common evil under Napoleon's administration, now bore terrible fruit. The army was 100,000 men short of the numbers set down on paper, and only 250,000 could take the field at once. The officers had no good maps of their own country, and the commissariat was so disorganized, that some regiments near the frontier almost starved for want of provisions. The Germans marched from victory to victory. An army of 140,000 men, under Marshal Bazaine, was shut up in the fortress of Metz by superior German forces. By a series of admirably executed marches and fiercely contested battles, Moltke's generals surrounded the second imperial army at Sedan on September i, 1870. The Emperor him- self and 100,000 men had to surrender as prisoners of war on the following day. The Third Republic, and the Second Phase of the Franco-Prussian War. — After the disaster of Sedan the Parisians dethroned Napoleon and proclaimed the Third Republic. When peace was discussed, the Germans demanded the cession of Alsace. But the French determined to fight on, rather than to give up a foot of soil. Paris was invested and bombarded by a part of the German army. The fortifications of the capital were so strong, that only famine could force the city to surrender. For more than four months its two million inhabitants were shut off from all communication with the outer world, except what could be kept up by balloons and by carrier pigeons. In the provinces the raising and equipping of new armies was carried on with the utmost enthusiasm and energy. 388 MODERN HISTORY The guiding spirit of the national defence was Leon Gam- betta. He escaped from Paris in a balloon, and assumed a military dictatorship over the provinces. Under his direction desperate efforts were made to break through the besieging army around Paris. He might have succeeded, had it not been for the treachery of Marshal Bazaine. This infamous man hoped to win power for himself by keeping his army inactive at Metz. When all his intrigues had failed, he capitulated, thus surrendering 170,000 men with all their officers and munitions of war. His surrender released a force of nearly 200,000 Germans for operations against the armies of Gambetta. In January, 1871, Paris had to surrender. Three months later the war was definitely ended by the Treaty of Frankfort. France was forced to give up Alsace and a part of Lorraine, and to pay the enormous indemnity of five milliards of francs, or ^200,000,000 sterling. The total cost of the war to France is estimated at ^600,000,000 sterling. France since 1871. — Since 1871 a renewal of war between France and Germany has been imminent several times. Even now a large section of the people is still animated by the desire to revenge the great defeat, and to get back Alsace-Lorraine. Internally France has been remarkably prosperous. All Europe was surprised to see how quickly France recovered from the financial losses- of 1871. Royalists and Bonapartists have tried to get control of the government. But the republic has come through its trials with increased vigor, and seems destined for a lono- time to remain the French form of Government. o o The Present Government of France. — The existing French government rests on the republican constitution adopted by FRANCE 389 the national assembly in 1875. The President is elected by the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, which unite for this purpose into the national assembly. His term of ofifice is seven years. He can propose new laws, or, in other words, he has the ' initiative ' in legislation. He must watch that the laws are properly carried out (briefly, he has the 'executive'). He disposes of the army, and appoints all civil officials and military officers. The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies also have the initiative in legislation. A bill (proposed piece of legisla- tion) can become law only after being approved by majorities in both of these Houses. Senators must be at least forty years old, and are chosen for nine years by special electoral colleges. The Chamber of Deputies has in fact far more power than the Senate. Deputies must be at least twenty- five years old, and are elected for four years by universal suffrage. The President is aided by a Cabinet of eleven Ministers. They are appointed by him, but must be in agreement with the majority of the Chamber of Deputies. To this body they are also responsible for their actions. Through its control of the Ministers the Chamber of Deputies is practi- cally sovereign over France. II. SPAIN Through Reaction and Revolution to Constitutionalism, — The inner history of Spain during the nineteenth century has been a constant struggle between absolutism and liberalism. When King Ferdinand, who had been driven out by Napo- leon, returned in 18 14, he found a liberal constitution, with an elected legislature called the Cortes. He overthrew the constitution, maltreated the patriotic leaders of the Cortes, and gave full sway to the clergy. Even the mediaeval inquisition was revived. After six years of absolute rule a widespread insurrection forced Ferdinand to accept the constitution and summon 390 MODERN HISTORY the Cortes. But in 1823 the French king, Louis XVIII., sent an army to Spain and restored the absolutism by force. The political struggles of the rest of the century are not important enough to be related here. For two years, 1873 and 1874, Spain was a republic. Since then it has remained a constitutional monarchy, the throne being hereditary in the Bourbon dynasty. The legislative power is in the hands of the king and the Cortes. The latter consist of a Senate representing the aristocracy and the wealthy people, and a Congress of Deputies elected by the citizens at large. The long-continued oppression on part of the kings and the Catholic Church have kept the Spanish people poorer and more ignorant than those of any other state west of Russia. ^ Loss of the Colonies. — At the beginning of the Napoleonic rule Spain still ov^^ned nearly all of Central and South America, except Brazil, which was Portuguese. The American colonies refused to acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte as their ruler, and after the restoration of Ferdinand they were willing to return to their allegiance only on condition of being granted various liberties. When the king would not assent, they declared their independence. The Spanish forces were insufficient to win back the rebellious colonies, France was anxious to help in the task, but the English Prime Minister, Canning, would not allow any other European state to interfere in American affairs. In 1824 he formally recognized the independence of Buenos Ayres, Colombia, and Mexico. Cuba and Porto Rico in the West Indies, and the Philippine Islands remained under Spanish sove- reignty until 1898. The Cubans were in a chronic SPAIN 391 state of revolt, which the Spanish armies were unable to crush. As American business suffered from the constant disorder, the United States Government finally demanded that Spain should grant Cuba's independence. Spain's refusal led to war. Her poorly equipped fleets were annihilated in two battles at Manila (Philippines) and at Santiago de Cuba {1898). The Philippines and Porto Rico passed into the possession of the United States, while Cuba received its independence. Nothing is left now of the mighty world empire of Charles V. and Philip II., except the Canary Islands and a few insignificant possessions in Africa. III. SWITZERLAND, BELGIUM, AND HOLLAND Switzerland. — The Helvetian Republic, which had been established by Napoleon, and had been dependent on him, was declared to be an independent country after 1 8 1 4. Switzerland then consisted of a loose confederation of little states, called Cantons. A religious and political dispute led to a civil war between the Cantons in 1848. The outcome of the war was the present Swiss constitution, in which the former ' Confederation ' is changed to a ' Federal State' The latter is a more intimate union, in which the central government has greater power. It is a step nearer toward the formation of a united nation. But the Constitution still says that the twenty-two Cantons are ' sovereign, so far as their sovereignty is not limited by the federal Constitution.' There are two houses of legislature, one representative of the Cantons, and one of the people at large. The executive power rests with a Federal Council of seven members, elected for three years by the two houses of the federal legislature. In certain respects the Swiss government is a 392 MODERN HISTORY complete democracy. By the ' Referendum^ for example, bills passed by the legislatures are referred to the citizens for their approval. Only if a majority of the Swiss citizens vote in favor of such measures, can they become law. Belgium and Holland, — In 1814 the allies united the Southern Netherlands with Holland into a single state, hoping thus to raise a strong neighbor against France in the north-east. But the union was unpopular, because the Belgians were mostly Catholics and spoke French, while the Dutch-speaking Hollanders were Protestants. The Belgians rose at once when they heard of the Paris revolu- •tion in 1830, and won their independence. In 1 831 the European Powers recognized Belgium as an independent state. Its government since then has been a constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands and Switzerland have reaped much honor from being centres of international conferences. The Geneva Convention (Red Cross) and the Postal Union arose on Swiss soil. The Peace Confer- ences at the Hague have united in the Dutch capital representatives of all nations for the noble purpose of limiting military armaments. The first Peace Conference met in 1899 at the suggestion of the Russian Emperor, and the second one met in 1907. Unfortunately they showed that the day when military burdens will be diminished is still far off. IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES Norway and Sweden. — After the treaty of Tilsit, Russia had taken Finland from Sweden. The European Powers agreed in 18 14 that Sweden should be compensated for this loss by annexing Norway. The union between the two Scandinavian states, however, was only a 'personal union' through their joint sovereign. They formed a Dual THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 393 Monarchy under one king. Foreign relations were managed in common, while in all home affairs the two governments were separate. In 1905 the union was peaceably dissolved by an almost unanimous vote of the Norwegian citizen?. Norway now is an independent kingdom, with a very democratic constitution. Denmark. — Before the Napoleonic wars the Danish dominions had included Norway. The Danish king made the mistake of allying himself with Napoleon, whereupon the British Admiral Nelson destroyed the Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen. Norway fell to Sweden, as told above. In 1864 Denmark lost its two southern provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, which had a German population, to Prussia. The Danish government is a constitutional monarchy, with a legislature of two houses. CHAPTER XXXIII THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY I. GERMANY The Ascendency of Metternich. — Prince Metternick was for nearly forty years the soul of Austria's government. His policy was wholly reactionary, i.e. he opposed constitutional government, freedom of the press, and all liberal institutions connected with the Revolution. His cleverness in diplomacy gave to Austria the first voice in general European affairs. By his instigation absolutism was upheld not only in Austria, but also in Germany and Italy. He helped to bring about the ^ Holy Alliance', which was proposed by the Czar Alexander, an impractical visionary, for the purpose of ruling Europe according to kind. Christian principles. All European rulers, except the English king, the Sultan of Turkey, and the Pope, eventually joined this alliance. It became one of Metternich's best instruments for beating down liberal principles from Russia to Spain. The German Confederation of 1815. — After the over- throw of Napoleon a Congress of European statesmen met at the Austrian capital for the settlement of European affairs. The famous Congress of Vienna brought back the political map of Europe to nearly UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 395 the same boundaries which had existed before the French Revolution. The German States were formed by the Congress into a loose confederation under the presidency of Austria. The affairs of the German Confederation were guided by a Diet consisting of representatives of the various governments, thirty- nine in number. The patriots hoped soon to see a united German fatherland orow out of the confederation. But the o rivalry between Austria and Prussia, and the fear of the smaller states lest their sovereign rio-hts miwht be impaired, delayed the completer union for more than half a century. The Customs Union. — Common trade interests brought the German states together into a Customs Union. For commercial purposes this Union was like one country, within which goods could be moved without paying any duties. When Austria wished to join, Prussia refused. Prussia had a natural preponderance in the Customs Union, owing to her more numerous population and her extensive trade. The material welfare of the German states was much advanced by the unhampered exchange of goods, and the commercial unity so established formed a sound basis for the later political unity. The Revolution of 1848. — By the system of Metter- nich all liberal aspirations were suppressed throughout Germany and Austria. But the hope of political freedom was still strong in the hearts of many thousands, and the hatred of absolutism grew steadily strono-er. When news of the Paris revolution reached o the German capitals, mobs at once rose in nearly all of them and demanded constitutional rule. Metternich barely saved his life by escaping from Vienna. The 396 MODERN HISTORY Austrian Emperor for a while also fled from his capital. In Berlin there was a bloody encounter between the royal troops and the populace. Constitutions were now granted everywhere. But both in Prussia and in Austria the old orovernments kept as much control as they possibly could. Although legislative chambers were elected by the people, the monarchy remained the real power in the state. The War with Denmark, and the Seven Weeks' War. — The Danish War of 1864 was mainly due to the strong national feeling of the Germans. They no longer could bear to see their countrymen in Schleswig-Holstein under Danish rule. After a brief campaign Austria and Prussia jointly forced the Danish government to give up Schleswig-Holstein. Two years later it was incorporated with Prussia. It was the final settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question which brought about the long-expected conflict between Austria and Prussia. Bismarck decided that the time was now ripe to settle the rivalry between the two states, and to make Prussia the unquestioned head of Germany. He felt sure of victory, because the Prussian army had been wonderfully perfected, and stood under the leadership of a military genius, Count von Moltke. Italy was allied with Prussia, while Austria had the South- German states on its side. The ' Seven Weeks' War' (1866) was a continuous triumph for Prussian military organization and strategy. The campaign was decided by the battle of Sadowa (also known as the battle of Koniggratz, a village in Bohemia). Austria was excluded from Germany, and Prussia became the head of the '■ North- German Union! The Southern states, of which Bavaria was the UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 397 largest, still remained outside the Union. They were mostly Catholic, while Prussia was Protestant. King William I. and Bismarck. — The reconstruction of Germany will always be linked with the names of Kino^ William I. and his minister Bismarck. The king's greatness lay in his choice of able counsellors, whom he trusted and supported faithfully. He aimed to make Prussia strong through its army, and to use the army as an instrument for uniting Germany under Prussian leadership. His minister Bismarck brought this plan to a successful end. As a supporter of monarchy by divine right Bismarck was at first hated by the liberals. He was more sagacious and energetic than all his opponents. He knew that the people cannot learn at once how to make good use of political rights, but that the change from absolutist to popular government must be very slow. In support of the army reorganization Bismarck once said : " It is not by speeches and resolutions of majorities that the great questions of the time are to be decided . . . but by blood and iron." He well deserved his later name, the ' Iron Chancellor.' Foundation of the New German Empire (1871). — The intense patriotism for the common German fatherland, which was aroused by the victories in France, enabled Bismarck to complete the union of the states. At Versailles, during the siege of Paris, the states joined into the Confederation known as the German empire. King William was hailed as President with the title German Emperor. Effects of the Union. — Under the new political order Germany has astonished the world by her rapid progress. The German steel and textile industry now rivals that of Britain. German steamers are seen in 398 MODERN HISTORY all ports of the globe more frequently than those of any other flag except the British. The German army is admired and feared. The universities of Berlin, Jena, Heidelberg, and other cities, are recognized as the best and highest centres of learning, and attract students from all countries. The Government of the German Empire. — The twenty-five states constituting the confederation have their independent laws and governments, which must not, however, conflict with the laws of the Empire. Since 1871 there has been a steady tendency towards unification of all affairs concerning the common interests of the Empire. The executive power lies with the Federal Council (Bundesrat) and the Emperor. The Bundesrat consists of representatives of the various state governments. The imperial office is hereditary in the house of Hohenzollern, i.e. the king of Prussia is also German Emperor. Legislation is conducted by the Bundesrat, acting as a sort of Upper House, and the Imperial Diet (Reichstag), which consists of representatives elected by the German people. Foreign affairs, the consular service, military and naval organization, are entirely under imperial control. Austria-Hungary since i 866. — In the troublous times of 1 848 the Hungarians tried to gain complete independence and a free government for themselves. Among the ardent patriots who then risked their lives for national liberty, Louis Kossuth will always remain famous. The Hungarian uprising was beaten down with the help of a Russian army. The Czar gladly helped the Austrian government, because he did not want the example of a successful rebellion so near his own borders. In 1867 the 'Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria granted a new constitution to his Hungarian subjects. They got their own parliament, their own laws, and even their own king. Francis Joseph was crowned King of Hungary at the old capital city of Budapest. UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 399 Since then Austria-Hungary has been a Dual Monarchy, united chiefly through the person of the ruler, who is both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Both countries have made much progress in education, industry, and the general welfare of the people. But the two governments have been much troubled by the conflicting interests of the various nationalities embraced under their rule. Germans, Poles, Czechs, Italians, and Magyars all want to see their own languages and national aspirations treated with special respect. Violent quarrels in the Austrian Parliament are therefore of common occurrence. II. ITALY Early Attempts of Union (18 15- 1850). — In Italy, as in Germany, thousands of patriots longed for national union and constitutional government. But the king of Naples, the Pope, and the Austrians, who held Lombardy and Venetia, suppressed every movement that threatened the continuance of their rule. A secret society called the Carbonari (charcoal burners) spread ail over Italy, and counted patriots of all stations and both sexes among its ranks. Their repeated revolts were crushed with the aid of Austrian troops. Government spies pervaded the country, and all suspected persons were arbitrarily imprisoned or executed. The teaching of history and of political or natural science was forbidden. At Rome even vaccination was prohibited, because it reminded of the liberal French rule. From 1830 to 1848 the able patriot Mazzini, founder of the party called Young Italy, tried in vain to bring about the establishment of an Italian republic. In 1849 he drove the Pope from Rome, and set up a republic. Garibaldi, the popular hero of the Italian struggle for liberty, bravely defended the new Roman commonwealth against superior French forces, until he was beaten and barely saved his life. 400 MODERN HISTORY Foundation of the Kingdom of Italy (1859- 1864). — After 1850 there was only one constitutional state in Italy, namely the kingdom of Sardinia. It included Piedmont, in the western Po valley, where the capital Turin was also situated. Victo7^ Emma^mel, the king of Sardinia, appointed as his chief minister the great statesman Cavoiw. In his courage and foresight Cavour resembled Bismarck, He won the friendship of England and France by sending an army to help them in the Crimean War against Russia. Napoleon III., who since his youth had an affection for Italy, in turn helped Cavour against Austria. In 1859 Austria declared war against Sardinia. The allied Sardinian and French troops defeated the Austrians in three great battles, of which the last, at Solferino in Lombardy, was decisive. Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont. The states of Central Italy revolted from their absolutist rulers and joined them- selves to the realm of Victor Emmanuel. In i860 the adventurous hero Garibaldi suddenly landed in Sicily with a band of a thousand volunteers, and raised a rebellion against the king of Naples, of whose dominions Sicily formed a part. With the island won over to the party of liberty, Garibaldi crossed over to the mainland, and forced the last Bourbon king of Naples to abdicate. The South now joined hands with the North. In 1 86 1 Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy, and so the patriots' dream of fifty years was at last realized. Only Rome and Venetia were still wanting to complete the newly-born Italian nation. The former was held for UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 401 the Pope by a French garrison, because the Emperor Napoleon wished to keep the affection of his Cathoh'c subjects by helping their ' Holy Father.' Venetia remained an Austrian province. Completion of Italy ; End of the Temporal Power of the Popes. — As reward for her alliance with Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War of 1866, Italy got Venetia. The Italians were beaten by the Austrians both on land and at sea. But they simplified Prussia's task by forcing Austria to employ an army in the South. It was again through Prussian victories that Rome was made into the capital of the completed Italian kingdom. In 1870 Napoleon withdrew his garrison from Rome, and the Papal rule of over a thousand years was ended. Pius IX., who was then Pope, refused to agree to the loss of his temporal sovereignty. He pretended up to his death to be a prisoner in his stately residence, the Vatican, and his successors thus far have acted upon the same theory. Italy since 1870. — As in Germany, so also in Italy the national union proved beneficial in every respect. The population increased rapidly. Roads and railways were built, agriculture was improved, and new industries were started. For many years the relations with France were strained, because the latter occupied Tunis, in Africa, which Italy wished to keep under her own influence. In 1883 the Italian government entered into a Triple Alliance with Austria and Germany. This league counterbalanced the Dual Alliance between France and Russia. Both agree- ments are still in force (1908). By the obligations of the Triple Alliance Italy was forced to keep a very expensive army and navy. The military expenditures caused much dissatisfaction and even rioting among the people. The government of Italy rests on the constitution of the former kingdom of Sardinia, issued in 1848. It is a limited monarchy with two chambers, of which the lower one is elected by the people. G.H. 2 c CHAPTER XXXIV RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURV^ Alexander I. and Nicholas I. — The Emperor Alexander I. of Russia was a dreamy man with little will power, who was easily influenced by his surroundings. After 1 8 1 5 he began to introduce liberal reforms, and even promised a constitution. When the Greeks tried to win their liberty from the Sultan he encouraged them. Then Metternich pointed out to him that the revolutions in various parts of Europe endangered law and order everywhere, and so won him back to the cause of absolutism. The disappoint- ment of the Russian liberals led to a secret plan of murdering the Czar and proclaiming a republic. Just then Alexander died (1825), and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas (1825-1855). He beat down a rebellion in St. Petersburg, and continued throughout his reign to uphold autocracy with relentless energy. The Greek Struggle for Liberty. — The Greeks had been under Turkish rule since the beginning of the sixteenth century. The example of the French Revolution revived their old love for liberty. Secret patriotic societies v^ere formed, and in 1820 an open rebellion broke out. For the next ten years Greece was devastated by the most cruel war, in which the patriots displayed fine heroism. Russia, England, and RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 403 France finally intervened. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the allies in the battle of Navarino (1827). In 1830 the Sultan was forced to acknowledge the sovereign kingdom of Greece. War between Russia and Turkey (1828-1829)* — The Sultan blamed Russia for the Greek revolt, and gave the Czar a welcome chance to declare war. The Turkish army being in a disorganized state, the Russians won an easy victory. They might have marched on Constantinople, but did not wish to provoke the jealousy of the other powers. By the treaty of Adrianople Turkey ceded a strip of the eastern coast of the Black Sea. Various ri2:hts and privileges were also granted to Russia, which greatly strengthened her influence in the Black Sea remons. Russia's Need of Access to the Ocean. — Peter the Great was the first to recognize that Russia needed sea ports if she was to develop her resources. His policy was continued during the nineteenth century. A powerful fleet guarded the Russian commerce in the Baltic Sea. The Black Sea long remained under Turkish control. Turkey could stop Russian ships from sailing into the Mediterranean, by blocking the Bosporus and the Dar- danelles. Constantinople was the key to the natural southern gateway of Russia, and that key was in the hands of a decaying state. It was inevitable that Russian states- men should plan to dismember Turkey, get Constantinople, and so win for their country an open road to the sea. Conflicting Interests of England. — The advance of Russian power in Central Asia towards India alarmed England. The British highway to India lay through the Suez Canal (since 1869). If Turkey were to fall, a Russian fleet would soon control the Eastern Mediterranean, and endanger the free passage through the Suez Canal. Russia would then 404 MODERN HISTORY menace the Indian Empire both by land and by sea. Therefore, England determined to prevent the fall of Turkey. Tlie Eastern Question. — The problem, What is to become of Turkey? constitutes the difficult 'Eastern Question.' Russia and Great Britain are not the only states concerned with the question, Austria-Hungary, being the close neighbor of Turkey, cannot be indifferent to measures which may affect her own welfare. France must aim to preserve for herself the largest possible amount of naval power in the Mediterranean. For Italian commerce and sea power the future of the Turkish Adriatic coast is of vital concern. Lastly, the German Empire has developed an extensive trade in the Turkish dominions, and has hopes of becoming the controlling power in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. Germany has found it expedient to help Turkey in the reorganization of her army, which is trained by German officers. The Eastern Question is a constant menace to European peace. The Greek Revolution and the Russo-Turkish War of 1 828- 1 829 were only earlier phases of the question. We shall now tell of two further stages, the Crimean War and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877- 187 8. The Crimean War (1853- 1856). — Greek Catholic and Roman Catholic religious associations quarrelled about the possession of some holy places in Jerusalem. Napoleon III., w^ho courted the Catholic party in France, supported the Roman Catholic claims, and the Czar Nicholas, as head of the Greek Church in Russia, helped the Greek Catholics. Nicholas finally demanded that the Sultan should recognise him as the protector of all Greek Christians under Turkish rule. Counting on help from Western Europe, the Sultan refused. The Russians at once opened hostilities by destroying a Turkish squadron in the Black Sea. RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 405 France and England took the side of the Sultan. Cavour sent a Sardinian army for the wisely- calculated purpose of winning French and English sympathy for Italian union. As for Napoleon, he hoped chiefly to get glory for his dynasty. The allied armies besieged the fortress of Sebastopol in the Crimea for eleven months. The winter cam- paign was terrible, and caused both sides enormous losses through privation and disease. When Sebasto- pol was finally taken and Russia was nearly exhausted by the cosdy war, the Treaty of Paris was agreed upon (1856). By this treaty both Russia and all other nations were forbidden to keep any warships on the Black Sea. No military arsenal was to be maintained on the Black Sea coasts. Russia's boundary was moved back from the Danube. The Powers enofaCTed to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Their aim was to preserve Turkey as a bulwark against Russia. But during the succeeding years the Turkish government, by its own incapacity, made further interference in its affairs inevitable. The powers could not look on idly, while thousands of inoffensive Christians were mas- sacred by their Mohammedan fellow subjects. The Roumanians north of the Danube were able to form the independent principality of Roumania in conse- quence of the war. In 1 87 1, after the defeat of France, England could not stop Russia from reasserting her right to have fortresses and warships on the Black Sea. The Russo-Turkish War (187 7- 1878). — The constant outrages against the Christians in Turkey excited 4o6 MODERN HISTORY the anger of the Russian people. England, fearing the advance of Russia towards the South, blocked the efforts of the continental powers to force reforms upon Turkey. Among the Turks themselves racial and religious fanaticism was stirred up by the prospect of foreign interference. The racial hatred culminated in fearful massacres in Bulgaria. As the Porte ( = Turkish government) obstinately repelled all suggestions of reform, England could no longer prevent the Russian declaration of war. The Turkish armies fought splendidly, but were at last captured or dispersed. (Siege and Capture of Plevna; storming of the Shipka Pass.) The Russians advanced within a few miles of Constantinople. If the capital had been occupied the British fleet lying in the Bosporus at once would have opened fire. For some time war between Russia and Great Britain was hourly imminent. The Congress of Berlin (1878). — A Congress of ministers at Berlin finally settled on a treaty satis- factory to both England and Russia. Turkey was deprived of a considerable part of her European territory. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. Monte- negro, Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumania were recog- nized as independent states. Greece got the provinces of Thessaly and Epyrus, thus doubling the area of the kingdom. Russia came out of the war both with honor and profit. Her borders were again advanced to the mouth of the Danube, and south of the Caucasus she kept the strong fortress of Kars and the valuable seaport of Batotim. England promised RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 407 to help the Porte if Russia should try to conquer more territory in Asia Minor. In return the Sultan ceded the Island of Cyprus to England. The Eastern Question at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century. — The quarrels between Christians and Moham- medans in the Ottoman Empire still continue. To preserve order in Macedonia (the province corresponding approxi- mately to the original kingdom of Philip II,), the Powers have obliged the Sultan to employ foreign police. But it seems that nothing less than the expulsion of the Turks from Europe will bring quiet; and any further step toward that expulsion will probably result in European war. Russian Central Asia. — When the conquest of Siberia was completed at the close of the sixteenth century, the Cossacks began to turn their eyes toward Central Asia. Two large expeditions to Khiva (17 17 and 1839) were lost nearly to the last man. Thereafter the Russian generals practised a slower but surer method of conquest, by building gradually a series of fortified places. The Kirghiz nomads submitted in 1847. In 1855 Cossack settlements were established in some of the fertile valleys along the slopes of the T'ien-shan mountains, south of the Hi river. The southward advance was now carried forward methodically, and in 1865 the important trading city of Tashkent was taken by storm. The Amir of Bokhara did his utmost to repel the invaders, but he was beaten again and again. In 1868 the Russian flag floated over Samarkand. Meanwhile the Khan of Khiva had annoyed the Russians by constant raids. His state was reduced to vassalage by a carefully planned attack in 1873. Three columns con- verged on the oasis of Khiva from three sides, and took the city by storm. Threatened Conflict between Russia and China (1881). — A revolt of the Mohammedans in Eastern Chinese Turkestan brought Kashgar and the adjoining countries under the dominion of Jakoob Beg (1864). During the disorder 4o8 MODERN HISTORY attendant on the rebellion the Russians temporarily occupied Kuldja in the upper Hi valley (1871). When Jakoob Beg was murdered, the Chinese were able to restore their sovereignty. They asked the Russians to evacuate Kuldja. The latter began to prepare for the use of force. But they thought it more politic to yield, and gave back to China all but one-sixth of the land. Occupation of the Pamir; Eussia's Military Position. — In 1 89 1 the Russians completed their conquest of Central Asia by occupying the Pamir. An Anglo-Russian com- mission settled in 1895 the boundary between Russian Central Asia and Afghanistan. The military position of Russia has been strengthened by the building of two railway lines, which converge near Tashkent, coming, the one from the Caspian Sea and the other from Orenburg on the Ural. Russian armies can now be sent from Europe into Chinese Turkestan or into India inside of two weeks. The Development of Siberia. — After the conquest of Siberia during the first half of the seventeeth century, the coloniza- tion of that vast country proceeded very slowly. The world at large thought of Siberia as a dreadfully cold and barren country, to which the Russian government sent convicts and political exiles. The true value of Siberia as a country of vast agricultural and mineral resources was made clear by a number of scientific expeditions during the period i 800-1 850. Since then immigration from European Russia has steadily increased. In 1902 the population exceeded six millions, of which 61% were Russians. It is Southern Siberia, the land adjoining the Chinese boundary, which is being so rapidly developed. An ukase (Russian term for Imperial edict) of the Emperor Alexander III. ordered in 1891 the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway. This greatest railv^^ay enterprise in history was opened for through-traffic in 1903 by the completion of the Russo-Chinese RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 409 Railway through Manchuria. A traveller could now reach Peking from London in seventeen days, while the oversea journey took five weeks. The attitude of Russia in the Manchurian question, which will be treated below, was wholly determined by the com- pletion of the railway. Thereafter large bodies of troops could readily be transported from Europe and Siberia to the Far East, Russia in the Far East. — We have learned that the treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) stopped Russian aggres- sions on the Amur river for nearly two hundred years. In 1854 Muravieff, the governor of Eastern Siberia, conducted a Russian flotilla down the Amur, and occupied the land on its left bank. The Chinese government was too weak to resist, having just been beaten by the Anglo-French expedition to Peking, and being still in danger from the Taiping rebels. By the treaties of 1858 and 1861 China ceded to Russia all land to the left of the Amur and to the right of the Ussuri river, up to the Korean boundary. By the treaty of Shimonoseki^ (1895) Japan was to take possession of the Liaotung peninsula. Russia, jointly with Germany and France, objected to this territorial aggrandizement of the Japanese empire, and the latter had to be content with the payment of an increased war indemnity. The Russian govern- ment guaranteed the loan raised by China for the payment of the first instalment of this indemnity. In return certain military advantages in Manchuria were granted to Russia. Three years later (1898) the Peking government was obliged to agree to a new treaty with Russia. ^See p. 465. 4IO MODERN HISTORY The harbors of Talien-wan and Po7't Arthur (Lii- shunkou) were leased for twenty-five years, and Russia got a concession for a railway connecting these ports, through Manchuria, with the Siberian railway. During the Boxer troubles (i 900-1 901) Manchuria was completely occupied by Russian troops. The Russian Minister at Peking tried to negotiate a treaty, assuring to his country the sovereignty over Manchuria. But the other Powers viewed this step unfavorably, so that Russia thought it better to promise in the treaty of 1902 that Manchuria should be oriven back to China. Causes of the Russo-Japanese War, — For the develop- ment of Siberia the Russian g-overnment needs an ice- free port on the Pacific Ocean. Vladivostok is not satisfactory, because its harbor freezes for two months every winter, during which navigation is kept up with difficulty by means of ice-breakers. Port Arthur provided an admirable ice-free harbor, which the Russian War Office at once started to fortify on an enormous scale. In the neighboring bay of Talien- wan, the commercial port of Dahiy was constructed at great expense. Japan was a rising power with an energetic and rapidly increasing population. It needed more ex- tended fields of enterprise and new land. Robbed of the fruits of its victory in 1895, it regarded the activity of the Russian colossus on the opposite shores of the continent with growing alarm and anger. The success of Russia would forever condemn Japan to remain a small island power. The situation 122° 124° 126° «" THE MANCHURIAN CAMPAIGN rbin Stanford's Geo^i Estate, London. 412 MODERN HISTORY was brought to a crisis, when the Russians began to interfere in Korean affairs, and, while repeating their promises of evacuation, constantly strengthened their military hold on Manchuria. Russian and Japanese Preparations. — When the war broke out, Russia had an available army of 158,000 men in the Far East. These troops were, however, scattered about, large garrisons being required for Port Arthur and Vladi- vostok. Reinforcements came over the Siberian railway, but they came too slowly for the pressing needs of the Russian commanders. Japan had a standing army of 200,000 men and a reserve of 100,000 in readiness. To this should be added the second reserve force of 100,000 men. 165,844 men could at once take the field. As for naval forces, the Japanese had an overwhelming superiority, the bulk of the Russian navy lying in an unready condition in the Baltic docks and harbors. . The war began too soon for Russia, and surprised her with wholly inadequate preparations. The Japanese secure Control of the Sea. — Hostilities were begun suddenly and energetically by the Japanese fleet. At midnight on February 9, 1904, while the Port-Arthur garrison was enjoying some festivities, Japanese torpedo boats entered the harbor and damaged three ships. The first success was soon followed by others, until the few remaining Russian warships could no longer show themselves out at sea. The Japan Sea and the Yellow Sea were now under Japanese control, and the transport vessels could in safety take troops and supplies to the theatre of war. Beginning of the Land Campaign. — The inferior Russian forces were driven back from the Yalu River \ the Liaotung peninsula with Port Arthur RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 413 was cut off from the main army in Manchuria. The great fortress, supposed to be an impregnable bul- wark, was unfinished and poorly supplied. A separate Japanese army under general Nogi was entrusted with the task of reducing Port Arthur. Oyama. Battle of Liaoyang". — The main Russian army under general Kuropatkin was concentrated in a strong position near the city of Liaoyang, in Southern Man- churia. It consisted of about 200,000 men. Aofainst this force three Japanese armies, aggregating also about 200,000 men, advanced under the command of Field- Marshal Oyama. After six days of pre- 414 MODERN HISTORY liminary fighting, a tremendous two days' battle was fought (August 30-31, 1904). Three days later Kuropatkin had to order a retreat. During the ten days' fighting the Japanese lost 21,600 and the Russians 16,000 officers and men. Fall of Port Arthur. — Meanwhile the siege of Port Arthur was pressed regard lessly of human life. The Russian soldiers disfended the various forts with a heroism equalling that of the storming parties. But the Russian g-enerals did not aa"ree about the tactics to be followed. The commander-in-chief, Stossel, acted in a manner so weak and vacillating, that it almost looked like treason towards his own country. On January i, 1905, he capitulated. General Nogi's army could now swell the forces opposing Kuropatkin at Mukden. The Battle of Mukden. — After their victory at Liaoyang the Japanese generals followed the Russians slowly and cautiously. South of the strongly in- trenched Russian line at Mukden they went into winter quarters. The severe cold precluded extensive operations until spring time. Meanwhile Kuropatkin was reinforced by fresh troops from Europe until he had about 350,000 men at his disposal, not counting the forces scattered at other points. Field- Marshal Oyama was better supplied. In addition to new levies from Japan he was joined by the army of Port Arthur. His total force was above 400,000. The plan of the Japanese generals was to envelop the Russian positions from the flanks, while keeping up a steady frontal attack. After two weeks of terrible fighting the plan almost succeeded. On RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 41 S March 10 the Czar received a telegram from Kuropatkin, ' I am surrounded.' But the worst fears of the Russian government were not realized. By a hurried retreat the remnants of the beaten army escaped before the Japanese could close their vast Togo, circle. Each side lost about 100,000 men. The battle of Mukden will always rank as one of the grandest and most fearful conflicts in historv, as reeards the number of the forces engaged, the fierce bravery displayed on both sides, the lives sacrificed, and the results attained. 4i6 MODERN HISTORY The Battle of the Sea of Japan. — So long as Japan controlled the sea, her armies could be constantly strensfthened from their home base. To sever the connection between Japan and the mainland was the only method that could bring an ultimate Russian victory. Two big fleets were dispatched for this task from the Baltic Sea. They were awaited at the Strait of Tsushima, the southern entrance to the Sea of Japan, by the Japanese fleet under admiral Togo. On May 29, 1905, the newspapers announced that " the greatest battle since Trafalgar began ... in the Korean Straits. Admiral Rozhdestvensky s great armada was shattered, nearly all his fighting ships having been either sunk or captured." ^ The Japanese losses were slight. The Peace of Portsmouth (Sept. 5, i905).^The pleni- potentiaries of the two powers agreed on a treaty of peace at Portsmouth, U.S.A. Article II. says : "... Russia recognizes the preponderant interests, from political, military, and economic points of view, of Japan in the Empire of Korea, and . . . will not oppose any . . . control that Japan will deem necessary to take in Korea." Article IV.: "... the lease of Port Arthur and Dalny . . . shall pass over entirely to Japan. . . ." Article IX.: " Russia ceded to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island. . . ."^ Causes of the Russian Defeat. — These can be found in the merits of the Japanese and the defects of the Russian ^ From the London Times. 2 The significance of this treaty will be discussed at the close of the last chapter. ^\ -» ^ M ■■■( ''tJS^ff^ ^ <:> / ■•' ^ o t K -^-•i h to (3 ^ Z v/ / o ■ ^' V 'J-^P""^ lW/ / o >//'■■ fl •' r- * ~"l:?i:^L__ ~r^< rl ■■•""■■ o \ ■■ / / 1 •' Ks B;_Obi-;! / .■ '~~ — y^ "^ ^-^____ /••■' / j "■-<■ \6 / '"~- / -. •••■■' ^/l ttV^. J ( 1 1 / J! / 1 '^if^ ? 'liVv, ^ j'^=east, rcich = realm), means the east (of the other German states) realm. Australia comes from the first Latin name of the country, ' Terra Australis ' {terra = land, australis =souihtxn\ meaning the southern land. Captain Cook. THE BRITISH EMPIRE 423 The settlement and development of the colonies was much more due to private initiative than to government action. The pioneers and traders, who carried British influence over the world, made their way by enterprise, pluck, and fair dealing. Wherever they went they carried with them their home idea of justice and truthfulness.^ English Government at the Beginning of the Nine- teenth Century. — The English Parliament theoretically consisted of representatives of the people. In fact, however, it was an oligarchy of the Ci^own and the noble families. The common man had no share in the government. This condition seems so opposed to English traditions of liberty, that it needs some explanation. As related in the passage on George III. (Chapter XXVII.), that ruler secured for himself a majority in Parliament by methodical bribery and gifts of office. Such practices were then considered as legiti- mate political expedients. The purchase of a seat in Parliament was no shameful thing, and was not even kept secret. Many seats became the acknowledged property of certain powerful families. By the indus- trial revolution (see Chapter xxxi.) new centres of population sprang up, while some other districts were almost depopulated. The assignment of votes for parliamentary elections meanwhile remained un- changed. Big cities like Manchester - had no vote, and half-deserted country districts, called ' rotten ^This does not imply that all Englishmen were just and truthful, but that these qualities distinguished the race above its competitors. During the eighteenth century the standards of truthfulness and justice were lower than they are now. 424 MODERN HISTORY boroughs,' might send two members to Parliament. Representation was a mere pretence. Luckily for England there prevailed among its aristocracy a high order of political ability and of patriotism. The Parliaments and Ministries of the eighteenth century can be well compared with the Roman Senate before the decline of the Republic. Both bodies guided an imperial policy with wisdom and efficiency. The greatest leaders of the Parliament were the two Pitts. William Pitt the Elder, Earl of Chatham (1708- 1778), also called the Great Commoner, directed England's policy during the Seven Years' War with restless energy. His mighty eloquence made him the autocrat of the House of Commons. His second son, William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806), was already Chancellor of the Exchequer (Minister of Finance) at the age of twenty-four. As Prime Minister he organized the second and the third European coalition against Napoleon. Faults of the System ; Loss of the American Colonies. — The defenders of the eighteenth century system of Representa- tion maintained that every member of Parliament repre- sented the whole British Empire, and that it was unessential in what part of the Empire he was elected. And since the Parliament represented both the home country and the colonies, it could pass laws which would be binding in the colonies. The Englishmen living in America held an opposite view. They said that only districts sending their own elected representative to Parliament were properly represented. And without such representation, so they claimed, they could not be taxed. (Compare Chapter XXVIII.) The dispute over this principle finally led to the loss of the most valuable English colonies, and to the formation of the United States. In England a considerable minority agreed with the Americans, and wished to see a reform of representation in the House of Commons. Causes for the Delay of Reform.— The English people have always valued law and order above fine political THE BRITISH EMPIRE 425 theories. They have gone slowly and cautiously in their changes of government, and have so escaped the tumults which shook all the other European states since the beginning of the French Revolution. When the cry of 'liberty, equality, fraternity,' rang through France, England was about to introduce reforms. At first the liberal movement was hastened by the French example. But the excesses against the king and the ruling classes produced a complete revulsion of feelingr in Enoland. Rather than to see the English masses infected by the French frenzy, the nation chose internal order under a reactionary regime. The Reform Act (1832). — The first steps towards a juster distribution of political rights were taken in 1828 and 1829. First the Protestant dissenters (those dissenting from the Established Church) and then the Catholics were freed from certain religious impediments which had hitherto excluded them from government positions. After long resistance of the upper classes, and not without riots on the part of the people, the famous Refo7^m Act was passed in 1832. The rotten boroughs were abolished, and the new manufacturing cities henceforth sent representatives to the House of Commons. The Reform Act " accomplished a great transference of power, in favor of the middle classes in the towns. Though it did not establish a democracy, it took a long step in that direction."^ Cliartisin. — The workmen of England were not satisfied with the reform bill, because it still excluded poorer people 1 S. R. Gardiner, A Student's History of England. 426 MODERN HISTORY from the franchise. Their leaders drew up the People's Charter, which, among other changes, demanded the aboli- tion of property quaHfications for seats in Parliament, the adoption of manhood suffrage, and the payment of salaries to the members of the House of Commons. The enthusiasm for reform did not, however, extend beyond small groups, and the whole movement died out after a big demonstration in 1848. From Protection to Free Trade. — The English government, in common with other states, used to levy heavy duties on all classes of imported goods. The chief object of the duties was to protect home industries against for- eign competition. To the mass of the people the pro- tective duties were a burden, because they artificially raised the prices of the necessaries of life. Most onerous were the corn laws. They pre- vented the importation of foreign wheat, so long as grain sold in the English market under a certain high price. The corn laws benefited the land owners, but kept the poor laborers near the starving point. An Anti-Corn-Law League was formed under the leader- ship of Richard Cobden and John Bright. By speeches and pamphlets they kept up agitation, and convinced the manu- facturers and laborers that the duties on grain should be abolished. They won the support of Sir Robert Peel, who became Prime Minister in 1841. The corn laws were abolished in 1846. Other duties soon shared the same fate. "In 1842 there were twelve hundred articles on which duty was levied at British ports. A iow years later there were only twelve, and these were retained merely for Sir Robert Peel. THE BRITISH EMPIRE 427 revenue." ^ Since then England has adhered to free trade. This means that goods could enter and leave the country without paying any duties. British commerce has flourished under free-trade principles. Many students of economics believe that England should now return, in part at least, to a protective system, com- mercial conditions having changed entirely since Cobden's time. Then England was without an industrial rival. Now Germany and the United States, both having protective tariffs, have become formidable competitors. Further Political Reforms. — In 1867 the right to vote was still further extended, so that well-to-do working men could join in the elections. Since 1884 only a trifling property qualification has been left, which still distinguishes the franchise from the universal suffrage practised in other democratic countries. The Irish Difficulty. — The Irish people have never been satisfied with the English government. They are of Celtic race, devoted to the Catholic religion, and impatient of government control. During the French wars the extreme Irish party asked for the aid of French troops for the plan of setting up an Independent Irish republic. William Pitt tried to stop the trouble by merging the Irish with the English Parliament, thus uniting the two governments (1800). But the discontent was not ended. The Irish question again became acute after 1845. In that and the following years the people suffered from terrible famine, due to excessive rains. Before 1850 the population was reduced by 2,000,000, through emigration and starva- tion. For this the government was blamed, and the Irish hatred against English rule grew still intenser. The so-called ' Fenians ' tried to win Irish independence by force, but were easily put down. Since 1870 a league of Irish patriots has demanded ' Home Rulel i.e. a separate ^ R. Mackenzie, The Nineteenth Cefttury. 428 MODERN HISTORY Irish Parliament. It long remained one of the chief questions before Parliament, and was supported in 1893 by Gladstone, who was then Prime Minister. The Home Rule movement failed chiefly through a quarrel among the Irish politicians. In 1903 the government passed a generous law aiming at the improvement of social conditions in Ireland. The details of this ' Irish Land Bill ' are too complicated for brief explanation. It is sufficient to state that until the present time (1907) the endeavors of the British govern- ment to restore social peace in Ireland have not wholly succeeded. Ireland still is a troublesome partner in the ' United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.' The English in India. — It will be remembered that Napoleon aimed at the overthrow of English power in India. When Wellesley Q.2Si\t. to India as governor- general for the East India Company in 1798, he found that French officers were drilling the armies of native princes. He at once got rid of the danger by depos- ing princes who favored France. The confederacy of the Mahratta chiefs extended across the north of the Dekkan and into the Ganges valley. It was helped by a clever Frenchman, who had organized a large force on European lines. The Mahrattas were repeatedly defeated by the governor's brother, General Wellesley, later known by his title Duke of Wellinoton as the victor of Waterloo. The over- throw of the Mahrattas left the East India Company masters of nearly all Southern India. Conquest of Burma (1824-18 26). — When Clive started the East India Company on its career of conquest in Bengal (1753) a new native empire was about to be built up in Burma. " For nearly seventy years the British from the Ganges, and the Burmese from THE BRITISH EMPIRE 429 the Irawadi, pushed their conquests, whether by arms or negotiation, till they met. Their inevitable rivalry soon led to hostilities."^ The English either had to take the offensive or else allow their Indian rule to be questioned. They sent an expedition up the Irawadi valley. It was aided by a flotilla of steam- boats — the first steam vessels ever used for war. After two years of arduous campaigning the Burmese were forced to submit. The Beginning of Benevolent Administration. — A splendid example of the English love of justice and good order was set by governor Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835). His administration is best characterized by the inscription on his statue in Calcutta, written by the historian Macaulay : " He abolished cruel rites ; he effaced humiliating distinc- tions ; he gave liberty to the expression of public opinion ; his constant study it was to elevate the intellectual and moral character of the nations com- mitted to his charge." His best remembered reform was the abolition of suttee, or widow burning. It had been a general custom that the widow of a deceased Hindu should burn herself alive. Bentinck's care for the welfare of his Indian subjects is an honored tradition which has been followed by most of his successors. The First Afghan War and the Massacre of Kabul (1838- 1 842). — About this time the English began to entertain fears of Russian influence in Afghanistan. The governor, acting on mistaken information, decided to place a friend of England on the Afghan throne. ^ C. Knight, Popular History of England. 430 MODERN HISTORY An army of about 15,000 men marched to Kabul, the capital, and had little difficulty in carrying out its purpose. But at the beginning of winter a sudden revolt forced the British to retreat. On the march through the wild mountain gorges they were mas- sacred almost to the last man. Next summer another army took Kabul again, and restored the prestige of the British arms. Events and Conditions leading up to the Indian Mutiny. — Governor Lord Dalhousie (i 848-1 856) was impatient of all native practices and conditions which seemed improper to his English sense of right and wrong. He imitated Lord Bentinck's example of benevolent social ameliorations. If a native prince, in the governor's opinion, ruled badly, he was deposed. His state was annexed to the territories under British administration. The Indian people loved their old social and religious traditions. They were incensed that the foreigners pre- vented the observation of popular practices, such as widow burning. The patronage extended by the Company's officials to Christian missionaries was especially distasteful to them. Wild rumors were spread about the terrible consequences of laying railways and stretching telegraph wires across the country. The whole population got into such state of ferment that a general uprising could occur at any moment. The deposed native princes did their best to increase popular excitement, and entered into conspiracies for the recovery of their rights. The Indian Empire had been won with the aid of native troops officered by Englishmen. In 1856 there were in India 300,000 men, trained and armed in European fashion. Of these only about 43,000 were British. Immediate Cause of the Oufbreak. — A new rifle was intro- duced at the beginning of 1857 into the Bengal army. THE BRITISH EMPIRE 431 " As greased cartridges were necessary for its effective use, these were issued to the troops along with the weapon. A report immediately started up and flew abroad that the grease employed in the preparation of these cartridges consisted of a preparation of the fat of cows and pigs — the first of these animals being the object of Hindu adora- tion, and the last of Mohammedan abhorrence," ^ Efforts to disprove the rumor and to pacify the sepoys (native soldiers) were unavailing. The call of rebellion spread like wildfire over all the provinces. The Indian Mutiny (185 7- 1858). — This revolt for a while seemed to end British rule in India, Terrible massacres of English residents, including women and children, were only part of the design of exterminating the foreigners. In the crisis the English kept wonder- fully cool. With an army of only 7000 men they stormed the walled city of Delhi, which was defended by 100,000 soldiers trained and armed in foreign fashion. At Lttcknow a small British garrison held its own aofainst overwhelming forces for three months, until relief came. After another year the last traces of rebellion were stamped out. The Crown assumes the Government of India (1858). — As a result of the mutiny. Parliament put an end to the authority of the East India Company. A Secre- tary of State for India was added to the Cabinet in London. Associated with him was an Indian Council, made up of persons having experience in Indian affairs. The Governor-General was appointed directly by the British government. In 1877 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. * The HistoriarHs History, vol, xxii. p. 168. (Cited from C. Mac- Farlane and Thomson, The Comprehensive History of E7igland.) 432 MODERN HISTORY The Afghan War (i 878-1 880).— When the English government stopped the Russian advance on Con- stantinople (1878), Russia made a counter-move by sending an envoy to the Ameer of Afghanistan. At once the viceroy of India also sent an envoy ; but the Ameer had him turned back at the frontier. Before British interests could be properly safeguarded, three expeditions had to march into Afghanistan, Besides the English and Russian phases, the problem was complicated by struggles for the succession to the throne at Kabul, The victory remained with an Ameer who was friendly to Britain. Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Tibet, — In 1901 a Tibetan embassy was received by the Czar in St. Petersburg. The Russian government is said to have promised its protection to the Church of the Dalai Lama. In any case, the Tibetans thereafter were negligent in the observation of their commercial treaty with India. At the beginning of the Russo-Japanese war the Indian government sent an armed expedition to Lassa, the capital and residence of the Dalai Lama. The latter fled to the north, but a treaty was drawn up with his representatives and the Amban (Chinese resident). By this treaty Tibet remains closed to all Powers except England. The Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was strengthened by the English expedition. Peace Works in India. — Since the mutiny the govern- ment has been careful to avoid offending the pre- judices of the population. In many instances, notably in sanitary work for the prevention of epidemics, the good intentions of English officials are frustrated by native habits and superstitions. Great progress has been made in the material development of the country. Railways, roads, canals, G.H. 434 MODERN HISTORY and irrigation works have all increased the wealth of India. Famines, those scourges imposed by the unre- liable climate and the dense population, are lessened by the improved means of communication,- Justice is more equitable and property more secure under the protection of reformed law courts. Education has made some advance, though the great mass of India's millions still remains untouched by it. Altogether, India is more prosperous under English rule than she has ever been during her long previous history. Indian National Aspirations. — The intellectual awakening of India has produced, anfiong the educated classes at least, a new national feeling This showed itself first in the demand for admission to government offices, on an equality with the English employees. The Indian civil service, in all but the highest branches, has been opened to natives. In recent times the demand for a national Indian Parlia- ment is frequently heard. The first step towards parlia- mentary rule was taken in 1885 by the establishment of the Indian National Congi'ess, It meets annually for a few days in one of the large cities, and discusses various public problems. It has no executive or law-making power ; but its discussions are of value to the government. Quite lately (1906- 1907) a radical national party created some uneasiness by advising the expulsion of all foreigners and the foundation of an independent Indian nation. Fortunately the agitators represented only a small fraction of the lettered classes. The withdrawal of foreign guidance would — in the opinion of all unbiassed students of the question — be disastrous for India. India is not a single nation, but consists of many discordant elements, among which harmony is maintained only by the restrain- ing English overlordship. The Hindus and Mohammedans, for example, have given no proof that they could strive THE BRITISH EMPIRE 435 together for a common national aim. On the contrary, their rivalry would bring disunion or civil war. Settlement of Australia. — Australia was at first used as a convict colony. When it became known that the Australian pastures were ideal for sheep-raising, pood settlers came from Ireland and Scotland. These objected to further shipments of criminals. In 1851 the discovery of rich gold fields brought a sudden rush of colonists. Soon after that the sendino- of English convicts was forbidden. By the year i860 there were seven separate Australian colonies, including Tasmania and New Zealand. Except the last, they all joined into the ' Commonwealth of Aiisti'-alia' in 190 1. At the head of the Common- wealth stands a governor-general, who is appointed by the English government. The federal Parliament consists of two houses. Laws passed by them must be sanctioned by the governor-general. In practice he is not likely to impede legislation. The Australian federation is practically a self-governing nation, whose dependence on the mother country is not based on force, but on loyalty. England in the Far East. — The settlement of Singapore was established in 18 19. Other colonies having the nature of trading posts were gradually established along the Malay Peninsula. They are now collectively called the Straits Settlements, with the capital Singapore. The ' Opium War ' with China (see Chapter XXXVII.) led to the cession of Hong-kong (1842). In 1898 CJiina agreed to a ninety-nine years' lease of the opposite peninsula of Kowloon. The city of 436 MODERN HISTORY Victoria, generally called Hong-kong, has grown into one of the most important distributing ports in the East. It is a free-port, i.e. no duties are levied on goods passing through. The Anglo- Japanese Alliance (1902). — In course of the nineteenth century China became an increasing- consumer of British manufactures. With the pro- gressive development of the country the demand far foreign goods was bound to increase rapidly. In order to preserve the Chinese trade for her manu- facturers and merchants, Great Britain insisted on the 'Open Door' in China. This means that imports from all countries are to be admitted on the same terms. The open-door policy was endangered by the advance of Russia in Manchuria. England and Japan were both anxious to prevent any further progress of Russia, and joined in a defensive alliance. Each country agreed to help the other in case it should be attacked by more than one power. The alliance soon proved to be of historic importance. It confined the war between Russia and Japan to these two nations, and gave Japan full security from any other possible opponent, while her whole energy was devoted to the Manchurian campaign. Renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1905). — The Anglo-Japanese alliance was prolonged and strengthened in 1905. Not only the British Empire and Japan, but also China and, in a manner, Russia will always regard this treaty as a decisive epoch in their histories. The preamble of the treaty states that its objects are {a) the consolidation and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India ; {U) the preservation of the common interests of all powers in China by ensuring the THE BRITISH EMPIRE 437 independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and the ' open door ' ; and (c) the maintenance of the territorial rights of England and Japan in India and the Far East respectively. The contracting powers agree to take common action if either party ' by reason of unprovoked attack or aggressive action wherever arising on the part of any other Power or Powers ' should be involved in war, in defence of the rights or interests above mentioned. The far-reaching consequences of this treaty belong to present and future politics rather than to history, and are beyond the scope of this book. Its provisions should be well remembered by every student who wishes to under- stand his own times. Modem Persia. — We have watched the mighty struggle between England and Russia along the line reaching from Constantinople through Asia to the shore of the Pacific. One section of this line, the Persian one, remains to be considered. Modern Persian history has been mainly determined by the conflict of Russian and English interests. During the period of 1797 to 1828 Persia lost considerable territories to Russia, and had to allow Russian warships to patrol the Caspian Sea. Dynastic quarrels were utilized by the English and the Russian envoys to further the ends of their respective governments. In this diplomatic contest the Russians got the victory. They incited two Persian attacks on Afghanistan, which led in turn to the first Afghan war of the English. For some years the whole administration was ' Russianized.' The Shah twice took the important city of Herat in Afghanistan, but each time he was forced by English attacks in the Persian Gulf to restore his conquest (18 5 2-1 857). England won further ad- vantages; but in 1900 Russia gave a large loan, which made Persia financially dependent on the northern Power. Since then the two rival Powers have by treaty guaranteed the inde- pendence and integrity of Persia. In 1906 the Shah yielded to the modern spirit of his subjects by granting a constitution. 438 MODERN HISTORY The Anglo-Russian Convention (1907). — In 1907 the English and Russian governments came to an agree- ment on various points touching their interests in Asia, This agreement is said to have put an end for many years to come to their long and bitter rivalry. England in Egypt. — The completion of the Suez Canal gave its builders an immediate interest in Egypt, because unrest in that country might have endangered free navigation. France and England jointly un- dertook an oversight of the Egyptian govern- ment. During a revolt against the foreign en- croachments (1882) France kept aloof and allowed England alone to restore order. Since then English troops have remained in the country, and the admini- stration has been guided by British officials. Lord Cro-}ne7' has Lord Cromer. gained fame by his won- derful reorganization of the Egyptian government. The Nile dam at Assuan will always remain a monu- ment of British efficiency. It stores up the surplus waters of the Nile in flood time and enables the fellahs (Egyptian peasants) to cultivate land on which no crops had ever been raised before. English control has benefited Egypt in many ways. Nevertheless THE BRITISH EMPIRE 439 many Egyptians dislike it, being influenced by that common racial feeling, which prefers native oppression to foreign justice. British South Africa. — The Cape Colony was occupied by England during the French revolutionary wars, when Holland, its former owner, had been forced into alliance with France. The original settlers were Dutch farmers called Boers. They did not care to live under English rule, and founded two new states further inland, the Orange Free State and the Trans- vaal Republic. In 1885 rich gold fields were discovered in the Transvaal. Large numbers of immigrants flocked to the mines, and soon the aliens were six times as numerous as the orioinal Boer settlers. The Boers took no interest in the new industry except to hamper it by heavy taxation. The 'Uitlanders' (Dutch for aliens) tried to become citizens of the Transvaal, but the Boers obstinately refused to let them have any share in the government. As most of the Uitlanders were English, they finally asked for aid from the British o-overnment. The Boer War (1899-1900). — Negotiations brought no results, and England declared war. The Boers were all natural soldiers. They had stored up muni- tions of war, while the English began the campaign badly prepared. The English generals at first suffered serious reverses. But new armies were sent from home, and the Boers were forced to submit by methodical campaigns, in which the whole country was swept by soldiers. The Orange Free State and 440 MODERN HISTORY * the Transvaal were both annexed by England. The Boers were most generously recompensed for their losses. Most of them became citizens of British South Africa. The Dominion of Canada. — The history of Canada is mostly one of peaceful internal progress. The various provinces united into the dominion of Canada in 1867. The dominion is self-governing, and has its own parliament, which meets at Ottawa. The governor- general is appointed by the Crown. Canada has great agricultural resources, which are being developed by steady immigration along new railway lines. The Present British Government is a limited monarchy, which in practice approaches closely to a democracy. The crown is hereditary through male or female descent ; the monarch must be a Protestant. Since 1707 the king (or queen) has not exercised his veto power, and all other powers are exercised only under ministerial advice. The ministers are jointly called the Cabinet. The Cabinet, by its function of advisory council to the king, actually has the executive power. It is also called the Ministry, or the Government. Dependence of the Cabinet on the Majority. — The Prime Minister is always the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons, and the other members of the ministry are selected by him from among the ablest adherents of his party. The Cabinet meets under the presidency of the Prime Minister, and frames measures for presentation to Parliament. If such a ' government bill ' is defeated, i.e. if it fails to secure a majority of votes, the ministry must resign. It may happen, however, that the ministers have reason to believe their policy to be approved by the majority of the nation outside of Parliament. In that case they can ask the king to dissolve Parliament, and order a new election, in the hope of securing the necessary majority THE BRITISH EMPIRE 441 among the newly elected members. In brief, the Cabinet always is supposed to express the will of the greater part of the people. The House of Lords is restricted in its legislative power. It can neither originate nor amend a money bill. Experi- ence has also shown that the Lords could not prevent the passage of a bill which the Commons and the people insist on passing. Tlie House of Commons has the greatest share of sovereign power. A change in its opinions makes and unmakes the ministers who guide the fortunes of the Empire. It contains six hundred and seventy members elected by secret ballot for seven years. Any citizen is eligible ; but he gets no pay for his services. Plans of Imperial Federation. — It used to be thought that the big self-governing colonies, notably Cariada and Australia, would gradually become more independent, and that they might by peaceful development finally attain complete autonomy. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century a larger imperial conception was advocated. In 1884 the /w/m^/ Federation League was founded. Its aim was to work for the realization of a ' Greater Britain,' a close political union of the mother country and the colonies. Since 1893 several leagues have been established, working partly for a common scheme of imperial defence, and partly for a customs union within the empire. In 1903 the veteran statesman Joseph Chamberlain by his energetic agitation roused the interest of all England in this question. He advised that England should levy duties on food stuffs from foreign countries, while admitting them free from the colonies. The colonies, in turn, should allow English manufactures to come in with small duties or none at all, while raising high duties against foreign goods. Thus the empire would be bound together by common commercial interests, somewhat as the German Customs Union was bound together after 1830. If the many difficulties in the 442 MODERN HISTORY way of this plan can be overcome, the future Greater Britain will be the grandest political creation in history. The Modern Colonial Empire of France. — Though the French succumbed in the struggle with England for colonial empire, they never forgot their ambitions. About the middle of the seventeenth century they occupied some parts of the western coast of Africa. During the middle of the nineteenth century they entered on the conquest of Alge^da, and in 1881 Timis was put under French protectorate. The greater part of Western Africa between the Mediterranean, and the Congo River is now occupied by France. A French protectorate was declared over the large island of Madagascar m 1889. To avenge the murder of some French missionaries, Saigon in the kingdom of Annam was seized in 1862. Annam was at that time under Chinese suzerainty. After the Franco-Prussian war the French continued to push their conquests in Annam and Tongking. There ensued a war with China over the protectorate of Tongking, which resulted in the treaty of 1885 establishing French authority over that province. Tongking, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin China were united under the administration of ' Indo- China,' with Saigon as capital. The colonial party in France also wished to annex the whole of Siam. But a convention with England in 1896 assured the independence of the central portion of that country. In 1 902 Siam ceded some territory along the Mekong River. German Colonization. — When Germany had achieved her unity, and began to develop that remarkable THE BRITISH EMPIRE 443 energy which would well fit her for a colonial career, nearly all available countries were already occupied. Her surplus population emigrated to North and South America, and was lost to the national flag. Her merchants and shippers made Germany's name well known throughout the Old and New World, but they could not, like their English predecessors, win new lands. Only in Africa large tracts of tropical countries, mostly unfit for white settlers, were still without a master. Of these Germany took all she could get without being embroiled with her neighbors. She gave the signal for the complete partition of Africa among various European powers. After the Chino-Japanese war (1895) it looked for a while as if China might be divided among the great Powers. Germany did not wish to be left behind, and seized the port of Kiaochau in Shantung, as punishment for the murder of some German mission- aries. China was obliged to grant a ninety-nine years' lease of the place, together with various privileges in Shantung province (1897). French and G-erman Rivalry in Morocco. — The conquest of Morocco would have rounded out the French African Empire with the most desirable part of West Africa. In return for the French recognition of British rights in Egypt, England had agreed to give France a free hand in Morocco. The ultimate annexation of the country seemed as good as settled. Suddenly, while Russia, the ally of France, was preoccupied with the Japanese in Manchuria and with revolution at home, the German Emperor promised his protection to the Sultan of Morocco. For some time a Franco-German war was daily imminent. The officers packed their trunks for the field. But the 444 ' MODERN HISTORY horrors of war in Manchuria were too vividly before the governments. Every one wished for a peaceful settlement. An international conference met at Algeciras^ a little Spanish town near Gibraltar (1906). An agreement was reached, by which the open door is maintained in Morocco. The country keeps its independence. The police and the finances are under European influence. France's task of preserving order is difficult and delicate. It has already grown into a war against the fanatical tribesmen, who want to drive the foreigners away. The Colonies of the Lesser Powers. — Spain and Portugal still own some colonies in Africa. When the general partition of that continent was imminent, King Leopold of Belgium succeeded in erecting, with the consent of the Powers, the Congo Free State. This was a neutral and independent state, which remained open to the traders of all nations. Its bad administration caused some scandal, and led to its annexation by Belgium (1907). Italy settled on the Red Sea coast, and came into collision with the warlike Abessynians. The Italians were defeated, and had to acknowledge the independence of the Abessynian emperor. He is now the only independent native sovereign in Africa. The Dutch East India Colonies were first established in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company. Aside from occasional revolts of the natives, their possession has not been seriously disputed. Their rich products, such as coffee, spices, tobacco, and rubber, make them more valuable than any other tropical colony outside of India. CHAPTER XXXVI THE AMERICAN COUNTRIES DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY I. THE UNITED STATES Washington's Administration ( 1 789- 1 797). — President Washington brilliantly solved the problem of putting the paper constitution (see close of Chap, xxvill.) into actual practice. In most departments of administration he was able to set precedents which have been observed until the present day. In his task he was helped by some able ministers. Thomas Jefferson, the secretary of state, and Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, displayed notable organizing talent. Hamilton found the finances in a seemingly hopeless con- dition. In a series of reports, which are still admired as master-pieces of public finance, he showed the way to a sound national economy. Washington declined the Presidency for a third term, thus s-etting an example which was followed by all succeeding presidents. In his 'Farewell Address^ he said: "It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world. . . ." And then : " Harmony and a liberal intercourse with all nations are recommended by policy, humanity, and interest." In this advice of the first president lies the key to the foreign policy of the United States until the present time. The Louisiana Purchase (1803). — During the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, Napoleon was waging war with England. 446 MODERN HISTORY He had taken from Spain the great territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River. Knowing that he probably would not be able to hold the possession against the British navy, he preferred to sell it to the United States (1803). The price paid for a territory embracing about half of the present United States west of the Mississippi was fifteen million dollars. Most of it was then unbroken wilderness. War with England ( i 8 1 2- 1 8 1 4). — The Napoleonic wars were very profitable to American merchants and shipowners. But England, in her desire to enforce the blockade of European ports, took severe measures against neutral ships. In spite of American protests her cruisers stopped vessels on the high seas, searched their cargoes, and confiscated them if they seemed to be contraband of war. The British officers also often impressed ^ American sailors, claiming that they were deserters from the English navy. For several years the government tried to escape war. But popular indignation finally precipitated the conflict. The Americans were utterly unprepared. Their warships earned fame by gallant fights, in which they disabled English vessels of equal size. As a whole, however, the war was inglorious. An English force marched right up to the capital city of Washington, and set fire to it. At the close of the war the Americans proved that they only required proper military organization, to make fine soldiers. General Andrew Jackson repelled with 5000 men of militia an attack of 12,000 British regulars on New Orleans. The downfall of Napoleon in 1 8 1 4 removed the causes of the war. The treaty of peace gave no special gains to either side. But the American merchant marine was almost ruined. Slave States and Free States. — During the two administra- tions of James Monroe the question of slavery became an important political issue. Already in colonial times the social and economic conditions of the South were different from those of New England. The latter consisted largely of industrial and ^ Impressed = made them serve in the British navy. 448 MODERN HISTORY trading communities. In the South large plantations of tobacco, cotton, or sugar cane were worked by slaves. The difference between the two sections steadily grew. The free states were in favor of a protective tariff to stimulate their industries, while the purely agricultural states would have preferred free imports. The Missouri Compromise (1820). — Neither party wished the other one to gain in political weight. Whenever a newly formed state was admitted to the Union, the question always presented itself: Shall it be a slave state or a free state? Until 18 19, when Alabama (slave holding) was admitted as the twenty-second state, the balance had been evenly preserved. But the question of granting statehood to the slave-holding territory of Missouri caused intense excitement. It was finally admitted by a compromise : To balance the increase in slave states, the free state of Maine, north of Massachusetts, was also admitted. At the same time an act was passed forbidding for all times slavery north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes latitude. The Monroe Doctrine. — President Monroe was confronted with a dangerous question of foreign relations. Russia had settled on the North American continent, crossing from Siberia to Alaska} Russian influence threatened to extend south into United States territory. France and Spain just then contemplated forcible action against the newly formed South American republics. Monroe courageously stood for American rights. In the Message to Congress of 1823 he stated: "... the American continents . . . are henceforth not to be con- sidered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." And, referring to the South American republics : "... we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power, in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." ^ In 1867 Alaska was sold by Russia to the United States. THE AMERICAN COUNTRIES 449 Canning, the British Prime Minister, supported the American policy. (Compare Ch. xxxil., Spain.) Jackson and the Spoils System. — During the presidency of general Andrew Jackson (182 9- 1837) party passions had grown virulent. His adherents, strongest in the South, formed the democratic party, while the opponents were the republican party. The politicians who pushed Jackson's election, perfected the vicious 'spoils system.' They thought it quite proper that men who worked successful!}^ to get votes in favour of Jackson, should be rewarded with offices after his election. Within nine months after Jackson had entered the White House (the President's official residence at Washington), one thousand officials of the old administra- tion were replaced by his ' friends.' ' To the victors belong the spoils,' was the motto of the politicians. It has not been possible wholly to eradicate the spoils evil from the American government. Nullification in South Carolina (1832). — The people of South Carolina felt specially aggrieved by certain parts of the protective tariff. Under the leadership of Calhoun, an able politician, they asserted the right of the individual states to disavow or ' nullify ' distasteful laws passed by the United States. In other words, they claimed the right of setting single state rights above the national sovereignty. Jackson replied to the ' nullification ' in a proclamation which threatened the use of military force, if the South Carolinians should persist in their course. The nullifiers' object, he concluded, ' is disunion, and disunion by armed force is treason.' The leaders of the movement then gave up their design, and bloodshed was avoided. Beginning of the Abolitionist Movement. — About this time (1831) the demand for the total abolition of slavery was energetically put forward by a small party in the North. They were called the abolitionists. At first they were universally hated ; but their cause gradually won more supporters, and helped finally to bring on the civil war. G.H. 2 F 450 MODERN HISTORY The Annexation of Texas; and tlie War with Mexico (1845- 1848). — American citizens settled in Texas, the north- eastern part of the Mexican repubHc. They first declared Texas to be an independent state, and afterwards secured its adnaission to the Union (1845). Subsequently a quarrel about the boundaries of Texas produced a war between the United States and Mexico. The Mexicans, as the weaker party, were easily defeated. They gave up a large territory, including the present state of California. Secession of the Slave States (i 860-1 861). — The free states gained in population and wealth more rapidly than the slave states. This was in spite of the fact that the slave territory was larger, and that its natural resources were equal to those of the North. The whole cause for the backwardness of the South lay in slavery. But the slave holders were blind to the faults and dangers of an institution that had already been condemned by all intelligent men in Europe. They thought that giving up slavery would ruin them. Before i860 they had usually kept the upper hand in Congress. Now northern opinion was roused against slavery. The abolitionists were held in honor. The advocates of slavery would be outvoted, and the slaves might be set free. Rather than risk such a defeat, the slave states seceded from the Union, and formed themselves into the ' Confederate States of America! The North seemed inclined to let the Confederate States go their own way in peace. The Civil War (i 861-1 865).— The election as president of Abrahain Lincoln (i860) had precipitated the secession of the South. Lincoln was willing to let the slavery question take its own course. But he would not allow the Union to be endangered. When the authorities of Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, fired on a United States fort in their harbor, Lincoln issued a call for arms. In war time the Constitution grants the President almost dictatorial powers. These powers Lincoln used with admir- able firmness and wisdom. \^-;-S.S:.Vi..-.4-.Q' \?\:3 /i<9e c Sri? 452 MODERN HISTORY Victory at first inclined to the Southern armies. Several of their generals had gained experience during the Mexican war, while the Northern people were unused to military life. In material resources and population, however, the North was so vastly superior, that the result of the contest could be foreseen from the start. The many marches and counter- marches, sieges, and battles of this terrible war of sister states make a long history for themselves. They cannot be recounted here. Several military reputations were made. Generals Lee and Jackson of the Confederate army. Generals Grant and Sherman of the Union army, will always figure among the notable commanders in history. The Emancipation Proclamation ; Close of the War. — In 1863 Lincoln issued a proclamation emancipating all slaves in the districts which were in rebellion against the United States, Two years later all slaves in the Union were made free by an amendment to the constitution. The war could only be ended by the complete exhaustion of the South. Liberal terms of peace were granted ; the Confederates merely had to lay down their arms and cease from further acts of hostility. The war cost the nation, including both sides, nearly a million lives. The total money cost, including destruction of property and pensions paid to soldiers after the war, is estimated at ten thousand million dollars. Material Progress. — After the Civil War the United States advanced in population and wealth by leaps and bounds. Since the foundation of the nation the number of inhabitants has^ on the average, doubled every twenty-five years. In 1890 it was sixty-two millions. In the decade ending 1890 nearly five million ivimigrants entered the country. Most of these were of Germanic or Celtic origin. The industrial history of the country was marked by the organization of immense business corporations called Trusts. The trusts often sought to get a monopoly of their trade, and built up a capital power greater than the THE AMERICAN COUNTRIES 453 world had ever seen before. The steel trust, for example, was organized with a capital of five hundred million dollars. The Spanish- American War of 1898 has been described in modern Spanish history. For the United States the war opened a new era. It put her into the possession of over-sea colonies (Philippine Islands, Porto Rico), and placed her among those great Powers that have to make themselves felt in all questions of world politics. The year before the Sandwich Islands, which command the middle of the Pacific, were annexed. They are not regarded as colonies, but have been made into United States territory. The United States and the 'Open Door' in China. — After the Boxer troubles in China (1900) America was earnestly concerned in preserving the integrit)^ of that country. It was largely due to her diplomacy that the open-door policy in China was accepted by all the Powders. II. MEXICO ; CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA Mexico was established as an independent republic in 1823. For the next fifty years there was a chronic state of anarchy and civil war, the power commonly being in the hands of a dictator. Non-payment of foreign debts involved the country in trouble with Europe. Louis Napoleon used the opportunity for the conquest of the country. French troops seated the Austrian archduke Maximilian on the throne of the reorganized Empire of Mexico (1863). The enterprise was a political blunder. After the Civil War the United States government reminded Napoleon of the Monroe doctrine. He was obliged to recall his troops, and the ex-emperor Maximilian was shot by the enraged Mexicans. Since then Mexico has remained a republic. An able president, Diaz, made an end of revolutions and started the country on an era of prosperity. The history of the Central and South American States, since their liberation from Spain and Portugal, has been 454 MODERN HISTORY a series of revolutions. Most of the states set up republican governments, in several cases innitating closely the consti- tution of the United States. Events generally proved that the South American peoples were not fitted by temperament and education for advanced forms of popular government. Revolutions followed one another with disastrous frequency, and dictatorships were often established. In Paraguay an unusual sort of despotism was set up by a certain Dr. Francia, who compared himself to Caesar, and was sole ruler for twenty-six years (i 8 14-1840). Since 1901 the internal troubles of Venezuela have assumed international importance, because the President, Cipriano de Castro, a virtual dictator, refused to pay various sums due to foreigners. Germany and Great Britain enforced the payment of their claims by blockading the Venezuelan ports with warships. The wider significance of this episode lay in the fact that Germany, in order to avoid a misunderstanding with the United States, officially recognized the Monroe Doctrine (compare p. 448). Fears of German colonial ambition had been entertained in Brazil, the southern part of which contains a large and wealthy German population. The progress of education and the restraining influence of other Powers have lately improved the political conditions in Central and South America. The people are beginning to learn the right use of political liberty. The improvement is most notable in the Argentine Republic, Chile, and Brazil, the states which have the largest trade and the greatest proportion of purely European inhabitants. CHAPTER XXXVII THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST INTRODUCTION ; GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT Early Attitude of Japan and China towards Western Ideas. — China and Japan continued to go their isolated course until the middle of the nineteenth century. They would still be their unchanged, old selves, if the restless energy of the Western peoples had not brought a sudden flood of new dangers and new benefits. The dangers, at first despised, soon necessitated a complete change of public policy, as the only means of preserving national independence. In Japan a few far-seeing statesmen recognized at once that the benefits were greater than the danger. They foresaw that a more vigorous national life, new power, and new wealth would spring from a prompt adoption of Western methods and ideas. Their counsels prevailed. Japan has begun to reap the harvest The Chinese statesmen showed more pride and less wisdom. They continued to despise the foreign barbarians, instead of trying to find out the causes of Western superio- rity. Having always been the intellectual mistress of her own world, China could not realize that she was confronted with a new order of intellect from a hitherto unknown world. Her government preserved an attitude of haughty seclusion. But the haughtiness of the state did not conceal its weakness to foreign eyes. The Danger of China. — Soon China was threatened by 456 MODERN HISTORY the danger which has always befallen a weaker state easily accessible to stronger states ; she ran imminent risk of falling under foreign dominion. Ports were seized, former Chinese dependencies were annexed, and ' spheres of influ- ence ' were marked out on the map. Causes for the Preservation of China's Independence. — Two causes combined to prevent the break-up of China. First, and foremost, the inability of the foreign governments to agree on a policy of division. Only a European war could have settled that question. Secondly, the recognition that the Chinese race was strong, and that only their public institutions were temporarily weak. Their numbers, their intelligence, their industry, their solidarity, and their strong racial individuality all combined to show that they would always remain masters of their own soil. Foreigners might for a while be a ruling caste; they might, by taxation or otherwise, exploit the natives; but no foreign rulers could ever make out of China anything else than the land of the Chinese. Historical Importance of Far-Eastern Events. — The modern transformation of Japan and China is at least as significant as any other event or period in the world's history. During the four hundred years after the discovery of America the European peoples have victoriously overrun all of the New and much of the Old World. Everywhere they met inferiors, or, in the case of India, people who were their equals in the realms of thought, but also weaker in the arts of government and war. What, after so much success, was more natural than that the white men should consider themselves the predestined lords of the globe ? At the close of the nineteenth century the ability of the Japanese began to be recognized and generously applauded. But the applause was still that of superior masters for their good pupils. Ten years later, the Japanese had proved their mastery of the new instruments of might. They have overthrown the Western prejudice of the natural superiority of the white race. They have established a new balance of power among the great nations of the world. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 457 With the opening of the Far East, history has become truly universal. Every nation of the globe is now tied to the others by ties of intellectual and commercial intercourse, and of political interest. A war in Manchuria affects the balance of power in Europe. A financial crisis in New York is felt by the merchants in Shanghai as well as in Berlin. In short, the destiny of every country is now, more than ever before, largely shaped by the actions of the rest of the world. I. JAPAN 1 The Growth of Feudalism in Old Japan. — The sudden Japanese revolution after 1850 v^as prepared by internal changes, w^hich must first be briefly explained. For this purpose we. must go back to the beginning of the Middle Ages in Japan. The Mikados theoretically always remained the sole and absolute sovereigns of Nippon. In practice the administration after the seventh century began to fall into the hands of the prime ministers. In 794 the emperor Kuammu was induced to establish his capital at Kioto, which remained the imperial residence until 1868. The ministers surrounded the person of the Mikado with much pomp and ceremony. He was cut off from contact with the common world, until the people thought of him as a kind of human divinity residing: at Kioto. ^The principal authority followed is W. E. Grififis, The Mikado's Empire, from which work several quotations are taken. The best single book for the student who wishes to get a closer understanding of Japan's modern development, is Japan by the Japanese. A Survey by its Highest Authorities. Edited by Alfred Stead. London, 1904. Some of Japan's greatest statesmen and teachers have contributed the articles in this book. 45 8 MODERN HISTORY Meanwhile the ministers made their offices heredi- tary in their families. The central government was weakened, and the governors of the provinces steadily grew in power. Thus a feudal monarchy was evolved. The Daimios or princes ruling over the provinces stood in a similar relation to their suzerain, the Mikado, as the great vassals of France or England during the Middle Ages stood to their royal overlords. The vassal princes often waged war against each other, and even against the emperor. Formation of the Duarchy.^ — Most notable was the struggle bet\Aeen the Taira clan, which long enjoyed a monopoly of power, and the Minanioto clan. The former lost all their high offices, and were finally destroyed in a terrible naval battle in the strait of Shimonoseki. In 1192 Yoritonio, the head of the Minamotos, was appointed by the Mikado as Sei-i Tai Shogun (Barbarian-conquering general). " Henceforth the term Shogiin came to have a new significance. Anciently all generals were called shoguns, but, with a new emphasis added to the name, the shogun acquired more and more power, until foreigners sup- posed him to be a sovereign. Yet this subordinate from first to last — from 1 192 until 1868 — was a general only, and a military vassal of the emperor. Though he governed the country with a strong military hand, he did it as a vassal, in the name and for the sake of the Mikado at Kioto." Since there were two rulers, the rightful but helpless emperor at Kioto, and the usurping, powerful shogun, the period of the shogunate is often called a duarchy (duo being Latin for ' two '). THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 459 The Perfection of the Shogunate (1603). — The Mina- moto shoguns had to give way to other families, and civil war several times devastated Japan. After such a troublous period at the close of the sixteenth century, order was restored by lyeyasu of the Tokugawa family, which also belonged to the famous Minamoto clan, lyeyasu obliged the Mikado to make him shogun in 1603. He established his own capital at Yedo, the present Tokio, while the Mikado's court continued to reside at Kioto. By marriage alliances with great Daimios, and by bestowing important fiefs on his own sons, lyeyasu made the Tokugawa family supreme in Japan. He and his able grandson perfected a system of feudal government under which Japan enjoyed peace and prosperity for over two centuries- Strict Seclusion of Japan. — A curious feature of the Tokugawa shogunate was the law forbidding Japanese subjects on pain of death to quit their country. Formerly Japan had entertained commercial relations with all the maritime countries of Eastern Asia. Now all foreigners who wished to trade were consistently repelled. Only the Dutch were allowed to maintain one little factory at Deshima near Nagasaki. Suppression of Christianity. — The Portuguese had first come to Japan in the middle of the sixteenth century. The famous Jesuit Francis Xavier preached Christianity with wonderful success. The new faith spread rapidly, embracing also noble families. The Tokugawa shoguns believed the new doctrine to be dangerous to the government. The decree of banishment against all foreigners, save the Dutch and the Chinese, was primarily aimed at the Christian missionaries. When the native converts refused to drop their faith, the severest persecutions were instituted. Cruci- 46o MODERN HISTORY fixion, burning, or burying alive, and still other tortures, were employed against the ' corrupt sect.' By the close of the seventeenth century Christianity was extirpated. - Japanese Society under tlie Tokugawa Shogunate. — The popu- lation was divided into distinct classes, which were, however, not so sharply separated as the Indian castes. (i) The Daimios, who fell into subclasses according to the extent of their landed property. (2) The Samurai, also with subclasses. They were officers, officials, and soldiers. (3) Priests, scholars, physicians, artists. (4) Farmers. (5) Artisans, fishermen, etc. (6) Traders. As a rule the son continued in the rank and occupation of his father. The merchants were badly off " They were considered so low in the social scale that they had no right in any way to oppose or to remonstrate with the samurai." Opening of Japan to Foreign Intercourse (1854). — In 1853 the American Commodore Perry sailed to Japan with a squadron of eight vessels. He bore a friendly letter from the President of the United States, in which a commercial treaty between the two nations was proposed. In the following year the shogun agreed to such a treaty, and Japan was thus at last drawn into relationship with the outer world. England, Russia, and the other states soon concluded similar arrangements. At the same time the law preventing Japanese from travelling abroad was repealed. Students at once flocked in large numbers to Europe and America, to become acquainted with foreign sciences and institutions. Causes for the Fall of the Shogunate. — The advent of the foreign traders and diplomats caused important changes in the internal affairs, and led to the fall of the shogunate. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 461 The hostile Daimios, among whom that of Satsunia was strongest, claimed that the shogun had no right to conclude treaties with foreign states. They supported the sovereignty of the Mikado. In fact the loyalty to the Mikado never had been forgotten. As early as the close of the seventeenth century signs of discontent with the shogun's ascendency showed themselves among the scholar class. Prince Mito (1632- 1700) wrote a history of Japan, which was widely studied. " The tendency of this book was to direct the minds of the people to the Mikado as to the true and only source of authority, and to point out the historical fact that the shogun was a military usurper." A second preparatory cause for the resumption of the Mikado's rights was the revival of the Shinto religion during the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century. Shinto, which means ' the way of the gods,' had existed before the advent of Buddhism. It was a worship of ancestors and of natural elements, resembling the ancient Chinese nature worship. It insisted especially on the divine descent of the Mikado, and demanded obedience to the imperial government as the first moral duty. The political significance of Shinto is seen from the fact that after 1870 it became the state religion. Conflict with the Foreigners. — The struggle between the shogunate and the legitimist party of the Mikado led to serious misunderstandino"s with the foreig^n Powers. When the Western diplomats first signed the treaties, they believed the shogun to be acting with full legal powers. Suddenly the Mikado's advisers disavowed the obligations entered into by the shogun, and announced the intention of the government to close the Japanese ports. At the same time the populace was aroused against the foreigners, and several of the latter were killed. Then a prominent 462 MODERN HISTORY Daimio attacked some European ships. The allied governments decided to settle matters by force. In 1864 a squadron of English, French, Dutch, and American men-of-war destroyed the fortifications of the strait of Shimonoseki. This argument proved effective. The treaties received the imperial sanction. The Revolution of 1868. — In 1867 Mutsuhito suc- ceeded to the throne as the one hundred and twenty- third Mikado of Japan's first and only dynasty. He was then fifteen years of age. His counsellors had a twofold policy. First to keep on good terms with the Western Powers, and to introduce Western reforms. Secondly, to establish the Mikado in his ancient rights as sole ruler of Japan. When they requested the shogun to give up his powers for the welfare of the state, he peacefully resigned. But his vassals per- suaded him to retract the resignation and take up arms. He was beaten by the Daimio of Satsuma and other imperialists (1868). Although the last shogun now retreated into a Buddhistic monastery, the civil war amonof the Daimios lasted to the close of the year. The Opening of the New Era. — One of the first acts of the restored imperial government was to request the Daimios to retire into private life. They obeyed at once, without striking a blow in defence of their feudal privileges. Most of them were mere pleasure- seekers, who had nothing of the martial valor of their ancestors. The feudal state was thus changed to an absolute monarchy. A series of reforms along Western lines was intro- duced during the following years A modern post THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 463 office, uniform currency, the Gregorian calendar, com- pulsory elementary education, are only a few of the measures that changed Japan into a modern state. Christian missionaries were admitted in 1876, and rapidly spread their doctrines. Establishment of Constitutional Government (1890). — In 1890 the Mikado voluntarily gave up a part of his imperial prerogatives to representatives of the people. A constitution was promulgated, which pro- vided for an Imperial Diet of two houses. The House of Peers is composed of members of the imperial family, of nobles, and of deputies who have been nominated by the emperor. The House of Representatives is composed of members elected by the people. The framers of the constitution fixed the minimum age for electors and candidates at twenty-five and the property quah'fication at a payment of direct taxes to the amount of 1 5 yen annually. The result was that 460,000 persons were enfranchised out of a nation of 42 millions. By a reform bill passed later the property qualification for electors was reduced to payment of national taxes amounting to 10 yen annually, the number of franchise holders being thus raised to about 800,000. The Organization of a Modern Army and Navy was among the first cares of the new government. The army was trained first by French, and after 1885 by German officers. Since the war of 1895 Japan has carried on her military work independently of foreign aid. The navy was built up and organized along British lines. The Korean Question. — ^The Japanese invaded Korea at the close of the sixteenth century. The Korean 464 MODERN HISTORY court continued thereafter to sionalize its respect by sending presents on the accession of every shogun. After the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, however, the Koreans declined to have any further relations with a country sunk so low as to embrace Western civilization. In 1875 they completed the rupture by firing on the boats of a Japanese war-vessel. Japan replied by sending a strong squadron of modern ships to Korea. The latter was quite over- awed, and agreed to a treaty of amity and commerce, opening three ports to foreign trade. The ' Hermit Kingdom ' was thus at last also opened to the outer world (1876). China and Korea. — China had long claimed suzerainty over Korea. But the Qrovernment at Peking- took no active steps to extend that effective protection which should have been coupled with suzerainty. Korea had to face unaided the Japanese naval forces. When she submitted, she was allowed to conclude with Japan a treaty of which the first article declared her 'an in- dependent state enjoying the same rights as Japan.' Subsequently other treaties were made with the United States, Great Britain, and other powers. In these treaties also Korea assumed the part of an independent state. Japanese predominance in Korea would have threatened the maritime route to the northern harbors of China, and hence to Peking. It would also have given easy access to Manchuria. For these reasons China revived^ her claim of overlordship, and sent a resident to Soul, the capital. Thereafter Chinese in- fluence was felt in all departments of the Korean THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 465 administration. The Japanese interests suffered under various measures instituted by the Chinese. The rivalry became steadily more bitter, until a war was unavoidable. The Chino-Japanese War (i 894-1 895). — In 1894 both powers kept small bodies of troops in Korea. Negotiations were constantly going on to settle the status of Korea, China having already termed it a ' tributary state.' Meanwhile Japan, unable to agree on a common course of action with China, began single handed to introduce various reforms in the decrepit Korean administration. China proceeded to stop this encroachment on her suzerain rights by sending troops to Korea. This was the signal for war. The whole campaign was a series of triumphs for Japan. China's ill-armed and undisciplined forces were no match against the new Japanese army. At sea the Chinese had the better ships. But the Japanese had better commanders. With a fleet of eleven ships they defeated the Chinese squadron of fourteen men- of-war near the mouth of the Yalu River, which forms the boundary between Korea and Manchuria. The only stubborn resistance offered throughout the war by the Chinese was made by the brave admiral Ting at Wei-hai-wei. When most of his fleet was destroyed, he committed suicide. The Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895). — The Japanese general-staff was contemplating a march on Peking, when the Chinese government sent Li Httng Chang, the viceroy of Chili province, to discuss terms of peace. On April 17, 1895, a treaty was signed by him and by Marquis Ito, the Japanese prime minister. We will let the principal passages of the treaty speak for themselves : G.H. 2 G 466 MODERN HISTORY "Article II. China cedes to Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty the following territories, together with all fortifications, arsenals, and public property thereon : ^' (a) The southern portion of the province of Feng- tien. ..." (In brief, the Liaotung peninsula.) "(5) The Island of Formosa. . . . " (c) The Pescadores Group. . . ." "Article IV. China agrees to pay to Japan as a war indemity the sum of 200,000,000 Kuping Taels. . . ." It has been told above (Chap, xxxiv.) that Japan was obliged by Russia, France, and Germany to restore the Liaotung peninsula to China. ' Japanese History since 1895 has been sufficiently treated in connection with the affairs of Russia and Great Britain in the Far East. 11. CHINA. The Jesuits in China. — During the seventeenth century it looked as though China were about to enter into permanent relations with the West. About forty years after the settle- ment of Macao by the Portuguese a Jesuit missionary named Matteo Ricci first began to preach Roman Catholic Christi- anity (1582). The last sovereigns of the Ming Dynasty (^\ 368- 1644) tolerated the creed which their forerunners in the fourteenth century had banished from the country. When the Ming dynasty was broken up, and the present Manchu dynasty came into power, the missionaries in the North secured the favor of the new rulers. The Jesuit Schaal enjoyed the protection of Shun Chih, the first emperor in China of the Ta CJiing (Manchu) dynasty. Schaal reformed the calendar, and acted as tutor to the celebrated emperor K'ang Hsi. During the latter's reign the Jesuits made a complete survey of the empire, on which the present maps THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 467 are still based. It was, in fact, the scientific learning of the Jesuits that ensured them their success at Peking. Second Expulsion of the Christians. — The Jesuits were lax in their doctrinal teaching. They allowed the Chinese con- verts to maintain ancestor worship and other practices dis- agreeing with proper Christianity. When the Pope heard of I TO. this, he ordered ancestor worship to be forbidden. Unseemly quarrels ensued between the Jesuits and other missionaries. The Pope's orders amounted to an interference with Chinese sovereignty. This the emperor could not allow. The missionaries were restricted in their work, and under K'ang Hsi's successor they were ordered to leave the country. Only those required at Peking for scientific purposes were allowed to remain (1724). Early Trade Relations. — After the Portuguese, the Dutch tried to trade with Chinese ports. In 1624 468 MODERN HISTORY they built a fort in Formosa (T'ai-wan) as a base for the China coast trade. The whole enterprise ended in disaster. The English East India Company had better success. Beginning in 1635, they started to bring European manufactures to Canton, Amoy, and Fuchow. Soon they discovered that the Chinese had a taste for Opium. The drug gradually became the principal staple of import. The Chinese gave silver in return, not having enough tea and silk and other exports to balance their consumption of the fatal narcotic. The trade conditions were never satisfactory to either party. The Chinese despised the barbarian merchants as men intent only on material gain. The East India Company's people often complained of the indignities heaped on them, but still continued the business for the sake of the big profits. China under the Early Emperors of the Ch'ing Dynasty. — The early emperors of the Ch'ing dynasty were able and energetic rulers. Their prowess in war and their eood administration is no less memorable than the encouragement given by them to arts and letters. K'ang Hsi (1662- [ 723) had first to prove his strength by putting down a formidable rebellion in the southern provinces. Then the pirates were driven from the sea, and Formosa, their stronghold, was annexed to the empire. Russian aggressions on the Amur were firmly repelled, and boundary disputes settled by the treaty of Nih-chu (in Russian Nerchinsk) in 1689. (Compare beginning of Chap, xxvi.) Mongolia was conquered after some brilliant campaigning, and Tibet was occupied by Chinese garrisons. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 469 K'ang Hsi was also a distinguished scholar. The great dictionary named after him is still the standard work on the lang-uao-e. His grandson Ch'ien Lung (1736-1796) was a worthy descendant of the great emperor. He ex- tended the boundaries far into Central Asia, annexino- Hi and a great part of Turkestan in daring campaigns. A war with Burma was less fortunate, though the Burmese finally acknowledged themselves to be tribu- taries. The king of Cochin China rendered homage. The warlike Ghooi^kas of distant Nepal, having plundered the Tibetan monasteries, were pursued into their mountain fastnesses. They were glad to agree to a tribute of elephants and horses, to be sent to Peking every five years. Throughout this period Korea also stood under Chinese suzerainty. These military successes are detailed to show the last period of China's greatness. It was accompanied by internal peace and prosperity. Ch'ien Lung, like his grandfather, was a fine scholar and poet. The Last Period of Decline. — Soon after Ch'ien Lung's death began a series of disasters which, coupled with misrule, brought on a steady decline. The various rebellions and disorders need not be recounted here. Their significance for general history lies in this, that the government became weak and inefficient at the very time when strength and wisdom were indispensable to meet successfully the shock of foreign complications. The First English Embassy. — In 1792 the British government tried to come to a better understanding with the Chinese government by sending the Earl 470 MODERN HISTORY of Macartney, with a large suit of able men, on a friendly embassy to Peking. The ambassador bore himself as the representative of a friendly sovereign, standing on an equality with the Emperor of China. He refused to prostrate himself, but bent only upon one knee, when approaching the Emperor, according to the custom of the English court. Ch'ien Lung received the ambassador courteously. But the mission accomplished nothing. The court officials were so far from grasping its significance, that they spoke of the English as tribute bearers. Causes of the First War with England. — The monopoly of the British East India Company stopped in 1834. A superintendent of British trade was now appointed to care for the interests of British subjects in Canton. He was directly representative of the English govern- ment, which expected him to be treated with all the respect due to a high officer of a friendly and equal power. The governor of Canton continued to regard the superintendent as a barbarian mercantile agent, not worthy of personal communication with an imperial official. It would lead too far to describe the innumerable misunderstandings between the English and Chinese at that time. Generally speaking, the Chinese officials brought matters to the danger point by their unchanging attitude of haughty disdain. The opium trade now exceeded in value all other imports combined. Opium smoking had grown into a harmful vice. The emperor forbade further importation of the drug. But he was powerless to enforce his own edict. Most of the coast population, including even officials, engaged in a vast THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 471 smuggling trade, which was encouraged by the foreign merchants. In 1839 commissioner Lin, acting under imperial orders, took strong measures. He demanded that all opium stored in Canton should be handed over to him, and had it publicly destroyed. The total value was about four million pounds sterling. This step, followed by further disputes, provoked the war. Moral Aspect of the War. — In so far as the war was waged to protect the opium trade, it was considered wrong by many people in England. American opinion was almost unanimous in its condemnation. And if the English people were to-day again confronted with the issue, it is doubtful whether a small minority could be found to defend it. At the time, however, a considerable part of the Indian revenue was drawn from the export of opium. The Opium War,^ and the Treaty of Nanking- (1840- 1842). — The war at once revealed the inability of China to defend herself against disciplined European troops. At Canton, Amoy, Shanghai, the same tale of large forces driven to flight by small detachments was repeated. At Chinkiang, a walled city at the junction of the Imperial Canal and the Yangtse River, there was more resistance and therefore a sjreater slauohter of Chinese defenders. When the English threatened to storm Nanking, the government asked for peace. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) provided for the opening to British trade and residence of Canton, Shanghai, and three other ports. The island of Hong-kongwas ceded, and an indemnity of $21,000,000 ^ The term 'Opium War' is a misnomer still in general use, because the opium question is believed to have been the cause of the war. In fact, the sudden severity of commissioner Lin only brought old grievances to a head. Opium was not mentioned in the Treaty of Nanking. 472 MODERN HISTORY had to be paid by China. Correspondence between the officials of the two nations was to be carried on upon terms of equality. Thus began the modern era of Chinese history, an era of profound significance for all countries throughout the world. The sleeping giant was rudely roused ; but another half century had to pass before he was fully awake. The Taiping Eehellion (1851-1864). — For thirteen years a terrible rebellion devastated the southern and central provinces. The Taiping, styled also the ' Long-haired rebels,' were led by a religious enthusiast, who had himself proclaimed as emperor. Their progress was marked by fearful slaughter and destruction. For a long time the imperial troops had difficulty in suppressing the revolt. It was finally subdued with the aid of foreign officers. The English colonel Gordon served the government in the most disinterested way, refusing any pecuniary reward. His noble conduct did much to lessen the distrust felt by the Chinese against the foreigners. Consular Jurisdiction. — The foreigners resident in China were not under Chinese law. Wherever the native legal practice has differed widely from that of the European states, it has been customary to place foreigners under the jurisdiction of their own consuls. This was done because Western governments would not allow their citizens to be subjected to the treatment usual in native courts, such as beating or torture. In Japan the consular jurisdiction over foreigners was given up as soon as the Japanese law had been reformed. Europeans at present (1907) living in China, Turkey, or Morocco, are under the jurisdiction of their own consuls. The principles of international law involved in this and other topics connected with foreign relations were long misunderstood by Chinese officials. It happened sometimes THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 473 that the Chinese view of right and wrong did not agree with Western international law. Quarrels easily arose from such cases. War with England and France (1856- 1860). — In 1856 the governor of Canton arrested some Chinese sailors on a junk flying the British flag. According to inter- national law, a ship is under the jurisdiction of the country whose flag it flies. Therefore the Chinese authorities made a mistake in taking the men off that junk. They claimed, however — and were probably correct — that the native sailors had no rigrht to hoist the British flag. Altogether the case was very com- plicated. It created bad feelings, and finally gave rise to war. France also was concerned, and joined England with considerable forces. The allies advanced on Tientsin, and obliged the Chinese to conclude a treaty opening that port to foreign trade. The expenses of the expe- dition were to be paid by China. The most important agreement was that henceforth foreign ambassadors should have the right to reside in Peking. During the following year China tried to evade the obligations of the Tientsin treaty, and prepared for a renewal of war. England and France now determined to continue the war until all their demands would be fully granted. An expedition of 6000 English and 5000 French troops advanced on Peking. Lord Elgin represented the British, and Baron Gros the French government. The Chinese army was unable to defend the capital. The emperor had to confirm new treaties at Peking, which added a larger indemnity to the articles of the Tientsin treaty (i860). 474 MODERN HISTORY The Other Conflicts with the Western Powers have been related in connection with the modern history of Russia and the British Empire. By the year 1899 China had lost her vassal states in the south and north. Of her immediate territory, the Amur country, Formosa, the Pescadores, Hong-kong and Kowloon, Kiaochow, the Liaotung peninsula, had all fallen into foreign hands. After the seizure of Port Arthur by the Russians, England took Wei-hai-wei on the opposite coast of Shantung, to counter-balance the Russian naval advantaofes in the Yellow Sea. The Boxer Rising (i 900-1 901). — The humiliations which China experienced from the foreign powers stirred the passions of the populace. Bands of patriots, styled Boxers, — in Chinese they were called * United harmony fists '—prepared for the expulsion of all foreigners from China. The missionaries and the native Christians were the worst sufferers from the popular rage. The Boxers turned against Tientsin and Peking, where they intended to storm the legations. The foreign settlement at Tientsin was for a while in imminent danger of being taken. Foreign troops hurried to the scene of conflict. Contingents from most European states, from the United States, and from Japan were sent over sea. The native city of Tientsin was taken by storm. An allied force marched to the relief of the legations in Peking, and saved them when they were nearly exhausted from a two months' siege. The imperial court fled to the interior. The Restoration of Order.— During the crisis the THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 475 Powers had acted in harmony. But as soon as the danger was passed, it grew evident that an under- standing between the various governments would be difficuh. Russia's policy aimed at the break-up of China. France would have liked an expansion of her territories into Southern China. The situation was saved by a separate treaty between England and Germany, in which they agreed to stand for the territorial integrity of China and the 'open door.' In Manchuria, however, Germany was willing to give a free hand to Russia. We have learned how the Russian designs in Manchuria later brought about the Anglo-Japanese alliance. The allied powers imposed the following conditions on China : Officials responsible for the Boxer rising were severely punished, and some of the leaders were executed. The Chinese government had to pledge itself to the payment of 450 million Taels of in- demnities. The forts between Peking and the sea were razed, while the legation quarter at the capital was fortified and garrisoned. The Reform Movement. — The national disasters re- counted here and in the preceding narrative of recent events in the Far East at last convinced leadino- men that China's salvation could come only through inner reform. The way had already been shown by two enlightened statesmen, Li Hung Chang and Chang Chih Tung. The latter had, like the former in Chili province, established schools, arsenals, and modern factories in his viceroyalty of the central provinces. 476 MODERN HISTORY The progressive party was now favored by the ruling empress dowager. After Li Hung Chang's death another wise reformer, Yuan S/iih Kai, continued and expanded the program of improvements in the metropolitan province. Schools of all grades multiplied, the nucleus of an efficient army was drilled by German and Japanese officers. Thousands of students flocked to Japan, to America, and to European universities for instruction in Western learning. The giant at last was really awake. Effects on China of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Russo-Japanese War. — The agreement between England and Japan and the treaty of Portsmouth have guaranteed for China a period of security. The Manchurian question, to be sure, is not yet definitely settled. Article V. of the Portsmouth treaty says : " The Russian and Japanese Governments engage themselves reciprocally not to put any obstacles in the way of the general measures, which shall be alike for all nations, that China may take for the develop- ment of the commerce and industry of Manchuria." The interpretation of this article is still an open question. It may develop into an unconditional restoration of China's sovereign rights in Manchuria, or it may also be nullified by the economic interests of Russia and Japan. APPENDIX I SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES Preliminary Remarks. — Questions in smaller type are only for students who have read the small-type passages in the text. DiflFerent kinds of Questions. — The questions which are most frequently asked in exercises and examinations, can be classed somewhat as follows : I. Questions of fact. (i) Personality: W/zo did a certain thing? (2) Place : Where did a certain event happen ? What places were affected by a certain cause or event? (3) Time : When did a certain event happen ? How long did a certain period last? (4) A combination of the above. This is the commonest kind of examination questions, which can be well answered by every student who has memorized the text. Questions of fact will be most numerous in every recitation. They arise practically of themselves from the text. By way of example a few will be given for the early chapters. II. Questions of comparison. (i) Comparison with recent or contemporary events or con- ditions in one's own country. (2) The same in other countries. (3) Comparison with events or periods in the history pre- viously learned. (4) Comparison of historical personalities. 478 APPENDIX I. This class of questions is more difficult, both for the questioner and for the student. In comparing events or persons widely separated both in time and in place, one easily falls into error. Nevertheless such questions are very helpful in enlivening history. They bring the dry text into relation with real life. III. Questions of causation. Whenever causes are pointed out in the text, these questions practically resolve themselves into questions of fact. Frequently causes are not pointed out, but the thoughtful student can under- stand how succeeding events have been prepared or conditioned by previous events. A few frequent subdivisions follow : (i) Geographical causes. (2) Natural causes (connected with climate, soil, etc.). ■ (3) Causes lying in racial or individual character. (4) Causes lying in certain institutions. IV. Questions of effect. These may be inversions of questions of causation. For example : "Why was Phoenicia situated so favorably for trade?" (asking for geographical causes) ; or, " What effect did the geographical position of Phoenicia, with its good harbors, have on the people's occu- pation ? " (i) Effects of geographical position. (2) Effects of natural conditions (soil, climate, etc.). (3) Effects of racial or individual character. (4) Effects of certain institutions. (5) Effects of certain events. Questions of cause or effect are most valuable for training the judgment and the logical sense of the student. The greatest care should be observed both in asking and in answering such questions. Otherwise one is liable to fall into ' loose talking,' and into purely theoretical reasoning. Human conduct depends on so many motives, and history is determined by so many factors, that one cannot often reason from cause to effect so easily as in a question of pure logic. Historical judgment will grow with knowledge. It is based on the observation that certain causes have always produced certain effects, whence it safely may be assumed that a repetition of those causes will again produce similar effects. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 479 The first part of the subjoined questions will be referred to the headings and subheadings given above, so as to show examples of each. Introduction. 1. What is history ? 2. Name some things that have influenced the progress of nations. 3. About how long has man existed? (I. 3.) . 4. What are the sources of history? (I.) 5. Can a tribe of illiterate savages have a real history? (IV. 3.) 6. What is meant by 'prehistoric times'? 7. How can we know anything about prehistoric times ? (I.) 8. Why have negroes been used as slaves oftener than other races ? (III. 3.) 9 Name the principal branches of the Yellow Race. 10. Why did the Arabs remain a free people? (III. i.) 11. Name the principal Celtic people. 12. Try to compare a tribe of nomadic herdsmen with a village of farmers. 13. Tell some advantages of modern western chronology. Chapter I. . I. Why was Egypt specially suited for the early rise of civili- zation ? (III. 1 and 2.) 2. Who built Memphis? (I. i.) 3. How far did the Egyptian empire extend under the i8th dynasty? (I. 2.) 4. In what ways have the Red Sea and the Mediterranean been connected? (II. 2.) 5. Have you heard of any kind of animal worship in any other country besides ancient Egypt? (II. i and 2.) 6. Why did the Egyptians spend so much labor on tombs? (III. 4.) 7. Why are Egyptian paintings so well preserved? (III. 2.) 8. Why could Egyptian doctors not study anatomy? (III. 4.) 9. Describe the position of women in Egypt. Chapter II. 1. How long did the old Babylonian empire last? (I. 3.) 2. Who was the first ruler of Babylonia? (I. i.) 48o APPENDIX I. 3. What countries were under the rule of the Assyrian Sargon? (I. 2.) 4. Why was Assyrian rule specially disliked? (III. 3.) 5. In what year did Nineveh fall? (I. 3.) 6. Some people call Paris a modern Babylon. What do they mean? (11, i.) 7. Describe cuneiform writing. 8. Are the Babylonians the only people who thought of their gods as looking like men and women ? (II. i and 2). 9. Quote the code of Hammurabi on (a) housebreaking, (d) bodily injury. Chapter III. 1. Why do the Jews hold such a high place in history? (III. 4.) 2. Through whose teaching were Jewish doctrines spread over the western world? (I. i.) 3. In what language was {a) the Old Testament, (d) the New Testament written ? 4. Name the two ancient divisions of Palestine, with their capitals. 5. Who was the most celebrated Jewish king? When did he rule ? (I. I and 3.) 6. What is meant by calling a person a second Solomon ? 7. What was the effect of the Jews' refusal to conform to the Roman state religion ? (IV. 3 and 4.) 8. How did. the central position of Phoenicia affect the trade of the country? (IV. i.) 9. Is a purely commercial people apt to take any interest in history? (IV. 3.) 10. What beneficial effect did Phoenician trade have on the Mediterranean countries? (IV. 4.) Chapter IV. 1. Do you suppose that the contrasts in the natural conditions of Persia had any influence on the religion of the inhabitants? (IV. 2.) 2. Would you consider pure Zoroastrianism to be a helpful religion? Why? (111.4.) 3. Describe the life of Cyrus the Great. (I. i, 2, 3.) ' 4. What is meant . by satrapal government ? SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 481 Chapter V. 1. Were the Himalaya mountains a perfect protection against foreign enemies? (111. i.) 2. What effect has a hot climate on people coming from a cooler climate? (IV. 2.) 3. Name the three principal stocks of the original inhabitants of India? 4. Describe the principal Indian castes. 5. What religion has the largest number of adherents ? 6. Describe the life of Buddha. 7. What is meant by Nirvana? Can you give a clear explanation of it ? 8. When and by whom was Buddhism introduced into China? (I. I and 3.) 9. Is Lamaism just like the original doctrine of Buddha? 10. Why did ancient China have little need of foreign goods? (III. I and 2.) 11. What effect did the mountains and deserts on the west and north of China have on her history? (IV. i.) 12. Why is the population of China so remarkably uniform, while that of India is so varied? (IV. 3, 5, and II. 2,) 13. Describe the life of Confucius. 14. Why do some scholars call Confucianism a system of morality rather than a religion ? 15. What effect did the teaching of Confucius have on the Chinese ? (IV. 4.) 16. Cite the 'Golden Rule.' Do you think that there is any essential difference between Christ's way and Confucius' way of stating this rule? 17. Why could China not be a strong nation under the Chow dynasty? (III. 4.) 18. Compare the government of Shih Hwang-ti with that of Darius. Which was first instituted ? (II. 3.) 19. What is meant by a 'patriarchal monarchy'? 20. Do the Chinese, in their old institutions, have any kind of self-government ? 21. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese family system encourages conservatism. 22. In what respects must every one regard Chinese civilization as superior to any other? G.H. 2 H 482. . APPENDIX I. . 23. Do you see any early indications that Corea was apt to cause trouble between China and Japan ? 24. Why can the Japanese be called good imitators? Chapter VI. 1. What feature of Greek geography made tmited national development difficult ? 2. In what way did the natural formation of Greece encourage commerce ? 3. Do you believe that beautiful scenery is likely to encourage the production of poetry and art? Is the poetry and art of your own country influenced by natural scenery ? 4. Have we heard of any other monarchy in which the king stood over his people like a father over the family? 5. Is there much individualism in your own country? 6. What was the origin of Constantinople and Marseilles? 7. Describe the social classes in Sparta. 8. Does an excessive cultivation of the military spirit lead to national progress? Use Spartan history as an illustration. 9. What is the meaning of the phrase 'Draconian laws'? 10. Write out a summary of the Athenian constitution as reformed by Solon. 11. What were the powers of the Ecclesia after Cleisthenes? ' 12. What is meant by 'Free Speech'? Chapter VII. 1. Describe the battle of Marathon. 2. Why is the battle of Marathon counted among the decisive battles of the world ? 3. Could the fall of Miltiades be used as an argument against excessive individualism ? Why ? 4. Why can the battle of Thermopylae be called a ' moral victory' for the Greeks? 5. What was the original purpose of the Delian confederacy? 6. Describe how the Delian confederacy was gradually changed into an Athenian empire. 7. For what reasons can Pericles be called ' king of men without force or hereditary right'? 8. Does a man's education stop when he has left school? What opportunities did the Athenians have for continuing their education through manhood? SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 483 9. AVhat dangers threatened the Athenian democracy after Pericles ? Chapter VIII. ■ I. What were the causes of the Peloponnesian war? 2. Use the career of Alcibiades to show that brilliant ability without morality is more likely to work harm than good. 3. What were the results of the Peloponnesian war? Were they advantageous to Persia? 4. Is Epaminondas a man to be admired ? Why ? 5. Show that Philip II. got from the Greeks the means— in great part at least — by which he afterwards conquered them, 6. If you can get access to a cyclopedia or a history of Greece, read the life of Demosthenes. Chapter IX. 1. Why did the priests at Delphi often give out oracles with a double meaning ? 2. Is the Greek ideal of ' a sound mind in a sound body ' worthy of practical imitation? 3. How did it happen that courtesans played such a prominent part in Greek social life? 4. Explain why the -Greek citizens could spend so much time on public business. 5. Do you know of any man in the history of your own country who (a) had such a high ideal of truth as Socrates, (l>) possessed such universal knowledge as Aristotle? Chapter X. 1. Name all the countries conquered by Alexander the Great. 2. Whose influence has lasted longer : that of the conqueror Alexander, or that of the scholar Aristotle? 3. Give the principal results of Alexander's conquests. Chapter XI. I. Is Rome the only state the early history of which is mixed with myth or fable? What other instances of the kind have we had? How do you account for this prevalence of myth at the beginning of history? (Love of story telling, pride of ancestry, desire of ruling classes to strengthen their authority over the people, ignorance, credulity, superstition.) 484 APPENDIX I. 2. Compare the condition of debtors in early Rome with that in early Athens. 3. Was the character of the early Romans favorable for a military nation ? Explain why. 4. Where did the Roman legion first encounter the Macedonian phalanx ? What was Pyrrhus' opinion of the Roman soldiers ? Chapter XII. 1. The Romans believed that the prosperity of Carthage could only be a disadvantage to Rome. Is that necessarily true? Is the prosperity of America hurtful to Europe or to Japan ? 2. The Barcas family is remarkable for having produced four great generals. Is extraordinary abiUty often handed on from father to son ? Note all cases mentioned in previous chapters and hereafter, where a great father had also a great son or grandson. 3. Use the cases of Pyrrhus and Hannibal to show that even a great general cannot hold his own in the country of a deter- mined enemy unless he has free communication with his base of supplies. 4. Farming taxes means selling to an individual, for a lump sum, the right to collect the taxes in a certain district. Have you heard of tax-farming in other countries? Do you consider it a good system ? Chapter XIII. 1. Show that the conquests of Rome led to the corruption of her citizens. 2. Explain the saying that three years of proconsulship were required to make a man's fortune. 3. Explain why the common Roman citizens became so poor. 4. What example did Mithridates have before him when he planned an invasion of Italy? 5. Write a life of Caesar. 6. Could such an outrage as the conspiracy of Catiline possibly have happened during the early Roman republic ? Give the reasons for your opinion. 7. Liberty had long ago fled together with the ancient civic virtues of the Romans. Discuss this topic. Chapter XIV. I. Does the name given to a government always show its real character? Use the Roman government under Augustus as an illustration. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 485 2. Diocletian shared his power with three co-regents. Taking human nature as it is, do you believe such a division of sovereignty to be generally advisable ? Did it work well after Diocletian's death ? Chapter XV. 1. Why is Justinian called the ' law giver of civilization ' ? Was the Roman law made all at once, or is it the result of slow growth ? 2. Discuss the reasons why good roads tend to keep an empire together. 3. Do you know of any buildings in your own country which have stood as long as existing Roman buildings? What nation in the East can be com- pared with the Romans as ' borrowers of culture ' ? 4. Describe the civilizing work of the Roman empire. 5. Why were the early Christians persecuted ? 6. What were some of the benefits given to the West by Christianity? 7. What is meant by ' religious intolerance ' ? Closing Remarks. — The 125 illustrative questions above given will be a sufficient guide to the ' art of asking questions.' Of course the proportion of questions of comparison will increase as the students advance in knowledge. : Periods and Events. {a) ? 100,000 5000 B.C.SIA AND INDIA. Prehistorii existence of man. 5000 B.Ci 4000 3000 Arian invasion of India. 1000 ,, p :mpire, 640-558. aunder of Persian em- 58. 500 „ lied, 543. Ionian Greeks, 500. 400 „ 300 » ider Alexander, 330. Alexander in India, 327. THE FAR EAST. Beginnings of civilization in the Yellow River basin. Legendary period of Chinese history. Foundation of Chow dynasty /^9 /fw)' feutlal period. Jimmu Tenno, first Em- peror of Japan, 660. Confucius, 551-479 ( -fL ;^ "f ) '°° »f ft the Parthians founded, ing about the same coun- Persia. Crassus killed End of feudal period in China. Shih Hwang-ti (jf^ ^ '^) unites the nation, 246-221. Great WaU. . Han dynasty (J^ ^g), 206-25. ? 100,000- 5000 B.C. Prehistoric existence of man. 5000 B.C. 4000 ,, 3000 ,, 2000 ,, 1000 ,, 500 „ 400 „ 300 200 ,, 100 ,, ? 100,000- 5000 B.C. Prehistoric existence of man. 5000 B.C. 4000 ,, 3000 1000 ,, 500 „ 400 „ 300 .. 100 „ II. Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events. (a) THE NEW WORLD. EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. PERSIA AND INDIA. Beginnings of civilization in the Nile valley. Menes founds 1st Egyptian dynasty. Pyramid of Cheops, 2800 (?). Phoenicians trade in Eastern Mediterranean. Rameses II., canal from Red Sea to Nile, 1350. Hiram of Tyre allied with Salomon, king of the Jews, 1000. Kingdom of Israel destroyed by Assyrian Sargon, 722. Psammetichus I., founder of 26th dynasty, 663. Jerusalem destroyed ; Babylonian captivity, Solon in Athens, 694. Egypt a Persian province, 525. Rome a Republic, 610. laws of 12 tables in Rome, 450. Gauls destroy Rome, 390. Beginnings of civilization in the Tigris and Euphrates basin. Sargon unites Baliy Ionia. Code of Hammurabi, 2200. Assyrian Empire, 1300. Greek poet Homer. Constitution of Lycurgus in Sparta, 800. Foundation of Rome, 753. Second Babylonian empire, 606. 586. Babylonia a Persian provfnce, 538. Persian wars in Greece, 500-449. Age of Pericles, 444-429. Peloponnesian War. Socrates. Demosthenes. Greece under Macedonia, 338. Aristotle. Alexander the Great, 336-323. Romans make war on Macedonia. Romans overthrow the Macedonian monarchy in battle of Pydna, 168. 4th Macedonian War ; Macedonia a Roman province, 146. Egypt under the Ptolemies. Alexandria centre of learning. Defeat of I'yrrhus by the Romans. All Italy under Rome, 275. First Punic war, 264-241 ; Hamilcar. Sicily a Roman province. Sardinia and Corsica a Roman province. Second Punic war, 218-201. Hannibal. Cannae, 216. Spain a Roman province. Destruction of Carthage, 146. Africa a Roman province. Greek revolt ; destruc- tion of Corinth, 146. Reforms of the Gracchi, and civil war in Rome ; Optimates deleat democrats. Marius defeats the Cimbri and Teutones, 102 and loi. Mithridalic wars. Civil war between Maiius and Sulla ; proscriptions. First Triumvirate, 60. Caesar's conquest of 3 Roman provinces set up in Western Gaul. Civil war between Caesar and Asia. Pompey. Pompey killed in Egypt. After wars in Asia Minor, Africa and Spain, Caesar practicnlly sole ruler. Caesarism. Catsar killed, 44. 3rd Triumvirate. Antony and Cleopatra lose battle of Actium against Octavian, 31. Caesar Octavianus Augustus first Emperor, 31-14 a. d. Egypt a Roman province. Arian invasion of India. Zoroaster. Median Empire, 640-558. Cjrrus, founder of Persian em- pire, 658. Buddha died, 643. Revolt of Ionian Greeks, 500. Persia under Alexander, 330. Alexander in India, 327. THE FAR EAST. Empire of the Parthians founded, occupying about the same coun- tries as Persia. Crassus killed by them. Beginnings of civilization in the Yellow River basin. Legendary period of Chinese history. Foundation of Chow dynasty (ffl 1^)' f^-"^1=^l IK-riod. Jimmu Tcnno, fust Em- peror of japan, 660. ConfuoiuB, 661-479 (-j^^-J^ ) End of feudal period in China. Shih Hwang ti (^ ^ •^') unites the nation, 246 221. Great WaU. . Han dynasty (m Wj, 206-25. ? 100,000- 5000 B.C. Prehistoric existence of man, 5000 B.C. 4000 ,, ;ooo ,, 500 4<)o 300 p. 486. 5 and Events ( co?iiinued ) . (^) THE FAR EAST. 100 A.DJefeats the Parthians, but an gives up the conquest. 200 ,, empire broken up; foun of new Persian empire of fssanidae, 226. 400 500 ,, p I., greatest of the Sassa- 53 '"579 ; advantageous s with East Roman em- period of good govern- md prosperity. 6op ,, tween Persia and Eastern 700 the Sassanids ; Persia led by caliphs, 641. Ming Ti (^^ ^^\ introduces Buddhism. Later Han dynasty (^ '^ ^g) 25-221. Introduction of Chinese civi- lization into Japan. T'ang dynasty /ffi ^a\ 618 908. \/rt ihU/? China's boundaries reach the Caspian Sea. Period of good government, learn- ing, and prosperity in China. Emperor Kuammu makes Kioto the capital, 794. 300 „ 400 500 600 700 Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events (continued). THE NEW WORLD. 200 ,, 400 500 ,, 60P ,, 700 ,, EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. BIRTH OF CHRIST. Roman army destroyed by Germans in forest of Teutoburg, 9. Britain a Roman province, ist Christian persecution in Rome under Nero, 64. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. Dispersal of the Jews, 70. Five good Emperors, 96-180. Trajan makes Dacia a Roman province ; origin of Roumanians. Period of decline ; threatened dissolution of the empire, until 270. Aurelian restored the empire, 270-275. Diocletian, 284-305, had a co-regent, and Severe persecution of the appointed 2 assistant regents, or 'Caesars.' Christians. Constantlne the Great, 323-337. Cbristlanity recognized by the State. Constantinople capital ; empire divided into 116 provinces. Huns cross the Volga, 375 ; beginning of the niigraiion of the Teutonic tribes. Visigoths south of Lower Danube. Theodosius, last sole ruler of whole Roman empire, divides in 395 ; Arcadius gets Eastern (Byzantine), Honorius Western empire. PERSIA AND INDIA. Sack of Rome by Alaric, 410. Visigoths settle in Southern Gaul. Vandals coming from Carthage plunder Rome, 455. Huns under Attila defeated at Chalons, 451- Last Western emperor, Roumulus Augustu- lus, deposed by German Odoacer, 476. Kingdom of the East. Goths under Theodoric in Italy, 493. Clovis, king of the Franks ; he is converted to Athanasian Christianity. Invasion of Britain by Angles and Saxons, after 450. Britain changed into England. VJsigothic kingdom in Spain, since 507. Narses destroys East Gothic kingdom, 555. Beginning of the Papacy. Last jMerowingian kings of the Franks (Do- nothing kings) ; mayois of the palace. Visigothic kingdom of Spain destroyed by Sara- cens, 711. Charles Martel defeated Arabs (Saracens) at Tours and Poitiers, 7;2. Pipin, first Carolingian kirg of the Franks, 75'- . ^ . Mohammedan Moors in Spam. Caliphate of Cordova, 756. Justinian I. , Emperor of the East, 627-566 ; ' corpus juris civilis. ' Lombards in Italy ; Alboin, 568. Hegira (flight of Mohammed), 622. Omar caliph, conquest of .Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, 634-644. Ar.ab conquest of Northern Africa. Caliphate of the Ommiads at Damascus, 661-750. Abbasid caliphs at Bagdad, 750, Trajan defeats the Parthians, but liadrian gives up tiie conquest. Parthian empire broken up; foun dation of new Persian empire of the Sassanidae, 226. Chosroes I., greatest of the Sassa- nids, 531-579; advantageous treaties with East Roman em- pire ; period of good govern- ment aiid prosperity. Wars between Persia and l^astern Rome. Fall of the Sassani'ls ; Persia governed by caliphs, 641. THE FAR EAST. Ming Ti {\S}\ |[1) introduces Bu(Ulhi>ui. Later Han dynasty (^fjlVijjQ) 25-221. Introduction of Chinese civi- lizaliou ink) Japan. T'ang dynasty 618 908. China's boundaries reach the Caspian Sea. Period of good government, learn- ing, and prosperity in China. Emperor Kuammu makes Kioto the capital, 794. {^) 200 ,, 300 , , 400 SCO 600 700 p. 486. >ds and Events (continued). ERSIA AND INDIA. 800 A.L 900 „ 1000 ,, ic) THE FAR EAST. 1200 „ bl Conquest of Persia ; last jasid surrenders Bagdad, Development of feudalism in Japan. 1300 1400 „ overruns inner Asia, Persia, uguese come to India. 1500 under Ottoman rule. ;r sets up the Moghul em- re in India, 1 526. Yoritomo appointed shogun, 1 192. Temujin conquers North China, 1215. Duarchy and feudalism in Japan. Failure of Kublai Khouv's attack on Japan, 1274. Kublai Khan, first emperor ofYiian dynasty {j^ ^g), 1280. Marco Polo in Chma ; intercourse with Europe. Accession of Ming dynasty m IB), -s^s- 800 „ 900 Portuguese settle at Macao, 1540. Xavier preaches Christianity in Japan. Jesuits in China, 1582. 1300 1400 1500 „ Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events (continued). 800 A.U. 900 IIOO ,, 1200 ,, 1300 1400 1500 THE NEW WORLD. Northmen settled in Green- land and on the east coast of North America. Their settlements failed. All knowledge of their discovery was lost by the fourteenth century . Discovery of America toy Columbus, 1492..M Cortez conquers Mexico, 1519-1521. Pizarro conquers Peru, 1531-1532. EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. Charles tbe Great, 768-814 the West, 800. Treaty of Verdun ; division of the empire, 843. Emperor of Haroun al-Raschid, caliph, 786- 809. Hungarians settle in Hungary. Hungarians defeated on the Lech- feld, 955. Alfred the Great in England, 871-901. Northmen settle in Normandy. Otto I., the Great, 936-973. Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, 962. Danes rule England. Norman Conquest of England ; William, Harold, Battle of Hastings, 1066. Pope Gregory VH. and German Emperor Henry IV ; Canossa, 1077. First Crusade, 1096-1099. Frederic I., Barbarossa, 1152-1190, German Emperor. Third Crusade, 1 189- 1 192. Magna Charta granted toy King John of Eng- land, 1215. Height of Papal power. Magnetic needle applied to navigation. Seventh Crusade, 1270. Mongol Conquest of Russia, 1237-1241. Supremacy of Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor. Battle of Cre9y, in 100 Years' War between England and France, 1346. powder introduced into warfare. Great Schism of the Roman Church ; decline of the Papacy. Gun- Bajazet defeated by Timur at Angora, 1402. German crown hereditary in Hapsburg family, 1438. Wars of the Roses in England, 1455- 1485 ; monarchy strengthened. Louis XI. lays basis of strong French monarchy, 1461-1483. Union of Castile and Aragon, 1469. Printing Press used toy John Gutentoerg at Mainz. Expulsion of Moors from Granada, 1492. Conquest of Constantinople toy Vasco da Gama finds seaway to India, 1498. Muhammed II., 1453. Iwan III., the Great, in Russia; end of Tartar dominion. Beginning of the Reformation, Luther, 15 1 7. World empire of Charles V., 1519-1556. Philip II. in Spain. Act of Supremacy in England, 1534- Reign of Elizabeth in England, 1 558- 1 603. Union of Utrecht, William of Orange, 1579. Armada lost, 1588. Henry IV. of France issues Edict of Nantes, 1598- Russian Conquest of Sibiria. Suleiman I. conquers Hungary and Cyprus ; height of Otto- man power, 1 520- 1 566. PERSIA AND INDIA. Mongol Conquest of Persia ; last Abbasid surrenders ~ 1258. . Timur overruns inner Asia, Persia, India. Portuguese come to India. Persia under Ottoman rule. Baber sets up the Moghul em- pire in India, 1526. THE FAR EAST. Development of feudalism in Japan. Yoritomo appointed shogun, 1192. Temujin conquers North China, 1215. Duarchy and feudalism in Japan. Failure of Kublai Khouv's attack on Japan, 1274. Kublai Khan, first emperor of Yttan dynasty (y^ ^B), "80. Marco Polo in China ; intercourse with Europe. Accession of Ming dynasty Portuguese settle at Macao, 1540. Xavier preaches Christianity in Japan. Jesuits in China, 1582. w s and Events (continued). id) 1600 A. D. 1700 1750 1800 ,, 1850 1900 ^SIA AND INDIA. jlish East India Company t Surat and Madias. tie of Plassey, 1757; live. :onflicts with Russia. oy Mutiny, 1857. toria, Empress of India, 377- Constitution, 1906. THE FAR EAST. lyeyasu; Tokugawa shogu- nate, 1603. Beginning of English trade. TaCh|ingdynasty(_^.^^g^ Period of Greatness, K'ang tlsi \/.>|v j.»./ Christianity. Seclusion of Japan ; expulsion of Christians. Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia, 1689. Ch'ienLung($£^), ;736 ' 1796. Military success abroad, peace and prosperity at home. Beginning of decline. Opium War; Treaty of Nanking, 1812. Perry in Japan, opening of the country, 1854. War with England and France ; Treaty of Tientsin, 1859. Fall of shogunate ; new era in Japan, 1868. Constitutional government, 1890. Chino-Japanese War, Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895. Boxer Rising. Preservation of 'open door,' 1 901. Russo-Japanese War, 1904- 1905. Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905. Reform. Renewal of Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1905. 1600 A.D. 1700 1750 1800 ,, 1850 1900 Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events (continued). (^ 1600 A. D. 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 THE NEW WORLD. EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. Settlement of Jamestown In Virginia, 1607. French in Canada, 1608. Settlement of Plymouth in New England, 1620. Dutch New Amsterdam becomes English New York, 1664. .Mississippi valley taken for Louis XIV. ; called Louisiana, 1682. Treaty of Utrecht ; France cedes Nova Scotia, etc , to England, 1713. Last of the 13 English colonies settled, 1733. Peace of Paris ends the French and Indian (Seven Years') War, 1763, France cedes Canada to England. Stamp Act, 1765. War of Independence, 1 77 5- 1 783 ; Declaration of Independence, 1776. George Washington, presi- dent, 1789. Louisiana purchase, 1803. English settlements in Australia. War with England, 1S12- 1814. South American States in- dependent. Monroe doctrine, 1823. War with Mexico, 1846- 1848. CivU War in U.S., 1861- 1865. War with Spain ; Philip- pines to U.S., 1898. Commonwealth " Australia, 1901. of Richelieu in France. Thirty Years' War, 1618-164S; Peace of Westphalia, 1648. Accession of James Stuart, union of England and Scotland, 1603. Civil war in England, execution of Charles, 1649. Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649- 1660. Restoration of Charles II., 1660. English Revolution of 1688 ; Declaration of Rights. Personal government of Louis XIV. in France, 1661-1715. Revocation of Edict of Nantes, 1685. Peter the Great in Russia, 1689- Peace of Ryswick ; Germany cedes Alscacc to J726, France, 1697. War of Spanish Succession, 1701-1714. War of Austrian Succession, 1740- 1748. Frederick the Great of Prussia, 1740- 1786. Maria Theresa of Austria, 1740- 1780. Seven Years' War, 1756-1763. Catherine II. in Russia, 1762-1796. George III., king of England, 1760- 1820. Division of Poland between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. French revolution, 1789; France a republic. Steam engine, 1769. 1792; execution of Louis XVI., 1793; Power loom, 1785. Reign of Terror, 1794. Napoleon in Italy, 1797 ; First Consul, 1799. Napoleon Emperor of the French, 1804. Slearii boat, 1807 ; Locomotive, 1814. Napoleon's Russian campaign, 1812. Battle of Waterloo, 1815. July revolution in Paris, 1830. Independence of Greece, 1830. Reform Act in England, 1832. Electric telegraph, 1844. Revolution of 1848 ; fall of Metternich in Austria ; constitutions. Napoleon III., emperor, 1852. Crimean War, 1854-1856. United kingdom of Italy, 1861. . Russian advance m Central Asia. Austro- Prussian War, 1S66. Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871 ; formation of the new German empire. Third French Republic. Electric telephone, 1877. Encrlish in E^ypt, 18S2. Independence of lesser Balkan States, 1S7S Paration of Africa among European Powers. Building of Siberian railway. Boer War ; English supreme in South Africa, 1000. ^ „-«♦,,««« ion's ' ^' '^ Russian Revolution ; Constitution, 1905. English East India Company at Surat and Madras. Battle of Plaseey, 1767 CUve. Persian conflicts with Rus.sia. Sepoy Mutiny, 1867. Victoria, Empress of India, 1877. Persian constitution, 1906. lyeyasu; Tokugawa shogu uate, 1603. Beginning ot' Knijlish tnulc. TaC^Vingdynasty(_;^,^|jJ^1^ Period of (irci\tni"ss, K'ai\|; llsi \»li. 5.../ l-liristmuity. Seclusion of Jupiin ; expulsion of Christiims. Trciity of Nerchinsk with Russia, 1089. anc„Lung(iJ£|f|?), ;7.j;;; Militiiry success nbroiul, pcai anil prosperity at home. Beginning of decline. Opium War ; Treaty of Nanking, 1842. I'erry in Japan, opening of the country, 1854. War with lMit;laii(l and I'rance ; Treaty of 'licnlsin, 1859- FaU of Bhogunate ; new era In Japan, 1868. Con.siituli(;nai government, 1890. Chino-Japanese War, Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895. Boxer Rising. Preservation of open door,' 1901. Busflo- Japanese War, 1904- 1906. Treaty of Portsmouth, 1906. Reform. Renewal of Anglo-Japane.se Alliance, 1905^ 1600 A.D. 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 p. 486. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY The pronunciation of proper names follows that given in the Century Cyclopedia of Nantes^ from which work the following key to pronun- ciation is also taken. a as in fat, man, pang. a as in fate, mane, dale, a as in far, father, guard. a as in fall, talk. a as in ask, fast, ant. a as in fare. e as in met, pen, bless. e as in mete, meet. e as in her, fern. i as in pin, it. i as in pine, fight, file. o as in not, on, frog. o as in note, poke, floor. o as in move, spoon. 6 as in nor, song, off. u as in tub. u as in mute, acute. u as in pull. ii German ii, French u. oi as in oil, joint, boy. ou as in pound, proud. A single dot under a vowel in an unaccented syllable indicates its abbre- viation and lightening, without absolute loss of its distinctive quality. Thus : a as in prelate, courage. e as in ablegate, epis- copal. o as in abrogate, eulogy, democrat. ij as in singular, educa- tion. A double dot under a vowel in an unaccented syllable indicates that, even in the mouths of the best speakers, its sound is vari- able to, and in ordinary utterance actually becomes, the short u-sonnd (of but, pun, etc.). Tl)us : a asin errant, republican. e as in prudent, differ- ence. i as in charity, density. o as in valor, actor, idiot. a asin Persia, peninsula. e as in the book. u as in nature, feature. A mark (~) under the con- sonants t, di s, z, indicates that they in like rrianner are variable to ch, j, sh, zh. Thus : t as in nature, adventure. d as in arduous, educa- tion. S as in pressure. z as in seizure. y as in yet. B Spanish b (medial), ch as in German ach,- Scotch loch. G as in German, Abensr berg, Hamburg. - H Spanish g before e and i ; Spanish j, etc. (a guttural h). Like northern Chi- nese h in hao. n French nasalizing n, as in ton, en. s final s in Portuguese (soft), th as in thin. TH as in then. D = TH. ' denotes a primary ;• " a secondary accent. (A secondary accent is not marked if at its regular interval of two syllables . from the primary, or from another secondary.) Abbas (ab'bas), 205. Abbassides (a-bas'idz or ab'a-sidz), 205, 227. Abd-er-Rahman (abd-er-rah'man), 205. Abelard (ab'e-lard), 249. Abessynia (ab-es-sin'i-a), 444. Abolitionists, 449, 450. Abukir (a-bo-ker), 354- Abraham (a'bra-ham), 33. Acropolis (a-krop'5-lis), 82, 103. Act of Supremacy, 264. Adrianople (ad"ri-an-o'pl), treaty of, 403- Aegaean archipelago (e-je'an ar-ki- pel'a-go), 71. 488 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Afghanistan (af-gan-is-tan'), 43, 429, 432, 437- Agade (a-ga'de), 20. Ahiiman (a'ri-man), 41. Ainus (I'nos), 68, Aix - la - Chapelle (aks - la- sha - pel'), peace of, 314. Ajaccio (a-ya'cho), 352. Akbar the Great (ak-ber), 230. Alabama (al-a-ba'ma), 448. Alaric (al'a-rik), 191. Alaska (a-las'ka), 448. Alcibiades (al-si-bl'a-dez), 108- 112. Alexander the Great (al-eg-zan'der), 13, 125-132. Alexander I. of Russia, 358, 394, 402. Alexander II. of Russia, 418. Alexander III. of Russia, 408. Alexandria (al-eg zan'dri-a), founda- tion of, 128, 132. Algeciras (al-Ha-the'ras), conference of, 444. Algeria (al-je'ri-a), 442. Al-Mamun (al-ma-mon'), 205. Almeida (al-ma'e-da), 254. Alsace-Lorraine (al-zas' lor-ran'), 388. Alva (al'va), 272. Amban (am'ban), 432. Ambracian Gulf (am-bra'shi-an gulf), 72. America (a-mer'i-ka), how named, 254. Amiens (a-me-an'), peace of, 355. Amosis (a-mo'sis), 12. Angles (ang'glz), 192. Angora, battle of (an-go'ra), 230. Animal worship, 14. Annam (an-nam'), 442. Anne of England, 330-331. Antiochus the Great (an-ti'okus), 152. Antonius, Marcus (an-to'-ni-us), 170. Antoninus, Pius (an-to-ni'nus pl'us), 178. Apis (a-pis), 14. Apollo (a-pol'o), 119. Aquae Sextiae (a'kwe seks'ti-e), 158. Arabs (ar'abs), 5, 201, 205. Arbela (ar-be'la), battle of, 128. Arcadius (ar-ka'di-us), 181. Archaeology (ar-ka-ol'o-jy), 2. Archimedes (ar-ki-me'dez), 124. Archons in Athens (ar-konz), 81, 84, 86. Areopagus (a-re-op'a-gus), 81, 84. Ares (a'rez), 1 19. Argentine Republic (ar'jen-ten), 355. Aryan peoples (a'ri-an), 5, 39, 48-49. Arians (a'ri-anz), religious sect, 191. Aristides (ar-is-ti'dez), 92, 99. Aristotle (ar'is-totl), 124, 131, 248. Armada, invincible (ar-ma'da), 270. Asinarus (as-i-na'rus), ill. Asoka (a-s6'ka), 52. Aspasia (as-pa'shi-a), 122. Ashur (ag'er), 22. Ashurbanipal (a-zor-ba'ni-pal), 22. Assuan (as-swan'), 438. Assyria (a-sir'i-a), 20, 22-23. Assyriol'ogy, 25. Athanasians, 191. Athena (a-the'ne), 103, 119. Athens (ath'enz), 72, 80-87, 89; destruction of, 96. Athos (ath'os) mount, 89, 93. Attica (at'i-ka), 72. Attila (at'i-la), 194 Augsburg, religious peace of (agz'- berg), 260-263, 267. Augurs (a'ger), 134. Augustus (a-gus'tus), 172-174. Aurelian (a-re-lyan), 179. Austerlitz,battleof(ous'ter-lits),357. Australia (astra'lia), settlement of, 435- INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 489 Austrian Succession, war of (as'tri- an), 313- Avignon (a-ven-yoh'), 220. Baber (ba'ber), 230. Babylon (bab'i-Ion), 20,23 > descrip- tion of, 24. Babylonia (bab-i-15'ni-a), 19-29. Bacon (ba'kan), Sir Francis, 289, 367- Bajazet (baj-a-zet'), 230, 232. Basques (baskz), 4. Bastille (bas-tel'), 342. Batouni (ba-tom'), 406. Bazaine (ba-zan'), 387, 388. Beauharnais (bo-ar-na'), Eugene de, 359- Belgium (bel'ji-um), 382. Belisarius (bel-i-sa'ri-us), 192. Bell, inventor (bel), 374. Baluchistan (bel-o-chis-tan'), 130. Beneventum (ben-e-ven'tum), 144. Bentinck, William (ben'tingk), 429. Bible (bl'bl), 31-32, 257-260. Bill of Rights, 330. Bismarck (biz-mark), 385, 396, 397. Blenheim (blen'im), battle of, 305. Bliicher (bliich'er), general, 364. Boeotia (be-5'shia), 72. Boers (bors), 439. Bokhara (bo-kha'ra), 407. Boleyn, Anne (bul'in), 265. Bonaparte, Joseph, 359. Bonaparte, Louis, 359. Borodino (bor-6-de'no), 361. Bosnia (boz'ni-a), 406. Bosporus (bos'po-rus), 403. Boston (bos'ton), foundation of, 326. Bourgeoisie (bor-zhwa'se'), 383. Boxers (boks'erz), 474. Brahmans (bra'mans), 50. Brazil (bra-zil'), 454. Brienne (bre-en'), 352. Bright (brit), 425. Britain (brit'an), 168. Brussels (brus'elz'), 364. Brutus, Marcus (bro'tus), 169. Buddha (bo'da), 50, 51. Buenos Aires (bwa'nos I'rez), 390. Bulgaria (bul-ga'ri-a), 406. Burma (ber'ma), Bi'itish conquest of, 428. Byzantium (bi-zan'tium), 77. Caaba (ka'ba), 201. Caesar (se'zar), 163-170. Calhoun (kal-hon'), 449. California (kal-i-for'ni-a), 450. Calvin (kal'vin), 262. Cambodia (kam-bo'di-a), 442. Cambunian mountains (kam- biin'ian), 71. Campo Formio (kam-p6-for'me-5), treaty of, 353, 355. Canaan (ka'nan), 33. Canaanites (ka'nan-its), 33, 36. Canada (kan'a-da), French colony, 301 ; British conquest of, 316. Canary Islands (ka-na'ri'), 391. Cannae (kan'e), battle of, 151. Canning (kan'ing), 390. Canute (ka-nut'), 210. Capua (kap'u-a), 151. Carbonari (kar-bo-na'ri), 399. Carnot (kar-no'), 348. Carolingians (kar-o-lin'ji-anz), 196. Carthage (kar'thaj), 144; destruc- tion of, 1 54. Cartwright (kart'rlt), 369. Catherine de Medici (kath'e-rin de ma'de-che), 268. Catherine of Aragon, 263. Catherine II. of Russia, 323. Catiline (kat'i-lln), 166. Cavaliers (ka-va-lers'), 293. Cavour (ka-vor'), 400, 405. 490 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Celtic races (sel-tik), 6. Chaeronea (ker-5-ne'a), battle of, 117. Chaldaea (kal-de'a), 20. Chalons (sha-lon'), 194. Chamberlain, Joseph (cham'ber- lan), 441. Chang Chih Tung (chang'-chii- diing'), 475. Charlemagne (char'le-man), 197-200. Charles Martel (charlzmar-ter),i96. Charles I. of England, 289, 291- 295. Charles II. of England, 328-329. Charles II. of Spain, 304. Charles V., German Emperor, 234, 259-262. Charles VI., candidate for the Spanish th rone,German Emperor, 305- Charles VIII. of France, 242. Charles IX. of France, 268. Charles X. of France, 383. Charles XII. of Sweden, 321. Chartism (char'tism'), 425. Cheops (ke'ops), 11. Chien Lung (chien' lung'), 469. China (chl-na), ancient, 54-'^7 ; under the Mongols, 226-229, 373. Chow dynasty, 56, 60. Christ (krlst), 31, 174. Christianity, 180. Chronology, 7. Ch'un' Ch'iu', 57. Cicero (sis'e-ro), 166. Cimbri (sim'bri), 158. Cinna (sin'a), 159. Cisalpine Gaul, 148. Cleisthenes (klls'the-nez), 85, 86. Clement VII., Pope (klem'ent), 263, 264. Cleon (kle'on), 107, 108. Cleopatra (kle-5-pa'tra), 170-171. Clermont,Councilof(kler-m6ri),22i. Clive (kllv), 317. Clovis (klo'vis), 194. Cobden (kob'den), 425. Cochin China (ko'chin chl'na), 442. Code Napoleon (kod na-po-la-oii'), 355- Codrus (ko'drus), 81. Colbert (kol-bar'), 301. Coligny, 268. Colonies, Greek, 76-77 ; Roman, 183 ; Spanish, 255-256, 390 ; Por- tuguese, 254 ; French, 301, 306, 316, 442 ; British, 317, 421, 424, 428-440 ; German, 443. Columbus (ko-lum'bus), 189, 252- 253- Common-wealth (kom'on), 295. Confederate States of America, 450. Confucius (kon-fQ'shius), 57, 58. Congo Free State (kong'go), 444. Constantine the Great (kon'stan- tln), 180. Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-no'pl), n, 180, 235,403- Cook, James (kiik), 421. Copernicus (ko-per'ni-kus), 249. Corday, Charlotte (kor-da), 349. Cordova (kor'do-va), 205. Corea (ko-re'a), 64, 67, 68. Corinth (kor'inth), 72, 105 ; destruc- tion of, 153. Corn Laws, 426. Cortes, Spanish Parliament(k6r'tes), 389- Cortez (kor'tez), 255. Crassus (kras'us), 163, 167. Crecy, battle of (kra-se), 241. Crimean War (kri-me'an), 404. Croesus (kre'sus), 42. Cromer, Lord, 438. Cromwell, Oliver (krum'wel), 294- 297. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 491 Crusades, 221-223, 240. Cuba (ku'ba), 390. Cuneiform writing (cu-ne'-i-form), 25-26. Cyaxares (sl-aks'a-rez), 23, 41. Cylon (si'lpn), 8 1-82. Cyprus (si'prus), 37, 234, 407. Cyrus (si'rus), 25, 35, 41-42. Czechs (cheks), 399. Dacians (da'shi-ans), 178. Daimios (di'myos), 458, 460, 462. Dalai Lama (da'lT ]a'ma\ 53. Dalhousie (dal-hou'zi), 430. Dalny, 410. Damascus (da-mas'kus), 204, 226. Danton (doii-ton'), 346, 350. Danube (dan'ub), 174, 357. Darius I. (da-rl'us), 43-45, 88. Darius III., 126, 129. Darwin, Charles (dar'win), 368. David (da'-vid), 34. Deccan (dek'kan), 47. Deceleian War (des-e-le'yan war), III. Decemvirs (de-sem'virs), 138. Delhi (del'hi), 207, 431. Delos (de'los), 72 ; confederacy of, 99, 119. Delphi (del'fl), 72, 116, 119, 120. Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez), 116. Deshima (de'shi-ma), 459. Desiderius (des-i-de'ri-us), 197. Dias, Bartholomew (de'as), 252. Dias, Mexican president, 453. Diderot (de-dro'), 367. Diet of Worms (vorms), 259. Diocletian (dl-5-kle'shian), 180. Domitian (do-mish'ian), 176. Dorians (do'ri-ans), 75. Draco (dra'ko), 82. Dragonades (drag-p-nadz'), 303. Drake, Sir Francis (drak), 287. Dravidians (dravi-dians), 48. Duma (dii'ma), 420. Dupleix (dii-plaks'), 316. Dutch Republic (duch), rise of the, 274. East India Company, Dutch, 444. East India Company, English, 316- 317,431- Ecclesia (ek-le-si'a), 86, loi. Edict of Nantes (nants), 269, 303. Edward the Confessor, 243. Egypt (e'jipt), 9-18 ; under the Ptolemies, 132 ; conquered by the Arabs, 204 ; British occupa- tion of, 438. Elba (el'ba), 363. Elizabeth of England (e-liz'a-beth), 271, 283-288. Encyclopedia(en-si-klo pe'di-a),367. Epaminondas (e-pam-i-non'das), 114. Ephesus (efe-sus), 72. Ephors (ef'ors), 100. Escorial (es-ko'ri-al). 270. Ethnology (eth-no'-lo gj), 3. Etruria (e-tro'ri-a), 133. Etruscans (e-trus'kanz), 153, 139. Euboea (u-be'a), 72. Euclid (u'klid), 124. Eugene, prince of Savoy (u-jen'), 305- Eumenes (u'me-nez), 152. Euphrates (u-fra'tez), 19. Euripides (u-rip'i-dez), 102, Eylau (I'lou), 357. Fabius Maximus (fa'bi-us), 150. Fenians (fe'ni-anz), 427. Ferdinand of Aragon (fer'di-nand), 240, Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 383. Ferdinand II., German Emperor, 276. 492 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Feudalism, 211-215. Finland (fin'land), 359. Finns (finz), 4. Five Classics, 59. Florence (flor'ens), 237, 246. Fo (Buddha), 53. Formosa (for-mo'sa), 68, 468. Four Books, 59. Francia, Dr. (fran'se-ii), 454. Francis I. of France (fran'sis), 234, 270. Francis I. of Austria, German Emperor, 314, 359- Francis Joseph, 398. Frankfort, treaty of (frangk'fort), 388. Franklin, Benjamin (frangk'lin), 335-336. Frederic I., Barbarossa (fred'e-rik), 246. Frederick III. of Brandenburg becomes King of Prussia with the title Frederick I., 311. Frederick William, duke of Prussia and elector of Brandenburg, 311. Frederick William I., second king of Prussia, 311-312. Frederick II., the Great, of Prussia, 312-315, 377. Friedland (fred'land), 358. Fulton, Robert (ful'ton), 372. Galileo (ga-le-la'6), 250. Gambetta, Leon (gam-bet'ta), 388. Ganges (gan'jez), 47. Garibaldi (ga-re-bal'de), 399, 400. Gauls (galz), 133, 139. Gautama (gou'ta-ma), 51. Genesis (jen'e-sis), 32. Geneva (je-ne'va), 379. Genoa (jen'o-a), 222, 237, 373. George I. of England (jorj), 331. George II. of England, 316, 331. George III. of England, 332-333. Germanic races (jer-man'ik), 6, 190, 191. Germany (jer'ma-ni), Romans in, 168, 174; mediaeval, 245-247; reformation in, 258-262 ; Thirty Years' War in, 276-282 ; forma- tion of new empire, 394-398. Ghoorkas (gor'kaz), 469. Gibraltar (ji-bral'tar), 306, 357. Girondists (ji-ron'dists), 345. Gladiators (glad'i-a-tors), 161, 184. Godfrey of Bouillon (god'fri of bo yon'), 221. Gracchus, Caius (grak'us), 157. Gracchus, Tiberius, 157. Granada (gra-na'da), 240. Granicus (gra-ni'kus), battle of the river, 126. Greece (gres), 70-124; modern, 402. Greeks (greks), 6 ; their character, 74-75 ; in India, 53. Gregory VII., Pope (greg'o-ri), 218. Guillotin (ge-yo-tan'), 347. Guises (giz-es), 268. Gunpowder Plot, 291. Gustavus Adolphus (gus-ta'vus), 277. Gutenberg (go'ten-berg), 250. Gylippus (gil-ip'pus), no, in. Hadrian (ha'dri-an), 178. Haeckel, German Professor of Biology (hek'el), i. Halys river (ha'lis), 42. Hamilcar Barcas (ha-mil'kar bar'- kas), 147, 148. Hamilton, Alexander (ham'iltnn), 445- Hamitic peoples (ha-mit'ik), 5. Hammurabi (ham-mo-ra'be), 20, 28. Han dynasty, 62-63. Hannibal (han'i-bal), 148-152. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 493 Hanseatic League (han-se-at'ik leg), 238. Hapsburg, House of (haps'berg), 247, 261. Hargreaves (har'grevz), 369. Harold (har'pld), 243. Haroun-al-Rashid (ha-ron'al-rash- id), 205. Hasdrubal (has'dro-bal), 151. Hastings (has'tingz), battle of, 243. Hegemony (hej'e-mon-i), meaning of, 105 ; of Thebes, 114. Hegira (hej'i-ra), 202. Heliaea (he-Ii-i'a), 84, 102. Hellas (hel'as), T]. Hellespont (hel'es-pont), 93. Helots (he'lots), 78. Helvetian Republic (hel-ve'shian), 391- Henry IV. of Germany (hen'ri), 218. Henry the Navigator, 252. Henry VIII. of England, 263-264. Henry II. of France, 267. Hephaestus (he-fes'tus), 119. Heraclea (her-a-kle'a), battle of, 143. Herat (her-at'), 437. Herculaneum(her-kii-la'ne-um).i76. Herodotus (he-rod'6-tus), 103. Herzegovina (hert-se-go-ve'na), 406. Hieroglyphics (hi-er-o-gli'fiks), 16. Himalaya mountains (him-a'la-ya), 47- Hipparchus (hi-par'kus), 85. Hippias (hip'i-as), 85. Hiram (hi'ram), 37. Hohenstaufen (h5-en-stou-fen) dy- nasty, 219, 246. Hohenzollern (ho-en-tsol-lern), 310, 386. Holland (hol'and), 359, 382. Homer (ho'mer), 73. Hong-kong (hong' kong'), 435- Honorius (ho-n5'ri-us), 181. Horus (ho'rus), 14. Hubertusburg (ho-ber'tos-borg), treaty of, 315. Hudson (hud'son), 327, 372. Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), 267. Hulagu (hu la-gii), 226. Hundred Years' War, 241, 242. Hungarians (hung-ga'ri-ans), 5,215. Huns (hunz), 190, 193. Hunter, W. W. (hun'ter), 231. Hyksos (hik'soz), 12. Hyphasis river (hif'a-sis), 130. I Ching (e-ching), 59. India (in'di-a), ancient, 47-53 ; Mohammedan conquest of, 207- 209. Indo-China, 442. Indus (in'dus), 47. Inquisition, 265-266. lonians (i-6'ni-ans), 75. Ionian sea, 71. Ireland (ir'land), 374. Isabella of Castile (iz-a-bel'a), 240, 253, 261. Isaiah (l-za'ya), 32. I sis (i-sis), 14. Islam (is'lam), 202. Israel (iz'ra-el), 33, 34. Issus (is'us), battle of, 126. Isthmus of Panama (pa-na ma'), 381. Italy (it'a-li), during Middle Ages, 237- Ito, Marquis (e'to), 465. *Ivan III., the Great (e-van'), 247. Ivan IV., the Terrible, 247. lyeyasu (i-ya-ya'su), 459. Jackson, Andrew, 446, 449. Jakoob Beg, 407. James VI. of Scotland (jamz) becomes James I. of England, 245, 289. 494 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY James II. of England, 329-330. Jamestown (jamz toun), 326. Janus (ja'nus), 134. Japan (ja-pan'), ancient, 67-69, 373. Jefferson, Thomas (jef'er-son), 445. Jengiz Khan (jen'gis khan), 225. Jenner, Edward (jen'er), 380. Jermack (yer'mak), 247. Jerome Bonaparte (je-rom'), 359. Jerusalem (je-ro'sa-lem), 24, ;^2, 221. Jesuits (jez'u-its), 266. Jews (joz), 5, 24, 30-35, 176. Jimmu Tenno (jim'mu ten'no), 68. Jingu (jin'gu), 68. Joan of Arc (j6-an' pv ark), 241. John, king of England, 244. Jordan (jor'dan), 33. Joseph (jo'zef), 33. Josephine Beauharnais (jo'ze-fen), 361. Judah (jo'da), 34, 35. Jupiter (jo'pi-ter), 134. Justinian (jus-tin'i-an), 182. Kang Hsi (kang' se'), 466, 468. Kanishka (ka-nish'ka), 52. Kant (kant), 367. Kapilav'astu (kap-i-la-vas'to), 51. Karnak (kar'nak), 14. Kashgar (kash-gar'), 409. Kau Ti (ga'o de'), 62. Khaibar pass (chi'ber), 47. Khiva (che'va), 407. Kiaochau (ki'ao-chou'), 443. Kioto (ke-o'to), 457. Kolarians (ko-lar'ians), 48. Koran (ko'ran), 203. Korea (ko-re'a), 463-465. Koreishites (ko-rish'its), 201. Kosciusko (kos-i-us'ko), 325. Kossuth, Louis (kosh'ot), 398. Kublai Khan (kob'li khan), 226. Kuldja (kol'ja), 408. Kuropatkin(ku-ro-pat'kin),General, 4i3>4iS- Laconia (la-ko'ni-a), 72, 78. Lafayette (la-fa-yet'), 343. Lamaism (la'ma-ism), 53. Lancashire (lang'ka-shir), 370. Lancaster, House of (lang'kas-ter), 245. Lao-tsze (la'o-tsa'), 60. Laplace (la-plas'), 367. Lapps (laps), 4. Latium (la'shi-um), 133. Laud, Archbishop (lad), 292, 293. Law, John (la), 308. Layard (la'ard), 25, 26. Lebanon (leb'a-non), 3;^. Lechfeld, battle of (lech'felt), 215. Legion, the Roman, 142. Leipzig (llp'sik), 362. Leonardo da Vinci (vin'che), 246. Leonidas (le-on'i-das), 95. Leopold of Belgium (le'o-pold), 444. Leopold, German emperor, 305. Lepidus (lep'i-dus), 170. Lesbos (lez'bos), 107. Leuthen, battle of (loi'-ten), 315. Leyden (ll'den), siege of, 274. Liao-tung peninsula, 466. Li Chi, or Book of Rites, 59. Liebig (le'big), 368. Ligurian Republic (li-gu'ri-an), 353. Li Hung Chang (le hong chang), 465, 475- Lin, commissioner, 470. Lincoln, Abraham (ling'kon), 450, 452. Liu Pang, 62. Liverpool (liv'er-pol), 372. Lombards (lom'bardz), 193. Louis Bonaparte (lo'is), 359. Louis XL, 242. Louis XIII., 298. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 495 Louis XIV., 299-306. Louis XV., 308-309. Louis XVL, 340, 343-347. Louis XVI IL, 363, 382. Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'a), French colony, 301 ; purchased by U.S., . 446. Louis Napoleon, 384. Louis Philippe L (lo'e fi-lep'), 383. Loyola, Ignatius (l6-yo'la), 266. Lu, State of, 57, 58. Lucknow (luk'nou), 431. Lucullus (lu-kul'us), 162. Lun Yii, Confucian Analects, 59. Luther (lo'ther), Martin, 259-260. Liitzen, battle of (liit'sen), 279. Lycurgus (ll-ker'gus), 78. Lydia (lid'i-a), 42, 88. Macao (ma-kou'), 254. Macartney (ma-kart'ni), 470. Macedonia (mas-e-do'ni-a), 89, 152. Madagascar (mad-a-gas'kar), 442. Magna Charta (mag'na kar'ta), 244. Magnesia (mag-ne'shia), battle of, 152. Magyars (mo'dyorz), sec Hungari- ans, 5, 215. Malian (ma'li-an) guh, 72. Malta (mal'ta), 37, 422. Manchester (man'ches-ter), 372. Manchuria (man-cho'ri-a), 409. Manchus (man-choz'), 318. Manila (ma-ne'la), battle of, 391. Marat (ma-rii'), 346, 349. Marathas (ma-rat'as), 231, 428. Marathon (mar'a-thon), battle of, 89. Marco Polo (po'lo), 223, 228, Marconi (mar-ko'ne), 373. Marcus Aurelius (mar-kus a-re'li- us), 178. Mardonius (mar-d5'ni-us), 89, 97. Marduk (mar-duk), 24. Marengo (ma-reng'6), battle of, 355. Maria Theresa of Austria (niii- re'a te-re'sa), 313. Marie Antoinette (mar'i an-toi-net'), 343- Marius (ma'ri-us), 157-159. Marlborough, Duke of (mal'bur-o), 305, 331- Mars (marz), 119, 134. Marston (mars'ton) Moor, battle of, 294. Mary Stuart, 284. Mary Tudor, 270, 283. Maryland (mer'i-land), 327. Massilia (ma-sil'i-a), "]"]. Maximilian of Bavaria (mak-si-mil'i- an), 276, 277. Maximilian of Mexico, 453. Mazarin (maz'a-rin), 299. Mazzini (mat-se'ne), 399. Medes (medz), 41. Medina (me-de'na), 202. Mediterranean (med"i-te-ra'ne-an), 20-22, 163. Memphis (mem'fis), 11. Mencius (men'shi-us), 58. Menes (me'nez), 11. Merovingians (mer-5-vin'ji-anz), 195, Metaurus (ma-tou'rus), battle of the, 151. Metternich (met'ter-nich), 394, 395. Metz (mets), 388. Mexico (mek'si-ko), conquest of, 255 ; recent history of, 450, 453. Michaelangelo (ml-kel-an'je-l5),246. Miletus (mi-le'tus), 72. Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez), 89. Minamoto clan (min-a-mo'tp), 458. Ming dynasty (meng), 466. Ming-ti, 53. Mississippi Bubble (mis-i-sip'i), 308. Missouri Compromise(mi-zo'ri), 448. 496 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Mithiidates(mith-ri-da'tez), 161-162. Mito, Prince (me'tp), 461. Moguls (mo-gulz')or Mughals (mo'- galz), 209, 230-231. Mohammed (mo-ham'ed), 201-203. Mohammed II., the Great, 232. Moltlfe (molt'ke), 386, 396. Mongolian race (mon-go'li-an), 3, 4, 68. Mongols (mong'golz), 4, 225, 227. Monroe, James (mun-ro'), 446, 448. Montcorvin,Jean de (moh-kor-vah') 229. Morocco (mo-rok'o), 443-444. Morse (mors), 373. Moscow (mos'kou), 226, 229, 247 ; burning of, 361. Moses (m5'zez), 32, 33. Mountainists, 345. Muhammad of Ghore (gor), 207. Mukden, battle of (mok-den'), 414. Mummies, 15. Mummius (mum'i-us), 152. Murat (mii-ra), 360. Muraviefif (mo-ra-ve-ef), 409. Mutsuhito (mot'so-shto), 462. Mycale (mik'a-le), 97. Mylae (mi'le), naval battle of, 146. Mytilene or Mitylene (mit-i-le'ne), 107. Nanking (nan-king'), treaty of, 471. Nantes (nants ; French pron. nont), edict of, 269 ; its revocation, 303- Naples, kingdom of (na'plz), 242. Napoleon Bonaparte (na-po'le-on), 351, 352-365, 367. Napoleon III., 384. Narses (nar'sez), 191. Narva, battle of (nar'va), 321. Naseby (naz'bi), battle of, 294. National Assembly, French, 343. National Congress, Indian, 434. Navarino (na-va-re'no), battle of, 403. Nebuchadnezzar (neb"u-kad-nez'- ar), 23, 24. Necho II. (ne'ko), 13, 24, 35. Negroes, 3. Nelson (nel'spn), 354, 357. Nerchinsk (ner-chinsk'), treaty of, 318. Nero (ne'ro), 175. Nerva (ner'va), 176. Nestorians in China (nes-to'ri-anz), 229. New Amsterdam (am'ster-dam), 327. New Zealand (ze'land), 435. Ney, Marshal (na), 383. Nicholas I. of Russia (nik'o-las), 402, 404. Nicholas II., 419. Nicias (nish'i-as), 106, 107, 108-111. Nicopolis (ni-kop'o-lis), 232. Niemen river (ne'men), 358. Nihilists (ni'hil-ists), 418. Nile, battle of the, 354. Nimwegen (nim'wa-gen), treaty of, 302. Nineveh (nin'e-ve), 22, 23. Nirvana (nir-va'na), 52. Nogi (no'ge), General, 413. Normans (nor'manz), 211. Norsemen (nors'men), 210. Northmen (north'men), 200, 210. Nullification, 449. Nystad (nii'stad), peace of, 322. Odoacer (o-do-a'ser), 181, 191. Okkodai (ok-ko-da'i), 226, Oligarchy, 76. Olympia (o-lim'pi-a), 120, 121. Olympus (6-lim'pus), 72, 119. Ommiads (5-ml'adz), 204, 205. Open Door, 453. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 497 Opium War, 470-471. Optimates, 159. Orange Free State, 439. Orleans (or'le-anz), 242. Ormuzd (or'nmzd), 41. Osiris (6-sl'ris), 14. Osman (os-man'), 231. Ostracism (os'tra-cism), 86. Ostrogoths (os'tro-goths), 190. Ottawa (ot-a'wa), 440. Otto I., the Great (ot'to), 215. Ottoman Turks (ot'o-man), 231. Oyama (o-ya'ma), 413- Palatinate, War of the (pa-lat'i-nat), 304- Palestine (pal'es-tln), 33, 35, 36. Pamir (pa-mer'), 408. Panama Canal (pa-na-ma), 381. Papal States, 196 ; their end, 401. Paris (par'is), 210, 300; treaty of, 336, 343, 383 ; siege of, 387. Parmenio (par-me'ni-o), 128. Parsees (par'sez), 41. Parthenon (par'the-non), 103. Parthians (par'thi-ans), 178, 179. Pasteur (pas-ter'), 368. Patricians (pa-tri'shanz), 137. Paul (pal), 32. Pausanias (pa-sa'ni-as), 98. Peel, Sir Robert (pel), 426. Pelopidas (pe-lop'i-das), 114. Peloponnesus (per'o-po-ne'sus), 72, 95, 106, 120. Pennsylvania (pen-sil-va'ni-a), 327. Pericles (per'i-klez), 88, 101-104, 106, 107, 122. Perioeci (per-i-e'ci), 78. Perry, Commodore (per'i), 460. Persia (per'sha), 129, 204, 226, 227, 229, 437-- Peru (pe-ro'), conquest of, 255. Peter the Great (pe'ter), 318-323. G.H. 2 Pharaoh (fa'ro), 22. Pharsallus (far-sa'lus), 168. Phidias (fid'i-as), 103. Philip of Macedon (fil'ip), 105, 115. Philip II. of Spain, 269-274. Philippine Islands (fil'ip-in), 453. Phoenicia (fe-nish'a), 35-38. Piedmont (ped'morit), 400. Pillnitz, declaration of (pil'nits), 345. Pipin (pep'in), 196. Piraeus (pi-re'us), 92, 96, 106. Pisistratus (pi-sis'tra-tus), 76, 85. Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham (pit), 316, 424. Pitt, William, the Younger, 347, 424. Pius IX. (pi'us), 401. Pizarro (pi-za'ro), 255. Plantagenets (plan-taj'e-nets), 244. Plataea (pla-te'a), 89, 97, 106, 107. Plato (pla'to), 124. Plebeians (ple-be'yanz), I37- Plehwe (pla'we), minister, 419. Plevna (plev'na), 406. Plymouth, in New England (plim'uth), 326. Poitiers, battle of (pwa-tya'), 241. Poland (po'land), division of, 323- 325- Pompadour, Madame de (poh-pa- dor'), 308. Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), 176. Pompey (pom'pi), 162-168. Pondicherry (pon-di-sher'i), 316. Popes, origin of the, 187 ; height of their power, 219. Port Arthur (port ar'ther), 410, 414. Porto Rico (port'o re'ko), in American possession, 391. Portsmouth, peace of (ports'muth), 416. Prehistoric times, 2. * Pretenders to the English crown, 331- 498 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Pride's Purge (prid), 294. Psalms (samz), 32. Psammetichus I. (sa-met'i-kus), 12, 22. Ptolemies (tol'e-mis), 132. Pultowa, battle of (pol-to'va), 322. Punjab (pun-jab'), 207. Puritans (pu'ri-1%ns), 264. Pyramids (pir'a-midz), 11. Pyrenees (pir'e-nez), 204, 239. Pyrrhus (pir'us), 143. Quebec (kwe-bek'), 327. Ra (ra), 14. Rajputs (raj-pots')or Kshatriyas, 50. Raleigh, Sir Walter (ra'li), 288. Ramadhan (ra-ma-dan'), 203. Rameses (ram'e-sez), 12, 15. Regulus (reg'u-lus), 146. Reformation, the Protestant, 220, 250. Restoration in England, 297. Resurrection, 15. Revolution, the French, 339-351. Ricci, Matteo (ret'che), 466. Richard I., the Lionhearted (rich'- ard), 244. Richelieu (resh-lye'), 279, 289-299. Robespierre (ro-bes-pyar'), 346, 348-350- Rollo (rol'o), 211, 243. Romance languages, 185. Romanoff, dynasty of (ro-ma'nof), 318. Rome (rom), 132-187 ; capital of modern Italy, 401. Romulus (rom'u-lus), 134. Romulus Augustulus (a-gus'tu-lus), 181, 197. Roumania (ro-ma'ni-a), 405. Roundheads (round'hedz), 293. Rousseau (ro-s6'), 341. Rozhdestvensky(rosh-dest-vens'ki), admiral, 416. Rurik (ro'rik), 211. Russia (rush'a), 211, 247. Ryswick, treaty of (riz'wik), 304. Sadowa (sa'do-va) or Koniggratz (ke'nig-grats), battle of, 396. Saladin, Sultan of Egypt (sal'a-din), 222. Salamis (sal'a-mis), 95, 96. Samaria (sa-ma'ri-a), 33, 35. Samarkand (sam-ar-kand'), 225,407. Samnites (sam'nits), 133, 142, 151. Samurai (sam'u-rl), 460. Sandwich Islands (sand'wich), 453. Sanskrit (san'skrit), 49. Santiago de Cuba (san-te-a'g5 da ko'ba), battle of, 391. Saracus (sar'a-kus), 23. Sardinia (sar-din'i-a), 205, 400. Sardis (sar'dis), 42, 88, 93. Sargon of Agade (sar'gon), 20, 29, Sargon of Assyria, 22. Satrapy (sat'ra-pi), 44. Satsuma clan (sat-sd'ma), 461. Saul (sal), n. Savannah (sa-van'a), 373. Saxons (sak'snz), 192, 197. Scandinavians (skan-di-na'vi-anz), 6, 210. Schaal, Jesuit (shal), 466. Scipio (sip'i-5), 151, 154. Scythians (sith'i-anz), 43. Sea of Japan, battle of the, 416, Sebastopol (se-bas'to-pol), 405. Sedan (se-don'), battle of, 387. Sejanus (se-ja'nus), 175. Seljukian Turks (sel-jok-i-an), 220, 221. Semitic peoples, 5, 201. September Massacres, 346. Sertorius (ser-to'ri-us), 162. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 499 Seti I.(se'ti), 12, 15. Seven Years' War, 315-317- Shah Jahan (sha ya-han'), 231. Shakespeare (shak'sper), William, ■ 288. Shantung province (shan-tong'), 57. Shih Ching, or Book of Odes, 59. Shih Hwang Ti, 60, 61, 62. Shiites (she'itz), 204. Shimonoseki (shim-o-no-sek'e), treaty of, 409, 465. Shinto (shin'to), 461. Shipka Pass (ship'ka pas), 406. Shogunate (shog'un-at), 458-462. Shu Ching, or Book of History, 56, 59- Siam (se-am'), 442. Siberia (sl-be'ri-a), 247, 318, 408. Sidon (si'don), 36. Sigismund of Hungary (sij'is-mund), 232. Singapore (sing-ga-p6r'), 435- Slave trade, 38, 378. Slavic races (sla-vik), 6, 200. Socrates (sok'ra-tez), 103, 120, 122- 124. Solferino (sol-fe-re'no). 400. Solomon (sol'o-mon), 34. Solon (so'lon), 83. Spain (span), 37, 205, 239, 240 ; in the 19th century, 389-391. Spanish colonies, 255-256 ; loss of the last, 390-391. Spanish Succession,Warofthe, 305. Sparta (spar'ta), 72, 76, 77-80. Stephenson, G. (ste'ven-son), 371. St. Helena (he-le'na). Napoleon at, 364- St. Louis, 226. Stossel (stes'sel), 414. Strelitzes (stra-lits'es), 320. Sudras, 50, 52. Suleiman (so-la-man'), 232-234. Sulla (sul'a), 159-160. Sunnites (sun'its), 204, 209. Susa (so'sa), 129. Switzerland (swit'zer-land), 281, 391. Syracuse (sir'a-kus), ^T, no. Syria (sir'i-a), 204, 220, 226. Ta Ching dynasty, 466, 468. Taiping rebellion, 472. Taira clan (tl'ra), 458. Tai Tsung (ti'tsiing'), 63, 64. Tamerlane (tam-er-lan'), 229. Tang dynasty, 63. Taoism (tou'ism), 60. Tarentum (ta-ren'tum), ^T, Tarquinius (tar-kwin'i-us), 136. Tashkent (tash-kend'), 407. Tasmania (taz-ma'ni a), 435. Temujin (te'mu-jin), 225-226. Teutoburg (toi'to-borg'), forest of, 174. Teutones (tu'to-nez), 158, 190. Teutons (tu'tons), 49, 189. Texas (tek'sas), 450. Thebes, in Egypt, 15. Thebes, in Greece (thebz), 72, 94, 100 ; hegemony of, 1 14. Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), 92, 96, 98. Theodoric the Great (the-od'6-rik), 191. Theodosius (the-6-do'shi-us), 64, 181. Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le), 72, 94, 95- Thetes (the'tez), 84, 92. Thrace (thras), 43. Tiberius (ti-be'ri-us), 175. Tibet (tib'et), 432. Tibeto-Burman tribes, 48. Tientsin, treaty of (te-en'tsen'), 473. Tigris (ti'gris), 19. Tilsit (til'sit), peace of, 35S. 500 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Timur (te-mor'), 229. Ting, Admiral, 465. Tissaphernes (tis-a-fer'nez), 111,112. Titus (tl'tus), 176, 184. Tokugawa (to-kii-ga'va) shogunate, 459- Tolstoy (torstoi), 419. Tongking (tong-king'), 442. Tories (to'riz), 329. Toulon (to-loii'), siege of, 352. Tournaments, 213. Tours and Poitiers (tor and pwa- tya'), battle of, 196, 206. Trafalgar (traf-al-gar'), battle of, 357- Trajan (tra'jan), 176-178. Transvaal (trans'val), 439. Trebonian (tre-bon'ian), 182. Trevethick (tre've-thik), 371. Tribunes of the Plebs, 137. Triumvirate (tri-um'vi-rat), 163, 170. Tsin dynasty, 61. Tughlak (togh'lak) dynasty, 207. Tunis (tu'nis), 401. Turanian races (tia-ra'ni-an), 3, 215. Turgot (tur-go'), 342- ' Turks (terks), 5, 181, 231-235. Tyrants, 76. Tyre(tTr), 24, 36, 128. Ulm (olm), battle of, 357. Urban II. (er'ban), 221. Ussuri river, 409. Utrecht, treaty of (u'trekt), 305, 378 ; union of, 274. Vaisyas (vish'yaz), 50. Valmy, battle of (val-rae'), 345. Vandals (van'dalz), 192. Vasco da Gama (ga'ma), 238, 252. Vedas (va'das), 49. Veneti (ven'e-tl), 133. Venetia (ve-ne'shia), 133, 194, 401. Venice (ven'is), 194, 222, 237. Vercellae (ver-sel'e), 158. Verdun, treaty of (ver-dun'), 200, 210, 239. Versailles (ver-salz'), 300. Vespasianus (ves-pa'shian-us) Flav- ius, 176, 184. Vespucci (ves-po'che) Amerigo, 254. Victor Emmanuel (vik'tor e-man'- u-el), 400. Victoria (vik-to'ri-a), Queen and Empress, 431. Victoria, city, 436. Vienna (vi-en'a), siege of, 234 ; congress of, 394. Virginia (ver-jin'i-a), 326. Visigoths (viz'i-goths), 188, 190, 191. Vladivostok (vla-de-vos-tok'), 410. Voltaire (vol-tar'), 341. Vulcan (vul'kan), 119. Wales (vvalz), 193, 244-245. Wallenstein (val'len-stln), 277, 278- 279. Walpole (wol'pol). Sir Robert, 331. Washington (wosh'ing-tpn), George, 333, 334, 445- Waterloo (wa-ter-lo'), battle of, 364. Watt (wot), James, 369. Wei-Hai-Wei (wa',i-hl-wa'i), 474. Wellesley (welz'li), 428. Wellington (vvel'ing-tpn), Duke of, 360, 364. Wells Williams (wil'yamz), 63. Westphalia (west-fa'lia), treaty of, 280. Whigs (hwigz), 329. William the Conqueror (wil'yam), 243- William I. of Germany, 386, 397. William and Mary, 330. William of Orange, 273-275. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 501 Witte (vvit'e), minister, 419. Worcester (vvus'ter), battle of, 296. Worms (vorms), diet of, 259. Wu Wang, 56. Xavier (zav'i-er), St. Francis, 266, 459- Xeres de la Frontera (Ha-reth' da la fron-ta'ra), 204. Xerxes (zerk'sez), 93, 94, 95, 96. Yahveh (ya-va'), 32. Yalu river, 412. Yangtse river (yang'tse), 56. Yedo = Tokio, 459. Yesso (yes'so), 68. Yoritomo (yo-ri-to'mo), 458. York (york), house of, 249. Yorktown, battle of, 333. Yuan dynasty, 53, 207, 226. Yuan Shih Kai (yuan' shii-ki'), 475. Zagros (za'gros) mountains, 19, 129, 178. Zama (za'ma), battle of, 151. Zeus (zus), 119, 120. Zoroaster (zo-ro-as'ter), 39, 41. Zwingli (zwingle), 262. ih ht, 17