Class 1,S jX?- Book- M/&- Gopiglit>J -/-fct4 COKflRIGHT DEPOSHi Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/oxyacetyleneweldOOwill OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING and CUTTING including Information on Acetylene, Oxygen, Electric Welding A practical and complete work on the use and maintenance *of apparatus, and the welding of various metals — including special castings and parts. A recognized text book — indispensable to the beginner and of great help to the finished welder. By P. F. WILLIS Sixth Revised and Enlarged Edition. Fully illustrated by specially made engravings. New York THE NOEMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. , 2 West 45th Street 1922 Copyrighted 1922 by The Norman W. Henley Publishing Company Copyrighted 1919 by P. F. WILLIS PRINTED IN U. S. A. ^ DEC 22 72 « ©CI.AB92538 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION Some ten years ago the author started a welding" shop, using the oxy-acetylene process. He hardly knew how to light the torch, much less its operation. In this respect he was on an equal footing with a few other venturesome individuals in this country who had embarked in the same business, regarding which prac- tically nothing was known. It follows that there were many failures and disappointments. The author can well testify that "there is no royal road to learning," and yet in offering this treatise he is prompted by the belief that the man who goes ahead may smooth out some of the rough spots, and thereby assist those who come after. PREFACE TO THE SIXTH REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION This book has met with such a very cordial reception on the part of the public that the sixth revised and enlarged edition has just been issued, more than 30,000 copies of the previous editions having been sold. To the present edition much new valuable material has been added, which will be helpful to those interested in the art of welding. In a work of this kind it is but fair to state that the author is indebted for suggestions and ideas to many individuals and writers. P. F. Willis. November, 1922. DEDICATION This work is respectfully dedicated to Mr. George L. Walker, a gentleman with whom the author worked side by- side in the infant days of welding, and for whom, by reason of his patience, carefulness, skill and judgment a high regard and esteem was created. CONTENTS CHAPTER I Acetylene History. Generation. Properties. Sizes and Cost of Tanks. Hazards in Connection with Acetylene. Dis- advantages of Compressed and Generated Gas. . . .7-26 CHAPTER II Oxygen Properties. Various Methods of Manufacture with Description of Each Process such as: Sodium Peroxide, Chlorate, Brin's or Barium Oxide, La- voisite, Electrolysis of Water, Liquid Air. Effect of Temperature on Compressed Gas. How to De- termine Contents of Cylinder Under Pressure, in- cluding Table for Same. Effect of Impurities in Gas 27-42 CHAPTER III Welding and Cutting Torch Requisites for Welding Torch. Difficulties in Manu- facture. Flash-backs. Waste of Oxygen. Differ- ent Types of Torches with Opinions of Authorities. Chemical Changes Taking Place in Oxy-Acetylene Flame. Objections to Some Torches. Operation of Cutting Torch. Theoretical Amount of Oxygen Necessary for Cutting. Effect on the Steel 43-64 CHAPTER IV Apparatus and Installation Regulators and Reducers. Construction and Care. Gages. Goggles. Acetylene Generator. Important ConsiHpvqtions. Portable Generators. Directions vi CONTENTS for Connecting up Tank or Portable Welding Out- fit. Installation of Generator Plant 65-84 CHAPTER V Preparing for Welding Necessary Tools for Repair Welding. Cleaning the Metal. Beveling. Pre-Heating Methods and De- vices. Artificial and Natural Gas. Kerosene and Gasoline Torches. Furnaces for Pre-Heating. Ex- pansion and Contraction of Metals. Melting Points of Metals. Regulation of Flame. Execution of a Weld 85-103 CHAPTER VI Welding of Different Metals Welding of Cast Iron, Steel, Brass or Bronze, Copper, Aluminum. Malleable Iron and Lead Burning. 104-121 CHAPTER VII Welding of Sheet Metal and Pipe Welding of Sheet Iron. Welding of Connections. Ma- chine Welding of Sheet Metal. Welding of Gas, Ammonia, Air, Steam, and Water Pipes and Mains. Tests and Costs of Same. Illustrations of Weld- ing 122-140 CHAPTER VIII Boiler Welding Fire Box Welded to a Height of Three Feet. All Welded Fire Box. All Welded Door and Flue Sheets. Welding Less than Full Door Sheets. Welding of a Simple Crack, Patch, Cracks in the Throat Sheet of Boiler, Cracks in Side Sheets, Patches in Fire Sheets. Welding of Door Collars, Door Holes, Caulking Edge. Welding Sheet to Mud-ring. Welding Locomotive Flues 141-177 CHAPTER IX Welding of Various Pieces Welding of Automobile Cylinder, Lug on Manifold. Repairing Scored Cylinder. Welding Arm of Alumi- CONTENTS vii num Crank Case, Crack in Aluminum Oil Pan, Fly- Wheel, Large Cylinders, Crank Shaft, Automobile Frames. Tempering. Finishing a Weld While Hot with a File. Clamps for Holding Sheet Metal Edges in Alignment. Welding Horse. Welding Dies, High Carbon Tool Steel to Low Carbon, Manganese Steel. Aluminum Soldering. Use of Oxygen for Removing Carbon. Cost Card. Receipt Ticket. Description of Welded Castings 178-217 CHAPTER X Welding Symbols 218-225 CHAPTER XI Electric Welding Spot, Butt and Arc Welding. Direct and Alternating Current Machines. Kinds of Electrodes. Specifica- tions for Electrode Wire. Protection for The Oper- ator. Information Required of Prospective User. Length of Arc. Preparation of Metal for Welding. Expansion and Contraction. Instructions for Be- ginners. Tables and Useful Information 226-248 FIRST EDITION Published November, 1916. SECOND EDITION Published December, 1917 THIRD EDITION Published November, 1918 FOURTH EDITION Published December, 1919 FIFTH EDITION Published September, 1920 SIXTH EDITION Published November, 1922 OX Y ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING CHAPTER I ACETYLENE. History — Generation — Properties — Sizes and Cost of Tanks — Hazards in Connection with Acetylene — Disadvantages of Compressed and Generated Gas. What is Acetylene? A hydro carbon gas composed of equal volumes of carbon and hydrogen. By weight it is composed of 93% carbon and 7% hydrogen. When was it discovered? In 1836 by Davy, an English chemist, and Berzelius, a Swiss chemist. From ivhat is Acetylene obtained? From calcium carbide. What is Calcium Carbide? It is a substance, hard like rock, of a grayish color, and possessing a slight crys- talline structure. When ivas it discovered? In 1892 by an American chemist, named Willson, at Spray, N. C. 7 8 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting How is it manufactured? Lime and coke in the proportion of 56 parts by weight of the former to 36 parts of the latter are fused or melted together in an electric furnace. It is cooled and crushed and is then assorted as to size by means of screens. How is Acetylene obtained from Calcium Carbide? . When calcium carbide and water are brought together, acetylene is formed. This is accomplished as follows : The calcium in the calcium carbide combines with some of the oxygen in the water and forms first calcium oxide or quick lime, and then calcium hydroxide (slacked lime). The carbon in the calci- um carbide combines wth some hydro- gen from the water to form acetylene, the chemical symbol of which is C 2 H 2 . Is there more than one method of bringing the Carbide and water together? Yes, there are three methods. Name them. First, water to carbide; second, reces- sion ; third, carbide to water. Explain each method. The " water to carbide" method consists in allowing water, drop by drop, to fall upon a body of carbide. This was the Acetylene 9 earliest method of generating acetylene and its adoption was due to the fact that it was easier to control the flow of water than it was the feeding of the carbide; especially as the carbide first put on the market was not uniform as to size. The "recession" method consists in al- lowing water to rise, coming in contact with either a mass of carbide or successive lay- ers of carbide. The "carbide to water" method consists in feeding the carbide in small amounts into a large volume of water. Which is the best? The ' i carbide to water. ' ' Why? After generation is impossible and purer gas is produced. Again when carbide and water are brought together heat is evolved. Now this heat can be considerable, some- times reaching 1000° F., or it can be negli- gible, depending entirely upon the amount of water. If there is a sufficient amount of water both the carbide and the water will be kept cool. It has been found that if for each pound of carbide, one gallon of water is supplied, the temperature is kept down — in fact, cannot possibly exceed 212° F., and in practice never goes that high. The "carbide to water" method is 10 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting the only one that guarantees a sufficient amount of water to assure cool generation. What effect does heat have on Acetylene during generation? If the heat should rise high enough, what chemists term polymerization takes place. By this is meant that the acetylene under- goes a change and is transformed into other gases, such as benzol, styrolene, etc. These latter gases require for their com- bustion a different amount of oxygen than does acetylene, and their flame temperature is not so high. A temperature that would produce pol- ymerization, would also be hazardous, and if there was any mixture of air with the gas, an explosion would likely result. Is it possible to explode Acetylene? Yes. How? First, when mixed with air in the proper proportions — 3% to 58% of acetylene to the rest air — and in the presence of a spark or flame. Second, at a pressure of 24 pounds it is possible for it to explode without any air mixture, in the presence of spark or flame. Third, when compressed in an ordinary container to 30 pounds or more it may ex- Acetylene 11 plode without any air mixture and without a spark or flame. Neither concussion or shock are necessary to produce the explo- sion. An explosion of this character is generally attributed to decomposition, although some claim that it is due to im- purities in the carbide, such as sulphur and phosphorus forming combinations which ignite spontaneously. Is it possible to compress Acetylene to 25 pounds or higher safely? Yes. How? The container is first filled with a porous substance, such as asbestos cement. It is then further filled with an inflammable liquid called acetone. This liquid, acetone, has been found to possess the peculiar quality of dissolving or absorbing 25 times its volume of acetylene at atmospheric pressure and continues to do this for each atmosphere of pressure (15 pounds) it is put under. While the asbestos cement apparently fills the tank, in reality, on account of its porosity, only 20% of the space in the tank is occupied by the asbestos ; acetone to the amount of about 43% of the capacity of the tank is then added. This leaves about 37% of the contents of the tank for acety- 12 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting lene as it is taken up or dissolved by the acetone. This absorbing or dissolving qual- ity of the acetone is so remarkable that it may be well to compare the amount of acetylene that a tank of one cubic foot capacity would contain under fifteen at- Fiff. 1 Commercial Acetylene Co.'s Tank mospheres (225 pounds) and the amount the same size tank will contain under the same pressure but with the gas dissolved. In the first instance there will be approxi- Acetylene 13 mately fifteen cubic feet of gas. We sim- ply multiply the cubic contents (one foot) by the number of atmospheres (fifteen). In the latter, however, there will be about 161 cubic feet, or roughly estimated at about ten times as much gas as in the first tank. This is obtained as follows : The amount of acetone is about 43% of the contents of the tank whose capacity was assumed to be one cubic foot. There- fore, the acetone occupies .43 of a cubic foot. At atmospheric pressure the ace- tone dissolves twenty-five times its volume of acetylene, so that in this case at zero gauge pressure there is in the tank .43x25 or 10.75 cubic feet of acetylene and at 225 pounds pressure there will be 10.75x15 or 161 cubic feet. Does Acetylene exercise a toxic action if air containing a large proportion of it is breathed? The best authorities agree that acetylene itself possesses very small poisonous qual- ities, so that the danger of breathing it is practically nil. This is because it is almost free of carbon monoxide. How much Acetylene will a pound of car- bide produce when made with a gen- erator? Conservatively 4% cubic feet for the 14 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting lump size and 4% cubic feet for the very small size. One carbide manufacturer claims five cubic feet and another 4.8 cubic feet, but iheir figures cannot be obtained. What is the present price of carbide? Five and three-quarter cents without a contract; from 5 to 4.8 cents per pound with a contract, according to consumption. What is the cost of Acetylene per cubic foot made from, a generator at above prices for carbide? Not to exceed l 1 ^ cents per cubic foot or $1.25 per 100 cubic feet. What is the price of dissolved or com- pressed Acetylene? From $2.45 per 100 cubic feet to large users to $3.00 per 100 cubic feet to the average consumer plus freight on the full tank and on the empty tank returned. Taking into consideration the freight, what is the average cost of "tanked" Acetylene? Four cents per cubic foot. What size or capacity of Acetylene tank shoidd be used for welding? ' Jnder no circumstances should a tank of less capacity than 100 cubic feet be used. A tank should not be discharged at a faster Acetylene 15 rate than one-seventh of its capacity per hour. This means that a welding tip should not be used on a 100-cubic foot tank if it consumes more than 15 cubic feet per hour. The use of small automobile tanks should be discouraged, only the very lightest work can be done and the cost of the gas is con- siderably more than it is when using the regular welding cylinder. When would you advise the use of "tanked" Acetylene? When only occasional welding or cutting is done or where portability is desired. When ivould you advise the use of a gen- erator? When stationary welding or cutting is done, using about 200 cubic feet of acety- lene or more per week. What is the saving over tanked Acetylene per 100 cubic feet? The difference between $1.25 for gener- ator gas and $4.00 for tanked gas, or $2.75. Has the tanked gas any disadvantages? Yes. Name them. (1) Inconvenience and delay in shipping tanks. 16 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting (2) No assurance that you receive full amount of gas in tank. (3) Some gas always remains in the tank. (4) The solvent (acetone) mixes with the acetylene and produces a bad weld. (5) Certain make of tank not your prop- erty. (6) Likelihood of leakage from tank greater than from generator on account of higher pressure. (7) Lack of sufficient gas to finish a job. (8) Hazard. Explain each of the above. INCONVENIENCE AND DELAY IN SHIPPING TANKS The inconvenience and delay incident to shipping tanked acetylene is a serious problem. Delays in shipment will neces- sarily occur, and they usually occur when the welding plant is most needed. But, with the very best possible time, it is usu- ally two or three days before a full tank is received. One of the important values of a welding plant is readiness to serve. Any- one familiar wth custom welding realizes that 75% of the repair work must be gotten out in a hurry. It is rush work, and your value to the customer increases when you are in a position to at all times take care of the work promptly. Acetylene 17 NO ASSURANCE THAT YOU RECEIVE FULL AMOUNT OF GAS IN TANK With tanked acetylene you must depend upon the correctness of the companies re- charging the cylinders. A gauge on the tank will only indicate the pressure of the gas — not the quantity of gas. No one but the recharging people can tell how much gas is in a cylinder as the amount of gas depends not only upon the size of tank and the pressure, but also upon the quantity and quality of the solvent — acetone — in the tank. It takes a smart man that can look through a steel tank and tell haw much acetone is on the inside, and there is no way for the customer to measure it. No one questions the honesty of any of the firms engaged in the filling of acetylene tanks, but their employees are human ; they are likely to make mistakes; and as a matter of fact they do sometimes make mistakes. SOME GAS ALWAYS REMAINS IN THE TANK • With tanked gas you never get all the gas out of the tank. A quite considerable amount of gas remains and is shipped back to the recharging station to be resold to you in vour next tank. 18 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting THE SOLVENT ( ACETONE ) MIXES WITH THE ACETYLENE AND PRODUCES A BAD WELD When tanked acetylene is used, the gas from a full tank will produce an excellent weld, but as the pressure and the amount of gas in the tank is lowered, the acetone or solvent comes off also, adulterating the acetylene, contaminating it with a hydro- carbon of less heat units and consequently lowering the temperature of the name. This acetone also contains impurities which af- fect the strength of the weld. That the acetone is carried off and burned with the acetylene is evidenced by the fact that one of the refilling companies at one time made a charge of 2c per ounce for whatever loss of acetone was shown when the tank was returned. A CERTAIN MAKE OF TANK NOT YOUR PROPERTY Acetylene tanks are simply loaned by one of the different concerns compressing acetylene* under a "Service Agreement," for which they charge, and you are com- pelled by the agreement to get your re- charges from them. You do not own the tank. It is not even leased to you. You simply pay a certain amount for the privi- lege of buying their gas and you cannot go Acetylene 19 into the open market and buy your acety- lene. LIKELIHOOD OF LEAKAGE FROM TANK GREATER THAN FROM GENERATOR ON ACCOUNT OF HIGH PRESSURE The pressure of the gas in the high pres- sure generator cannot exceed 15 pounds. The pressure of the gas in an acetylene tank is at least 225 pounds, and maybe more. It must be obvious that the likeli- hood of leakage is greater under the higher pressure. LACK OF SUFFICIENT GAS TO FINISH A JOB It often occurs that a welding job comes in which will take a fair amount of gas. Perhaps a part of the gas in your tank has been used on other work and not enough remains to do this particular job. What are you going to do? You can use what gas is in the tank to partially weld the cast- ing, then send your empty tank in and write or wire for another full one. This means th^t the casting cools down and you have lost your heat, which is expensive ; be- sides, distortion often occurs on account of this cooling when only partially welded. You could send the partially full tank back at once and order a full tank, but this means loss of gas in the tank returned. 20 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting HAZAKD Any power-producing agency has inher- ent hazards, and acetylene is no exception. A generator of good design and workman- ship possesses no greater hazards than a compressed or dissolved acetylene tank. Some tanks have exploded; so have some generators ; so that any claims to the con- trary, it is a stand-off between the two on the question of hazard. What are the disadvantages of a gen- erator? First, there is a slight variance in pres- sure of the gas between locking and releas- ing the motor. This necessitates occasional adjustment of the flame by means of the torch cocks. This is largely overcome by means of a special regulator. Second, recharging the generator and removal of sludge requires about twenty minutes. The indolent may offer this as an objection. Third, cost of generator is much more than cost of a tank. Fourth, some precautions must be taken to prevent freezing in winter. Fifth, generators should not be moved when rilled with carbide, and used for port- able work. Acetylene 21 Sixth, generator house should be pro- vided, which necessitates an expense. What fuel gas is best adapted for welding? Acetylene. Why? The temperature of an acetylene flame when burned with oxygen is in excess of 6300° F. This is a temperature exceeding by over 2000° F. its nearest rival, hydro- gen. It is the flame temperature that counts in welding and not the B. T. XL's of a gas. What are some of the gases that have at various tunes tried to compete with Acetylene? Hydrogen, Blau gas, Wolf gas, Thermo- lene, Oxy-carbo, etc. What are the objections to the above? First, it is impossible to do heavy weld- ing unless these gases are enriched with acetylene. Second, usually, the cost of doing such work as is practical, is more than it would cost using acetylene when all factors, such as labor, are considered. Why does Acetylene, when burned with oxygen, give us the hottest fuel flame known? Broadly speaking, the gas which has the 22 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting greatest amount of carbon and the least amount of hydrogen will give us the hot- test flame. Acetylene contains by weight 93% carbon, almost approaching gaseous carbon. There is another property which acetylene possesses, which assists in in- creasing the flame temperature, and it is the fact that it is an endothermic com- pound. What is meant by an Endothermic Com- pound? It is a compound whose formation from elementary substances is attended with -ab- sorption of heat. The electric furnace has made the manufacture of carbide practi- cable. Authorities differ as to whether cal- cium carbide, when formed, absorbs or lib- erates heat, but they are agreed that when carbide and water are brought together slacked lime and acetylene are formed and that the former liberates heat, while the acetylene absorbs heat. When the acety- lene is burned, this absorbed or stored-up heat is liberated, and helps to increase the flame temperature. What is it that limits the temperature of the Oxy-Acetylene flame? The dissociation point of carbon mon- oxide— (CO.). Acetylene 23 What is meant by the dissociation point of an inflammable gas? It is the temperature at which the gas refuses to unite with oxygen. At what pressure does Acetylene liquefy? At 26 Atmospheres (282 lbs.)— At 32 Degrees F. At 40 Atmospheres (588 lbs.) — At 70 Degrees F. What is Copper Acetylide? It is a compound which is formed when acetylene is exposed for a considerable time to copper. What properties, if any, does this com- pound possess? It is explosive. What lesson do we learn from this? That under no condition should copper be used when it will come in contact with acetylene. What is the density or specific gravity of Acetylene? Assuming air to be unity or 1, it is .91 for acetylene. It is therefore slightly lighter than air. Does Acetylene, ivhen burned, give off any Ultra Violet Rays? It does not, so that no harm can come to the eyes from this score. However, it must be remembered that any bright light will in time tire and weaken the eyes so that 24 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting it is strongly recommended that smoked glasses be worn. What is the weight of a cubic foot of Acety- lene? .069 of a pound. How many cubic feet of Acetylene does it take to weigh a pound? 14.5 cubic feet. What is the ignition temperature of a mix- ture of Acetylene and air? About 805 °F. What concerns manufacture Carbide? American Carbolite Company. Canadian Carbide Company. Union Carbide Company. Gas Tank Products Company. What companies furnish compressed Acetylene? Commercial Acetylene Weldiiig Com- pany. Prest-O-Lite Company. Searchlight Company. What is the policy of each company with reference to furnishing the gas? The Commercial Acetylene Company sel- dom sell any of their tanks. They usually loan them to responsible people without charge. They furnish tanks having a ca- Acetylene 25 pacity of 125 cubic feet, 250 cubic feet and 500 cubic feet. The Prest-O-Lite Company manufac- tures two sizes of tanks, one of which con- tains practically 100 cubic feet of gas and the other 300 cubic feet. They charge un- der a service agreement $37.50 for the small size, and $75.00 for the large size tank. The Searchlight people charge $37.50 for the small tank, and $75.00 for the large tank. Each of these companies will refill only their own tanks. Which compressed Acetylene companies offer the best propostion to the user? All three companies now loan their tanks if a contract is obtained in which the con- sumer agrees to purchase the gas for one year, return the tank in good condition, and to pay a rental charge of usually 25 cents per week if the tank is kept longer than 90 days. About 20% more is charged for the gas in * 'loaned' ' tanks than is charged where the tanks are owned by the user. The prices charged for the gas is practi- cally the same by each company, so that the only thing to consider in most cases is service and freight charges. Are there any hazards in connection with Acetylene? There are some who believe in minimiz- 26 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting ing the hazards in connection with acety- lene. The writer does not belong to that school. Any sensible man realizes that any power-producing agency, whether it be steam, electricity, gasoline or acetylene holds within itself possibilities for good or evil. It would seem that one way of avoid- ing accidents with acetylene is to apprise and thoroughly familiarize one's self with its properties. "When properly handled, acetylene will unite in a molten mass, a 6x6 inch iron beam, and the same power which accomplishes this wonder of yesterday will play havoc if one becomes careless and .re- fuses to follow a very few simple and com- mon sense rules. Millions upon millions of feet of acetylene, both tanked and gen- erated, are used yearly with but a trifling number of accidents as compared with the installations. A few acetylene tanks and generators have exploded. Where the explosion oc- curred inside the generator, it was seldom of a serious character. Where consider- able damage results it is usually caused by the gas leaking out in considerable quanti- ties in the room from the tank or the gen- erator and mixing with the air. Never under any circumstances try to find a leak with a lighted match. Elsewhere we will advise more fully as to the care that should be observed when working with acetylene. CHAPTER II OXYGEN. Properties — Various Methods of Manufacture, with De- scription of Each Process, such as: Sodium Perox- ide, Chlorate, Brin's or Barium Oxide, Lavoisite, Electrolysis of Water, Liquid Air— Effect of Tem- perature on Compressed Gas — How to Determine Contents of Cylinder under Pressure, Including Table for Same Effect of Impurities in Gas. ■What is Oxygen? Oxygen is an element. It is the most abundant and most widely distributed of all the elements, constituting by weight more than one-fifth of the air, and eight- ninths of all the water on the gloue. It enters largely into the solid constituents of the earth's crust, and is found in the tis- sues and fluids of all forms of animal and vegetable life. Oxygen is a colorless, tasteless gas and is essential to the support of all animal life. What is the density or specific gravity of Oxygen? Assuming air to be unity or 1, it is 1.105 for oxygen. It is, therefore, slightly heav- ier than air. How many cubic feet of Oxygen does it take to make a pound? 11,209 cubic feet. 27 28 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting What does a cubic foot of Oxygen weigh? .08921 of a pound or 100 cubic feet weighs 8.92 pounds. What are some of the various methods of making or procuring Oxygen? (1) Eed oxide of mercury. (2) Sodium peroxide. (3) Chlorate process, with either potas- sium chlorate or sodium chlorate. (4) Brin's process or the use of barium oxide. (5) Lavoisite process. (6) Electrolysis of water. (7) Liquid Air. Describe each? Oxygen can be obtained by heating red oxide of mercury. This is purely a lab- oratory experiment, not being commer- cially practical. Its only interest lies in the fact that this method was the first one employed to produce oxygen. SODIUM PEROXIDE PROCESS Sodium peroxide is a yellow solid which when brought in contact with water liber- ates oxygen. This process is extremely simple. Each pound of sodium peroxide will produce two cubic feet of oxygen of high purity. The market price of the chemical is high so that the cost of oxygen by this method is excessive, ranging from about 12 to 20 cents per cubic foot. This Oxygen 29 method is employed to some extent in pro- curing oxygen for medicinal purposes, used mainly in conjunction with nitrous oxide (laughing gas) as an anaesthetic. CHLORATE PROCESS Potassium chlorate when heated alone to a temperature of about 350° F. gives off oxygen. It has been found that if man- ganese dioxide is mixed with the potas- sium chlorate in the proportion of about 100 pounds of potassium chlorate to 14 pounds of the manganese that it does not require so much heat to liberate the oxy- gen — only about 200° F., so that in prac- tice this is usually done. If sodium chlor- ate is used, the amount of manganese is increased somewhat. Potassium chlorate will give off about five cubic feet of oxygen per pound and the sodium chlorate will produce about 12% more oxygen per pound. Sodium chlorate is not so stable a compound as potassium chlorate, and the latter chemical was in much greater favor than the former. At the prevailing prices of these chemi- cals before the European War, the gas could be made for about 2 cents per cubic foot, and of a purity ranging from 85% to 98%, depending entirely upon the method and care exercised in purifying. There were two methods of making oxy- gen by this process. One consisted in gen- 30 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting erating the gas under its own pressure and was designated by the trade as a "Self- Compressing ' ' type. The gas made by this method was of low purity and was at- tended by hazards of so serious a charac- ter that the better class of manufacturers tried to discourage its use. The other method consisted of heating the chemicals in a sealed retort, allowing the gas to pass through several scrubbers and purifiers, collecting in a gas holder and then com- pressing into tanks. The present price of chemicals makes this method impractical. or BAKIUM OXIDE PKOCESS In this method of making oxygen, barium oxide is used and the gas is produced by the alternate formation of barium dioxide and its decomposition into barium oxide. The installation of a plant requires con- siderable space and special heating re- quirements are necessary so as to produce a working temperature of 800° F. The process consists in heating barium oxide and directing upon it a blast of air, when it takes up oxygen from the air and forms barium dioxide (Ba0 2 ). The temperature is then raised and the barium dioxide de- composes into barium oxide and oxygen. The process is theoretically simple, but in Oxygen 31 practice presents certain serious difficul- ties. At one time several of these plants were operating in this country, but they were not a commercial success and were abandonee 1 LAVOISITE PROCESS This is a trade name, lavoisite being a chlorine product. The process consists in bringing together the chemical and water that has been heated to about 180° F., when oxygen is evolved. One pound of lavoisite and one-half pound of water will produce one cubic foot of oxygen of excellent pur- ity. The cost is about the same as the chlorate process. ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER PROCESS Oxygen and hydrogen are liberated when a suitable electric current is passed through water whose conductivity has been increased by the addition of either an acid or an alkali. From the positive pole will pass oxygen and from the negative pole will pass hydrogen. There will be gener- ated 2 cubic feet of hydrogen for each 1 cubic foot of oxygen. The vessel in which the electrolytic action takes place is called a cell. This cell is divided or separated into two chambers by means of a partition — usually of pure asbestos cloth. The ob- ject of this partition is to keep the two gases — hydrogen and oxygen — from mix- 32 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting ing, so that it is of the highest importance that these asbestos diaphragms or parti- tions be of the very best of material in order that the danger from rapture shall be minimized. Should the hydrogen and the oxygen be allowed to mix, it would be attended by very grave danger, as even so low a mixture as 5% hydrogen and the re- mainder of oxygen or vice versa will ex- plode. Oxygen made by this process is usually of an excellent quality; gas 98% pure should be obtained direct from the cells and if purified will be in excess of 99% pure. Various types of cells are offered the public. The claims of the manufacturers as to the efficiency range anywhere from 3 to 3.8 cubic feet of oxygen and twice that amount of hydrogen per kilowatt hour. Probably 3% cubic feet of oxygen would be a conservative figure. Assuming that an electric current rate of one cent per K. W. H. was obtained, 100 cubic feet of oxy- gen would cost 28 cents. To this must be added interest on investment, depreciation, labor, overhead and cost of compressing into tanks. This is on the assumption that the hydrogen is not marketable. However, in recent years there has been created a quite considerable demand on the part of soap and cottonseed lard manufacturers Oxygen 33 for hydrogen, for what is known as "oil- hardening." Where the hydrogen can be utilized, this effects a very material saving in the cost of the oxygen and under these conditions the electrolytic process will be a strong competitor with any process. A number of industrial concerns throughout the country have installed small electro- lytic plants, primarily to obtain hydrogen. This gives them as a by-product a very limited amount of oxygen and some are at- tempting to market it. We would strongly advise against the use of this gas and un- hesitatingly recommend that the customer purchase oxygen only from those concerns who are engaged primarily in the oxygen business, for the reason that the concern whose principal business is the manufac- ture and sale of oxygen is not only much more apt to appreciate the necessity for pure gas, but as his reputation is at stake will undoubtedly more frequently test his gas for impurities than the concern who is m the business merely as a side-issue. LIQUID AIE PEOCESS Obtaining oxygen by the liquid air method is a refrigeration process By compressing the air and then allowing it to expand through a small opening a tem- perature sufficiently low to liquefy the air is obtained. This temperature is 374° be- 34 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting low zero F. at atmospheric pressure — a temperature so cold that it is almost im- possible to realize it. The nitrogen is al- lowed to evaporate, leaving liquid oxygen behind. The liquid oxygen is in turn al- lowed to gasify and is led to suitable gas holders, from which it is compressed into steel drums or tanks. The perfection of this process is due very largely to the ef- forts of Linde, Claude and Hildebrandt. It is possible to obtain oxygen of a high purity by this process. About 20% is added to the manufacturing cost by in- creasing the purity from 92% to 97%, and further increasing the purity to 99% en- tails an additional 10% to the manufactur- ing cost. From this it will be readily seen that there is always the temptation during exceedingly busy times to decrease the pur- ity of the gas. The impurity in liquid air oxygen is nitrogen, an inert gas. The cost of oxygen by this process depends upon the size of the installation and whether the plant is operated continuously. Claude, in his work on Liquid Air, Oxygen and Nitro- gen, states that oxygen can be made "for 2 centimes the cubic meter. ' ' A centime is equivalent to one-fifth of a cent and a cubic meter is equal to 35.3 cubic feet, so that this amount of gas would cost two-fifths of a cent, or 100 cubic feet of gas would cost one and one-fifth cents. If these figures Oxygen 35 are correct, he did not take into considera- tion, depreciation, labor, overhead, etc. What is the present market price of Oxy- gen? From I14 cents per cubic foot, to very large users, to 1% cents per cubic foot to small users. In what kind of containers is Oxygen fur- nished? In steel drums in which the gas is com- pressed to about 1800 pounds. When a gas is compressed to so high a pressure, is there not danger of leak- age at the tank valve? Yes. The purchaser should insist on valves that will open and close easily and which will not leak around or through the packing gland regardless as to the position of the valve stem. What is the policy of the various Oxygen Companies with reference to furnish- ing the steel drums? To responsible parties they will furnish the tanks free for a period of 30 days, but they retain the right to make a rental charge of a small amount for the tank if it is not returned within the 30 days. What capacity tanks are usually fur- nished? 100 cubic feet, 150 cubic feet, 200 cubic feet and 250 cubic feet. 36 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Does the temperature of the air affect the pressure in the tank? Yes. How? As the temperature increases the pres- sure of the gas in the tank increases on ac- count of it expanding and as the tempera- ture decreases, the pressure drops. Give table showing the different pressures at various temperatures? Table of pressures per degree for tanks carrying 1800 lbs. at 68 degrees F. Pressure in pounds per degree at any temperature from zero "F," to 100 degrees above zero "F." inclusive, with the volume remaining con- stant at all times. Temp. Press. Temp. Press. Temp. Press. Temp. Press . Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Deg. Per. Deg. Per. Deg. Per. Deg. Per. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg 1568 26 1657 51 1743 76 1828 1 1572 27 1660 52 1746 77 1831 2 1575 28 1664 53 1749 78 1835 3 1579 29 1667 54 1753 79 1838 4 1582 30 1671 55 1756 80 1842 5 1585 31 1674 56 1760 81 1845 6 1589 32 1678 57 1763 82 1848 7 1592 33 1681 58 1766 83 1852 8 1596 34 1684 59 1770 84 1855 9 1599 35 1688 60 1773 85 1859 10 1603 36 1691 61 1777 86 1862 11 1606 37 1695 62 1780 87 1865 12 1609 38 1698 63 1784 88 1869 13 1613 39 1701 64 1787 89 1872 14 1616 40 1705 65 1790 90 1876 15 1620 41 1708 66 1794 91 1879 16 1623 42 1712 67 1797 92 1883 17 1626 43 1715 68 1800 93 1886 18 1630 44 1719 69 1803 94 1889 19 1633 45 1722 70 1807 95 1893 20 1637 46 1725 71 1811 96 1895 21 1640 47 1729 72 1814 97 1900 22 1643 48 1732 73 1818 98 1903 23 1647 49 1736 74 1821 99 1906 24 1650 50 1739 75 1824 100 1910 25 1654 Oxygen 37 Of what value is this table? If the temperature to which the tank has been exposed is known, by referring to the column adjoining, there is shown the pres- sure that the tank should be under if it is what is known as a "full" tank. As an example, suppose the temperature was 32° F., and the tank had been exposed to this temperature sufficiently long for the gas to be cooled to the same point, then the pressure on the gauge would indicate 1678 pounds. On the other hand, assume that it was summer and the temperature 97° F. Then the pressure should be 1900 pounds. In both cases there was the same amount of gas in each tank, but the pressures dif- fered, due solely to the gas in the latter case expanding and in the former contract- ing as the temperature varied. We see from the table above that tempera- ture affects the pressure of gas. Is there any fixed rule for determining this? It has been found that for every change in temperature of one degree Fahrenheit there is a corresponding change in volume which amounts to 1/491 of the original vol- ume of the gas. If a gas occupying one cubic foot of space under a temperature of say, 70° F. would be raised to a tempera- ture of 71° F., the volume would be in- 38 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting creased 1/491 of one cubic foot. For each change in temperature of one degree Fah- renheit there is a corresponding change in pressure of approximately 3.42 pounds. What does this suggest? That some certain degree of tempera- ture should arbitrarily be chosen as a standard from which to measure oxygen. Has this been done? Yes. Most oxygen companies have taken 70° P., some 68° F. How do you determine the contents of a cylinder under pressure? It is first necessary to know the contents of the cylinder at atmospheric pressure This is determined by multiplying the area of the head by the length of the cylinder. The area of the head is obtained by multi- plying the square of the diameter by .7854 Thus a cylinder having a diameter of 2 feet and a length of 3 feet will have a cubical contents of— .7854x(2x2)x3 or 9.4248 cubic feet. After the cubic contents have been found it is only necessary to multiply this by the pressure in atmospheres to find the cubic contents under any pressure. What is an atmosphere? It is the pressure of the air at sea level and has been definitely determined to be Oxygen 39 14.7 pounds, but for rough calculation 15 pounds is generally used. If a cylinder has- a cubic contents of one cubic foot at atmospheric pressure (zero gauge pressure), what would be the cubic contents at 1800-pound pres- s\ The 1800-pound pressure is reduced to atmospheres by dividing by 15 pounds or one atmosphere. The 1800 pounds is found to be equivalent to 120 atmospheres. The cubic contents of the cylinder — 1 cubic foot — is then multiplied by 120, the number of atmospheres of pressure and a product of 120 cubic feet is obtained. In other words, there is enough gas in this tank which is under 1800 pounds pressure to fill a tank of 120 cubic feet capacity under only ordinary atmospheric pressure. In practice how is the amount of Oxygen in a tank determined? Most manufacturers of apparatus have a gauge marked on the dial to read both in pounds pressure and in cubic feet. It may be of interest to some to know the amount of gas in the different size of oxy- gen cylinders under varying pressures. We accordingly give a table herewith for tanks holding 100, 150 and 200 cubic feet of gas under 1750 pounds pressure. TABLE SHOWING CONTENTS IN CUBIC FEET OF DIF- FERENT SIZE TANKS AT VARIOUS PRESSURES Press, in Lbs. 100 cu. ft. 150 cu. ft. 200 cu. ft. per Tank Tank Tank Sq. In Cu. Ft Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. 15 .855 1.282 1.710 30 1.710 2.565 3.420 45 2.565 3.84 5.120 60 3.42 5.13 6.84 75 4.275 6.4 8.55 90 5.13 7.69 10.26 105 5.985 8.97 11.97 120 6.84 10.26 13.68 135 7.695 11.53 15.39 150 8.55 12.82 17.1 200 11.4 17.1 22.8 250 14.25 21.37 28.5 300 17.10 25.65 34.2 350 19.95 29.92 39.9 400 22.8 34.2 45.6 450 25.65 38.47 51.3 500 28.5 42.7 57. 550 31.65 47.47 63.3- 600 34.50 51.7 69. 650 37.35 56. 74.7 700 40.2 60.3 80.4 750 43.05 64.57 86.1 800 45.09 68.8 91.8 850 48.75 73.12 97.5 900 51.6 77.4 103.2 950 54.45 81.67 108.9 1000 57.5 86.2 115. 1050 60.35 90.52 120.7 1100 63.2 94.8 126.4 1150 66.05 99. 132.1 1200 . 68.9 103.3 137.8 1250 71.75 107.6 143.5 1300 74.60 111.9 149.2 1350 77.45 116.17 154.9 1400 80.20 120.3 160.4 1450 83.05 124.5 166.1 1500 85.9 128.8 171.8 1550 88.75 133.12 177.5 1600 91.5 137.2 183. 1650 94.35 141.5 188.7 1700 97.2 145.8 194.4 1750 100.05 150. 40 200.1 Oxygen 41 Does the purity of Oxygen have any in- fluence on welding or cutting? Any impurity in the oxygen will lower its efficiency. This is not so noticeable in welding if the impurity is not in excess of 2% or 3%, but in cutting it is claimed that even a 1% impurity is apparent not only as to the time and the quantity of oxygen necessary to do the work, but also the ap- pearance of the cut. Some years ago, Mr. J. M. Morehead in a paper read before the International Acetylene Association, presented the re- sults of test on the cutting power of oxy- gen of varying purity. His table follows : METAL CUT MILD STEEL PLATE %" THICK 6 O "3 o in a o o c u CD a CD -U .9o. 0>- B .a* Appearance of Cut a X £3 .5 S H O 5 ft-~ a o 3 § X . 0£ • £ kO O . 0) 2ft .3 a o 1 99.3 67K 272 7.5 48 1.3 Taken as Unit Very good 2 98. 67 H 285 9.1 51 1.6 23% 6% Good cut 3 97.6 67K 295 9.8 52 1.7 31% 8% Fair cut 4 96.8 68 M 363 11.8 64 2. 54% 33% Fair cut 5 96.4 67J4 360 11.3 64 2.1 61% 33% Ragged and cindery 6 95. 67^ 377 11.6 67 2 61% 39% Ragged, dirty and cindery 7 92. 67 y 2 551 16. 98 2> 108% 104% Very dirty and rough 8 87.3 67}4 660 16.2 117 2.9 123% 114% Blew back badly very rough 9 83.3 67 K 855 18.9 153 3.4 154% Very rough and ragged, not properly cut Subsequent to the publication of this table, the writer experimented along the 42 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting same lines. While we were never able to show so marked a difference in the cutting power between pure oxygen and that of lesser purity as indicated by Mr. Morehead, still the difference was such as to justify us in recommending that users of oxygen insist upon being furnished oxygen of a high degree of purity. CHAPTER III WELDING AND CUTTING TORCH. THE OXY- ACETYLENE WELDING TOKCH Requisites for Welding Torch — Difficulties in Manufac- ture — Flash-backs — Waste of Oxygen — Different Types of Torches with Opinions of Authorities — Chemical Changes Taking Place in Oxy-Acetylene Flame — Objections to Some Torches — Operation of Cutting Torch — Theoretical Amount of Oxygen Necessary for Cutting — Effect on the Steel. What are the requisites for a good welding torch? The oxy-acetylene welding torch should be simple of design, light, yet sufficiently strong in its construction and provide for the bringing together of oxygen and acety- Fig. 2 An Oxy-Acetylene Welding Torch lene and mixing these gases in the correct proportions. Of what does a welding torch consist? It consists of a handle through which pass two conduits or tubes, one of which is 43 44 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting for the acetylene and the other for the oxy- gen. These tubes are each provided with cocks or valves and they in turn are con- nected to the hose which carry the gases from their source of supply. The other ends of the two tubes are firmly connected with what is known as the torch head. It is either here or in the tip itself that the mixture is accomplished. Tips of various sizes are usually furnished. In the manufacture of a torch what have been the chief difficulties to overcome? First, the tendency to "flash-back," and second, a waste of oxygen. What produces a "flash-back"? Until quite recently, apparently the ac- cepted cause of a flash-back was allowing the velocity or speed of the mixed gases (acetylene and oxygen) to drop below the speed of propagation of the flame. This occurs when the pressure in the acetylene generator or tank becomes low. This may occur by reason of the partial obstruction of pipes or openings in the torch or tips. What is meant by "the velocity of propa- gation of the flame"? The speed with which a mixture of acety- lene and oxygen will travel when ignited. Welding and Cutting Torch 45 How fast does a mixture of Acetylene and Oxygen travel when lighted? Writers generally give this speed at about 330 feet per second, but the author believes it to be very much higher. What do we learn from this? If the generally accepted figure of 330 feet per second is correct, then the two gases when mixed should be under a pres- sure sufficient to insure a speed of over 330 feet per second when the mixture es- capes from the nozzle of the tip. Hoiv does this prevent a "flash-back"? If the gases passing out of the tip are traveling at a speed of, say, 350 feet per second, then if the flame can only travel 330 feet per second, it follows that the flame cannot pass into the torch. The unignited gases traveling faster will always push the flame away from the tip. What is meant by a "waste of Oxygen" in a torch? . Two and one-half volumes of oxygen are required to completely consume one vol- ume of acetylene. Theoretically one and one-half volumes of oxygen can be taken from the air and one volume from the tanked gas. So much for theory. It is al- most an axiom that one never obtains in 46 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting practice what they should in theory. The oxy-acetylene torch is no exception. In- stead of one cubic foot of tanked oxygen being consumed for each one cubic foot of acetylene, in practice the best torches use from 10 to 15% more oxygen than acety- lene and any increase in this amount means among other things a waste of oxygen. How are welding torches classified? According to the pressure of the acety- lene. How many and what are these classes in this country? There are two: 1st — Those using low pressure acetylene and 2nd — Those using what is called high pressure acetylene. What is meant by Low and High Pressure Acetylene? The terms are simply comparative. "Low pressure " torches are those de- signed primarily to use acetylene from a generator or gas-holder in which the pres- sure is about three inches of water column or practically two ounces. "High pressure'' torches are those de- signed to use acetylene at a pressure of from one pound in the smallest tips to as high as ten pounds in the largest tips. Welding and Cutting Torch 47 The acetylene is taken either from a tank in which the gas is compressed or from a special pressure acetylene generator. It will be seen that the highest pressure used — ten pounds — is really not a high pres- sure except as compared with the "low pressure" torch using about two ounces. There has been some objection to the use of the term "high pressure" for fear that the public might construe "high" pres- sure to mean possibly a dangerous pres- sure, and some have preferred to use the term i ' medium ' ' pressure. The terms high pressure and medium pressure as used in this country are synonymous. There is no more danger working under ten pounds pressure than there is under two ounces. How is a low pressure torch constructed? The acetylene under a few ounces of pressure flows into a compartment through which the oxygen is passing at a high ve- locity. The high speed of the oxygen draws or sucks in the acetylene. This is what is known as the injector principle. Hoiv is the high pressure torch con- structed? Both the acetylene and oxygen are un- der a few pounds pressure. These gases flow through openings accurately deter- mined into a mixing chamber from which they are conveved to the nozzle. 48 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Which type of torch is considered the bestf The high pressure. Why? Because numerous tests have proven that in practice, the high pressure torch of good design using the acetylene under a few pounds pressure consumes practically equal quantities of acetylene and oxygen, whereas the low pressure torch requires an excess of oxygen ranging from 10% to 30% more than high pressure torches, depend- ing upon the size of the tip. In a series of experiments conducted by the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois the proportion of acetylene at nor- mal regulation averaged 42% in the low pressure torch. This is a ratio of 1.38 volumes of oxygen to one of acetylene. A good high pressure torch will not use nearly so much oxygen. Are there any authorities whose tests prove the above assertion? Yes. Name a few of them and state briefly what they have to say? "For blow pipes of high pressure all the experiments agree in showing that the respective volumes of gas used are prac- tically equal, and this is obtained in prac- tice if the operators are competent. "The blow pipes for low pressure acety- Welding and Cutting Torch 49 lene are those with which the most difficulty has been obtained even in approaching the theoretical equal volumes. ' ' GraNJOX & RoSEMBERG. "In the high pressure type the adjust- ment of the flame is far easier with both gases under pressure ; once the adjustment is made right it remains so; a more inti- mate mixing of the gases is obtained than in the low pressure type, and this secures higher efficiency. This is of considerable importance, as it is found that with high pressure blow pipes considerably less acetylene and oxygen is required to do a fixed quantity of work than is necessary with the low pressure blow pipe." L. A. Groth. "In thiiMgh pressure type torch, both gases being under pressure maintain quite accurately their relative proportions when once properly adjusted. In the injector or low pressure torch, each change of tem- perature of the blow pipe or of the tip forming the outlet causes some variation in the size of the opening and consequently variations in the relative proportions of the issuing gases." Whittemore. "The low pressure torch is defective in that it very often does not carry enough acetylene through it to neutralize the ef- 50 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting feet of the oxygen, consequently the weld is oxidized. ' ' Richard Hart. "All burners or torches with oxygen under pressure and acetylene without pres- sure, i. e., injector type, become after a short time of working practically useless. "The radiating heat affects the oxygen which is under pressure, with great veloc- ity in a narrow space in a different way than its action upon the acetylene con- tained in a larger space and without pres- sure. "The result is a decomposition of the flame and a burning of the metal. ' ' This can only be prevented by a skillful welder. ' ' Dr. A. Hilpebt, Berlin. n\\ Mr. J. M. Morehead, an acetylenist of acknowledged ability, who for years has been connected with Union Carbide and its subsidiary companies as consulting engi- neer, in a paper read before the New York Railroad Club, had the following to say: "For the best results it is necessary to deliver the acetylene at the burner tip un- der considerable pressure. * "It is unquestionable that the best and most satisfactory results are effected if the acetylene, as well as the oxygen, is under independent pressure." Welding and Cutting Torch 51 In the low pressure torch, the acetylene is drawn into the tip by the suction of the oxygen operating by a device known as the Giffard Injector. In the injector type of torch the amount of acetylene drawn in varies as the square of the oxygen. What chemical changes take place when Oxygen and Acetylene are burned? _ It may be well to state that all combus- tion^ with the exception of some unimpor- tant laboratory experiments, is the result of combining carbon with oxygen, hydrogen with oxygen, or combinations of hydrogen and carbon, called hydro-carbons, with oxy- gen. As stated before, acetylene is a hy- dro-carbon. That is, it contains both hydrogen and carbon. The layman when watching the phenomenon of combustion is apt to consider its action as destroying something. Such is not the case. It is« simply a chemical change and invariably combustion finally produces carbonic acid gas or carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and water or water vapor (H 2 0). In order to properly explain the change or reaction that takes place it becomes necessary to use symbols, but in this case they are simple and we feel sure they willbe easily understood. It may be advisable to state here some of the symbols which we will use, together with what they stand for. 52 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting H is the symbol for hydrogen. C is the symbol for carbon. O is the symbol for oxygen. CO is the symbol for carbon monoxide. C0 2 is the symbol for carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas. H2O is the symbol for water or water vapor. C2H2 is the symbol for acetylene. Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ), as previously stated, is composed of equal parts of hydrogen and carbon and it unites with an equal volume of oxygen (O2) to form the first reaction. This reaction is indicated by the following equation : (a) C 2 H 2 +0 2 =2 CO+H2 In other words, 1 molecule, which is the technical expression for a unit volume of acetylene, unites with 1 molecule of oxygen. ^ (B)co+o=co 2 72C0V Fig. 3 Products of Acetylene and Oxygen Combustion. A unit volume of oxygen is expressed as 2 and is made up of two parts or atoms of oxygen. The primary stages of combustion as in- Welding and Cutting Torch 53 dicated in equation (a) result as indicated in production of 2 unit volumes of carbon monoxide (2 CO) and 1 unit volume of hydrogen (H 2 ) which, like oxygen, is made up of two parts or atoms. Now these products of the primary stage of combus- tion are formed in the small, bluish-white cone of the flame. This is shown in Fig. 3. This cone is the zone of greatest heat in the flame. The secondary or final stage of combustion takes place in the outer flame which not only surrounds the small white cone, but extends for quite a considerable distance beyond it. In this outer flame, the carbon monoxide (2 CO) and the hydro- gen (H 2 ) which were shown to have been produced in the small white cone are trans- formed by the addition of more oxygen to carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas (CO 2 ) and water vapor (H 2 0). This change would appear to be two-phase and may be better understood by the following equations : (b) H 2 +0=H 2 (c) CO + 0=C0 2 The changes that take place as shown by equations (b) and (c) do not and can- not occur in the small white cone of the flame, for the reason that a temperature of 6300° F. is produced at this point, and hydrogen and oxygen will not unite to form water vapor above 3600° F., and carbon 54 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting monoxide and oxygen will not unite to form carbon dioxide at a temperature higher than 2272° F. In other words, the hydro- gen and the carbon monoxide must get out- side and away from the small white cone where it is cooler before combustion can take place. Does the small white cone or the outer flame or both take oxygen from the tank or the air? This is a very important point and one which the conscientious manufacturer of welding apparatus has seriously studied. Upon its solution depends whether' the torch will be economical or expensive in the consumption of oxygen. Enough oxy- gen should be supplied from the tank for the combustion that takes place in the small white cone and it should stop there. The outer flame will take its oxygen from the air if it is permitted to do so. As the tanked gas costs money and the air is free and as the outer flame is not for welding, economy would dictate that as much air as possible be used. It is a notable fact that in the low pressure torch, the tendency is for the oxygen, by reason of its high pres- sure, to pass through the small white cone and supply the outer flame with a part of this element. This will always be an objection to the low pressure type of torch. Welding and Cutting Torch 55 What other objections does the low pres- sure torch possess? In a series of experiments carried out in France by the Union of Autogenous Soldering some six different torches using low pressure acetylene were tested to de- termine, first, just what the ratio of oxygen to acetylene was shortly after ignition, and second, whether the ratio was constant after the torch had been in operation for some time and had become thoroughly heated. The results of these tests are as follows : Consumption Consumption of oxygen Consumption of oxygen per hour after of acetylene per hr. shortly * torch became Torch per hour after ignition hot A 20 Cu. Ft. 28. Cu. Ft. 36. Cu. Ft. B • 6 Cu. Ft. 8.1 Cu. Ft. 10. Cu. Ft. C 12 Cu. Ft. 19.2 Cu. Ft. 22.8 Cu. Ft. D 16 Cu. Ft. 26.4 Cu. Ft. 30.4 Cu. Ft. E 20 Cu. Ft. 29. Cu. Ft. 31. Cu. Ft. F 26 Cu. Ft. 40.3 Cu. Ft. 45.5 Cu. Ft. It will be seen from this table that there was a considerable increase in the consump- tion of oxygen upon the torches becoming heated. This was found to occur only in torches using low pressure acetylene. The effect of expansion on the two gases op- erating at such a marked difference in pres- sures is not the same. 56 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting The claim has been made here that the high pressure torch is more efficient than the low pressure torch. Will all high pressure torches uphold this conten- tion? Not at all. There are inefficient high pressure torches due to poor design, or poor workmanship or both. In a series of tests with a number of torches in which the acetylene consumption was fixed at 10 cubic feet per hour it was found that the best result showed 12% more oxygen con- sumed than acetylene ; the worst 90% more oxygen than acetylene, while the average was 33 1-3%. The result of these tests should convince those who are using autogenous welding, or who are contemplating using it, that a few pieces of brass do not constitute an efficient welding torch. One would gather from the above that while the gas pressures used in the various high pressure torches were practically the same, the manner in which the gases mix must be different. That is correct. Some high pressure torches mix in the tip, some in the head and others in or near the handle of the torch. Which is the best type of high pressure torch? In the first place, practically all torches Welding and Cutting Torch 57 now have interchangeable tips. These tips vary in size, producing a small, medium or large flame, as may be desired. Inas- much as metal varies in thickness, this per- mits of producing a welding flame of suit- able size for the work at hand. The writer is strong in the belief that the torch which provides a separate and distinct mixture for each individual tip, will come the near- est to theoretical per- fection. To illustrate, Fig. 4 shows a cut of such a tip. "0" is the oxygen inlet. "A" "A" is an annular chamber in which there are a num- ber of holes drilled to meet the oxygen inlet. These openings form the acetylene inlets to a mixing chamber and nozzle "M." Between inlet "0" and inlets "A" "A" there is a flat seat or seal which prevents the gases from mixing until they reach their proper des- tination. As the mix- ing chamber and nozzle "M" varies for Fig. 4 A Welding Tip. 58 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting each tip, so the oxygen inlet "0" and the acetylene inlets "A" "A" vary accord- ingly, being proportioned to supply the correct amount of acetylene and oxygen under the proper pressures. It must be clear that the amount or volume of gas passing through an opening depends upon the pressure and the size of the opening. Now the pressure is con- trolled by the regulators, and with a tip of this design it is a simple matter to drill the proper openings, once they have been correctly determined. ' ' Most of those torches which mix in the handle are the least desirable. Theif de- sign is usually such as provides no means of accurately changing the volumes. THE CUTTING TORCH What metals can be cut with the torch? Wrought iron and steel'and some grades of cast-iron are the only metals which can be cut with oxygen. Why? Cutting with oxygen is simply a burning of the metal — a rapid oxidation. The slag formed is called oxide or iron oxide. This oxide has a much lower melting point than that of the metal and as the burning or cutting progresses the oxide is detached, leaving clean iron for the oxygen to at- tack. Welding and Cutting Torch 59 Copper, brass, aluminum and some cast- iron cannot be cut. These metals not only do not oxidize in the same degree as wrought iron or steel, but in addition the oxide which does form has a melting point equal or higher than that of the metal and this prevents it from being detached. Of what does the operation of cutting con- sist? It consists first in heating the wrought Fig. 5 An Oxy-Acetylene Cutting Torch iron or steel to redness and then directing upon the heated section a jet of oxygen escaping under a pressure which varies ac- cording to the thickness of the metal to be cut. In order to cut economically and to secure a clean, smooth cut, what is necessary? • That the torch be moved at a regular, even speed and that the speed shall ap- proach as near as possible the maximum rate at which the steel is attacked by the oxygen; that pure oxygen shall be used 60 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting and that the oxygen jet shall be held as close to the steel as possible. This last is very important. As a matter of fact, the author, after considerable experiment- ing, perfected a cutting torch in which the oxygen jet rests directly on the metal that is being cut. That this is correct in prac- tice is shown by the cut, which in the ma- jority of cases is as smooth as a shear cut. We believe that an explanation as to Fig. 6 the theory is convincing in that respect. Any gas when escaping from an orifice does not continue in a straight line, but com- mences to diverge almost at the instant it passes out of the opening. This is illus- trated by Fig. 6. Now it must be apparent that if the oxy- gen opening is say y 8 of an inch in diameter that the diameter of the oxygen jet must be about y 2 inch more or less when meas- ured a distance of one inch from the noz- zle, and this diameter decreases as we approach nearer the nozzle. The center or core of this oxygen jet is probably pure oxygen, but undoubtedly the outer fringe Welding and Cutting Torch 61 is contaminated with air which contains 80% nitrogen and it is this onter fringe that is responsible for the appearance of the edge of the cut — whether clean and sharp or rough and cindery. Elsewhere we have shown the effect of impure oxygen in cutting and if the results of these tests can be relied upon it bears out the above claims. Another advantage in resting the oxy- gen jet directly on the metal is that the cut is narrower, therefore less metal has been burned and the operation is more economical. Who were probably the first to use oxygen for cutting? Dr. Menne, a German, and Jottrand, a Belgian. Theoretically, how much oxygen is required to cut a given amount of steel? As previously stated, the steel when cut is transformed into iron oxide or more properly magnetic oxide of iron, the chem- ical symbol of which is Fe 3 4 . The atomic weight of iron is 55.9 and that of oxygen 16, so that the weights of the iron (Fe) and the oxygen (0) in the iron oxide are in the proportion of 168 to 64 or 21 to 8. The oxygen needed will then be 8/21 times the weight of the steel involved, or 38% 62 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting of the weight of the steel removed. As- suming that the kerf or cut has a thickness or width of %-inch, the weight of steel corresponding to each square inch of the face of the cut is .0352 pound, and 38% of this is .01338 pound, the weight of oxy- gen necessary to make the cut. A pound of oxygen at 32° F. occupies 11.2 cubic feet of space, and .01338 pound is found to be .15 cubic foot. Therefore, theoretically it requires .15 cubic foot of oxygen to cut a square inch of steel if the kerf is %-inch. wide. In practice tvhat amount of oxygen has been found necessary? Just about double the theoretical amount. It must be remembered that the above has considered only the amount of oxygen re- quired in the oxygen jet. To this must be added the oxygen and the acetylene con- sumed in the heating jets. Is there any detrimental change in material when cut with oxygen? No. On high carbon steels there is a slight softening of the metal for a distance of about %-inch from the cut, due to the annealing effect of the heat. Numerous tests have been made and all bear out the above assertion. The results of one such test may prove interesting. A steel plate Welding and Cutting Torch 63 %-inch thick and 14%-inch long was used. TEST NO 1. Original Stock Before TEST NO. 2. Cut After Cut Tensile 47,620 lbs. 50,110 lbs. Elastic Limit 31,640 lbs. 29,930 lbs. Elongation 33% 33% Eeduction of area 35% 42% Can a fuel gas other than acetylene be used in the pre-heating jet? Yes. Ordinary coal gas, Pintsch gas, hydrogen or any good hydro-carbon gas can be used. HYDROGEN FOR CUTTING m Hydrogen has been used quite exten- sively for cutting, and for extremely heavy work would seem to be better adapted than acetylene. The hydrogen flame is a long one, whereas the acetylene flame is short, and this is probably the reason why on very thick metal hydrogen would seem to be better adapted. The cost depends largely upon the price at which the two gases can be purchased, and when any comparison is made the market-price of each, together with the con- sumption, should be stated. It was the intention of the author to show the time and cost of cutting, using acetylene as the heating agent, as compared with hydrogen as the heating agent. It must be borne in mind that for any com- 64 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting parison to be of any value several con- ditions must be identical. They are as follows : First, The metal to be cut should be of the same thickness, quality and cleanliness. Second, The oxygen used should be of the same purity. Third, Operators should be of equal skill. Fourth, The apparatus should be of the best and in first-class condition. Fifth, The market price of Hydrogen and Acetylene should be stated. Sixth, The amount of gas used should be determined by a disinterested party. If these conditions are maintained there is no reason why figures should not be ob- tained reasonably correct. However, the author has before him what is claimed to be the result of competitive tests made by acetylene people and also by the advocates of hydrogen. The champions of acetylene emphatically state that it cost 60% more to cut with hydrogen, while the hydrogen manufacturers just as loudly proclaim that hydrogen will cut faster and 60% cheaper than acetylene. Obviously, both cannot be right and at present it would be a waste of time to burden the reader with such tests. If there is any distinct advantage in the use of either gas it will be only a short time until the public decides the matter. CHAPTER IV APPARATUS AXD IXSTALLATION". Regulators and Reducers — Construction and Care — Gages — Goggles — Acetylene Generator — Important Considerations — Portable Generators — Directions for Connecting Up Tank or Portable Welding Outfit — Installation of Generator Plant. The above names used to designate a part of the welding and cutting apparatus would appear to be used synonymously in this country. However, the function of a regulator would seem to be wider in its scope than that of a reducer. A good regu- lator is a very essential part of any welding or cutting equipment. What is the duty or f notion of a regu- lator? Primarily to reduce the pressure of the oxygen as it flows from the cylinder, and the pressure of the acetylene from its tank, or the generator as the case may be. Its secondary duty is to maintain the desired reduced pressure without fluctuating. Al- most any type of regulator will fulfill the first requirement, but only a high grade one combines both features. Hotv are regulators constructed? They all utilize the diaphragm principle. The diaphragm is either of metal or rub- 65 66 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting ber composition and attached to one side of the diaphragm is a seat which covers ATOZZL.E: S£/1T G/7S OUTLET £i *S/*££:7- • • ••••••••••••••••«»•«•• • Fig. 36 Boiler Side Sheet. welder can stop at any time without any trouble. There are two other methods used in welding in side sheets, which the writer does not like so well, but which are used by others with from fair to good results. 144 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting The first consists in dropping one end of the sheet about 2% of the running length. This was perhaps the first method used in this country and some still cling to it. If the sheet is dropped the correct dis- tance, it will pull up into place as the weld- ing progresses. The trouble, however, is due to the fact that there can be no fixed rule for determining how much the sheet should be dropped for each individual welder. The reason is that this distance which the sheet is dropped is determined to a very considerable extent by the speed of the welder, and no two men weld at the same speed. The other method consists in putting in the new sheet as though it were to be riv- eted. The stay bolts are put in except the two or three rows at the top near the line of the weld. Bolts are put through the outer sheet and forced against the new sheet. This shoves the new sheet away from the line of the weld. Another bolt is nearer the edge to be welded and it extends to the outer sheet. An assistant on the outside tightens this bolt and pulls the new sheet back into position. By doing this a corrugation or hump is produced in the new sheet just below the line of the weld. The welding can progress from either end, and as it does the bolts should be released, with the result that the con- Boiler Welding 145 traction pulls the corrugation out, leaving the sheet straight and in good shape. FIRE-BOX WELDED TO A HEIGHT OF THREE FEET As there is considerable leakage around the rivets which come in contact with the fire, it has been found desirable at times to weld the fire-box for a height of about three feet. In Fig. 37 we show such a fire-box with the door sheet fitted to be welded to the side sheets for a distance of about three feet above the mud-ring. In preparing the flue and door sheets, no rivet holes should be punched where the welding is to be done (Fig. 38). The beveling is to be done as for any other welding operation, with 146 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting about a 3/16" opening at the bottom of the "V". The fire-box should be assembled as usual, putting in the mud-ring bolts as usual and riveting the flue and door sheets together. Two or three rivets adjacent to weld No. 1, Fig. 37, should be left out. A No. 6 or No. 7 welding tip of any good medium pressure torch should be used in conjunction with either 3/16" or 14" Weld- ing Wire. - The first procedure is to make a "tack" or weld about 1" or 2" long at No. 1, then lift the torch and start welding at No. 2 2 3 g^ o o °o o o o Fig. 38 Preparing Door Sheet for Welding. in the direction of No. 1. When this is finished start at No. 3 and weld to No. 2 and continue in this manner until the seam is welded to top of mud-ring at No. 4. The weld should then be completed from the Boiler Welding 147 inside of the fire-box by welding from No. 5 to No. 4. When possible, the welding shonld be done from the water side and finished from the fire-box side, using another operator as Fig. 3L Preparing Flue Sheet and Door Sheet for All- Welded Fire-Box. indicated under instructions for an All Welded Fire-Box. Fig. 40 Flue Sheet Flanged at Crown Sheet to Take in a Row of Radial Stay Bolts. 148 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting ALL-WELDED FIRE-BOX In preparing for an all-welded fire-box the fine and door sheets should be flanged at least 2y 2 " deep, as shown in Fig. 39. It is desirable to flange the flue sheet at the crown sheet to take in a row of radial stay- bolts, as shown in Fig. 40. The fire-box should be fitted to the mud-ring in the usual manner, putting bolts on each side of the weld near the edge. Bevel each edge to an angle of 45 degrees so as to form a <( V" of 90 degrees with a 3/16" opening at Fig. 41 All- Welded F ire-Box. the bottom. Select a No. 6 or No. 7 welding tip of any standard medium pressure torch. The weld should be made from the water side, except at the mud-ring " A ' ' and " B, ' ' Fig. 41. At these points it should be bev- Boiler Welding 149 eled and welded from the inside of the fire- box. Norway welding wire of either 3/16" or % " diameter should be nsed. A special Vanadium steel is preferred by some. The weld should be built up so that it is some- what thicker than the sheet. We now come to the welding proper. The first operation consists in welding one or two inches at No. 1, just above the mud- ring. (See Fig. 41.) The sheets at the weld are laid off into sections of about 8" or 10" in length ; these sections being shown by the numerals No. 1 to No. 15 and No. 1 to Fig. 42 Preparation of Flanges for All- Welded Door and Flue Sheets. No. 17, respectively. After the first tack or weld has been made, the torch is lifted and the weld started at No. 2 working towards No. 1. When this 8" or 10" is completed, we start at No. 3 and weld back to No. 2, con- tinuing in this manner until the seam is welded to the mud-ring at No. 15 or No. 17. 150 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Finish by making the welds at the mud- ring " A " to ' ' B ' \ Wherever possible, it is recommended that a second welder be used, working on the inside of the flue sheet at the same point and at the same speed as the head welder. This inside man will re- inforce and smooth over the weld from his side. ALL-WELDED DOOR AND FLUE SHEETS For this work the preparation consists in fitting the sheets to the mud-ring and bolt- Fig. 43 All- Welded Door Sheet. ing securely. The edges should be beveled the same as for any other weld with an Boiler Welding 151 opening 3/16" wide at the bottom. The flanges should be prepared as shown in Fig. 42. Select a No. 6 or No. 7 Welding Tip and use 3/16" or Vi" Welding Wire. Lay off the sheet into sections of approxi- mately equal distances of about 10" each, as shown in Fig. 43. Start the welding from the fire-box side by making a "tack" at No. 1 about 1" or 2" long. When this is done, lift the torch and start at No. 4 and weld up to No. 5. Then start at No. 3 and weld to No. 4 and continue in this manner until the last section No. 1 to No. 2 is welded. The last weld for this side is at "A". We now start on the crown sheet, beginning at No. 6 and welding to No. 5. This welding should be done from the water side unless the radial stay-bolts are in the door sheet, in which event work will be done from the inside of the fire-box. We next start welding at No. 7 and work back to No. 6, continuing in this manner until both crown and side sheet is welded, finish- ing No. 15 to No. 14. The last weld is made at the mud-ring "B." WELDING HALF-DOOR SHEETS There are some who attempt to weld in a door sheet with the flange riveted on the side sheet. We do not recommend this as good practice, believing it is better to 152 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting either put in an entire new half-door sheet and rivet it to the side sheet, or to use an all welded door sheet as will be described below. Fig. 44 shows a half-door sheet in posi- tion for welding. In prerjaring the work, cut the end of side sheet to the inner edge of the rivet holes so that in fitting the door sheet will meet the edge of side sheet (Fig, 45). Bevel edges to a "V" of 90 degrees with an opening of 3/16" at bottom. Put in all stay-bolts except for the row on both Fig. 44 One-Half Door Sheet in Position to Weld. sides of the weld. Use a No. 6 or No. 7 welding tip and either 3/16" or %" welding Boiler Welding 153 wire. Lay off the sheet into sections No 1 to No. 16 as shown. Commence at No. 5 and weld the upper and lower flanges of door sheet to side sheet. Then start at No. 4 and weld back to No. 5 and continue in this manner until the last section No. 1 to No. 2 is completed when we make the mud-ring weld "A" to No. 1. We now jump to No. 6 and weld to No. 5, then No. 7 to No. 6, and so on until weld No. 12 to No. 11 is completed, when we weld the upper and lower flanges to the side sheet at No. 12. Then jump to No. 13 and Door *S beef /^^sS/de Sheet g Fig. 45 Preparation of Door and Side Sheet. weld back to No. 12 and continue in this manner until section No. 16 to No. 15 is completed, when the final weld at the mud- ring ' ' B ' ' to No. 16 is made. 154 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting WELDING LESS THAN FULL DOOE SHEET. HAVING SIDES RIVETED TO SIDE SHEETS In preparing, always cut the door sheet so that the weld will not come closer to the door hole than between the first and second row of stay-bolts. Bevel the edges to an angle of 90 degrees with an opening of 3/16" at the bottom of the "V." Screw in all stay-bolts except a row on each side of the weld. Rivet door sheet to side sheets and mud-ring. Fig. 46 Welded Door Sheet with Sides Riveted. Use 3/16" or Vi" welding rod and either No. 6 or No. 7 welding tip. Lay off the sheet at the weld into sections of about 10" Boiler Welding 155 as indicated in Fig. 46. Weld flange at "A," then jump to No. 1 and weld back to "A," then to No. 2 and back to No. 1, then No. 3 to No. 2, No. 4 to No. 3, and so on until "B" to No. 6 has been welded, when final weld is made at flange " B. ' ' WELDING OF A SIMPLE CRACK The crack is prepared by being beveled to the usual 90 degree angle. A %-inch to i/4-inch opening is made at the bottom, depending upon the length of the crack, Before welding, heat in the line of the weld for several inches at the ends of the crack. This is done to expand the solid sheet and open the crack. If the crack is a short one of only a few inches, start at one end and finish up at the other and then heat a few inches beyond. If the crack is a long one, say 18 inches or more, instead of starting at the end, begin about 8 inches from the end, and weld back in exactly the same manner as indicated for welding in a side sheet. WELDING OF A PATCH In the welding of patches, it is preferable to use a triangular patch, with the corners slightly rounding, say about one inch radius. With this shape of patch there can be no parallel welds as is necessary with any other shape, and this is to be desired ; also there are only three sides or 156 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting legs to weld. Each leg of the patch should be straight. The bad place is cut out with the cutting torch and the patch fitted in, first being prepared by beveling, etc., the same as was done in the case of the side sheet and the crack. By referring to Figs. 47 and 48, the man- ner in which the weld is made will be easier understood. . . .^ . . . . • . . . . . J > • • • • *s • »v * J3 • • •••«• N^* : o o%*» • • » • ♦ ' • • o o °^^L •♦♦••• o o O O ^%S^ • • • • • . . . . T . .«*-. *r , i- • • • Fig. 47 Welding Right Angle Patch. In Fig. 47, we show a patch in the form of a right angle triangle and in Fig. 48 the patch is an equilateral triangle. The weld- ing differs little in either. The welding is started at No. 2 and the weld is made towards No. 1, then we go to No. 3 and weld to No. 2, and from No. 4 to No. 3. It is then preferable to allow the weld to cool down, and then before starting weld- Boiler Welding 157 ing heat in the line of the weld No. 4 to No. 7 for abont 6 inches at each end, as shown by XX. Then start welding at No. 5 and weld to No. 4, jnmp to No. 6 and weld to No. 5, and finish this leg with a weld from No. 7 to No. 6. Then let this weld cool and before starting on the final leg heat in the line of the weld No. 7 to No. 1 for about 6 inches as shown by XXX. In • • • • • • • • • • • • * © 1 a c 1 t> ; ,p i • ; • # * # • * 2 1 "Y^ 1 • * « • .. i o %-p • ♦ • • • if o o o %• • •••,#ooa> lj._.v • • • • • • &• • o o ■2 6- o o o o o o K 3 4 S * o o o o o O O o o o O O O O o o o o repari O O O -J o o p Fig. 58 ng Door Holes for Welding then start on the opposite side and weld from No. 6 to No. 7, always heating the corrugation and adjoining after finishing the weld. We next weld section No. 4 to 170 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting No. 5 and heat corrugation ; again start on the opposite side and weld section No. 1 to No. 8 and heat corrugation. Then weld sections No. 1 to No. 2, No. 5 to No. 6, No. 3 to No. 4 and No. 7 to No. 8 in the order given, always heating the corrugation after finishing each weld. It is best to reinforce the weld so that it is somewhat thicker than the sheet. WELDED DOOR HOLES In Fig. 58 we show a door hole laid off into sections preparatory to welding. The edges of the two sheets should be beveled and prepared for a butt weld, although there are some who use a lap weld. By the time an operator is sufficiently proficient to do this class of work he certainly knows the difference between a butt and a lap weld, but if there is any doubt in the mat- ter, Fig. 17 on page 122 shows a butt weld and Fig. 19, page 123, shows the lap weld. For door holes the butt weld is prefer- able. If instructions are followed, no shrinkage troubles will be encountered. Use 3/16" or %" welding wire and build up weld thicker than sheet. To start this job we first make a "tack" about 1" long at No. 1 and then jump to No. 2 and weld back to No. 1. Lift the torch and start at No. 3 and weld to No. 2 and continue in this manner until the sec- Boiler Welding 171 tion No. 5 to No. 4 has been completed. We now start at No. 8 and weld to No. 1, and then section No. 7 to No. 8, No. 6 to No. 7 and No. 5 to No. 6. WELDING HORIZONTAL CRACK IN THE KNUCKLE OF FLUE SHEET A crack that is frequently met with is one in the knuckle of the flue sheet. In Fig. 59 we shoAV such a crack running hori- zontally, which should be beveled so as to Fig. 59 Horizontal Crack in Flue Sheet Knuckle. have a "V" of 90 degrees, cutting out the metal at the bottom of the "V" so as to leave an opening or clear space of 3/16". Lay the crack off into sections of about 8" or 10" as shown in cut. Use same size welding tip and wire as in ordinary boiler work. When possible, it should be welded from the water side. Commence by heating the sheet beyond the crack at XXX No. 1. When about a red heat, start welding at No. 1, making a 172 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting weld of about 1" where beveled and extend the weld over the unbeveled sheet at XXX for a distance of 1" or 2". "When this is done, jump to No. 2 and weld to No. 1, then to No. 3 to No. 2 and No. 4 to No. 3 and finish by heating at XXX No. 4. Build the weld up so that it is somewhat thicker than the sheet itself and at the same time make the weld at least iy 2 " wide. Fig. 60 Vertical Crack in Flue Sheet Knuckle. WELDING VERTICAL CRACK IN KNUCKLE OF FLUE SHEET In Fig. 60 is shown a vertical crack in the knuckle of the flue sheet extending from a flue hole to the crown sheet. This is extremely simple. Bevel as you have been instructed in all of preceding work and start welding the crack at the flue hole, working towards the crown sheet. Weld from the water side. WELDING PATCH IN FLUE SHEET In Fig. 61 we show a crack that has been Boiler Welding 173 cut out and a patch in place ready to weld. Patch is beveled and fitted. We start welding at No. 1 and work towards "A." "When the flange at "A" has been finished, start at No. 2 and weld to No. 1, then No. 3 to No. 2, No. 4 to No. 3, No. 5 to No. 4, Fig. 61 Welding Patch at Edge of Flue Sheet. finishing the work by welding the flange "B." No trouble should be experienced.. WELDING A CAULKING EDGE In Fig. 62 we have tried to show an edge that has been cut away by continued caulk- ing, corrosion or by the action of leaking steam. 174 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting The first thing to do is to thoroughly clean the metal where the edge is to be built up. Scrape off all the rust and scale on the sheets around where welding is to be done and use a chipping hammer on the eroded edge. Then make the weld, build- ing up the metal somewhat heavier than the sheet and when through, take a four- ounce hammer and lightly hammer the weld until nice and smooth. Pig. 62 A Worn Caulking Edge. BUILDING OF CORRODED PLACE NEAR EDGE OF SHEET In Fig. 63, we show in the shaded por- tion, a corroded place near edge of sheet at the mud-ring. In preparing, clean the corroded place and the sheet near same thoroughly of all scale, rust, etc., and take out rivets No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. Start welding at No. 5, working towards the bottom edge. Build up slightly higher than sheet and use a hammer lightly afterwards. Boiler Welding 175 WELDING SHEET TO MUD-KING Considerable of this class of work is being done, bnt it requires an experienced and careful welder to do successful work, for the reason that the mud-ring is so much heavier than the sheet, the inexperienced will too frequently fail to get the mud-ring in a molten state, with the result that proper adhesion is lacking. Use at least a Fig. 63 Corroded Edge of Sheet. No.' 8 welding tip and see that the mud- ring is brought to fusion before adding metal from the filler rod. The edges of sheets No. 1 to No. 2 (Fig. 64) which are to be welded should be beveled and the mud ring must be cleaned of scale and rust at and near the weld. Start welding sheet No. 1 and when lap at "A" is reached, weld up the seam for about six inches and then come back and finish the beveled edge of sheet No. 2. 176 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting WELDING LOCOMOTIVE FLUES The sheet should be prepared by counter- sinking the flue hole about 3/16" deep and extending the flue to within %" of the outer "cfQe Beve/e d Fig. 64 . Welding Sheets to Mud-rini surface of the flue sheet. If this is done, the flue will extend about 1/16" beyond the !L_l__ Fig. 65 Preparation of Flues and Sheet. lower edge for the counter-sinking. See Fig. 65. Do not use copper ferrules. Ex- Boiler Welding 177 pand the flue just enough to fill up the flue hole. Use y 8 " welding wire and No. 5 weld- ing tip. For the individual weld, start at the bot- tom or lower side and make one-half of the weld, stopping at the top of the flue. Then Fig. 66 Best Order to Weld Flues. begin again at the bottom and make the other half of the weld. For welding a number of flues, Fig. 66 shows the order in which they should be welded, beginning at No. 1 and continuing in numerical order, finally finishing at No. 26. This distributes the shrinkage strains. CHAPTER IX WELDING OF VARIOUS PIECES. Welding of Automobile Cylinder, Lug on Manifold. Re- pairing Scored Cylinder — Welding Arm of Alumi- num Crank Case, Crack in Aluminum Oil Pan, Ely-Wheel, Large Cylinders, Crank Shaft, Automo- bile Frames — Tempering — Finishing a Weld While Hot with a File — Clamps for Holding Sheet Metal Edges in Alignment — Welding Horse. Welding Dies, High Carbon Tool Steel to Low Carbon, Manganese Steel. Aluminum Soldering — Use of Oxygen for Removing Carbon — Cost Card — Receipt Ticket — Description of Welded Castings. The welding of an ordinary crack in the water jacket of an automobile cylinder is not a difficult task if one has a fair knowl- edge of welding and carries out to the let- ter instructions as to pre-heating. The cylinder should always be stripped, and if possible educate your customers to bring- ing them to the shop in this condition. Valves, springs, pet-cocks, etc., should all be removed. The cylinder should be care- fully examined in a good light to determine if possible whether there are any cracks other than those which are easily seen. Sometimes, when considerable care is exer- cised, but frequently through carelessness, the operator overlooks a crack and has to reweld the cylinder. The cracks should be chipped to a 45-degree angle with a dia- 178 Welding of Various Pieces 179 mond point. This not only insures a better weld, but when this is done one is very much more apt to detect stray cracks. If the cylinder is painted, this should be re- moved for about an inch on both sides of the weld by means of an old file. Some graphite should be obtained and mixed with kerosene until it is of a thick, pasty consist- ency. This should be rubbed on the inside of the cylinders and on the valve seats and also on the threads of the valve chambers by means of a swab, which is simply made by tying some rags or waste on the end of an iron rod. This may seem unnecessary to some, but it certainly will protect those parts which are covered with it, and their appearance after the welding is finished will be better. This will please the cus- tomer, and the writer believes you cannot be far wrong when you do that. The cylinder is now ready for pre-heat- ing. Place it with the valve parts down and the open end of the cylinder up. Do not lay it on its side. Usually there is an abundance of old scrap asbestos around a welding shop, and some think it advisable to fill the cylinder with this. Certainly it can do no harm, and it may do good. En- close the cylinder on all "sides with fire brick ; this makes a temporary furnace. If charcoal is used it should be lighted and allowed to burn of itself. No forced draft 180 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting should ever be employed. Remember that what is desired is an even heat, and this is best obtained by slow heating. If coal gas is employed, a torch using atmospheric air should be used, and the flame made to impinge on the brick — not on the cylinder. A piece of sheet iron or asbestos paper is laid on top of the brick furnace to keep out any drafts. Some use a metal hood, count- er-weighted, which will cover the entire furnace. Ocasionally the cylinder should be examined as to its condition. The de- gree to which it should be heated is one of the things on which there is a difference of opinion. Some heat to a point where it is just too hot to lay your hand on, others heat to a dull red, while there are some who raise the temperature still higher. ^ The writer's experience would justify his ad- vising almost a dull red heat. The cylinder should then be turned in a position for welding. If charcoal is used it is left in the fire ; if coal gas the torch is either turned low or extinguished altogether. For turn- ing or moving the cylinder, a small chain block with an old pair of ice tongs will be found very convenient, eliminating in many instances the need of a helper. The welding should then be done. If it is a long crack or several, requiring consider- able time, it is best to stop before com- Welding of Various Pieces 181 pletion and reheat by the addition of more charcoal or by turning on the gas torches. When finished, again turn on the gas torches for a while or replen- ish the charcoal, cover well and let it cool slowly. In justice to yourself and your customer, always test the cylinder under water pres- sure before sending it out. For doing this quickly a number of wooden plugs of differ- ent sizes should always be kept on hand for closing openings for which you will prob- ably have no plugs. If you have a water system, connect the water line with one opening and turn on the pressure. If not, fill with water and use a hand pump, rais- ing the pressure to 15 or 20 pounds. WELDING OF A LUG ON A MANIFOLD OE A CYLINDEE Anyone familiar with either casting will know that their faces are machined and, therefore, true. Naturally, it is desirable that this alignment be maintained when welding on a lug that has been broken off. If one possesses a face plate or a straight edge, the manifold or the cylinder can be clamped to it, first placing underneath two or three thicknesses of ordinary paper. Place the broken lug in position and either clamp it down or hold in place with a two- 182 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting or three-pound weight. Do not use any paper under the broken lug. By doing this, the lug will be slightly lower than the re- mainder of the casting and this will allow for the pull or shrinkage in the metal. Tack the weld at one side and then start at the other side and weld around to where the i i tack ' ' was made. The clamps should then be removed and the casting turned over and the weld touched up from this side. After the weld is finished, cover with as- bestos and allow to cool. If there should be a slight excess of metal on the machined side it can easily be filed off*. REPAIRING A SCORED CYLINDER Frequently a wrist pin works loose, with the result that the friction wears a slot almost the entire length of the cylinder. This means loss of compression, and if the score is very deep, very little power will be obtained from that cylinder. To repair this by welding is not an easy undertak- ing. When the welding is completed, of course it is necessary to regrind the cyl- inder. This is not objectionable, but in the majority of cases it is necessary to regrind until the cylinder is enlarged, which means an oversize piston must be used. In addition to this added expense there are other objections, so that we would advise brazing. The cylinder must be pre- Welding of Various Pieces 183 heated just as though welding were to be employed. Particular care should be used in cleaning the score. Tobin or manganese bronze can be employed, using a flux. Those shops not equipped to do regrinding will find this method of repairing an ad- vantage. A small portable grinder is used to remove the roughness, and it can then be finished with scrapers. WELDING ARM OF AN ALUMINUM CRANK CASE Quite frequently the arm of a case breaks. This is comparatively a simple weld. There is no necessity to take care of expansion and contraction. It is neces- sary to take care of alignment, and to this end a straight bar should be bolted tight to the other arm on the same side of the case, the broken arm resting on the bar and being clamped to it, care being taken that the clamps are not drawn too tight. It will 184 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting be best to start welding along the top first and then weld each side, finishing by weld- ing on the inside, where a fillet or reinforce- ment can be made. WELDING CRACK IN ALUMINUM OIL PAN Fig. 68 shows an aluminum pan with a crack, AB, lined up and ready to weld. Angle irons are bolted to the case. The holes in the angle irons should be some- what larger than the holes in the case and the bolts should not be drawn tight so that the case will have an opportunity to ex- pand when heated, but will do so along the line and in the direction of the angle irons. The case should be pre-heated, either with charcoal, gas torch or with the welding torch. The heating should mainly be on the side opposite to the crack AB. The degree of heat is not only somewhat diffi- cult to determine, but is also one regarding Welding of Various Pieces 185 which good welders differ. Some prefer to heat until the metal begins to sweat. In the majority of instances this is not neces- sary, besides one is getting dangerously near the point where the case will collapse and be ruined. Others take some salt or sawdust and sprinkle on the case, and if it chars or burns quickly, proceed to weld. The welding should start at A and proceed towards B ; never in the opposite direction. Always work a weld out towards the edge. When the weld is practically completed, the one angle iron on that side should be removed and the crack touched up, a little more metal being added than neces- sary. This excess metal can easily be filed off. WELDING OF A FLY-WHEEL X Fig. 69 represents a cast-iron fly-wheel, having a break in a spoke at A, and also 186 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting a break in the rim at B. First, let us. as- sume that there is only one break, and it is at "A." We should have learned by this time that if we attempted to make this weld and gave no thought as to expansion and contraction, that it would be sure to break again when cooling. The proper way to take care of expansion and contraction is to heat the rim to a dull red on both sides of this broken spoke. As the rim is heated it expands outwardly, and it will be seen that the edges of the break have separated. The weld should then be made as rapidly as possible and the wheel covered up carefully and allowed to cool slowly. Now let us suppose that we have a broken spoke, A, and a broken rim, B. This is really more simple than the one single break in the spoke at A, if we go at it in the proper way. The break at A must always be made first. Before beginning the weld, two flat iron bars should be clamped along the sides of the rim to main- tain alignment. The weld at A should be started and a heavy "tack" made, then turn the wheel over and weld one-half the way through, when the wheel should again be turned, the "tack" melted out and the weld completed. Upon examing the crack in the rim at B, in all probability it will be seen that the part of the rim, XB, ex- Welding of Various Pieces 187 tends a little farther out than does BY. This, of course, is due to the fact that the spoke has expanded from the heat of welding, so we should carefully heat the rim at Y until it expands and the two edges of the crack at B are even and true. Then make the weld, cover the casting and cool slowly. WELDING OF LAEGE CYLINDEKS In the pre-heating of large cylinders usually better results can be obtained by changing somewhat the method used on ordinary automobile cylinders. The inner wall of large stationary gas engine cylin- ders is usually considerably heavier than the outer or water jacket wall. The cylin- der should be well swabbed with graph- ite and then stood upright, the lower end resting on bricks, leaving an air space of about 3 or 4 inches at the bottom. Some charcoal is then placed inside the cylinder and allowed to heat until the outer wall is fairly hot. It then should be turned over on its side and heated all over. If gas torches are used, this is not neces- sary, as a small one can be placed so as to play on the inside, but not against the walls of the cylinder. 188 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting WELDING A CKANK SHAFT The welding of a crank shaft should not be attempted until one has had at least a year's experience in welding. Automobile shafts are steel with a fairly high carbon content, and, in addition, frequently con- tain nickel, chrome, etc. Good welders can do this class of work successfully the fair or mediocre operator would do) well to "pass them up." Welding of Various Pieces 189 Eegardless as to the quality of the weld, it will be necessary to put the shaft in a lathe and do some straightening, after the weld is completed. Now the amount of work required in straightening can be considerable or very little, depending upon the care exercised in lining up the shaft before welding, and the means for holding it approximately in that position. Some advocate the use of J'V" blocks for this purpose. Besides be- ing quite expensive, they are of very little value, and a straight piece of heavy angle iron will answer as well. A simple and inexpensive means for holding shaft is shown in Fig. 70. It is copied very much after the steady rest on a lathe. The shaft is lined up by means of set screws and a straight edge and a sur- face gauge are used to determine when it is correct. The shaft is then tacked and again tried to see if it is true and the set screws are tightened so that the shaft can be easily turned. The weld is then made. When finished and while hot, it is again tested, and if "off" it is an easy matter to straighten by tightening up one set screw while loosening the opposite one. A great many shafts have been welded on a device of this kind and very little ma- chining was necessary afterwards. 190 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting WELDING OF AUTOMOBILE FRAMES Broken automobile frames are now a commonplace job for the average welding shop. A good many welders simply jack up the frame, secure alignment and pro- ceed to weld. The flanges of the channel are usually welded first, the welds being made from the topside, the molten metal going through and forming " tits' ' on the under side. The under side is then made smooth with the torch it being necessary to add very little if any metal. The side of the channel is then welded. As this is a vertical weld somewhat more skill is re- quired. The crack is chamfered by simply melting out the crack with the torch. A somewhat smaller flame is desirable for making this weld and this is usually ac- complished by slightly closing the torch cocks thereby cutting down the size of the flame. Begin at the bottom, run the two edges together and then make a shelf by adding metal and gradually build this shelf up. Some welders reinforce the weld by plac- ing a plate about 3/16" thick and 6" or 8" long on the inside of the channel and weld- ing both ends to the frame. If the welder is not absolutely sure of himself, it is bet- ter for him to play safe and do this and as usually the plate can be placed on the in- Welding of Various Pieces 191 side of the channel it is not unsightly. Another way often made use of not only with auto frames but for similar welds on channels is to first make the flange welds. Then take the cutting torch and for a dis- tance of about one inch on each side of the crack top and bottom, cut the frame. These cuts are shown in Fig. 71 as AX and CX for one side and BX and DX for the other side. Then with the welding torch heat the side AXCX from A to C and with a hammer drive the metal in. Treat the other side the same way. The channel portion at the crack is now quite depressed and forms an exaggerated "V." Weld this up until flush. When properly done it is very strong and can be finished off so as to not show th#t it has ever been welded. WELDING OF PARTITIONS IN OIL TANK WAGONS Most of the oil concerns who deliver oil in tank wagons, when ordering new 192 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting tanks are specifying that they shall be welded throughout. These tanks carry gasoline, kerosene and other grades of oil, so that this calls for several compartments, necessitating partitions. As a leak in a partition might result seriously, they usu- ally specify that there must be provided two partitions, instead of one. These par- titions are made from flat stock and are ML A m ■ Fig. 72 Oil Tank Partitions. dished very much^like a pie pan. This is practically all that is necessary, to take care of expansion and contraction. The edges at the ends of two tanks are flanged, the two dished partitions are set in posi- tion (see Fig. 72), and the four edges are tacked at four or five points. The four edges are then welded all the way around. Welding of Various Pieces 193 WELDING HORSE Figure 73 shows a welding horse, with aluminum case in position being welded. This horse is so simple to make and yet is so great a convenience in a custom repair Fig. 73 Welding Horse for Holding Aluminum Cases. shop, that a description of it and its uses would seem advisable. In the majority of shops the custom has been for the welder to use a helper when working on aluminum cases, especially if 194 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting they were of rather large size. The duties of the helper were to turn the casting from time to time, keeping the portion that was actually being welded in a horizontal position. Sometimes the helper was dis- pensed with and the welder did his own turning, supporting the casting, from time to time, by means of brick or other de- vices. At times this places a considerable strain on the casting, causing it in some instances to crack elsewhere than in the weld. Often the supporting bricks, hav- ing been placed hurriedly in position, would slip and allow the case to drop, with more or less resulting damage. This weld- ing horse eliminates all of this. The case is simply bolted to the frame of the horse. The frame and the attached case can re- volve on the supporting shaft by loosening a set screw and can be instantly fixed in any desired position by simply tightening the set screw. This horse is made as follows : The legs are made of ordinary standard %" pipe and are cut about 32 inches long. A piece of l^-inch pipe about six inches long is butted against two legs and welded. The legs should be positioned to incline in- ward somewhat. On the top of the short 1 14-inch pipe build up a lug about %-inch high. Then drill about a %-inch or i/o-inch hole and tap. This is to receive a set Welding of Various Pieces 195 screw. Then get two straight pieces of angle iron abont 4 or 5 feet long. This angle iron should be about 2"x2"x}4". At each end cut out a small square from one flange about 2"x2". This cut should be made on the same flange for both pieces of angle iron. Weld on the under side of the uncut portion a piece of bar stock formed in a "U" shape. This will form a slot through which passes a flat bar forming the end. On the side of the "U" shaped piece build up a lug, drill and tap for a set screw. For the ends, get two pieces of flat stock about l%"x%"j and each 2 feet long. In the center of each and at right angle weld a piece of 1" pipe about 8" long. These two pieces of pipe will form the shaft for the welding horse and the bearings will be the two pieces of 1%" pipe welded onto the legs. The two pieces of angle iron which form the sides can be moved in or out on the two flat bars forming the ends, and thereby adjusted to the width of the case. Ordinary clamps are used to fasten the case to the angle irons. WELDIXG OF DIES Dies are, of course, made from high car- bon steel. As we have previously stated, 196 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting high carbon steels are difficult to weld; however, very satisfactory welding is done on this class of work. Ordinary Norway iron can be used as a filler, but it must be remembered that it will be impossible to temper the metal in the weld on account of its low carbon content. Some concerns, notably shoe factories, use a great many, small cutting dies. They are very thin, and the breakage is considerable. In weld- ing, Norway was used, but it was exceed- ingly difficult to prevent blow-holes from forming near and at the thin cutting edge. By experimenting, a high carbon filler rod was found which eliminated this trouble and also gave a harder cutting edge. Those interested sufficiently to write to the author will be gladly given the name of this steel. WELDING OF HIGH CARBON TOOL STEEL TO LOW CARBON The exceedingly high price of high car- bon steel during the past year has caused many concerns to interest themselves in some method that would show an economy in the use of this material, with the result that a great many are now using for their cutting tools a small piece of high carbon to which has been welded a longer piece of low carbon. The same thing is done with high speed and tool steel. Very little, if Welding of Various Pieces 197 any, bevel is made on the high carbon piece, whereas a very long bevel is made on the low carbon bar. The secret as to success- ful welding on this class of work is in pre- heating both pieces until they are a cherry red all over and then welding fast, using as a filler either Vanadium or nickel steel, although Norway can be used. WELDING OF MANGANESE STEEL The welding of manganese steel is not a success. While the metal can be run to- gether, the weld will be found to be porous, brittle, and, of course, possessing little strength. It is extremely doubtful if it ever will be welded successfully with the flame. The government specifications for this steel call for a manganese content of not less than 11% nor more than 13%. Manganese has a great affinity for oxygen, with the result that when the steel is melted a considerable amount of the manganese burns out, leaving less than 11% behind. Attempts to put manganese back into the casting by using a filler rod high in man- ganese have not proven a success, as it would be luck if only enough were added to come within the narrow range of from 11% to 13%. Manganese steel is used for switch frogs, safes, ore crushing rolls, dredge dippers, etc. 198 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting THE USE OF ALUMINUM SOLDER Those doing custom welding should be capable of soldering aluminum. It is not difficult, and there are occasions when its use is desirable. It must be remembered that a soldered joint will not have the strength of a weld, claims of some manu- facturers of aluminum solder to the con- trary notwithstanding. For that reason soldering should not be resorted to where it is necessary to secure in the joint strength equal to other parts of the cast- ing. A small crack in the bottom of an aluminum oil pan is an instance in which soldering can be successfully done. Here there is no strain and little strength re- quired. The important consideration is that it shall be oil tight. The crack is beveled out to an angle of at least 90 degrees. It is of the utmost importance that it shall be clean and bright. A tip of small size should be used in the welding torch and only the brush flame or envelope brought in contact with the metal. While the crack is being heated a wire hand brush should be used vigor- ously until the sides are as bright as a new silver dollar. Any good aluminum solder can be used. There are quite a number on the market. As soon as the crack is clean and fairly warm, rub the Welding of Various Pieces 199 end of the solder in the crack and on the side and a small amount will adhere. The wire brush must be then used again, rub- bing the solder in until every crack, crevice and part of the beveled sides are coated with the solder. While this is being done the torch is being played over the crack and by this time the casting should be hot enough to melt the solder when it is rubbed against the crack. Melt enough to fill up the crack and extend over the sides a little and use an old hickory hammer handle that has been flattened on one side to press the solder into shape. When this has been done, be careful not to move the casting until it has cooled sufficiently to allow the solder to set. There are a number of aluminum solders on the market and some very good ones. They do not differ much as to composi- tion. For the average person it would be cheaper and probably better if they pur- chased some standard brand, but occasion- ally a welder might be caught without any and he might prefer to make some up rather than subject his customer to any delay. For that reason we give below the composition and directions for making two aluminum solders which we have used for years and found good. One we call a hard solder and the other a soft solder, the hard solder 200 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting requiring more heat to melt and giving more strength. ALUMINUM SOLDER Hard Soft Aluminum 15% 10% Zinc 12% 10% Silver 1% 1% Copper . 1% 1% Tin 71% 78% DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING Melt the copper in a score fire with borax glass and then add the silver. Then add 10% of the tin and then cool down. This is what might be termed the matrix. In a large crucible melt the aluminum and then add the matrix and then one-half of the remaining tin. Add this slowly. Then add the zinc slowly and when this is done add the balance of the tin. Use a little salt as a flux from time to time and do not let the solder get below a red heat while making. REPAIRING SCORED CYLINDERS The wrist pin of a piston will often come loose, wearing a slot or score in the wall of the cylinder, so that good compression is impossible. These scores can be welded, but this necessitates reboring and usually over-sized pistons. Naturally, some method of repairing these scores would be desir- Welding of Various Pieces 201 able if reboring and the purchase of over- sized pistons could be eliminated. There are several ways of doing this, each usually quite satisfactory. The first method that we will discuss is the soft solder process. A gentleman by the name of Lawrence was issued a patent on the use of block tin or an alloy of block tin and nickel and regard- less, as to the validity of the patent, we would say that to use this process would place the user thereof in the position where he might have to defend a suit for infringe- ment. However, there are other methods which have been used extensively and have been found to be quite satisfactory. The first and easiest method is the use of or- dinary half and half solder. It is not satis- factory on air-cooled cylinders but has been used for some twelve years or more bv the author on water-cooled cylinders with good results. This method is as fol- lows: Take an old file and with it scrape the scored portion, cleaning it thoroughly. Then pour over the part to be soldered, muriatic acid. Then take water and clean out good with waste so that no trace of acid remains. Warm up the cylinder either with the welding torch or blow torch until you can barely keep hands on the cylinder, then you should apply a flux or soldering fluid. This soldering fluid should be one 202 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting that will work satisfactorily on cast iron. If you are unable to obtain a satisfactory flux, the author upon request, will advise where some can be obtained. Heat the soldering iron hot and apply half and half solder to the scored part. Fill the scored places and build up a little higher than the surface of the cylinder. Take an old Ford spring or flat file and heat it hot and bend it hoe shape, making the edge curved and sharp. This makes a good scraper and with it the excess solder is scraped down level and even with the cylinder. Then rub some oil over the repaired place. This darkens the solder so that it resembles cast iron. Another method is to braze with copper. This is satisfactory on any kind of a cylin- der whether air- or water-cooled. The score must be thoroughly cleaned as when using ordinary solder and the cylinder pre- heated but not to the extent required for welding. Some electric copper wire with the insulation thoroughly cleaned off will serve as a filler. A flux is desirable for this work and one that works well is simply resin dissolved in either wood or denatured alcohol. Paint the score with the liquid flux using a small brush. Dip the copper filler' wire into the flux and heat the score to about a red heat. Then melt the copper into the score. The excess copper can then Welding of Various Pieces 203 be filed and scraped out to fit the piston. The filing and scraping of -the copper is slower than when solder is used but this method has the advantage of withstand- ing greater heat. TEMPERING While undoubtedly there are a great many welders who know how and can do tempering, there must be a great many who can not do this. Some are unable to de- termine heat by color, with the result that one piece will be too hard while another will be too soft. The author is one of these. A few years ago a friend had him try a new wrinkle and such good results fol- lowed that we are passing along the in- formation. Heat the piece to be tempered red hot and plunge in oil or water — if spring steel use oil. Then in a ladle melt granulated saltpeter sufficient to cover the piece as high as temper is desired. Heat and plunge into this molten bath and let it remain until the scale formed by the saltpeter has melted. Then re- move. This comes in very handy for tempering chisels which every welder has occasion to use. 204 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting FINISHING A WELD WHILE HOT WITH A FILE Some welders have developed the fol- lowing method for finishing a weld roughly so that little machine work is afterwards necessary. When the weld is finished, the torch is used to heat up the top part so that it is about red hot and then a rather coarse file is used just as though the metal was cold. The high spots are taken off very easily, if the metal is not too hot, so that some care must be exercised in this re- spect, otherwise holes and pockets will be gouged out. A very smooth and neat ap- pearance can be given to the weld by this method. CLAMPS FOR HOLDING SHEET METAL EDGES IN ALIGNMENT An easily made and very helpful clamp for holding even the edges of sheet metal either flat or curved, is shown in Fig. 74. The clamp is made as follows : Take two pieces "A" and "B" of %" iron about 3" wide and four or five inches long. In the center of each drill and file a slot either 3/16" or 14" wide and about 2" long. Now take a third piece "C" of iron either 3/16" or y±" thick, slightly smaller in width than the slots cut in "A" and "B" and about 3" long. In this piece cut a slot about %" or 3/ 8 " wide and iy 2 " long. Welding of Various Pieces 205 Fig. 74 206 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Pass "C" through the slot in "A" and let it project about 14" on the under side and then weld together, making a good strong weld, so it will appear as "E." This piece is now placed on the under side of the seam with the part "C" between the edges. The plate "B " is placed on top so that "C" passes through the slot in "B." The wedge "D" is driven in until the edges of the sheets are perfectly even. For long welds several of these clamps should be used. As the welding progresses and gets close to a clamp it is either driven forward or taken out altogether, the remaining clamps holding the edges true. USE OF OXYGEN FOR REMOVING CARBON The use of oxygen for the removal of carbon in cylinders is now very generally employed. The process is one of simple combustion, the carbon burning to a gas in the presence of pure oxygen. This burn- ing is usually attended by a considerable pyrotechnic effect, so that the onlooker is apt to think that an exceedingly high tem- perature is obtained which might injure the cylinder. Such is not the case. The temperature is somewhat below that pre- vailing in the combustion chamber when Welding of Various Pieces 207 Fig. 75 This illustration shows a large casting on an ice machine that was welded. A part of the flange was broken off and the crack ex- tended up into the body of the casting. It was necessary to dis- mantle, but presented no serious difficulty in welding, aside from the fact that the turning of a casting of its size in order to get at every part of the crack was somewhat tedious. The entire end of the casting was pre- heated. 208 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting the engine is running so that no trouble can come from that score. An analysis of the carbon in cylinders discloses that it contains road dust or silica. The oxygen will not remove this. Fig. 76 This illustration shows a large copper still with longitudinal seams and connections welded. This still was 4^ feet in diameter by about 6 feet high. The metal did not exceed 3/16 of an inch in thickness, and yet on account of the conductivity of the copper it was found necessary to build a coke fire on the inside and cover the outside with asbestos in order to hold the heat. • To those not familiar with the process it is necessary to impress upon them that oxygen only is used. Acetylene plavs no part and is not used, the carbon in the cylinder acting as the only fuel. The equip- Welding of Various Pieces 209 ment necessary is a tank of oxygen, a regu- lator which reduces the pressure, about 12 feet of hose and either a special carbon torch or a special tip which is attached to Fig. 77 This illustration shows an armature with shaft beveled and lined up preparatory to welding. In this case the weld was far enough removed from* the armature as to not endanger burning the in- sulation. Where the weld is closer to the armature it is necessary to cover that end with wet asbestos. As the weld progresses, an assistant can from time to time slowly pour water on the asbestos. the welding torch. The operation is pre- pared for as follows: The gasoline tank is cut off and the motor started and allowed to run until it stops of its own accord. This indicates that all of the gasoline in the carburetor has been used up, which is one of the things desired. It is important that no gasoline 210 Occy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting be allowed to remain in the line from the tank ta the carburetor, and if there is a vacuum feed, it should be drained. Re- move either the valve caps or the spark Fig. 78 This is a large cast-iron cylinder 14 feet in diameter and weighing 30,000 pounds. A part of the flange was broken off and in addition there were a great many blow-holes in the un- broken part. On account of the size, and the fact that the welding was on an edge, no attempt was made to pre-heat. The broken parts were welded back and the blowholes filled up. ft was impossible to prevent chilling of the metal and in facing off, an emery wheel was found necessary. The welded casting has now been in service several years, giving entire satisfaction. plug on the first cylinder and turn the en- gine over until this cylinder is on compres- sion. This means that the piston is at Welding of Various Pieces 211 the top of its stroke and the valves closed. The oxygen tank should then be opened slowly and the regulator set at about 15 pounds. Drop a lighted match into the valve chamber, insert the copper tubing and turn on the oxygen. If the flame is Fig. 79 This shows the head of a large ammonia compressor which was badly broken and successfully welded. Not only was it necessary to stand high pressure, but it must also be ammonia tight and any one familiar with the penetrating quality of that gas realizes that the weld, had to be free from blow-holes. The metal was about '6 inches thick and the length of the break 36 inches. Fortunately, with the exception of about 6 inches, the welding was all in one position. The crack was carefully chamfered and lined up and then pre-heated until red all over. 212 Occy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting considerable, reduce the amount of oxygen pressure. If the carbon does not seem to burn well and increasing the oxygen pressure does not help, inject just a few drops of oil, kerosene or lubricating. Compressed air or a small hand bellows should be used to blow out particles of road dust or grit that remains, and the valve seats should be cleaned with a swab. Fig. 80 This shows a large fly-wheel which had all six spokes broken, and which was successfully welded. In this case the entire wheel, rim, hub and spokes were pre- heated and all but a very little welding was done from one side. In this case it was impossible to keep the bore in the hub true, so the bore was enlarged and a bushing inserted. Welding of Various Pieces 213 The remaining cylinders are treated in like manner. It is good policy to have near at hand a fire extinguished, as the proximity of grease and oils to the flying sparks must be considered. COST-CARD Some kind of a time or cost-card should be kept where job or repair welding is done. By doing so you will not only have a record of the operation in the event of a dispute, but in a very few months you will have on file a history of a great many dif- ferent jobs, which will be found of great assistance in determining a price should the customer desire it. Few custom weld- ing shops properly take into account what is known as overhead expense. This in- cludes rent, telephones, advertising, post- age, bad accounts, depreciation of equip- ment, failure of welds, etc. At least 100% should be added to the actual labor, gas and material cost to cover the over- head. Unless this is done one will not go ahead. If the owner of the shop does his own welding, he should charge this up at the same price he would have to pay did he employ a welder. A cost-card for repair welding is shown on page 216. 214 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Fig. 81 This is an illustration taken of a compartment oil tank used on a delivery wagon. The manner in which the partitions are formed and welded^ in is described elsewhere, as is also the welding of the filling and drainage plugs. The manufacture of these tanks presents no serious difficulties. Electric Welding 215 Fig. 82 This shows part of the frame of a large Hoe print- ing press. This "was broken at the white line near the man's hand. The metal was 4 x 5 in. A pre- heating torch was directed on the break but in such a position that the main casting instead of the broken-off part re- ceived most of the heat. The weld- ing was completed in only a few hours enabling the customer to print his paper without the loss of a single issue. 216 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting COST-CARD Date — June 1st , 1916 Shop Ticket Js fo. 50 Article — Single Cylinder Kind of Weld- 5-inch crack in water ■ jacket Pressure — Oxy. Start 1750 lbs. in 100 cu. ft. tank Pressure — Oxy. Finish 1400 lbs. 350 lbs. GAS USED Cu. Ft. Oxygen Used 20 @ 2c $ .40 Cu. Ft. Acetylene Used 20 @ 3c .60 LABOR Preparing— Hrs. Min. 30 @ $ .80 .40 Welding —Hrs. Min. 30 @ 1.00 .50 Finishing— Hrs. 1 Min. @ .80 .80 MATERIAL Rods —Lbs. Steel @ 1 —Lbs. Cast Iron @ .15 . .15 — Lbs. Bronze @ Flux . — Lbs. Aluminum @ 05 — Lbs. Charcoal Pre-Heating Torch y 2 Hour TOTAL. . . .10 $3.00 EECEIPT TICKET Whether the broken casting is brought to the welding shop by a firm rising their own dray ticket or by an individual, the welding shop's own receipt ticket should be given. It is important that this receipt ticket have printed at the top the conditions under which the casting is accepted. A sample ticket is shown herewith. We guarantee our ordinary class of work, by re- funding the amount paid for the work, if it should break again in the line of the weld within 30 days from date Welding of Various Pieces 217 of delivery to owners, or we will reweld again free of charge, parts to be submitted to us, transportation pre- paid for our decision. If we cannot succeed in making a satisfactory job, we do not make any charge for the work; our responsibility ends here. We are not responsible for the parts left in our charge after 30 days. We accept parts only as being of scrap value, and are not responsible for delays of any kind. All work is received subject to above conditions and guarantee. No. 250 John Jones Welding Co. Order No. 52 St. Louis, January 10, 1916 Received from Smith Auto Company 2826 Locust Street 1 Aluminum Case To be done 1/12/16 Price $15.00 Taken out by Sam Johnson Date 1/12/16 These tickets should be made in dupli- cate, one being given and one retained by the welding shop, and upon this latter one the customer 's receipt is obtained when the casting goes out. CHAPTER X WELDING SYMBOLS During the War, Naval Constructor Knox, of the U. S. Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va., realized the necessity of symbols to designate the various sorts of welds em- ployed. He in conjunction with several committees worked out a very complete system of nomenclature and symbols which are applicable to the general use of the industry. It would seem desirable that the welder should have a working knowledge of at least the most commonly used symbols and what they represent. No. i Weld,:, TYPE OF JOINT STRAP. Symbol- Q We/d --,-'■> Fig. 83 Strap Weld is one in which the seam of two adjoining plates or surfaces is reinforced by any form or shape to add strength and stability to the joint or plate. In this form of weld the seam is welded only from one side — that opposite the reinforcement — and the reinforcement, of course, is welded to the side of the work to which it is applied. 218 Welding Symbols 219 No. 2. BUTT Symbol-. (J Weld Fig. 84 Butt Weld is one in which two pieces are brought together edge to edge and welded along the seam thus formed. Ho. 3. LAP. SYMBOL: /\ - Weld '' Fig. 85 Lap "Weld is one in which the edges of two plates are set one above the other, the edge of one plate being welded to the face of the other. No. 4-. FILLET. — Weld Symbol-\J -Weld Fig. 86 A Fillet "Weld is one in which a piece or member is welded to the face of a plate or pipe by welding along the vertical edge of the piece or member. 220 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting lio.S. PLUG. Symbol :f~*\ Weld / 7 f \CD^ p Fig. 87 A Plug Weld is used to join two pieces by welding through a hole in one to the face of the other. Sometimes both pieces have a hole, the top hole being larger and countersunk so as to per- mit of the flame reaching the lower hole more easily. No. 6. TEE. .— Weld Symbol .- \7 Weld- > Fig. 88 An example of a Tee Weld is where one plate is welded vertically to another plate or to a pipe. Welding Symbols 221 DESIGN" OF WELD Design of weld refers more particularly to the preparation the pieces undergo prior to welding. Of course the manner in which the pieces are prepared determines, for the most part, the way the welding is expected to be done. No. I. SINGLE "V." Symbol^ Fig. 89 The term Single "V" is applied when only one of the pieces to be welded is beveled and the bevel is made from both sides. This implies that the welding is done from both sides. Ho. 2. DOUBLE V Symbol X^ Pig. 90 The term Double "V" is applied when the adjoining edges of both of the pieces to be welded are beveled from both sides and are then "butted" together, thereby forming a trough top and bottom. Welding is done from both sides. 222 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting No. 3. STRAIGHT. Symbol^ Fig. 91 Straight is the term applied to the "edge finish" when this edge is not prepared or beveled at all. The two pieces are simply spaced, and used either with or without a stiffener. No. 4-. SINGLE BEVEL. Symbol:—^ Fig. 92 The term Single Bevel is applied when only one plate or piece is beveled and that piece only from one side. All welding is done from one side. No. 5. DOUBLE BEVEL Symbol-- < — > Fig. 93 Double Bevel is the term applied to the "edge finish" of two adjoining pieces when the edges to be welded of both pieces are beveled from one side only. This preparation forms a trough on one side only and it follows that the welding is done from one side only. Welding Symbols 223 POSITION OF WELD Fig. 94 The above drawing shows the four positions of welding which the location of the welds at times makes it necessary to assume. The Flat Position is the most common and is employed when the welding material is applied to a seam or surface on the same plane as the floor or ground. The Horizontal Position is employed in making a weld when the seam is parallel with the floor or ground. The Vertical Position is encountered when vertical or approx- imately perpendicular to the plane of the floor. The Overhead Position is necessary when welding is done on the underside of a sheet or member. It is the antithesis of the flat position. 224 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting No. K KIND OF WELD TACK. Symbol: fa Fig. 95 A Tack Weld is one where the weld is made in small sections. This kind of welding is not continuous. Frequently the space from center to center of the weld is specified as is also the length of the tack or weld itself. This term is also used for temporarily holding material in position preparatory to be solidly wettied. No. 2. CAULK/NG. Symbol •• f Fig. 96 A Caulking Weld is used only when strength is of little im- portance. Its sole object is to insure a tight join against leak- age of water, oil or air pressure of 25 pounds per square inch. Welding Symbols TYPE OF WELD NQ.t. t 'REINFORCED. Symbol^ 225 Pig. 97 Reinforced is a term applied to a weld when welding material has been added sufficient to build up the welded portion until it is higher than the original sheet or section. This type of weld is employed when maximum strength is desired. No. 2 FLUSH Symbol Fig. 98 Flush is a term applied to a weld when welding material has been added sufficient to make the weld the same height or oi equal thickness as the original sheet. tio.Z CONCAVE Symbol \J Concave is a term applied to a weld when the welding material added is not sufficient to make the welded portion equal in thick- ness to that of the sheet or section. The line of the weld, there- fore forms a trough. This type of weld is to be used when strength is of little importance. CHAPTER XI ELECTRIC WELDING. Spot, Butt and Arc Welding — Direct and Alternating Current Machines — Kinds of Electrodes — Specifica- tions for Electrode Wire — Protection for the Opera- tor — Information Required of Prospective User — Length of Arc-Preparation of Metal for Welding — Expansion and Contraction — Instructions for Be- ginners — Tables and Useful Information. Electric welding was used prior to the introduction of the oxy-acetylene torch. The advocates of gas welding claim that electric welding had remained practically dormant for several years and that the in- troduction and development of gas weld- ing brought to the attention of electrical engineers the possibilities of electric weld- ing and gave it an impetus which it would not have had by itself. Regardless as to that fact, electric welding has become rec- ognized as a successful way of uniting two pieces of metal and it would seem to the author fitting that something should be said relative to the art. There are three kinds of electric welding, spot, butt and arc. RESISTANCE WELDING Spot and butt welding are grouped to- gether under what is known as resistance welding, while arc welding is a process unto itself. 226 Electric Welding 227 Resistance welding has for its basis the well known principle that electricity flow- ing through a poor conductor meets with resistance and heats the conductor. ^ The degree of heat depends upon two things: the volume of current and the resistance of the conductor. In operation, a good conductor, usually of copper, carries the current to the work. The work itself, mainly iron or steel pieces, completes the electric circuit, and as the iron or steel is a poor conductor as com- pared with the copper, the current in pass- ing through heats the iron or steel to a degree where union can be obtained by compression. In resistance welding the in- terior of the metal is raised to a welding temperature before the surface reaches that heat, so the claim is made that if the exterior surface is welded, the interior is also sure to be welded. In the main, this is correct, but it should be borne in mind that with a careless or incompetent oper- ator, it can happen that the exterior is heated almost to the melting point. The interior is at a still higher temperature — possibly melting — in which event gases are formed which explode or "blow," forcing out in a liquid state a portion of the inte- rior, with the result that a hole or pocket is formed in the interior while the exterior 228 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting might present the appearance of a perfect weld. SPOT WELDING Spot welding is used largely on thin sheet metal, although recently some very satisfactory work has been done on sheets % of an inch in thickness. In spot welding, a welded spot serves the purpose formerly done by a rivet, and is applied to work which does not require a continuous joint. The two sheets of metal to be joined are lapped just the same as if they were to be riveted. The sheets are then brought be- tween two electrodes, a suitable alternat- ing current turned on and in its passage from one electrode through the two sheets to the other electrode, it meets with re- sistance in the sheets and heats up a small spot in the sheet. When the sheet becomes hot, pressure is brought to bear and the metal is united in a spot, hence the name. BUTT WELDING This method is used to weld rods, bars, etc., transverse to the length of the pieces. It consists in butting two pieces of metal closely together and passing a suitable al- ternating electric current through them. At the point where the two pieces are in contact, the resistance will, usually in a fraction of a minute, heat the metal up to a point where by simply exerting pressure Electric Welding 229 the two pieces can be squeezed together, producing a union. The pressure and cur- rent are usually maintained until the metal is upset, forming a burr round the weld, thereby forcing out any oxide that may have formed. This is of necessity a quan- tity proposition and is interesting only to the manufacturer. ARC WELDING Of the three kinds of electric welding, arc welding is the only one that is ap- plicable to the repair of broken or defec- tive castings. It is also used for manu- facturing purposes. In arc welding, direct current was used almost exclusively prior to the war, the general impression being that alternating current was not suitable. Those that tried to use alternating current evidently either did not have a properly de- signed machine or did not continue their experiments long enough for the operators to become proficient. However, at the present time there are alternating current transformers on the market with which as good welding can be accomplished as with any direct current machine, although it must be admitted that it is more difficult to hold the arc with the A. C. machine than with the D. C. While the author would warn against placing too much stock in test pieces, it is but fair to state that some 230 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting samples have been welded with A. C, which when tested showed up better than those made with D. C. At any rate, it is possible to get D. C. or A. C. machines to suit one's fancy or current with which good welding can be accomplished. DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES There are today three fundamental types of direct current machines — constant potential, with fixed resistance ; variable potential and constant current. These ma- chines usually comprise a motor generator set. Naturally, the motor can be dispensed with and power to drive the generator taken from line shaft, gasoline engine, etc. A single operator equipment weighs at least a ton, but when mounted on a truck set is at least double that of an alternat- ing current machine. As there are mov- ing parts in a direct current machine, it follows that there must be some wear and a limit to its life. The manufacturers of course claim that these disadvantages are offset by advan- tages which alternating current machines do not possess. ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES The alternating current machine con- sists of a special transformer designed to Electric Welding 231 meet any A. C. power supply, voltage or frequency. Without referring to the qual- ity of the weld, or to the efficiency, because the advocates of both systems claim that good welds can be made with their ma- chines and of course each claims greater efficiency, the advantages which the alter- nating current machine would seem to pos- sess are: 1st. Low first cost. 2nd. Maintenance cost none. 3rd. More portable as the transformer weighs less than 300 pounds. 4th. Any type of electrode can be used. KINDS OF ELECTRODES Formerly a carbon electrode was almost universally used, but of late years the metal electrode has received more atten- tion and at the present time is in much greater favor. "With the carbon electrode, the welding is accomplished very much the same as in oxy-acetylene welding; that is, the electrode, which is a carbon pencil from I/4" to iy 2 " in diameter and pointed at the end, was held in the right hand correspond- ing with the welding torch, while the filler rod is held in the left hand, the arc being substituted in every respect for the acety- lene flame. In the metal electrode process, the elec- 232 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting trode is a metal wire of a diameter ranging from about %" to 3/16". This wire is gradually melted by the heat of the arc and the molten metal is deposited on the work being welded. This wire therefore serves the double purpose of forming the arc and supplying the filler material. When using the metal electrode, the heat is not so in- tense as when using the carbon electrode. The heat spreads over a smaller area and enables the operator to deposit the metal accurately. Metal electrodes can be divided into two classes — bare and covered — but there are several kinds of covered. As the name im- plies, the bare electrode is simply the'bare wire. It is claimed that the bare wire is improved by dipping it in milk of lime (white-wash). This is done by dipping in a tank and allowing it to dry or the welder can have at his side a bottle of the white- wash and dip the wire into it from time to time as occasion requires. As stated above, there are several kinds of covered electrodes. The covering in the main consists of asbestos which has been impregnated with chemicals. The principal object of this covering is to protect the molten metal and prevent oxidation. In addition to the covering mentioned, one brand of wire has a small aluminum wire wrapped around it to fur- Electric Welding 233 ther prevent oxidation. In England the covered wire is almost universally used, while in this country just the reverse is true, Naturally the covered wire is more expensive, costing from two to five times as much as the bare wire. In the tests which were made by the Welding Commit- tee of the U. S. Shipping Board, no differ- ence was noted in the quality of the weld made by either kind. It is a fact, how- ever, that a beginner can hold the arc bet- ter with the coated wire and it is recom- mended that he use it until he has become proficient. SPECIFICATIONS FOR ELECTRODE WIRE Whether bare or covered electrodes ars> used, the opinion is universal that the com- position and quality of the welding wire should be of the very best. There is of course some difference of opinion as to the composition of the wire even in the welding of mild steel. These differences are due largely to the desire to obtain in some instances greater ductility, while in the other cases superior tensile strength is sought. It may be of interest to some to know that the Welding Committee of the Emer- gency Fleet Corporation gave the question of welding wire serious consideration, and with some slight changes the following 234 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting specifications for electric welding in con- nection with mild steel were issued: i. Chemical Composition. Carbon not over 0.18% Manganese " " 0.55% Phosphorus " " 0.05% Sulphur " " 0.05% Silican " " 0.08% 2. Sizes and Weights. Dia. Lbs. per 100 ft. Ft. per 100 Lbs. %" 4.16 2400 5/32" 6.51 1535 3/16" 9.37 1066 3. Material. The material from which the wire is manufactured shall be made by any ap- proved process. Material made by pud- dling process not permitted. 4. Physical Properties. Wire to be of uniform homogeneous structure, free from oxides, pipes, seams, etc., as proved by photomicrographs. 5. Workmanship and Finish. (a) Electric welding wire shall be of the quality and finish known as the "Bright Hard," or "Bright Soft" finish— "Black Annealed," or "Bright Annealed" wire shall not be supplied. Electric Welding 235 (b) The surface shall be free from rust, oil, or grease ; a slight amount due to lubri- cation during last drawing' is permissible. 6. Tests. Electrodes must, before shipment or after delivery, show good commercial weld- ability when tested by an experienced arc welder. The electrode material shall flow smoothly in relatively small particles through the arc without any detrimental phenomena. 7. Delivery, Packing and Shipping. Electrodes shall be furnished in straight lengths of either 14 or 28 inches; put up in bundles of 50 or 100 pounds as ordered. Each bundle shall be wrapped in heavy paper securely wired and marked on one end showing diameter, trade name and grade of wire. PROTECTION FOR THE OPERATOR The light and heat from the arc are ex- tremely strong, that of the carbon arc be- ing much more intense than when using the metal electrode. It is absolutely necessary that the eyes and the skin of the operator be well protected. The helmet is also extensively used for metal electrode work, although a metal shield fitted with dark glasses and held in the left hand is favored by many. 236 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Shields of various design, employing very dark glasses, are used. For carbon arc work, helmets partially or entirely covering the head are univer- sally used, as this type allows free use of both hands. INFORMATION REQUIRED OF PROSPECTIVE USER Those considering the installation of Electric Arc Welding equipment should furnish the manufacturer with at least the following information : 1. What is your power supply (kilowatts available)? If D. C. — give voltage. If A. C. — give voltage, frequency and phase. 2. Are power factor, cost of power and amount of power limiting considerations? 3. Approximately, how many arcs do you require ? (a) Portable. (b) Stationary. 4. Is a large amount of work in prospect or but occasional jobs ? 5. Is your work mostly repair jobs, or is it new construction? 6. If new construction, state thickness of metal, type of joint desired, and if pos- sible furnish blue print or sketch showing work. Electric Welding 237 7. State if metal to be welded is mild steel, high carbon steel, alloy steel. 8. Will it be possible to keep each man on the same job at all times, if a diversity of applications are used? LENGTH OF ARC The use of a short arc with metal elec- trode is universally recommended. If a long arc is used, burnt, spongy metal is sure to result. With certain types of direct cur- rent machines, it is possible to operate with a long arc, and this fact is objected to by competitors on the ground that the oper- ator becoming weary, might, because it required less attention, draw a long arc and produce faulty work. One reason for the objection to the long arc is that more heated metal is exposed to the air for a longer time than is pos- sible using a short arc. As all of the metal is for a time molten and at least a portion of it in the form of vapor, it is in an ideal condition to become oxidized and absorb gases detrimental to it. The short arc is difficult to maintain. A steady hand is of prime importance. Sports and cigar- ette fiends had better try some other vo- cation. When one considers that the electrode should be held about % of an inch away from the metal and this distance mam- 238 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting tained as the electrode is melted away, he will realize that it requires both skill and patience. WHAT METALS CAN BE WELDED Steel, iron and their various alloys can "be welded with the electric arc. The writer feels that, viewed by the present state of the art, the great field for arc welding lies with steel and wrought iron. One fault to be found with the advocates of oxy-acety- lene and electric welding is that they both claim too much — the claims overlap. There that. There must be and is certain work wherein oxy-acetylene is better adapted is enough business for all without doing than electric, and of course the arc can do some things faster and cheaper than acety- lene. The prospective purchaser of weld- ing equipment is entitled to know which process is best adapted for his particular work. Broadly speaking, for general re- pair work — welding of steel, cast iron, brass, bronze and aluminum, the oxy- acetylene process will be found better adapted. If the work is mainly repairing steel or the welding of steel sheets or plates of say V4" thickness and greater, then the electric arc with current below 2c per K. W. H. will be found to be cheaper and faster. The electric people make rather broad claims as Electric Welding 239 to the welding of cast iron. The writer cannot grow enthusiastic over it. The lat- est method of repairing cast iron breaks as advocated by the manufacturers of electric equipment is to drill staggered holes on both sides of the break, thread and screw in steel studs and then join the studs by lacing- back and forth. Where the steel joins the cast iron might be well likened to a caulking edge. This makes a satisfactory repair in most instances, but could hardly be called a true weld. It is unsightly as compared with an oxy-acetylene weld, and when one considers the preparation of drilling and tapping the holes, inserting stud bolts and then welding, the cost is apt to be more than with the acetylene torch. Of course, if one had only an electric welder, by all means use it for cast iron repairs on the theory of "any port in a storm. ' ' PREPARATION OF THE METAL FOR WELDING The preparing of the metal for electric welding does not differ materially from that of oxy-acetylene. On sheet steel or iron up to 3/16 inch in thickness it is not necessary to bevel, while on metal from % inch to y 2 inch in thickness and over, it is necessary to bevel on one side. On metal y 2 inch thickness and over, it is necessary to bevel from both sides. The pieces to 240 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting be welded should not be butted close to- gether, but spaced slightly, about y 8 ". While in oxy-acetylene it is desirable that the metal should be cleaned of rust, grease and dirt, in electric welding this is ab- solutely necessary. Everything that has been said in the preceding chapters rela- tive to preparing work for oxy-acety- lene welding will apply when using the arc. For cleaning purposes either a sand blast, chisel and hammer, wire brush, or emery wheel must be used. After a layer of tiller material has been made and before the next layer is started, it is necessary to clean the oxide off with a wire brush or other means. This is very important as this oxide will be incorporated with the weld and lessen the strength if it is not removed. In oxy-acetylene welding the ox- ide is floated out, but this cannot be done with either the carbon or metal electrode, although the carbon arc does by reason of its greater heat tend to do this to some extent. The preparing of cast iron has already been touched on wherein we stated that practically all manufacturers of electric equipment now recommend that staggered holes be drilled on each side of the weld and these holes threaded and steel studs screwed in. Electric Welding 241 EXPANSION" AND CONTRACTION While the heat from the electric arc is greater and its effect more local than the oxy-acetylene flame, attention must still be given to the matter of expansion and contraction. The same advice and the same rules which we have laid down on this sub- ject under oxy-acetylene welding apply to electric arc, although in some instances to not quite the same degree. He who ignores this will in time find himself in trouble. Just remember heat expands, and as "what gets hot must get cold," contraction follows. INSTRUCTIONS TO BEGINNERS After the machine is installed and before any welding is attempted, the beginner should familiarize himself with its various parts. If the company has an electrician, he should be instructed to point out to the man selected to do the welding the location and purpose of the essential parts of the machine. By preference, choose a young man for an operator, but by all means choose an intelligent one. Too often com- mon labor of a low order of intelligence is selected with disappointing results. After the operator understands the uses of the various parts, get a piece of scrap boiler plate and place it on the welding 242 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting table to practice on. Clean this plate of all rust, scale, grease or paint. Fasten a piece of 5/32" welding wire in the electrode holder. Sit on a stool and put on helmet. The helmet is preferred to the hand shield for the beginner, as it permits free use of both hands. A green man is apt to be nervous and he will find that he can hold the wire steadier with both hands than he can with one. Touch the end of the weld- ing wire to the boiler plate. A spark will result and the wire will be very apt to stick to the plate. If it does, pull it loose, and next time try touching the plate by scratching the welding wire sidewise. A spark will result and then try to draw the wire about %" away from the plate. Try this again and again, using up 100 pieces of wire if necessary until an arc can be maintained. When satisfied that an arc can be main- tained, it is then necessary to learn to main- tain a short arc. This is of the utmost im- portance. The arc should be about % of an inch long, and if instead it is % or % of an inch, the weld will be of no value. With some types of machines it is impossible to hold any other kind of an arc than a short arc so that what we have said does not apply, but with other types of machines, it is possible to have a longer arc, and what we want to do is to warn against it. Electric Welding 243 The next thing to impress upon the be- ginner 's mind is where and how the molten metal from the electrode is to be deposited on to the sheet or casting being welded. During the operation of learning to main- tain the arc, the operator should watch the effect of the heat on the sheet or casting. He will notice that a small pool of molten metal is produced. Now it is necessary that the molten metal from the electrode wire be deposited drop by drop on or in this small pool of molten metal. Too much metal should not be added at a time for the reason that it will run over the edge of the pool and be deposited on metal which is not in a molten state, with the result that while it sticks to a certain extent, it is far from being welded. Aside from current regula- tions these two things are the most impor- tant in the manipulation of the arc, that is, maintaining a short arc and depositing the molten metal from the wire on the right place. The beginner should next practice de- positing metal on to a plate in order to obtain control. He can first draw a line with a piece of soapstone and try to follow this line. After he has gained some skill in doing this, he will then try to do the same thing without having a line by which to be guided. After making a number of these kinds of welds, which are really after 244 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting all simply a " building -up" process, he should take a chisel and hammer and ex- amine them. He will probably find that at the beginning of the weld it will chip off readily, and this is largely due to having held too long an arc. He should also ex- amine the weld at its end or where he left off and he will notice that a sunken place or crater has been left at the point where the arc was broken. If this crater is too deep or of too great a diameter, it will be difficult to start welding at this point. Ob- viously, the thing to do is to try and not leave a large crater when breaking the arc, and this result is best obtained by crowd- ing down the arc until enough metal is added and then suddenly breaking the arc by pulling the wire quickly to one side. After practicing this sufficiently long enough to obtain good adhesion and proper alignment, the operator should then try building up or adding a layer on to another. After one layer has been made and before starting another, it is absolutely necessary, as stated before, that the added metal should be thoroughly cleaned of oxides and scale. This is done by means of a wire brush or chisel and hammer. The means used are of no consequence, but it must be absolutely clean if a good weld is to be expected. When this work has been done S r + innt the operator feels that he is fairly Electric Welding 245 proficient and lias confidence in himself, he then can start -on welding two pieces to- gether. We have already explained how the pieces should be beveled and separated preparatory to starting the work. He should practice flat welding first and learn to do this thoroughly. Then he can start welding on a plate inclined to an angle of 45°, and when he has this mastered, he can raise the plate to an angle of 90° and prac- tice in that position. 246 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting TABLES AND USEFUL INFORMATION WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS METALS Av. weight Av. weight of 1 cu. ft. of 1 cu. in. in pounds in pounds Grey Iron 450 .2606 Wrought Iron 480 .278 Mercury 849 .491 Silver 655 .579 Aluminum 162 .0932 Cast Copper 542 .313 Rolled Copper 555 .321 Steel 490 .283 Tin 459 .265 Zinc 437.5 .252 METRIC AND ENGLISH SYSTEMS 1 pound 1 inch lfoot 1 mile 1 sq. inch 1 sq. foot 1 cubic inch 1 cubic foot 1 quart 1 Kilogram 1 Millimeter 1 metre 1 Kilometer 1 Sq. Millimeter 1 Sq. Metre 1 Cu. Centimeter equivalent to 1 Cu. Metre equivalent to 1 Litre equivalent to .4536 25.4 .3048 1.6094 equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to 645.2 equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to equivalent to Kilograms Millimeters Meters Kilometers Sq. Millimeters .09291 Sq. Meters 16.39 Cu. Centimeters .02832 Cu. Meters 1.101 Litres 2.2047 Pounds .0394 Inches 3.2807 Feet .6213 Miles .00155 Sq. Inch 10.763 Sq. Feet .0610 Cubic Inch 35.3105 Cubic Feet 61.017 Cubic Inches Electric Welding TABLE SHOWING THE ORDER OF 247 Malleability Ductility Tenacity Infusibility Gold Platinum Iron Platinum Silver Silver Copper Iron Aluminum Iron Aluminum Copper Copper Copper Platinum Gold Tin Gold Silver Silver Lead Aluminum Zinc Aluminum Zinc Zinc Gold Lead Platinum Tin Tin Zinc Iron Lead Lead Tin To transform temperature readings from Centi- grade to Fahrenheit double the centigrade number, diminish it by one-tenth of itself and add 32. As an example: 100 degrees Centigrade is equivalent to 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Doubling 100 gives us 200, deduct- ing one-tenth leaves 180 and adding 32 we have 212. For changing Fahrenheit into Centigrade the rule is, subtract 32, increase the remainder by one-ninth of itself and take one-half. To find diameter of a circle multiply circumference by .31831. To find circumference of a circle multiply diameter by 3.141G. To find area of a circle multiply square of diameter by .7854. To find surface of a ball multiply square of diameter by 3.1416. To find side of an equal square multiply diameter by .8862. To find cubic inches in a ball multiply cube of diam- eter by .5236. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. Double riveting is from 16 to 20 per cent, stronger than single. A gallon of water (U. S. Standard) weighs 8 1-3 pounds and contains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water contains 7% gallons, 1728 cubic inches, and weighs 62% pounds. '248 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting To sharpen dull files lay them in dilute sulphuric acid until they are eaten deep enough. A horse power is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds one foot per minute, or 550 pounds one foot per second. To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. INDEX PAGE Acetylene, compressed 11 Acetylene, cost of generating 14 Acetylene, cost of tanked 14 Acetylene, different methods of generating • 9 Acetylene discovered 7 Acetylene, effect of heat on 10 Acetylene flame, regulation of 97 Acetylene, generator 71 Acetylene, hottest flame known 22 Acetylene, how exploded 10 Acetylene, how obtained 7, 8 Acetylene, ignition point 24 Acetylene, its composition 7 Acetylene, manufacturers of compressed 24 Acetylene, specific gravity of 23 Acetylene, toxic action 13 Acetylene, weight of 23 All welded door and flue sheets 150 All welded fire box 148 Alternating current machines 231 Aluminum oil pan, welding of 184 Aluminum solder 200 Aluminum, soldering 198 Aluminum, welding of 115 Arc, length of 237 Arc welding 229 Automobile cylinder, welding of 178 Automobile frames, welding of 190 Best gas for welding 21 Beveling 86 Blow holes in cast-iron 107 Boiler flues, welding of 176 Boiler welding 141 Brass and bronze, welding of 113 Brass welding 113 Bridges of flue sheet, welding of 162 Bronze welding 113 Building up caulking edge 174 Butt welding 228 249 250 INDEX PAGE. Calcium carbide 7 Calcium carbide, discovery of 7 Calcium carbide, gas yield of 14 Calcium carbide, its manufacture . 8 Calcium carbide, manufacturers of 24 Calcium carbide, price of 14 Carbon burning 206 Cast-iron, blow holes in 107 Cast-iron, hard spots in 105 Cast-iron welding 104 Caulking edge, building up 174 Chemistry of oxygen and acetylene combustion .... 51 Clamps for sheet metal 204 Combustion, chemistry of oxygen and acetylene . . 51 Composition of acetylene 7 Compressed acetylene 11 Contraction of metals 92; Copper acetylide 23 Copper, welding of 114 Cost card for shop ."....,. 213 Cost of generating acetylene 14 Cost of tanked acetylene 14 Crack, welding of 155 Cracks in side sheet, welding of 159 Cracks in throat sheet, welding of 159 Crank case arm, welding of . 183 Crank shaft, welding of 188 Cutting, oxygen required for 61 Cutting torch 58 Cutting torch, first users of 61 Cutting torch, operation of 59 Design of weld 221, 222 Dies, welding of 195 Direct current machines 230 Disadvantages of generator 20 Discovery of acetylene 7 Discovery of calcium carbide 7 Dissociation point of a fuel gas 22 Door and flue sheets, all welded 150 Door collars, welding of 167 Door holes, welding of 170 Effect of heat on acetylene 10 Effect on metal of cutting 62 INDEX 251 PAGE Electric welding 226 Electric welding, preparation for 239 Electrode wire 234 Endothermic compound 22 Execution of a weld 100 Expansion of metals 92 Finishing a weld while hot 204 Fire box, all welded 148 Flame propagation, effect of 44 Flame, regulation of acetylene 97 Flash-back 44 Flue sheet, welding bridges of 162 Fly wheel, welding of 185 Gauges 70 Generator, acetylene 71 Generator, disadvantages of 20 Generator outfit, installing 80 Generator, portable 75 Generators, carbide to water 9 Goggles 71 Hard spots in cast-iron 105 High carbon steel, welding of 112 High pressure torch 47 Hydrogen for cutting 63 Ignition point of acetylene 24 Installing generator outfit 80 Installing tank outfit 76 Instructions for electric arc welding 241 Jig for holding crank shafts 188 Joint, type of 218-220 Kind of weld * 224 Lead burning 120 Leaking regulator 69 Length of arc 237 Low pressure torch 47 Machine welding - 129 Malleable iron, welding of 119 Manganese steel, welding of 197 Manufacture of calcium carbide 8 Manufacturers of calcium carbide 24 Metals, contraction of 92 Metals, expansion of 92 Metals, melting point of 97 Metals welded with the arc 238 252 INDEX PAGE Methods of generating acetylene 9 Nipples, welding of 128 Operation of cutting torch 59 Oxygen 27 Oxygen manufacturers, policy of 35 Oxygen, market price of 35 Oxygen, methods of making 28 Oxygen, purity of 41 Oxygen regulator 66 Oxygen required for cutting 61 Oxygen, specific gravity of . 27 Oxygen, weight of 27 Patch, welding of .* 155 Pipe,, speed of welding 139 Pipe, tests of welded 138 Pipe, welding of 132 Position of weld 223 Price of oxygen 35 Pre-heating methods 88 Preparation for electric welding 239 Preparing for welding . 85 Price of calcium carbide 14 Price of oxygen 35 Questionnaire for electric welder prospect 236 Receipt ticket for shop 216 Regulation of acetylene flame 97 Regulator, care of 68 Regulator, leaking 69 Regulator, oxygen 66 Repairing scored cylinders 200 Resistance welding 226 Rod, size of welding 102 Sheet-iron, welding of 122 Soldering aluminum 198 Specifications for electrode wire 234 Specific gravity of acetylene 23 Specific gravity of oxygen 27 Speed of pipe welding 139 Spot welding 228 Stake for holding sheet-iron 125 Steel, welding of high carbon 112 Steel, welding of mild : 109 Symbols, welding 218-225 Tables of useful information 246 Tank outfit, installing 76 INDEX 253 PAGE Temperature, effect on gas pressure of 36 Tempering 203 Tests of welded pipe 138 Torch, cutting 58 Torch, high pressure 47 Torch, low pressure 47 Torch, objections to low pressure 55 Torches, kinds of welding 46 Torches, opinion of authorities on 48 Toxic action of acetylene 13 Type of joint 218-220 Type of weld 225 Useful information 246 Weight of acetylene 23 Weight of oxygen 27 Weld, design of 221, 222 Weld Weld Weld Weld Welded pipe, tests of 138 Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld execution of a 100 kind of 224 position of 223 type of 225 ng aluminum oil pan 184 ng, arc 229 ng auto cylinder 178 ng auto frames 190 ng, best gas for 21 ng boiler flues 176 ng boilers 141 ng bridges of flue sheet 162 ng, butt 228 ng cast-iron 104 ng cracks in side sheet 159 ng cracks in throat sheet . 159 ng crank case arm 183 ng crank shaft 188 ng door collars 167 ng door holes 170 ng door sheet with sides riveted 154 ng double mud-ring patch 165 ng, electric 226 ng fire box three feet high 145 ng fly wheel . 185 ng half door sheets 151 ng high carbon to low carbon steel 196 ng horizontal crack in flue sheet knuckle . . 171 254 INDEX PAGE Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld W r eld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld ng horse 193 ng large cylinder 187 ng locomotive half side sheet 141 ng lug on cylinder . 181 ng manganese steel 197 ng mud-ring patch around fire-box 1G6 ng of aluminum 115 ng of brass and bronze 113 ng of copper 114 ng of dies 195 ng of high carbon steel 112 ng of malleable iron 119 ng of mild steel 109 ng of nipples in sheet-iron 128 ng of pipe 132 ng of sheet-iron 122 ng patch 155 ng patch at edge of flue sheet 173 ng patch at top of flue sheet 164 ng patch in center of flue sheet 163 ng, preparing for 85 ng, resistance 226 ng rod, size of 102 ng sheet to mud-ring 175 ng simple crack 155 ng, spot 228 ng symbols 218-225 ng tank partitions • • • • 191 ng torches 46 ng vertical crack in flue sheet knuckle 172 CATALOGUE of LATEST and BEST Practical Mechanical Automobile BOOKS PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR PRACTICAL MEN Any of these books will be sent prepaid to any part of the world on receipt of price. Remit by Draft, Postal Order, Express Order or Registered Letter. Published and For Sale by THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. I 2 West 45th Street, New York, U. S. A. INDEX TO SUBJECTS Accidents 27 Air Brake 25 Arithmetic 15, 29, 37 Automobiles. . .3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Automobile Charts 7 Aviation 8 Batteries 19 Bevel Gears 22 Brazing and Soldering. . 9 * Cams 22 Carburetors 5 Car Charts 9 Charts 7, 8, 9, 10 Chemistry 10 Coal 27 Coke 10 Compressed Air 10 Concrete 11, 12, 13 Cosmetics 34 Dictionaries 14, 19 Dies— Metal Work 13 Drawing — Sketching Paper 14, 15 Dynamo 15, 16 Electric Bells 16 Electricity, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 Electroplating 20 Ford Automobile 6 Gas and Gasoline Engines 21, 22 Gearing and Cams 22 Hydraulics 22 Ice and Refrigeration... 23 Inventions — Patents .... 23 Knots 23 Lathe Work 24 Link Motion 26 Liquid Air 25 Locomotive Engineering, 25, 26, 27, 28 Machinery and Machine Shop Practice 28, 29, 30, 31 Manual Training 32 Marine Engineering .... 32 Mechanical Movements . 30 Metal Work Dies 13 Mining 32 Model Making 33 Motor Boats 33 Motorcycles 33 Motor Truck 4 Paper, Drawing 14 Patents and Inventions. . 23 Pattern Making 34 Perfumery 34 Plumbing ..34, 35 Radio 16, 18, 19 Recipe Book 35, 40 Refrigeration and Ice. . . 23 Repairing Automobiles. . . 6 Rubber 36 Saws 36 Screw Cutting 36 Sheet Metal Work 13 Smoke Prevention ....>.. 27 Soldering 9 Starting Systems 5 Steam Engineering. .. .36, 37 Steam Heating and Ven- tilating 38 Steel 38 Storage Batteries 19 Switchboards 17 Tapers 24 Telephone 20 Thread Cutting 29 Tool Making 31 Tractor 6, 39 Ventilation 38 Waterproofing 13 Welding 5, 39 Wiring 17, 18, 20 Wireless Telegraphy, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 of these books will be sent prepaid to any part of the world, on receipt of price. REMIT by Draft, Postal Money Order, Express Money Order, or by Registered Mail. YOUR LIBRARY IS NOT COMPLETE UNLESS YOU HAVE IN IT, FOR REFERENCE, A COPY OF HENLEY'S 20TH CENTURY RECIPE BOOK (See Page 40 for Full Description) AUTOMOBILES The Modern Gasoline Automobile, Its Design, Construction, Operation. By Victor W. Page, M.S.A.E. This is the most complete, practical, and up-to-date treatise on gasoline automobiles and their component parts ever published. In the new revised and much enlarged edition, all phases of automobile construc- tion, operation and maintenance are fully and completely described and in language anyone can understand. Every part of all types of automobiles, from light cyclecars to heavy motor trucks and tractors, are described in a thorough manner; not only the automobile, but every item of its equipment, accessories, tools needed, supplies and spare parts necessary for its upkeep, are fully discussed. It is clearly and concisely written by an expert familiar^ with every branch of the automobile industry and the originator of the practical system of self -education on technical subjects; it is a liberal education in the automobile art, useful to all who motor for either business or pleasure. Anyone reading the incomparable treatise is in touch with all improvements that have been made in motor car construction. All latest de- velopments, such as high speed aluminum motors and mul- tiple valve and sleeve valve engines, are considered in detail. The latest ignition, carburetor and lubrication prac- tice is outlined. New forms of change speed gears, and final power transmission systems, and all latest chassis im- provements, are shown and described. This book is used as a text in all leading automobile schools, and is conceded to be the standard treatise. This book is not too technical for the layman nor too elementary for the more expert. It is an incomparable work of reference for home or school, 6x9. Cloth, 1,032 pages, nearly 1,000 illustrations, 12 folding plates. New Edition just published. Price, $4.00 Hints and Tips for Automobilists. By Victor W. Page. The book is ideal for the busy man or woman who wants to know about car operation and upkeep _ because of the economies possible when an automo- bile is intelligently operated. It contains many money-saving hints and a brief simple exposition of location and remedy of roadside troubles apt to occur under ordinary operating conditions. Price, 75 cents Questions and Answers Relating to Modern Auto- mobile Construction, Driving and Repair. By Victor W. Page. A self-educator on automobiling, with- out an equal. This practical treatise consists of a series of thirty-seven lessons, covering with over 2,020 questions and their answers — the automobile, its construction, operation and repair. The subject matter is absolutely correct and explained in simple language. If you can't answer all of the following questions, you need this work. The answers to these and 2,000 more are to be found in its pages. Give the names of all important parts of an automobile and describe their functions. Describe action of latest types of kerosene carburetors. What is the difference between a "'double" ignition system^ and a "dual" ignition system, Name parts of an induction coil. How are valves timed? What is an electric motor starter and how does it work? What are advantages of worm drive gearing? Name all important types of ball and roller bearings. What is a "three-quarter" floating axle? — etc., etc. Answers every question asked relating to the modern automobile. A popu- lar work at a popular price. S l A x 7 l />. Cloth, 701 pages, 387 illustrations, 3 folding plates. New Edition just pub- lished. Price, $2.50 How to Run an Automobile. By Victor W. Page. This treatise gives concise instruc- tions for starting and running all makes of gasoline auto- mobiles, how to care for them, and gives distinctive features of control. # Describes every step for shifting gears, con- trolling engine, etc. Among the chapters contained are: I. Automobile Parts and Their Functions. II. General Starting and Driving Instructions. III. Typical Control Systems — Care of Automobiles. Thoroughly illustrated. 178 pages, 72 illustrations. Price, $1.50 The Modern Motor Truck, Its Design, Construc- tion, Operation and Repair. By Victor W. Page. Just off the press and treats on all types of motor trucks and industrial tractors and trailers. It considers all types of _ trucks, gasoline # and electric and all varieties of truck bodies. This book is^ written in lan- guage everyone can understand and is not in any sense of the word a technical treatise. It is a practical volume that will make special appeal to the truck driver who seeks to better his position and to the mechanic charged with the repair and upkeep of trucks. The factory or business exec- utive who wants to obtain a complete working knowledge of truck operation problems will find this book a reference work of great value. The truck salesman or automobile dealer will find that this work contains information that means money to them. All garage and service station men should have a copy of this book for reference^ because truck con- struction differs from passenger car design in many impor- tant respects. Anyone who reads this book is in touch with all the practical features that have been tested out in real service. Just Issued. Cloth, 6x9, 800 pages, 750 illus- trations. Price, $5.00 Gasoline and Kerosene Carburetors, Construction, Installation and Adjustment. By Victor W. Page All leading types of carburetors are described in detail, special attention being given to the forms devised to use the cheaper fuels such as kerosene. Carbure- tion troubles, fuel system troubles, carburetor repairs and installation, electric primers and economizers, hot spot mani- folds and all modern carburetor developments are considered in a thorough manner. _ Methods of adjusting all types of carburetors are fully discussed as well as suggestions for securing maximum fuel economy and obtaining highest en- gine power. 250 pages, 89 illustrations. Price, $2.00 Automobile Starting, Lighting and Ignition Sys- tems. By Victor W. Page. A practical treatise on latest auto- mobile starting, lighting and ignition system practice. This practical volume has been written with special reference to the requirements of the reader desiring easily understood explanatory matter relating to all types of automobile elec- trical systems. It can be understood by anyone, even with- out electrical knowledge, because elementary electrical prin- ciples are considered before any attempt is made to discuss features of the various systems. These basic principles are clearly stated and illustrated with simple diagrams. All the leading systems of starting, lighting and ignition have been described and illustrated with the cooperation of the experts employed by the manufacturers. Over 200 wiring diagrams are shown in both technical and nontechnical forms. Com- plete data is given for locating troubles in all systems, the various steps being considered in a logical^ way for those without expert electrical knowledge. < All ignition systems receive full consideration, starting with the simplest battery and coil forms found on early cars to the modern short- contact timer and magneto methods used with the latest eight and twelve-cylinder motors. Full directions are given for making all repairs and complete instructions for locating troubles with meters. _ This book is unusually complete, as it also includes descriptions of various accessories operated by electric current, such as electrical gear shifts, brake actua- tion, signaling devices, vulcanizers, etc. This is the standard book on this subject. It is used for instruction purposes in every automobile school and college in this country. Over 800 pages, 492 specially made engravings and wiring diagrams. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Price, $3.00 Automobile Welding with the Oxy-Acetylene Flame. By M. Keith Dunham. Explains in a simple manner ap- paratus to be used, its care, and how to construct necessary shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all automobile parts, in a manner understandable by everyone. Gives principles never to be j 'or gotten. This book is of ut- most value, since the perplexing problems arising when metal is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the proper methods to overcome them shown. 167 pages, fully illustrated. Price, $1.50 Automobile Repairing Made Easy. By Victor W. Page. A thoroughly practical book contain- ing complete directions for making repairs to all parts of the motor car mechanism. Written in a thorough but non- technical manner. Gives plans for workshop construction, suggestions for equipment, power needed, machinery and tools necessary to carry on business successfully. Tells how to overhaul and repair all parts of all automobiles. The information given is founded on practical experience, every- thing is explained so simply that motorists and students can acquire a full working knowledge of automobile repairing. Other works dealing with repairing cover only certain parts of the car — this work starts with the engine, then considers carburetion, ignition, cooling and lubrication systems. The clutch, change speed gearing and transmission system are considered in detail. Contains instructions for repairing all types of axles, steering gears 'and other chassis parts. Many tables, short cuts in figuring and rules of practice are given for the mechanic. Explains fully valve and mag- neto timing, "tuning" engines, systematic location of trouble, repair of ball and roller bearing, shop kinks, first aid to injured and a multitude of subjects of interest to all in the garage and repair business. This book also contains Special Instructions on Electric Starting, Lighting and Ignition Sys- tems, Tire Repairing and Rebuilding, Autogenous Welding, Brazing and Soldering, Heat Treatment of Steel, Latest Timing Practice, Eight and Twelve-Cylinder Motors, etc., etc. You will never "Get Stuck" on a Job if you own this book. 1,000 specially made engravings on 500 plates. 1,056 pages (5J4 x 8). New Edition. Price, $4.00 The Model T Ford Car, Its Construction, Opera- tion and Repair, Including the Fordson Farm Tractor, F. A. Lighting and Starting System, Ford Motor Truck. By Victor W. Page. This is the most complete and prac- tical instruction book ever published on the Ford car and Fordson tractor. All parts of the Ford Model T car and Fordson tractor are described and illustrated in a compre- hensive manner. The construction is fully treated and op- erating principle made clear to everyone. Complete in- structions for driving and repairing are given. To the New Revised Edition matter has been added on the Ford Truck and Tractor Conversion Sets and Genuine Fordson Trac- tor. All parts are described. All repair processes illustrated and fully explained. Written so all can understand — no theory, no guesswork. New revised and enlarged Edition just published. 153 illustrations, 410 pages, 2 large folding plates. Price, $2.00 Automobilisfs Pocket Companion and Expense Record. By Victor W. Page. This book is not only valuable as a convenient cost record, but contains much information of value to motorists. Includes a condensed digest of auto laws of all States. A collection of practical facts for the every- day motorist. Convenient pocket size. Price, $1.50 Automobile Charts By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E. UNIFORM SIZE— 24" x 38" — PRICE 35 CENTS EACH t ■ l location of Gasoline Engine Troubles Made Easy. This chart shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle type. It simplifies location of all engine troubles. No details omitted. (24x38.) Price, 35 cents Location of Carburetion Troubles Made Easy. It shows clearly how to find carburetion troubles and names all defects liable to exist in the various parts. Instructions are given for carburetor adjustment, vacuum feed tank troubles, pressure feed system, etc. (24 x 38-) Price, 35 cents Location of Ignition System Troubles Made Easy. In this chart all parts of a typical double ignition system using battery and magneto current are shown, and suggestions are given for readily finding ignition troubles and eliminating them when found. Includes latest Delco, Connecticut and other systems. (24 x 38.) Price, 35 cents Location of Cooling and Lubricating Troubles. This is a combination chart showing all components of the ap- proved form of water cooling group as well as a modern engine lubrication system. It shows all points where defects exist that may result in engine overheating, both incooling and oiling systems. (24 x 38.) Price, 35 cents Lubrication'of the Motor Car Chassis. This chart presents the plan view of a typical'six-cylinder chassis ©f standard design and outlines all important bearing points re- quiring lubrication, and is a valuable guide to the correct lubrication of any modern car. A practical chart for all interested in motop car maintenance. (24 x 38.) Price, 35 cents I While ' each of the above five charts are complete, the set covers all maintenance instructions for the entire automobile. Location of Starting and Lighting System Faults. The most complete chart yet devised, showing all parts of the modern automobile starting, lighting and ignition systems, giving in- structions for systematic location of all faults in wiring, lamps, motor or generator, switches and all other units. Invaluable to motorists, chauffeurs and repairmen. Size 24 x 38 inches. price, 35 cents Location of Ford Engine Troubles Made Easy. An enlarged and revised chart showing clear sectional view9 depicting all portions of the Ford power plant and auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply systems, ignition group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derangements that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard, or work irregularly. This chart simplifies location of all engine faults, and includes instructions for locating Ford electric starter troubles. Size 25 x 38 inches. Price, 35 cents Location of Motorcycle Troubles Made Easy. This chart simplifies location of all power-plant troubles and will prove of value to all who have to do with the operation, repair cr sale of motorcycles. No details omitted. Size 20 x 30 inches. Price, 35 cents 7 AVIATION A B C of Aviation. By Capt. V. W. Page. This book describes the basic prin- ciples of aviation, tells how a balloon or dirigible is made and why it floats in the air. Describes how an airplane flies. It shows in detail the different parts of an airplane, what they are and what they do. Describes all types of airplanes and how they differ in construction; as well as detailing the advantages and disadvantages of different types of aircraft. It includes a complete dictionary of aviation terms and clear drawings of leading airplanes. The reader will find simple instructions for unpacking, setting up and rigging airplanes. A full description of airplane control principles is given and methods of flying are discussed at length. This book answers every question one can ask about mod- ern aircraft, their construction and operation. 275 pages, 130 specially made illustrations with 7 plates. Price, $2.50 Aviation Engines — Design; Construction; Repair. By Lieut. Victor W. Page, Aviation Section, S.C.U.S.R. The matter is logically arranged; all descriptive macter is simply expressed and copiously illustrated, so that anyone can understand airplane engine operation and repair even if without previous mechanical training. This work is inval- uable for anyone desiring to become an aviator or aviation mechanician. 576 pages, 253 illustrations. Price, $3.00 Aviation Chart. By Lieut. Victor W. Page. A large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the common defects. Intended especially for aviators and aviation mechanics on school and field duty. Price, 35 cents Applied Aerodynamics. By G. P. Thompson. This is a scientific and mathematical treatise that has a special appeal to the student and engineer who are seeking exact information on the aerodynamics of heavier-than-air craft and data on airplane design testing. This book gives an up-to-date presentation of the existing state of Aeronautical Science. In addition to a very full discussion of the qualities which determine the speed and rate of climb of an aeroplane and the method by which they can be calculated, special attention is paid to stability — a problem now fairly well understood, and to controllability — our knowl- edge of which is at present in a much more elementary state. Attention is directed_ to the numerous directions in which further information is required, especially in the form of full-scale experiments. 312 pages (7x10). Illustrated with over 142 Diagrams and Graphic Charts. Price, $12.50 Glossary of Aviation Terms — English-French; French-English. A complete glossary of practically all terms used in avia- tion, having lists in both French and English with equivalents in either language compiled by Victor W. Page and Paul Montariol. Pricej $1.00 8 BRAZING AND SOLDERING Brazing and Soldering. By James F. Hobart. The only book that shows you just how to handle any job of brazing or soldering that comes along; it tells ycu what mixture to use, how to make a furnace if you need one. Full of valuable kinks. The fifth edition of this book has jusl been published, and to it much new matter and a large number of tested formulas for all kinds of solders and fluxes have been added. 35 cents Soldering and Brazing. By Raymond Francis Yates. This treatise gives all the necessary "kinks" that will enable one to accomplish suc- cessful soldering. If a mechanic has not succeeded m his soldering, this book may tell him just what he needs to produce good work— something that he may heretofore have forgotten! Price, 75 cents CHARTS Modern Submarine Chart— With 200 Parts Num- bered and Named. A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a submarine of the latest type. No details omitted — everything is accurate and to scale. This chart is really an encyclopedia of a submarine. Price, 35 cents Box Car Chart. A chart showing the anatomy of a box car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a refer- ence list. Price, 35 cents Gondola Car Chart. A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper reference name given in a reference list. Price, 35 cents Passenger Car Chart. A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger car, haying every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list. Price, 35 cents Steel Hopper Bottom Coal Car. A chart showing the anatomy of a steel hopper bottom coal car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list. Price, 35 cents Tractive Power Chart. A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar pull of any locomotive without making a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and steam pressure affect the power. What sized engine you need to exert a given drawbar pull or anything you desire in this line. 6 Price, 50 cents Horse-power Chart. Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure or cut-off, the revolutions, or whether condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate and saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. Price, 50 cents Boiler Room Chart. By George L. Fowler. A chart — size 14 x 28 inches — show- ing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a modern boiler room. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room — the names of more than 200 parts being given. Price, 35 cents CHEMISTRY How to Make and Use a Small Chemical Labo- ratory. By Raymond Francis Yates. The treatise covers all of the essentials of elementary chemistry. The law of definite pro- portions, solutions, crystalloids, colloids, electrolysis, etc., are explained. The second part of the book is devoted to chemi- cal and electro-chemical experiments. Only those experi- ments that will tend to broaden the reader's knowledge of chemistry in general have been chosen. Price, 75 cents COKE Coke — Modern Coking Practice, Including An- alysis of Materials and Products. By J. E. Christopher and T. H. Byrom. This, the standard work on the subject, has just been revised and is now issued in two volumes. It is a practical work for those engaged in Coke manufacture and the recovery of By-products. Fully illustrated with folding plates. Among the chapters contained in Volume I are: Introduction; Classification of Fuels; Im- purities of Coals; Coal Washing; Sampling and Valuation of Coals, etc.; Chlorific Power of Fuels; History of Coke Man- ufacture; Developments in Coke Oven Design; Recent Types of Coke Ovens; Mechanical Appliances at Coke Ovens; Chem- ical and Physical Examination of Coke. Volume II covers By-products. Each volume is fully illustrated, with folding plates. Price, $3.00 per volume COMPRESSED AIR Compressed Air in All Its Applications. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is the most complete book on the subject of air that has ever been issued, and its thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. It may be called an encyclopedia of compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 665 pages, has dealt with the subject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. Over 500 illustrations. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth bound. Price, $6.00 10 CONCRETE Concrete Wall Forms. By A. A. Houghton. A new automatic wall clamp, is illus- trated with working drawings. Other types of wall forms, clamps, separators, etc., are also illustrated and explained. Price, 75 cents Concrete Floors and Sidewalks. By A. A. Houghton. The molds for molding squares, hex- agonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and sidewalk blocks are fully illustrated and explained. Price, 75 cents Practical Concrete Silo Construction. By A. A. Houghton. Complete working drawings and speci- fications are given for several styles of concrete silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The tables, data, and information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing all forms of concrete silos. Price, 75 cents Molding Concrete Bath Tubs, Aquariums and Natatoriums. By A. A. Houghton. Simple molds and instruction are given for molding different styles of concrete bath tubs, 6wimming pools, etc. Price, 75 cents Molding Concrete Chimneys, Slate and Roof Tiles. By A. A. Houghton. _ The manufacture of all types of con- crete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Valuable data on all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within its pages. The construction of concrete chimneys by block and monolithic systems is fully illustrated and described. A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds are shown in this valuable treatise. Price, 75 cents Molding and Curing Ornamental Concrete. By A. A. Houghton. The proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various finishes, also the methods of thor- oughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive treatise on this subject that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value. Price, 75 cents Concrete Monuments, Mausoleums and Burial Vaults. By A. A. Houghton. The molding of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is explained in this treatise, with working drawings of easily built molds. Cut- ting inscriptions and designs is also fully treated. Price, 75 cents Concrete Bridges, Culverts and Sewers. By A. A. Houghton. A number of ornamental concrete bridges with illustrations of molds are given. A collapsible center of core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illus- trated with detailed instructions for building. Price, 75 cents 11 Constructing Concrete Porches. By A. A. Houghton. A number of designs with working drawings of molds are fully explained so any one can easily construct different styles of ornamental concrete porches without the purchase of expensive molds. Price, 75 cents Molding Concrete Flower Pots, Boxes, Jardi- nieres, Etc. By A. A. Houghton. The molds for producing many origi- nal designs of flower pots, urns, flower boxes, jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct and operate same. Price, 75 cents Molding Concrete Fountains and Lawn Orna- ments. By A. A. Houghton. The molding of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun dials and other forms of orgamental concrete, for the ornamentation of lawns and gardens, is fully illustrated and described. Price, 75 cents Concrete on the Farm and in the Shop. By H. Colvin Campbell. Among the subjects treated are: Principles of reinforcing; methods of protecting concrete so as to insure proper hardening; home-made mixers; mixing by hand and machine; form construction, described and illustrated by drawings and photographs; construction of concrete walls and fences; concrete fence posts; concrete gate posts; corner posts; clothes line posts; grape arbor posts; tanks; troughs; cisterns; hog wallows; feeding floors and barnyard pavements; foundations; well curbs and plat- forms; indoor floors; sidewalks; steps; concrete hotbeds and cold frames; concrete slab roofs; walls for buildings; repair- ing leaks in tanks and cisterns; and all topics associated with these subjects as bearing upon securing the best results from concrete are dwelt upon at sufficient length in plain every-day English so that the inexperienced person desiring to _ under- take a piece of concrete construction can, by following the directions set forth in this book, secure 100 per cent success every time. 150 pages, 51 illustrations. Price, $1.00 Concrete From Sand Molds. By A. A. Houghton. A practical work treating on a proc- ess which has heretofore been held as a trade secret by the few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every and any class of ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand molds is of the utmost practi- cal value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds, the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all ornamental designs, density and increased strength of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention and the easy removal of the molds regardless of any under- cutting the design may have. 192 pages. Fullv illustrated. Cloth. Price, $2.00 12 Ornamental Concrete Without Molds. By A. A. Houghton. The process for making ornamental concrete without molds has long been held as a secret; and now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. The book reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical method whereby the con- crete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal tem- plates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete any cornice, archivolt, column, pedestal, base cap, urn or pier in a monolithic form — right upon the job. These may be molded in units or blocks, and then built_ up to suit the specifications demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Cloth. Price, $2.00 Popular Handbook for Cement and Concrete Users. By Myron H. Lewis. Everything of value to the concrete user is contained, including kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete architecture, inspection and testing, waterproofing, coloring and painting, rules tables, working and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters. A valuable addition to the library of every cement and concrete user. Cloth, 430 pages, 126 illustrations. Price, $3.00 Waterproofing Concrete. By Myron H. Lewis. Modern methods of waterproofing concrete and other structures. A condensed statement of the principles, rules and precautions to be observed in water- proofing and damp-proofing structures and structural mate- rials. Paper binding. Illustrated. Second Edition. Price, 75 cents DIES— METAL WORK c 1 Dies; Their Construction and Use for the Modern Working of Sheet Metals. By J. V. Woodworth. A new book by a practical man, for those who wish to know the latest practice in the working of sheet metals. It shows how dies are designed, made and used, and those who are engaged in this line of work can secure many valuable suggestions. Sixth revised edition. 525 Illustrations, 394 pages. Cloth. Price, $3.50 Punches, Dies and Tools for Manufacturing in Presses. By J. V. Woodworth. An encyclopedia of die-making, punch-making, die-sinking, sheet-metal working, and making of special tools, subpresses, devices and mechanical combina- tions for punching, cutting, bending, forming, piercing, draw- ing,, compressing, and assembling sheet-metal parts and also articles of other materials in machine tools. This is a dis- tinct work from the author's book entitled "Dies; Their Construction and Use." 500 pages, 700 engravings. Second edition. Cloth. Price, $4.50 13 DICTIONARIES Standard Electrical Dictionary. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. Just issued an entirely new- edition brought up to date and greatly enlarged — as a refer- ence book this work is beyond comparison, as it contains over 700 pages, nearly 500 illustrations, and definitions of about 6,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The defini- tions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. 767 pages, 477 illustrations. (See page 19 for fuller description.) Price, $5.00 DRAWING— SKETCHING PAPER A Course in Mechanical Drawing. By Louis Rouillion. The author has written a most prac- tical book on the subject of Mechanical Drafting. It fully explains the art of Drawing, Lettering and Dimensioning. It is, by far, the most practical book ever published on this subject, for use in day and evening schools, and more especially adapted for the teacher and for self instruction. Fifteenth edition, revised and enlarged. Fully illustrated. Oblong. Price, $1.50 Linear Perspective Self-Taught. By Herman T. C. Kraus. This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural engi- neering and mechanical drawings. The arrangement of the book is good; the plate is on the left hand, while the descriptive text follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily referred to. A self-explanatory linear perspective chart is included in the second revised edition. Cloth. Price, $3.00 Self-Taught Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. By F. L. Sylvester, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by Erik Oberg, associate editor of "Machinery." A practical elementary treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine De- sign, comprising the first principles of geometric and mechan- ical drawing, workshop mathematics, mechanics, strength of materials, and the calculation and design of machine details, compiled for the use of practical mechanics and young drafts- men. 330 pages, 215 engravings. Cloth. Price, $2.50 A New Sketching Paper. A new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in isometric perspective without any figuring or fussing. It is being used for shop details as well as for assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no workman can help seeing just what is wanted. In three sizes of pads. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches, Price, 40c; 9 x 12 inches, Price, 75c; 12 by 18 inches, Price, $1.50. 14 Practical Perspective. By Richards and Colvin. _ Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings in the only practical perspective isometric. . Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can understand a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing room and mistakes in the shops. Contains prac- tical examples of various classes of work. Third edition. Limp cloth. Price, 75 cents ELECTRICITY Arithmetic of Electricity. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. A practical treatise on elec- trical calculations of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arith- metic; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems with detailed solution of each one. This book is classed among the most useful works published on the science of electricity, covering as it does the mathematics of electricity in a manner that will attract the attention of those who are not familiar with algebraical formulas. 200 pages. New Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price, $1.50 Commutator Construction. By William Baxter, Jr. The business end of dynamo or motor of the direct-current type is the commutator. This book goes into the designing, building and maintenance of commutators, shows how to locate troubles and how to remedy them; everyone who fusses with dynamos needs this. Fourth edition. Price, 35 cents Construction of a Transatlantic Wireless Receiv- ing Set. By L. G. Pacent and T. S. Curtis. A work for the Radio student who desires to construct and operate apparatus that will permit of the reception of messages from the large stations in Europe with an aerial of amateur proportions. 36 pages. 23 illustrations. Cloth. Price, 35 cents Dynamo Building for Amateurs, or How to Con- struct a Fifty Watt Dynamo. By Arthur J. Weed. A practical treatise showing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or motor, the entire machine work of which can be done on a small foot lathe. Dimensioned working drawings are given for each piece of machine work, and each operation is clearly described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty watts; when used as a motor it will drive a small drill press or lathe. It can Tie used to drive a sewing machine on any and all ordinary work. The book is illustrated with more than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction of the different parts. Price, $1.00 15 Design Data for Radio Transmitters and Re- ceivers. By B. M. Sleeper. Far from being a collection of formulas, Design Data takes up in proper sequence the problems en- countered in planning all types of receiving sets for short, medium and long wave work, and spark coil, transformer and vacuum tube transmitters operating on 200 meters. Tables have been worked out so that values can be found without the use of mathematics. Radio experimenters will find here information which will enable them to have the most modern and efficient equipment. Price, 75 cents Dynamos and Electric Motors and All About Them. By Edward Trevert. This volume gives practical directions for building a two H. P. Dynamo of the Edison type capable of lighting about fifty mazda lamps of the 20-watt size. In addition, it gives directions for building two small electric motors suitable for running sewing machines. The conclud- ing chapter describes the construction of a simple bichromate battery adapted for running electric motors. 96 pages. Fully illustrated with detail drawings. Cloth, Price, $1.00 Electric Bells. By M. B. Sleeper. A complete treatise for the practical worker in installing, operating and testing bell circuits, burglar alarms, thermostats and other apparatus used with electric bells. Both the electrician and the experimenter will find in this book new material which is essential in their work. Tools, bells, batteries, unusual circuits, burglar alarms, annunciators, systems, thermostats, > circuit breakers, time alarms, and other apparatus used in bell circuits are de- scribed from the standpoints of their application, construc- tion, and repair. The detailed instructions for building the apparatus will appeal to the experimenter particularly. The practical worker will find the chapters on Wiring Calculation of Wire Sizes and Magnet Windings, Upkeep of Systems and the Location of Faults of the greatest value in their work. 124 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, 75 cents Experimental High Frequency Apparatus, How to Make and Use It. By Thomas Stanley Curtis. This book tells you how to build simply high-frequency coils for experimental purposes in the home, school laboratory, or on the small lecture plat- form. The book is really a supplement to the same author's •'High Frequency Apparatus." # The experimental side only is covered in this volume, which is intended for those who want to build small coils giving up to an eighteen-inch spark. The apparatus is simple, cheap and perfectly safe, and with it some truly startling experiments may be performed. 69 pages, illustrated. Price, 50 cents 16 Electrician's Handy Book. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. This work has just been revised and much enlarged. It is intended for the practical electrician who has to make things go. The entire field of electricity is covered within its pages. It is a work of the most modern practice, written in a clear, comprehensive manner, and covers the subject thoroughly, beginning at the A B C of the subject, and gradually takes you to the more advanced branches of the science. It teaches you just what you should know about electricity. A practical work for the practical man. Contains forty-eight chapters. The publishers consider themselves fortunate in having secured the services of such a well and favorably known writer as Prof. Sloane, who has with the greatest care com- pleted a master work in concise form on this all-important subject. 600 engravings, 824 pages, handsomely bound in cloth. New Revised Edition. Price, $4.00 Electricity Simplified. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and to show what the modern conception of electricity is; to show how two plates of different metals immersed in acid can send a message around the globe; to explain how a bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting our streets; to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and what high and low tension mean; and to answer the questions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age of electricity. 218 pages. Illustrated. Fifteenth edition. Price, $1.50 Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards. By Newton Harrison, with additions by Thomas Poppe. This is the only complete work issued showing and telling you what you should know about direct and alternating cur- rent wiring. The work is free from advanced technicalities and mathematics, arithmetic being used throughout. It is in every respect a handy, well-written, instructive, comprehen- sive volume on wiring for the wireman, foreman, contractor or electrician. Third revised edition. 315 pages, 130 illus- trations. Price, $2.50 Experimental Wireless Stations. By P. E. Edelman. The theory, design, construction and operation is fully treated, including Wireless Telephony, Vacuum Tube, and quenched spark systems. The new en- larged 1920 edition is just issued and is strictly up to date, correct and complete. This book tells how to make apparatus to not only hear all telephoned radio messages, but also how to make simple equipment that works for transmission over reasonably long distances. Then there is a host of new in- formation included. The first and only book to give you all the recent important radio improvements, some of which have never before been published. 392 pages. 24 chapters. 167 illustrations. Price, $3.00 17 Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building and Electric Motor Construction. This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos and instruments in, general and is designed to bring within the reach of young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. 210 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. Twentieth edition, enlarged. Price, $1.50 High Frequency Apparatus, Its Construction and Practical Application. By Thomas Stanley Curtis. The most comprehensive and thorough work on this interesting subject ever produced. The book is essentially practical in its treatment and it con- stitutes an accurate record of the researches of its author over a period of several years, during which "time dozens of coils were built and experimented with. New revised and enlarged edition. Fully illustrated. 269 pages. Price, $3.00 House Wiring. By Thomas W. Poppe. Describing and illustrating up-to-date methods of installing electric light wiring. Contains just the information needed for successful wiring of a building/ Fully illustrated with diagrams and plans. It solves all wiring problems and contains nothing that conflicts with the rulings, of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 1920 edition, revised and enlarged. Including Direct Current Motor Con- nections — Diagrams of series wound motor — and Motor Wir- ing. 200 pages, fully illustrated, flexible cloth. Price, $1.00 How to Become a Successful Electrician. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. An interesting book fronr cover to cover. Telling in simplest language the surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician. The studies • to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and thd requirements of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. 202 pages. Illustrated. Eighteenth revised edition. Cloth. Price, $1.50 Radio Time Signal Receiver. By Austin C. Lescarboura. This new book, "A Radio Time' Signal Receiver," tells you how to build a simple outfit de- signed expressly for the beginner. You can build the out- fits in your own workshop and install them for jewelers either on a one-payment or a rental basis. The apparatus is of such simple design that it may be made by the average amateur mechanic possessing a few ordinary tools. 42 pages. 1 Paper. Price, 35 cents 18 Radio Hook-Ups. In this book the best circuits for different instruments and various purposes have been carefully selected and grouped together. All the best circuits for damped and undamped wave receiving sets, buzzer, spark coil and transformer send- ing equipment, as well as vacuum tube telegraph and tele- phone transmitters, wavemeters, vacuum tube measuring in- struments, audibility meters, etc., are shown in this book. A Price, 75 cents Standard Electrical Dictionary. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. Just issued an entirely new edition brought up to date and greatly enlarged — as a refer- ence book this work is beyond comparison, as it contains over 700 pages, nearly 500 illustrations, and definitions of about 6,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The defini- tions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. In its arrangement and typography the book is very con- venient. The word or term defined is printed in black faced type which readily catches the eye, while the body of the page is in smaller but distinct type. The definitions are well worded, and so as to be understood by the non-technical reader. The general plan is to give an exact, concise defini- tion, and then amplify and explain in a more popular way. Synonyms are also given, and references to other words and phrases are made. This work is absolutely indispensable to all in any way interested in electrical science, from the higher electrical expert to the everyday electrical workman. In fact, it should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress of this branch of science. New enlarged edition. 767 pages. 477 illustrations. Price, $5.00 Storage Batteries Simplified. By Victor W. Page, M.S.A.E. This is the most thorough and authoritative treatise ever published on this subject. It is written in easily understandable, non-technical language so that anyone may grasp the basic principles of storage _ bat- tery action as well as their practical industrial applications. All electric and gasoline automobiles use storage batteries. Every automobile repairman, dealer or salesman should have a good knowledge of maintenance and repair of these im- portant elements of the motor car mechanism. This book not only tells how to charge, care for and rebuild storage batteries but also outlines all the industrial uses. Learn how they run street cars, locomotives and factory trucks. Get an understanding of the important functions they per- form in submarine boats, isolated lighting ( plants, railway switch and signal systems, marine applications, etc. This book tells how they are used in central station standby serv- ice, for starting automobile motors and in ignition systems. Every practical use of the modern storage battery is out- lined in this treatise. 208 pages, fully illustrated. Price, $2.00 1? Telephone Construction, Installation, Wiring, Operation and Maintenance. By W. H. Radcliffe and H. C. Cushing. This book gives the principles of construction and operation of both the Bell and Independent instruments; approved methods of installing and wiring them; the means of protecting them from lightning and abnormal currents; their connection to- gether for operation as series or bridging stations; and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line wiring and the wiring and operation of special telephone systems are also treated. 224 pages, 132 illustrations. Second revised edition. Price, $1.50 Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony Simply Ex- plained. By Alfred P. Morgan. This is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehensive treatises on the subject ever published, and a close study of its pages will enable one to master all the details of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has filled a long-felt want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. Fourth edition. 154 pages, 156 engravings. Price, $1.50 Wiring a House. By Herbert Pratt. Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin; what wire to use; how to run it according to insurance rules; in fact, just the information you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition. Price, 35 cents ELECTROPLATING The Modern Electroplater. By Kenneth M. Coggeshall. This is the most complete and practical book on electroplating and allied processes that has been published as a text for the student or professional plater. It is written in simple language and explains all details of electroplating in a concise yet complete manner. Full instructions are given for the preparation and finishing of the work and formulae and complete directions are in- cluded for making all kinds of plating solutions, many of these having been trade secrets until published in this in- struction manual. Anyone interested in practical plating and metal finishing will find this book a valuable guide and com- plete manual of the art. 142 illustrations. 276 pages. Price, $3.00 20 GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines. By Gardner D. Hiscox. Revised by Victor W. Page. Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive and right up to date. The only complete work on the subject. Tells all about internal combustion engineering, treating ex- haustively on the design, construction and practical applica- tion of all forms of gas, gasoline, kerosene and crude pe- troleum-oil engines. Describes minutely all auxiliary systems, such as lubrication, carburetion and ignition. Considers the theory and management of all forms of explosive motors for stationary and marine work, automobiles, aeroplanes and motorcycles. Includes also Producer Gas and Its Production. Invaluable instructions for all students, gas-engme owners, gas-engineers, patent experts, designers, mechanics, drafts- men and all having to do with the modern power. Illustrated by over 400 engravings, many specially made from engineer- ing drawings, all in correct proportion. 640 octavo pages and 435 engravings. Price, $3.00 Gasoline Engines : Their Operation, Use and Care. By A. Hyatt Verrill. A comprehensive, simple and prac- tical work, treating of gasoline engines for stationary, marine or vehicle use; their construction, design, management, care, operation, repair, installation and troubles. A complete glos- sary of technical terms and an alphabetically arranged table of troubles and symptoms form a most valuable and unique feature of the book. b]/ A x 7y 2 . Cloth. 275 pages, 152 illus- trations. Price, $2.00 Gas Engine Construction. Or How to Build a Half-Horse-power Gas Engine. By Parsell and Weed. A practical treatise describing the theory and principles of the action of gas engines of various types, and the design and construction of a half -horse-power gas engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with dimensioned working drawings giving clearly the sizes of the various details. 300 pages. Third edition. Cloth. Price, $3.00 The Gasoline Engine on the Farm: Its Operation, Repair and Uses. By Xeno W. Putnam. A useful and practical treatise on the modern gasoline and kerosene engine, its construction, management, repair and the many uses to which it can be applied in present-day farm life. It considers all the various household, shop and field uses of this up-to-date motor and includes chapters on engine installation, power transmission and the best arrangement of the power plant in reference to the work. SJ4 x 7/4. Cloth. 527 pages, 179 illustra- tions. Price, $3.00 21 How to Run and Install Two- and Four- Cycle Marine, Gasoline Engines. By C. Von Culin. The object of this little book is to fur- nish a pocket instructor for the beginner, the busy man who uses an engine for pleasure or profit, but who does not have the time or inclination for a technical book, but simply to thoroughly understand how to properly operate, install and care for his own engine. Pocket size. Paper binding. Price, 25 cents GEARING AND CAMS Bevel Gear Tables. By D. Ag. Engstrom. No one who has to do with bevel gears in any way should be without this book. The designer and draftsman will find it a great convenience, while to the machinist who turns up the blanks or cuts the teeth it is invaluable, as all needed dimensions are given and no fancy figuring need be done. Third edition. Cloth. Price, $1.50 Change Gear Devices. By Oscar E. Perrigo. A book for every designer, draftsman and mechanic who is interested in feed changes for any kind of machines. This shows what has been done and how. Gives plans, patents and all information that you need. Saves hunting through patent records and reinventing old ideas. A standard work of reference. Third edition. Price, $1.50 Drafting of Cams. By Louis Rouillion. The laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right. This puts you on the right road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run up against. Third edition. Price, 35 cents HYDRAULICS Hydraulic Engineering. By Gardner D. Hiscox. A treatise on the properties, power, and resources of water for all purposes. Including the meas- urements of streams; the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse-power of falling water; turbine and impact water- wheels; wave-motors, centrifugal, reciprocating and air-lift pumos. With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. 320 pages. Price, $4.50 22 ICE AND REFRIGERATION Pocketbook of Refrigeration and Ice Making. By A. J. Wallis-Taylor. This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the subject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non- freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, ice making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and con- dition required in the installment and operation of a refriger- ating plant. New edition just published. Price, $2.00 INVENTION— PATENTS Inventor's Manual, How to Make a Patent Pay. This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their patents, and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a Patent Solicitor's circular nor a Patent Broker's advertisement. No advertisements of any description appear in the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's experience of a successful inventor, together with notes based upon the experience of many other inventors. Revised and enlarged second edition. Nearly 150 pages. Illustrated. Price, SI. 50 KNOTS Knots, Splices and Rope Work. By A. Hyatt Verrill. This is a practical book giving com- plete and simple directions for making all the most useful and ornamental knots in common use, with chapters on Splicing, Pointing, Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fully illustrated with 154 original engravings, which show how each knot, tie or splice is formed, and its appearance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest value to campers, yachtsmen, travelers or Boy Scouts; in fact, to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical, and is not only a guide but a teacher. _ It is the standard •work on the subject. Second edition revised. 104 pages, 154 original engravings. Price, $1.00 23 LATHE WORK Lathe Work for Beginners. By Raymond F. Yates. A book for those interested in lathe work which opens up a new world for the amateur worker in wood and metal. It will prove a valuable aid also to the young machinist or apprentice who intends to make lathe work his occupation. It foresees all his questions, and its answers go straight to the heart of his difficulty. This book shows the reader how to set up his lathe, explains the various tools and the correct way of using them, and makes plain the different lathe attachments and their applications. The lessons range from the turning of a brass cup to the completion of a model rapid-fire gun, and milling, gear-cutting, thread-cutting, sawing and grinding are set forth with refreshing simplicity. Among the chapters contained are: I Choosing a Lathe. II Setting up and Driving the Lathe. Ill The Lathe and Its Parts. IV Lathe Attach- ments and Their Use. V Measuring Tools and Their Use. VI A Lesson in Metal Turning. VII Advanced Lathe Work. VIII Screw Cutting. IX Wood Turning. X Metal Spinning. XI Building an Amateurs Metal Turning Lathe. XII Building a Simple Wood Turning Lathe. XIII A Model Rapid-Fire Naval Gun. 167 illustrations. $2.50 The Lathe — Its Design, Construction and Opera- tion, With Practical Examples of Lathe Work. By Oscar E. Perrigo. A new revised edition, and the only complete # American work on the subject. _ Lathe history and the relations of the lathe to manufacturing are given; also a description of the various devices for feeds and thread cutting mechanisms from early efforts in this direction to the present time. _ Lathe design is thoroughly discussed, includ- ing back gearing, driving cones, thread-cutting gears, and all the essential elements of the modern lathe. The classification of lathes is taken up, giving the essential differences of the several types of lathes, including, as is usually understood, engine lathes, bench lathes, speed lathes, forge lathes, gap lathes, pulley lathes, forming lathes, multiple-spindle lathes, rapid-reduction lathes, precision lathes, turret lathes, special lathes, electrically-driven lathes, etc. In addition to the com- plete exposition on construction and design, much practical matter on lathe installation,, care and operation has been in- corporated in the enlarged new edition. All kinds of lathe attachments for drilling, milling, etc., are described and complete instructions are given to enable the novice ma- chinist to grasp the art of lathe operation as well as the principles involved in design. A number of difficult machin- ing operations are described at length and illustrated. The new edition has 469 pages and 341 illustrations. Price, $3.00 Turning and Boring Tapers. By Fred H. Colvin. There are two ways to turn tapers: the right way and one other. This treatise has to do with the right way; it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and one other little things that you should follow. Fourth edition. Price, 35 ce»»*« 24 LIQUID AIR Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases. By T. O'Conor Sloane. The third revised edition of this book has just been issued. Much new material is added to it; and the all important uses of liquid air and gas processes in modern industry, in the production especially of nitrogen compounds, are described. The book gives the history of the theory, discovery and manufacture of Liquid Air, and con- tains an illustrated description of all the experiments that have excited the wonder of audiences all over the country. It shows how liquid air, like water, is carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from it in the near future. A book that renders simple one of the most perplexing chemical problems of the century. Startling developments illustrated by actual experi- ments. It is not _ only a work of scientific interest and authority, but is intended for the general reader, being written in a popular style — easily understood by everyone. 394 pages, fully illustrated. New Edition. Price, $3.0O LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING Air-Brake Catechism. By Robert H. Blackall. This book is a standard text book. It is the only practical and complete work published. Treats on the equipment manufactured by the Westinghouse Air Brake Company, including the E-T Locomotive Brake Equip- ment, the K (Quick Service) Triple Valve for freight serv- ice; the L High Speed Triple Valve; the P-C Passenger Brake Equipment, and the Cross Compound Pump. The operation of all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail and a practical way of locating their peculiarities and rem- edying their defects is given. Endorsed and used by air- brake instructors and examiners on nearly every railroad in the United States. Twenty-seventh edition. 411 pages, fully illustrated with folding plates and diagrams. New edition. Price, $2.50 Westinghouse E. T. Air-Brake Instruction Pock- etbook Catechism. By Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. A practical work containing examination questions and answers on the E. T. Equipment. Covering what the E. T. Brake is. How it should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion on either the No. 5 or the No. 6 E. T. equipment that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to thoroughly understand the E. T. equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every detail. Makes lir-brake troubles and examina- tions easy. Fully illustrated with colored plates, showing various pressures. Some of these plates are printed in 16 different colors. This is the standard Book on the E. T. Air-Brake. Cloth. Revised and enlarged edition. $2.50 25 Link Motions, Valves and Valve Setting. By Fred H. Colvin, Associate Editor of "American Ma- chinist." A handy book that clears up the mysteries of valve setting. Shows the different valve gears in use, how they work, and why. Piston and slide valves of different types are illustrated and explained. A book that every railroad man in the motive-power department ought to have. Fully illustrated. New revised edition recently published. Price, 75 cents Train Rule Examinations Made Easy. By G. E. Collingwood. This is the only practical work on train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and puzzling points are explained in simple, comprehensive language, making it a practical treatise for the train dispatcher, en- gineman, train man and all others who have to do with the movements of trains. Contains complete and reliable infor- mation of the Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Shows signals in colors, as used on the different roads. Ex- plains fully the practical application of train orders, giving a clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. Second edition revised. 234 pages. Fully illus- trated, with train signals in colors. Price, $1.50 Locomotive Breakdowns and Their Remedies. By Geo. L. Fowler. Revised by Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Pocket edition. It is out of the question, to try .and tell you about every subject that is covered in this pocket edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected ones, troubles that could occur, but that you had never thought about, and you will find that they are all treated with the very best methods of repair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions and Answers on the Air Brake, are all included. Eighth edition. 294 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, $1.50 Practical Instructor and Reference Book for Locomotive Firemen and Engineers. By Chas. F. Lockhart. An entirely new book on the loco- motive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it tells him how things are done and the right way to do them. Written by a man who has had years of practical experience in locomo- tive shops and on the road firing and running. The infor- mation given in this book cannot be found in any other similar treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, which will prove specially helpful to those preparing for examination. 362 pages, 88 illustra- tions. Cloth. Price, $2.50 Diary of a Round-House Foreman. By T. S. Reilly. This is the greatest book of railroad ex- periences ever published. Containing a fund of information and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc., that one cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. $1.25 26 Locomotive Boiler Construction. By Frank A. Kleinhans. The only book showing how loco- motive boilers are built in modern shops. Shows all types of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of riveting punches and dies, work done per day, allowance for bending and flanging sheets and other data that means dollars to any railroad man. Second edition. 451 pages, 334 illustrations. Six folding plates. Cloth. Price, $3.50 Prevention of Railroad Accidents, or Safety in Railroading. By George Bradshaw. This book is a heart-to-heart talk with railroad employees, dealing with facts, not theories, and showing the men in the ranks from every-day experience, how accidents occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original photographs and drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No visionary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and practical suggestions are given. Every railroad employee who reads the book is a better and safer man to have in railroad service. It gives just the information which will be the means of preventing many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should procure a copy, read it, and do their part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket size. Fully illustrated. Price, 50 cents Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke. By Wm. M. Barr. To be a success a fireman must be "Light on Coal." He must keep his fire in good condition, and prevent, as far as possible, the smoke nuisance. To do this, ne should know how coal burns, how smoke is formed and the proper burning of fuel to obtain the best results. He can learn this, and more too, from Barr's "Combustion of Coal." It is an absolute authority on all questions relating to the firing of a locomotive. Fifth edition. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price, $1.50 Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear. By Wm. W. Wood. If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear, you should possess a copy of this book. The author divides the subject into four divisions, as follows: I. Analysis of the gear. II. Designing and erection of the gear. III. Advantages of the gear. IV. Questions and answers relating to the Walschaert_ Valve Gear. This book is specially valuable to those preparing for pro- motion. Third 1920 edition, revised and enlarged. 245 pages, fully illustrated. Cloth. Price, $2.50 27 Locomotive Engine Running and Management. By Angus Sinclair, M.E., formerly Editor "Railway and Locomotive Engineering." Shows how to manage a loco- motive, describes its parts and gives instructions for the care, and repairs of locomotives and their connections. CONTENTS: — Engineers and Their Duties. How Engineers Are Made. Inspection of the Locomotive. Getting Ready for the Road. Running a Fast Freight Train. Getting Up the Hill. Finishing the Trip. Hard-Steaming Engines. Shortness of Water. Boilers and Fireboxes. Accidents. Connecting-Rods, Sid«-Rods and Wedges. Valve Motion. Setting the Valves. The Westinghouse Air-Brake. Trac- tive Power and Train Resistance. Draft Appliances. Com- bustion. Steam and Motive-Power. Sight-Feed. Lubri- cators. Examination of Firemen for Promotion. Revised Twenty-Third Edition, 436 pages, illustrated. Price, $3.00 Locomotives, Simple, Compound, and Electric* By H. C. Reagan, Locomotive Engineer. Describes the design, construction, operation, and repair of every type of locomotive. Very fully illustrated. CONTENTS:— Loeomotive Boiler. Front End. Steam Cyl- inders and Connection. Frames, Driving-Boxes, and Spring Rigging. Rods and Connections. Valve Gearing. Com- pound Locomotive. Indicator-Cards. Superheaters. Injec- tors, Brakes and Brake Rigging. Liquid Fuel. Electric Locomotives. Apparatus Essential to the Operation of Electric Locomotives, Electric Control Systems. Typical Electric Engines. Fifth Edition, 932 pages. Price, $3.50- Practical Locomotive Running and Management. By W. Geo. Knight. A practical book for the railroad man, specially helpful to those preparing for examination. The new second revised edition of this work deals with the principles of locomotive engineering in a practical manner, and explains fully and clearly those subjects that are usually difficult to understand by men who actually operate and maintain locomotives. The book is profusely illustrated and includes many reproductions of drawings and models used by the author as an instructor for the purposes of making clear the principles that underlie the construction and opera- tion of the various parts of the locomotive engine. The simplicity in which these hard problems are treated has made the work very popular. Those preparing for an exam- ination for locomotive engineer or fireman will find this volume most helpful. 541 Pages, 169 illustrations. Price, $4.0O MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE Complete Practical Machinist. By Joshua Rose. The new, twentieth revised and enlarged edition is now ready. This is one of the best-known books on machine-shop work, and written for the practical work- man in the language of the workshop. It gives full, practi- cal instructions on the use of all kinds of metal-working tools, both hand and machine, and tells how the work should be properly done. It covers lathe work, vise work, drills and drilling, taps and dies, hardening and tempering, the making and use of tools, tool grinding, marking out work, machine tools, etc. No machinist's library is complete without this Volume. 547 pages, 432 illustrations. Price, $3.00 28 Abrasives and Abrasive Wheels. By Fred B. Jacobs. A new book for everyone interested in abrasives or grinding. A careful reading of the book will not only make mechanics better able to use abrasives intel- ligently, but it will also tell the shop superintendent of many short cuts and efficiency-increasing kinks. The economic ad- vantage in using large grinding wheels are fully explained, together with many other things that will tend to give the superintendent or workman a keen insight into abrasive en- gineering. 340 pages, 174 illustrations. This is_ an indis- pensable book for every machinist. Price, $3.00 Machine Shop Arithmetic. By Colvin-Cheney. Most popular book for shop men. Shows how all shop problems are worked out and "why. Includes change gears for cutting any threads; drills, taps; metric system of measurements and threads. Used by all classes oi mechanics and for instruction in Y. M. C. A. and other schools. Seventh edition. 131 pages. Price, 75 cents "Shop Kinks." ■ £A . By Robert Grimshaw. This shows special methods of doing work of various kinds, and releasing cost of production. Has hints and kinks from some of the largest shops m this coun- try and Europe. You are almost sure to find some that apply to your work, and in such a way as to save time and trouble. 393 pages. Fifth edition. Illustrated. Cloth. Price, $3.00 Home Mechanic's Workshop Companion. By Andrew Jackson, Jr. This treatise includes a compila- tion of useful suggestions that cannot fail to interest the handy man, and while it is not intended for mechanical ex- perts or scientists, it will prove to be a veritable store of information for anyone who desires to rig up a small shop where odd jobs can be carried on. Price, 75 cents Threads and Thread Cutting. Bv Colvin and Stabel. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. Third edition. 35 cents Shop Practice for Home Mechanics. By Raymond Francis Yates. A thoroughly practical and helpful book prepared especially for those who have had little or no experience in shop work. The introduction is given over to an elementary explanation of the fundamentals ot mechanical science. This is followed by several chapters on the use of small tools and mechanical measuring instruments. Elementary and more advanced lathe work is treated in de- tail and directions given for the construction of a number of useful show appliances. Drilling and reaming, heat treat- ment of tool steel, special lathe operations, pattern making, grinding, and grinding operations, home foundry work etc., make up the rest of the volume. The book omits nothing that will be of use to those who use tools or to those who wish to learn the use of tools. The great number of clear engravings add much to the text matter and to the value of the volume as a visual instructor. Size 6x9. 320 pages 309 engravings. New Edition. ITice, ;t>.5.uu 29 THE WHOLE FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS IS COVERED BY HISCOX'S TWO BOOKS. We publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will keep you from "inventing" things that have been done be- fore and suggest ways of doing things that you have not thought of before. Many a man spends time and money pondering over some mechanical problem, only to learn, after he has solved the problem, that the same thing has been accomplished and put in practice by others long before. Time and money spent in an effort to accomplish what has al- ready been accomplished are time and money lost. The whole field of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, and practically every device is covered by these two books. If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in them. If it hasn't been invented, then you'll find in them the nearest things to what you want, some movement or device that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will give you a key from_ which to work. No book or set of books ever published is of more real value to the inventor, draftsman or practical mechanic than these two volumes. Each book sold separately. Mechanical Movements, Powers and Devices. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appliances, accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all readers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified under the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmis- sion of Power; Measurement of Power; Steam Power; Air Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navi- gation and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Control- ling Motion; Horological; Mining; Mill and Factory Appli- ances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices; Miscel- laneous Devices, etc. Fifteenth edition. 409 octavo pages. Price, $4.00 Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and Novelties of Construction. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a supplementary volume to the one upon mechanical movements. Unlike the -first volume, which is more elementary in character, this volume contains illustrations and descriptions of many combina- tions of motions and of mechanical devices and appliances found in different lines of machinery, each device being shown by a line drawing with a description showing its working parts and the method of operation. _ From the multitude of devices described and illustrated might be men- tioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers, various types of boilers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, automobiles and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, car couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulation of others of equal importance. 1,000 specially made engravings. 396 octavo pages. Fourth revised edition. Price, $4.00 30 MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE Modern Machine Shop Construction, Equipment and Management. By Oscar E. Perrigo. The only work published that describes the Modern Machine Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones or the introduction, of Modern Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a. book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its- kind ever published. Second edition. 384 pages, 219 original and specially-made illustrations. Price, $5.00 Machine Shop Tools and Shop Practice. By W. H. Vandervoort. A work of 555 pages and 673 illus- trations, describing in every detail the construction, opera- tion and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. In- . eludes chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; useful data and tables. Seventh edition. Cloth. Price, $4.50 American Tool Making and Interchangeable Manufacturing. By J. V. Woodworth. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices and special appliances which are in general use in all ma- chine-manufacturing and _ metal-working establishments where economy, capacity and interchangeability in the production of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaustively discussed, and particular attention is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened within the contrivances. All of the tools, fix- tures and devices illustrated and described have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill presses, lathes, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical ap- paratus, mechanical appliances, brass goods, composition parts, mold products, sheet metal articles, drop forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. Third edition. 535 pages and 601 specially made engravings. Price, $4.50 31 MARINE ENGINEERING The Naval Architect's and Shipbuilder's Pocket- book. of Formulae, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mack- row and Lloyd Woollard. The eleventh revised and en- larged edition of this most comprehensive work has just been issued. It is absolutely indispensable to all engaged in the Shipbuilding Industry, as it condenses into a compact form all data and formulae that are ordinarily required. The book is completely up to date, including among other subjects a section on Aeronautics. 750 pages, limp leather binding. Price, $6.00 net Marine Engines and Boilers, Their Design and Construction. The Standard Book. By Dr. G. Bauer, Leslie S. Robertson and S. Bryan Don- kin. In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a condensed treatise embodying the theoretical and practical rules used in designing marine engines and boilers. The work is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while the character of the plans, drawings, tables and statistics is without reproach. The illustrations are careful reproductions from actual work- ing drawings, with some well-executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. 744 pages, 550 illustrations, and numerous tables. Price, $10.00 net MANUAL TRAINING Economics of Manual Training. By Louis Rouillion. The only book that gives just the in- formation needed by all interested in manual training, re- garding buildings, equipment and supplies. Shows exactly what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kinder- garten to the High and Normal School. Gives itemized lists of everything needed and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to buy supplies. Illustrated. Second edition. Cloth. Price, $2.00 MINING Prospector's Field-Book and Guide. By H. S. Osborn. New 1920 edition, revised and enlarged by M. W. von Bernewitz. The last edition of this volume was published in 1910. It and the previous seven editions were suitable for those times. The new ninth edition will be found suitable for the present time. While the old-time prospector "will always be an important factor, the knowledge of and search for the common and rarer minerals is bringing out men who are trained to some degree. In the field they need a handy and suggestive pocket-book containing hints on prospecting — where to search and how to test — couched in simple terms. 375 pages. 57 illustrations. New edition. Price, $3.00 32 MODEL MAKING Model Making. By Raymond Francis Yates. A new book for the mechanic and model maker. This is the first book of its kind to be published in this country, and all those interested in model engineering should have a copy. The first eight chapters are devoted to such subjects as Silver Soldering, Heat Treatment of Steel, Lathe Work, Pattern Making, Grinding, etc. The remaining twenty-four chapters describe the construction of various models such as rapid fire naval guns, speed boats, model steam engines, turbines, etc. 400 pages. 301 illus- trations. Price, $3.00 MOTOR BOATS Motor Boats and Boat Motors. By V. W. Page and A. C. Leitch. All who are interested in motor boats will rind this latest work a most comprehensive treatise on the design, construction, operation and repair of motor boats and their power plants. It is really two com- plete books in one cover, as it consists of two parts, each complete in itself. Part one deals with THE HULL AND ITS FITTINGS, part two considers THE POWER PLANT AND ITS AUXILIARIES. A valuable feature of this book is the complete set of dimensioned working drawings detailing the construction of five different types of boats ranging from a 16-foot shallow draft, tunnel stern general utility craft to a 25-foot cabin cruiser. It is a comprehensive work of ref- erence for all interested in motor boating in any of its phases. 372 illustrations. 524 pages. New Edition. Price, $4.00 MOTORCYCLES =3 Motorcycles and Side Cars: Their Construction, Management and Repair. By Victor W. Page. Describes fully all leading types of machines, their design, construction, maintenance, operation and repair. Shows all new improvements in motorcycle con- struction and gives the most complete instructions ever pub- lished for starting, driving and repairing all types of motor- cycles. There is a complete exposition of modern starting methods and a full explanation of the operating principles and repair of the new automatic electric lighting systems. The care of the generator, storage battery, automatic cut-out and other parts is clearly expounded. _ All types of change speed gears and clutches are fully outlined, also full instruc- tions for their use. A complete new chapter has been added on the thorough overhauling and repairing of motorcycle engines, all processes are fully described and illustrated. The reader is told what parts wear, how to detect depreciation and how to make all repairs and adjustments necessary to make the engine as good as new. 693 pages, 371 illustra- tions. New Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price, $3.00 33 PATTERN MAKING Practical Pattern Making. By F. W. Barrows. This book is a comprehensive and entirely practical treatise on the subject of pattern making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal, and with definite instructions on the use of plaster of paris in the trade. It gives specific and detailed descriptions of the materials used by pattern makers and describes the tools; both those for the bench and the more interesting machine tools; having complete chapters on the lathe, the circular saw and the band saw. It gives many examples of pattern work. Nearly 350 pages, 170 illustrations. Third, 1922, edition, revised and enlarged. Price, $2.50 PERFUMERY Perfumes and Cosmetics, Their Preparation and Manufacture. By G. W. Askinson, Perfumer. A comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of value to the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. Complete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling-salts, sachets, fumigating pastils^ preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair dyes and other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic substances; > their _ nature, tests of purity, and wholesale manufacture, including a chapter on synthetic products, with formulas for their use. A book of general as well as professional interest, meeting the wants not only of the druggist and perfume manufacturer, but also of the general public. Fourth edition, much enlarged and brought up-to-date. 354 pages, illustrated. Price, $5.00 PLUMBING Plumbers, Steam Fitters, and Tinners Reference Book. By H. G. Richey. This book should be in the hands of all connected with the Plumbing or Steam Heating Trades. It is a most comprehensive work and written by a man who understands the subject thoroughly and who has gathered in its pages just such matter as can be turned to when, help is needed. Contains 529 pages, fully illustrated, pocket- book form. Price, $3.00 Standard Practical Plumbing. By R. M. Starbuck. This is a complete treatise and covers the subject of Modern Plumbing in all its branches. It treats exhaustively on the skilled work of the plumber and the theory underlying plumbing devices and operations. It commends itself to anyone working in the plumbing trade. A large amount of space is devoted to a practical treatment of hot water supply, circulation and range boiler work. Another valuable feature is the special chapter on drawing for plumbers. The book has 406 pages, including 347 illus- trations — 100 of which are full page plates which were made expressly for this book and show the most modern American practice in plumbing construction. 6J^ X ?%. Price, $3.50 34 Mechanical Drawing for Plumbers. By R. M. Starbuck. A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing in its various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so help the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to cus- tomers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of greater responsibility. 150 illus- trations. Price, $2.00 Modern Plumbing Illustrated. By R. M. Starbuck. The author of this book, Mr. R. M. Starbuck, is one of the leading authorities on plumbing in the United States. The book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. A very comprehensive work, illustrating and describing the drainage and ventilation of dwellings, apartments and public buildings. The very latest and most approved methods in all branches of sanitary installation are given. The standard book for master plumbers, architects, builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of health, boards of plumbing examiners and for the property owner, as well as the workman and apprentice. It .contains fifty-seven en- tirely new and large full pages of illustrations with descrip- tive text, all of which have been made specially for this work. These plates show all kinds of modern plumbing work. Each plate is accompanied by several pages of text, giving notes and practical suggestions, sizes of pipe, proper measure- ments for setting up work, etc. Suggestions on estimating plumbing construction are also included. 407 octavo pages, fully illustrated by 58 full-page plates of engravings. Price, $5.0O RECIPE BOOK Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and Processes. Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno- chemical formulas book published, including over 10,000 se- lected scientific, chemical, technological and practical recipes and processes. This book of 800 pages is the most complete book of recipes ever published, giving thousands of recipes for the manufacture of valuable articles for every-day use. Hints, helps, practical ideas and secret processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of making money and is just the book everyone should have at his command. The pages are filled with matters of intense interest and immeasurable prac- tical value to the photographer, the perfumer, the painter the manufacturer of glues, pastes, cements and mucilages, the physician, the druggist, the electrician, the dentist, the engineer, the foundryman, the machinist, the potter, the tanner, the confectioner, the chiropodist, the manufacturer of chemical novelties and toilet preparations, the dyer, the electroplater, the enameler, the engraver, the provisioner, the flass worker, the gold-beater, the watchmaker, the jeweler, the ink manufacturer, the optician, the farmer, the dairyman, the paper maker, the metal worker, the soap maker, the veterinary surgeon, and the_ technologist in general. A book to which you may turn with confidence that you will find 35 •what you are looking for. A mine of information up-to-date in every respect." Contains an immense number of formulas that every one ought to have that are not found in any other work. New 1921 edition. 807 octavo pages. Cloth binding. Price, $4.00 RUBBER Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India Rubber. By T. O'Conor Sloane. This book gives full details of all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the elements of nearly everything it is necessary to understand for a commencement in any branch of the India, rubber manu- facture. The making of all kinds of rubber hand stamps, small articles of India rubber, U. S. Government compr si- tion, dating hand stamps, the manipulation of sheet rubber, toy balloons, India rubber solutions, cements, blackings, renovating varnish, and treatment for India rubber shoes, etc.; the hektograph stamp inks, and miscellaneous notes, with a short account of the discovery, collection and manu- facture of India rubber are set forth in a manner designed to be readily understood, the explanation being plain and simple. Third edition. 175 pages, illustrated. Price, $1.50 SAWS Saw Filing and Management of Saws. By Robert Grimshaw. A practical hand-book on. filing, gumming, swaging, hammering and the brazing of band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints and rules for gumming, setting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Price, $1.50 SCREW CUTTING Threads and Thread Cutting. By Colvin and Stable. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. Third edition. Price, 35 cents STEAM ENGINEERING American Stationary Engineering. By W. E. Crane. A new book by a well-known author. Begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. Contains the result of years of practical experience in all sorts of engine rooms and gives exact information that cannot be found elsewhere. It's plain enough for practical men and yet of value to those high in the profession. Has a complete examination for a license. Third edition revised and en- larged. 311 pages, 131 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $2.50 36 Steam Engine Troubles. By H. Hamkens. It is safe to say that no book has ever been published which gives the practical engineer such valua- ble and comprehensive information on steam engine design and troubles. There are descriptions of cylinders, valves, pistons, frames, pillow blocks and other bearings, connect- ing rods, wristplates, dashpots, reachrods, valve gears, gov- ernors, piping, throttle and emergency valves, safety stops, flywheels, oilers, etc. If there is any trouble with these parts, the book gives you the reasons and tell how to remedy them. New Edition. 284 pages, 276 illustrations. Price, $2.50 Modern Steam Engineering in Theory and Prac- tice. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a complete and practical work issued for stationary engineers and firemen dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other branches with which the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the examining board, are included. Fourth edition. 487 pages, 405 engravings. Cloth. Price, $3.50 Steam Engineer's Arithmetic. By Colvin-Cheney. A practical pocket book for the steam engineer. Shows how to work the problems of the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power of engines and boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; has a dictionary of engi- neering terms. Puts you onto all of the little kinks in figuring whatever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic ex- pansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and 1,001 other things; and everything is plain and simple — not the hardest way to figure, but the easiest. Second edition. Priee, 75 cents Steam Engine Catechism. By Robert Grimshaw. This volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer principle, but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the steam problems that appertain to the operation and management of the steam engine. Sixteenth edition. Price, $2.00 Engine Runner's Catechism. By Robert Grimshaw. Tells how; to erect^ adjust and run the principal steam engines in use in the United States. The work is of a handy size for the pocket. To young engineers this catechism will be of great value, especially to those who may be preparing to go forward to be examined for certifi- cates of competency; and to engineers generally it will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more really practical and useful information than is to be found anywhere else within a like compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price, $2.00 37 STEAM HEATING and VENTILATING Practical Steam, Hot- Water Heating and Ven- tilation. By A. G. King. This book has been prepared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. Tells how to get heating contracts, how to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used, with "Tricks of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. It describes all the principal systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor and vacuum-vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of hot-water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventilation. Third edition. 402 pages, 300 detailed engravings. Price, $3.50 500 Plain Answers to Direct Questions on Steam, Hot*^ Water, Vapor and Vaccum Heating Prac- tice. By Alfred G. King. This work is arranged in question and answer form; it is intended as a guide and text -book for the younger inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for all fitters. All long and tedious discussions and descriptions formerly considered so important have been eliminated, and the theory and laws of heat and the various old and .modern methods and appliances used for heating and ventilating are treated in a concise manner. This is the standard Question and Answer examination book on Steam and Hot Water Heating, etc. 214 pages, 127 illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. Price, $2.00 STEEL Hardening, Tempering, Annealing and Forging of Steel. By J. V. Woodworth. A book containing special directions for the successful hardening and tempering of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet- metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements of steel, both large and small, the simplest, and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are presented. 320 pages, 215 illustrations. Fifth revised edition. Cloth. Price, $3.00 Steel: Its Selection, Annealing, Hardening and Tempering. By E. R. Markham. This work was formerly known as *'The American Steel Worker." This is the standard work on hardening, tempering, and annealing steel of all kinds. This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for everything on earth. It is the standard book on selecting hardening, and tempering all grades of steel. 400 pages. Very fully illustrated. Fourth edition. Price, $3.00 38 TRACTORS Modern Gas Tractor: Its Construction, Utility, Operation and Repair. By Victor W. Page. An enlarged and revised edition that treats exclusively on the design and construction of farm tractors and tractor power plants, and gives complete instruc- tions on their care, operation and repair. All types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractors are described, and every phase of traction engineering practice fully cov- ered. Invaluable to all desiring reliable information on gas motor propelled traction engines and their use. All new 1922 types of tractors are described and complete instruc- tions are given for their use on the farm. Valuable infor- mation compiled by Government experts on laying out fields for tractor plowing and numerous practical suggestions for hitches so all types of agricultural machinery can be operated by tractors are outlined. Full instructions are also given for using kerosene and distillate as fuel. 600 pages, 300 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Privd, $3.00 WELDING Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting with a Treatise on Acetylene and Oxygen. By P. F. Willis._ The 6th revised and much enlarged edi- tion of this book is just off the press. It is a very complete work, written in simple language, fully illustrated with en- gravings showing how to prepare the work, as well as the actual welding of it. Special chapters treating on Acetylene Oxygen Welding and Cutting, Torch Apparatus and Installa- tion, Preparing for Welding, Welding of Different Metals, Welding of Sheet Metal and Pipe, Welding of Boilers, Welding of Various Pieces, Electric Welding, Automobile and miscellaneous welding are contained, as well as other valuable data. 250 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, $1.50 Modern Welding Methods. By Victor W. Page. It considers in detail oxy-acetylene welding,_ the Thermit process and all classes of electric arc and resistance welding. It shows all the apparatus needed and how to use it. It considers the production of welding gases, construction and operation of welding and cutting torches of all kinds. It details the latest approved methods of preparing work for welding. All forms of gas and electric -welding machines are described and complete instructions are given for installing electric spot and butt welders. Cost data are given and all methods of doing the work economi- cally are described. It includes instructions for forge and dip brazing and manufacture of hard solders and spelters. It shows and explains soft soldering processes and tells how to make solders for any use. Complete instructions are given for soldering aluminum and authoritative formulas for aluminum solders are included. 292 pages. 200 illustrations. New edition. Price, $3.00 Automobile Welding with Oxy-Acetylene Flame. By M. Keith Dunham. (See page 5 for full description.) Price, $1.50 39 The Most Valuable Techno-Chemical Recipe Book Ever Offered to the Public! Henley's Twentieth Century Book of RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES Price $4.00 This book of 800 pages is the most complete Book of Recipe9 ever published, giving thousands of recipes for the manu- facture of valuable articles for every-day use. Hints, Helps, Practical ideas and Secret Processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of mak- ing money and is just the book everyone should have at his command. The pages are filled with matters of intense interest and immeasurable practical value to the Photographer, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements and Mucilages, the Physician, the Druggist, the Electrician, the Dentist, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter,' the Tanner, the Con- fectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manufacturer of Chemical Nov- elties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the Engraver, the Provisioner, the Glass Worker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker and Jeweler, the Ink Manu- facturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairyman, the Paper Maker, the Metal Worker, the Soap Maker, the Veterinary Surgeon and the Technologist in general. A book to which you may turn with confidence that you will find what you are looking for. A mine of information, up-to-date in every respect. Contains an immense number of formulas that everyone ought to have that are not found in any other work. 1 A fl A A Practical Formulas and Processes IU9UUU The Best Way to Make Everything ONE USEFUL RECIPE WILL BE WORTH MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE PRICE OF THE BOOK (See page 35 for further description of the book.) 40 lilgii HKiUS BB in '■" - wm g§»g